Egypt in Croatia: Croatian Fascination with Ancient Egypt from Antiquity to Modern Times 9781789693393
At first sight, it seems that ancient Egyptian history and culture have no meaningful ties with present-day Croatia. How
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English Pages 298 Year 2019
Title Page
Copyright page
Contents Page
Preface
Chapter I: Ancient Egyptian Culture in Croatia in Antiquity
Early Penetration of Ancient Egyptian Artefacts and Aegyptiaca (7th–1st Centuries BCE)
Mladen Tomorad
Diffusion of Ancient Egyptian Cults in Istria and Illyricum (Late 1st – 4th Centuries BCE)
Mladen Tomorad
Possible Sanctuaries of Isaic Cults in Croatia
Mladen Tomorad
Professions Related to the Diffusion of Egyptian Cults in Croatia and Surrounding Regions (Central and South-Eastern Europe)
Mladen Tomorad
Presence of Ancient Egyptian Gods and Artefacts in Croatia
Mladen Tomorad
Ancient Egyptian Decorative and Architectural Elements Along the Eastern Adriatic Coast
Mladen Tomorad
Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts Related to the Early Penetration and Diffusion of Ancient Egyptian Cults in Istria, Dalmatia, and Pannonia (1st Millennium BCE – 4th Century CE)
Mladen Tomorad
Chapter II. Croatian Travellers to Egypt from the 16th to the Middle of the 20th Century
Croatian Travellers to Egypt: from the Early Modern Period to the Round Cruises of the ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ Shipping Company in the 1930s
Mladen Tomorad
The Croatian Traveller George Husz from Rascinia: His Life in Egypt and the Near East (1532–1541)
Mladen Tomorad
Jakov Šašel (1832–1903) and His Travels To Egypt in 1853/4
Sanda Kočevar
The Photographs of Antonio Beato in the Dubrovnik Archaeological Museum
Mladen Tomorad
Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin in Egypt at the End of 1902
Mladen Tomorad
Croatian Emigration to Egypt in the 19th and 20th Centuries
Mladen Tomorad
Ivan Meštrović in Egypt, May 1927
Zorana Jurić Šabić
Ivan Meštrović: His Fascination with Ancient Civilisations, as Reflected in His Postcards to Ruža Meštrović, May 1927
Sabina Kaštelančić
The ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ Shipping Company and Cruising Around the Mediterranean in the 1930s
Mladen Tomorad
Grga Novak and his First Research Trip to Egypt (December 1932 – February 1933)
Chapter III. Egyptian Collections in Croatia
Early Collectors and the Genesis of the Most Important Egyptian Collections in Croatia (1820 – 1950s)
Mladen Tomorad
Egyptian Collections in Croatia
Mladen Tomorad
History of Egyptian Objects in the Osijek Archaeological Museum
Marina Kovač
Catalogue of Selected Artefacts from Institutional Collections in Croatia
Mladen Tomorad
Chapter IV. Egyptology in Croatia
Development of Egyptology in Croatia
Mladen Tomorad
Chapter V. Egyptian Revival and ‘Egyptomania’ in Croatia
Egyptian Revival and Modern ‘Egyptomania’ in Croatia
Mladen Tomorad
Egypt as Imaged by 19th- and 20th-Century Zagreb: Buildings, Monuments and Street Furniture
Marina Bagarić
Ivan Meštrović – Creating Art for Eternity: Meštrović’s Fascination with Ancient Egypt as Illustrated by the Family Mausoleum in Otavice
Zorana Jurić Šabić
Influences of Egyptian Style in Furniture Making: Examples from the Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb
Vanja Brdar Mustapić
‘Egyptomania’ and Clock Production: Examples from the Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb
Vesna Lovrić Plantić
Project Croato-Aegyptica
Mladen Tomorad
Map 1. Aegyptiaca and the presence of Egyptian cults in Croatia. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
Map 2. The travels of Juraj Hus Rasinjanin (1532 – 1541). © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
Map 3. Jakov Šašel and his travel to Egypt and Sudan during 1853 – 1854. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
Map 4. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin and his travel to Egypt in 1902. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
Map 5. Round trips wih steam boats during 1930’s. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
Map 6. Pilgramage to the Holy Land and Egypt (9th July – 4th August 1937). © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
Map 7. Grga Novak and his travel to Egypt in 1932/1933. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
Chapter I: Ancient Egyptian Culture in Croatia in Antiquity
Figure 1. Shabti in blue-glazed faience, from Solin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-561. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 2. Bone handle of knife with image of Hathor or Isis, from Sesvete-Grabarje. Požega: City Museum, GMP 21.628. © Požega: City Museum.
Figure 3. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VI Philometor (avers/revers), from Mazin near Gračac. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, A3870.© Mladen Tomorad
Figure 4. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VI Philometor (avers/revers), from Mazin near Gračac. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, A3892. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 5. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (avers/revers), from Gračac. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, A9371. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 6. Terracotta shabti of lady Mehytweskhet, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological Collection, 642. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 7. Terracotta pseudo-shabti, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological Collection, 641.© Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 8. Terracotta shabti of Djed-Ptah-iuankh, from Solin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian Department, E-563. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 9. Blue-glazed faience shabti, from Solin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian Department, E-564. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 10. Green-enamelled faience shabti, from Solin. Private collection Marović, Split. © Petar Selem.
Figure 11. Green-enamelled faience shabti, from Solin. Private collection Marović, Split. © Petar Selem.
Figure 12. Green-glazed calcareous stone shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, B214. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 13. Dark granite shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, B215. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 14. Green-glazed faience shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, G1623. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 15. Green-glazed faience shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, G1624. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 16. Green-glazed faience shabti, from Hvar. Split: Archaeological Museum, G1625. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 17. Amulet-shaped Sistrum, from Vizače. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5048. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 18. Bronze statuette of goddess Neith, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5220. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 19. Small figure-amulet of Harpocrates, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5221. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 20. Apis, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5223. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 21. Young Egyptian prince or Pharaoh in kneeling position, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5210. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 22. Osiris, from Bale. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5224. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 23. Green-glazed faience scarab, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 24. Hard-paste scarab, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 25. Hard-paste scarab, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 26. Bes amulet, from Zadar. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, KV.72a.© Zadar: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 27. Isis-Fortuna, from Savudrija. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-4620. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 28. Marble fragment of head relief depicting theEgyptian goddess Hathor, from Pula. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-8712. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 29. Monolith block of part of an altar parapet with a head in the image of Jupiter Ammon, from Pula. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-391. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 30. Statue of Isis in white marble, from Nin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, Ancient Department, A-34. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 31, Isis-Fortuna, from unknown site in the region of Lika. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, Ancient Department, A-4633. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 32. A votive altar dedicated to Isis, from Galižana. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-41. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 33. Oil lamp with Harpocrates riding a crocodile, a sacred animal of Isis-Thermouthis, from Nin. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, 381. © Zadar: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 34. Altar dedicated to Isis, from Bribirska Glavica. Šibenik: Šibenik City Museum, 11748. © Šibenik: City Museum.
Figure 35. Round terracotta oil-lamp with an image of Isis and Serapis, from Nin. Archaeological Museum in Zadar, A-10180. Zadar: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 36. Standing terracotta oil-lamp with an image of Harpocrates, from Nin. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, A-10178. © Zadar: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 37. Relief with representation of the Isis-Fortunareligious ceremony, from Varaždinske Toplice. Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 38. Statuette of Hermes-Thoth, from Osijek. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, Ancient Department, A-4597. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 39. Pedi-Hor-Pa-Khered votive stele, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-2590. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 40. Blue-green-glazed faience shabti, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-6243. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 41. Red-granite Egyptian head, from Solin. Split: Archaeological Museum, C-161. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 42. Fragment of a fountain with Nilotic relief, from Solin. Split: Archaeological Museum, D-150. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 43. Monolith stone block with protome of the head of Jupiter-Ammon. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, A-10560. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 44. Altar dedicated to Isis and Serapis, from Varaždinske Toplice. Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae, VT-ks78. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 45. Inscription dedicated to Serapis and nymphs, from Varaždinske Toplice. Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 46. Grey jasper gem with the figure of Hermanubis, from Solin. Split: Archaeological Museum, I-1321. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 47. Black granite sphinx. In situ, peristyle of Diocletian’s Palace, Split. © Mladen Tomorad.
Chapter II. Croatian Travellers to Egypt from the 16th to the Middle of the 20th Century
Figure 48. George Husz drawing of the pyramid. © Vatican: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.
Figure 49. Jakob Schaschel, self-portrait. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 50. Jakob Schaschel, Two-wheeled hunting rifle of the ignition system on the cap. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-93. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 51. Schaschel, Jakob. Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac, 1863. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 52. Schaschel, Jakob, Moga, the chief of the Bari tribe from along the White Nile in Sudan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. ©
Figure 53. Schaschel, Jakob, Egyptian felaheen with a donkey. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 54. Schaschel, Jakob, Egyptian family in Alexandria. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 55. Schaschel, Jakob, Houses of the fellaheen. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 56. Schaschel, Jakob, Cairo with Giza and the pyramids. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 57. Schaschel, Jakob, The old sycamore fig tree. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 58. Schaschel, Jakob, Pyramides in Giza. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 59. Schaschel, Jakob, The town of Girga. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 60. Schaschel, Jakob, Catholic church in Naqada. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 61. Schaschel, Jakob, The transport of Egyptian soldiers. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 62. Schaschel, Jakob, Ruins of Thebes. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 63. Schaschel, Jakob, Colossi of Memnon. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 64. Schaschel, Jakob, Temple ruins in Thebes. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 65. Schaschel, Jakob, The cataract and the ruins of Aswan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 66. Schaschel, Jakob, Granite cliffs near the island of Philae. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 67. Schaschel, Jakob, Camp in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 68. Schaschel, Jakob, Temples at Abu Simbel. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 69. Schaschel, Jakob, Camp of the Egyptian soldiers at Kuruskū. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 70. Schaschel, Jakob, Punishment of the negro slave. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 71. Schaschel, Jakob, Caravan in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 72. Schaschel, Jakob, Arab praying in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 73. Schaschel, Jakob, The village of Abū Hamad. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 74. Schaschel, Jakob, A crocodile hunt. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 75. Schaschel, Jakob, Stella Matutina. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 76. Schaschel, Jakob, A hippopotamus. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 77. Schaschel, Jakob, Chefta. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 78. Schaschel, Jakob, Derar. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 79. Schaschel, Jakob, Negro village in Sudan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 80. Schaschel, Jakob, Native swing. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 81. Schaschel, Jakob, Transportation of slaves in Sudan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 82. Schaschel, Jakob, A mission boy by the grave of his benefactor. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 83. Schaschel, Jakob, Voltures easting in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 84. Schaschel, Jakob, A snake charmer. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 85. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of pillar capital from the uncertain site. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1683. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 86. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the southern pylon at Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1684. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 87. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Temple of Amenhotep at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1685. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 88. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the obelisks in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1686. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 89. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the northern view of Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1687. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 90. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard at Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1688. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 91. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the relief in the Horus temple in Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1689. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 92. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the colossal statue of Ramesses II and pylons in Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1690. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 93. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Great temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1691. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 94. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylon remains in Hathor temple at Dendera. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1692. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 95. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the relief of Cleopatra VII and Caesarion in Hathor temple at Dendera. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1693. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 96. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard in Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1694. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 97. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the battle relief from the reign of Ramesses II in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1695. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 98. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Trajan’s kiosk at Philae island. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1696. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 99. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the statue of Ramesses II in Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1697. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 100. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Thutmose’s gate in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1698. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 101. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the colums in Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1699. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 102. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the columns of the first courtyard in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1700. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 103. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylons of Horus temple at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1701. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 104. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the date-palm trees at Luxor. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1702. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 105. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylon and the valley of Sphinx infront of Karnak temple at Luxor. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1703. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 106. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the 1st Cataract. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1704. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 107. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1705. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 108. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the first courtyard at Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1706. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 109a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the eastern view of Philae temple. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1707. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 109b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Roman baths at Elephantine island. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1707. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 110a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Memnon Colossus at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1708. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 110b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the relief of naval battle between Ramesses II and Sea People in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1708. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 111a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the columns in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1709. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 111b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the view at the Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1709. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 112a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the view of Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1710. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 112b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the second courtyard in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1710. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 113a Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1711. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 113b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of palace high gate in Medinet Habu at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1711. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 114a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of inner courtyard in Horus temple at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1712. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 114b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard with entrance to the closed part of the temple Horus at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1712. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 115a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the statues in Ramesseum at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1713. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 115b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Ramesseum at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1713. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 116a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard in Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1714. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 116b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the northern view of obelisks in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1714. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 117a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylons and obelisk infront of Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1715. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 117b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Horus temple at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1715. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 118a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Gournah temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1716. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 118b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the entrance to the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1716. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 119. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1717. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 120a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Bicharin tribesmen in Nubia. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1718. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 120b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of 1st Cataract in Nubia. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1718. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 121a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1719. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 121b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Sacred lake in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1719. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 122. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin. Križevci: City Museum, 5171. © Križevci: City Museum.
Figure 123. The view of SS Cleopatra/Nefertari.
Figure 124. Luxor hotel, Luxor, at the beginning of the 20th century.
Figure 125. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin, U Egiptu! – Putopisna crta. Zagreb, 1905.
Figure 126. Invitation to the public lecture about the journey in Egypt organized by 'Society of Croatian writers'. Zagreb, 3rd December 1903. Križevci: City Museum, 5547. © Križevci: City Museum.
Figure 127. Refugee camp, El-Shatt, Egypt (1944 – 1946). Zagreb: Croatian State Archive, 1736-ES1322. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.
Figure 128. Refugee camp, El-Shatt, Egypt (1944 – 1946). Zagreb: Croatian State Archive, 1736-ES1323. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.
Figure 129. Vitajić, Kuzma. 'Na Seuskom kanalu – At the Suez channel' (1944). Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, C HPM MRNH 3089. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.
Figure 130. Vitajić, Kuzma. 'Iz El-Shatta – From El-Shatt' (1945). Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, HPM MRNH C 2513. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.
Figure 131. Havona, Sofija. 'Slika iz našeg života u El-Shattu – Image from our lives in El-Shatt'. Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, MRNH-C 3318. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.
Figure 132. Hodžić, Sabahudin. 'U pustinji – In the desert'. Taken from Naši pionir 4-5 (1944). Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, MRNH C 3538. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.
Figure 133a-c. Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Naser and Croatian medical doctor Andrija Štampar during one of the diplomatic meetings. Zagreb: Croatian State Archive, HR-HDA-0831. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.
Figure 133d. Josip Broz Tito, Gamal Abdel Naser and Jawaharlal Nehru during one of their meetings. Zagreb: Croatian State Archive. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.
Figure 134. Ivan Meštrović by the Great Sphinx in Giza, in company with a local guide, a Bedouin. May 4th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 135. On the ruins of ancient Memphis, May 4th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 136. Meštrović’s travelling companions (Dr Josip Hohnjec, second on the left) in front of the Hall of Amenhotep III in the Temple of Luxor, May 8th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 137. Ivan Meštrović (seated, first on the left) with travelling companions in the shrine of the Great Temple of Amon in Karnak, May 8th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 138. Ivan Meštrović in the Great Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amon in Karnak, May 8th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 139. In Luxor by the bank of the Nile, in front of the Temple of Seti I, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 140. Temple of Queen Hatshepsut in Luxor, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 141. Ivan Meštrović in the Ramesseum in Luxor, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 142. Ivan Meštrović (third on the left) in front of the Colossus of Memnon in Luxor, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 143. Temple of Isis on Philae island, May 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 144. Monsignor Rittig’s photograph of the Ramessium with Meštrović in front, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 145. Ruža Meštrović at Casa del Arte, Montevideo, Uruguay, July 1928.
Figure 146. Auguste Rodin by Ivan Meštrović, Rome, 1914. © Zagreb: Croatian Academy of Arts and Sciences Digital Archive.
Figure 147a. The Pyramids at Giza and the Great Sphinx, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 147b. The Pyramids at Giza and the Great Sphinx, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 148a. Abydos, Temple of Seti, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 148b. Abydos, Temple of Seti, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 149a. Jerusalem, The Wailing Wall, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 149b. Jerusalem, The Wailing Wall, back of the picture postcard. Beginning of the letter. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 150. Jerusalem, The Kings’ Tombs, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 151. Jerusalem, The Kings’ Tombs, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 152. Tombs of St. James and the propeth Zechariah in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 153. Jerusalem, Tomb of the Kings, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 154. Monastery in the Rocks, Kedron valley, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 155a-b. Nazareth, Church of the Annunciation, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 156a-b. Damascus, Syria, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 157a-b. Baalbek, Syria, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 158a-b. Athens, Acropolis, Caryatide Porch, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 159. Athens, Meštrović on the Acropolis. Photograph by Monsignor Rittig. Copyright Photoarchives of the Meštrović Museums. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 160. Ruža Meštrović at Giza. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 161. Head of Shabti. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 162. Adolf Ernam, Sammlung Göschen, Die Hieroglyphen. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 163. Adolf Ernam, Sammlung Göschen, Die Hieroglyphen, pages. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 164. Steamship 'Queen Mary'. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 165. Ruža Meštrović infront of mausoleum Račić in Cavtat. Round cruise of the SS 'Queen Mary' in 1933. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić. Privatna zbirka: obitelj Kaštelančić/Private collection: family Kaštelančić.
Figure 166. Putnici parobroda SS 'Kraljica Marija' 1933. Passangers of the SS 'Queen Mary' in 1933. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 167. Ruža Meštrović infront of Acropolis in Athens. Round cruise of the SS 'Queen Mary' in 1933. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 168. Promo poster for the round cruise of the SS 'Queen Mary' in 1938. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.
Chapter III. Egyptian Collections in Croatia
Figure 169. Franz Koller. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 170. Letter from Franjo Rački dated January 15, 1868 on collecting the funds for the purchase of the Koller Collection. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 171. Funds and costs for Koller’s collection Egyptian antiquities from 1868. Attachment A. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 172. Zagreb mummy' photographed at the end of the 19th century. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, E-664. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 173. Frane Lanza. Split: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 174. Frano Carrara. Split: Archaeological Museum. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 175. Nikola Amerling. Dubrovnik: Archeological Museum. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 176. Medal of Benko Horvat made by Antun Augustinčić. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 177. Amulet of the god Shu. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1343. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 178. Blue-green-glazed faience shabti, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-6243. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 179. Pedi-Hor-Pa-Khered votive stele, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-2590. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 180a. Sculpture of the god Osiris. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1340. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 180b. Relief tile featuring goddess Nephthys. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1341. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 181. Bone scarab amulets. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1605 and AA-1606. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 182a. Green faience amulet of the dwarf god Pataikos. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-2665. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 182b. Dwarf god Bes. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-2670. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 183. Pseudo-shabti. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-19469. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 184a. Clay figurine of Osiris. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-194962. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 184b. Green faience of the god Thoth. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1342. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 184c. Hare amulet. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1344. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 184d-f. Three faience scarabs. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1432, AA-1433, AA-1434. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 185. Crown stelewith two lions and a basket in between, from Dalj. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-6148. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 186. Dark green jasper with Harpocrates. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1406. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 187. Clay cup from Badari culture. Varaždin: City Museum, AO 6521. © Varaždin: City Museum.
Figure 188. Vessel. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 230. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 189. Bowl/plate. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 231. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 190. Small bottle. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 233. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 191. Statuette of a man. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 243. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 192. Shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-310. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 193. Funerary stele of Kay. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-583. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 194. Statuette of a woman. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 244. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 195. Head of an unknown Pharaoh. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 229. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 196. Female shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-259. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 197. Small jug. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 1337. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 198. Bowl/plate. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 234. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 199. Funeral stele of Mery-Mery. Varaždin: City Museum, AO 5279. © Varaždin: City Museum.
Figure 200. Shabti of Ta-aa-hotep. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-270, E-271. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 201. Shabti of Osiris Tjanefer. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-309. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 202. Scribe’s palette with cartouche of Ramesses II. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-185. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 203. Shabti of the royal scribe Nebnofer. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-307. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 204. Shabti dedicated to a prophet of the goddess Bastet. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-473. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 205. Blue-glazed faience shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-490. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 206. Black-slate shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-277. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 207. Statuette of Osiris. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 238. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 208. Ba bird. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 242. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 209. Green udjat-eye amulet. Pula: Archaeological Museum, P-30337. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 210. Lotus/water lily flower. Pula: Archaeological Museum, P-30343. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 211. Shabti of Hor-ankh-byty. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-549. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 212a-d. Complete set of the Canopic jars of Ketjen. Varaždin: City Museum, AO 5280, AO 5281, AO 5282, AO 5283.. © Varaždin: City Museum.
Figure 213. Shabti of Uah-ib-re-em-akhet. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-442. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 214. Shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-362. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 215. The Zagreb Mummy. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-664. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 216. Liber linteus zagrabiensis. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-665. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 217. Coffin of Kareset. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-668. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 218. Alabastron. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 1343. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 219a-b. Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII tetradrachm. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, B1922. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 219b.
Figure 220. Small bowl. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 1350. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 221av/rv. Roman imperial coin of Alexander Severus. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, C7959. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 222. Fragment of Coptic linen tunic. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 246. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 223. Coptic ampulla with image of St Menas. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 351. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 224. Coptic oil lamp. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 357. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Chapter IV. Egyptology in Croatia
Figure 225. Heinrich Brugsch. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.
Figure 226. Šime Ljubić. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 227. Fragment of the linen clothing from the wrappings of Zagreb Mummy. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 228. Gavro Manojlović. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.
Figure 229. Frane Bulić. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.
Figure 230. Josip Brunšmid. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 231. Grga Novak. Zagreb: Archive of the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zagreb. © Zagreb: University of Zagreb.
Figure 232. Petar Selem. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 233. Petar Lisičar. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.
Figure 234. Gavro Manojlović. Povijest starog orijenta. Knjiga I. Od najstarijih vremena do u jedanaesto stoljeće prije Isusa. Zagreb: Matica hrvatska, 1923.
Figure 235. Grga Novak. Egipat – prethistorija, faraoni, osvajači, kultura. Zagreb, 1967.
Figure 236. Josip Broz Tito and Jovanka Broz infront of Abu Simbel, 1962. Beograd: Museum of Yugoslavia, 1962-189-164. © Beograd: Museum of Yugoslavia.
Figure 237. Petar Selem, Izidin trag. Split: Splitski književni krug, 1997.
Figure 238. Igor Uranić, Stari Egipat – Povijest, književnost i umjetnost drevnih Egipćana. Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 2002.
Figure 239. Mladen Tomorad, Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. I.: Povijest i kultura starog Egipta. Zagreb: Hrvatski studiji, 2016.
Figure 240. Mladen Tomorad, Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II.: Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb: Hrvatski studiji, 2017.
Figure 241. International scientific conference Istraživanje povijesti i kulture starog Istoka i Egipta na prostoru jugoistočne Europe, Zagreb, 18 – 20 June 2012.
Figure 242. Programme of the international conference CECE7 – VIIth European Conference of Egyptologists. Egypt 2015: Perspectives of Research. Zagreb, 2 – 7 June 2015.
Figure 243. Poster of the exhibition Egipat u Hrvatskoj – hrvatska fascinacija starim Egiptom – Egypt in Croatia – Croatian fascination with Ancient Egypt. Zagreb: Museum Mimara, 20 September – 14 October 2018.
Chapter V. Egyptian Revival and ‘Egyptomania’ in Croatia
Figure 244. The Grubišić family tomb at the Mirogoj cemetery in Zagreb. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 245. Obelisk in Maksimir park in Zagreb. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 246. Obelisk infront of the Mirogoj cemetery in Zagreb. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 247. One of the two sculptures entitled Egipćani - The Egyptians. Zagreb: Zoological Garden. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 248. Kristofor Stanković sitting on an armchair with Egyptian sphinxes. Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum, MGZ 1269. © Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum.
Figure 249. Hermann Bollé, Design for obelisk, Zagreb, 1895. Illustration taken from the journal Viesti družtva inžinira i arhitekta.
Figure 250. Branko Šenoa, Obelisk in Vlaška street, Zagreb, 1915, oil on canvas. Private collection in Zagreb.
Figure 251. Obelisks in front of the Croatian National Theater building, postcard, around 1900. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
Figure 252. Viktor Kovačić, Design for The King Tomislav Square – stairs to the main railway station, 1904. Zagreb: The Archive of the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croatia. © Zagreb: The Archive of the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croa
Figure 253. Viktor Kovačić, Egyptian tripod, drawing in a sketchbook, around 1905. Private collection in Zagreb.
Figure 254. Letterhead paper of the Isis Pharmaceutical Company, 1918. Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb. © Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb.
Figure 255. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, photo around 1925. Private collection in Zagreb.
Figure 256. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, design for the main entrance, 1920. Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb. © Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb.
Figure 257. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, design for the hallway, 1920. Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb. © Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb.
Figure 258. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, detail of the main facade. © Marina Bagarić.
Figure 259. Atelier Tri, Label design for Brunsov pamuk, Zagreb, around 1930. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
Figure 260. Atelier Tri, Label design for Saharin, Zagreb, around 1930. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
Figure 261. Atelier Tri, Label design for the greeting card, Zagreb, around 1935. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
Figure 262. Drago Korbar, Design of the booth at Zagreb Fair, 1934. Photo taken from the journal Apotekarski vjesnik.
Figure 263. Mausoleum of Cabas family, Mirogoj cemetery, Zagreb. © Marina Bagarić.
Figure 264. Dwellings for giraffes in the style of an Egyptian temple, Maksimir Zoo, Zagreb, 1931. Sketch taken from the Jutarnji list.
Figure 265. The statue of Pharaoh, Maksimir Zoo, Zagreb, photo around 1938. Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum. © Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum.
Figure 266. Sculptor Ivo Kerdić and architect Aleksandar Freudenreich with the statue Croatian Falcon, Zagreb, photo around 1925. Zagreb: Fine Arts Archive at the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts. © Zagreb: Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts.
Figure 267. Aleksandar Freudenreich, Monument to the Croatian Falcon Society, Maksimir Park, Zagreb. © Marina Bagarić.
Figure 268. Sculpture of Gregory of Nin by Ivan Meštrović. Split.
Figure 269. The original positioning of Meštrović’s Monument to Gregory of Nin on the Peristyle of Diocletian’s Palace in Split, from 1929 to 1942. Foto Stühler. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Atelier in Zagreb. © Split: Photographic Archives o
Figure 270. Church of the Most Holy Redeemer – Meštrović family mausoleum in Otavice, 1930. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2815. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 271. Church of the Most Holy Redeemer – Meštrović family mausoleum in Otavice, a view of the interior. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2823. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 272. Eternally Crucified (1930), a relief by Ivan Meštrović at the altar of the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2933. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 273-276. The four Evangelists. (1931), a relief by Ivan Meštrović at the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 277a-c. Commercial photographs and picture postcards that Ivan Meštrović collected on his journey around Egypt, published by Photoglob. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-804, 805, 806. © Split: Mešt
Figure 278. The uncompleted ceiling of the dome of the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer with subsequently placed fresco prototypes. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2934. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 279. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Pharaoh. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-271. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 280. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Pharaoh. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-272. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 281. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Michelangelo. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-269. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 282. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Self-portrait. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-270. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 283. Table, part of salon suite. Zagreb: Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 28966/1. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
Figure 284. Writing desk. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 26661. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
Figure 285a-c. Secretaire. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 9866. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
Figure 286. Chair. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 14634. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
Figure 287. Longcase Clock with a Musical Mechanism. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 15063. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
Figure 288. Mantel clock with sphinx. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 25169. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
Figure 289. Croato-Aegyptica web site, 2004 - 2011. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 290. Description of the artefact from the database 'Croato-Aegyptica Electronica', 2004. © Mladen Tomorad
Figure 291. Croato-Aegyptica database, 2018. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 292. Description of the artefact from the database 'Croato-Aegyptica Electronica', 2018. © Mladen Tomorad
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Egypt in Croatia Croatian fascination with ancient Egypt from antiquity to modern times Mladen Tomorad, Sanda Kočevar, Zorana Jurić Šabić, Sabina Kaštelančić, Marina Kovač, Marina Bagarić, Vanja Brdar Mustapić and Vesna Lovrić Plantić edited by
Mladen Tomorad
Archaeopress Egyptology 24
Egypt in Croatia Croatian fascination with ancient Egypt from antiquity to modern times Mladen Tomorad, Sanda Kočevar, Zorana Jurić Šabić, Sabina Kaštelančić, Marina Kovač, Marina Bagarić, Vanja Brdar Mustapić and Vesna Lovrić Plantić edited by
Mladen Tomorad
Archaeopress Egyptology 24
Archaeopress Publishing Ltd Summertown Pavilion 18-24 Middle Way Summertown Oxford OX2 7LG www.archaeopress.com
ISBN 978-1-78969-339-3 ISBN 978-1-78969-340-9 (e-Pdf)
© Authors and Archaeopress 2019 Cover: Black granite sphinx. In situ, peristyle of Diocletian’s Palace, Split. © Mladen Tomorad.
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Contents
Preface��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xiii
Chapter I: Ancient Egyptian Culture in Croatia in Antiquity Early Penetration of Ancient Egyptian Artefacts and Aegyptiaca (7th–1st Centuries BCE)����������������������������������1 Mladen Tomorad Diffusion of Ancient Egyptian Cults in Istria and Illyricum (Late 1st – 4th Centuries BCE)��������������������������������15 Mladen Tomorad Possible Sanctuaries of Isaic Cults in Croatia�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26 Mladen Tomorad Professions Related to the Diffusion of Egyptian Cults in Croatia and Surrounding Regions (Central and South-Eastern Europe)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28 Mladen Tomorad Presence of Ancient Egyptian Gods and Artefacts in Croatia���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35 Mladen Tomorad Ancient Egyptian Decorative and Architectural Elements Along the Eastern Adriatic Coast����������������������������41 Mladen Tomorad Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts Related to the Early Penetration and Diffusion of Ancient Egyptian Cults in Istria, Dalmatia, and Pannonia (1st Millennium BCE – 4th Century CE)���������������������������������43 Mladen Tomorad
Chapter II. Croatian Travellers to Egypt from the 16th to the Middle of the 20th Century Croatian Travellers to Egypt: from the Early Modern Period to the Round Cruises of the ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ Shipping Company in the 1930s�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������73 Mladen Tomorad The Croatian Traveller George Husz from Rascinia: His Life in Egypt and the Near East (1532–1541)������������77 Mladen Tomorad Jakov Šašel (1832–1903) and His Travels To Egypt in 1853/4���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������82 Sanda Kočevar The Photographs of Antonio Beato in the Dubrovnik Archaeological Museum ��������������������������������������������������100 Mladen Tomorad Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin in Egypt at the End of 1902�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������118 Mladen Tomorad Croatian Emigration to Egypt in the 19th and 20th Centuries����������������������������������������������������������������������������������129 Mladen Tomorad Ivan Meštrović in Egypt, May 1927������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������133 Zorana Jurić Šabić Ivan Meštrović: His Fascination with Ancient Civilisations, as Reflected in His Postcards to Ruža Meštrović, May 1927��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������137 Sabina Kaštelančić The ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ Shipping Company and Cruising Around the Mediterranean in the 1930s�������������������149 Mladen Tomorad Grga Novak and his First Research Trip to Egypt (December 1932 – February 1933)�����������������������������������������156
Chapter III. Egyptian Collections in Croatia Early Collectors and the Genesis of the Most Important Egyptian Collections in Croatia (1820 – 1950s)�����163 Mladen Tomorad i
Egyptian Collections in Croatia�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171 Mladen Tomorad History of Egyptian Objects in the Osijek Archaeological Museum �������������������������������������������������������������������������188 Marina Kovač Catalogue of Selected Artefacts from Institutional Collections in Croatia������������������������������������������������������������199 Mladen Tomorad
Chapter IV. Egyptology in Croatia Development of Egyptology in Croatia�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������223 Mladen Tomorad
Chapter V. Egyptian Revival and ‘Egyptomania’ in Croatia Egyptian Revival and Modern ‘Egyptomania’ in Croatia���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������245 Mladen Tomorad Egypt as Imaged by 19th- and 20th-Century Zagreb: Buildings, Monuments and Street Furniture��������������249 Marina Bagarić Ivan Meštrović – Creating Art for Eternity: Meštrović’s Fascination with Ancient Egypt as Illustrated by the Family Mausoleum in Otavice��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������261 Zorana Jurić Šabić Influences of Egyptian Style in Furniture Making: Examples from the Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������269 Vanja Brdar Mustapić ‘Egyptomania’ and Clock Production: Examples from the Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb����������������������272 Vesna Lovrić Plantić Project Croato-Aegyptica������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������274 Mladen Tomorad
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List of Figures Chapter I: Ancient Egyptian Culture in Croatia in Antiquity
Figure 1. Shabti in blue-glazed faience, from Solin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-561. © Mladen Tomorad.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 43 Figure 2. Bone handle of knife with image of Hathor or Isis, from Sesvete-Grabarje. Požega: City Museum, GMP 21.628. © Požega: City Museum.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44 Figure 3. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VI Philometor (avers/revers), from Mazin near Gračac. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, A3870.© Mladen Tomorad���������������������������������������������������������������� 45 Figure 4. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VI Philometor (avers/revers), from Mazin near Gračac. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, A3892. © Mladen Tomorad.�������������������������������������������������������������� 45 Figure 5. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (avers/revers), from Gračac. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, A9371. © Mladen Tomorad.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 45 Figure 6. Terracotta shabti of lady Mehytweskhet, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological Collection, 642. © Mladen Tomorad. ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46 Figure 7. Terracotta pseudo-shabti, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological Collection, 641.© Mladen Tomorad.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 47 Figure 8. Terracotta shabti of Djed-Ptah-iuankh, from Solin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian Department, E-563. © Mladen Tomorad.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 48 Figure 9. Blue-glazed faience shabti, from Solin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian Department, E-564. © Mladen Tomorad.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 48 Figure 10. Green-enamelled faience shabti, from Solin. Private collection Marović, Split. © Petar Selem.����������������������������� 49 Figure 11. Green-enamelled faience shabti, from Solin. Private collection Marović, Split. © Petar Selem.����������������������������� 50 Figure 12. Green-glazed calcareous stone shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, B214. © Split: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50 Figure 13. Dark granite shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, B215. © Split: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51 Figure 14. Green-glazed faience shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, G1623. © Split: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51 Figure 15. Green-glazed faience shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, G1624. © Split: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 52 Figure 16. Green-glazed faience shabti, from Hvar. Split: Archaeological Museum, G1625. © Split: Archaeological Museum.�������� 53 Figure 17. Amulet-shaped Sistrum, from Vizače. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5048. © Mladen Tomorad.������������� 53 Figure 18. Bronze statuette of goddess Neith, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5220. © Mladen Tomorad.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 54 Figure 19. Small figure-amulet of Harpocrates, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5221. © Mladen Tomorad.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55 Figure 20. Apis, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5223. © Mladen Tomorad.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55 Figure 21. Young Egyptian prince or Pharaoh in kneeling position, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5210. © Mladen Tomorad.������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56 Figure 22. Osiris, from Bale. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5224. © Mladen Tomorad.������������������������������������������������ 56 Figure 23. Green-glazed faience scarab, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery. © Mladen Tomorad.��������������������������������� 57 Figure 24. Hard-paste scarab, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery. © Mladen Tomorad.�������������������������������������������������� 57 Figure 25. Hard-paste scarab, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery. © Mladen Tomorad.�������������������������������������������������� 58 Figure 26. Bes amulet, from Zadar. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, KV.72a.© Zadar: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������ 58 Figure 27. Isis-Fortuna, from Savudrija. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-4620. © Mladen Tomorad.���������������������������� 59 Figure 28. Marble fragment of head relief depicting theEgyptian goddess Hathor, from Pula. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-8712. © Mladen Tomorad.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 59 Figure 29. Monolith block of part of an altar parapet with a head in the image of Jupiter Ammon, from Pula. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-391. © Mladen Tomorad.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 60 Figure 30. Statue of Isis in white marble, from Nin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, Ancient Department, A-34. © Mladen Tomorad.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 60 Figure 31, Isis-Fortuna, from unknown site in the region of Lika. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, Ancient Department, A-4633. © Mladen Tomorad.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61 Figure 32. A votive altar dedicated to Isis, from Galižana. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-41. © Mladen Tomorad.�� 61 Figure 33. Oil lamp with Harpocrates riding a crocodile, a sacred animal of Isis-Thermouthis, from Nin. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, 381. © Zadar: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 62 Figure 34. Altar dedicated to Isis, from Bribirska Glavica. Šibenik: Šibenik City Museum, 11748. © Šibenik: City Museum.������ 63 Figure 35. Round terracotta oil-lamp with an image of Isis and Serapis, from Nin. Archaeological Museum in Zadar, A-10180. Zadar: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 63 Figure 36. Standing terracotta oil-lamp with an image of Harpocrates, from Nin. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, A-10178. © Zadar: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64 Figure 37. Relief with representation of the Isis-Fortunareligious ceremony, from Varaždinske Toplice. Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae. © Mladen Tomorad.�������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
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Figure 38. Statuette of Hermes-Thoth, from Osijek. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, Ancient Department, A-4597. © Mladen Tomorad.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65 Figure 39. Pedi-Hor-Pa-Khered votive stele, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-2590. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65 Figure 40. Blue-green-glazed faience shabti, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-6243. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 66 Figure 41. Red-granite Egyptian head, from Solin. Split: Archaeological Museum, C-161. © Split: Archaeological Museum.��������� 67 Figure 42. Fragment of a fountain with Nilotic relief, from Solin. Split: Archaeological Museum, D-150. © Split: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67 Figure 43. Monolith stone block with protome of the head of Jupiter-Ammon. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, A-10560. © Mladen Tomorad.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68 Figure 44. Altar dedicated to Isis and Serapis, from Varaždinske Toplice. Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae, VT-ks78. © Mladen Tomorad.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 69 Figure 45. Inscription dedicated to Serapis and nymphs, from Varaždinske Toplice. Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae. © Mladen Tomorad.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 69 Figure 46. Grey jasper gem with the figure of Hermanubis, from Solin. Split: Archaeological Museum, I-1321. © Split: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 70 Figure 47. Black granite sphinx. In situ, peristyle of Diocletian’s Palace, Split. © Mladen Tomorad.��������������������������������� 70
Chapter II. Croatian Travellers to Egypt from the 16th to the Middle of the 20th Century
Figure 48. George Husz drawing of the pyramid. © Vatican: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.������������������������������������������������������� 80 Figure 49. Jakob Schaschel, self-portrait. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������� 82 Figure 50. Jakob Schaschel, Two-wheeled hunting rifle of the ignition system on the cap. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-93. © Karlovac: City Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83 Figure 51. Schaschel, Jakob. Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac, 1863. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���� 84 Figure 52. Schaschel, Jakob, Moga, the chief of the Bari tribe from along the White Nile in Sudan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 84 Figure 53. Schaschel, Jakob, Egyptian felaheen with a donkey. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86 Figure 54. Schaschel, Jakob, Egyptian family in Alexandria. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86 Figure 55. Schaschel, Jakob, Houses of the fellaheen. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 87 Figure 56. Schaschel, Jakob, Cairo with Giza and the pyramids. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 87 Figure 57. Schaschel, Jakob, The old sycamore fig tree. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 88 Figure 58. Schaschel, Jakob, Pyramides in Giza. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.�� 88 Figure 59. Schaschel, Jakob, The town of Girga. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.�� 89 Figure 60. Schaschel, Jakob, Catholic church in Naqada. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89 Figure 61. Schaschel, Jakob, The transport of Egyptian soldiers. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89 Figure 62. Schaschel, Jakob, Ruins of Thebes. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.�� 90 Figure 63. Schaschel, Jakob, Colossi of Memnon. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.�� 90 Figure 64. Schaschel, Jakob, Temple ruins in Thebes. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91 Figure 65. Schaschel, Jakob, The cataract and the ruins of Aswan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91 Figure 66. Schaschel, Jakob, Granite cliffs near the island of Philae. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91
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Figure 67. Schaschel, Jakob, Camp in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.�� 92 Figure 68. Schaschel, Jakob, Temples at Abu Simbel. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 92 Figure 69. Schaschel, Jakob, Camp of the Egyptian soldiers at Kuruskū. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 92 Figure 70. Schaschel, Jakob, Punishment of the negro slave. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93 Figure 71. Schaschel, Jakob, Caravan in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93 Figure 72. Schaschel, Jakob, Arab praying in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93 Figure 73. Schaschel, Jakob, The village of Abū Hamad. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 94 Figure 74. Schaschel, Jakob, A crocodile hunt. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.�� 94 Figure 75. Schaschel, Jakob, Stella Matutina. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.�� 94 Figure 76. Schaschel, Jakob, A hippopotamus. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.�� 95 Figure 77. Schaschel, Jakob, Chefta. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������� 95 Figure 78. Schaschel, Jakob, Derar. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 96 Figure 79. Schaschel, Jakob, Negro village in Sudan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.������������������������������������������������������ 96 Figure 80. Schaschel, Jakob, Native swing. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������� 96 Figure 81. Schaschel, Jakob, Transportation of slaves in Sudan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.�������������������������������� 97 Figure 82. Schaschel, Jakob, A mission boy by the grave of his benefactor. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.����������� 97 Figure 83. Schaschel, Jakob, Voltures easting in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.�������������������������������� 98 Figure 84. Schaschel, Jakob, A snake charmer. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������� 98 Figure 85. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of pillar capital from the uncertain site. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1683. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 103 Figure 86. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the southern pylon at Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1684. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������������������������������� 103 Figure 87. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Temple of Amenhotep at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1685. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 103 Figure 88. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the obelisks in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1686. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 104 Figure 89. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the northern view of Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1687. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 104 Figure 90. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard at Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1688. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.����������������������� 104 Figure 91. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the relief in the Horus temple in Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1689. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 104 Figure 92. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the colossal statue of Ramesses II and pylons in Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1690. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������� 105 Figure 93. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Great temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1691. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 105 Figure 94. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylon remains in Hathor temple at Dendera. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1692. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������������������������������� 105 Figure 95. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the relief of Cleopatra VII and Caesarion in Hathor temple at Dendera. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1693. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������� 105 Figure 96. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard in Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1694. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 106 Figure 97. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the battle relief from the reign of Ramesses II in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1695. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������� 106
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Figure 98. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Trajan’s kiosk at Philae island. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1696. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 106 Figure 99. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the statue of Ramesses II in Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1697. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������������������������������� 106 Figure 100. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Thutmose’s gate in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1698. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������������������������������� 107 Figure 101. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the colums in Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1699. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 107 Figure 102. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the columns of the first courtyard in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1700. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������������� 107 Figure 103. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylons of Horus temple at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1701. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 108 Figure 104. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the date-palm trees at Luxor. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1702. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 108 Figure 105. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylon and the valley of Sphinx infront of Karnak temple at Luxor. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1703. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������ 108 Figure 106. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the 1st Cataract. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1704. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 109 Figure 107. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1705. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 109 Figure 108. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the first courtyard at Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1706. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������������������������������� 109 Figure 109a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the eastern view of Philae temple. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1707. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 109 Figure 109b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Roman baths at Elephantine island. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1707. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 109 Figure 110a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Memnon Colossus at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1708. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 109 Figure 110b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the relief of naval battle between Ramesses II and Sea People in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1708. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110 Figure 111a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the columns in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1709. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 110 Figure 111b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the view at the Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1709. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110 Figure 112a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the view of Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1710. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 110 Figure 112b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the second courtyard in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1710. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������������� 110 Figure 113a Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1711. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������������������������������� 110 Figure 113b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of palace high gate in Medinet Habu at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1711. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 111 Figure 114a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of inner courtyard in Horus temple at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1712. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 111 Figure 114b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard with entrance to the closed part of the temple Horus at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1712. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.�������������� 111 Figure 115a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the statues in Ramesseum at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1713. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 111 Figure 115b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Ramesseum at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1713. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111 Figure 116a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard in Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1714. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 111 Figure 116b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the northern view of obelisks in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1714. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������������� 112 Figure 117a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylons and obelisk infront of Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1715. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������������� 112 Figure 117b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Horus temple at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1715. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 112 Figure 118a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Gournah temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1716. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 112 Figure 118b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the entrance to the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1716. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������������������������������� 112 Figure 119. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1717. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 113 Figure 120a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Bicharin tribesmen in Nubia. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1718. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 113 Figure 120b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of 1st Cataract in Nubia. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1718. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 113
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Figure 121a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1719. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 113 Figure 121b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Sacred lake in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1719. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 113 Figure 122. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin. Križevci: City Museum, 5171. © Križevci: City Museum.������������������������������������������������ 118 Figure 123. The view of SS Cleopatra/Nefertari.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123 Figure 124. Luxor hotel, Luxor, at the beginning of the 20th century.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124 Figure 125. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin, U Egiptu! – Putopisna crta. Zagreb, 1905.������������������������������������������������������������������ 125 Figure 126. Invitation to the public lecture about the journey in Egypt organized by 'Society of Croatian writers'. Zagreb, 3rd December 1903. Križevci: City Museum, 5547. © Križevci: City Museum.��������������������������������� 126 Figure 127. Refugee camp, El-Shatt, Egypt (1944 – 1946). Zagreb: Croatian State Archive, 1736-ES1322. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 129 Figure 128. Refugee camp, El-Shatt, Egypt (1944 – 1946). Zagreb: Croatian State Archive, 1736-ES1323. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 129 Figure 129. Vitajić, Kuzma. 'Na Seuskom kanalu – At the Suez channel' (1944). Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, C HPM MRNH 3089. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 130 Figure 130. Vitajić, Kuzma. 'Iz El-Shatta – From El-Shatt' (1945). Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, HPM MRNH C 2513. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 130 Figure 131. Havona, Sofija. 'Slika iz našeg života u El-Shattu – Image from our lives in El-Shatt'. Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, MRNH-C 3318. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.��������������������������������������������������������� 130 Figure 132. Hodžić, Sabahudin. 'U pustinji – In the desert'. Taken from Naši pionir 4-5 (1944). Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, MRNH C 3538. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.���������������������������������������������������������������������� 130 Figure 133a-c. Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Naser and Croatian medical doctor Andrija Štampar during one of the diplomatic meetings. Zagreb: Croatian State Archive, HR-HDA-0831. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131 Figure 133d. Josip Broz Tito, Gamal Abdel Naser and Jawaharlal Nehru during one of their meetings. Zagreb: Croatian State Archive. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 132 Figure 134. Ivan Meštrović by the Great Sphinx in Giza, in company with a local guide, a Bedouin. May 4th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 133 Figure 135. On the ruins of ancient Memphis, May 4th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.������������������� 134 Figure 136. Meštrović’s travelling companions (Dr Josip Hohnjec, second on the left) in front of the Hall of Amenhotep III in the Temple of Luxor, May 8th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.������������� 134 Figure 137. Ivan Meštrović (seated, first on the left) with travelling companions in the shrine of the Great Temple of Amon in Karnak, May 8th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.�������������������������������� 134 Figure 138. Ivan Meštrović in the Great Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amon in Karnak, May 8th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 135 Figure 139. In Luxor by the bank of the Nile, in front of the Temple of Seti I, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 135 Figure 140. Temple of Queen Hatshepsut in Luxor, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.����������� 135 Figure 141. Ivan Meštrović in the Ramesseum in Luxor, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.�� 135 Figure 142. Ivan Meštrović (third on the left) in front of the Colossus of Memnon in Luxor, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 136 Figure 143. Temple of Isis on Philae island, May 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.������������������������������� 136 Figure 144. Monsignor Rittig’s photograph of the Ramessium with Meštrović in front, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 137 Figure 145. Ruža Meštrović at Casa del Arte, Montevideo, Uruguay, July 1928.��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138 Figure 146. Auguste Rodin by Ivan Meštrović, Rome, 1914. © Zagreb: Croatian Academy of Arts and Sciences Digital Archive.�� 138 Figure 147a. The Pyramids at Giza and the Great Sphinx, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139 Figure 147b. The Pyramids at Giza and the Great Sphinx, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139 Figure 148a. Abydos, Temple of Seti, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.�������������� 140 Figure 148b. Abydos, Temple of Seti, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 140 Figure 149a. Jerusalem, The Wailing Wall, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.����� 140 Figure 149b. Jerusalem, The Wailing Wall, back of the picture postcard. Beginning of the letter. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 141 Figure 150. Jerusalem, The Kings’ Tombs, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 141 Figure 151. Jerusalem, The Kings’ Tombs, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.������ 141 Figure 152. Tombs of St. James and the propeth Zechariah in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 142 Figure 153. Jerusalem, Tomb of the Kings, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.����� 142 Figure 154. Monastery in the Rocks, Kedron valley, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 142 Figure 155a-b. Nazareth, Church of the Annunciation, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 143 Figure 156a-b. Damascus, Syria, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.�� 144 Figure 157a-b. Baalbek, Syria, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.�������������������������� 144
vii
Figure 158a-b. Athens, Acropolis, Caryatide Porch, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 145 Figure 159. Athens, Meštrović on the Acropolis. Photograph by Monsignor Rittig. Copyright Photoarchives of the Meštrović Museums. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.�������������������������������������������������������� 145 Figure 160. Ruža Meštrović at Giza. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.����������������������������������������������� 146 Figure 161. Head of Shabti. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.��������������������������������������������������������� 146 Figure 162. Adolf Ernam, Sammlung Göschen, Die Hieroglyphen. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 146 Figure 163. Adolf Ernam, Sammlung Göschen, Die Hieroglyphen, pages. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147 Figure 164. Steamship 'Queen Mary'. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.���������������������������������������� 149 Figure 165. Ruža Meštrović infront of mausoleum Račić in Cavtat. Round cruise of the SS 'Queen Mary' in 1933. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić. Privatna zbirka: obitelj Kaštelančić/ Private collection: family Kaštelančić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151 Figure 166. Putnici parobroda SS 'Kraljica Marija' 1933. Passangers of the SS 'Queen Mary' in 1933. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151 Figure 167. Ruža Meštrović infront of Acropolis in Athens. Round cruise of the SS 'Queen Mary' in 1933. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 152 Figure 168. Promo poster for the round cruise of the SS 'Queen Mary' in 1938. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 154
Chapter III. Egyptian Collections in Croatia
Figure 169. Franz Koller. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.������������������� 163 Figure 170. Letter from Franjo Rački dated January 15, 1868 on collecting the funds for the purchase of the Koller Collection. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.�������������� 164 Figure 171. Funds and costs for Koller’s collection Egyptian antiquities from 1868. Attachment A. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������������������������� 164 Figure 172. Zagreb mummy' photographed at the end of the 19th century. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, E-664. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 167 Figure 173. Frane Lanza. Split: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Split: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������������� 167 Figure 174. Frano Carrara. Split: Archaeological Museum. © Split: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������� 167 Figure 175. Nikola Amerling. Dubrovnik: Archeological Museum. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������� 168 Figure 176. Medal of Benko Horvat made by Antun Augustinčić. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 169 Figure 177. Amulet of the god Shu. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1343. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.������������������������� 189 Figure 178. Blue-green-glazed faience shabti, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-6243. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 189 Figure 179. Pedi-Hor-Pa-Khered votive stele, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-2590. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 189 Figure 180a. Sculpture of the god Osiris. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1340. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.�������������� 191 Figure 180b. Relief tile featuring goddess Nephthys. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1341. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 191 Figure 181. Bone scarab amulets. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1605 and AA-1606. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.����� 192 Figure 182a. Green faience amulet of the dwarf god Pataikos. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-2665. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 192 Figure 182b. Dwarf god Bes. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-2670. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������� 192 Figure 183. Pseudo-shabti. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-19469. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������ 193 Figure 184a. Clay figurine of Osiris. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-194962. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.������������������� 194 Figure 184b. Green faience of the god Thoth. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1342. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.������� 194 Figure 184c. Hare amulet. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1344. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������� 194 Figure 184d-f. Three faience scarabs. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1432, AA-1433, AA-1434. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 194 Figure 185. Crown stelewith two lions and a basket in between, from Dalj. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA6148. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 195 Figure 186. Dark green jasper with Harpocrates. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-1406. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum. 196 Figure 187. Clay cup from Badari culture. Varaždin: City Museum, AO 6521. © Varaždin: City Museum.������������������������������������ 199 Figure 188. Vessel. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 230. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.��������������������������������������������������������������������� 200 Figure 189. Bowl/plate. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 231. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.������������������������������������������������������������� 200 Figure 190. Small bottle. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 233. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.����������������������������������������������������������� 201 Figure 191. Statuette of a man. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 243. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.������������������������������������������������ 202 Figure 192. Shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-310. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.���������������� 202 Figure 193. Funerary stele of Kay. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-583. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 202 Figure 194. Statuette of a woman. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 244. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.������������������������������������������� 203 Figure 195. Head of an unknown Pharaoh. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 229. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.����������������������������� 204 Figure 196. Female shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-259. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.��� 204 Figure 197. Small jug. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 1337. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������� 205 Figure 198. Bowl/plate. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 234. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.������������������������������������������������������������� 205
viii
Figure 199. Funeral stele of Mery-Mery. Varaždin: City Museum, AO 5279. © Varaždin: City Museum.�������������������������������������� 206 Figure 200. Shabti of Ta-aa-hotep. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-270, E-271. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 207 Figure 201. Shabti of Osiris Tjanefer. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-309. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 207 Figure 202. Scribe’s palette with cartouche of Ramesses II. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-185. © Mladen Tomorad.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 208 Figure 203. Shabti of the royal scribe Nebnofer. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-307. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 208 Figure 204. Shabti dedicated to a prophet of the goddess Bastet. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-473. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 209 Figure 205. Blue-glazed faience shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-490. © Mladen Tomorad.�� 210 Figure 206. Black-slate shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-277. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 210 Figure 207. Statuette of Osiris. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 238. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.������������������������������������������������� 211 Figure 208. Ba bird. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 242. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������� 211 Figure 209. Green udjat-eye amulet. Pula: Archaeological Museum, P-30337. © Mladen Tomorad.��������������������������������������������� 212 Figure 210. Lotus/water lily flower. Pula: Archaeological Museum, P-30343. © Mladen Tomorad.���������������������������������������������� 212 Figure 211. Shabti of Hor-ankh-byty. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-549. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213 Figure 212a-d. Complete set of the Canopic jars of Ketjen. Varaždin: City Museum, AO 5280, AO 5281, AO 5282, AO 5283.. © Varaždin: City Museum.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213 Figure 213. Shabti of Uah-ib-re-em-akhet. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-442. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 214 Figure 214. Shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-362. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.���������������� 215 Figure 215. The Zagreb Mummy. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-664. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 216 Figure 216. Liber linteus zagrabiensis. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-665. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 216 Figure 217. Coffin of Kareset. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-668. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 217 Figure 218. Alabastron. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 1343. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.����������������������������������������������������������� 218 Figure 219a-b. Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII tetradrachm. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, B1922. © Mladen Tomorad.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 218 Figure 219b.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 218 Figure 220. Small bowl. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 1350. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.����������������������������������������������������������� 218 Figure 221av/rv. Roman imperial coin of Alexander Severus. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, C7959. © Mladen Tomorad.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 219 Figure 222. Fragment of Coptic linen tunic. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 246. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.��������������������������� 219 Figure 223. Coptic ampulla with image of St Menas. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 351. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.������������� 220 Figure 224. Coptic oil lamp. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 357. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.������������������������������������������������������ 220
Chapter IV. Egyptology in Croatia
Figure 225. Heinrich Brugsch. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 223 Figure 226. Šime Ljubić. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.����������������������������������� 224 Figure 227. Fragment of the linen clothing from the wrappings of Zagreb Mummy. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 225 Figure 228. Gavro Manojlović. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 225 Figure 229. Frane Bulić. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 225 Figure 230. Josip Brunšmid. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.���������������������������� 226 Figure 231. Grga Novak. Zagreb: Archive of the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zagreb. © Zagreb: University of Zagreb.������������� 226 Figure 232. Petar Selem. © Mladen Tomorad.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 226 Figure 233. Petar Lisičar. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 227 Figure 234. Gavro Manojlović. Povijest starog orijenta. Knjiga I. Od najstarijih vremena do u jedanaesto stoljeće prije Isusa. Zagreb: Matica hrvatska, 1923.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 228 Figure 235. Grga Novak. Egipat – prethistorija, faraoni, osvajači, kultura. Zagreb, 1967.����������������������������������������������������������� 229 Figure 236. Josip Broz Tito and Jovanka Broz infront of Abu Simbel, 1962. Beograd: Museum of Yugoslavia, 1962189-164. © Beograd: Museum of Yugoslavia.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 229 Figure 237. Petar Selem, Izidin trag. Split: Splitski književni krug, 1997.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 230 Figure 238. Igor Uranić, Stari Egipat – Povijest, književnost i umjetnost drevnih Egipćana. Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 2002.�������� 231 Figure 239. Mladen Tomorad, Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. I.: Povijest i kultura starog Egipta. Zagreb: Hrvatski studiji, 2016.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 232 Figure 240. Mladen Tomorad, Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II.: Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb: Hrvatski studiji, 2017.���� 233
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Figure 241. International scientific conference Istraživanje povijesti i kulture starog Istoka i Egipta na prostoru jugoistočne Europe, Zagreb, 18 – 20 June 2012.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 233 Figure 242. Programme of the international conference CECE7 – VIIth European Conference of Egyptologists. Egypt 2015: Perspectives of Research. Zagreb, 2 – 7 June 2015.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 233 Figure 243. Poster of the exhibition Egipat u Hrvatskoj – hrvatska fascinacija starim Egiptom – Egypt in Croatia – Croatian fascination with Ancient Egypt. Zagreb: Museum Mimara, 20 September – 14 October 2018.���������������������� 234
Chapter V. Egyptian Revival and ‘Egyptomania’ in Croatia
Figure 244. The Cabas family tomb at Mirogoj cemetery in Zagreb. © Mladen Tomorad.����������������������������������������������������� 246 Figure 245. Obelisk in Maksimir park in Zagreb. © Mladen Tomorad.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 246 Figure 246. Obelisk in front of Mirogoj cemetery in Zagreb. © Mladen Tomorad.����������������������������������������������������������������� 247 Figure 247. One of the two sculptures entitled Egipćani - The Egyptians. Zagreb: Zoological Garden. © Mladen Tomorad.������ 247 Figure 248. Kristofor Stanković sitting on an armchair with Egyptian sphinxes. Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum, MGZ 1269. © Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 248 Figure 249. Hermann Bollé, Design for obelisk, Zagreb, 1895. Illustration taken from the journal Viesti družtva inžinira i arhitekta.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 249 Figure 250. Branko Šenoa, Obelisk in Vlaška street, Zagreb, 1915, oil on canvas. Private collection in Zagreb.��������������������� 250 Figure 251. Obelisks in front of the Croatian National Theater building, postcard, around 1900. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 251 Figure 252. Viktor Kovačić, Design for The King Tomislav Square – stairs to the main railway station, 1904. Zagreb: The Archive of the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croatia. © Zagreb: The Archive of the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croatia.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 252 Figure 253. Viktor Kovačić, Egyptian tripod, drawing in a sketchbook, around 1905. Private collection in Zagreb.���������� 252 Figure 254. Letterhead paper of the Isis Pharmaceutical Company, 1918. Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb. © Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 253 Figure 255. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, photo around 1925. Private collection in Zagreb.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 253 Figure 256. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, design for the main entrance, 1920. Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb. © Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb.��������������������������������������������������������������������� 254 Figure 257. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, design for the hallway, 1920. Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb. © Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb.������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 254 Figure 258. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, detail of the main facade. © Marina Bagarić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 255 Figure 259. Atelier Tri, Label design for Brunsov pamuk, Zagreb, around 1930. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 255 Figure 260. Atelier Tri, Label design for Saharin, Zagreb, around 1930. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 256 Figure 261. Atelier Tri, Label design for the greeting card, Zagreb, around 1935. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 256 Figure 262. Drago Korbar, Design of the booth at Zagreb Fair, 1934. Photo taken from the journal Apotekarski vjesnik.������ 257 Figure 263. Mausoleum of Cabas family, Mirogoj cemetery, Zagreb. © Marina Bagarić.������������������������������������������������������� 257 Figure 264. Dwellings for giraffes in the style of an Egyptian temple, Maksimir Zoo, Zagreb, 1931. Sketch taken from the Jutarnji list.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 257 Figure 265. The statue of Pharaoh, Maksimir Zoo, Zagreb, photo around 1938. Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum. © Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 258 Figure 266. Sculptor Ivo Kerdić and architect Aleksandar Freudenreich with the statue Croatian Falcon, Zagreb, photo around 1925. Zagreb: Fine Arts Archive at the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts. © Zagreb: Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 259 Figure 267. Aleksandar Freudenreich, Monument to the Croatian Falcon Society, Maksimir Park, Zagreb. © Marina Bagarić.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 259 Figure 268. Sculpture of Gregory of Nin by Ivan Meštrović. Split.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 261 Figure 269. The original positioning of Meštrović’s Monument to Gregory of Nin on the Peristyle of Diocletian’s Palace in Split, from 1929 to 1942. Foto Stühler. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Atelier in Zagreb. © Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Atelier in Zagreb.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 262 Figure 270. Church of the Most Holy Redeemer – Meštrović family mausoleum in Otavice, 1930. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2815. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.���������������������� 262 Figure 271. Church of the Most Holy Redeemer – Meštrović family mausoleum in Otavice, a view of the interior. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2823. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 263 Figure 272. Eternally Crucified (1930), a relief by Ivan Meštrović at the altar of the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2933. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 263 Figure 273-276. The four Evangelists. (1931), a relief by Ivan Meštrović at the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.� 264 Figure 277a-c. Commercial photographs and picture postcards that Ivan Meštrović collected on his journey around Egypt, published by Photoglob. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-804, 805, 806. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 265
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Figure 278. The uncompleted ceiling of the dome of the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer with subsequently placed fresco prototypes. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2934. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 266 Figure 279. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Pharaoh. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-271. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.�������������������������� 267 Figure 280. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Pharaoh. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-272. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.�������������������������� 267 Figure 281. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Michelangelo. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-269. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.������������������ 267 Figure 282. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Selfportrait. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-270. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.��������������������������� 267 Figure 283. Table, part of salon suite. Zagreb: Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 28966/1. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 270 Figure 284. Writing desk. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 26661. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.������������������������� 270 Figure 285a-c. Secretaire. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 9866. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.��������������������������� 271 Figure 286. Chair. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 14634. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.�������������������������������������� 271 Figure 287. Longcase Clock with a Musical Mechanism. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 15063. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 272 Figure 288. Mantel clock with sphinx. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 25169. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.���� 273 Figure 289. Croato-Aegyptica web site, 2004 - 2011. © Mladen Tomorad.������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 274 Figure 290. Description of the artefact from the database 'Croato-Aegyptica Electronica', 2004. © Mladen Tomorad����� 275 Figure 291. Croato-Aegyptica database, 2018. © Mladen Tomorad.����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 276 Figure 292. Description of the artefact from the database 'Croato-Aegyptica Electronica', 2018. © Mladen Tomorad����� 276
List of Maps Map 1. Aegyptiaca and the presence of Egyptian cults in Croatia. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad......................................... 36 Map 2. The travels of Juraj Hus Rasinjanin (1532 – 1541). © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad...................................................... 78 Map 3. Jakov Šašel and his travel to Egypt and Sudan during 1853 – 1854. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad........................... 85 Map 4. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin and his travel to Egypt in 1902. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad..................................... 120 Map 5. Round trips wih steam boats during 1930’s. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad............................................................ 150 Map 6. Pilgramage to the Holy Land and Egypt (9th July – 4th August 1937). © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad..................... 153 Map 7. Grga Novak and his travel to Egypt in 1932/1933. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.................................................... 157
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Preface At first sight it seems that ancient Egyptian history and culture have no meaningful ties with present-day Croatia. However, when we scratch beneath the surface of the common image of Egypt, as that of a distant and ancient civilisation, we notice that its elements have been present in Croatia ever since Antiquity. In the 1st millennium BCE the first ancient Egyptian artefacts, various small statuettes and amulets, were ‘imported’ by unknown merchants and seafarers as elements of exchange. During the Ptolemaic Dynasty, trade relations developed between Egypt and various Greek settlements, both along the coast and inland, as evidenced by the presence of Ptolemaic deposits in Dalmatia and Lika. From the 2nd century BCE various symbols and artefacts related to the diffusion of Egyptian cults (e.g. Isis, Serapis, Osiris, Harpocrates, Horus, Apis, etc.) reached Croatian lands; they went on to gain popularity during Roman rule over Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Istria.
writings (Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin, Ivan Meštrović), books (Vladimir Nazor, Grga Novak), and the new medium of private film footage (e.g. Deutsch-Maceljski family). From the end of the 18th century, the influence of ancient Egyptian, Greek and Roman art is visible in European and world architecture, where many new buildings were decorated with ancient motifs, while parks and cemeteries sprouted obelisks and tombs built under the influence of ancient Egyptian architecture: examples can be seen in many Croatian cities, with the best examples in Zagreb (Maksimir Park, Mirogoj Cemetery, Zagreb’s Zoo, etc.). All of these represent a form of ‘Egyptomania’, starting at the end of the 18th century, and carried on into numerous decorations and objects of everyday life, as found in the residences of the Croatian nobility and citizens. Indeed, examples can still be found in modern Croatian art, literature, and architecture.
Yet elements of Egyptian religion were not the only imports. Under the influence of ancient Egyptian architecture, buildings were sometimes decorated with Egyptian symbols, as can be seen in examples from Arena in Pula, and ‘Diocletian’s Palace’ in Split.
The main aim of this book, presented in five chapters, with each containing several themes, is, therefore, to provide a closer look at all aspects of the presence and fascination of ancient Egyptian culture in Croatia, from Antiquity to the present.
The first travellers found their ways to Egypt in the periods of Humanism and the Renaissance, and the first collections of ancient Egyptian art were created. One notable example of such a traveller, although an unintentional one, was Juraj Hus from Rasinia, who lived in Egypt as the hired servant of a Turkish sea captain in the late 1530s and early 1540s. Unfortunately the names of many other travellers, most probably from the area of the Dubrovnik Republic, remain unidentified.
The first chapter, ‘Ancient Egyptian culture in Croatia in Antiquity’, written by Mladen Tomorad, presents three main groups of artefacts discovered in presentday Croatia, mostly from the early 19th century. Seven areas of interest are covered: the early dissemination of ancient Egyptian artefacts in the Mediterranean (1st millennium BCE); the elements of diffusion and the presence of ancient Egyptian cults (from the end of the 1st century BCE to the end of the 4th century CE); the possible ancient Egyptian sanctuaries of Illyricum and Croatia and the professions related with this diffusion; Egyptian elements as architectural decorations of Roman buildings and palaces; the most important ancient Egyptian divinities identified on Croatian lands; the decorative and architectural elements of ancient Egypt along the eastern Adriatic coast; and select assemblages of artefacts related to ancient Egypt discovered in Istria, Dalmatia, and the Pannonia region of Croatia.
The first museums were created in Croatia in the 19th century, and many collectors busied themselves, fascinated by the re-discovery and exploration of ancient Egypt. The 19th and 20th centuries witnessed the arrival of in excess of 4000 Egyptian artefacts at more than 40 institutional collections, not to mention an unknown number of private collections. At the same time, during the second half of the 19th and into the early 20th century, a scientific study of ancient Egyptian history was initiated and lectures on the ancient Near East and Egypt began at the University of Zagreb (Gavro Manojlović, Grga Novak). From the middle of the 19th century, wealthier citizens and the social elite began what we might think of as ‘tourist trips’ to Egypt. These can be traced in various diaries and other manuscript material (Jakov Šašel, Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin), and from the beginning of the 20th century the appeal of Egypt’s wonders is seen reflected in newspaper articles (Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin, Grga Novak), photographs, unpublished
The second chapter, ‘Croatian travellers to Egypt from the 16th to the middle of the 20th century’ (Mladen Tomorad, Sanda Kočevar, Zorana Jurić Šabić and Sabina Kaštelančić), previews travellers and explorers to Egypt over last 400 years. The themes covered are: early Croatian travellers to Egypt, from the early modern period to the tours of the ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ shipping company of the 1930s; the early Croatian traveller Juraj Hus from Rascinia, who lived in Egypt between 1536 and 1540; the voyage of Slovenian (Karlovac) traveller Jakov xiii
the 1950s; the more than forty Egyptian collections in Croatia, mostly in institutional but also in private collections; the history of Egyptian objects in Osijek’s archaeological museum; and a selection of important artefacts from Croatia’s institutional collections.
Šašel, who travelled to Egypt and the Sudan in 1853/4; and photographs of ancient Egyptian monuments by the famous Italian photographer Antonio Beato. His collection of 37 albumen photographs taken between 1865 and 1882 found their way into Dubrovnik’s archaeological museum sometime between 1872 and 1882. A further contribution in this chapter presents another Croatian traveller, Gavro Manojlović, who visited Egypt at the end of 1902. His voyage in Egypt is well documented in the 453 pages of his unpublished diary. As a medical doctor he attended the first Egyptian medical congress in Cairo in December 1902 and witnessed the opening of the ‘Old’ Aswan dam. Early Croatian immigrants (from the middle of the 19th century to the Yugoslav firms involved in the building of the Second Aswan dam) to Egypt are also brought into focus, as are the journal and postcards of the famous Croatian sculptor Ivan Meštrović and his ex-wife Ruža Meštrović, who visited in 1927 and 1933. The last two contributions cover the cruises organised between 1932 and 1938 by the ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ shipping company, and the research voyage to Egypt by Grga Novak between December 1932 and February 1933.
The fourth chapter, ‘Egyptology in Croatia’ (Mladen Tomorad), overviews the development of this field of study and the work of leading researchers since the middle of the 19th century. The final chapter, ‘The Egyptian revival and ‘Egyptomania’ in Croatia’ (Mladen Tomorad, Marina Bagarić, Zorana Jurić Šabić, Vanja Brdar Mustapić, Vesna Lovrić Plantić), discusses the various elements of ‘Egyptomania’ found in Croatia, mostly from the beginning of the 19th century. Included are: a general overview; various elements of Egyptomania in Zagreb, specifically elements found on buildings and monuments; ancient Egypt and the art of Ivan Meštrović; Egyptian influences in items of furniture and clocks in Zagreb’s Museum of Arts and Crafts. As the first book to present wide-ranging studies on Croatia’s fascination for ancient Egypt, we hope that our efforts will reach all readers interested in these diverse subjects.
The third chapter (Mladen Tomorad and Marina Kovač), ‘Egyptian collections in Croatia’, explores: the early collectors and genesis of the most important Egyptian collections in Croatia, formed from the 1820s until
Zagreb, 22 June 2019
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Chapter I: Ancient Egyptian Culture in Croatia in Antiquity
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Early Penetration of Ancient Egyptian Artefacts and Aegyptiaca (7th–1st Centuries BCE) Mladen Tomorad
Early contacts between the eastern Adriatic coast, the Eastern Mediterranean, and Ancient Egypt
During the migrations of the ‘Sea People’, at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, it seems that some groups passed through Illyricum and the eastern Adriatic on their way to Italy; there are theories that some even established settlements in Illyricum.8
The first cultural contacts between both sides of the Adriatic coast, with the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt, probably started in the late Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age periods (c. 2200–1700 BCE).1 At the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE Indo-European migrations started all around the eastern Mediterranean, and with them many cultural changes started in Illyricum, with the development of advanced Bronze Age cultures, mostly in the Danube region. The archaeological remains of typical Minoan megalithic settlement walls and pottery discovered at the end of 1990s, on the central Dalmatian island of Škrip, suggested that in the middle Bronze Age contacts with Minoan culture was definitely present on the eastern Adriatic islands.2 On the other islands some Minoan pottery shards were also discovered. These established Minoan culture settlements, or trade routes3, could suggest that the first Egyptian artefacts might have arrived with merchants from the eastern Mediterranean world or directly from Egypt.4 The cultural settlements of Mycenaean Greece were established on the south-eastern Adriatic coast, along the coast of Albania, during the 15th century BCE, but we have no remains of their settlements along the Dalmatian coast and hinterland. According to previous studies,5 the Mycenaean influence was undertaken indirectly, via merchants who sold their ceramics along the well-established Amber Route that encircled the Adriatic;6 they also traded with local tribes on the eastern Adriatic islands and within the Dinaric mountain.7
Dating from the 9th century BCE, geometric Greek pottery has been found on both coasts of the northern Adriatic.9 The dissemination of ancient Egyptian artefacts probably started during the 1st millennium BCE, when Egyptian religious artefacts (amulets, scarabs, seals, shabtis, etc.) were traded by Phoenician and Greek merchants in almost every region of the eastern Mediterranean.10 A typological study11 of blue faïence shabti12 (Figure 1), discovered in Solin (ancient Salona) in the 19th century,13 has dated it to the 22nd Dynasty (945–715 BCE).14 From the early Iron Age, the Illyrian settlement of Salona was one of the most influential trading posts along the coast. This type of shabti was untypical of later periods of Egyptian history and was not recovered anywhere in south-eastern Europe from the Greco-Roman period. However, could it possibly have reached the Illyricum settlement of Salona before Greek colonisation of the Adriatic? With no archaeological context for such a find, however, we cannot confirm or deny the thesis. It could have found its way to Salona at any time between the 8th and 1st centuries BCE, via some unknown merchant from the Aegean, Near East, or directly from Egypt. There are, arguably, two options for such a thesis: it might simply be an exotic artefact or souvenir brought from Egypt before the Hellenistic period; or Zaninović 1973: 81-93; Zaninović 1996: 296; Tomorad 2015a: 168. Mihovilić 2002: 514; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 10 For relations with Ancient Egypt and the penetration of Ancient Egyptian elements into the Mediterranean world, see: Witt 1973: 4658; Dunand 1973; Hölbl 1979; Padró i Parcerisa 1980-1985; Hölbl 1986; Tomorad 2000: 8-9; Tomorad 2004: 95; Tomorad 2006: 279; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 11 For the typology of shabti figures discovered in various regions in Europe, see in: Tomorad 2017b; Tomorad 2017c. 12 Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, inv. no. E-561. Tomorad 2017a: Tomorad class B2; Table 10, 237. 13 The shabti is today kept in the Ancient Egyptian department of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. It came to the museum from the private collection of the family Lanza from Split. Inventar arheološkog odjela narodnog muzeja u Zagrebu – Egipatska zbirka no. 561, 29. 14 Tomorad 2006: no. 22, 297. 8
Šišić 1925: 60; Rostovtzeff 1957: 238; Cambi 2002: 11; Olujić 2007; Tomorad 2015a: 167-168. 2 Gaffney, Čače, Hayes, Kirigin, Leach and Vujnović 2002: 29-33; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 3 Gaffney, Čače, Hayes, Kirigin, Leach and Vujnović 2002; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 4 During the 2nd Intermediate period and the New Kingdom, ancient Egyptians established their trade routes with Cyprus and the Aegean islands. For a more detailed analysis of these contacts see: Bietak 1995; Davies and Schofield 1995; Bietak 2000. 5 Ćurčić 1909: 95; Zaninović 1973; Sakellarakis and Marić 1975: 153; Zaninović 1996: 296; Dimitrijević, Težak-Gregl and MajnarićPandžić 1998; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 6 Mihovilić 2002: 500; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 7 Matijašić 2009: 51; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 1
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Egypt in Croatia the beginning of the 4th century BCE, Greeks formed the most important colonies of the eastern Adriatic: Issa on Vis (c. 392–385 BCE),24 and Pharos on Hvar (c. 385/384 BCE).25 According to the results of the latest archaeological excavations at Narona and Salona, Hellenistic settlements formed there during the 2nd century BCE.26 Greek emporiums were also formed at Trogir (ancient Tragurion), Poreč (ancient Epetium), and Cavtat (ancient Epidarum) by the end of the 3rd century BCE.27
it might have been robbed from some 22nd-Dynasty tomb somewhere in Egypt and later sold to an unknown merchant, traveller or member of the Isiac cults during Hellenistic times and the late Roman Republic. There is one other shabti from the 3rd Intermediate period that might support the second possibility; it was discovered on Krk (ancient Curicum) in a late Hellenistic grave, dated c. 50–49 BCE (Figure 2) and will be discussed here later. The blue fäience shabti from Salona is probably the first ancient Egyptian funerary artefact to reach the eastern Adriatic coast in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE.
Possible contacts with Egypt during Greek colonisation of the eastern Adriatic coast (from the 7th–3rd centuries BCE)
Greek colonisation of the eastern Adriatic (7th–3rd centuries BCE)
It is most likely that the first influential penetration of ancient Egyptian artefacts into Dalmatia and Istria started during the Greek colonisation of the eastern Adriatic coast. Along with the Greek archaic material remains, the first ancient Egyptian artefacts probably came to Istria and Illyricum (amulets, scarabs, shabtis, and perhaps the first statuettes of divinities).28 Such artefacts could have come to the eastern Adriatic coast from the Etruscan coastal port of Spina, in the Po Valley, which was established on the northern Adriatic coast in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE,29 or directly from the Aegean region, Egypt, or the eastern Mediterranean. In this region, Oriental, Greek, and Etruscan ceramics, bronze and gold items, reliefs, pottery and figurines were traded from southern Italy, Etruria, Greece and Macedonia to the Near East and Egypt.30
During the period between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE, Greek trade began to be very influential along the eastern Adriatic coast. Greek trading posts were probably present in Aenona (today Nin) and Iader (today Zadar) from the early Iron Age (c. 8th–7th centuries BCE).15 The pre-colonial Apulian painted geometric pottery, dated to the early Iron Age, was discovered on the central Dalmatian islands.16 Greek pottery fragments of a black-figured lekythos, dated to the 7th century BCE, were discovered on Hvar, where Greeks had already established a small community during the early Iron Age;17 archaeological remains suggest that contacts between a native community and Greek merchants/settlers were established.18 More active trade between Greek merchants and Illyrian tribes on the eastern Adriatic coast started seems to have begun in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE.19 Greek colonies on the eastern Adriatic coast were established by the end of the 6th century BCE. The first Greek colony Κόρκυρα ἡ μέλαινα (Corcyra nigra) was founded at the end of the 6th century BCE.20 During the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, Greeks established naval trade routes along the coast of both sides of the Adriatic.21 During the 6th century BCE, Greek black-figured pottery came to Nesactium, the most important settlement of the Histri tribe in Istria.22 In Pharos (today’s Stari Grad), on Hvar, archaeologists discovered at the end of the 1990s the remains of a trading post of Corinthian merchants, with typical ceramics dated to the 5th century BCE.23 At
On the middle Dalmatian islands, inland of the eastern Adriatic coast, and Istria, a great number of shabtis, amulets, scarabs, and beads, with hieroglyphic inscriptions, figurines, and statuettes of Isis, Osiris, Isis-Hathor with Horus or Harpocrates were discovered (Table 1).31 Typological studies made during research into Egyptian assemblages in museums and private collections in Croatia showed that these artefacts were all products from pre-Roman periods, and can be dated from the New Kingdom until the Late period. For most of them we have no archaeological contexts, but we do know where they were found, and in some cases the exact year.
Dimitrijević, Težak-Gregl and Majnarić-Pandžić 1998: 306; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 16 Gaffney, Čače, Hayes, Kirigin, Leach and Vujnović 2002: 36; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 17 Gaffney, Čače, Hayes, Kirigin, Leach and Vujnović 2002: 39; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 18 Gaffney, Čače, Hayes, Kirigin, Leach and Vujnović 2002: 39; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 19 Cambi 2002: 11; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 20 Šišić 1925: 75-76; Lisičar 1951; Bracesi 1977; Suić 1996; Boardman 1999: 225-229; Cambi 2002: 12; Matijašić 2009: 56-61; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 21 Čače 2002: 95, 100; Tomorad 2015a: 168. 22 Šišić 1925: 75; Mihovilić 2002: 506; Tomorad 2015a: 169. 23 Cambi 2002: 14; Katić 2002: 425; Tomorad 2015a: 169. 15
Šišić 1925: 76; Matijašić 2009: 69-70; Tomorad 2015a: 169. Matijašić 2009: 69; Tomorad 2015a: 169. Marin 2002: 415-421; Tomorad 2015a: 169. 27 Matijašić 2009: 78; Tomorad 2015a: 169. 28 Tomorad 2000: 8-9; Tomorad 2004: 95; Tomorad 2006: 279; Tomorad 2015a: 172. 29 Cambi 2002: 14; Mihovilić 2002: 514; Tomorad 2015a: 172-173. 30 Nikolanci 1966: 107; Cambi 2002: 12-17; Tomorad 2015a: 173. 31 Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, inv. nos. E561-E-565, E675, E766, MIB348; Split. Archaeological Museum in Split, inv. nos. AMS 1221, AV372-AV375, B214-218, B757, G1622-G1632, G1676, G1886-G1887, H374-H378; H5503-H5007, H2604, H5459-H5462, I11, I1185; Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, inv. nos. A5220; Užice: National Museum, inv. 202; Tomorad 2015a: 170-171. 24 25 26
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Mladen Tomorad: Early Penetration of Ancient Egyptian Artefacts and Aegyptiaca
The only artefact for which we have an archaeological context is the New Kingdom glazed and pierced scarab of a local Illyrian elite, discovered while excavating at an Iron Age tumulus at Trnjaci-Pilatovići (near Užička Požega in south-western Serbia);32 the grave mound was investigated in 1978.33 The discovery is dated to c. 550– 520 BCE. The piercing through the scarab suggests that it was used as an amulet to be worn around the neck or ankle. A wealthy member of the local community probably bought it from a trader from the East: why he bought it will probably remain a mystery.
those of the 1st century vary from the beginning of the century to 9 CE.37 These coin hoards were discussed in various articles from the mid-19th century, but the data is very confusing, and it is difficult to determine the exact number of these coins and where they are the kept. The best information can be found in the article on NorthAfrican currency in Illyricum written by I. Mirnik.38 In separate sections he wrote: ‘Egyptian Ptolemaic bronze has been found on the following sites in Yugoslavia, Bosnia (5); ? Bosnia (6), Bosnia and Hercegovina (2); Croatia (c. 70); Dalmatia (+ 40); Hvar (1); Istria (13), Istria or Croatian Coast (32); Korčula (4); Košaki; Muta; Senj; Spodnje radvanje; Surduk; and Vis (5).’39 According to research undertaken by the present author in early 2013, most of these specimens are now in the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, the Archaeological Museum in Split, the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo, the Archaeological Museum of Istria in Pula, the Maritime and History Museum of the Croatian Littoral in Rijeka, the Museum of Senj, the Museum of the city of Šibenik, and the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
An Egyptian bone handle of a dagger34 (Figure 3), discovered by local farmer in the village of Sesvete, near Požega, in May 1979, is another interesting artefact that could have come to the Pannonia region during this period. It has the goddess Isis carved on it.35 The location where it was discovered is surrounded by several Neolithic, Iron Age, and Roman sites; it is possible that it was bought by some wealthy person from the Illyrian community (as with the find from Trnjaci-Pilatovići). Contact with Egypt during the Roman conquest of Illyricum (from the 3rd century BCE – early 1st century CE)
In March 1846 a smaller coin hoard containing Ptolemaic, Carthaginian and Numidian coinage, dated to the late 2nd century BCE, was discovered near Široka Kula in Lika (Croatia).40 Today they are divided between the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna and the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Zagreb.
During the Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE), connections and trade between Illyricum and Egypt were more active. The archaeological remains do not reveal if these connections were direct or indirect, but they certainly existed. Along the well-established Amber Route, merchants from the Aegean region, and possibly also from Phoenicia and Egypt, traded various goods paid for with Greek, North African (Numidia, Carthage) and Ptolemaic coins. It seems that more frequent connections with Ptolemaic Egypt were established between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE: such trade is evidenced by several hoards of Ptolemaic coins discovered in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Slovenia. According to the studies by I. Mirnik,36 the coin hoards can be dated between the 3rd century BCE and the early 1st century CE. The hoards from the 2nd century vary from 186 BCE to the late 2nd century, and
In 1850 six Ptolemaic coins were discovered in a grave at the site of ‘Muta’ (Radlje) near Maribor (Slovenia). They are dated from the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE and now kept in museums in Graz and Vienna.41 During the 19th century a few pieces of Ptolemaic coinage, dated to the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, were found in Kula and Zvonigrad (Bosnia and Herzegovina), but they seem to be lost.42 In 1886 a coin hoard with c. 200 aes rude and 53 Roman Republican coins were discovered in Valpovo (Croatia). Among these was a coin of Cleopatra VII (51–30 BCE), dated between 27 BCE and 9 CE. The coins were dispersed and kept in a private collection in Vinkovci and Zagreb’s Archaeological Museum in Zagreb.43
Užice: National Museum, inv. no. 202; Tomorad 2015a: 173. Zotović 1985: 92-95; Anđelković 1991: 67-68; Tomorad 2015a: 173. 34 Požega: City Museum of Požega, GMP 21.628; Tomorad 2015a: 173. 35 During the Spring of 2013, the present author had interesting correspondence with various Egyptologists (D. Stefanović, F. Tiradritti, R. Schulz, S. Ikram, G. Pieke, and G. Hölbl) about this handle, agreeing with preliminary analysis that Isis was carved on it, and that it was possibly crafted in Nubia or the Ancient Near East, perhaps a product of the 27th Dynasty or the Late period. It is also possible that it could be the modern copy of such a handle. Until radiocarbon dating is undertaken, we cannot be sure is it an ancient or modern object. Tomorad 2015a: 173. 36 Mirnik 1981: 37; Mirnik 1987. For the complete catalogue of the Ptolemaic coinage, see in: Mirnik 2016. 32 33
In the spring of 1887 a pot burial, with 25 kg of aes rude and coins from Syracuse, Carthage (94), Numidia (94), and Egypt (4), were discovered in Vrankamen Mirnik 1981: 37. Mirnik 1987. 39 Mirnik 1987: 371, 382-386. 40 Brunšmid 1897: 46; Mirnik 1981: 40, no. 43; Mirnik 1987: 381. 41 Mirnik 1981: 46, no. 77a. 42 Brunšmid 1897: 46; Mirnik 1987: 382. 43 Mirnik 1981: 48, no. 91. 37 38
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Egypt in Croatia near Krupa (Bosnia and Herzegovina).44 Ć. Truhelka45 originally attributed the Ptolemaic coins to Ptolemy I Soter I (306–282 BCE) and Ptolemy III Euergetes I (246–222 BCE), but later J. Brunšmid46 attributed them to Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (170–116 BCE) and Ptolemy X Soter.47 According to the latest studies by I. Mirnik,48 these coins should be attributed to Ptolemy I Soter, Ptolemy III Euergetes, Cleopatra I (2nd century BCE), and Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II. They are now kept in the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo.
In 1925 and 1926 a huge pot-burial coin hoard was discovered in Gračac (in Lika, Croatia), containing 213 pieces of aes rude, 8 aes signatum, 127 coins from Carthage, 203 coins from Numidia, and 9 Ptolemaic coins (Ptolemy III Euergetes I (264–222 BCE) (1), Ptolemy IV Philopator (222–204 BCE) (1), Ptolemy VI Philometor (4), Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (3)).56 These are now in the Numismatic Department of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Zagreb.57 In October 1976 a large hoard with more than 150 pieces of aes rude, and coins from Carthage, Numidia, Macedonia, Baetica and Egypt were found in Štikada, near Gračac (Croatia).58 They are currently dispersed between museums in Gospić (c. 140), Varaždin (3) and Zagreb (8). The hoard was dated to the end of the 2nd or early 1st century BCE. This hoard also contained three Ptolemaic coins: one with the head of Zeus Ammon from Alexandria, minted in the period from Ptolemy VI Philometor to Ptolemy VIII Euergetes, and two coins struck during the reign of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes (Figure 4).
At Donji Unac, near Drvar (Bosnia and Herzegovina), a coin hoard with several Ptolemaic, Numidian and Carthaginian coins were found in 189449 and dated to the beginning of the 1st century BCE. The coins are now dispersed, but a small number of them are held in the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo. In Mazin, near the road to Donji Lapac in Lika (Croatia), a huge coin hoard with 456 pieces of aes rude, 505 Carthaginian, 328 Numidian, and 40 Ptolemaic coins was discovered in 1896.50 The Ptolemaic coins were minted in the reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor (180–145 BCE; 13 pieces), Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (15 pieces; of these, six were minted in Cyrene and Cyprus between 156–127 BCE),51 and 12 pieces were crafted during the reign of Ptolemy IX Soter II (116–107, 88–81 BCE) or Ptolemy X Alexandros I (107–88 BCE).52 The coin hoard was dated from the end of the 2nd or early 1st century BCE.53 Most of these coins are now kept in the Numismatic Department of Zagreb’s Archaeological Museum in Zagreb,54 with 13 being held by the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
A certain number of Ptolemaic coins were also discovered in Istria, and along the northern Croatian coast, at a few archaeological sites near Senj and Rijeka. Around 30 pieces from this region are in the Maritime and History Museum of the Croatian Littoral in Rijeka. According to correspondence with Maja Bonačić Mandinić, custodian of the Numismatic Department of the Archaeological Museum in Split, at least 59 Ptolemaic coins discovered in the central Dalmatian region are kept in that museum.59 They were discovered at unknown sites in Dalmatia60 (Ptolemy I Soter I (8), Ptolemy II Philadelphos (2), Ptolemy III Euerget I (9), Ptolemy IV Philopator (7), Ptolemy VI Philometor (11), Ptolemy X Alexandros I (1), and 10 of unidentified Ptolemaic rulers), and on the islands of Vis61 (Ptolemy II Philadelphos (1), Ptolemy VI Philometor (1), Tiberius from Alexandrian mint), Korčula62 (Ptolemy II Philadelphos (1), Ptolemy VI Philometor), and Hvar63 (Ptolemy VI Philometor (1), Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (3)). The coin hoards in which they were discovered are dated from the 3rd century BCE to the early 1st century CE.
In Izačić, near Bihać (Bosnia and Herzegovina), one Ptolemaic coin was found in early November 1907.55 The discovery is not dated, and the coin remains unpublished; it is now in the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Truhelka 1889: 38-43; Mirnik 1981: 48, no. 93; Mirnik 1987: 382. Truhelka 1889: 38-43. 46 Brunšmid 1897: 42 fn. 4. 47 There was no Ptolemy X Soter; it is more likely to be Ptolemy IX Soter II, who ruled between 116–107 and 88–81 BCE. 48 Mirnik 1981: 48, no. 93; Mirnik 1982: 151; Mirnik 1987: 382; Mirnik 2016. 49 Mirnik 1981: 42, no. 57; Mirnik 1987: 380. 50 Brunšmid 1897: 42; Mirnik 1981: 45-56, no. 76; Mirnik 1987: 381; Tomorad 2003: 42-46; Tomorad 2005: 7-9; Mirnik 2016. 51 Brunšmid 1897: 63-64, cat. no. 1-6; Mirnik 2016. 52 Mirnik 1981: 46, no. 76. In his publication, Brunšmid only mentions three coins of Ptolemy IX Soter II. 1897: 63-64, cat. no. 7-9; Mirnik 2016. 53 Mirnik 1981: 45, no. 76; Mirnik 2016. 54 Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, inv. nos. A3328, A3870, A3874-A3886, A3892-A3894, A3896-A3897, A3890, A3904-A3907, A13324-A13327, A13329. 55 Mirnik 1987: 381. 44 45
One Ptolemaic coin, dated from the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE, was discovered near the Hellenistic Mirnik 1981: 38, no. 24; Mirnik 1982: 151; Mirnik 1987: 380-381. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, inv. nos. A9366, A9369-A9373. 58 Mirnik 1981: 47, no. 88a; Mirnik 1982: 149, 152. 59 Tomorad 2017d: 75-76. 60 Split: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, inv. nos. 16603-16617, 1662516629, 16631-166645, 16648-16659. 61 Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, inv. nos. 13467, 16630, 16646. 62 Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, inv. nos. 14698, 16647. 63 Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, inv. nos. 16618-16624. 56 57
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Mladen Tomorad: Early Penetration of Ancient Egyptian Artefacts and Aegyptiaca
sanctuary at Cape Ploče;64 it is now in the Šibenik museum.65
political force along the eastern Adriatic from the 9th until the 6th century BCE.72 In the 5th century BCE they lost their influence in the central Dalmatian region but retained their influence in the northern Adriatic and inland from their main centres, Aenona and Iader, until the end of the 1st century BCE.73 In the 4th century BCE, the Greek geographer Pseudo-Skylax described women in the societies of the Liburnes and Iapodes74 as having more influential positions and sexual freedom.75 P. Selem76 used this for his hypothesis that the prominent positions of women in their societies could enable a more influential perception of the ancient Egyptian goddess Isis during the Roman colonisation and the Romanisation of Dalmatia, but with no presumption that the dissemination of the ancient Egyptian cults could start earlier than the 1st century CE.
According to the dates of the coin specimens discovered at the various sites along the eastern Adriatic coast and inland, we can assume that economic commerce between Illyricum and Egypt existed from the early 3rd century BCE. Sadly, these archaeological finds do not give us answers as to whether this was direct or indirect commerce from other traders (most likely from Carthage, Numidia, Greece, or a Greek colony around the Mediterranean) using Ptolemaic coins as the means of payment. According to Morris Finley, in his studies of ancient economies of the Hellenistic and Roman world, ‘money was coin and nothing else’.66 In the ancient world, coins were part of very extensive trade, and were exchanged by weight, ‘without coining the metal’.67 During the Late period, the Egyptian economy did not use their own currency, and for international and domestic commerce Egyptians used mostly Greek and Persian coins.68 Ancient Egypt started to use their own currency during the early Ptolemaic period, and since then Ptolemaic coinage was used in their international trade within Egypt and outside.69 Ptolemaic coins were used for the payment of various kinds of goods and services by Egyptian traders, but also by Phoenician and Greek merchants – who used them in their international commerce all over the Mediterranean.
In the region around Zadar, Nin, Lika, and the border between Bosnia and Croatia, several Egyptian artefacts have been discovered. During an archaeological excavation in 1932, in Ostrožac near Bihać (Bosnia and Herzegovina), a shabti was discovered in a Roman grave (1st century BCE).77 In another 1st-century Roman grave, from an unknown site in Lika, a statuette of Serapis and a shabti were discovered in the 1940s.78 At Aenona a shabti and pseudo-shabti (New Kingdom, Ptolemaic Dynasty)79 were discovered, along with several oil lamps inscribed with Isis, Serapis, Harpocrates and Jupiter Ammon,80 and a statue of Isis (1st century CE),81 and a bronze amulet of a mummified figure (Ptolemaic Dynasty – 1st century CE).82 All these finds document the presence of Egyptian cults in that region from at least the 1st century BCE/1st century CE, and possibly earlier.
It is interesting to note that the largest finds of Ptolemaic coins are from the territories of the Illyrian tribe Japodes (Iapodes, Giapidi; gr. Ιάποδες)70 in Široka Kula (1846), Mazin (1896), and Gračac (1925/1926), Donji Unac (1894), and Izačić (1907), on the western boarder of modern Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.71 These finds confirm that the Japodes established trade routes with merchants from Egypt, Greece, and the Ancient Near East. According to historical and archaeological interpretations of the archaeological material from the regions of the Illyrian Japodes and Liburnes tribes, they both carried out well-organised trade in amber from the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE. At the same time, the Liburnes were the most important naval and
In the territory of the nearby Illyrian Colapiani tribe, two terracotta shabtis were discovered near ancient Aequum (today’s Čitluk, a small village near Sinj, Croatia). The first shabti, made from green-coloured enamelled terracotta, with the common inscription Wsir anx, is a typical product of the Late period
Dimitrijević, Težak-Gregl and Manjarić-Pandžić 1998: 306. Dimitrijević, Težak-Gregl and Manjarić-Pandžić 1998: 306-318. 74 Ps. Skyl. 21. This description is part of the so-called Pseudo-Skylax Períplous, probably written between 380 and 320 BCE. For a more detailed analysis of the Pseudo-Skylax text related to the Illyrian tribes along the eastern Adriatic coast, see in: Suić 1955: 121-185. For the latest translation and commentary of this source, see: Shipley 2011. 75 Šišić 1925: 83 fn. 23; Suić 1955. 76 Selem 1971: 299. 77 Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Main inventory book, inv. no. 348. Unpublished. 78 Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Main inventory book, inv. no. 358. Unpublished. 79 Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-675 and E676. 80 Zadar: Archaeological Museum in Zadar, 3672, A11260, A10178, A10180. 81 Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, A-34. 82 Zadar: Archaeological Museum in Zadar, without inventory number. 72 73
Šešelj 2009: 321, no. 11. Šibenik: Šibenik Museum, inv. no. 11001. 66 Finley 1999: 166. 67 Finley 1999: 166. 68 Bowman 1986: 107. 69 Bowman 1986: 107. 70 The Japodes dwelt to the north of the other Illyrian tribe, the Liburnians. They occupied the interior of the eastern Adriatic coast between the rivers Kupa and Una, and the great mountain range of Velebit, which separated them from the coastal Liburnians. Their territory covered the central interior (today in Croatia) and the Una Valley (today in Bosnia and Herzegovina). For a more detailed analysis of the Illyrian tribes of the eastern Adriatic coast, see in: Šišić 1925: 72-102; Stipčević 1974; Wilkes 1992; Dimitrijević, Težak-Gregl and Manjarić-Pandžić 1998; Olujić 2007; Matijašić 2009: 30-47. 71 Mirnik 1987. 64 65
5
Egypt in Croatia that merchants sold to local communities, or were they the first evidence of the Egyptian cults that penetrated the eastern Adriatic region during the same period? Sadly, we possess no archaeological evidence that could provide an answer to the question. If we compare these findings with the artefacts discovered in Spain, France, Italy, the Aegean and North Africa, there is a great possibility that the artefacts could have reached the eastern Adriatic coast and inland before the Romanisation of Illyricum in the 1st century CE.95 They could be a crucial element in confirming that the first worshippers of Egyptian cults were already present in that region. If this thesis is correct, then the first active penetration of ancient Egyptian divinities probably happened between the end of the 3rd century BCE and the end of the 1st century BCE, meaning that these artefacts could have reached the eastern Adriatic coast before the end of the Roman conquest of Illyricum (9 CE).
(27th–31st Dynasty, late 6th–early 4th century BCE).83 The second shabti, made from brown terracotta, was crafted between the 30th and the Ptolemaic Dynasty (4th–1st century BCE).84 The typology85 of these shabtis suggests that they could have come to the area around Aequum at some time between the 1st century BCE and 1st century CE.86 More than 100 Egyptian artefacts (shabtis, amulets, beads, scarabs, bronze statuettes of divinities, etc.)87 were discovered along the eastern Adriatic coast from Istria88 to Epidaurum (today’s Cavtat) (Table 1).89 The largest numbers of Egyptian artefacts were discovered in Salona,90 the central Dalmatian region,91 and on the islands of Korčula, Hvar, and Vis.92 Most were discovered in the 19th century, but unfortunately their archaeological contexts are not preserved. The only information available in the inventory books are the locations where these artefacts were found. According to their typology,93 iconography, and the artistic style of crafting, they should be dated from the Late period to the Ptolemaic Dynasty. These artefacts most likely came to the eastern Adriatic region from the early 3rd century BCE to the end of the 1st century BCE; in previous historical interpretations these artefacts were not dated.94 Were these artefacts just some of the goods
Sadly, from this period we have no epigraphic evidence that could confirm the existence of Egyptian cults. The earliest surviving epigraphic evidence of Isaic cults and communities is dated from the 1th century CE. In Auternum Vestinorum (today’s Pescara, Italy) two epigraphic inscriptions from the 1st century CE document the presence of collegium Serapis96 and collegium Isidis97 in Salona. These collegiums could have developed from previous individual worshippers or even small communities of worshippers of Egyptian divinities (Isis, Serapis, Osiris, Harpocrates), as documented on bronze figurines discovered along the eastern Adriatic coast. They could be imports from Egypt, Italy, the eastern Mediterranean or Aegean regions, from the 3rd to the 1st centuries BCE, or they could have been be looted from ancient Egyptian tombs and sold during Greco-Roman times.98 The finds discovered in Roman settlements along the eastern Adriatic coast and inland, dated from the 1st to the end of the 3rd century CE, have a different typology from artefacts of the Late and Ptolemaic periods.99 Does it mean that these typologically older artefacts came from a period earlier than those from the Roman period? We cannot confirm such an hypothesis but it is possible, and it may possibly be proved using one type of artefact – shabtis.
Sinj: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological collection, inv. no. R299. Sinj: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological collection, inv. no. R300. 85 The latest typology according to: Tomorad 2017a, Tomorad 2017b, Tomorad 2017c. 86 Tomorad 2006: 285-286, nos. 1-2. 87 Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, inv. nos. E561-E-565, E675, E766, MIB348; Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, inv. nos. AMS 1221, AV372-AV375, B214-218, B757, G1622-G1632, G1676, G1886-G1887, H374-H378; H5503-H5007, H2604, H5459-H5462, I11, I1185; Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, inv. nos. A5220; Užice: Nacional Museum, inv. no. 202. Several artefacts without inventory numbers are also kept in private collections in Lik, Marović and Domančić, and in museum collections in Graz, Hvar, Ptuj, Senj, Szekszárd, Trieste and Vienna. 88 Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, the bronze figurine of the goddess Neith (A5220), the bronze figurine of the pharaoh in kneeling position (A5210), the bronze figurine of Osiris from Bale (ancient Valle) (A5224), the bronze amulet of Harpocrates (A5221), the two bronze statuettes of Apis (A5223; the second seems to be lost), the small bronze sistrum from Nesactium (inv. no. A5048). 89 The bronze statuette of the goddess Sekhmet. Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, inv. no. H2604. 90 The ten shabtis crafted from the 26th to the Ptolemaic Dynasties are in the private Marović collection and the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb (inv. nos. E561-565). In the Archaeological Museum in Split there are ten bronze statuettes of Osiris (inv. nos. H374-378, H5006, H5459, H5461-5463), five statuettes of Isis-Hathor nursing Horus (inv. nos. H5003-5005, H5007, H5460), and a Wedjet-eye amulet (inv. no. G1629). 91 The Archaeological Museum in Split has eight shabtis from the 18th Dynasty to the Late period (inv. nos. B212-B216, G1623-1624, G1626), four scarabs (inv. nos. AV373, G1632, G1886-1887), a pearl with hieroglyphic signs (inv. nos. AV372, 374-375), fragments of Ancient Egyptian artefacts with or without hieroglyphic signs (inv. nos. B217218, B757), and a Wedjet-eye amulet (inv. no. G1676). 92 The Archaeological Museum in Split has a shabti from the 27th to the Ptolemaic Dynasty (inv. no. G1625), two Wedjet-eye amulets, and a pendant amulet with falcon with crown (inv. nos. G1627-1628, G1631). The private Domančić collection contains a shabti from the 27th to the Ptolemaic Dynasty. 93 Tomorad 2006: 285-301; Tomorad 2011: 110, 115, 122, 125, 134; Tomorad 2017a, Tomorad 2017b, Tomorad 2017c. 94 Drexler 1890; Drexler 1900; Perc 1968; Selem 1971; Selem 1972; 83 84
Arguably, the shabti is the key to this debate. Shabtis were made of stone, alabaster, wood, terracotta, and coloured fäience from the 1st Intermediate period. From Budischovsky 1977; Selem 1997; Giunio 2002. 95 Tran Tam Tih 1971; Tran Tam Tih 1972; Witt 1971; Dunand 1973; Parcerisa 1980-1985; Budischovsky 1977; Hölbl 1979; Hölbl 1986; Bricault 2001. 96 CIL IX.3337 = SIRIS 475, 677 = RICIS 615/0401. 97 CIL IX.3338. 98 Tomorad 2015a: 176. 99 Tomorad 2007; Tomorad 2016b; Tomorad 2017a, Tomorad 2017b, Tomorad 2017c; Tomorad 2018a.
6
Mladen Tomorad: Early Penetration of Ancient Egyptian Artefacts and Aegyptiaca
the Late period they were crafted with much less care and with much shorter inscriptions. By the end of the Ptolemaic Period shabtis became very small and bore no inscriptions, and in the Roman Empire they were no longer produced in Egypt.100 From the late Ptolemaic period Egyptians stopped using shabtis as part of their funerary equipment. In very rare cases shabtis were discovered in Egypt during the Roman period, but at the same time they were found in great numbers in the Mediterranean world and in all provinces of the Roman Empire.101 There is no evidence that shabti workshops ever existed in Egypt during the Roman period, but it seems that such workshops existed outside Egypt in places where communities of worshippers of Egyptian divinities were recorded in the Greco-Roman period. According to our typological studies there are only three types of shabtis102 and several of pseudo-shabtis that could be associated with the late Roman Republic or the Roman Empire.103 Most of these artefacts seem to be copies of original New Kingdom shabtis,104 sometimes with cartouches of pharaohs Thutmose III105 or Amenhotep III.106 In some cases, such shabtis bore pseudo-hieroglyphic inscriptions.107 All other types of shabtis discovered in southern Europe are common products from the second half of the 1st millennium BCE.108 Types of shabtis discovered in central, northern and western Europe are those types typical of the late Ptolemaic and Roman periods, which could mean that older types of shabtis were not commonly used from the 1st century BCE onwards.109 This is one argument why the arrival of such artefacts could be dated before the 1st century BCE.
region, Egypt and North Africa (e.g. the Etruscans, Phoenicians, Carthage, etc.). One of the most interesting artefacts from the region is a small bronze sistrum (Figure 5) discovered in the pre-Roman settlement of Nesactium (today Vizače near Pula).110 It is dated from the early 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE.111 Since the early 1st millennium BCE, Nesactium was the main settlement of another Illyrian tribe, the Histrii, who settled in Istria for centuries. It was found in 1908 during archaeological excavations in Nesactium, in a grave with an urn and a terracotta oil lamp dated to the 2nd century BCE.112 Sistrum, commonly, was not dated by scholars, or it was dated to the 1st century CE. The reason for the different dating is probably due to the typical thinking that Egyptian cults appeared in that region from the 1st century CE. Since the pharaonic period sistra were, in the ancient world, typical symbols of the cults of Isis and Hathor. According to the typology, iconography and comparisons with similar sistra from various museums in Europe and the United States, this sistrum can be dated to the Ptolemaic Period. It could be evidence of some worshipper of Isis or Hathor who lived in the area of Nesactium, or evidence of early dissemination of Egyptian divinities in Istria. Bronze figurines of the Egyptian divinities Neith, Harpocrates, Apis and Osiris, discovered in Istria113 (Figures 6-10), are products of the Ptolemaic Period (3rd–1st centuries BCE) that could have come to Istria at any time during that period. Sadly, the archaeological context for all these findings was not preserved, and the only confirmed location is Bale (ancient Valle), where a larger Osiris statuette was found (Figure 10).114 There are several possible regions from where they could have come to Istria: from the Etruscan settlements on the west coast of the Adriatic; some Greek settlement on the eastern Adriatic coast; directly from the Aegean region; southern Italy; the eastern Mediterranean; North Africa; and/or Egypt.115
According to the previous discussion and the archaeological findings from the eastern Adriatic coast and inland, it can be asserted that the first penetration and dissemination of Egyptian cults could have started in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. The first worshippers of Egyptian gods and goddesses were probably present along the coast and inland in the communities of various Illyricum tribes, and in locations where Greeks established their colonies and trading posts that developed prominent communications with the Aegean
From researches within various museum institutions in Croatia, the present author, in 2014, discovered the existence of ten ancient Egyptian artefacts that were archaeologically discovered on Krk.116 These artefacts were found in late Hellenistic graves from the middle of the 1st century BCE, and they probably arrived with some unknown soldiers stationed at Curicum during
Tomorad 2004: 93. Tomorad 2004: 206; Tomorad 2006: 280. 102 Tomorad 2017a, Tomorad 2017b, Tomorad 2017c: shabti types M, N, O. 103 Tomorad 2017a, Tomorad 2017b, Tomorad 2017c: pseudoshabti types A1-A2, B-E. 104 Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, inv. no. G1624. 105 Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, inv. nos. B212B213; AMZ: inv. nos. MIB348, E-675; GMS: inv. nos. 4100. 106 Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, inv. no. B216. 107 Vienna: Kunsthistorisches Museum, inv. no. 6708; MARPOS: 47425 (from Biggemi, Sicily); Košljun: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological collection, inv. no. 641 (from Curicum, Krk). 108 Tomorad 2017a, Tomorad 2017b, Tomorad 2017c: shabtis types A-L. 109 Tomorad 2017b: 329-330. 100 101
Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, inv. no. A-5048. Puschi 1914: 59-60; Perc 1968: 157-158, no. 14; Budischovsky 1977: 173; Džin 2001: 18-19; Tomorad 2003: 49, fn. 193, Giunio 2002: 26-27; Tomorad 2005: 17; Tomorad 2007: no. 3, 48-49; Tomorad 2015a: no. 5, 181-182. 112 Puschi 1914: 60. 113 Tomorad 2015a: nos. 6-10, 182-185. 114 Tomorad 2015a: no. 10, 184-185. 115 Cambi 2002: 14-17; Mihovilić 2002: 506, 514. 116 Two shabti figures, three scarabs with hieroglyphic inscriptions, and five amulets of cats. They are now kept in the Franciscan monastery on the island of Košljun. 110 111
7
Egypt in Croatia the early civil war between Pompey and Julius Caesar in 49/48 BCE.117 These latest findings can definitively support an hypothesis that ancient Egyptian artefacts (shabtis, scarabs) (Figures 11-15) came to the eastern Adriatic coast before the 1st century CE. In early 49 BCE, Julius Caesar ordered Publius Cornelius Dolabella to build a fleet in the Adriatic,118 and part of this fleet was stationed in Curicum under the command of Gaius Antonius,119 probably the brother of Marcus Antonius. At the same time, one of Pompey’s fleets, under the command of Marcus Octavius and Lucius Scribonius Libo, was stationed in Issa and sent to the northern Adriatic. After the famous battle at Krk, in the middle of 49 BCE, the fleet of Gaius Antonius was defeated and he had to surrender to Marcus Octavius’ troops, who then took charge of Curicum.120 It is known that part of Pompey’s fleet and the military forces who defeated Gaius Antonius near Krk were recruited in Egypt.121 It is very likely that a few of these soldiers or sailors, who died during the early years of the civil war (49– 48 BCE), were buried in these late Hellenistic graves together with the Egyptian artefacts they brought from Egypt. We can neither confirm nor deny that they were worshippers of Egyptian divinities, but that option is possible.
During the Greek colonisation along the Adriatic coast (c. 8th – end of the 3rd century BCE), with wellestablished colonies on the central Dalmatian islands (Korčula, Hvar, Vis) and coast (Epetium, Tragurium, Epidaurum), Greek emporiums in Aenona, Iader and Salona, and Greek-influenced Illyrian tribes, both on the coast and inland, it is possible that the Greek colonists, with their traders, started selling Egyptian artefacts to the local community or even worshippers of Egyptian divinities (e.g. Isis, Osiris, Harpocrates, Serapis).
Conclusion
1. Museums:
During the Roman conquest of Illyricum (3rd century BCE – 9 CE) connections with Egypt, North Africa, Aegean and Italy became much more intensive. The findings of hoards with North African and Ptolemaic coinage can support the theory that by the late 3rd century BCE trading connections were already well established. It is also possible that the large number of Egyptian artefacts (scarabs, amulets, shabtis, bronze figurines of divinities) could have arrived in Istria, Aenona, Iader, the region of Lika, Salona, and the central Dalmatian islands (Hvar, Korčula, Vis) as the first presence of Egyptian divinities. Abbreviations Archaeological Collection and the Lapidarium Dr. Grga Novak, Hvar (Croatia) = ACGN Archaeological Collection of Benko Horvat – Museum of Contemporary Art, Zagreb (Croatia) = MCA Archaeological Museum of Istria, Pula (Croatia) = AMIP Archaeological Museum in Split, Split (Croatia) = AMS Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Zagreb (Croatia) = AMZ Archaeological Park ‘Andautonija’, Ščitarjevo (Croatia) = APA Franciscan Monastery, Košljun (Croatia) = FMK Franciscan Monastery, Sinj (Croatia) = FMS Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Austria) = KHM Landesmuseum Joanneum, Graz (Austria) = LJG Museo Archeologico Regionale ‘P. Orsi’, Siracusa (Italy) = MARPOS Museo Civico Archeologico, Pescara (Italy) = MCAP Museo Civico Archeologico, Trieste (Italy) = MCAT Museo del Territorio Parentino, Poreč (Croatia) = MTP Museum of Požega, Požega (Croatia) = MP Archaeological Museum in Osijek, Osijek (Croatia) = AMO Museum of Sombor (Serbia) = GMS Museum of Szekszárd, Szekszárd (Hungary) = MS Museum of Šibenik, Šibenik (Croatia) = MGŠ National Museum, Užice (Serbia) = NMU Prähistorische Abteilung, Naturalhistorisches Museum, Vienna (Austria) = NHMV
This chapter has tried to present evidence of the hypothesis about the earlier penetration of ancient Egyptian artefacts, divinities and cults along the eastern Adriatic coast (Istria, Illyricum and Pannonia) in the 1st millennium BCE. Based on analysis of the findings, their typology, iconography and previous archaeological and historical studies, we can identify a few phases of penetration of Egyptian artefacts (the early 1st millennium BCE – 1st century BCE) that later developed into a diffusion of Egyptian divinities and Isiac cults (c. 1st century BCE – 4th century CE). According to the few finds of ancient Egyptian artefacts discovered in the region of Illyricum (the blue faience shabti from Salona, 22nd Dynasty; the scarab from Trnjaci-Pilatovići, later 6th century BCE; the bone handle of a dagger from Sesvete?), we can presume that the first Egyptian artefacts could have arrived during the early Iron Age (c. 8th–5th centuries BCE). They were probably traded by merchants to wealthy members of the local communities for unknown purposes. The possibility that their buyers were worshippers of Egyptian divinities is very low but still possible. For more on these finds, see in: Tomorad 2015a: nos. 11-20, 185195; Tomorad 2015b; Tomorad and Sliwa 2015; Tomorad 2018b: 398-399. 118 App. Civ. II.41; Tomorad 2018b: 398-399. 119 App. Civ. II.41; Tomorad 2018b: 398. 120 App. Civ. II.47; Diod. Sic. XLI.40-411-2; Tomorad 2018b: 398. 121 Veith 1924; Šišić 1925: 93-94; Matijašić 2009: 129-131; Tomorad 2018b: 398. 117
2. Countries Bosnia = BiH Croatia = CRO 8
Mladen Tomorad: Early Penetration of Ancient Egyptian Artefacts and Aegyptiaca
Table 1. Aegyptiaca and Ancient Egyptian cultic artefacts discovered in Istria and Illyricum (1st millennium – 1st century BCE) Provenance
Description
Dating
Collection inv. no.
Publication
Aenona (Nin, CRO) Aenona (Nin, CRO)
Terracotta shabti Terracotta pseudo-shabti
NK; GRP import PP
Published Published
Aequum (Čitluk, CRO)
Terracotta shabti
LP-PP; GRP import
Aequum (Čitluk, CRO)
Terracotta shabti
26th Dyn.; GRP import
Curicum (Krk, CRO)
1st c. BCE 22nd Dyn. or copy from 1st c. BCE 1st c. BCE 1st c. BCE 1st c. BCE GRP LP PP – 1st c. CE PP – 1st c. CE
FMK, 642
Unpublished
FMK, no inv. nr FMK, no inv. nr FMK, no inv. nr AMZ E767 AMS H2604 AMIP A5223; ex 3236 AMIP, no inv. nr, lost
Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Published Published Published Published
2nd c. BCE – 1st c. CE
AMIP A5221
Published
PP
AMIP A5210
Published
LP-PP Not dated 1st c. BCE
AMIP A5220 Coll. Lik MTP, no. inv. nr.
Published Unpublished Published
30th Dyn. – 1st c. CE
AMS G1677
Published
18th Dyn. or Roman copy 18th Dyn. or Roman copy LP LP LP 30th Dyn. – PP 26th Dyn. LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP 3rd – 2nd c. BCE 1st c. BCE
AMS B212 AMS B213 AMS B214 AMS G1623 AMS G1624 AMS G1626 AMS B215 AMS G1632 AMS G1886 AMS G1887 AMS AV373 AMS AV372 AMS AV374 AMS AV375 AMS G1676 AMS B217 AMS B218 AMS B757 AMIP A5048 AMZ MIB 348
Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Published Unpublished
LP – PP
AMS G1631
Published
Pharos (Stari Grad, CRO)
Terracotta shabti Terracotta shabti of Mehytweskhet Terracotta scarab Faïence scarab Terracotta scarab Bronze Nefertum Bronze Sekhment Bronze Apis Bronze Apis Bronze pendant amulet of Harpocrates Bronze kneeling male figure with klaft Bronze Neith Majolica shabti Bronze Isis Fortuna Terracotta pendant amulet with Nefertum Terracotta shabti Terracotta shabti Limestone shabti Terracotta shabti Terracotta shabti Faïence shabti Granite shabti Scarab Scarab Scarab Scarab Bead with hieroglyphics Bead with hieroglyphics Bead with hieroglyphics Terracotta Wedjat-eye amulet Egyptian figurine Egyptian figurine Egyptian figurine Bronze sistrum Shabti Faïence pendant amulet of hawk with crown Bronze Nefertum
AMZ E675 AMZ E676 FMS, Arch. Coll., no inv. nr FMS, Arch. Coll., no inv. nr FMK, 641
LP; RP import
Published
Pharos (Stari Grad, CRO)
Terracotta pseudo-shabti
27th Dyn. – PP
Pharos (Stari Grad, CRO) Pharos (Stari Grad, CRO)
Terracotta shabti 27th Dyn. – PP Terracotta Wedjat-eye amulet LP – PP
ACGN, no inv. nr. Coll. Domančić (exMarchi Coll.) AMS G1625 AMS G1628
Curicum (Krk, CRO) Curicum (Krk, CRO) Curicum (Krk, CRO) Curicum (Krk, CRO) Dalmatia(?), CRO Epidaurum (Cavtat, CRO)? Istria, CRO Istria, CRO Istria, CRO Istria, CRO Istria, CRO Kazale, CRO Loron near Poreč, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO Nesactium (Vizače, CRO) Ostrožac, BiH Pharos (Stari Grad, CRO)
9
Published Published Unpublished
Published Published Published
Egypt in Croatia
Provenance
Description
Dating
Collection inv. no.
Publication
Pharos (Stari Grad, CRO)
LP – PP
AMS G1627
Published
PP
AMS H5003
Published
PP
AMS H5004
Published
PP
AMS H5005
Published
PP
AMS H5007
Published
Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO)
Terracotta Wedjat-eye amulet Bronze Isis Hathor with Harpocrates Bronze Isis Hathor with Harpocrates Bronze Isis Hathor with Harpocrates Bronze Isis Hathor with Harpocrates Bronze Osiris Bronze Osiris Bronze Osiris Bronze Osiris Bronze Osiris Bronze Osiris Bronze Osiris Bronze Osiris Bronze Osiris Bronze Osiris Terracotta pseudo-shabti Carnelian scarab Carnelian scarab
LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP LP – PP 18th Dyn. Not dated Not dated
Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published
Salona (Solin, CRO)
Terracotta shabti
26th Dyn. – PP
Salona (Solin, CRO)
Terracotta shabti
27th Dyn. – PP
Salona (Solin, CRO)
Terracotta shabti
27th Dyn. – PP
Salona (Solin, CRO)
Terracotta shabti
27th Dyn. – PP
Salona (Solin, CRO)
Terracotta shabti
26th Dyn. – PP
Salona (Solin, CRO)
Terracotta shabti
26th Dyn. – PP 22nd Dyn. LP – PP 26th Dyn. LP – PP 30th Dyn. – RP LP – PP
AMS H374 AMS H375 AMS H376 AMS H377 AMS H378 AMS H5006 AMS H5459 AMS H5461 AMS H5462 AMS H5463 AMS B216 AMS I1835 AMS I11 Coll. Marović (exCarrara-Bratanić Coll.) Coll. Marović (exCarrara-Bratanić Coll.) Coll. Marović (exCarrara-Bratanić Coll.) Coll. Marović (exCarrara-Bratanić Coll.) Coll. Marović (exCarrara-Bratanić Coll.) Coll. Marović (exCarrara-Bratanić Coll.) AMZ E561 AMZ E562 AMZ E563 AMZ E564 AMZ E565 AMS G1629
30th Dyn. – 1st c. CE
AMS G1622
Published
PP
AMS H-5460
Published
LP – early RP
AMS 1221
Published
Not dated
MP, no inv. nr
Unpublished
NK PP – 1st c. CE
NMU 202 AMIP A5224 (ex 3227)
Published Published
Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO)
Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO)
Faïence shabti Terracotta shabti Terracotta shabti Faïence shabti Faïence shabti Terracotta Wedjat-eye amulet Terracotta amulet with Isis Salona (Solin, CRO) and Harpocrates Bronze Isis Hathor with Salona (Solin, CRO) Harpocrates Salona? (Solin, CRO) Ithyphallic pendant amulet Bone handle of a dagger with Sesvete, near Požega, CRO Isis Trnjaci-Pilatovići, SR Glazed scarab Valle (Bale, CRO) Bronze Osiris
10
Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published
Mladen Tomorad: Early Penetration of Ancient Egyptian Artefacts and Aegyptiaca
Italy = IT Serbia = SR Slovenia = SL
Budischovsky, M.-C. 1973. Iupiter-Amon et Méduse dans les forums du Nord de l’Adriatique. Aquileia Nostra, Rivista dell’Associazione nazionale per Aquileia XLIV: col. 201-220. Budischovsky, M.-C. 1977. La Diffusion des cultes isiaques autour de la mer Adriatique, I. Inscriptions et monuments. Leiden. Bugarski-Mesdjian, A. 1999. Le forum de Zadar et les ‘Cultes Orientaux’. Histria Antiqua 5: 67–74. Bulić, F. 1887. Descrizione delle lucerne fittili che si conservano nell’ I. R. Museo di Spalato. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata X: 192. Bulić, F. 1909. Ritrovamenti antichi a Oklaj di Promina (Promona). Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata XXXII: 45-49. Bulić, F. 1927. Dvije riječi o figuri ‘Bes’-a na jednoj brončanoj vazi u splitskom arheološkom Muzeju. Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju dalmatinsku XLIX: 105. Čače, S. 2002. Corcira e la tradizione Greca dell’espansione dei Liburni nell’Adriatico orientale, in: N. Cambi, S. Čače and D. Kirigin (eds), Grčki utjecaji na istočnoj obali Jadrana. Split: 83-100. Cambi, N. 2002. Antika. Zagreb. Cambi, N., Čače, S., and Kirigin, B. (eds) 2002. Grčki utjecaji na istočnoj obali Jadrana. Split. Ćurčić, V. 1909. Prähistorische Funde aus Bosnien and Herzogowina in den Sammlungen des k. k. Naturhistorischen Hofmuseum in Wien. Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina 11: 95, tab. XVIII. Dautova-Ruševljan, V. 1983. Rimska kamena plastika u jugoslavenskom delu provincije Donje Panonije. Novi Sad. Davies, W.V. and Schofield, L. (eds) 1995. Egypt, the Aegean and the Levant, Interconnections in the Second Millennium BCE. London. Degmedžić, I. 1952. Arheološka istraživanja u Senju. Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju Dalmatinsku LIII: 251254, pl. 1 and 4. Degrassi, A. 1933. Natiziario archaeologico. Atti e Memorie della Societate Istriana XLV: 395-396. Degrassi, A. 1962. Slavore – scoperta d’atichita romane. Scritti vari di antichita II: 881-886. Dimitrijević, S., Težak-Gregl, T. and MajnarićPandžić, N. 1998. Prapovijest. Zagreb. Dodson, A. and Hilton, D. 2004. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London/New York. Domić-Kunić, A. and Džino, D. 2013. Rimski ratovi u Iliriku – Povijesni antinarativ. Zagreb. Dow, S. 1937. The Egyptian cults in Athens. Harvard Theological Review 30: 183-232. Drexler, W. 1890. Des Cultus der ägyptischen Gottheiten in den Donauländer, Mythologischen Beiträge. Leipzig. Drexler, W. 1900. Il culto delle divinità egiziane in Dalmazia. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata XXIII: 145-158.
3. Historical periods New Kingdom = NK 3rd Intermediate period = 3rd IP Late Period = LP Greco-Roman period = GRP Ptolemaic period = PP Roman period = RP Bibliography Anđelković, B. 1991. Various Archaeological Objects of Near Eastern Provenience in Serbia. Journal of the Serbian Archaeological Society 7: 67-77. Baslez, M.-Fr. 1977. Recherches sur les conditions de pénétration et de diffusion des religions orientales à Délos. Paris. Bietak, M. 1995. Connections Between Egypt and the Minoan World, New Results from Tell El-Dab’a/ Avaris, in: W.V. Davies and L. Schofield (eds), Egypt, the Aegean and the Levant, Interconnections in the Second Millennium BCE: 19-28. London. Bietak, M. 2000. Rich beyond the Dreams of Avaris, Tell el-Dab’a and the Aegean World, A Guide for the Perplexed, A Response to Eric H. Cline. The Annual of the British School at Athens 95: 185-205. Boardman, J. 1999. The Greeks overseas, their early colonies and trade. London. Bowman, A.K. 1986. Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642. Berkeley/Los Angeles. Bracesi, L. 1977. La grecità adriatica. Roma. Bricault, L. 1996. Les prêtres du Sarapieion C de Délos. Bulletin de correspodance Hellénique 120: 597-616. Bricault, L. 1997. Les cultes isiaques en Grèce centrale et occidentale. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119: 117-122. Bricault, L. 2001. Atlas de la diffusion des cultes Isiaques (IVe S. AV. J.-C - IVe S. APR. J.-C.). Paris. Bruneau, P. 1970. Recherches sur les cultes de Délos à l’epogue hellénistique et à l’époque romaine. Leiden. Brunšmid, J. 1897. Nekoliko našašća novaca na skupu u Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji V. Našašće italskih i afrikanskih novaca u Mazinu. Vjesnik hrvatskog arheološkog društva, n.s. II: 42-103. Brunšmid, J. 1904. Kameni spomenici hrvatskog narodnog muzeja u Zagrebu. Vjesnik hrvatskog arheološkog društva VII. Brunšmid, J. 1905. Kameni spomenici hrvatskog narodnog muzeja u Zagrebu. Vjesnik hrvatskog arheološkog društva VIII. Bubenheimre-Erhart, F. 2006. Aspects of Egyptian Religion in Archaic Etruria (7th – 6th Centuries BCE, in: H. Györy (ed.), Aegyptus et Pannonia III - Acta Symposii anno 2004. Budapest: 11-26. 11
Egypt in Croatia Dunand, F. 1973. Le culte d’Isis dans le bassin oriental de la Méditerranée. Leiden. Džin, K. 2001. Egipatske votivne figurice u lararijima, in: K. Džin (ed.), Egipatska religija i antička Istra. Pula: 18-21. Finley, M.I. 1999. The Ancient Economy. Berkeley/Los Angeles. Gabričević, B. 1956. Arheološke uspomene na Egipat u Splitu. Slobodna Dalmacija, 12th July 1956: 6. Gaffney, V., Čače, S., Hayes, J., Kirigin, B., Leach, P. and Vujnović, N. 2002. Secret histories: The precolonial archaeological context for Greek settlement of the central Adriatic islands, in: N. Cambi, S. Čače, and B. Kirigin (eds), Grčki utjecaji na istočnoj obali Jadrana: 25-50. Split. Garland, R. 1987. The Piraeus, From the Fifth to the First Century BCE. Ithaka. Gavela, B. 1956. Antički spomenici grčko-egipatskog sinkretizma u našoj zemlji I. Serapis. Starinar Srpske Akademije nauka n.s. V-VI: 43-51. Giunio, K.A. 2002. Egyptian Gods on the Eastern Adriatic Coast, in: H Györy and Z. Mráv (eds), Aegyptus et Pannonia I – Acta Sympsii anno 2000: 21-63, Pl. 3-17. Budapest. Gorenc, M. (ed.) 1952. Antikna skulptura u Hrvatskoj. Zagreb. Green, P. 1993. Alexander to Actium – The Hellenistic Age. Berkeley/Los Angeles. Haslauer, E. 2006. Die Uschebtis im Museo Archeologico Regionale ‘P. Orsi’ in Syrakus. Papyri – Bullettino del Museo del Papiro III: 33-47. Hoey, A.S. 1939. Official Policy towards Oriental Cults in the Roman Army. Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 70: 456-481. Hölbl, G. 1979. Beziehungen der ägyptischen Kultur zu Altitalien. Leiden. Hölbl, G. 1986. Ägyptisches Kulturgut im phönikischen und punischen Sardinien. Leiden. Janes, G. 2002. Shabtis: A Private View: Ancient Egyptian Funerary Statuettes in European Private Collections. Paris. Jurkić-Girardi, V. 1972. Rasprostranjenost kulta Magnae Matris na području Istre u rimsko doba. Histria archaelogica III/1: 39-76. Jurkić-Girardi, V. 1974. Arte plastica del culto come detrminant l’esistenza dei culti Romani e sincreti nella regione Istriana. Atti V: 5-46. Jurkić-Girardi, V. 2001. Egipatska religija i antička Istra, in: K. Džin (ed.), Egipatska religija i antička Istra: 5-17. Pula. Jurkić-Girardi, V. 2005. Duhovna kultura antičke Istre, knjiga I: Kultovi u procesu romanizacije antičke Istre. Zagreb. Kater-Sibbes, G.J.F. 1973. Preliminary catalogue of Sarapis monuments. Leiden. Katić, M. 2002. Greeks and the Hinterland of western Balkans, in: N. Cambi, S. Čače and B. Kirigin (eds), Grčki utjecaji na istočnoj obali Jadrana: 423-433. Split.
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Shipley, G. 2011. Pseudo-Skylax’s Periplus. The Circumnavigation of the Inhabited World. Text, Translation and Commentary. Exeter. Šišić, F. 1925. Povijest Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih vladara. Zagreb. Smith, D.E. 1977. The Egyptian cults at Corinth. Harvard Theological Review 70: 201-231. Spyridakis, S. 1970. Ptolemaic Itanos and Hellenistic Crete. Los Angeles. Squarciapino, M.F. 1962. I culti orientali ad Ostia. Leiden. Stipčević, A. 1974. Iliri, Povijest, život, kultura. Zagreb. Suić, M. 1955. Istočna jadranska obala u Pseudo Skilakovu Periplu. Rad Jugoslavenske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti 306: 121-185. Suić, M. 1969. Antički Nin (Aenona) i njegovi spomenici. Radovi Instituta JAZU u Zadru 16-17: 87. Suić, M. 1976. Antički grad na istočnom Jadranu. Zagreb. Suić, M. 1981. Zadar u starom vijeku. Zadar. Suić, M. 1996. Odabrani radovi iz starije povijesti Hrvatske. Zadar. Tomorad, M. 2000. Šauabtiji u Dalmaciji i Panoniji. Historijski zbornik 53: 1-14. Tomorad, M. 2003. Egipat u Hrvatskoj, egipatske starine u hrvatskoj znanosti i kulturi. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2004. Shabtis from Roman Provinces Dalmatia and Pannonia. Journal of Egyptological Studies 1: 89-116. Tomorad, M. 2005a. The Egyptian antiquities in Croatia. PalArch 2.1: 1-33. Tomorad, M. 2005b. Egyptian Cults of Isis and Serapis in Roman Fleets, in: A. Amenta, M.M. Luiselli and M.N. Sordi (eds), L’acqua nell’antico Egitto. Proceedings of the First International Conference for Young Egyptologist: 241-253. Rome. Tomorad, M. 2006. Shabtis from the Roman provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia and their role in Egyptian cults during the Roman Empire, in: H. Györy (ed.), Aegyptus et Pannonia III – Acta symposii anno 2004: 279309, Pl. 69-78. Budapest. Tomorad, M. 2007. Egyptian artefacts in the Archaeological Museum of Istria in Pula (Croatia). Journal of Egyptological Studies 2: 43-58. Tomorad, M. 2009. Ancient Egyptian funerary practices from the first millennium BC to the Arab conquest of Egypt (c. 1069 BC – 642 AD). The Heritage of Egypt, vol. 2 no. 2 issue 5: 12-28. Tomorad, M. 2011. Shabtis from the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb (Croatia), A Typological Study. Advances in Egyptology 2: 109-134. Tomorad, M. 2012. Ancient Egyptian Funerary Statuettes in Croatian Collections. Opuscula Archaeologica 36: 275-282. Tomorad, M. 2014. Ancient Egyptian Artefacts and Divinities in Istria and Illyricum: A Bibliographical Survey. Bibliotheca Isiaca III: 419-448. Bordeaux. Tomorad, M. 2015a. The Early Penetration of Ancient Egyptian Artifacts and Dissemination of the Cults of Egyptian Divinities in Istria and Illyricum (1st 13
Egypt in Croatia Millennium B.C. – 1st Century A.D.), in: M. Tomorad (ed.), A History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture conducted in Southeast Europe: 165-200. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2015b. The two unpublished shabtis from Krk (Croatia). The Journal of Egyptological Studies IV: 141-146. Tomorad, M. 2016a. Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. I. Povijest i kultura starog Egipta. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2016b. The phases of penetration and diffusion of Egyptian artefacts and cults in the regions of Istria and Illyricum (from the 7th c. B.C. to the 4th c. A.D.), in: H. Györy (ed.), Aegyptus et Pannonia V: 185-226, Pl. 69-81. Budapest. Tomorad, M. 2016c. Aegyptiaca and various forms of Egyptomania in Croatia, in: N. Guilhou (ed.), Liber Amicorum – Speculum Siderum: Nut Astrophoros – Paper presented to Alicia Maravelia: 349-364. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017a. Shabtis from the Museums and Private Collections in Croatia: Dating and Typological Study, in: M. Tomorad and J. PopielskaGrzybowska (eds), Egypt 2015: Perspectives of Research. Proceedings of the Seventh European Conference of Egyptologists (2nd – 7th June 2015, Zagreb – Croatia): 219239. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017b. Shabtis from the Late and GraecoRoman Periods: Proposal for the Classification (Typology) of Shabtis Discovered Outside Egypt, in: K.A. Kóthay (ed.), Burial and Mortuary Practices in Late-Period and Graeco-Roman Egypt: 323-336, Pl. 74-77. Budapest. Tomorad, M. 2017c. The Ancient Egyptian shabtis discovered in the regions of Roman Illyricum (Dalmatia, Pannonia) and Istria: provenance, collections, typological study and dating, in: G. Rosati and M.C. Guidotti (eds), Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Egyptologists (Florence, Italy 23 – 30 August 2015): 650-655. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017d. Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2018a. Various manifestations of the Isis cult in the regions of Istria, Illyricum and Pannonia and its diffusion to the Central European Region (2nd c. B.C. – 4th c. A.D.). Shodoznanvstvo 81: 58-99. Tomorad, M. 2018b. The Ancient Egyptian collection of the Franciscan Monastery on the island of Košljun: A case study of the possible evidence of the earlier penetration of Ancient Egyptian artefacts in Illyricum, in: M. Milićević Bradač and D. Demicheli (eds), The Century of the Brave: Roman conquest
and indigenous resistance in Illyricum during the time of Augustus and his heirs – Proceedings of the international conference, Zagreb, 22-26. 9. 2014: 397-405. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Sliwa, J. 2015. Tri staroegipatska skarabeja iz Arheološke zbirke franjevačkog samostana na Košljunu, Hrvatska – Three Ancient Egyptian scarabs from the Archaeological Collection of the Franciscan Monastery on Košljun, Croatia. Prilozi Instituta za arheologiju 32: 243-250. Tran Tam Tih, V. 1971. Le culte des divinités orientales à Heruclanum. Leiden. Tran Tam Tih, V. 1972. Le culte des divinités orientales en Campanie en dehors de Pompéi, de Stabies et d’Herculanum. Leiden. Truhelka, Ć. 1889. Afrikanski novci od tuća, nađeni na Vrankamenu kod Krupe. Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja u Bosni i Hercegovini I: 38-43. Turcan, R. 1996. The Cults of the Roman Empire. Oxford. Tyldesley, J. 2006. Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt from Early Dynastic Times to the Death of Cleopatra. London/ New York. Veith, G. 1924. Zur der Kämpfen der Caesarianer in Illyrien. Bulićev zbornik: 627-674. Zagreb/Split Versluys, M.J. 2013. Orientalising Roman Gods, in: L. Bricault and C. Bonnet (eds), Panthée: Religious Transformations in the Graeco-Roman Empire: 235-259. Leiden/Boston. Vidman, L. 1969. Sylloge inscriptionum religionis Isacae et Sarapiacae (SIRIS). Berlin. Waddell, W.G. 1940. Introduction, in: Manetho: viixxviii. Cambridge (MA)/London. Wessetzky, V. 1961. Die äegyptischen kulte zur Römerzeit in Ungarn. Leiden. Wilkes, J. 1992. The Illyrians. London. Witt, R.E. 1971. Isis in the Graeco-Roman world. London/ New York. Yoyotte, J. 1972. Les Adoratrices de la III Période Intermédiaire, à propos d’un chef-oeuvre rapporté par Champollion. Bulletin de la société française d’égyptologie 64. Zaninović, M. 1973. On some relations between Anatolia and Dalmatia, in: E. Akurgal (ed.), Proceedings of the 10th International Congress of Classical Studies: 81-93. Ankara/Izmir. Zaninović, M. 1996. Od Helena do Hrvata. Zagreb. Zotović, M. 1985. Arheološki i etnički problemi bronzanog i gvozdenog doba Zapadne Srbije. Titovo Užice-Beograd.
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Diffusion of Ancient Egyptian Cults in Istria and Illyricum (Late 1st – 4th Centuries BCE) Mladen Tomorad Previous historical studies
BCE). With the Romanisation of Istria, Illyricum and Pannonia, at the end of the 1st c. BCE and the beginning of the 1st c. CE, cults of Isis and Serapis, along with other Egyptian gods (Harpocrates, Bes, and Anubis), started to spread along the Adriatic coast and inland all the way to the Pannonia region.125
The diffusion of the ancient Egyptian artefacts in Croatia during the period of the Romanisation of the conquered region of Istria and newly established province of Illyricum (later Dalmatia and Pannonia) has been well studied over the last 130 years. In the numerous studies published from the end of the 19th century, various scholars studied mostly those items discovered along the Adriatic coast, and some relevant artefacts from the Pannonia region. Since 1854, more than 330 papers and monographs have been published on this topic, with most of them analysing artefacts held in various museum and private collections in the region; the first studies began to appear in the 1930s. For the region of Istria, the most relevant studies were published by Bernarda Perc, Marie-Christine Budischovsky, Vesna Jurkić Girardi, Kornelija A. Guinio, Mladen Tomorad, and Petar Selem.122 Material discovered in the province of Dalmatia was studied by a great number of researchers, but the most relevant recent studies have been published by Bernarda Perc, Marie-Christine Budischowsky, Petar Selem, Kornelija A. Guinio, and Mladen Tomorad.123 Egyptian artefacts from the Pannonia region have mostly been studied by Bernarda Perc, Danica Pinterović, Petar Selem, Mladen Tomorad, and Marina Kovač.124
We may consider the reign of the Emperor Caligula (37–41 CE) as the starting point for the new diffusion along the Adriatic coast, when, after half a century of prohibition, Egyptian cults were finally introduced to the Roman pantheon of gods in 38 CE.126 By the 1st century CE, Egyptian cults were present in almost every important city along the eastern Adriatic coast (Table 1). At the same time, the diffusion of the cults of Isis and Serapis began in Pannonia. Various academics, from the beginning of the 1960s, have considered Italian settlers as the first members of Roman society to introduce the cults of Isis and Serapis to the region.127 The earliest artefacts related to the cult of Isis have been discovered in Ptuj (ancient Poetovio) in Slovenia, near the border of modern Croatia; within the remains of this very important settlement two oil lamps with reliefs of Isis were found,128 both of which are dated to the reign of Claudius I (41–56 CE).129
The diffusion of Egyptian cults from the 1st – 4th centuries CE
In Dalmatia, in the territory of the Illyrian Colapiani tribe, two terracotta shabtis were recovered near Aequum (today’s Čitluk, a small village near Sinj, Croatia). The typology of these shabtis130 and the existence of the preRoman settlement suggests the possibility that these items could have arrived in the area around Aequum in the last centuries BCE, or during the first century CE,
A greater diffusion of Isaic cults through Croatian territory occurred after the earlier phases of the penetration of Egyptian cultic objects (3rd–1st c. Perc 1968; Budischovsky1973; Budischovsky1977; JurkićGirardi 1972; Jurkić-Girardi 1974; Jurkić-Girardi 2001; Giunio 2002; Jurkić-Girardi 2005; Tomorad 2007; Selem 2015. 123 Perc 1968; Budischovsky1977; Selem 1963; Selem 1969; Selem 1971a; Selem 1971b; Selem 1972; Selem 1979; Selem 1993; Selem 1997; Selem 1999; Selem 2000; Tomorad 2000; Tomorad 2004; Selem 2005; Tomorad 2005a; Tomorad 2005b; Tomorad 2006; Selem 2009; Selem 2012; Giunio 2013; Tomorad 2014; Giunio 2015; Selem 2015; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2015b; Tomorad 2015c; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2016b; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2017b; Tomorad 2018. 124 Pinterović 1954; Pinterović 1958; Pinterović 1960; Pinterović 1965; Pinterović 1967; Perc 1968; Pinterović 1975; Selem 1980; Selem 1997; Tomorad 2000; Tomorad 2004; Selem 2005; Tomorad 2005a; Tomorad 2005b; Tomorad 2006; Kovač 2013; Tomorad 2014; Kovač 2015; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2015b; Tomorad 2015c; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2016b; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2017b; Tomorad 2018. 122
125 For more on the processes of pacification and Romanisation in this region, see: Matijašić 2009: 87-221; Domić-Kunić and Džino 2013. 126 Tomorad 2016: 287. 127 Wessetzky 1961; Móscy 1962: col. 734-736; Pinterović 1967: 26-27; Lengyel and Radan 1980: 185-193; Selem 1980: 1-75; RendićMiočević and Šegvić 1998: 10. 128 Graz: Landesmuseum Joanneum, 5683, 8310. 129 Saria 1937: 23; Perc 1968: 192, nos. 40-1; Selem 1972: 34, 37; Selem 1980: 19, nos. 31-32; Selem 1997: 136, nos. 8.23-24. 130 The first shabti, in green-coloured enamelled terracotta (R299), was produced between the 27th and 31st Dynasties (Tomorad shabticlass G); the shabti in green-glazed faience (R300) was produced between the 30th Dynasty and the Ptolemaic Period (Tomorad shabticlass M). Sinj: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological collection, R299-300.
15
Egypt in Croatia worshippers of Egyptian cults.140 It is possible that such workshops existed near the sanctuaries or temples in the main centres of Isaic cults (e.g. Pola, Aenona, Iader, Salona, Poetovio, Mursa, Savaria), but as yet no archaeological evidence to support such an hypothesis has turned up.
when the Roman settlement was formed (in the reign of Claudius I).131 The other artefact, probably also belonging to this phase, is the statue of the goddess Isis sitting on a throne with two lions beneath her legs. It was found during the early 1950s in the area of Senj.132 L. Bricault dated it to the last phase of the Roman conquest of Illyricum (1st century BCE – early 1st century CE).133 At that time ancient Senia acted as a Roman stronghold against the nearby Illyrian Japodes and Liburnes tribes.
Various forms of Isaic cults and their syncretistic forms reached their peak during the 2nd and early 3rd centuries CE. Isis was commonly associated with Osiris, Serapis and Harpocrates, with whom she appeared on various monuments in Istria, Dalmatia and Pannonia.
The earliest surviving epigraphic evidence of Isaic cults and communities’ dates to the 1st century CE. In Auternum Vestinorum (Pescara, Italy) two inscriptions from the 1st century CE document the presence of collegium Serapis134 and collegium Isidis135 in Salona. Those inscriptions are proof that at least by the end of the 1st century CE worshippers of Isis and Serapis (and probably certain other Egyptian gods and goddesses) organised their communities along the eastern Adriatic coast,136 and suggest that a type of temple or sanctuary existed there. Sadly, however, no such remains have yet been discovered.
Artefacts are related with various syncretistic cults (e.g. Jupiter Ammon, Isis Fortuna, Isis Tyche, Hermes Thot, Mercury Thot, Harpocrates Helium, Serapis with Lions, etc.) that first appeared in the Hellenistic period, but became more popular during the 2nd second century CE (Table 2). The largest number of syncretistic artefacts spread all over Dalmatia and Pannonia in the time of Severus (193–235 CE).141 The most popular objects were marble tomb stele featuring the head of Serapis with kalathos, or only a kalathos, between two reclining lions; they appeared only in Pannonia. The other syncretistic monuments are mostly bronze statuettes of Isis Fortuna, Isis Tyche, Hermes Thot, Mercury Thot, and Harpocrates Helium, or architectural decorations of city forums in Pola and Iader related to the syncretistic god Jupiter Ammon.
A marble fragment of a head depicting the Egyptian goddess Hathor137 was found in the remains of the Roman amphitheatre at Pula. It was unearthed while excavations were being done in 1932–1933, among building material and mortar as reconstruction work was taking place of the audience’s seats, together with a coin of the Emperor Galba. The amphitheatre was built during the Flavian era (69–96 CE) and the archaeological context of the finds suggest that the head was used as decoration within the ‘Arena’ in the second half of the 1st century CE.138
Funerary stelae and tombstones dedicated mostly to Isis, Serapis and Jupiter-Ammon belong to another group of artefacts (Table 3). Among these is a group of epigraphic monuments with votive and funerary inscriptions (altars, tombstone cippus, etc.), and with theophoric names (Isiodora, Apius, Isiada, Isias, Isiodorus, Serapion, and Serafio). These were mostly crafted in local workshops in the period between the late 1st and first half of the 4th century CE.
More than 50 other Egyptian artefacts, dated to the 1st or early 2nd century CE, were discovered in various regions of Croatia (Table 1). Most of these lack archaeological contexts and thus we are unable to determine exactly when and how they arrived in Istria, Dalmatia and Pannonia.139 Most of these artefacts were dated according to their typology, iconography and crafting techniques. P. Selem has considered the option that some of them were crafted in local workshops for
Many genuine ancient Egyptian artefacts have been discovered on Croatian territory, mostly in the 19th and 20th centuries. Some of these arrived in Istria, Dalmatia and Pannonia in the Hellenistic period (3rd–1st c. BCE) – most shabtis, amulets and scarabs reached the eastern Adriatic coast at this time142 – and some are imports from Roman Empire times (late 1st c. BCE – end of 4th c. CE). A smaller number of shabtis, and almost all the pseudo-shabtis and beads, entered in the time of the Roman Empire as imports related to Isiac cults, mostly those of Isis and Serapis. Similar Egyptian artefacts discovered in Pannonia most likely arrived during the period of Romanisation (end of 1st c. BCE – early 3rd
Tomorad 2016b: 190; Tomorad 2018: 65. Senj: City Museum of Senj, with no inventory number. Degmedžić 1952: 251-254, pl. 1 and 4. 133 Bricault 2001: maps XXVI-XXVII, 119, 125, 129. 134 CIL IX.3337 = SIRIS 475, 677 = RICIS 615/0401. 135 CIL IX.3338. 136 Tomorad 2016a: 187; Tomorad 2018: 91. 137 Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-8712. 138 Degrassi 1933: 395-396; Perc 1968: 148-150; Jurkić-Girardi 2001: 14-15; Tomorad 2003: 48, fn. 180; Tomorad 2007: 45-46; Tomorad 2015a: 192-193. 139 More details in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2018. 131 132
Selem 1963: 94-107; Selem 1969: 125-144; Selem 1971: 291-332; Selem 1972: 7-104; Selem 1980: 1-75; Selem 1997. 141 Tomorad 2016b: 288. 142 For more details, see Tomorad 2015a. 140
16
Mladen Tomorad: Diffusion of Ancient Egyptian Cults in Istria and Illyricum
Table 1. Egyptian cultic artefacts discovered in Istria, Dalmatia and Pannonia (1st – early 2nd century CE) Provenance
Description
Dating
Collection inv. no.
Publication
Aenona (Nin, CRO) Aenona (Nin, CRO) Aenona (Nin, CRO)
Terracotta shabti Terracotta pseudo-shabti Marble statue of Isis Terracotta oil lamp with Isis and Serapis Terracotta oil lamp with Isis and Serapis Terracotta oil lamp with Jupiter Ammon
NK–GRP import PP 1st c. CE
AMZ E675 AMZ E676 AMZ A34 AMZd L. 163, t.k. 4379, I.e. 6820 AMZd 375, L. 878, I.a. 1383/2, t.k. 4427
Published Published Published
Aequum (Čitluk, CRO)
Terracotta shabti
LP–GRP import
Aequum (Čitluk, CRO)
Terracotta shabti
Andautonia (Ščitarjevo, CRO) Andautonia (Ščitarjevo, CRO) Auternum Vestinorum (Pescara, IT) Auternum Vestinorum (Pescara, IT) Curicum (Krk, CRO) Curicum (Krk, CRO) Curicum (Krk, CRO) Curicum (Krk, CRO) Curicum (Krk, CRO) Dalmatia?, CRO Daruvar, CRO
Terracotta oil lamp with Jupiter Ammon
Aenona (Nin, CRO) Aenona (Nin, CRO) Aenona (Nin, CRO)
Iader (Zadar, CRO) Iader (Zadar, CRO) Lika, CRO Middle Dalmatia, CRO
1st c. CE 1st c. CE 1st c. CE
Published Published
AMZd L. 495, I.e. 7298 Published
FMS, Arch. Coll., without inv. nr FMS, Arch. Coll., 26th Dyn.–GRP import without inv. no.
Published Published
70–130 CE
APA, without inv. no. Unpublished
Bronze Isis-Fortuna
1st c. CE
APA, without inv. no. Unpublished
Inscription collegium Isidis in Salona
1st c. CE
1st–2nd c. CE 1st–2nd c. CE 1st–2nd c. CE 1st–2nd c. CE 1st–2nd c. CE GRP LP–RP import
MCAP, without inv. no. MCAP, without inv. no. FMK, without inv. no. FMK, without inv. no. FMK, without inv. no. FMK, without inv. no. FMK, without inv. no. AMZ E767 MS, unknown inv. no.
1st c. CE
AMZd 3672
Inscription collegium Serapis in Salona 1st c. CE Amulet of cat Amulet of cat Amulet of cat Amulet of cat Amulet of cat Bronze Nefertum Terracotta shabti Terracotta oil lamp with Isis and Serapis Bronze amulet of mummified figure (Osiris?) Bronze Isis Fortuna Terracotta pendant amulet with Nefertum Terracotta shabti
Middle Dalmatia, CRO
Terracotta shabti
Mursa (Osijek, CRO) Mursa (Osijek, CRO) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?)
Egyptian stele of Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered Faience shabti Faïence amulet of Thoth Faïence amulet of a hare Jasper gem with Harpocrates Terracotta relief plaque with Nephthis Faïence amulet of Pataikos Faïence amulet of Shu Faïence amulet of Unnut Terracotta amulet of Bes Terracotta pseudo-shabti Faïence scarab Faïence scarab Faïence scarab Bone scarab
17
Published Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Unpublished Published Published Published
1st c. CE
AMZd, without inv. no. AMZ A4633
30th Dyn.–1st c. CE
AMS G1677
Published
AMS B212
Published
AMS B213
Published
AMO AA2590 AMO AA6243 AMO AA1342 AMO AA1344 AMO AA1406 AMO AA1341 AMO AA2665 AMO AA1343 AMO, without inv. no. AMO AA2670 AMO AA19469 AMO AA1432 AMO AA1433 AMO AA1434 AMO AA1605
Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published
PP–1st c. CE
Middle Dalmatia, CRO
Published
18th Dyn. or Roman copy 18th Dyn. or Roman copy PP–RP import 3rd IP– LP; RP import LP–PP; RP import LP–PP; RP import GRP–RP import 18th Dyn.; RP import LP–PP; RP import LP–PP; RP import LP–PP LP–PP PP–GRP import LP–PP; RP import LP–PP; RP import LP–PP; RP import LP–PP; RP import
Published Published
Egypt in Croatia
Provenance
Description
Dating
Collection inv. no.
Publication
Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) Unknown (Pannonia?) or SR Pharos (Stari Grad, CRO)
Bone scarab Terracotta Osiris Terracotta Osiris
LP–PP; RP import Late RP Late RP
AMO AA1606 AMO 194962 AMO AA1340
Published Published Published
Bronze Bastet
GRP
AMZ E766
Published
Bronze Nefertum
LP–RP import
AZGN, without inv. no.
Published
68–81 CE
AMIP A8712
Published
1st c. CE
AMIP 313
Published
Bronze vessel with Bes
1st c. CE
AMS H4427
Published
Terracotta pseudo-shabti Carnelian scarab Carnelian scarab Terracotta amulet with Isis and Harpocrates Ithyphallic pendant amulet The statue of the goddess Isis sitting on a throne with two lions beneath her legs Jasper gem with Isis Terracotta oil lamp with Jupiter Ammon Scaraboid Bronze Osiris
RP RP RP
AMS B216 AMS I1835 AMS I11
Published Published Published
30th Dyn.–1st c. CE
AMS G1622
Published
LP–early RP
AMS 1221
Published
Pola (Pula, CRO) Pola (Pula, CRO) Promona (Oklaj Promina, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona? (Solin, CRO) Senia (Senj, CRO) Siscia (Sisak, CRO) Siscia (Sisak, CRO) Siscia (Sisak, CRO) Valle (Bale, CRO)
Capital of a column from the amphitheatre with Hathor Tombstone of Obelia Maximae
1st c. BCE–first half of GMS, without inv. no. Published 1st c. CE 1st c. CE End of 1st c. CE GRP PP–1st c. CE
MSU 524 AMZ, Anc. dep., without inv. no MSU 581 AMIP A5224 (ex 3227)
Published Published Published Published
Table 2. Artefacts related to various syncretistic cults discovered in Istria, Dalmatia and Pannonia (1st – early 3rd century CE) Provenance Aenona (Nin, CRO) Aenona (Nin, CRO) Aenona (Nin, CRO) Ager Polensis (Galežana, CRO) Andautonia (Ščitarjevo, CRO) Andautonia (Ščitarjevo, CRO) Asseria (Podgrađe, CRO) Aqua Iasae (Varaždinske Toplice, CRO) Bassiana (Petrovci, CRO) Bassiana (Petrovci, CRO) Bassiana (Petrovci, CRO) Burgenae (Novi Banovci, CRO)
Description
Dating
Collection inv. no.
Publication
1st–2nd c. CE
AMZd, L. 381, I.e. 7247, t.k. 4423
Published
1st–2nd c. CE
AMZd, L. 597, I.e. 7245 Published
1st–2nd c. CE
AMZd, L. 495, I.e. 7298 Published
Altar devoted to Isis-Panthea
2nd –3rd c. CE
AMIP, A41
Bronze statuette of Isis-Fortuna
1st–2nd c. CE
Oil lamp with Jupiter-Ammon head
1st–2nd c. CE
Tomb stone of Vadica Aplif(ilia) Titiue and Pasinae Voltisae, with relief dedicated to Jupiter Ammon
Mid 1st c. CE
Round oil lamp with Harpocrates and crocodile (the holy animal of Isis-Thermutis) Round oil lamp with Harpocrates and crocodile (the holy animal of Isis-Thermutis) Round oil lamp with the head of JupiterAmmon
AMZ, Anc. dep., unknown inv. no. AMZ, Anc. dep., unknown inv. no.
Published Unpublished Unpublished
AMZd, 213
Published
Relief with religious festival dedicated to Isis192 CE Fortuna
ZMVT, unknown inv. no.
Published
Fragment of the pair of lions from a marble tomb stele with a head of Serapis
AMZ, Anc. dep. A163
Published
AMZ, Anc. dep. A161
Published
AMZ, Anc. dep. A162
Published
AMZ, Anc. dep., unknown inv. no.
Published
End of 2nd–first half of 3rd c. CE End of 2nd–first Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE End of 2nd–first Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE 2nd–early 3rd Bronze statuette of Hermes-Thot c. CE
18
Mladen Tomorad: Diffusion of Ancient Egyptian Cults in Istria and Illyricum
Provenance
Description
Dating
Collection inv. no.
Publication
Colonia Iulia Parentium (Poreč, CRO)
Small bronze statuette of Isis-Fortuna
1st–2nd c. CE
MTP, unknown inv. no.
Published
Iader (Zadar, CRO)
Monolith block with head of Jupiter-Ammon
AMZd, without inv. no. AMZd, without inv. Iader (Zadar, CRO) Monolith block with head of Jupiter-Ammon 1st–2nd c. CE no. AMZd, without inv. Oil lamp from terracotta with head of Jupiter1st–2nd c. CE Iader (Zadar, CRO) no. Ammon Knin, CRO Bronze statuette of Hermes-Thots 2nd c. CE AMS, H-1885 Knin, CRO Bronze statuette of Hermes-Thots 2nd c. CE AMS, H-358 Part of marble tomb stele with a head End of 2nd–first GMKo, without inv. Koprivnica, CRO between two lions half of 3rd c. CE no. End of 2nd–first GMKr 26 Križevci, CRO Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE Middle Dalmatia, CRO Relief with Jupiter-Ammon 2nd c. CE AMS, H-3875 Municipium Raditarum (Danilo, Bronze statuette of Hermes-Thot 1st–2nd c. CE MGŠ, without inv. no. CRO) 2nd–early 3rd AMZ, Anc. dep., Mursa (Osijek, CRO) Bronze statuette of Hermes-Thot c. CE A4597 AMZ, Anc. dep., Narona (Vid kod Small round tablet with mask of Jupiter1st–2nd c. CE Brunšmid 1914 no. Metkovića, CRO) Ammon 165. Fragment of monolith block with head of 1st–2nd c. CE AMIP, A393 Pola (Pula, CRO) Jupiter-Ammon Pola (Pula, CRO) Monolith block with head of Jupiter-Ammon 1st–2nd c. CE AMIP, A391 Pola (Pula, CRO) Monolith block with head of Jupiter-Ammon 1st–2nd c. CE AMIP, A16602 Pola (Pula, CRO) Monolith block with head of Jupiter-Ammon 1st–2nd c. CE AMIP, A18593a Pola (Pula, CRO) Monolith block with head of Jupiter-Ammon 1st–2nd c. CE AMIP, A18593b ZMI, unknown inv. Proložac, CRO Bronze statuette of Isis-Fortuna 1st–2nd c. CE no. Lika, CRO Bronze statuette of Isis-Fortuna 1st–2nd c. CE AMZ, Anc. dep. A4633 Salona (Solin, CRO) Bronze statuette of Hermes-Thots 2nd c. CE AMS, H-4081 Salona (Solin, CRO) Gemma with Serapis and Jupiter-Ammon 2nd c. CE AMS, I-875 Salona (Solin, CRO) Intaglio gemma Hermanubis 2nd c. CE AMS, I-1321 Salona (Solin, CRO) Intaglio gemma Hermanubis 2nd c. CE AMS, I-863 Silbonis (Savudrija, Bronze statuette of Isis-Fortuna 1st–2nd c. CE AMIP, A4620 CRO) Sirmium (Sremska Fragment of lion head from marble tomb stele End of 2nd–first AMZ, Anc. dep., 164b Mitrovica, SR) with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE Sirmium (Sremska Fragment of lion head from marble tomb stele End of 2nd–first AMZ, Anc. dep. 165 Mitrovica, SR) with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE End of 2nd–first Sirmium (Sremska AMZ, Anc. dep. 164a Head of Serapis from marble tomb stele half of 3rd c. CE Mitrovica, SR) End of 2nd–first Sirmium (Sremska MoS, without inv. no. Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE Mitrovica, SR) End of 2nd–first Sirmium (Sremska MoS, without inv. no. Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE Mitrovica, SR) End of 2nd–first Sirmium (Sremska MoS, without inv. no. Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE Mitrovica, SR) End of 2nd–first Sirmium (Sremska MoS, without inv. no. Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE Mitrovica, SR) End of 2nd–first Sirmium (Sremska MoS, without inv. no. Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE Mitrovica, SR) End of 2nd–first Sirmium (Sremska MoS, without inv. no. Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE Mitrovica, SR)
19
1st–2nd c. CE
Published Published Published Published Published Published Unpublished Published Unpublished Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published Published
Egypt in Croatia
Provenance
Description
Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, SR) Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, SR)
End of 2nd–first MoS, without inv. no. half of 3rd c. CE End of 2nd–first MoS, without inv. no. Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE AMZ, Anc. dep., Fragment of oil lamp with Jupiter-Ammon 1st–2nd c. CE unknown inv. no. head AMZ, Anc. dep., Oil lamp with Jupiter-Ammon head 1st–2nd c. CE unknown inv. no. End of 2nd–first MSO 6148 Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis half of 3rd c. CE
Siscia (Sisak, CRO) Siscia (Sisak, CRO) Teutoburgium (Dalj, CRO)
Dating
Collection inv. no.
Part of marble tomb stele with head of Serapis
Publication Published Published Published Published Published
Table 3. Funerary steles and tombstones with various theophoric names discovered in Istria, Dalmatia and Pannonia (1st century – early 4th century CE) Provenance
Description
Aenona (Nin, CRO) or Cippus of tombstone with inscription and Iader (Zadar, CRO) theophoric name Isiodo(rae) Altar of Q(intus) Latatius Iucundus dedicated Ager Polensis to Isis Panthea (with reliefs of sistrum, cistella, (Galežana, CRO) ascia, patera, baculus, gladius, etc.) Aquae Iasae (Varaždinske Toplice, Altar dedicated to Isis and Serapis CRO) Aquae Iasae (Varaždinske Toplice, Inscription dedicated to Serapis CRO) Tomb stone of Vadica Aplif(ilia) Titiue and Asseria (Podgrađe, Pasinae Voltisae with relief dedicated to CRO) Jupiter Ammon Bigeste (Ljubuški Rectangular cippus with sistrum Humac, CRO) Clambetae (Gradina Epigraphic inscription with theophoric name near Obrovac, CRO) Apio Colonia Iulia Altar with inscription dedicated to Isis Parentium (Poreč, Augusta CRO) Dalmatia, CRO Dugopolje, CRO Iader (Zadar, CRO)
Theophoric name L. Cornelis Serapion Funeral stele of Papiriae Metellicae with theophoric name Isiada Altar with inscription dedicated Isis, Serapis, Liber, Libera, Anubis and Harpocrates
Dating
Collection inv. no.
Publication
Not dated
AMZd, without inv. no.
Published (CIL III.10004)
2n–3rd c. CE
AMIP, A41
Published
2nd–3rd c. CE
ZMVT, VT-ks78
Published
Early 3rd c. CE
ZMVT, unknown inv. no
Published
Middle of 1st c. CE
AMZd, 213
Published
69–96 CE
NMBiH, unknown inv. no.
Published
1st–3rd c. CE
PCK, without inv. no
Published
Not dated
Unknown
Published (CIL V.347)
Not dated
MNV, unknown inv. no.
Published
2nd c. CE
AMS, A5966
Published
2nd–3rd c. CE
MMV, unknown inv. no. in situ at the house of Glimb in Zadar AMO, AA-2590 AMN, unknown inv. no.
Published Published
Iader (Zadar, CRO)
Tombstone with theophoric name Isiodor(ae)
Not dated
Mursa (Osijek, CRO) Narona (Vid near Metković, CRO)
Egyptian stele of Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered
PP; RP import
Tombstone with sistra
Not dated
Alabaster bust of Isis
Second half of 2nd–first half of AMN, 279 3rd c. CE
Published
Not dated
AMIP, 339
Published
3rd c. CE
AMIP, 439
Published
Not dated
AMIP, A4118
Published
Not dated
AMIP, unknown inv. no.
Published
Narona (Vid near Metković, CRO) Pola (Pula, CRO) Pola (Pula, CRO) Pola (Pula, CRO) Pola (Pula, CRO)
Epigraphic inscription with theophoric name Isias Fragment of smaller altar with theophoric name Aeflnia Isias Fragment of epigraphic inscription of white limestone with theophoric name T. Annius Isiodorus Small limestone altar with inscription dedicated to Isis Augusta
20
Published Published
Mladen Tomorad: Diffusion of Ancient Egyptian Cults in Istria and Illyricum
Provenance Pola (Pula, CRO) Pučišća (island of Brač, CRO) River Kupa near Sisak, CRO Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Salona (Solin, CRO) Siscia (Sisak, CRO) Siscia (Sisak, CRO) Smiljanovac, CRO Varvaria (Gradina near Bribir, CRO)
Description Tomb stone of Obelia Maximae dedicated to Serapis Tombstone with epigraphic inscription with theophoric name Pomponius Serapion Tabula ansata of Volcenia Maxima dedicated to Isis Augusta
Dating
Collection inv. no.
Publication
1st c. CE
AMIP, 313
Published
Not dated
AMS, unknown inv. no.
Published
Not dated
AMZ, Anc. dep. A531
Published
AMZ, Anc. dep. 317
Published
unknown
Published
AMS, A-4144
Published
End of 3rd– Epigraphic inscription on stele of Iulia Restute beginning of 4th with Isaic features on relief c. CE Funerary stele with theophoric name Isiacae Not dated Firminae Funerary stele with theophoric name Serafio Not dated Tombstone of Aurelia Parasceue with Not dated theophoric name Aurelius Isiodorus Altar with inscription dedicated to Isis Not dated Augusta Bronze tabula ansata dedicated to Isis Augusta Not dated Sarcophagus cover of of Aurelius Satrius and Early 4th c. CE Aurelia Maxima First half of 2nd Altar with inscription dedicated to Isis c. CE
AMZ, Anc. dep. A-310 Published NMS, unknown inv. no. AMZ, A36
Published Published
AMS, A393, D86
Published
MGŠ, 11748
Published
and other archaeological remains. Some scholars (e.g. Schmid, Saria, Selem, Suić)143 in their historical interpretations have formulated hypotheses that could lead to the confirmation of such sanctuaries at Aenona, Iader, Narona and Siscia, but none of these have yet been located.144 Future archaeological excavations might well confirm the locations of these sanctuaries in Salona, where Iseum probably existed. Altars devoted to Egyptian or syncretistic gods have been found within the forum sites in Pola and Iader, which could confirm that such gods were worshipped there with other Roman and Oriental divinities. In the settlements where Egyptian temples did not exist, ‘foreigners’ and other worshippers of Egyptian divinities probably worshipped their gods in small chapels within private buildings,145 or in the temples of other gods.146 It is possible that the Isaic cults were also worshipped this way in Pola, Aenona, Iader, Narona, Siscia and Mursa.
c. CE). Such artefacts include various amulets, the stele of Pedi-hor-pa-khered from Mursa, gems discovered in Mursa and Siscia, various Romanised statuettes of the Egyptian divinities unearthed in Marsonia, Mursa, Siscia, the regions of Istria and Knin, oil lamps discovered in Poetovio, Andautonia, Aenona, Iader, and Salona) and various other artefacts (vessels, reliefs, inscriptions, etc.). The non-genuine Egyptian artefacts related to Egyptian cults could be imports from Roman Egypt, Italy, or the eastern Mediterranean during the period from the early 1st century to the middle of the 4th century CE. Some sources (e.g. bronze statues of Isis and Serapis from Salona, or the marble statue of Isis from Aenona) were previously mentioned within the context of possible sanctuaries at Salona and Aenona. There is also a possibility that they could be linked to the wealthier, higher classes of Roman citizens living in those cities; of course, this cannot be proved but it is more than likely. Other bronze statuettes of Egyptian gods and goddesses were commonly found in almost every city in this region, proving possibly that Egyptian cults were very popular among certain citizens in these and other cities. The recently discovered inscriptions, statuettes and other monuments from Andautonia, Aquae Iasae, Križevci, Požega, etc., showed that these Egyptian cults were even more popular in northern Croatia than was previously thought.
As referred to elsewhere,147 artefacts such as the Nilotic relief discovered in Salona, and the architectural decorations of Diocletian’s palace in Split (sphinxes from Karnak, one Ptolemaic statue of a prince or king, columns, etc.) should be considered as Roman ‘Aegyptiaca’.
Schmid 1936: 150-157; Saria 1937: 28; Suić 1969: 87; Selem 1980: 44; Selem 1997: 176-177. 144 Tomorad 2018: 80. 145 Pinterović 1967: 53; Selem 1997: 177; Tomorad 2018: 80. 146 For example, in Nemus in Italy worshippers of Isis shared a temple with worshippers of Diana. See in: Malaise 1972: 63-65. 147 Tomorad 2016a: 193; Tomorad 2018: 70. 143
Sanctuaries dedicated to Isis and Serapis have not yet been discovered in Croatia, but the existence of some are confirmed by various epigraphic inscriptions 21
Egypt in Croatia Abbreviations
With the rise of Christianity in the 4th century CE, all pagan religions witnessed a gradual decline in popularity. During the late 4th and early 5th centuries, all pagan cults were completely prohibited by Roman emperors,148 and their sanctuaries destroyed or converted into Christian churches.149 During the turmoil of the 5th century CE, the Isiac cults completely disappeared from this region, resulting from prohibitions, but also on account of the movements of various nomadic tribes passing through the region during late Antiquity (Goths, Huns, Avars, etc.): most likely all these destructive forces completely changed the image of the whole region. The old Roman cities and settlements were abandoned and destroyed, the old sanctuaries of pagan rituals were left to fall into ruin, and the old population significantly decreased. With the arrival of the new nations and tribes, influenced by Christianity over proceeding centuries, all old gods were completely forgotten, and, most likely, the ruins of the old pagan sanctuaries were later used as quarries for future building, explaining why next to nothing has yet been discovered.
1. Museums Archaeological Collection and Lapidarium of Dr. Grga Novak, Hvar (Croatia) = AZGN Archaeological Collection of Benko Horvat – Museum of Contemporary Art, Zagreb (Croatia) = MSU Archaeological Museum of Istria, Pula (Croatia) = AMIP Archaeological Museum Narona, Vid near Metković (Croatia) = AMN Archaeological Museum in Split, Split (Croatia) = AMS Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Zagreb (Croatia) = AMZ Archaeological Park ‘Andautonija’, Ščitarjevo (Croatia) = APA City Museum, Senj (Croatia) = GMS City Museum, Križevci (Croatia) = GMKr City Museum, Koprivnica (Croatia) = GMKo Franciscan Monastery, Košljun (Croatia) = FMK Franciscan monastery, Sinj (Croatia) = FMS Heritage Museum, Imotski (Croatia) = ZMI Heritage Museum, Varaždinske Toplice (Croatia) = ZMVT Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Austria) = KMH Landesmuseum Joanneum, Graz (Austria) = LJG Museo Archeologico Regionale ‘P. Orsi’, Siracusa (Italy) = MARPOS Museo Civico Archeologico, Pescara (Italy) = MCAP Museo Civico Archeologico, Trieste (Italy) = MCAT Museo del Territorio Parentino, Poreč (Croatia) = MTP Museo Maffeiano, Verona (IT) = MMV Museum Naniano, Venece (IT) = MNV Museum of Požega, Požega (Croatia) = MP Archaeological Museum in Osijek, Osijek (Croatia) = AMO Museum of Sombor (Serbia) = MS Museum of Srem, Sremska Mitrovica (Serbia) = MoS Museum of Szekszárd, Szekszárd (Hungary) = MS Museum of Šibenik, Šibenik (Croatia) = MGŠ National museum, Užice (Serbia) = NMU National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina) = NMBiH National Museum of Slovenia, Ljubljana (Slovenia) = NMS Perish Court, Kruševo (Croatia) = ŽDK Prähistorische Abteilung, Naturalhistorisches Museum, Vienna (Austria) = NHMV
Conclusion As we have seen, therefore, ancient Egyptian cults spread through Croatia in several phases. After the initial phase of penetration and early diffusion (7th–1st c. BCE), Isiac cults became more popular during and after the Romanisation of Istria, Dalmatia and Pannonia (late 1st c. BCE – early 3rd c. CE). The three previous Tables have identified c. 400 artefacts discovered in Croatia relating to Egyptian cults. Most are preserved in museums and private collection around Croatia, with a smaller number now in museums in Italy, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria, and Hungary. All these artefacts show that Isiac cults were very popular within Croatian regions. We can also notice many genuine ancient Egyptian artefacts (shabtis, amulets, stelae, beads, scarabs, etc.). Comparative statistical data of Egyptian artefacts discovered outside Egypt show that most artefacts so far have been discovered in France, Italy, Greece, and Croatia. At the same time, we can also note the rather lower numbers of artefacts in other parts of Illyricum (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Serbia, Kosovo). It is difficult to explain these variances, and at the same time no sanctuary has yet turned up anywhere in Illyricum. There are some clues that Isaic temples may have existed in Dalmatia and Pannonia, but so far none have been identified.
2. Countries Croatia = CRO Italy = IT Serbia = SR Bibliography Bricault, L. 2001. Atlas de la diffusion des cultes Isiaques (IVe S. AV. J.-C - IVe S. APR. J.-C.). Paris. Brunšmid, J. 1898. Arheološke bilješke iz Dalmacije i Panonije II. 2. dio. Vjesnik hrvatskog arheološkog društva, n.s. III: 172-173, Figure 76.
CTh XVI.1.2; CTh XVI.10.8; CTh XII.1.112; CTh IX.16.11; CTh XVI.10.10- XVI.10.12; CTh II.8.22; CTh XVI.10.13; CTh XVI.10.16. 149 More detail in: Tomorad 2015b. 148
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Mladen Tomorad: Diffusion of Ancient Egyptian Cults in Istria and Illyricum
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Possible Sanctuaries of Isaic Cults in Croatia Mladen Tomorad
Flavio Marullino in the first half of the 2nd c. CE. In 1935, a very unusual structure (building W) was discovered in Spodnja Hajdini on the outskirts of ancient Poetovio. The central room of this building, with dimensions 10 x 5.75 m, is surrounded by three corridors 2.80 x 3.75 m wide. In the first publication of these findings W. Schmid hypothesised about a possible temple of Jupiter integrated within the forum there.156 In 1937, B. Saria argued against this, suggesting instead the presence of a temple to Isis (Iseum).157 The poorly preserved remains seem to be very similar to the Iseum in Pompeii.158 An interesting altar with an inscription dedicated to Isidi Victrici et Serapi was discovered in 1936 very close to the location of the possible Egyptian temple.159 This discovery led P. Selem to proclaim the existence of a temple of Isis and Serapis at Spodnja Hajdina in Poetovio.160 Was this temple the site where T. Flavio Martiale and his son Flavio Marullino were priests of Egyptian divinities? For now, this cannot be confirmed one way or the other.
Sanctuaries of Egyptian divinities are rarely archaeologically documented within the territory of Illyricum and Pannonia. The best known Iseum in Pannonia was discovered in the middle of 1950s in Savaria (today’s Szombathely in Hungary) on the Danube limes of the Roman Empire;150 according to the latest research it was probably erected in the 2nd c. CE.151 In 2002 another Iseum was discovered in Scarbantia (Sopron, Hungary) in the area later occupied by the Benedictine (former Franciscan) Monastery.152 In many other cases later Christian churches and monasteries were built on or around previous pagan shrines and sanctuaries, and Sopron is thus a good example of such practice. An Egyptian sanctuary at the very important military base camp of Carnuntum has not yet been discovered, but it surely existed – or at least a sanctuary of Serapis, and perhaps another of Isis. According to research into the monumental building inscription from the reign of Caracalla (213 CE), it has been proven that an organised collegium of Egyptian deities existed in Carnuntum.153 L. Bricault has suggested that similar shrines or temples were erected in more than 210 other cities within the Roman Empire.154
Two epigraphic documents from Pescara confirm the existence of sanctuaries of Isis161 and Serapis162 in Salona (Solin) in the 1st or 2nd c. CE. On one inscription (CIL IX.3337) the ship owner Lucius Cassio Hermodoro is mentioned as a member of the Serapis and Isis collegium at Salona. A considerable number of genuine ancient Egyptian artefacts (shabtis, scarabs, amulets, etc.) have been discovered in Salona and its surroundings, along with various statues or statuettes of Isis, Serapis, and other Egyptian divinities: they were probably connected with the worshippers of Isaic collegiums there. Around 1820 in Salona two bronze statues of Isis and Serapis were found, probably somewhere near the location of Isaic sanctuaries.163 Sadly, as with most of the other artefacts discovered in the 19th century, we do not know the exact location of the finds.
Common sanctuaries, such as those to Isis (Iseum) and Serapis (Serapeum), have not yet been discovered in Istria and the western Balkan region, but at least the existence of some are confirmed. In previous historical interpretations, historians have put forward hypotheses that could lead to confirmation of sanctuaries of Egyptian gods in Aenona, Iader, Salona, Narona, Siscia and Poetovio, but none have so far been located. Future archaeological excavations might well confirm temples to Isis and Serapis in Poetovio and Salona, where both probably existed. An epigraphic inscription from Poetovio155 confirms the existence of the Isaic priests T. Flavio Martiale and his son
Schmid 1936: 150-157. Saria 1937: 28. Malaisse 1972: 239-242. 159 Ptuj: Ptuj Regional Museum, 31. IlJug 269. 160 Selem 1980: 44; Selem 1997: 176-177. 161 Atern(i?) qui fuit in colle(egio) Isid(is). CIL IX.3338. 162 L. Cassio Hermo / doro nauclero / qui erat in colleg(io) / Serapis Salon(itano). Per // freta, per maria tra / iectus saepe per und(as) / qui non debuerat/obitus remanere / in Atern(o), set mecum // coniunx si vivere / nolueras, at Styga / perpetua val rate / funerea utinam / tecu(m) comitata // fuisse(m). Ulpia Candi / da domu Salon(itana) con(iugi) / b(ene) m(erenti) p(osuit). CIL IX.3337. 163 Wien: Kunsthistoriches Museum, VI.395. Drexler 1890: 41-42; Selem 1997: 70-73, nos. 2.5 and 2.6. 156 157
Szentléleky 1959. Iseum Savariense. http://www.iseumsavariense.hu/hu/a-savariaiiseum, accessed May 2, 2016. For recent Iseum in Savaria, see in: Mezős 2002: 129-145; Sosztarits 2002: 163-172; Szentléleky 2002: 193-199; Sosztarits and Balázs 2016: 165-176. 152 Mráv and Gabrieli 2011: 201-238. 153 Weber 1985: 649; Jobst 1998: 38. 154 Bricault 2005: 256-257. 155 Isidi / Aug(ustae) / Sacrum / Marti / alis / Firmini / Q. Sabini / Verani /t(ertiae?) p(artis?) / conduc(toris) / portori / Illyrici/ar[k]ari vic(arius) / voto / suscepto / d(onum) d(at) / sac(erdotius) T. Fl(avio) / Martiale / et Fl(avio) Marul / lino fil(io). CIL III.4015. 150
158
151
26
Mladen Tomorad: Possible Sanctuaries of Isaic Cults in Croatia The white marble statue of Isis, dated to the 1st c. CE,164 probably stood in some temple in Aenona (Nin). Whether this was an Iseum, or some temple dedicated to various other gods of the Roman pantheon, is very hard to confirm; unfortunately, there is no documentation on the discovery, including exactly where in Nin it was discovered in the 19th century. M. Gorenc connects it with an Augusteum near the Aenona forum.165 M. Suić has proposed the existence of a possible temple outside the city, near the Adriatic coast.166 No new archaeological evidence has surfaced within the last fifty years, and, therefore, we still cannot confirm the existence of a temple to Isis temple, or smaller sanctuary, in Aenona, as suggested by Suić in 1969.
Mezős, T. 2002. A new concept for the Reconstruction of the Iseum of Szombathely, in: H. Győry and Z. Mráv (eds), Aegyptus et Pannonia 1 – Acta Sympsii anno 2000: 129-145. Budapest. Mráv, Z. and Gabrieli, G. 2011. A Scarbantiai Iseum és feliratos emlékei. Arrabona 49/1: 208-213. Pinterović, D. 1967. Nove rimske skulpture u Muzeju Slavonije. Osječki zbornik XI: 67-86. Saria, B. 1937. Spomeniki egiptovskih božanstev v Poetoviju. Časopis za zgodovino in narodopisje XXXII: 20-28. Schmid, W. 1936. Poetovio. Raziskavanja Muzejskeg društva v Ptuju 1935. Časopis za zgodovino in narodopisje XXX/3: 150-157. Selem, P. 1980. Les Religions orientales dans la Pannonie Romaine partie en Yougoslavie. Leiden. Selem, P. 1997. Izidin trag: egipatski kultni spomenici u rimskom Iliriku. Split. Sosztarits, O. 2002. Topographische und chronologischen Problemen des Iseums von Savaria, in: H. Györy and Z. Mráv (eds), Aegyptus et Pannonia 1 – Acta Sympsii anno 2000: 163-172. Budapest. Sosztarits, O. and Balázs, P. 2016. Die neuzeitliche Geschichte des Iseum Savariense, in: H. Győry and Á. Szabó (eds), Aegyptus et Pannonia V. – Acta Symposii anno 2008: 165-176. Budapest. Suić, M. 1969. Antički Nin (Aenona) i njegovi spomenici. Radovi Instituta JAZU u Zadru 16-17: 61-104. Szentléleky, T. 1959. Die Ausgrabungen des IsisHeiligtums von Savaria. Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 7: 195-200. Szentléleky, T. 2002. Einige wichtige Fragen im Zusammenhang mit der Bearbeitung des Iseums von Savaria, in: H. Györy and Z. Mráv (eds), Aegyptus et Pannonia 1 – Acta Sympsii anno 2000: 193-199. Budapest. Tomorad, M. 2018. Various manifestations of Isis cult in the region of Istria, Illyricum and Pannonia and its diffusion to the Central European Region (2nd c. B.C. – 4th c. A.D.). Shodoznanvstvo 81: 58-99. Weber, E. 1985. Drei Inschriften aus dem Bereich der Austria Romana 1: Ein Serapisheiligtum in Carnuntum, in: E. Weber and G. Dobesch (eds), Romische Geschichte, Altertumskunde und Epigraphik. Festschrift fur Artur Betz: 650-658. Wien.
In nearby Iader (Zadar) several Egyptian divinities were worshipped, but for now we cannot confirm the existence of an Egyptian temple. Altars devoted to Egyptian or syncretistic gods were discovered in the forum of Pola and at Iader, which probably means that Isaic divinities were worshipped along with other Roman and Oriental gods and goddesses. In settlements where Egyptian temples were not built, the mystery cults were worshipped in small chapels within private buildings.167 In Italy and the western provinces of the Roman Empire, various Oriental and Roman cults sometimes shared temples and other sanctuaries.168 There is no reason why such a practice could not have existed in Roman cities in Croatia, where Isaic collegiums have as yet still not been confirmed on inscriptions (e.g. Pola, Iader, Narona, Siscia, Mursa, and Aenona). Bibliography Bricault, L. 2005. Iseum et Serapeum, in: Thesaurus cultus et rituum antiquorum (ThesCRA) IV: Cult places representation of cult places: 251-259. Los Angeles. Drexler, W. 1890. Des Cultus der ägyptischen Gottheiten in den Donauländer, Mythologischen Beiträge. Leipzig. Gorenc, M. (ed.) 1952. Antikna skulptura u Hrvatskoj. Zagreb. Jobst, H. 1998. The cult of the Oriental deities in Carnuntum, in: F. Jenő (ed.), Religions and Cults in Pannonia: 37-42. Szkesfhervár. Malaisse, M. 1972. Les conditions de pénétration et de diffusion des cultes égyptiens en Italie. Leiden.
Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Antique Department, 34. Gorenc 1952: 51. 166 Suić 1969: 87. 167 Pinterović 1967: 53; Selem 1997: 177. 168 Malaise 1972: 63-65. 164 165
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Professions Related to the Diffusion of Egyptian Cults in Croatia and Surrounding Regions (Central and South-Eastern Europe) Mladen Tomorad Introduction
Drava and Danube. Mountain regions and inland areas away from the main roads and rivers were not much influenced by the spread of these cults, and evidence of them rarely appears. This is usually associated with the degree of Romanisation in those territories beyond busy border areas and was typical for the whole Roman Empire.
During the last 150 years of research, epigraphical and other evidence has revealed details of individuals and groups related to the diffusion of Isaic cults, their occupations, and, in rare cases, their names and/or ethnicities (e.g. Orientals, Egyptians, Alexandrinus, etc.). These inscriptions and other archaeological sources have confirmed that those most associated with the spread of Egyptian cults around the Mediterranean world and Roman Empire were sailors, merchants, soldiers, as well as Roman customs and administration officials. In some instances, Roman citizens, slaves and freedmen of unknown professions were also worshippers of Egyptian cults, but these individuals are not so relevant for this present discussion.
Sailors Of course, rivers and seas provided the common means of communication in the ancient world. Soldiers and sailors on various ships travelled around and beyond the Mediterranean. As frequent travellers they were central to the spreading of Egyptian cults to the borders of the Roman Empire. For the regions of Istria, Dalmatia and Pannonia, the most important military and merchant fleets were stationed in the bay of Naples (classis Misensis)170 and Ravenna (classis Ravennas),171 while the main centres of the Pannonian river fleet (classis Pannonica) were stationed in Siscia, Mursa and Sirmium.172 During the Roman Empire, half of the sailors recruited for the most important Imperial fleets based in Misenum and Ravenna came from Egypt, Illyricum, and the Hellenistic east.173 The sailors and lower ranks were mostly fre and freedmen, who became veterans after serving. These fleets were also crewed by prisoners, slaves and freedman who worked as galley-rowers.174
Roman roads and trade routes in the region of Croatia In the regions of Istria and Illyricum the Romans established several transit roads, including those linking: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Aquileia–Emona–Siscia–Mursa–Sirmium–Singidunum–Naissus–Serdica169 Aquileia–Emona–Celeia-Aquincum Aquileia–Emona–Celeia–Savaria–Vindobona Aquileia–Senia–Iader–Salona–Narona–Epidaurum
Along these roads and through the main ports (e.g. Aquileia, Ravenna, Salona), sailors, merchants, soldiers and various officials spread the beliefs of the Isaic cults. Commerce and probably the first penetration of Egyptian cults began in the second half of 3rd c. BCE, but the real diffusion of these started with the Romanisation of Illyricum and Istria, both conquered during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. Ancient Egyptian mystery and syncretistic cults left traces in almost every important urban and administrative centre in Istria, Dalmatia and Pannonia. A map finds (Map 1) shows us that such cults were the most common along the important trading routes (the coastal cities of the eastern Adriatic, and around the main trade routes along the important rivers of Pannonia – the Sava,
The Roman Empire was, of course, very cosmopolitan, with many different religions and cults; it is unsurprising, therefore, that these recruits and sailors brought their own religious beliefs to the ports and settlements where their ships were based. Sailors in The Classis Misensis was the largest military squadron in the Roman Empire, with an imperial flagship. It had almost 10,000 men on 50 ships, mostly triremes, but there were also quadriremes, quinquremes and six. Casson 1991: 186; Tomorad 2005a: 245. 171 The headquarters for the Classis Ravennas was on the north-west coast of the Adriatic, several kilometers from Ravenna. It had almost 5000 men onboard triremes. Tomorad 2005a: 246. 172 Starr 1993: 138-141; Rostovtzeff 1957: 244. 173 Most came from Egypt (Aegyptus), the Hellenistic East (Syria, Macedonia, Achaea, Asia), and some nearby provinces (Italia, Sardinia, Africa, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Dacia, Moesia and Thracia). For example, natione Aegyptus or Aegyptii, natione Dalmata, natione Alexandrian, etc. CIL X, CIL XI; Tomorad 2005a; 244-248; Tomorad 2005b: 442, 447-448. 174 Starr 1993: 69-70. 170
169 For a very detailed study of Roman roads in southern Pannonia, see in: Gračanin 2010: 9-69.
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Mladen Tomorad: Professions Related to the Diffusion of Egyptian Cults in Croatia
the Roman navy worshipped several cults and gods, the most popular being the sea gods Neptune or Poseidon, and the Egyptian deities Isis and Serapis.175 Soldiers and sailors, of course, mostly believed that the sea gods could protect them on their travels from famine or tempest.176 In various rituals brought from Egypt, and spread throughout the Mediterranean, Isis was worshiped as ‘Mother of the Pharaoh’, ‘Mistress of Heaven’, ‘Goddess of Eternity and Resurrection’, and ‘life-giver’. From the 3rd c. BCE onwards, she was revered as ‘Ruler (or Mistress) of the Sea’ (Pelagia), holding in her hands a billowing sail.177 Sailors worshiped Isis as guardian, ship protector, and guide.178 The ancient author Aelius Aristides wrote that Serapis ‘is great on the sea, and both merchantmen and warcraft are guided by him’,179 while an inscription from Memphis explains why Isis was worshipped by sailors: ‘(...) I invented fishing and seafaring. (...) I am the Mistress of rivers, winds and sea. (…) I am the Mistress of war. I am Mistress of the thunderbolt. I calm and rock the sea. (...) I am the Mistress of seamanship. I make the navigable unnavigable whenever I want’.180
make assumptions based on their theophoric names, most of which have been found at Ostia and Misenum.186 Two very important epigraphic inscriptions from the 1st c. CE are linked with the Adriatic region. These were discovered on the western Adriatic coast at Auternum Vestinorum. On one of them Lucius Cassius Hermodorus is mentioned as a member of the collegium Serapis187 at Salona; the Salona collegium Isidis is also mentioned on another inscription fragment.188 It seems that Lucius Cassius Hermodorus was a worshipper of the Egyptian cults; he was a well-known sailor, or owner of a merchant ship that sailed on both sides of the Adriatic.189 Another inscription bearing the name of Hermodorus was also discovered elsewhere in the Empire, and also seems to be connected to shipping at Alexandria.190 Was he a settler from Egypt or a native Egyptian? It is hard to prove, but possible. Merchants Commercial trade was intensive all over the Mediterranean and other territories of the Roman Empire. Merchants were highly mobile and commonly brought with them new ideas and religious beliefs from various provinces of the Empire. During the first centuries CE, many merchants were slaves, or freedmen, coming originally from Egypt and the Orient. Many epigraphical sources reveal that some worked, or even owned, shops in the cities.191
Sailors in Roman times recorded the names of their ships on their tombstones. The most common practice in Greco-Roman times was to give their vessels the names of mythological figures or divinities who would then protect both ships and cargoes from any danger at the sea. At Classis Misensis, ships occasionally bore names relating to Egypt and her gods (e.g. Nilo, Iside and Iove et Serapion),181 with figureheads and carved on the bows.182
Merchant ships from Classis Alexandriana constantly supplied Rome with grain from Egypt,192 and it is highly likely that the sailors on these ships193 spread beliefs in Egyptian divinities to Italy and other provinces of the Empire. The major centres for merchant fleets, with trading vessels large and small, in central and south Europe were at Ostia, Aquileia, Salona and Naples, with sailors coming from the Hellenistic East and Egypt.
According to surviving sources from Italy, we know that the Roman Imperial fleet included many worshippers of Isis and Serapis. In the bay of Naples sailors celebrated the navigium Isidis at the start of the sailing season.183 Serapis was worshipped by family members as conservatori of sailors and soldiers.184 Isis was usually called Regina or Augusta; her iconography usually represents her with a sistrum in her hand.185
The most frequent were: Serapa, Serapion, Serapias, Serapia and Isiodorus. CIL X, nos. 469, 886, 2077, 2237, 2511, 3444, 3460, 3574, 3596, 3608, 3638; CIL XI.327; AE 1896, n. 0021; AE 1910, n. 0036; AE 1929, n. 0146. One of the leaders of the squadron in Classis Misensis bore the common theophoric name Isiodorus. CIL X.3352. Also in Misenum lived Julia Serapias, a sailor’s daughter. CIL X.3596. The Egyptian woman Tesneus Serapias, who had a son, Serapion, was the wife of a sailor in Classis Misensis. CIL X.3638. 187 CIL IX.3337 = SIRIS 475, 677 = RICIS 615/0401. 188 CIL IX.3338. 189 Tomorad 2015b: 447; Tomorad 2018: 81. 190 CIL III.4796; Selem 1972: 86. 191 Rostovtzeff 1957: 190. 192 Casson 1991: 207-212; Casson 1994: 129; Tomorad 2005a: 248; Tomorad 2005b: 443. 193 One of the large grain ships used on the route between Alexandria and Italy was called the Isis. She was built in the 2nd century CE in the form of a huge Roman merchantman and equipped as a ‘super freighter’. Her description was preserved by the ancient writer Lucian, who saw her when he was in Athens. Casson 1991: 208-209. A wall painting at Ostia depicted another (small) cargo vessel called Isis Giminiana. She was used in the grain trade in the 2nd or 3rd century CE. Vatican: Museo Vaticani. 186
We are usually unable to prove any religious affiliation of the sailors and members of their families, but we can Tomorad 2005a: 249. Tomorad 2005a: 249. 177 Tomorad 2005a: 249. 178 Tomorad 2005a: 249. 179 Aristid. Or. 45.23; Tomorad 2005a: 249. 180 IG XII, Suppl. 14; Beard, North and Price 1998 II: 297-298; Tomorad 2005a: 249-250. 181 CIL VI nos. 3578, 3615, 3618, 3640; Tomorad 2015a: 252. 182 Tomorad 2005a: 252. One of the ships in the Athenian fleet bore the name of the Egyptian god Ammon. P. Oxy. 2415.24, 2415.34, 2415.84. One vessel of the Nile fleet was called Serapis, and one type of cargo boat was called Isairon. IG XII 8.584; 183 Frescos from Herculaneum are now preserved in the Museo Archaeologico Nazionale in Naples. Tomorad 2005a: 250. 184 CIL X.571. 185 CIL X nos. 351, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 350, 572, 574. 175 176
29
Egypt in Croatia These fleets carried cargoes all over the Roman world, sailing from East to West and from South to North, and sometimes even beyond the sea-borders of the Empire.194
with the diffusion of the worship of Oriental and the Egyptian divinities from soldier (father-husband) to brother, sister, wife and children. Such relations were probably very common in some regions of the Empire.
Vessels frequently moved up and down both coasts of the Adriatic with Egyptian sailors on board. Plutarch195 wrote about one Thamus, steersman onboard of one of Tiberius’ ships, who sailed through the Mediterranean and up to the coast of Epirus, and then perhaps around the Adriatic.
Not many epigraphic inscriptions have been discovered in the territory of Illyricum and nearby provinces that can prove without doubt that soldiers worshipped Egyptian cults, but this does not mean that they may have existed. We know that soldiers certainly built the Mithreum and also, perhaps, the not yet discovered Iseum in Poetovio.203 They were probably connected with other sanctuaries of Egyptian divinities in Pannonia (e.g. the Iseum in Savaria).204
In Savaria (Pannonia Superior) there is evidence of a merchant called Barbarus, probably a Romanised native from Aquileia, who had the title of pontifex in the cult of Isis.196 According to earlier studies by Wessetzky197 and Balla,198 it seems that Savaria, as the most important centre of the cult of Isis in Pannonia Superior, was a focal point, where merchants and citizens were important communicators of Isaic cults.
The epigraphic inscription of Cneius Pompeius Politanus, probably from the late 2nd or early 3rd c. CE, is the only military inscription found in the eastern borders of Dalmatia (Čačak (Serbia) that connects a Roman soldier with the cults of Serapis and Isis.205 In the military garrison at Teutoburgium, the cornice of a sepulchral stele with a pair of lions and the head of Serapis with kalathos was discovered, but almost the whole inscription on it is sadly lost. Pinterović,206 and later Selem,207 connected it with one of the officers of ale II Aravacorum (c. 85 CE) or ale I Civium romanorum (c. 101 to 107 CE), who were stationed in Teutoburgium. Similar monuments are known across the whole region of Pannonia (in Austria, Slovenia, Hungary, Croatia, and Serbia).208 The bronze bust of Zeus Serapis discovered at Teutoburgium could perhaps be related to Roman soldiers.209
Soldiers To date, almost every history of Roman religion has viewed Roman soldiers and their officers as the most likely source of the spread of various Oriental (Mithras, Cybele, Jupiter Dolichenus, etc.) and Egyptian cults to all corners of the Roman Empire. The major military centres in Illyricum and Pannonia were stationed on the Sava at Siscia and Sirmium, on the Drava at Poetovio and Mursa, and on the Danube at Vindobona, Carnuntum, Brigetio, Aquincum, Singidunum, Viminacium, Incernisa, and Ratiaria. These centres were also the sites where Egyptian cults most commonly appeared, and where soldiers from Oriental and North African provinces were mostly stationed.199
Egyptian and other Oriental cults appeared along the northern limes at Aquincum (Pannonia Inferior) from the early 2nd century CE.210 In Vindobona (Pannonia Superior) an epigraphic inscription documents that L. Quirinalis Maximus, military tribune of Legio X Gemina dedicated two inscriptions to I. O. M. Serapidi.211 Another military tribune, M. Porcius Verus, served in the Cohors Milliaria Hemesenorum at Intercisa by the end of the 2nd
The serving soldiers and officers from the Roman legions, as well as auxiliary troops and veterans, commonly worshipped Mithras, Isis and Serapis; these deities appear on their surviving tombstones and other commemorative inscriptions.200 Some of these men had families (wives and children) who also worshipped the same cults as their menfolk.201 In the region of Pannonia we can find traces of the formation of these families among the soldiers of some garrisons.202 Such connections could easily help
Selem 1972: 83; Tomorad 2018: 83. Tomorad 2018: 83. 205 Serapi et Isidi / Cn(eius) Pomp(eius) / Politanus / trib(unus) coh(ortis) II (mil. Delm). Vulić 1948: 253, no. 494; Alföldy 1962: 280, 282-283, 294; Perc 1968: 217, no. 65; Vidman 1969: 679a; Cambi 1971: 103; Selem 1972: 27 no. 14; Selem 1997: 120 no. 7.1. 206 Pinterović dated it to the late 1st c. CE. Pinterović 1958: 38-40. 207 Selem dated it to the early 2nd c. CE. Selem 1972: 83; Selem 1980: 23-24 no. 38; Selem 1997: 145 no. 9.6. 208 Tomorad 2018: 83. 209 Tomorad 2018: 83. 210 Topál 2003: 269. 211 I. O. M. Serapidi / pro salute Imp. L. Sept. Severi / pii Pertinac. Aug. Arabici / Aiaden perthici Maximi et / Imp. M. Aureli Antonini Aug. / (i. f.) L. Quirinalis Maximus / trib. Milit. Leg. X. gem / p. f. v. s. l. L. M. CIL III.4560. I. O. M. Sarapidi idem / Maximus. CIL III.4561. 203 204
Tomorad 2005a: 248. Plut. De Def. or. 17c. 196 Tomorad 2005b: 447. 197 Wessetzky 1961: 20. 198 Balla 1963: 225-237. 199 Barkócza 1964, 285-290. 200 Hofmann 1905; Schober 1923. 201 Saller and Shaw 1984: 124-156. 202 Forni 1953, 216-217 (Legio I Adiutrix), 228-229 (Legio X Gemina), 230231 (Legio XIV Gemina), 236 (Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix); Saller and Shaw 1984: 144. 194 195
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Mladen Tomorad: Professions Related to the Diffusion of Egyptian Cults in Croatia
or first half of the 3rd c. CE; he dedicated his inscription to Isis and Serapis.212
to Q. Sabinius Veranus, one of the three lease-holders219 (conductores) of portori Illyrici in Poetovio in the reign of Antonini Pius.220 He dedicated this inscription to Isis Augusta when the Isaic priests in Poetovio were Titus Flavius Martiale and his son Flavio Marullino. This is also the only document which might confirm the existence of an Isaic sanctuary in Poetovio. Fructus, Servus vilicus221 to the same Q. Sabinius Veranus, dedicated another inscription from Poetovio to Isis Myrionimae.222 In the first half of the 3rd c. C.E., during the reign of Alexander Severus, Epaproditus tabularius dispensatora in Poetovio, dedicated another inscription223 to Serapi Augusto. The Oriental name Epaphroditus, both conductoris, are known from two other inscriptions. The first was found at Poetovio224 and the other at Nicopolis ad Istrum225 in Moesia Inferior.
Soldiers from the Oriental provinces of the Roman Empire were stationed along the Pannonian limes in garrisons in Carnuntum, Brigetio, Aquincum, Ulesia Castra, and Intercisa. They often have oriental names, e.g. Faladus, Paladus, Alados, Afalados, Bassus, etc.213 Any or all of these men could have been responsible for importing Oriental and Egyptian cults. According to the previously cited research by D. Pinterović,214 we know that substantial numbers of Roman soldiers from Africa and the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire served in legions and auxiliary troops in Pannonia, or made their homes as veterans in the various towns in the region of the southern Pannonia (Siscia, Marsonia, Mursa, Cibalae, Sirmium, etc.).215
The last epigraphic document from Poetovio is a tabula ansata with an inscription from Apollinaris, who was probably a slave, and who dedicated it to Isis.226 We have found another customs official with the name Apollinarius in Dacia; he also dedicated an inscription to Isis.227 Was he is one and the same Apollinarius from Poetovio is hard to determine, but this inscription certainly well documents the popularity of the Isis cult among customs officials.
In Singidunum, on the border between Pannonia and Moesia Superior, we have one veteran soldier who dedicated his inscription to Isis.216 In the same province we find L. Mantennius Sabinus, legatus consularis in 229 CE, who was the son of the prefect of Egypt around 194 CE.217 We cannot prove that he or his family helped in the diffusion of Egyptian cults, but such a possibility surely exists.
Sarmentius Geminus dedicated one inscription from Senia to Serapis.228 P. Selem suggested that he was an Oriental slave who worked in a customs station at Senia, on the basis that the other dedicands of the deities Mithras, Serapis and Isis in this region were certainly customs officials.229 Selem also connected Orientals from Aquileia and Tergeste, probably the most important centres of Oriental cults in the northern Adriatic region, with northern Dalmatia.
Roman officials Epigraphic sources document the very common worship of Oriental and Egyptian cults among various ranks of Roman bureaucracy. Near the borders of the provinces we find customs officials serving in stations of Publicum Portorii Illyrici. Such customs stations were placed along the eastern region of the Alps, the coastline of the eastern Adriatic, and along the great rivers – the Sava, Drava and Danube – in the Pannonian region. The lower-ranked Roman custom officials, usually freedmen and slaves, worked in these stations and commonly worshipped Serapis, Isis, and other Oriental cults.
Selem also determined a probable diffusion route for Egyptian cults during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, running from Aquileia, through Tergeste and Senia to the north to Poetovio, or along the east Adriatic coast to the south.230
The largest numbers of inscriptions related to Oriental cults in this region were found along the roads from Aquleia to Poetovio and Senia. In Poetovio, two inscriptions related to Roman customs officials dedicated to Isis and Serapis are known. The dedicand of the first218 was Martialis, working as vicarius arcarius
/ voto / suscepto / d(onum) d(at) / sac(erdotibus) T. Fl(avio) / Martiale/et Fl(avio) Marul/lino fil(io). CIL III.4015. 219 The other two were A. Caius Antoninus Rufius and Titus Julius Saturninus. Selem 1972: 74. 220 Selem 1972: 72; Selem 1997: 128 no. 8.7. 221 Selem 1972: 72; Selem 1997: 128 no. 8.7. 222 [Is]idi / [Mi]rio[ny]mae / [pro] Fructo / [Sabi]ni Verani / [co]nduct(oris). CIL III.4017. 223 Serapi / Aug(usto) / sacrum / Epap(h)roditus / Alexandri / Aug(usti) disp(ensatoris) / tabularius / v(otum) s(olvit) l(iebens) m(erito). CIL III.4044. 224 CIL III.15184. 225 CIL III.7434. 226 Apollinar(is) / Isid(i) v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito). CIL III.15185. 227 CIL III.7837. 228 Sarmentius / Geminus / Sarapidi deo sancto. CIL III.15092. 229 Selem 1972: 74. 230 Selem 1972: 74-77.
Alföldy 1965: 87-90. Balla 1963: 226-229; Póczy 2002: 166, 168-169. 214 Pinterović 1967: 33. 215 Tomorad 2018: 84. 216 D[ea]e (vel Isidi) Nor[e]ia[e] sacrum p[r]o s[al]u[e] d(ominorum) n(ostrorum) Diocleti[an] i et Maximiniani Aug(ustorum) ordo[a]m[pl] is[s(imus)?] co[l(oniae)] S[i]ng(iduni) per M(arcos) Aur(elios) .... et Ssosonem II viros, curante Simplicio vet(erano), d(ominis) n(ostris) Diocletiono [III] et Ma[x]imiano Aug(ustis) cos. CIL III.1660. 217 Stein 1940: 96. 218 Isidi / Aug(ustae) / Sacrum / Marti/alis / Firmini / Q. Sabini / Verani / t(ertiae?) p(artis?) / conduc(toris) / portori / Illyrici / ar[k]ari vic(arius) 212 213
31
Egypt in Croatia Virinum239 and Mediolanum.240 These were dedicated by Ulb. Gaianus, as praefectus vehiculorum, perhaps the same individual from Poetovio who served as iuridicus Alexandreae in 167 CE.241
No inscriptions dedicated to Egyptian cults have yet to be found in the other important customs stations in this region (Salona, Aequum, Siscia, Sirmium). However, we have an inscription in Guberevac (Moesia Superior), near the limes junction of the three Roman provinces (Pannonia Inferior, Moesia Superior and Dalmatia), where an individual with the theophoric name Ision served as a servus villicus for vertigal Illyricum.231 One bronze statue of Isis Fortuna was also discovered in this small station that could well prove the worship of Isaic cults in that region. Although P. Lisičar stated that it was found in 1956,232 it seems that he was wrong and that it was found two years earlier, in 1954, and acquired by the museum the same year.233
In Virinum (Noricum), other public officials – Q. Septueius Clementis, Ti. Claudius Heraclaea, Cn. Octavius Secundus and Q. Septueius Valens – who served as conductoris ferariarum there, dedicated inscriptions to Isis.242 The dates, around the middle of the 2nd c. CE, seems right, and might support a personal hypothesis that the various public officials could have spread Isaic cults to Illyricum and Pannonia directly from Egypt.243 On the eastern borders of Dalmatia, in Municipium S., an inscription was found dedicated to Isis and Serapis.244 It was created by the curator rei publicae Marcus Ulpius Gellianus, who served in at least five locations in Dalmatia (Arbensium, Metlensium, Splonistarum, Malvesatium and Municipium S.). This inscription was dated from the 2nd to the early 3rd c. CE.
Along with the various custom officials, the worship of Oriental and Egyptian cults was very popular among higher-ranked public officials. During their careers they often served various regions and provinces of the Roman Empire, usually as procurator or legatus Augusti pro praetore. In the 2nd century CE, several legatii served before and after their service in Africa, Syria, and other Oriental provinces in Pannonia.234
In Ephesus we have a very interesting procurator T. Claudio T. f. Papiria Xenophonti, who also served as procurator in Africa, Asia, Illyricum (Moesia Inferiorum, Pannonia, and Dalmatia), Dacia and Egypt.245 He could easily have introduced Egyptian cults to the provinces he was stationed in, however we have no proof yet that he was an adherent himself.
It is known that a certain legatus Augusti pro praetore worshipped Neptun Serapis in Pannonia Infererior in the early 3rd c. CE:235 his inscription was discovered in Csiv near Vörösvar in Hungary. This unnamed legatus was, according studies undertaken by Alföldy and Wessetzky, later identified as Avitianus, who also served in Rome in 218 CE.236 This last example can help with the possibility that some of previously mentioned public officials who served in Pannonia were possibly introduced into the Isaic mystery cults during their service in Africa, Egypt and the East, and that later they were able to spread their new beliefs to Illyricum and Pannonia.237
In Pola an inscription has been found dedicated to Isis from Lucius Valerius Memor,246 who served as a priest of the cult of Augustus. Another individual possibly responsible for any diffusion could have been T. Aurelius Calpurnianus Apollonides, a procurator in Alexandria, Egypt, Histria, Dalmatia, Thracia and Moesia Inferior in the middle of the 2nd c. CE.247
In Poetovio, Caius Ulpius Aurelius Gaianus, who might have served as praefectus vechiculorum, dedicated an inscription to Isis and Serapis; it was discovered in Spojdna Hajdina in Ptuj on 26 November 1936.238 B. Saria compared it with two identical inscriptions from
During the period of Romanisation in Illyricum certain native inhabitants started to worship the cult of Isis. One inscription from Bigeste displays affection and worship for the goddess, represented in a relief of an Isaic sistrum.248
CIL III.8163. Lisičar 1961: 129-130. 233 Beograd: National museum, 2778/III. Veličković 1972: 62 no. 92; Anđelković 1991, 68 fn. 22. 234 E.g. P. Afranius Flavius, Q. Marcius Turbo Gallonius Fronto Pulicius Severus Iulius Priscus, M. Nonius Macrinus, C. Vettius Sabinianus, Claudius Maximus, M. Pontiums Laelianus, C. Vettius Sabinianus, Julius Fidus Aquila, T. Claudisu Xenophon during the 2nd c. CE. Stein 1940: 14-16, 31, 78-79; Fitz 1963: 249-253, 258-259, 306-311, 318-319, 322-324. 235 Iovi Optimo M. / Neptuno Serapi(di) / pro salute victoria / et perpetuitate / Imp. Caesaris / M. Aureli ... p. Fel/licis Aug ... / ... us Antianus (leg) / eius pr. Prov. Pann. Inf. CIL III.3637. 236 Wessetzky 1961: 51-52. 237 Tomorad 2018: 87. 238 C(aius) Ul(pius) Aur(elius) / Caianu[s] / I(sidi) V(ictrici) et Ser(api) / pro salu[te] / [s]ua suorum[q(eue)] / omniu[m] / v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito). Saria 1937: 23 no. 7.
CIL III.4802. CIL V.5797. 241 Saria 1937: 23; Selem 1972: 80-81. 242 CIL III.4809. 243 Tomorad 2018: 87. 244 Serapidi / et Isidi M(arcus) / Ulp(ius) Gellia/nus eq(ues) r(omanus) / cur(ator) Arben/si(um) Metlensi(um) / Splonista(rum) / Malvesari(um). Sergejevski 1940: 20-22 no. 4. 245 CIL III.6575. 246 Isidi sacrum ex monit eius d(ono) d(edit) L(ucius) Valerius Memor VI vir Aug(salis) l(ocus) d(atus) p(ublice). CIL V.265. 247 Stein 1940: 113. 248 T. Flavio Blod f(ilio) / Plasso patri pientissimo an(no) L / et Flaviae Tattae matri / an(no) XXXX bene meritae / et Flavio Epicado fratri / anno XII et. T. Flavio Laedion / aed(ile) IIII vir(o) i(ure) d(icunod) Narona Laedio f(ecit) vivi sibi et s(uis) f(illius). Sergejevski 1947: 16-17.
231
239
232
240
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Mladen Tomorad: Professions Related to the Diffusion of Egyptian Cults in Croatia
In most cases, epigraphic inscriptions dedicated to Isaic cults were unrelated to specific professions. Several examples have been found at sites in Galežana,249 Pola,250 Senia,251 Iader,252 Varvaria,253 Salona,254 Poetovio,255 and Siscia.256 Similar inscriptions also appear in nearby surrounding provinces and regions (i.e. the Hungarian parts of Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior, in Noricum and the Italian Regio X).257
Barkócza, L. 1964. The population of Pannonia from Marcus Aurelius to Diocletian. Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae XVI: 285-290. Beard, M., North, J. and Price, S. 1998. Religions of Rome I-II. Cambridge. Bulić, F. 1910. Escavi nella necropoli antica pagana di Salona detta Hortus Metrodori negli anni 1909. e. 1910. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata XXXIII: 30. Cambi, N. 1971. Nove potvrde egipatskih kultova u antičkoj provinciji Dalmaciji. Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju dalmatinsku LXV-LXVII: 85-107. Casson, L. 1991. The Ancient Mariners – Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times (2nd edition). Princeton. Casson, L. 1994. Travel in the Ancient World. Baltimore/ London. Fitz, J. 1963. Legati Augusti pro praetore Pannoniae Inferioris. Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae XI.3-4: 245-324. Forni, G. 1953. Il reclutamento delle legioni da Augusto a Diocleziano. Milano/Roma. Gračanin, H. 2010. Rimske prometnice i komunikacije u kasnoantičkoj južnoj Panoniji. Scrinia Slavonica 10: 9-69. Hoffiler, V. and Saria, B. 1938. Antike Inschriften aus Jugoslawien I: Noricum und Pannonia Superior (IlJug). Zagreb. Hofmann, H. 1905. Römische Militärgrabsteine der Donauländer. Wien. Kuntić-Makvić, B. 1982. Žrtvenik iz Varvarije posvećen božici Izidi. Arheološki radovi i rasprave VIII-IX: 151157. Lisičar, P. 1961. Isis–Fortuna spomenici o kultu Izide, Fortune i Izide–Fortune u našoj zemlji. Starinar Srpske akademije nauka n. s. XII: 125-132Mlakar, Š. 1957. Neki novi antikni nalazi u Istri. Jadranski zbornik 2. Perc, B. 1968. Beiträge zur Verbreitung ägyptischer Kulte auf dem Balkan und in den Donauländern zur Römerzeit (mit besonderer Berücksicksichtigung des Quellenmaterials aus dem Gebiet des heutigen Staates Jugoslawien). PhD Dissertation, University of München, München. Pinterović, D. 1958. Novi i neobjavljeni rimski spomenici s terena Murse i okolice. Osječki zbornik VI: 23-61. Pinterović, D. 1967. Mursa u svjetlu novih izvora i nove literature. Osječki zbornik XI: 23-66. Plutarch. Moralia vol. V: Isis and Osiris. The E at Delphi. The Oracles at Delphi No Longer Given in Verse. The Obsolescence of Oracles. Translated by Frank Cole Babbitt. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass/ London, 1936. Póczy, K. 2002. Veränderungen des Hintergrundes der Ägyptischen Kulte in Pannonien im 1.-4. Jahrhundert, in: H. Győry and Z. Mráv (eds),
Theophoric names Theophoric names have provided valuable information about the popularity of the cults of Isis and Serapis among the populations who lived in the cities and surrounding ager. But even if these names were commonly used in Egypt (e.g. Apion, Serapion, Serapia, etc.), it does not necessarily prove the ethnicity of their owners, as some previous scholars have suggested.258 Bibliography Alföldy, G. 1962. Die Auxiliartruppen der Provinz Dalmatien. Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae XIV, 3-4: 259-296. Alföldy, G. 1965. Ein Denkmal des Serapis-Isis-Kultes in Pannonien. Bulletin du Musée István Királym Alba Regia 4/5: 87-90. Alföldy, G. 1969. Die Personnamen in der römischen Provinz Dalmatia. Heidelberg. Anđelković, B. 1991. Arheološki materijal bliskoistočnog porekla u Srbiji. Glasnik Srpskog arheološkog društva 7: 67-77. Aristides, Aelius. Aristides: Orationes I-II. Edited and translated by Michael Trapp. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass/London, 2017. Balla, L. 1963. Östliche ethnische elemente in Savaria. Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae XV.1-4: 225-237.
[I]sidis inprio Q(uintus) Lutatius Iucundus. CIL V.10. Isidi / Aug(uste) sac(rum) / v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito). Mlakar 1957: 455. 251 Sarmentius / Geminus / Sarapidi deo sancto. CIL III.15092. 252 Isidi Serapi Liber[o] / Liberae voto / suscepto pro salute / Scapulae filii sui // P. Wuinctius Paris / s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito). CIL. III.2903. 253 Isidi / sac(rum) / Raecia Mar/cella. Kuntić-Makvić 1982: 151. 254 D(is) M(anibus) / Aur(elio) Satrio / qui vixit a/nn(os) VIII m(enses) IIII / et Aur/elianae) Max/imae quae vi/cit ann(os) VI m(enes) III fili(i)s piisimis Aur(elius) Flav(u)s et Cer(e)s par(entes) et Is(idis) Vic(tricis) Ur(aniae?) et Sa(rapidis) Con(servatoris) alum(n)is s(u)is P(ublisus) Hipetius et. CIL III.8921. [c]o(n)i/ugi bene me/renti L(ucius) Ul(p)iu(sI / Serafio. Bulić 1910: 30. 255 Isidi / Aug(ustae) / signum / cum bas(i) / Victorin(us) / ex voto / posuit. CIL III.4016. Apollinar(is) / Isid(i) v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito). CIL III.15184. Is[idi] / Val(erius) A[...] / P(ublius) [M...]. IlJug 271. 256 Isi(idi) / Aug(ustae) … / P. Anton(inus) ... / .. n .. CIL III.3944. Isidi Aug(ustae) / sac(rum) Vol(cenia) / Maxima / ex vi(su) vo(tum) so(lvit) l(aeta) l(ibens) m(erito). IlJug 531. 257 Tomorad 2018: 88. 258 E.g. Thylander and Alföldy have both connected these individuals having the names Serapio, Serapion, etc. with men coming from Egypt. Thylander 1952: 161; Alföldy 1969: 189, 195 fn. 191. 249 250
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Egypt in Croatia Aegyptus et Pannonia 1 – Acta Sympsii anno 2000: 163172. Budapest. Rostovtzeff, M. 1957. Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire I-II. Oxford. Saller, R.S. and Shaw, B.D. 1984. Tombstones and Roman family relations in the Principate: Civilians, Soldiers and Slaves. The Journal of Roman Studies LXXIV: 124-156. Saria, B. 1937. Spomeniki egiptovskih božanstev v Poetoviju. Časopis za zgodovino in narodopisje XXXII: 20-28. Schober, A. 1923. Die römischen Grabsteine von Noricum und Pannonia. Wien. Selem, P. 1972. Egipatski bogovi u rimskom Iliriku. Godišnjak Centra za balkanološka ispitivanja IX: 7-104. Selem, P. 1980. Les Religions orientales dans la Pannonie Romaine partie en Yougoslavie. Leiden. Selem, P. 1997. Izidin trag: egipatski kultni spomenici u rimskom Iliriku. Split. Sergejevski D. 1940. Rimski natpisi novi i revidirani. Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja Nezavisne Države Hrvatske u Bosni i Hercegovini LII: 15-26. Sergejevski D. 1947. Vodič po zbirci kamenih spomenika Zemaljskog muzeja u Sarajevu. Sarajevo. Starr, C.G. 1993. The Roman Imperial Navy 31 BCE-CE 324 (3rd edition). Chicago. Stein, A. 1940. Die Legaten von Moesien. Budapest/ Leipzig.
Thylander, H. 1952. Étude sur l’épigraphie Latine. Lund. Tomorad, M. 2005a. Egyptian cults of Isis and Serapis in Roman Fleets, in: A. Amenta, M.M. Luiselli and M.N. Sordi (eds), L’acqua nell’ antico Egitto. Proceedings of the First International Conference for Young Egyptologist: 241-253. Rome. Tomorad, M. 2005b. Egyptian cults in major Roman fleets. in: M. Šegvić and I. Mirnik (eds), Illyrica antiqua – ab honorem Duje Rendić-Miočević: 441-450. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2018. Various manifestations of the Isis cult in the regions of Istria, Illyricum and Pannonia and its diffusion to the Central European Region (2nd c. B.C. – 4th c. A.D.). Shodoznanvstvo 81: 58-99. Topál, J. 2003. Ägyptische und Orientalische Götter und Kulte, in: C. Póczy (ed.), Forschungen in Aquincum 1969-2002, Aquincum Nostrum 2: 274-283. Budapest. Veličković, M. 1972. Rimska sitna bronzana plastika u Narodnom muzeju. Antika, Beograd. Vidman, L. 1969. Sylloge inscriptionum religionis Isacae et Sarapiacae (SIRIS) Berlin. Vulić, N. 1948. Antički spomenici naše zemlje. Spomenik Srpske akademije nauka XCVIII. Wessetzky, V. 1961. Die ägyptischen Kulte zur Römerzeit in Ungarn, Leiden.
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Presence of Ancient Egyptian Gods and Artefacts in Croatia Mladen Tomorad
holy bull living in his own separate quarters near the Ptah Temple in Memphis (their life span was usually 14 years).263 In Croatia two statuettes of Apis have been discovered in Istria. The theophoric name Apis has also been identified on an epigraphical monument from Obrovac.264
Ammon is one of the oldest of ancient Egyptian gods, and during the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 BCE) he became the supreme god. He is usually shown in anthropomorphic form as a man with a short apron, feathered tunic and a double pharaonic crown, and sometimes as a man with a head of a ram. He is an invisible god whose true form always remains hidden. At the end of the Late Period (664–332 BCE) he appeared in the Aegean area in the syncretistic form of ZeusAmon, and in the Roman period there was a form of Jupiter-Amon.259 In Croatia his image can be found on Ptolemaic coinage (from the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE) as well as on large stone blocks (Roman period) discovered around the forum in Pula and in Zadar. His representation also appears on Roman oil lamps found at Nin, Zadar, Podgrađe near Benkovac, Solin, Vid near Metković, and Ščitarjevo.260
Bastet is the goddess of happiness and love, and the daughter of the Sun, who is often therefore identified with the ‘Eye of Re’. She appears in the Archaic period in her original form of a woman with a lion’s head. In the later stages of Egyptian history, she evolves into a woman with a cat’s head, in the zoomorphic form of a cat. In the Pyramid Texts she has the role of the mother and suitor of the pharaoh, and in the Coffin Texts she takes on the role of protector of the dead. The cult of the goddess Bastet was very popular during the Late and Greco-Roman periods, when many bronze sculptures and amulets with her image were made.265 In Croatia five cat amulets have been discovered in the Late Hellenistic necropolis at Krk.266
Anubis is the god whose existence is linked to ancient Egyptian funeral customs: the god of death, the necropolis, and the master of mummification. He was worshiped as a man with the head of a jackal or dog, and often appeared in zoomorphic form as a jackal or dog. In ancient Egyptian mythology there are different versions of his birth. In the Coffin Texts he is the son of the goddess Hesat or Bastet, and in other sources he is the son of Osiris and Nephthys, as evidenced by Plutarch. Regardless of his origins, he is the faithful companion of Isis who adopted him.261 In Croatia, artefacts featuring the image of Anubis have been discovered in Solin and region of Slavonia. The syncretistic deity Hermanubis is also known from Solin.262
Bes is a grotesque, dwarfish, bearded deity most commonly associated with ancient Egyptian daemons. He was often worshiped as protector of children and pregnant women. His cult was very popular throughout the Late and Greek-Roman periods of Egyptian history. In the Roman Empire his depictions are found in various provinces.267 In Croatia, various artefacts with his image were discovered at Solin, Oklaj Promina, on Hvar, and from an unknown site in the Archaeological Museum in Osijek.268 Hathor is the mother goddess, and the goddess of joy, music, motherhood, female sexuality and love. She is one of the most famous ancient Egyptian goddesses and daughter of the Sun god Re. She was also often worshipped as the Mother of Pharaoh and as Horus’s wife. She was mostly depicted as a long-haired woman
Apis is a sacred bull from Memphis, worshiped in the sanctuaries as a manifestation of the god Ptah. This seems to date from the Archaic period, as evidenced by the Palermo stone, with the apparent form of a bull with a solar-disk and uraeus (serpent). During the Pharaonic period, it is often identified with the pharaoh to whom he gives power and fertility. Numerous festivals and manifestations were dedicated to the celebration of the
Tomorad 2016b: 268-269. For a catalogue of the material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 265 Tomorad 2016b: 269-270. 266 Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2018b. 267 Tomorad 2016b: 270. 268 For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Selem 2012; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 263 264
Tomorad 2016b: 268. For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Selem 2012; Selem 2015; Mirnik 2016; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 261 Tomorad 2016b: 268. 262 Catalogue of the material remains discovered in Croatia see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 259 260
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Egypt in Croatia
Map 1. Aegyptiaca and the presence of Egyptian cults in Croatia. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
the god of the sun. Horus was the son of Isis and Osiris and his father’s avenger. He is one of the oldest ancient Egyptian divinities, emerging during the Predynastic cultures of Upper Egypt. Manetho mentioned him as the first ancient Egyptian pharaoh in the mythical period of gods and demigods. During the period of unification (c. 3200–3000 BCE) he assumes the role of a symbolic warrior and leader who rises to become Pharaoh, and all future kings are his heirs and earthly embodiment. His struggle with his uncle Seth for the Egyptian throne was described in the Contending of Horus and Seth and Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride. As Horus grew up, he was in conflict with his uncle, Seth. Their prolonged battle eventually ended in court, after which Horus asserted his right to the throne of Upper and Lower Egypt. The Pharaoh was therefore worshipped in Egyptian mythology as the embodiment of Horus and the Master
dressed in a long red dress wearing a cap with a hawk in a solar disk between cow horns. In tombs, religious texts and numerous statues, she is also shown in the zoomorphic form of the cow. The column-capitals of many pillars of ancient Egyptian temples were decorated with her image. During the Late and Hellenistic period, a syncretistic form of Isis-Hathor also appeared.269 In Croatia a column with her carved head was discovered in the ‘Arena’ in Pula, and five bronze statuettes of IsisHathor were also discovered in Solin.270 Horus is the falcon god and the symbol of divine royal dignity. He was worshipped as the god of heaven and Tomorad 2016b: 271. For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Tomorad 2007; Selem 2012; Selem 2015; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 269 270
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Mladen Tomorad: Presence of Ancient Egyptian Gods and Artefacts in Croatia
of Earth. In Egyptian iconography he was depicted in the zoomorphic form of a falcon, or as a warrior with a head of a hawk wearing the Double Crown.271 In Croatia, an artefact with his image was discovered on Hvar. He was also depicted as a small child on five bronze statuettes of Isis-Hathor found in Solin.272
Croatia her worship was widespread in various forms. She was worshipped in Pula, Nin, Zadar, Gradina near Bribir, Solin, Vid near Metković, Stari Grad on Hvar, Varaždinske Toplice, Sisak and Osijek. She was also worshipped in various syncretistic forms, i.e. IsisAugusta in Poreč, Novigrad in Istria, Pula and Sisak; IsisFortuna in Loron near Poreč, Pula, Savudrija, around Lika, Prološac and Ščitarjevo; Izida-Panthea around ager of Pula; Isis lactans in Solin; and Isis-Thermuthis in Nin. The theophoric forms of her name have been confirmed on numerous epigraphical monuments discovered in Pula, Nin, Zadar, Trogir or Klis, Solin, and Dugopolje.276
Harpocrates is a ‘Horus child’. This form of worship of Horus dates even from the Pyramid Texts, but it gained most popularity during the Greco-Roman period, when its cult spread to almost all parts of the Mediterranean. He is depicted as a young boy with curly hair and a finger in his mouth.273 In Croatia, images of him are known from Istria, Nin, Zadar, Solin, Smiljevac, Sisak, Slavonski Brod, Osijek, and Novi Banovci.274
Nefertem is the god of the lotus flower and perfume, and often identified with perfection. According to ancient Egyptian mythology, he grew in the form of a lotus flower from the primeval waters of Nun. This god was displayed in anthropomorphic form as a man wearing a lotus flower. His cult was also popular during the Greco-Roman period and expanded within the limits of the Roman Empire.277 In Croatia, one statuette has been discovered on Hvar.278
Isis is a sorceress, a faithful woman, mourner and protector of the deceased, a symbolic mother and patron of the Pharaoh; the daughter of Geb and Nut, Osiris’s sister and wife, sister of Seth and Nephthys. She is an ancient Egyptian goddess, likely to have appeared before the time of the Old Kingdom. Since it seems no ancient Egyptian city was specifically dedicated to her cult, it is very difficult to establish its origin. In terms of the history of ancient Egypt, especially during the Late and Greco-Roman periods, she became the most important deity, with her cult spreading to the Mediterranean and what we now think of as continental Europe. After Osiris’s brutal assassination, she gathered the pieces of his dismembered body and became magically pregnant by him, later giving birth to their son Horus. According to ancient Egyptian mythology, she conducted the first process of mummification – that of Osiris – and thus became an initiator, in a way, of this ancient funeral custom. Mythology related to Isis is described in the Contending of Horus and Seth and Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride. She is depicted in the anthropomorphic form of a woman wearing a long dress and a ‘throne’ on her head, and from the period of the New Kingdom her head supported a crown with a solar-disk between horns, thus taking over some features of the goddess Hathor. She usually holds the symbols of ankh and a sistrum in her hand. Her bronze cult statues were widely revered throughout the Late and Greco-Roman periods. The cult of Isis was also very popular during the Roman Empire, with the remains of her cult sites (the Iseum) discovered in numerous Roman provinces.275 No remains of any Isis temple have been discovered so far in Croatia, although there are indications that they existed in Salona at least. In
Nephthys is the protector goddess of the dead. Daughter of Geb and Nut, she was the sister of Osiris, Isis and Seth. Although Seth’s wife, she remains faithful to her brother Osiris and her sister Isis. She appears only in the Heliopolis mythological tradition, and their cosmogony. In the Pyramid Texts, she constantly appeared with Isis as Osiris’s protector. According to some texts, she had sexual intercourse with Osiris, resulting in the birth of Anubis. She is depicted in anthropomorphic form as a woman carrying a hieroglyphic sign of her name above her head. Sometimes she is also depicted as a kite. As protector of the dead, she usually appears on the corners of sarcophagi and tomb walls. It is interesting that Nephthys does not have a specially developed autochthonous cult, but since the Late period, many amulets representing her have been found in tombs, between mummy wrappings.279 In Croatia only one artefact is known to date, from the region of Slavonia.280 Neith is the goddess of creation, war, and mother goddess; she is one of the oldest Egyptian goddesses, appearing during the Predynastic period. She was most often displayed in anthropomorphic form as a woman wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. From the period of the New Kingdom she is also shown in the zoomorphic form of a kneeling cow with a solar disk between its horns, or in the form of snake or cobra. According to the Sais tradition she is the creator of
Tomorad 2016b: 271. For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Selem 2012; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 273 Tomorad 2016b: 272. 274 For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Selem 2012; Selem 2015; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 275 Tomorad 2016b: 272-273. 271 272
276 For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Selem 2012; Selem 2015; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 277 Tomorad 2016b: 275. 278 Selem 1997; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a. 279 Tomorad 2016b: 275. 280 Tomorad 2017a.
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Egypt in Croatia the world and mother of the god Re.281 The only find associated with her in Croatia is a bronze statuette discovered in Istria.282
Crown. The centre of her cult was Memphis.285 In Croatia, one bronze statuette with her image has been found in Cavtat.286
Osiris is the god of vegetation and fertility, and, after his death, the supreme god of all those living in the Underworld. He is the son of Geb and Nut, husband of Isis, brother of Seth and Nephthys, and father of Horus and Anubis. With Isis, he formed the third divine pair in ancient Egyptian mythology. He is depicted in anthropomorphic form as an immobile, mummified man, standing or sitting on a throne, wearing an atef crown, and holding the heqa staff and flagellum. The mythology associated with Osiris and his cult is described in the Contending of Horus and Seth and Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride. Manetho mentions Osiris as the first Lord of Egypt. According to the ancient Egyptian myth, Osiris was originally the ruler of the land, who taught the first savage humans to eat, cultivate land and breed cattle, worship the gods, write, and observe the laws he had passed. His brother Seth was eager to rule, and with the help of conspirators killed Osiris, whose body was thrown into the Nile. His wife, Isis, after a long search, found his dead body and conceived the son of Horus. When Seth learned that Isis had found Osiris, he went in search of the body. After finding it, he cut it into fourteen parts, then scattered it across Egypt. Isis repeated the search and ultimately found all the parts of his body except for the penis. Using magic, she reconstructed his dead body and performed the first mummification ritual, bringing Osiris back to life. After his resurrection, Osiris became the supreme ruler of the Underworld. During the Greco-Roman period his cult diffused to the Mediterranean and the European continent.283 In Croatia, evidence of the Osiris cult appears in Istria, Zadar, Solin, Stari Grad on Hvar, and Osijek.284
Serapis represented the supreme deity during the Hellenistic period. His cult is not originally Egyptian, being initially a form of Baal or Ela, who was worshiped in the Hellenistic Assyrian colony of Sinope on the Black Sea as Sar-apsi, ‘the master of sea depths. During the Late period his cult expanded to Egypt. During the reign of Ptolemy I he was identified with the god User-Hapy, the dead bull from Memphis. In Hellenistic religion, he was frequently associated with Osiris in the position of the husband of Isis, where he would take the place of the Master of the Underworld. He was depicted in anthropomorphic form as a bearded man with a basket on his head, occasionally with horns. During the Greco-Roman period his worship spread through the Mediterranean and the Roman Empire, together with the Isis-Osiris cults.287 In Croatia several finds related to the cult of Serapis have been discovered at Pula, Senj, Zadar, Solin, Smiljevci, Sisak, Varaždinske Toplice, Križevci, Koprivnica, and Dalj. Theophoric forms of his name are found on epigraphical monuments from Solin, Trogir or Klis288, Pučište, and from an unknown site in Dalmatia.289 Shu is the manifestation of air and the sun’s rays, being the child of Atum, who, together with his sister and wife Tefnut, form the first divine couple. He appeared in the Pyramid Texts, and his bones, which probably represent clouds, serve the Pharaoh in his ascent to heaven. He was shown as a lion, but more often as a bearded man with upraised arms, standing or kneeling on Geb. On his head he wears an ostrich feather, or four bird feathers, with whom he supported Nut. Shu was also worshiped as the very dangerous god of the Underworld.290 In Croatia his only statuette was discovered in Slavonia.291
Sekhmet is the leonine goddess of destruction and protectress. From the earliest periods of Egyptian history, she appears as the daughter of Re. She is also closely related to the goddess Hathor, with whom she represents one of the manifestations of the Eye of Re. In the Pyramid Texts she is the mother of pharaohs. She was also worshiped for her healing capabilities as ‘Mistress of Life’. She was commonly depicted in semianthropomorphic form as a lioness-headed woman in a red dress, with solar-disk and uraeus on her head. She was associated with the Theban goddess Mut, wife of the god Amun, thus she sometimes wears a Double
Thoth or Djehuty is the god of the Moon and knowledge, the inventor of writing, and the scribe of the gods. He is depicted as an ibis or baboon. He probably appeared in the Predynastic period, and his images appeared in the Abydos area from Archaic times. According to an ancient Egyptian myth, he was born from Seth’s head, and from another that he is the son of Re. In the Pyramid Texts he travels with the Re in the sky, and the Tomorad 2016b: 277. For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a. 287 Tomorad 2016b: 277. 288 The exact place is not clear. 289 For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Selem 2012; Selem 2015; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 201a7; Tomorad 2018a. 290 Tomorad 2016b: 278. 291 For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a. 285 286
Tomorad 2016b: 275. Tomorad 2007; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a. 283 Tomorad 2016b: 276. 284 For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Tomorad 2007; Selem 2012; Selem 2015; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 281 282
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Mladen Tomorad: Presence of Ancient Egyptian Gods and Artefacts in Croatia
Stele
other gods travel on his wings.292 A syncretistic form of Hermes-Thoth was worshipped in Croatia at Knin, Solin, Slavonia, and Novi Banovci.293
The stele is a thin stone, or wooden, panel, most often with various inscriptions of funeral, vow, and commemorative content. At the end of the 19th century one stele from the Ptolemaic Period was discovered at Osijek.298
The Most Common Ancient Egyptian Artefacts Discovered on Croatian Territory Amulet
Shabti
The amulet is a carved decorative item worn by ancient Egyptians, mainly as identifiers of specific religious beliefs. Those who wore amulets believed that they would gain various supernatural powers and be protected from spells. They were made from different metals, wood, faience, terracotta and stone. In Croatia, ancient Egyptian amulets are represented in the form of Harpocrates, Osiris, sistra, Udjet-eyes, and scarabs.294
The shabti is a statuette in the form of a mummy holding various tools or agricultural implements; they are known from ancient Egyptian tombs from the Middle Kingdom onwards. They represent a magical substitute for the deceased in carrying out physical activities in the Underworld. They were made of stone, alabaster, wood, clay, metal, sometimes with blue, green, brown and red glazing, and placed on the floor of the tomb. During the Greco-Roman period, shabtis were often replaced with depictions of the god Osiris.299 In Croatia, more than 40 shabtis are so far known from Kazele in Istria, Krk, Nin, Ostrožac, Čitluk, Solin, in central Dalmatia, Hvar, Daruvarske Toplice, Osijek, and Ilok.300
Udjet-eye amulet The udjet-eye amulet is a symbol of the eye Horus lost in his contention with Seth; he later managed to recover it with the help of Hathor and Thoth. In ancient Egypt it became a symbol of cure and protection and was often depicted on various amulets. In Croatia this type of amulet has been found at Solin and on Hvar.295
Bibliography Mirnik, I. 2016. Sylloge nummorum Graecorum Croatia. VIII. Aegyptus. Zagreb. Perc, B. 1968. Beiträge zur Verbreitung ägyptischer Kulte auf dem Balkan und in den Donauländern zur Römerzeit (mit besonderer Berücksicksichtigung des Quellenmaterials aus dem Gebiet des heutigen Staates Jugoslawien). PhD Dissertation, University of München, München. Selem, P. 1997. Izidin trag: egipatski kultni spomenici u rimskom Iliriku. Split. Selem, P. 2012. Aegyptiaca Salonitana, in: P. Selem and I. Vilogorac Brčić (eds), ROMIS – Religionum Orientalium monumenta et inscriptiones Salonitani: 7-76. Zagreb. Selem, P. 2015. Aegyptiaca, in: P. Selem and I. Vilogorac Brčić (eds), ROMIC I – Religionum Orientalium monumenta et inscriptiones ex Croatia I: 7-62. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2000. Šauabtiji u Dalmaciji i Panoniji. Historijski zbornik 53: 1-14. Tomorad, M. 2004. Shabtis from Roman Provinces Dalmatia and Pannonia. Journal of Egyptological Studies 1: 89-116. Tomorad, M. 2006. Shabtis from Roman provinces Dalmatia and Panonia and their role in Egyptian cults during the Roman Empire, in: H. Györy (ed.), Aegyptus et Pannonia III – Acta symposii anno 2004: 279309, Pl. 69-78. Budapest.
Sistrum The sistrum is an ancient Egyptian musical instrument, a rattle, shaken to make sounds. It was commonly used in various processions and often specifically associated with ceremonies honouring Isis. One small bronze example has been found in Croatia, in Nesactium.296 Scarab The scarab beetle appears in amulet form. This sacred beetle (lat. Scarabaeus sacer) was identified with Khepri, the god of the Sun, commonly related with re-birth. Scarab-shaped amulets were made of stone, faience or glass, and had inscriptions and royal names carved on the back. In Croatia they have been discovered at Krk, Solin, the Middle Dalmatia, Sisak, and from unknown sites in Slavonia.297 Tomorad 2016b: 278-279. For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Selem 2012; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a. 294 For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Selem 2012; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 295 For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Selem 2012; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 296 Perc 1968; Tomorad 2007; Selem 2015; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 297 For a catalogue of material remains discovered in Croatia, see in: Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Selem 2012; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad and Sliwa 2015; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. 292 293
Perc 1968; Selem 1997; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017a; Tomorad 2018a. Tomorad 2014; Tomorad 2017c. 300 Tomorad 2000; Tomorad 2004; Tomorad 2006; Tomorad 2012; Tomorad 2014; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2015b; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2017b; Tomorad 2017c; Tomorad 2018a; Tomorad 2018b. 298 299
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Egypt in Croatia Tomorad, M. 2007. Egyptian artefacts in the Archaeological museum of Istria in Pula (Croatia). Journal of Egyptological Studies 2: 43-58. Tomorad, M. 2012. Ancient Egyptian Funerary Statuettes in Croatian Collections. Opuscula Archaeologica 36: 275-282. Tomorad, M. 2014. Shabtis: Ancient Egyptian funerary figurines, in: T. Lekov and E. Buzov (eds), Cult and Belief in Ancient Egypt – Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress for Young Egyptologists, 25-27 September 2012, Sofia: 139-150. Sofia. Tomorad, M. 2015a. The Early Penetration of Ancient Egyptian Artifacts and Dissemination of the Cults of Egyptian Divinities in Istria and Illyricum (1st Millennium B.C. – 1st Century A.D.), in: M. Tomorad (ed.), A History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture conducted in Southeast Europe: 165-200. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2015b. The two unpublished shabtis from Krk (Croatia). The Journal of Egyptological Studies IV: 141-146. Tomorad, M. 2016a. The phases of penetration and diffusion of Egyptian artefacts and cults in the regions of Istria and Illyricum (from the 7th c. B.C. to the 4th c. A.D.), in: H. Györy, (ed.), Aegyptus et Pannonia V: 185-226, Pl. 69-81. Budapest. Tomorad, M. 2016b. Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. I. Povijest i kultura starog Egipta. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2017a. Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II. Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2017b. Shabtis from Museums and Private Collections in Croatia: Dating and Typological Study,
in: M. Tomorad and J. Popielska-Grzybowska (eds), Egypt 2015: Perspectives of Research. Proceedings of the Seventh European Conference of Egyptologists (2nd–7th June, 2015, Zagreb – Croatia): 219-239. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017c. Shabtis from the Late and GraecoRoman Periods: Proposal for the Classification (Typology) of Shabtis Discovered Outside Egypt, in: K.A. Kóthay (ed.), Burial and Mortuary Practices in Late Period and Graeco-Roman Egypt: 323-336, Pl. 74-77. Budapest. Tomorad, M. 2018a. Various manifestations of Isis cult in the regions of Istria, Illyricum and Pannonia and its diffusion to the Central European Region (2nd c. B.C. – 4th c. A.D.). Shodoznanvstvo 81: 58-99. Tomorad, M. 2018b. The Ancient Egyptian collection of the Franciscan Monastery on the island of Košljun: A case study of the possible evidence of the earlier penetration of Ancient Egyptian artefacts in Illyricum, in: M. Milićević Bradač and D. Demicheli (eds), The Century of the Brave: Roman conquest and indigenous resistance in Illyricum during the time of Augustus and his heirs – Proceedings of the International Conference, Zagreb, 22-26. 9. 2014: 397-405. Zagreb. Tomorad, M., Sliwa, J. 2015. Tri staroegipatska skarabeja iz Arheološke zbirke franjevačkog samostana na Košljunu, Hrvatska – Three Ancient Egyptian scarabs from the Archaeological Collection of the Franciscan Monastery on Košljun, Croatia. Prilozi Instituta za arheologiju 32: 243-250.
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Ancient Egyptian Decorative and Architectural Elements Along the Eastern Adriatic Coast Mladen Tomorad Aegyptiaca in Croatia
the destruction of Salona in the first part of the 7th century CE, most of the houses in this very important Roman settlement on the eastern Adriatic coast were abandoned, and this relief likely became just another piece of rubble until its discovery at the end of 19th century.
Together with many Egyptian artefacts relating to the diffusion of Egyptian cults in Istria, Dalmatia and Pannonia, some 20 decorative architectural elements came from, or were made in Pula, Zadar, Solin, and Split. These artefacts can be defined as Roman Aegyptiaca. From the end of the 1st c. BCE, Romans started to move Egyptian obelisks to Rome, to build pyramid-shaped tombs, and to introduce various Egyptian decorative features into their houses, villas, palaces, and forums: the best examples can be seen in Rome, Pompeii, and Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli, etc.
Forums of Roman cities in the northern Adriatic were often decorated with massive stone blocks, carved with images of the syncretistic god Jupiter-Ammon. In Croatia, such stone blocks decorated the forums in Pula and Zadar, with six being found so far in Pula and two in Zadar.
The earliest elements of Egyptian influence in the decorative arts date to the Flavian era (69–96 CE). During the reign of the Emperors Vespasian and Domitian (69– 81 CE), a Roman amphitheatre was built in ancient Pula. Vespasian (69–79 CE) was known for his worshipping of ancient Egyptian cults, so it is unsurprising that the column capitals of this beautiful amphitheatre were decorated with images of the ancient Egyptian goddess Hathor. Such columns were widely used in ancient Egyptian architecture, especially in temples. As worshippers of Isaic cults, the Flavian emperors were probably influenced by Egyptian architecture and this explains why they decorated as they did. The only remaining marble fragment of a Hathor head was excavated in the archaeological season 1932-1933. It was discovered among building material and mortar during reconstruction work on the theatre in the area of the audience seats, together with a coin of the Emperor Galba (68–69 CE).301 The Hathor head fragment is held today in Pula’s archaeological museum and displayed in the Temple of Augustus.302
Most Egyptian decorative elements were discovered in Diocletian’s Palace in Split.304 Diocletian (284–305 CE) decorated his palace there with numerous ancient Egyptian monuments, transported directly from Egypt. (e.g. a sphinx from the Karnak temple and Ptolemaic statues), while some other decorative elements were crafted in Dalmatia and Italy. Diocletian was most likely a worshipper of ancient Egyptian divinities, which would explain such decor in the palace. According to P. Selem, these monuments decorated the palace as elements of the Oriental symbolism.305 According to a study by I. Babić,306 the Egyptian sphinxes, and granite columns with typical Egyptian flower heads, were not brought to Diocletian’s Palace as war trophies; they were more likely to represent part of his own cult, which tried to incorporate ancient Egyptian architectural elements into the new palace, hence the many sphinxes and pillars made of Aswan red granite. Some elements of these monuments have been preserved to date, some remaining in situ rather than having been transferred to museums; so far, at least 13 pharaonic sphinxes or fragments have been discovered in excavations at the palace.307 The sphinxes exhibited in the Palace were
In 1891, in Salona, a fragment was found of an Italian marble relief, carved with typical scenes of life on the Nile (the river, two dwarfs on a boat, crocodiles, etc.).303 It most likely originally decorated one of the private houses in Salona, where Egyptian cults were very popular during the early Roman Empire. With
Bulić and Karaman 1927; Novak 1932; Karaman 1937; Fisković 1950; Rismondo 1953; Gabričević 1956; Selem 1961; Perc 1968; Selem 1970; Selem 1997: 97-106, nos. 3.1-3.12; Marasović, Marasović, Perojević and Rismondo, 1999; Giunio 2002: 48-51; Tomorad 2003a: 54-55; Babić 2005; Tomorad 2005: 19; Tomorad 2006: 30, 32; Tadinac 2011; Belamarić 2016. 305 Selem 1970. 306 Babić, 2005: 83–98. 307 Three are in the Archaeological Museum in Split (a fragment of the smaller sphinx in white stone [inv. no. C-238], sphinx in white sandstone with the name of Amenhotep III [inv. no. B-8], and the head of the sphinx in red granite [inv. no. C-161]), and at least seven sphinxes are to be seen in various areas of the Palace. These are: 304
301 Degrassi 1933: 395-396; Perc 1968: 148–150; Jurkić-Girardi 2001: 14-15; Tomorad 2003a: 48, fn. 180; Tomorad, 2007: 45–46; Tomorad 2015a: 194-194, no. 21; Tomorad 2017: 76. 302 Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, inv. no. A8712. Tomorad 2017: 76. 303 Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, inv. no. 150. Prijatelj 1954; Perc 1968: 235, no. 81.
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Egypt in Croatia Jurkić-Girardi, V. 2001. Egipatska religija i antička Istra, in: K. Džin (ed.), Egipatska religija i antička Istra: 5-17. Pula. Marasović, J, Marasović, K., Perojević, S. and Rismondo, T. 1999. Kanalizacija i vodovod Dioklecijanove palace, in: J. Belamarić (ed.), Dioklecijanov akvedukt: 74. Split. Novak, G. 1932. Sfinge u Dioklecijanovoj palači. Novo doba 170: 2-3. Perc, B. 1968. Beiträge zur Verbreitung ägyptischer Kulte auf dem Balkan und in den Donauländern zur Römerzeit (mit besonderer Berücksicksichtigung des Quellenmaterials aus dem Gebiet des heutigen Staates Jugoslawien). PhD Dissertation, University of München, München. Prijatelj, K. 1954. Einige hellenistische Elemente in den Skulpturen der antiken Salona. Archaeologia Iugoslavica 1: 29-35. Rismondo, V. 1953. Sfinge u Dioklecijanovoj palači. Književni Jadran 24: 2-3. Selem, P. 1963. Dioklecijanove sfinge. Telegram 13th September 1963: 4. Selem, P. 1970. Stanje istraživanja sfinga carske palače u Splitu. Adriatica: 639-656. Selem, P. 1997. Izidin trag: egipatski kultni spomenici u rimskom Iliriku. Split. Tadinac, I. 2011. Sfinge iz Dioklecijanove palače u Splitu. Kulturna baština 37: 371-400. Tomorad, M. 2003. Egipat u Hrvatskoj, egipatske starine u hrvatskoj znanosti i kulturi. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2005. The Egyptian antiquities in Croatia. PalArch 2.1: 1-33. Tomorad, M. 2006. Model računalne obrade i prezentacije staroegipatskih predmeta u muzejskim zbirkama u Hrvatskoj. [PhD, Odsjek za informacijske znanosti, Katedra za muzeologiju, Filozofski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu]. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2007. Egyptian artefacts in the Archaeological Museum of Istria in Pula (Croatia). Journal of Egyptological Studies 2 (2005): 43-58. Tomorad, M. 2015a. The Early Penetration of Ancient Egyptian Artifacts and Dissemination of the Cults of Egyptian Divinities in Istria and Illyricum (1st Millennium B.C. – 1st Century A.D.), in: M. Tomorad (ed.) A History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture conducted in Southeast Europe: 165-200. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2015b. The Ancient Egyptian Antiquities in Institutional and Private Collections in Croatia, in: M. Tomorad (ed.), A History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture conducted in Southeast Europe: 31-58. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017. Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II. Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb.
discovered during archaeological research at the Cindro Palace in the second half of the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries. Some column parts remain in situ in the western colonnade of the peristyle, and one piece was taken to the Sustipan church. Of the sphinxes, a large, black granite one is located on the left of the peristyle, a black granite example is placed in front of the Jupiter Temple, and a further, very damaged, example in black granite can be seen on the eastern wall of the Mausoleum. A small, grey granite sphinx and a fragment of a greyish granite one are exhibited in the basement rooms of the Palace. The Egyptian head with a headdress (klaft) is housed in the Gotovac house on No. 16 Palaić St. In the summer of 1996, during archaeological excavations of the aqueduct and the palace’s ancient water-supply system, a red-granite sphinx was also discovered,308 but its current location is unknown. Other possible Egyptian heads were also found around the Palace site, including that of a boy wearing another headdress (modius), which could relate to the cult of Zeus-Jupiter-Ammon, and that of a bull, perhaps associated with the cult of Apis.309 Bibliography Babić, I. 2005. Egipatski utjecaji u Dioklecijanovoj palači–Le influenze nel Palazzo di Diocleziano, in: M Šegvić and I. Mirnik (eds), Illyrica antiqua: ab honorem Duje Rendić–Miočević: 83-98. Zagreb. Belamarić, J. 2016. Sfinga na splitskom Peristilu. Zagreb. Bulić, F. and Karaman, Lj. 1927. Palača cara Dioklecijana u Splitu. Zagreb. Degrassi, A. 1933. Natiziario archaeologico. Atti e Memorie della Societate Istriana 45: 395-396. Fisković, C. 1950. Prilog proučavanju Dioklecijanove palače u Splitu. Rad Jugoslavenske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti 279: 33. Gabričević, B. 1956. Arheološke uspomene na Egipat u Splitu. Slobodna Dalmacija 12th July 1956: 6. Giunio, K. A. 2002. Egyptian Gods on the Eastern Adriatic Coast, in: H. Györy and Z. Mráv (eds), Aegyptus et Pannonia I – Acta Sympsii anno 2000: 21-63, Pl. 3-17. Budapest. sphinx in black granite, sphinx in shiny black granite discovered in Krešimir St in 1932, small sphinx of grey granite discovered in a Bulić field in 1963, fragment of sphinx in reddish granite discovered in the western half of the central basement in 1962/1963, fragment sphinx of grey-black granite discovered in the basement of the palace in 1962/1963, small fragment of sphinx in grey-black granite discovered in the basement of the palace in 1962/1963, and fragment of sphinx in grey granite discovered in the basement of the palace in 1996. Two sphinx fragments are in the Split City Museum: one in greyblack granite discovered in 1948, and the head of one in pink-grey granite. One fragment of a sphinx paw of black granite, discovered near a church in Sustipan between 1958 and 1962, is in Split’s Museum of Croatian Archaeological Monuments. For more details, see the Croato-Aegyptica database [croato-aegyptica.starapovijest.eu]. Selem, 1997: 97-111; Tomorad, 2003a: 55; Tomorad, 2005: 19; Tomorad, 2006: 24; Tadinac, 2011: 374-376. 308 Marasović J, Marasović K, Perojević and Rismondo 1999. 309 Babić 2005: 85-87.
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Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts Related to the Early Penetration and Diffusion of Ancient Egyptian Cults in Istria, Dalmatia, and Pannonia (1st Millennium BCE – 4th Century CE) Mladen Tomorad 1. Shabti in blue-glazed faience (Figure 1) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian department, E-561, not on display. Ex-Frane Lanza Collection (1808–1892, Split). Provenance: Solin (ancient Salona), Croatia. Date of discovery: mid-19th century. Dating: 3rd Intermediate Period; 22nd Dynasty (945– 715 BCE). Dimensions: H. 10 cm. Material: blue-glazed faience. Condition: damaged surface on both sides. Typology: Schneider 1977, class VIIIB2; Tomorad 2017, shabti class B2. Description: Private individual. Mummiform. 3rd Intermediate Period lappet wig with twisted fillet and seshed headband. Without artificial beard. Arms crossed on chest, left over right, un-sleeved. Hoes in both hands. Basket on back. Face oval and poorly shaped. Eyes with brows are poorly shaped. Very pale hieroglyphic inscription on one vertical column, nearly unreadable. Figure 1. Shabti in blue-glazed faience, from Solin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-561. © Mladen Tomorad.
Discussion: This artefact is part of a group of shabtis donated to the museum by the Lanza family of Split. According to the inventory book of the Egyptian Collection, they were discovered in Salona (inv. nos. 561-566). Before and after 1889 they were on display in case IV, no. 77.310 It is not sure where and when they were discovered in the remains of ancient Salona, one of the most important centres for Egyptian cults in Illyricum. The Lanza family also donated some other Egyptian material from Salona to the Archaeological Museum in Split. J. Monnet Saleh wrongly attributed it to the New Kingdom and to the F. Koller Collection.311. I. Uranić, in his catalogue of the Ancient Egyptian 310 311
Department accepted the previous attribution by Monnet Saleh without further analysis of the object.312 This is clearly a typical shabti produced in the 22nd Dynasty. This item is one of the rare shabtis of the 3rd Intermediate Period discovered in Europe. The dissemination of ancient Egyptian artefacts probably started in the 1st millennium BCE, when Egyptian religious objects (amulets, scarabs, seals, shabtis, etc.) were traded by Phoenician and Greek merchants in
Ljubić 1889: 10 no. 77. Monnet Saleh 1970: 139 no. 624.
312
43
Uranić 2009: 187 no. 428.
Egypt in Croatia almost every region of the Eastern Mediterranean. Typological study of this blue faïence shabti dates it to the period of the 22nd Dynasty (945–715 BCE).313 Since the early Iron Age, the Illyrian settlement of Salona was one of the most influential trading posts along the coast. This type of shabti was not typical of later periods of Egyptian history and has not been discovered anywhere in south-eastern Europe during the Greco-Roman period. However, it is possible that it just might have arrived at the Illyricum settlement of Salona before the Greek colonisation of the Adriatic, but with no archaeological context of the find we cannot confirm or deny such a thesis. It could have come to Salona at any point between the 8th and 1st centuries BCE, via some unknown merchant from the Aegean, the Near East, or directly from Egypt. In our opinion there are two options for such a thesis: it could simply be an exotic artefact or souvenir brought from Egypt before the Hellenistic period; or it might have been robbed from some 22nd-Dynasty tomb somewhere in Egypt and later sold to an unknown merchant, traveller, or member of the Isaic cults in the Hellenistic period and the late Roman Republic. Cf.: Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London: 29869, 39933, 39934, 40400, 40435, 40444, 40466, 40469; Bolton Museum, Bolton: 211.1979.579, A.75.1967, AW.132; Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology, Oxford: 1958.348, 1971.1428; University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia: E1907, E14559, E14593
Figure 2. Bone handle of knife with image of Hathor or Isis, from Sesvete-Grabarje. Požega: City Museum, GMP 21.628. © Požega: City Museum.
Discussion: We cannot be sure if it is an ancient artefact or perhaps the handle of a paperknife made during the 19th or beginning of the 20th century, under the influence of Egyptomania. It is possible that the artefact was brought to Sesvete in the Požega Valley by some Roman legionnaire from Palestine, Nubia or Egypt. Bibliography: Unpublished. Tomorad 2017: 87.
Bibliography: Monet Saleh 1970: 139, no. 624; Tomorad 2000: 2, 13; Tomorad 2003: 35; Tomorad 2004: 90, 109; Tomorad 2005: 4; Tomorad 2006: 297, no. 22 t. 74/3; Uranić 2007/2009: 187, no. 428; Tomorad 2011: 110, 115, 122, 125, 134; Selem 2012: 55-56, no. 55; Tomorad 2012: 278; Tomorad 2015a: 168, 179 no. 1, Figure 124; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 69a.
3. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VI Philometor (Figure 3a-b)
2. Bone handle of knife with image of Hathor or Isis (Figure 2)
Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Numismatic department, A3870. Provenance: Mazin hoard, Mazin (Gračac), Croatia. Date of discovery: 21 June 1896. Dating: reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor (180–145 BCE) Dimensions: D. 25.5 mm; Wt. 14.39 g. Material: alloy metal mixture. Condition: damaged surface on obverse and reverse. Description: Obverse: head of Ptolemy VI Philometor with inscription ΠTOΛEMAI]OY [BAΣI]ΛEωΣ, monogram AΠ to the left. Reverse: eagle with outspread wings on lightning bolt (?). Cf.: BMC 1883: 89,6-12, inv. nos. 1866,1201.3901, G.1119, 1947,0606.211, G1956,0409.64. Pl.21,3; Brunšmid 1897: 63,1; Svoronos 1904: 226,1384, Pl. 47,11; SNG Cop. 40, 1977; 10,279-287; SNG Milano 13,1,1989; 72,319-326.
Collection: Požega – City Museum of Požega, GMP 21.628. Private collection of Mirko Plešić. Provenance: Sesvete-Grabarje, Croatia. Date of discovery: May 1979. Dating: 332 BCE–395 CE, or 19th–20th century. Dimensions: 10.6 x 2.6 x 0.3 cm. Material: bone. Condition: broken lower part. Description: Knife handle made from bone. The head of handle is carved in shape of royal woman, with vulture cap, cow horns, solar-disk and uraeus-kalathos. This type of tripartite wig is usually associated with the goddess Hathor or Isis. 313
Tomorad 2006: 297, no. 22.
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Mladen Tomorad: Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts
Figure 126; Mirnik 2016: 70, no. 160; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 69d-e. 5. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (Figure 5a-b) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Numismatic department, A9371. Provenance: Gračan hoard, Gračac, Croatia. Cyrene mint. Date of discovery: 1925/1926. Dating: reign of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (170–116 BCE). Dimensions: D. 28 mm; Wt. 12.57 g. Material: alloy metal mixture. Condition: surface in good condition; edges are damaged, parts are missing. Description: Obverse: head of Zeus-Ammon with diadem and flower adornment. Reverse: eagle with outspread standing on lightning bolt (?), ΒΑΣΙΛΕΨΣ ΠΤΟΛΕΜΑΙΟΥ ΕΥΕΡΓΗΤΟΥ. Cf.: BMC 1883: 94,80-81, inv. nos. 1841,B.3708, 1947,0606.1059; Brunšmid 1897: 64,4; Svoronos 1904: 265,1642, Pl. 56, 18; SNG Cop. 40,1977: 21,652; SNG Milano 13,1, 1989: 84,388-391 dif.; Asolati 2011: No.86A. Bibliography: Mirnik 1981; Mirnik 1982, 151; Mirnik 1987, 380-381, no. 228; Tomorad 2015a: 181, no. 4, Figure 127; Mirnik 2016: 24, no. 14; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 69f-g.
Figure 3. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VI Philometor (avers/ revers), from Mazin near Gračac. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, A3870.© Mladen Tomorad
Bibliography: Brunšmid 1897; Mirnik 1981; Mirnik 1982, 151; Mirnik 1987, 381; Tomorad 2015a: 179-180, no. 2, Figure 125; Mirnik 2016: no. 137, 64; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 69b-c. 4. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VI Philometor (Figure 4a-b) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Numismatic department, A3892. Provenance: Mazin hoard, Mazin (Gračac), Croatia. Date of discovery: 21 June 1896. Dating: reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor (180–145 BCE) Dimensions: D. 29 x 30 mm; Wt. 20.42 g. Material: alloy metal mixture. Condition: damaged surface on obverse and reverse. Description: Obverse: head of Zeus-Ammon, dotted border. Reverse: ΠTOΛEMAI]OY [BAΣI]ΛEωΣ, two eagles with outspread wings standing on lightning bolts (?). Cf.: BMC 1883, inv. nos. 1863,0813.14, 1864,1118.187, 1950,0404.21; Svoronos 1904: 234, 1424, Pl. 48.9; SNG Cop. 40, 1977: 304-320; Mirnik 1987: 55, 226, 77, Pl. 3.226; SNG Milano 13,1 1989: 74-75, 334-336. Bibliography: Brunšmid 1897; Mirnik 1981; Mirnik 1982, 151; Mirnik 1987, 381; Tomorad 2015a: 180, no. 3,
Figure 5. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (avers/ revers), from Gračac. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, A9371. © Mladen Tomorad.
6. Terracotta shabti of lady Mehytweskhet (Figure 6) Collection: Košljun: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological Collection, 642. Provenance: Krk (ancient Curicum), Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th – first half of 20th century. Dating: 3rd Intermediate Period; late 21st – early 22nd Dynasty (10th century BCE). Dimensions: H. 15.8 cm; W. 5 cm. Material: terracotta.
Figure 4. Ptolemaic coin of Ptolemy VI Philometor (avers/ revers), from Mazin near Gračac. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, A3892. © Mladen Tomorad.
45
Egypt in Croatia probably daughter of the High Priest of Amun, possibly Menkheperre Hemnetjertepyenamun (1045–992 BCE), who ruled Upper Egypt during the 3rd Intermediate Period.316 On her shabtis she also bore the name Mutem-hat, suggested to be the prenomen, or throne name, of Mahyt-weskhet.317 According to Yoyotte’s dating of the ‘Divine Adoratrices of Amun’, it seems that she was the third in line and that she lived at the end of the 11th, or in the early 10th century BCE.318 Historians and Egyptologists have very little knowledge about her life. The stele Pasenhor B from Serapeum in Saqqara, and the text formerly on the roof of the Khonsu temple in Karnak, also mention her.319 According to the previous historiographical research, she married Shoshenq, with whom she bore Akheperra Setepenra, later known as King Osorkon the Elder (984–978 BCE). She was also grandmother of Hedjkheperra, Shoshenq I (945–924 BCE).320 Her shabtis were often broken. Her tomb was most likely robbed in antiquity, and merchants later probably sold her grave goods. It is probable that this shabti, subsequently discovered in a Late Hellenistic grave in Krk, came from one such looting done in the middle of the 1st century BCE. This shabti is one of three known terracotta shabtis belonging to Mehyt-weskhet. Museums in Montserrat and Moscow have two other shabtis from her tomb. Lepsius brought two faience shabtis from Thebes to Berlin in 1845 (Lepsius 1858: no. 574). Petrie mentioned that he also acquired her shabti in 1887, in Luxor, where it was brought from western Thebes.321 One of her shabtis, now in the Egyptian museum in Cairo (CG48527) was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri pit in the so-called ‘Royal Cache’.322 Cf.: Berlin: Ägyptisches Museum – Neues Museum, 7418; Cairo: Egyptian museum, CG48455-CG48457, CG48527; London: Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UC38077, UC39870, UC39871; Montserrat: Museo de Montserrat, 610.105; Moscow: Hermitage Museum, 1615; New York: Brooklyn museum of art, 37.154E; New York: Metropolitan museum of art, 22.3.13, 22.3.14; Paris: Musée du Louvre, N2249, E5334; Swansea: Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, W1315. Bibliography: Tomorad 2015a: 186, 188-189, no. 11, Figure 134; Tomorad 2015b: 141-145, no. 2.1; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 72e-g; Tomorad 2018b: 399-400, no. 4.1.
Figure 6. Terracotta shabti of lady Mehytweskhet, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological Collection, 642. © Mladen Tomorad.
Condition: well preserved. Typology: Schneider 1977, class VIIIC1; Tomorad 2017, shabti class A. Description: Royal personage. Mummiform. 3rd Intermediate Period striated lappet wig with one horizontal band on lappets. Without artificial beard. Arms crossed on chest. Hands crossed right over left, un-sleeved. Hoes in both hands. Flat back. Face is oval and well-shaped. Eyes with brows. Ears well shaped. Hieroglyphic inscription on one vertical column names the owner Mehyt-weskhet. Her name was inscribed in a royal cartouche with the title ‘Divine Adoratrice of Amun, Lord of the Two Lands’. Hieroglyphic inscription: Wsjr dwAt-nTr n Jmn nb tAwy Mhyt-wsxt mry-Mwt Dt Osiris, the Divine Adoratrice of Amun, Lord of the Two Lands, Mehyt-weskhet, beloved of Mut forever
7. Terracotta pseudo-shabti (Figure 7) Collection: Košljun: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological Collection, 641. Provenance: Krk (ancient Curicum), Croatia.
Discussion: Lady Mehyt-weskhet was an important figure from the 3rd Intermediate Period. Sometimes scholars call her Mehyten-weskhet314 or Mehten-weskhet315. On her shabtis she held the titles ‘Divine Adoratrice of Amun’ and ‘God’s Wife of Amun’, which means she was a most important person in the region of Thebes, 314 315
Yoyotte 1972: 47. Yoyotte 1972: 47. 318 Yoyotte 1972: 50. 319 Dodson and Hilton 2004: 207. 320 Dodson and Hilton 2004: 207. 321 Petrie 1905: III, 251. 322 Newberry 1930: 428, 434. 316 317
Dodson and Hilton 2004: 200; Tyldesley 2006: 181. Kitchen 1996: 437, 506
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Mladen Tomorad: Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts
century.323 Hauslauer also thinks that similar shabtis in New York and Vienna are modern ‘fakes’ on account of the pseudo-hieroglyphic text.324 This opinion may be questioned for two reasons: this identical shabti from Krk was discovered in an archaeological context, i.e. it is not modern; and also, false hieroglyphic signs do not necessarily prove that such shabtis are fakes. If such shabtis were crafted outside Egypt, i.e. Sicily or North Africa, they were probably connected with some workshops linked to ancient Egyptian cults. Craftsmen and artists who produced them probably did not understand the ancient Egyptian language and hieroglyphic signs, so they made up pseudo hieroglyphic texts during the Greco-Roman period. Such artefacts were probably sold all over the Mediterranean in ancient times, and the Syracuse region, with its good trade connections with the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt could easily be one of the centres for the distribution of Aegyptiaca in antiquity. Cf.: New York: private collection; Siracusa: Museo Archeologico Regionale ‘P. Orsi’, 47425; Vienna: Kunsthistorisches Museum, 6708. Bibliography: Tomorad 2015a: 177, 189-190, no. 12; Tomorad 2015b: 141-142, 144-145, no. 2.2, Figure 135; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 72c-d; Tomorad 2018b: 400-401, no. 4.2. 8. Terracotta shabti of Djed-Ptah-iuankh (Figure 8ab) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-563. Ex Frano Lanza Collection. Provenance: Solin (ancient Salona), Croatia. Date of discovery: mid-19th century. Dating: Late Period, 27th Dynasty (525–404 BCE). Dimensions: H. 9 cm. Material: brown-green terracotta. Condition: well preserved. Typology: Schneider 1977, class XIA1; Tomorad 2017, shabti class C1. Description: Private individual. Mummiform with back-pillar. Saite plain lappet wig with plain artificial beard. Hands crossed, un-sleeved, arms not indicated. Pick in left hand and narrow hoe and cord in right hand. Basket is quite small and suspended behind left shoulder. Face is narrow with long, prominent nose and normal eyes. Lips are thick. Ears are big and well modelled. Hieroglyphic inscription on the back on one vertical column begins with the formula ¤HD Wsir – ‘The illuminated one, the Osiris’. It also contains the name of the owner: Djed-Ptah-iuankh. Trapezoidal base. Discussion: This artefact is part of group of shabtis donated to the museum by the Lanza family of Split. According to the inventory book of the Egyptian Collection they were discovered in Salona (inv. nos.
Figure 7. Terracotta pseudo-shabti, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery – Archaeological Collection, 641.© Mladen Tomorad.
Date of the discovery: uncertain, 19th – first half of 20th century. Dating: 33rd Dynasty, Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 15.4 cm; W. 5.2 cm. Material: terracotta. Condition: well preserved. Typology: Tomorad 2017, pseudo-shabti class A2. Description: Private individual. Female pseudo-shabti figurine with naked breasts. Striated lappet wig with flat back. Collar around neck. Naked arms with hands on skirt in attitude of praying. Without implements, bags and baskets. Oval and well-shaped face. Eyes with brows. Ears well shaped. Pseudo hieroglyphic inscription on one vertical column carved on skirt above naked feet. Typical life features of New Kingdom shabtis. Discussion: An almost identical pseudo-shabti is today in Syracuse. Supposed to have been discovered in Biggemi before 1935. It was first mentioned in the inventory books of the Museo Archaeologico ‘P. Orsi’ in Syracuse. The Austrian Egyptologist E. Hauslauer analysed it and wrote that it is a modern ‘fake’, probably made at the end of the 19th or beginning of the 20th
323 324
47
Hauslauer 2006: 42. Hauslauer 2006: 42-43.
Egypt in Croatia
Figure 9. Blue-glazed faience shabti, from Solin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian Department, E-564. © Mladen Tomorad. Figure 8. Terracotta shabti of Djed-Ptah-iuankh, from Solin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian Department, E-563. © Mladen Tomorad.
9. Blue-glazed faience shabti (Figure 9a-b) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-564. Ex Frano Lanza Collection. Provenance: Solin (ancient Salona), Croatia. Date of discovery: mid-19th century. Dating: Late Period (26th Dynasty) – Ptolemaic Period (33rd Dynasty) (664–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 8.5 cm. Material: blue-glazed faience. Condition: mediocre modelling; badly damaged, missing upper part of head and lower part of legs. Typology: Schneider 1977, class VIIIC1 or XIA6; Tomorad 2017, shabti class I2. Description: Private individual. Mummiform. Surface is much damaged. Ptolemaic miniature angular wig with plain artificial beard. Upper part of head missing. Hands crossed, un-sleeved, arms not indicated. Hoes in both hands. Left hand missing. Late period trapezoidal basket is suspended behind left shoulder. Oval face with long nose, normal eyes, thick lips and big ears; they are poorly modelled. No hieroglyphic inscription. Lower part of figure missing. Discussion: This artefact is part of group of shabtis donated to the museum by the Lanza family of Split. According to the inventory book of the Egyptian Collection they were discovered in Salona (inv. nos. 561-566). Before and after 1889 they were on display
561-566). Before and after 1889 they were on display in case IV no. 77. Details of where and when they were discovered in the remains of the ancient Salona are unclear. J. Monnet Saleh wrongly attributed it to the F. Koller Collection and dated it to the Ptolemaic Period.325 I. Uranić dated it to the Late Period (25th–31st Dynasties).326 According to the implements in its hands (pick and narrow hoe with cord) it was produced during the Late Period, most likely the 27th Dynasty. It is not clear when it was brought to Salona or for what purpose. Cf.: Leiden: Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, L.VII.18a, AF92a, AF92b, Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-422, E-423. Bibliography: Monet Saleh 1970: 158 no. 727; Tomorad 2000: 2, 13; Tomorad 2003: 35; Tomorad 2004: 90, 109; Tomorad 2005: 4; Tomorad 2006: 298 no. 24 t. 84; Uranić 2007/2009: 187 no. 429; Tomorad 2011: 110, 115, 122, 125, 134; Selem 2012: 56 no. 56; Tomorad 2012: 278; Tomorad 2017a: 237; Tomorad 2017b: 652.
325 326
Monnet Saleh 1970: 158 no. 727. Uranić 2009: 187 no. 429.
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Mladen Tomorad: Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts
in case IV no. 77. A very similar example could have been discovered in Tunis, where it was bought by Humbert and later acquired by the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden. Two similar shabtis are also now in the Liebieghaus Museum, Frankfurt am Main (inv. nos. 1740-1741), but they were dated to the 3rd Intermediate Period (25th Dynasty). It combines two different elements, making the exact dating very hard. The implements (two hoes) could indicate that it was produced by the end of 26th Dynasty, but the Ptolemaic miniature angular wig327 was used from the 33rd Dynasty (the so-called ‘Ptolemaic Dynasty’); thus it was dated from the 25th Dynasty to the Ptolemaic Period. We cannot be sure when and where this shabti was produced and how and when it came to the east Adriatic coast. Cf.: Leiden: Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, HV6-HV22; Frankfurt am Main: Liebieghaus Museum, 1740-1741. Bibliography: Tomorad 2000: 2, 13; Tomorad 2003: 35; Tomorad 2004: 90, 109; Tomorad 2005: 4; Tomorad 2006: 298-299 no. 25 t. 85; Tomorad 2011: 110, 115, 122, 126, 134; Selem 2012: 56-57 no. 57; Tomorad 2012: 278; Tomorad 2017a: 237; Tomorad 2017b: 652. 10. Green-enamelled faience shabti (Figure 10a-b) Figure 10. Green-enamelled faience shabti, from Solin. Private collection Marović, Split. © Petar Selem.
Collection: private collection Marović, Split (Croatia). Ex-Carrara-Bratanić Collection (Split). Provenance: Solin (ancient Salona), Croatia. Date of discovery: 1857. Dating: Late Period (27th –31st Dynasty) (525–332 BCE). Dimensions: H. 10.8 cm. Material: green-enamelled faience. Condition: mediocre modelling; well preserved. Typology: Schneider 1977, class XIA3; Tomorad 2017, shabti class D1. Description: Private individual. Mummiform with back-pillar. Late plain lappet wig with plain artificial beard. Arms crossed on chest. Hands crossed right over left, both sleeves indicated. Narrow hoe in right hand and pick without crossed bar in left hand. Basket is quite small and suspended behind left shoulder. Face is oval with big nose and eyes. Lips are thick. Ears are big and well modelled. T-shaped inscription on front; one line heading one column begins with the typical formula ¤HD Wsir – ‘The illuminated one, the Osiris’, both framed. Trapezoidal base. Cf.: Leiden: Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, AF67a; London: British Museum, BM34069; Paris: Museé du Louvre, E3512, 3519, 3528, 3546, 3548; Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-469. Bibliography: Perc 1968: 246 no. 88; Selem 1971: 113 no. 1; Selem 1972: 19; Budischovsky 1977: 207 no. 32; Selem 1997: 89 no. 2.46 t. XXVIIIa; Tomorad 2000: 2, 10, 13; Bricault 2001: 129; Tomorad 2003: 78, 174; Tomorad 2004: 91, 97, 105-107, 109; Tomorad 2005: 23; Tomorad 327
2006a: 36; Tomorad 2006b: 287-288 no. 5 T.78/2; Selem 2008: 52 no. 49; Selem 2012: no. 49, 52; Tomorad 2012: 277; Tomorad 2015a: 53; Tomorad 2015b: 176-177; Tomorad 2016: 186, 197; Tomorad 2017a: 220, 225, 237; Tomorad 2017b: 652. 11. Green-enamelled faience shabti (Figure 11a-b) Collection: private collection Marović, Split (Croatia). Ex-Carrara-Bratanić Collection (Split). Provenance: Solin (ancient Salona), Croatia. Date of discovery: mid-19th century. Dating: Late Period (27th–31st Dynasty) (525–332 BCE). Dimensions: H. 9.2 cm. Material: green-enamelled faience. Condition: mediocre modelling; damaged; missing lower part of legs. Typology: Schneider 1977, class XIA3; Tomorad 2017, shabti class D1. Description: Private individual. Mummiform with back-pillar. Late plain lappet wig with plaited artificial beard. Arms crossed on chest. Hands crossed right over left, both sleeves indicated. Narrow hoe in right hand and pick without crossed bar in left. Basket quite small and suspended behind left shoulder. Face is oval with big nose and eyes. Lips are thick. Large, well-modelled ears. T-shaped hieroglyphic inscription on front. One line heading one column, both framed.
Schneider 1977: type 41.
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Egypt in Croatia
Figure 11. Green-enamelled faience shabti, from Solin. Private collection Marović, Split. © Petar Selem.
Figure 12. Green-glazed calcareous stone shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, B214. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Cf.: Leiden: Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, AF67a; London: British Museum, BM34069; Paris: Museé du Louvre, E3512, 3519, 3528, 3546, 3548; Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-469. Bibliography: Selem 1971: 113 no. 2; Selem 1972: 19; Budischovsky 1977: 207 no. 32; Selem 1997: 89 no. 2.47 t. XXIX.a; Tomorad 2000: 2, 10, 13; Bricault 2001: 129; Tomorad 2003: 78, 174; Tomorad 2004: 91, 97, 105-107, 109; Tomorad 2005: 23; Tomorad 2006a: 36; Tomorad 2006b: 288 no. 6, T.79/1; Selem 2008: 196 no. 145; Selem 2012: 52-53 no. 50; Tomorad 2012: 277; Tomorad 2015a: 53; Tomorad 2015b: 176-177; Tomorad 2016: 186, 197; Tomorad 2017a: 220, 225, 237; Tomorad 2017b: 652.
Description: Private individual. Mummiform with back-pillar. Late plain lappet wig with plaited artificial beard. Hands crossed right over left; right sleeve indicated. Pick in the left hand, and hoe with and cord in the right. Mediocre modelling with narrow face, eyes, nose, mouth and ears. Basket is quite small and suspended behind left shoulder. Large, thick nose and eyes; thick lips and large, well-modelled ears. Hieroglyphic inscription in two vertical columns begins with the formula ¤HD, unreadable in lower part. Trapezoidal base. The pick in left hand suggests that it was crafted after the 27th Dynasty; the position of the hands and type of face are typical 30th Dynasty. Cf.: Frankfurt am Main: Liebieghaus, 1760; Leiden: Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, AF77b, AF77c, AF77d, AF93b, AF93c, AF93d, AF94a, AF94b, AF94c, AF94d, AF95a, AF95b, AF95c, AF95d. Bibliography: Selem 1969: 126-127 no. 25 t. XVIII.1; Selem 1972: 19; Budischovsky 1977: 206 no. 28 t. Cb; Selem 1997: 86-87 no. 2.42 t. XXIV; Tomorad 2000: 2, 9-10, 13; Tomorad 2003: 52, 173; Tomorad 2004: 90, 97, 108-109; Tomorad 2005: 18; Tomorad 2006a: 293-294 no. 16 t. 81/2; Tomorad 2006b: 22; Selem 2008: 191192 no. 140; Selem 2012: 49-50 no. 46; Tomorad 2012: 277; Tomorad 2015a: 48; Tomorad 2015b: 170, 174-175;
12. Green-glazed calcareous stone shabti (Figure 12) Collection: Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, B214. Provenance: unknown site in the region of central Dalmatia, Croatia. Date of discovery: 19th century. Dating: Late Period; probably 30th Dynasty (380–343 BCE). Dimensions: H. 11.3 cm. Material: dark-green-glazed calcareous stone. Condition: damage to surface and hieroglyphic inscription; parts of the wig are broken and missing. Typology: Schneider 1977, class XIC, Tomorad 2017, shabti class F. 50
Mladen Tomorad: Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts
Tomorad 2016a: 184-185, 197; Tomorad 2017a: 220, 224, 237; Tomorad 2017b: 652.
begins with the formula ¤HD Wsir. Trapezoidal base. Cf.: Leiden: Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, L.VII.18a, AF46b, AF46c. Bibliography: Selem 1969: 127 no. 27 t. XVIII; Selem 1972: 19; Budischovsky 1977: 206 no. 29 t. CI; Selem 1997: 87 no. 2.43 t. XXVI; Ergović 1999: 20-21 Figure 1-3; Tomorad 2000: 2, 9-10, 13; Tomorad 2003: 52, 173; Tomorad 2004: 90, 97, 108-109; Tomorad 2005: 18; Tomorad 2006: 294 no. 17 t. 83/1; Selem 2008: 192-193 no. 141; Selem 2012: 50-51 no. 47; Tomorad 2012: 277; Tomorad 2017a: 237; Tomorad 2017b: 652.
13. Dark granite shabti (Figure 13) Collection: Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, B215. Provenance: unknown site in the region of central Dalmatia, Croatia. Date of discovery: 19th century. Dating: Late Period; 27th Dynasty (525–404 BCE). Dimensions: H. 17.4 cm. Material: dark granite. Condition: fine modelling; damaged; broken at the knees. Typology: Schneider 1977, class XIA1, Tomorad 2017, shabti class C2. Description: Private individual. Mummiform with back-pillar. Saite period common plain lappet wig with plaited beard. Arms crossed on chest. Hands crossed; sleeves indicated. Pick in left hand and narrow hoe and cord in right. Basket is quite small and suspended behind left shoulder. Face is oval with long nose and big eyes. Lips are thick; large, well-modelled ears. Inscription on the back-pillar in one vertical column;
14. Green-glazed faience shabti (Figure 14) Collection: Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, G1623. Provenance: unknown site in the region of central Dalmatia, Croatia. Date of discovery: 19th century. Dating: Late Period (30th Dynasty) – Ptolemaic period (33rd Dynasty) (380–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 13.8 cm. Material: green-glazed faience. Condition: mediocre modelling; surface damage of the glazed faience.
Figure 13. Dark granite shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, B215. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 14. Green-glazed faience shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, G1623. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
51
Egypt in Croatia 15. Green-glazed faience shabti (Figure 15)
Typology: Schneider 1977, class XIC; Tomorad 2017, shabti class J. Description: Private individual. Mummiform with back-pillar. Late plain lappet wig with plaited artificial beard. Hands crossed on chest, un-sleeved. Arms not indicated. Pick in left hand and narrow hoe and cord in right. Basket is quite small and suspended behind left shoulder. Face is oval with long, prominent nose and big eyes. Lips are thick. Large, well-modelled ears. Hieroglyphic inscription on front in one vertical column, framed but open at top, begins with the formula ¤HD Wsir Hm-nTr. Trapezoidal base. Cf.: Leiden: Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, AF39a, AF39b, AF71a, AF71b. Bibliography: Perc 1968: 246 no. 88; Selem 1969: 126 no. 21 t. XIV; Selem 1972: 18; Budischovsky 1977: 204 no. 24; Selem 1997: 82-84 no. 2.38 t. XXIIa; Tomorad 2000: 2, 9-10, 13; Tomorad 2003: 52, 173; Tomorad 2004: 90, 97, 108-109; Tomorad 2005: 18; Tomorad 2006: 291 no. 12 t. 81/4; Selem 2008: 186-188 no. 136; Selem 2012: 45 no. 42; Tomorad 2012: 277; Tomorad 2017a: 220, 224, 237; Tomorad 2017b: 652.
Collection: Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, G1624. Provenance: unknown site in the region of central Dalmatia, Croatia. Date of discovery: 19th century. Dating: Late Period (30th Dynasty) – Ptolemaic Period (33rd Dynasty) (380–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 14.1 cm. Material: green-glazed faience. Condition: mediocre modelling; damaged, broken artificial beard. Typology: Schneider 1977, class XIC; Tomorad 2017, shabti class K, Description: Private individual. Mummiform with back-pillar. Late, plain lappet wig with horizontal bands on lappets and plaited artificial beard. Hands crossed, un-sleeved, arms not indicated. Crook turned to the left in left hand and narrow hoe and twisted cord of basket in right. Basket is carried behind left shoulder. Face is small, with long nose and big eyes. Lips are thick. Ears are very large and well modelled. Hieroglyphic inscription on front in one vertical column, framed but open at top; it begins with the formula Wsir Hm-nTr. Trapezoidal base. Cf.: Leiden: Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, SHA, H.III.M.4. Bibliography: Perc 1968: 246 no. 88; Selem 1969: 126 no. 22 t. XVI.1; Selem 1972: 18; Budischovsky 1977: 204-205 no. 25 t. XCVIIIc; Selem 1997: 84-85 no. 2.39 t. XXIIb; Tomorad 2000: 2, 9-10, 13; Tomorad 2003: 52, 173; Tomorad 2004: 90, 97, 108-109; Tomorad 2005: 18; Tomorad 2006: 292 no. 13 t. 82/1; Selem 2008: 188189 no. 137; Selem 2012: 46 no. 43; Tomorad 2012: 277; Tomorad 2017a: 220, 224, 237; Tomorad 2017b: 652. 16. Green-glazed faience shabti (Figure 16) Collection: Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, G1625. Provenance: Hvar (ancient Pharos), Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th – first half of 20th century. Dating: Late Period; 26th Dynasty (664–525 BCE). Dimensions: H. 4.8 cm. Material: green-glazed terracotta. Condition: crude modelling; broken at the knees; missing lower part of figure. Typology: Schneider 1977, class XIA; Tomorad 2017, shabti class C1. Description: Private individual. Mummiform with back-pillar. Saite period plain lappet wig with plain artificial wig; wig and back-pillar combined. Hands crossed on the chest opposite, arms not indicated. Hoes in both hands. Basket is quite small and suspended behind left shoulder. Crude modelling of the face, nose, eyes, lips and ears. Hieroglyphic inscription in the front and on the back-pillar. Front inscription in two vertical columns, framed but open at top, unreadable. Hieroglyphic inscription on the back-pillar begins with
Figure 15. Green-glazed faience shabti, from unknown site in the region of Central Dalmatia. Split: Archaeological Museum, G1624. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
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Mladen Tomorad: Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts
Figure 16. Green-glazed faience shabti, from Hvar. Split: Archaeological Museum, G1625. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
formula ¤HD Wsir, the rest is unreadable. Broken at the knees. Missing lower part of figure. Cf.: Similar type of 26th-Dynasty shabtis from the reneppriest Hor-em-heb in ex-J.M. Ortuondo Collections (Bilbao, Spain). Bibliography: Selem 1969: 127 no. 26 t. XVII.2-3; Selem 1972: 21; Budischovsky 1977: 186 t. XIII.2, XCIVa, XCIVc; Selem 1994: 456 no. 2; Selem 1997: 109-110 no. 4.6 t. LIa; Tomorad 2000: 2, 9-10, 13; Bricault 2001: 129; Tomorad 2003: 78; Tomorad 2004: 90, 97, 108-109; Tomorad 2005: 18; Tomorad 2006: 287 no. 4 t. 78/1; Tomorad 2012: 277; Tomorad 2017a: 220, 224, 237; Tomorad 2017b: 652.
Figure 17. Amulet-shaped Sistrum, from Vizače. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5048. © Mladen Tomorad.
objects were commonly used in various Isaic rituals during the Hellenistic Period and the Roman Empire. They were made sounds when metal sticks where shaken. Above the trapezoidal ring there is a small fixing, probably part of small hook used for hanging the amulet on a string. There is a very small handle below trapezoidal ring. This item probably belonged to a member of a small Isaic community living in the area of the pre-Roman settlement at Nesactium. Previous scholars have argued over the date of this sistrum; either they did not date it, or they dated it to the 1st century CE simply because they did not research connections with Egypt in previous periods, or they just thought that such communities could only have existed on the Istrian peninsula from the period of the Roman Empire. According to our research it could be linked to the pre-Roman settlement of Nesactium, which was destroyed by the Romans in 177 BCE. In that important town, a small community of ancient Egyptian believers could have been present from the 3rd century BCE, which could be supported by the finds of other Ptolemaic material from along the coast of
17. Amulet-shaped Sistrum (Figure 17a-b) Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5048; on display in the Nesactium room. Provenance: Vizače (ancient Nesactium). Date of discovery: 1906–1908. Dating: 3rd century BCE – 1st century CE. Dimensions: H. 7.8 cm; W. 5.2 cm. Material: bronze. Condition: well preserved. Description: Amulet-shaped sistrum made from a prolonged trapezoidal ring with four sticks. These metal 53
Egypt in Croatia not on display. Provenance: unknown site in the region of Istria, Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th – first half of 20th century. Dating: Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 9.2 cm; W. 2.2 cm. Material: bronze. Condition: badly damaged; missing left lower leg below dress, right ankle, foot, ankh, and was sceptre. Description: Standing figure represents the ancient Egyptian goddess Neith in her characteristic pose. On her head she is wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, the region with which she was in ancient times most closely associated. The neck is decorated with a stylised necklace, and the upper arms with stylised bracelets. Her right arm hangs straight by her body; her left arm and leg are thrown forward. The upper torso (breasts and belly) seems to be naked. The breasts are visible. The lower part of the body is covered with typical Egyptian dress. In her most common representation, she usually holds the was (power) sceptre in her left arm, and ankh (life) symbol in her right. In this case these symbols are missing. The position of her left hand suggests that there was originally a was staff. The item was previously interpreted as an ancient Egyptian figure328 and as ancient Egyptian man in a walking position329. Bibliography: Perc 1968: 160-161, no. 17; Budischovsky 1977: 174-175; Džin 20-21: no. 4, Figure 4; Tomorad 2003: 49, fn. 197; Giunio 2002: 27, fn. 17; Tomorad 2005: 17; Tomorad 2007: 51-51, no. 5; Tomorad 2015a: 182-183, no. 6, Figure 129; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 70d-e. 19. Small figure-amulet of Harpocrates (Figure 19) Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5221, not on display. Provenance: unknown site in the region of Istria, Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th – first half of 20th century. Dating: Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 6.7 cm; W. 2 cm. Material: bronze. Condition: well preserved. Description: Small figure-amulet of the Hellenistic god Harpocrates. The young god is shown naked with touching knees. His head is pointed slightly forward. Straight arms held close to the body. Harpocrates is shown with his typical hairstyle – on the right side of the head the hair is tied into a small lock or tail. There is a small uraeus in the centre of his forehead, and a small base below his feet. A small hook used for hanging the amulet by a string is visible behind the neck. The item was previously was interpreted as small statuette of
Figure 18. Bronze statuette of goddess Neith, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5220. © Mladen Tomorad.
Istria of unknown provenance. Bibliography: Puschi 1914: 59-60, abb. 25; Perc 1968: 157-158, no. 14; Budischovsky 1977: 173, pl. IX; Džin 2001: 18-19, unmarked fig.; Giunio 2002: 26-27; Tomorad 2003: 49, fn. 193, Figure 46; Tomorad 2005: 17; Tomorad 2007: 48-49, no. 3; Selem 2015: 16, no. 7; Tomorad 2015a: 181-182, no. 5, Figure 128; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 70b. 18. Bronze statuette of goddess Neith (Figure 18a-c)
328
Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5220,
329
54
Perc 1968: 160-161, no. 17. Džin 2001: 20-21, no. 4, Figure 4; Giunio 2002: 27, fn. 17.
Mladen Tomorad: Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts
not on display. Provenance: unknown site in the region of Istria, Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th – first half of 20th century. Dating: Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 4.8 cm; W. 9.5 cm. Material: bronze. Condition: damaged, missing lower part of left front and hind legs. Description: Small statuette of the sacred bull Apis. The animal wears a solar or lunar disc and small uraeus between its horns. Along the body there are cuts which probably represent ornaments, indicating that the animal is the incarnation of the god Apis. Bibliography: Perc 1968: 159-160, no. 16; Budischovsky 1977: 174-175; Džin 2001: 19-20, no. 2, Figure 2; Giunio 2002: 27, fn. 17; Tomorad 2003: 49, fn. 195; Tomorad 2005: 17; Tomorad 2007: 53-54, no. 7; Tomorad 2015a: 182-183, 185, no. 8, Figure 131; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 71d-f.
Figure 19. Small figure-amulet of Harpocrates, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5221. © Mladen Tomorad.
21. Young Egyptian prince or Pharaoh in kneeling position (Figure 21a-c) Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5210; not on display. Provenance: unknown site in the region of Istria, Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th – first half of 20th century. Dating: Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 6.5 cm; W. 2.2 cm. Material: Bronze. Condition: badly damaged, missing right forearm and left hand. Description: Small figurine represents young male in kneeling position. On his head is the klaft – nemesis, usually worn by Egyptian Pharaohs or princes who will inherit the throne. His torso is naked, but he wears jewellery. There are two necklaces around his neck. Arms held to his body. The upper right arm seems to be decorated with stylised bracelet. His right forearm and hand, and left hand are missing. Hips are covered with typical ancient Egyptian cloth, decorated with ornaments. The legs and feet are bare. There is a small base below the figure. The body of the figure bends slightly forward. It seems that the figure was offering some sacrifice to the gods. The figure is badly damaged so we cannot be sure what kind of offering. The statuette represents the kneeling figure of young Pharaoh giving religious offering. The items as previously interpreted as ancient Egyptian figure332 and ancient Egyptian woman333. Bibliography: Perc 1968: 161, no. 18; Budischovsky 1977: 174-175; Džin 2001: 20-21, no. 5, Figure 5; Giunio
Harpocrates330, and as small amulet of a naked man with touching knees331. Bibliography: Perc 1968, 162, no. 19; Budischovsky 1977, 174-175; Džin 2001, 20-21, no. 3, Figure 3; Giunio 2002: 27, fn. 17; Tomorad 2003: 49, fn. 196; Tomorad 2005: 17; Tomorad 2007: 52-53, no. 6; Tomorad 2015a: 182, 184, no. 7, Figure 130; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 70a, c. 20. Apis (Figure 20)
Figure 20. Apis, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5223. © Mladen Tomorad.
Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5223; 330 331
Perc 1968: 161, no. 19; Tomorad 2007: 52-53, no. 6. Džin 2001: 20-21, no. 3; Giunio 2002: 27, fn. 17.
332 333
55
Perc 1968: 161, no. 18. Džin 2001: 20-21, no. 5, Figure 5; Giunio 2002: 27, fn. 17.
Egypt in Croatia
Figure 22. Osiris, from Bale. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5224. © Mladen Tomorad.
Osiris in anthropomorphic form. He is shown as a mummified standing male figure with the feathered atef crown. A small uraeus is also attached on the front side of the crown. There is the crook in his left and flail in his right hand. The face is stylised and schematically represented. It is also decorated with two thin, stylised beards. Bibliography: Perc 1968: 158-159, no. 15; Budischovsky 1977: 168; Džin 2001: 19-20, no. 1, Figure 1; Giunio 2002: 27; Tomorad 2003: 49, fn. 194; Tomorad 2005: 17; Tomorad 2007: 54-55, no. 8; Selem 2015: 15-16, no. 6; Tomorad 2015a: 184-185, 187, no. 10, Figure 133; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 72a-b.
Figure 21. Young Egyptian prince or Pharaoh in kneeling position, from unknown site in the region of Istria. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5210. © Mladen Tomorad.
2002: 27, fn. 17; Tomorad 2003: 49, fn. 199; Tomorad 2005: 17; Tomorad 2007: 49-50, no. 4; Tomorad 2015a: 183, 186, no. 9, Figure 132; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 71a-c.
23. Green-glazed faience scarab (Figure 23a-b)
22. Osiris (Figure 22)
Collection: Franciscan Monastery Košljun: without inventory number, on display. Provenance: Krk (ancient Curicum), Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th – first half of 20th century. Dating: Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 1.8 cm; W. 1.5 cm. Material: Green-glazed faience. Condition: well preserved. Description: Carved scarab beetle on front side. Head with eyes and clypeus shown. A groove separates the prothorax from the wing cases (elytra), which are divided
Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-5224; not on display. Provenance: Bale (ancient Valle), Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th – first half of 20th century. Dating: Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 15.5 cm; W. 3.8 cm. Material: bronze. Condition: damaged base. Description: Statuette of the ancient Egyptian god 56
Mladen Tomorad: Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts
Figure 23. Green-glazed faience scarab, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 24. Hard-paste scarab, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery. © Mladen Tomorad.
by a double line. A V-shaped notch at the top of each wing-case. Legs are delineated. The scarab base, encircled, has impressed hieroglyphic signs arranged vertically: a falcon with a nḫ3ḫ3-flagellum, turned right, and a rearing cobra in front (both signs are crowned by sun-disks); a nb-sign closes the field from below. On the basis of the principles of cryptography formulated by E. Drioton334, the whole may be read also as follows: Jmn-Rᶜ nb (.j) ‘Amun-Ra is (my) Lord’. It belongs to mass-produced types representing a wide variety of workshops of late Egyptian and Eastern origin (Naukratis, Phoenician and Punic types). Finds of this kind date to the 1st millennium BCE, especially to the second half, and were very popular at many sites, mainly necropolises, around the Mediterranean, but until now are unknown on Adriatic shores. It is most likely a product of the Ptolemaic Period or Late Roman Republic. Bibliography: Tomorad 2015a: 194-195, no. 20, Figure 143; Tomorad and Sliwa 2015: 244-245, no. 1; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 74e-f.
arranged horizontally; the man turned right, his left hand raised, the right lowered. In the irregular oval, on the right side of the field, three hieroglyphic signs of the prenomen of Thutmose III (mn-ḫpr-rᶜ, normal type graphic) are clumsily stamped335, which are at the same time the cryptographic form of Amun’s name336. The item is probably a Hellenistic copy of an 18th-Dynasty scarab. Its surface is strongly abraded, probably as a result of water activity. It belongs to mass-produced types representing a wide variety of workshops of late Egyptian and Eastern origin (Naukratis, Phoenician and Punic types). Finds of this kind, dated to the 1st millennium BCE, especially to the second half, were very popular at many sites, mainly necropolises, around the Mediterranean, but until now are unknown on Adriatic shores. It is most likely a product of the Ptolemaic Period or Late Roman Republic. Bibliography: Tomorad 2015a: 193-194, no. 19, Figure 142; Tomorad and Sliwa 2015: 245-246, no. 2; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 74c-d. 25. Hard-paste scarab (Figure 25a-b)
24. Hard-paste scarab (Figure 24a-b)
Collection: Franciscan Monastery Košljun: without inventory number, on display. Provenance: Krk (ancient Curicum), Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th – first half of 20th century. Dating: Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 1.8 cm; W. 1.5 cm. Material: Hard paste. Condition: abraded. Description: Carved scarab beetle on front side. Head with eyes showing. A groove separates the prothorax from the wing cases (elytra), which are divided by a line. A V-shaped notch at the top of each wing-case. Legs are delineated. On an oval surface of the base, in an encircling, a horizontally arranged emblem is clumsily
Collection: Franciscan Monastery Košljun: without inventory number, on display. Provenance: Krk (ancient Curicum), Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th – first half of 20th century. Dating: Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE). Dimensions: H. 1.8 cm; W. 1.3 cm. Material: Hard paste. Condition: abraded. Description: Carved scarab beetle on front side. Head with eyes showing. A groove separates the prothorax from the wing cases (elytra), which are divided by a line. A V-shaped notch at the top of each wing-case. Legs are delineated. A man confronting in the oval is carelessly depicted on the base in an enclosure. The scene is 334
335
Drioton 1957: 20-26.
336
57
Jaeger 1982: § 37.1a. Drioton 1957; Jaeger 1982: 94.
Egypt in Croatia
Figure 25. Hard-paste scarab, from Krk. Košljun: Franciscan Monastery. © Mladen Tomorad.
impressed. Its central part consists of an irregular oval (as a cartouche substitute) filled with three negligently executed signs. The exact translation and meaning of these signs are not clear. It could represent the name of Thutmose III (mn-ḫpr-rᶜ), denoting also the cryptographic form of Amun’s name337, or possibly could even be read as aHA-rᶜ (Raa warrior). These signs are very carelessly executed, with two legs excessively large. The king’s name, Amun trigram, or Raa title, is additionally flanked by two m3ᶜt feathers filling the field on both sides, and another sun-disk to the left of an irregular oval. Its surface is strongly abraded, probably as a result of water activity. It belongs to mass-produced types representing a wide variety of workshops of late Egyptian and Eastern origin (Naukratis, Phoenician and Punic types). Finds of this kind dated to the 1st millennium BCE, especially to the second half, were very popular at many sites, mainly necropolises, around the Mediterranean, but until now are unknown on Adriatic shores. It is most likely a product of the Ptolemaic Period or the Late Roman Republic. Bibliography: Tomorad 2015a: 193, no. 18, Figure 141; Tomorad and Sliwa 2015: 246-247, no. 3.
Figure 26. Bes amulet, from Zadar. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, KV.72a.© Zadar: Archaeological Museum.
Bibliography: Guinio and Gluščević 2007. 27. Isis-Fortuna (Figure 27) Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-4620, on display in the Temple of Augustus, Pula. Provenance: Savudrija (ancient Silbonis, Silvium Promontorium), Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, first half of 20th century. Dating: 1st century CE. Dimensions: H. 9.2 cm. Material: bronze. Condition: well preserved. Description: Figure represents the HellenisticRoman syncretistic goddess Isis-Fortuna, who was very popular within the Roman Empire. The whole statuette is made very gracefully and proportionally, with a face that represents classical beauty. The figure presents the Hellenistic form of the ancient Egyptian goddess Isis (the hairstyle), Isis-Pelagia, or the Roman goddess Fortuna (the crown symbolising the control of human destiny), the Greek goddess Demeter (with rim of wheat-measure or modius), and the Hellenistic Pelagitatia (cornucopia, exotic fruit). She leans on her right foot with hip twisting right. The head is slightly turned to the right, decorated with the hairstyle typical of Isis, parted on two sides and gathered in a bun at the back. Above her hair there is a crown decorated with two horns, solar-disk, and two feathers. On the back of her head is the modius rim. She is dressed in a long shirt, hiton, without sleeves, which is cut with a neckline. She wears a cloak, himation, that goes from the left shoulder diagonally over the back, fixed around the hips at the height of her fingers. In her right arm, lowered and turned to the right, she holds a rudder; the left hand holds the cornucopia, full of exotic fruit.
26. Bes amulet (Figure 26a-b) Collection: Zadar: Archaeological Museum in Zadar, KV.72a. Provenance: Zadar (ancient Iader), the Roman necropolis at Relja, grave 877, Croatia. Date of discovery: 1998. Dating: 1st century BCE – 2nd century CE. Dimensions: H. 3.6 cm. Material: glass paste. Condition: well preserved. Description: Amulet of Bes warrior made from blueglass paste. Naked, dwarf god with wide head and thick hair. Left arm inclines to the left hip; right arm holds sword above head. He wears a feather crown. Bandy short legs. On the back is a perforation for a string. 337
Drioton 1957; Jaeger 1982: 94.
58
Mladen Tomorad: Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts
Figure 28. Marble fragment of head relief depicting theEgyptian goddess Hathor, from Pula. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-8712. © Mladen Tomorad.
a low modius. The face is shown as that of a small child, with flat nose and disproportionally small mouth. The head is covered with triple-folded wig and tied with three gold-plated bands. The neck is decorated with a tiny gold necklace with triangular-shaped incisions. It was once attached to a wall as part of the decoration of the ancient Roman amphitheatre in Pula (now the ‘Arena’), built in the second part of the 1st century CE. There are several fixing holes on the back of this fragment; some mortar remains are also still visible. ‘XIII’ is engraved on the back. It was probably one of several similar head reliefs that decorated the columns or walls of the amphitheatre. It was discovered among building material and mortar during reconstruction works of the audience seats, together with a coin of the Emperor Galba. Bibliography: Degrassi 1933, 395-396; Perc 1968, 148-150, no. 11; Jurkić-Girardi 1974, 13, Figure 15; Budischovsky 1977: 173, VIII; Jurkić-Girardi 1985: 76, no. 164; Jurkić-Girardi 2001, 14-15; Tomorad 2003, 48, fn. 180; Jurkić-Girardi 2005: 225-225, no. 3.13.1; Tomorad 2005, 16-1; Tomorad 2007, 45-46, no. 1; Selem 2015: 1819, no. 9; Tomorad 2015a: 194-195, no. 21, Figure 144.
Figure 27. Isis-Fortuna, from Savudrija. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-4620. © Mladen Tomorad.
Bibliography: Degrassi 1962: 881-884; Perc 1968: 148150, no. 11; Jurkić-Giradi 1974: 8, fn. 29; Budischovsky 1977: 168-170; Jurkić-Girardi: 13-14; Tomorad 2003: 48, fn. 179; Tomorad 2005: 16; Tomorad 2007: 47-48, no. 2; Selem 2015: 12, no. 2; Tomorad 2015a: 194-196, no. 22, Figure 145. 28. Marble fragment of head relief depicting the Egyptian goddess Hathor (Figure 28) Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-8712; on display in the Temple of Augustus, Pula. Provenance: ancient Roman amphitheatre. Date of discovery: 1932/1933. Dating: 69–81 CE. Dimensions: H. 11.8 cm; W. 17.4 cm. Material: white polished marble. Condition: wig is badly damaged, missing the lower right side and the whole left side. Description: Marble fragment of a head with representation of the ancient Egyptian goddess Hathor. Hathor is shown with a human face, the ears of a cow, and narrow slanted eyes, all typical of her anthropomorphic form of a woman in a long wig with
29. Monolith block of part of an altar parapet with a head in the image of Jupiter Ammon (Figure 29) Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-391, on display in the Lapidarium. Provenance: Pula (ancient Pola), Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th century. Dating: 1st century CE. Dimensions: 120 x 80 x 85 cm. Material: limestone. Condition: damaged, the left lower corner of the monument is missing. 59
Egypt in Croatia Dimensions: 136.5 x 45 cm. Material: white marble. Condition: the statue is damaged: head, neck and both hands below elbow are missing; surface of legs, foot and pieces of chiton are missing. Description: Isis is shown standing in an Ionian chiton, with a himation over it. Her scarf is tied into an Isiac knot at the breast. The thick folds of the fabric are nicely wrought. Below them, well-developed, albeit not excessively large, breasts can be discerned. The weight is placed on the right leg. The legs with gentle contours can also be discerned under the fabric. The head and both arms are missing. On the left leg there is a break at roughly knee level. Based on the position of the right arm up to the breakage point, one may assume that she once held a sistrum. Based on the iconographic model, it may be assumed that she held a situla in her left hand. The iconographic modelling of this Isis statue from Nin belongs to the Hellenistic tradition of the latter half of the 4th c. BCE. It is probably a Roman copy from the end of the 1st c. CE. It was a work of high quality. Bibliography: Loewy and Kubitschek 1879: 166, no. 3; Brunšmid 1904: 230, no. 34, Figure 34; Gorenc 1952: no. 51; Selem 1961: 4; Perc 1968: 223, no. 71; Suić, Batović
Figure 29. Monolith block of part of an altar parapet with a head in the image of Jupiter Ammon, from Pula. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-391. © Mladen Tomorad.
Description: On the front, in a square edicula, the head of a god suited to Jupiter-Amon is carved in a relief. The head is covered with dense, curly hair, from which two horns emerge. The face is dominated by a wide nose, half-closed mouth and curly hair. The edicula is bordered by a louvered flat frame. Above the edicula there is a triple-profilated area. Overall it is an excellently crafted piece of work. Bibliography: Forlati Tamaro 1930: 23; Budischovsky 1973: 203; Figure 2; Jurkić-Girardi 1974: 7, Figure 2; Budischovsky 1977: 171, Pl. VIII/4; Starac 1996: 8182, no. 1; Jurkić-Girardi 2001: 8-9; Giunio 2002: 61, fn. 120, Pl. 16; Tomorad 2003: 48-49, fn. 185; Jurkić-Girardi 2005: 2, no. 1.13; Tomorad 2005: 16; Tomorad 2007: 44; Jurkić-Girardi 2012: 134-135, no. 2; Selem 2013: 121, no. 5; Selem 2015: 19-20, no. 10; Tomorad 2016b: 194-195. 30. Statue of Isis in white marble (Figure 30) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Ancient Department, A-34, on display in the Lapidarium. Provenance: Nin (ancient Aenona), Croatia. Date of discovery: 19th century. Dating: end of 1st century CE.
Figure 30. Statue of Isis in white marble, from Nin. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, Ancient Department, A-34. © Mladen Tomorad.
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and Belošević 1968; Suić 1969: 87, Figure 8; Selem 1972: 10-11, no. 3; Budischovsky 1977: 176-177; Suić, Batović and Belošević 1979; Selem 1997: 54-55, no. 1.11; Bricault 2001: 128; Giunio 2002: 29-30; Tomorad 2003: 40-42; 136, fn. 84, 87; Giunio 2005: 218-219; Tomorad 2005: 7; Kuntić-Makvić 2009: 335; Giunio 2015: 207-208, Figure 158; Selem 2015: 31-32, no. 23; Tomorad 2016b: 191, fn. 64, 196-197, Pl. 76c.
Bibliography: Ljubić 1889: 69; Brunšmid 1914: 237, no. 1; Leclant 1963: 214; Selem 1972: 25; Budischovky 1977: 178; Selem 1997: 48, no. 1.3; Bricault 2001: 129; Tomorad 2003: 42, fn. 87; Tomorad 2005: 7; Tomorad 2015: Selem 2015: 25, no. 16; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 73b. 32. A votive altar dedicated to Isis (Figure 32a-c) Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-41 (old inv. no. 229), on display in the Lapidarium, room I. Provenance: Galižana (ancient vicus Galisanus), Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th century. Dating: 1st–2nd century CE. Dimensions: 91 x 50 x 43 cm. Material: limestone.
31. Isis-Fortuna (Figure 31a-b) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Ancient Department, A-4633, on display. Provenance: unknown site in the region of Lika, Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th century. Dating: 1st–2nd century CE. Dimensions: H. 7.3 cm. Material: bronze with dark-brown patina. Condition: minor damage at the bottom. Description: This standing figure of the goddess IsisFortuna wears a long chiton with a somewhat shorter himation over it and tied around the waist. The chiton is portrayed with vertical, and the himation with diagonal, drapery folds. She has on her head a basileion (a small disk, the moon framed by bovine horns). There are throwing sheaves on each side, with a feather in the middle. The is a uraeus-cobra on her forehead. The hairstyle was rendered hastily. Her extended right-hand leans on a rudder, while her left arm is held against her body, and she holds a large cornucopia.
Figure 31, Isis-Fortuna, from unknown site in the region of Lika. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, Ancient Department, A-4633. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 32. A votive altar dedicated to Isis, from Galižana. Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, A-41. © Mladen Tomorad.
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Egypt in Croatia Jurkić-Girardi 2005: 201, no. 3.4.1; Tomorad 2005: 16; Selem 2015: 17-18, no. 8; Tomorad 2015a: 178;
Condition: badly damaged. Description: The monument has the form of a rectangular block positioned on a widened pedestal, profiled in relief on three sides. A gable was originally over the inscription area. Its front is fully chiselled off, with a shallow profile on the sides. A votive message to Isis is engraved on top of the inscription area in regular elongated letters of the same height in three lines. The middle of the inscription area under the first line is decorated in relief with symbols of Isis and other objects used in cult activities. The second line of the inscription is engraved on the front of the monument and the letter-size is the same as in the first line. The third and last line are engraved at the very bottom of the monument in small plain letters, all the same size.
33. Oil lamp with Harpocrates riding a crocodile, a sacred animal of Isis-Thermouthis (Figure 33) Collection: Zadar: Archaeological Museum in Zadar, 381. Provenance: Nin (ancient Aenona), Croatia.
[I]SIDIS IM{N}PERIO Q(uintus) LVTATIVS IVCVNDVS [At the behest of Isis Quintus Lutatius Jucundus] Several relief depictions can be discerned on the front of the altar: a clapper (sistrum), a small chest (cistella), a prophetic bird (avis) – all objects that used in the Isis cult. Instruments of Isis are also engraved all over the altar’s right lateral side in shallow relief: sword (gladius), augur’s bent cane (lituus), saw (serra), genius leading a panther, ears of grain (spica), and peacock above the earth and crescent. These items are often associated with the goddess Isis, who, in Egyptian, Hellenistic and Roman religious traditions, was the protector of seafarers. It is unsurprising therefore that the symbols associated with the sea (dolphin, rudder, paddles, trident) all feature on the altar. Perc338, Budischovsky339 and Selem340 all see Harpocrates in the form of a naked boy on a dog, while V. Jurkić-Girardi341 sees him as the winged genius. B. Forlati Tamaro dates the monument to the 1st century by its form, although the style of the letters resembles more the 2nd-century type. Bibliography: CIL V.10; Reichel 1893a: 1-13; Reichel 1893b: 91; Reisch 1894: col. 1640; Maionica 1897: 45; Weisshäupl 1901: 205, IIt. 601, X.1;Werner 1961, Kap. 2; Perc 1968: 151-157, no. 13; Vidman 1969: 596; Degrassi 1970: 622; Jurkić-Girardi 1972: 211; Malaise 1972: 3; Jurkić-Girardi 1974: 8, fn. 28-29; Budischovsky 1977: 168-170; Jurkić-Girardi 1978: 42; Bricault 2001: 123; Jurkić-Girardi 2001: 12-13; Giunio 2002: 25-26, Figure 4-5; Selem 2002: 91, no. 2; Tomorad 2003: 48, fn. 184;
Figure 33. Oil lamp with Harpocrates riding a crocodile, a sacred animal of Isis-Thermouthis, from Nin. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, 381. © Zadar: Archaeological Museum.
Date of discovery: 1897. Dating: 1st–3rd century CE. Dimensions: W. 11.6 cm, diameter of the lamp: 8.2 cm; diameter of the bottom of the lamp: 4.36 cm. Material: terracotta. Condition: damaged, broken on the side of his right arm. Description: The oil lamp was made of clean, reddishbrown terracotta. The surface is damaged and broken on the side of the figure’s right arm. On the disk, the young half-naked boy, probably Harpocrates, is turned to the left and rides a crocodile. He holds a flute in both hands. The crocodile between his legs can be associated with Sobek, a sacred animal closely associated with Isis Thermouthis. In the centre of the underside of the lamp there is the stamp ‘M’.
Perc 1968: 152. Budischovsky 1977: 169. 340 Selem 2015: 17. 341 Jurkić-Girardi 2001: 13; Jurkić-Girardi 2005: 201-202. 338 339
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Mladen Tomorad: Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts
ISIDI SAC (rum) RAECIA MAR CELLA [Dedicated to Isis. Raecia Marcella] Bibliography: Suić 1966: 52; Selem 1972: 48-50; Kuntić-Makvić 1982: 151-158; Selem 1997: 59-61, no. 1.18; Bricault 2001: 129; Pedišić 2001: 49; Giunio 2002: 37, fn. 41, Pl. 9/2; Tomorad 2003: 74, fn. 461; Bricault 2005: 615/0301; Tomorad 2005: 23; Brajković, Podrug and Krnčević 2008; Selem 2015: 37-38; no. 29; Tomorad 2016b: 196-197.
Figure 34. Altar dedicated to Isis, from Bribirska Glavica. Šibenik: Šibenik City Museum, 11748. © Šibenik: City Museum.
35. Round terracotta oil-lamp with an image of Isis and Serapis (Figure 35)
Bibliography: Bersa 1915: 62, no. 241; Giunio 2002: 32, fn. 29; Tomorad 2005: 20.
Collection: Archaeological Museum in Zadar, A-10180 (old inv. nos. I.e. 6820, t.k. 4379, L.163). Provenance: Nin (ancient Aenona), Croatia. Date of discovery: 1896. Dating: 2nd century CE. Dimensions: 10.1 x 4 x 7.3 cm. Material: terracotta.
34. Altar dedicated to Isis (Figure 34) Collection: Šibenik: Šibenik City Museum, 11748. Provenance: Bribirska Glavica (ancient Varvaria), Croatia. Date of discovery: second half of 20th century. Dating: first half of 2nd century CE. Dimensions: 29.5 x 19 x 13.3 cm. Material: limestone. Condition: damaged. Description: The crown of the altar is double-moulded, with volutes and a decorative triangle motif in the middle. The inscription field is below. The base is also double-moulded. The corners are worn, indicating secondary use. The second part of the name Marcella (-cella) did not fit into the inscription field, so it is on the base. The quality of the letters also gradually diminishes, apparently due to the limited space. The first two lines, like the first three letters in the third line, are carved very well, which cannot be said for the remaining letters. As arualae like this are frequent in the archaeological material from Varvaria, and generally dedicated to deities typical of Liburnia – Silvanus, the Nymphs, and Janus – it may be assumed that the modelling was done earlier and the inscription to Isis was entered later. The dedicant is a woman from a local family of Liburnian origin. The family has been confirmed in Liburnia on several occasions.342 The piece is precisely dated from data on movements of the Raecia family to the end of the 1st or 2nd century. The monument also confirms that the cult of Isis was adopted in Liburnian territory at an early date among the native population caught up in the process of Romanisation. 342
Figure 35. Round terracotta oil-lamp with an image of Isis and Serapis, from Nin. Archaeological Museum in Zadar, A-10180. Zadar: Archaeological Museum.
Kuntić-Makvić 1982: 154-155.
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Egypt in Croatia Condition: abraded. Description: A medallion with a moulded frame in the centre of a rounded oil-lamp with a rounded nozzle. Between the edge of the medallion and the edge of the lamp there is a simple lined motif. Inside the medallion, one next to the other, there are depictions of the busts of Isis and Serapis. On the left is Isis with hair gathered in a bun that descends the back of her head, and a lotus flower on top of the forehead. On the right is Serapis with his usual thick hair, beard, and kalathos with seven-pointed radial crown on his head. Typologically it belongs to Loeschke-type VIII, common in Africa. Its surface is strongly abraded, probably as a result of water activity. Bibliography: Bersa 19065: 53, no. 181, t. 3.1; Abramić 1913: 73; Alföldi 1938: 6, no. VII, t. LXII; Wuilleumier 1952: 169, no. 4; Perc 1968: 229, no. 75b; Grimm 1969: 224, no. 1; Kater-Sibbes 1973: 180, no. 909; Selem 1997: 55-57, no. 1.13; Giunio 2002: 30-31, fn. 23; Tomorad 2003: 51, fn. 227; Tomorad 2005: 20; Vučić-Giunio 2009: 34, no. 68; Giunio 2015: 201, Figure 146; Selem 2015: 34-35, no. 25; Tomorad 2016b: Pl. 79c.
A-10178 (old. inv. nos. I.a. 706, I.e. 6771, t.k. 4990, L.596). Provenance: Nin (ancient Aenona), Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain. Dating: 2nd century CE. Dimensions: H. 12 cm. Material: terracotta. Condition: well preserved. Description: The standing lamp is a simple type with a circular nozzle. The foot is slightly convex. On the front is a well-modelled relief of a nude Harpocrates, whose body and head are slightly turned to the right. His right hand is depicted moving toward his mouth, while he holds a lotus flower in his left hand. On the top of his head is a stylised psent crown. Bibliography: Bersa 1915: 59, no. 676, t. III; Leclant 1963: 214; Perc 1968: 229, no. 75a; Selem 1971: 305, t. IV; Selem 1972: 10; Budischovsky 1977: 181; Selem 1997: 55, no. 1.12; Giunio 2002: 31, fn. 25, Pl. 7/3; Selem 2002: 92, no. 4; Tomorad 2003: 51, fn. 226; Tomorad 2005: 20; Giunio 2015: 201-202, Figure 147; Selem 2015: 36, no. 27. 37. Relief with representation of the Isis-Fortuna religious ceremony (Figure 37)
36. Standing terracotta oil-lamp with an image of Harpocrates (Figure 36)
Collection: Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae, without inv. no. Provenance: Varaždinske Toplice (ancient Aqua Iasae), Croatia. Date of discovery: 2011/2012. Dating: 192 CE Material: limestone. Condition: damaged. Description: On right side of the relief the goddess Isis-Fortuna. She wears a dress with the Isis knot and characteristic crown with horns and solar disk. She holds a patera in her right hand and pours an offering above a small brazier altar. In her left hand is a cornucopia, the attribute of the goddess Fortuna.
Collection: Zadar: Archaeological Museum in Zadar,
Figure 37. Relief with representation of the IsisFortunareligious ceremony, from Varaždinske Toplice. Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 36. Standing terracotta oil-lamp with an image of Harpocrates, from Nin. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, A-10178. © Zadar: Archaeological Museum.
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On the left we see the goddess Venus, Cupid, and three nymphs. Fragments of the relief were uncovered in the ruins of the north and south wall structure; they were placed under the structure’s larger stone slabs. Bibliography: Kušan Špalj and Nemeth 2015.
of wisdom and scribe of the gods. This statue therefore depicts the syncretistic deity Hermes-Thoth, who in this form plays a role in the burial of the deceased and various afterlife rituals. Bibliography: Loewy and Kubitschek 1879: 170, no. 1; Henkler 1910: 19, no. 67; Brunšmid 1914: 223, no. 35, Figure 35; Selem 1972: 38, no. 37; Selem 1980: 22, no. 36, t. IX; Selem 1997: 144, no. 9.4; Tomorad 2003: 42, fn. 87; Tomorad 2005: 7.
38. Statuette of Hermes-Thoth (Figure 38a-b) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Ancient Department, A-4597, on display. Provenance: Osijek (ancient Mursa), Croatia. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: 1st–3rd century CE Dimensions: H. 11.3 cm. Material: bronze. Condition: damaged, missing left arm and right leg below knee. Description: Young Hermes-Thoth is shown standing, naked with visible genitalia. He has short curly hair, on top of which is a short feather with two wings on both sides. In his right hand, which reaches forward, he holds a small purse. His left arm, now broken at the level of the shoulder was probably holding a kerykeion. The legs are slightly spaced; his right leg is broken is at the knee. The statuette is hollow. The attributes, two wings on the head, purse and kerykeion, probably in his left hand, refer to the god Hermes. The headfeather denotes the Egyptian god Thoth. In ancient Roman mythology Hermes was the messenger of the gods, while in Egyptian mythology Thoth was the god
39. Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered votive stele (Figure 39) Collection: Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA2590. Provenance: Osijek (ancient Mursa) – upper town, Croatia. Date of discovery: second half of 19th century. Dating: Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE); import, 1st–3rd century CE. Dimensions: 40 x 26 x 12 cm. Material: limestone. Condition: damaged. Description: Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered Osijek rectangular, limestone stele with an arch in the upper part. Two parallel, arching lines on the upper part, chiselled above a winged sun with two stylised uraei (serpents).
Figure 38. Statuette of Hermes-Thoth, from Osijek. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, Ancient Department, A-4597. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 39. Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered votive stele, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA-2590. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek.
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Egypt in Croatia The wings are divided into three areas each; the upper one is without decoration, while the lower two have vertical lines that illustrate feathers. In the centre, underneath the winged sun, are three gods in bas-relief. On the left, we have the goddess Nephthys, who is turned to the right. She has a hieroglyph of her name on her head, and a combination of a house and a basket. Her face has gentle features, with eyes, nose and mouth visible, and she is wearing a tight dress. She is holding a sceptre in her left hand and in her right, she holds the ankh, symbol of eternal life. Osiris stands in the middle and he is facing right, with arms crossed on his chest and with regal insignia – a whip and sceptre (heqa). Osiris has an atef crown. His face is not as expressive as that of the goddesses; his beard is particularly prominent. He stands on a pedestal with the goddess Isis to his right, who is looking to the left. She has horns and a solar disk on her head; she holds a sceptre in her left hand and an ankh in her right. She wears a tight dress, as does Nephthys. Between their heads there are hieroglyphs indicating what the three gods are saying. Inscription: Next to Nephthys: Djd .mdw Nb.t-hwt = ‘This is Nephthys’. Next to Osiris: Djd.mdw Wsỉr ntr = ‘This is Osiris, the great god’. Next to Isis: Djd.mdw Ỉst mwt ntr = ‘This is Isis, mother of gods’.
Figure 40. Blue-green-glazed faience shabti, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological Museum, AA-6243. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum.
Below there are two rows of hieroglyphs between two parallel straight lines. The work on the inscription is second-rate compared to the upper hieroglyphs, suggesting it was added later. The inscription is difficult to read, but we can identify the name of the person who ordered the inscription as Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered, and probably his mother Ta-khrud. Bibliography: Celestin 1895: 129; Liebl 1900: col. 102-103, Figure 243; Höger 1942: 22, Figure 1; Leclant 1958: 98; Perc 1968: 201-203, no. 49; Selem 1972: 39-40; Pinterović 1978: 135-136; Filipović 1997: 68, no. 5, Pl. 5; Selem 1997: 142-143, no. 9.2; Tomorad 2003: 73, fn. 454; Tomorad 2005: 21; Kovač 2013: 52-55, no. 16; Kovač 2015: 95-96, no. 2, Figure 102; Tomorad 2016b: 193, 199-200, Pl. 75.
Material: blue-green-glazed faience. Condition: mediocre modelling; damaged; missing the lower part; most of the blue glaze is faded. Typology: Schneider 1977, class VIIIA2; Tomorad 2017, class B1. Description: Private individual. Mummiform. 3rd Intermediate Period striated lappet wig. Without beard. Arms crossed on chest. Hands crossed left over right, un-sleeved; hoes in both hands. Basket on back. Mediocre-modelled oval face, painted eyes with brows and big ears. Lower part of the figure missing. Part of hieroglyphic inscription was visible when discovered but no longer. Discussion: This shabti is one of three from the 3rd Intermediate Period discovered in the regions of Illyricum, Northern Italy and the Danube (Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia, Thracia). It was unearthed during construction work in Vukovarska St, Osijek; it was brought to the museum by Milan Plećaš, a carpenter working for the ‘Gradnja’ company. In 1954, Danica Pinterović mentioned that it was discovered while work was being undertaken on the Volf property in Osijek (corner of Branko Radičević St and Vladimir Nazor Square (today’s Ban Josip Jelačić Square) among many
40. Blue-green-glazed faience shabti (Figure 40) Collection: Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA6243. Provenance: Osijek (ancient Mursa) – Vukovarska St, Croatia. Date of discovery: 1953. Dating: 3rd Intermediate Period; 21st–22nd Dynasty (1069–715 BCE), import, 1st century BCE – 3rd century CE. Dimensions: 6.6 x 3.5 x 1.7 cm. 66
Mladen Tomorad: Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts
other Roman finds from ancient Mursa.343 In any event, according to the museum’s entry logs, it was most likely discovered in Vukovarska St, and the later logs were in error. It was probably brought to Mursa by some unknown merchant, soldier, Isaic cultic member, or perhaps even an Egyptian, between the late 1st century BCE – 3rd century CE. Cf. Liebieghaus, Frankfurt-am-Main: 1705; Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden: F93/10.82, RO II 182. Bibliography: Degmedžić 1954: 147-148, Figure 1; Pinterović 1954: 173; Leclant 1958: 98; Perc 1968: 200201, no. 48; Selem 1972: 40; Pinterović 1978: 136; Selem 1980: 22, no. 35, t. IX; Göricke-Lukić 2000: 43, 91-92, 139; Tomorad 2000: 2-3, 10, 13; Tomorad 2003: 74, fn. 455, 137-138; Tomorad 2004: 91, 97-98, 102, 109; Tomorad 2005: 21; Tomorad 2006b: 295, no. 19; Tomorad 2012: 275; Kovač 2013: 22-23, no. 1; Kovač 2015: 100, no. 9, Figure 109; Tomorad 2016b: 199-200, Pl. 73c; Tomorad 2017a: 237; Tomorad 2017b: 652.
century CE). Dimensions: 25 x 24 cm. Material: red granite. Condition: well preserved. Description: A typical royal klaft covers head, falling to the shoulders. The face is damaged, and a beard is partly preserved. On the forehead is a uraeus. The left shoulder has visible stripes in the form of a lion’s mane, probably indicating that the head was once attached to the body of a sphinx. It was found in Solin, near the northern perimeter walls and aqueduct, under a pile of stones. Bibliography: Bulić 1908: 101, t. XIX/2; Nieman 1910; Jécquier 1912: 218; Zeiller 1912: 208-218; Bulić and Karaman 1927: 84, Figure 37; Porter and Moss 1951: 406; Selem 1961: 4; Leclant 1964: 395-396; Perc 1968: 261, no. 92j; Selem 1970: 642; Budischovsky 1977: 219-220, no. 63; Selem 1989: 39-43; Selem 1997: 104-105, no. 3.11; Tomorad 2003: 55, fn. 282; Tomorad 2005: 19; Tadinac 2011: 376, 388, 396.
41. Red-granite Egyptian head (Figure 41)
42. Fragment of a fountain with Nilotic relief (Figure 42)
Collection: Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, C-161. Provenance: Solin (ancient Salona), near aqueduct, Croatia. Date of discovery: 1908. Dating: New Kingdom (1539–1295 BCE) – Ptolemaic Period (306–30 BCE); Roman import (1st – early 4th 343
Collection: Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, D-150. Provenance: Solin (ancient Salona), Croatia. Date of discovery: 1891. Dating: second half of 1st–3rd century CE. Dimensions: 43 x 67 x 32 cm. Material: marble. Condition: damaged, missing several parts. Description: The front of the fountain is in the form of a staircase, on which a typical Nilotic scene is depicted. On the right are a palm tree and a small barge, with stern mast and square sail, in which two pygmy men stood. The left figure, in the cramped barge, turns his large, grotesque head; the right figure sits on the bow, holding an amphora. On the left side is a crocodile
Pinterović 1954: 173.
Figure 42. Fragment of a fountain with Nilotic relief, from Solin. Split: Archaeological Museum, D-150. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 41. Red-granite Egyptian head, from Solin. Split: Archaeological Museum, C-161. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
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Egypt in Croatia Provenance: Zadar (ancient Iader), ruins of city walls, Croatia. Date of discovery: second half of 19th century. Dating: second half of 2nd – first half of 3rd century CE. Dimensions: 70 x 100 x 95 cm. Material: limestone. Condition: damaged, the left and the right parts of the central figure are missing. Description: A stone block bearing an image of Jupiter Ammon in high relief. Double-moulding can be discerned on the damaged base, with quadruplemoulding on the upper section. The image depicts a mature man with thick hair and a beard. There are downward curving ram’s horns on his head; the hair parted in the middle, forming two large locks above the forehead. The creased forehead and stern lines of the barely open mouth give the face a threatening expression. When found, the block was interpreted as an altar. It comes from the architecture of the Zadar forum, and presumably belongs to the basilica built during the Severan era (193–235 CE). Bibliography: Gorenc 1952: 142, no. 66; Suić 1965: 107; Perc 1968: 228, no. 74b; Selem 1972: 9; Budischovsky 1973: 203; Suić 1976: 162-163; Budischovsky 1977: 179, IV.3; Suić 1981: 308-309, 5. XVII; Selem 1997: 51, no. 1.7; Giunio 1999: 69-70, Figure 13; Bugarski-Mesdjian 1999: 69-70, Figure 4; Cambi 2002: 90, Figure 115; Tomorad 2003: 52; Casari 2004: 123-124; Giunio 2005: 172-173; Tomorad 2005: 20; Selem 2013: 122-123, no. 11; Selem 2015: 28-29, no. 19.
with open mouth, snatching the hand of the other pygmy. Another pygmy is sitting, and a crab bites his genitals from below. Nearby is a hippopotamus with eroded mouth. On the upper, badly damaged, surface of the stone fountain a half-clothed figure lay, probably some fluvial deity (Nile?) or water nymph. Such figures usually hold an amphora under the arm, or a simple pipe from which water pours out. It seems that the fountain was carved from two or more stone blocks that are now missing. The Nile iconography draws its origins from Egyptian art, which spreads around the Mediterranean during Hellenistic and Roman times. According to N. Cambi344, the relief on the fountain was made with classical tools used from the second half of the 1st century CE; such tools were made in northern Italy and were widely used in Dalmatia and Istria throughout the Roman Empire period. Bibliography: Prijatelj 1954; Cambi 2005: 72, Figure 101; Cambi 2014: 24, Figure 39. 43. Monolith stone block with protome of the head
44. Altar dedicated to Isis and Serapis (Figure 44) Collection: Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae, VT-ks78. Provenance: Varaždinske Toplice (ancient Aqua Iasae), Croatia. Date of discovery: 2012. Dating: 2nd–3rd century CE. Dimensions: 156 x 70 x 44 cm. Material: marble. Condition: well preserved. Description: This altar with inscription was discovered in the structure of the northern wall of the spring pool. The tripartite monolithic altar consists of crown, base with moulding, and central part with inscription. On the sides are reliefs of cantharus with vine branches. On the front and back is a duplicate inscription. This altar is the first inscription dedicated to Isis and Serapis discovered in the northern region of Croatia.
Figure 43. Monolith stone block with protome of the head of Jupiter-Ammon. Zadar: Archaeological Museum, A-10560. © Mladen Tomorad.
Inscription:
of Jupiter-Ammon (Figure 43)
ISIDI ET SERAPI AVG(usti) SACRVM G(aius) VAL(erius) PRISCVS AVG(ustalis) C(oloniae)
Collection: Zadar: Archaeological Museum in Zadar, A-10560, on display at Zadar forum. 344
Cambi 2005: 2005: 72; Cambi 2014: 24.
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V(lpiae)
T(raianae)
Mladen Tomorad: Catalogue of the Selected Artefacts
Figure 45. Inscription dedicated to Serapis and nymphs, from Varaždinske Toplice. Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae. © Mladen Tomorad.
Croatia. Date of discovery: 2011. Dating: beginning of 3rd century CE. Material: limestone. Condition: badly damaged. Description: This inscription dedicated to Serapis and nymphs is only partly preserved. Is was carved in soft limestone which was severely damaged by sulphur. It was erected by Cecilius Saturninus. It was discovered in the ruins of the northern wall of the spring pool.
Figure 44. Altar dedicated to Isis and Serapis, from Varaždinske Toplice. Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae, VT-ks78. © Mladen Tomorad.
P(oetoviensis) ET CATIENIA FORTVNATA CON(ius) SIVE ORICCLIO V(otum) S(olvit) L(ibens) M(erito)
SERAPHI SANCTO ET NYMPHIS SALVTARIBVS CAECILIVS SATVRNINVS [...
[Dedicated to the venerable gods Isis and Serapis. This vow had been gladly and by merit fulfilled by Caius Valerius Piscus Oricclius, the augustalis of the colony Ulpia Traiana Poetoviensis, and by his wife Catienia Fortunata] Bibliography: Kušan Špalj and Nemeth 2015: 159, no. 73; Tomorad 2016b: 198, 200; Tomorad 2018: 78-79.
[Holy Serapis and Nymphis greets Cecilia Suturninus] Bibliography: Kušan Špalj and Nemeth 2015; Tomorad 2016b: 198, 200; Tomorad 2018: 78-79.
45. Inscription dedicated to Serapis and nymphs (Figure 45)
46. Grey jasper gem with the figure of Hermanubis (Figure 46)
Collection: Varaždinske Toplice: Archaeological Park Aqua Iasae, without inv. no. Provenance: Varaždinske Toplice (ancient Aqua Iasae),
Collection: Split: Archaeological Museum in Split, I-1321. 69
Egypt in Croatia
Figure 47. Black granite sphinx. In situ, peristyle of Diocletian’s Palace, Split. © Mladen Tomorad.
47. Black granite sphinx (Figure 47) In situ, peristyle of Diocletian’s Palace, Split. Provenance: Diocletian’s Palace, Split, Croatia. Dating: 18th Dynasty, between Thutmose I and Thutmose III (1504–1425 BCE); re-used by later pharaohs of the 18th and 19th Dynasties; brought to Split by Diocletian between 298–304 CE. Dimensions: 246 x 100 x 65 cm Material: black granite. Condition: damaged face, fake beard, uraeus, and the body broken in the middle. Description: The body of a recumbent lion lies on a rectangular pedestal. Between the front paws a sphinx is holding a vase. The sphinx’s tail is next to her right hip. Below the head a hieroglyphic inscription is carved on the body, with the names of lands conquered in the 15th century BCE, probably during the reign of Thutmose I or Thutmose III. The inscription is very similar to one in the Karnak temple, Thebes. Thus, there is a possibility that it was brought to Split from Thebes at the end of the 3rd, or early 4th century CE. Bibliography: Spon and Wheler 1678; Spon and Wheler 1679; Adam 1764: t. LV-LVI; Cassas 1802; Conze 1877: 9597; Conze 1878: 43-45; Drexler 1890: 49; Drexler 1900: 153; Schneider 1903: 1-8; Bulić 1908: 98-99, t. XIV-XV; Strzygowski 1908: 1-17; Niemann 1910; Hébrard and Zeiller 1912; Jécquier 1912; Bulić and Karaman 1927: 81-82, Figure 3; Novak 1932: 2; Schweitzer 1948: 59, t. XV/2; Fisković 1950; Porter and Moss 1951: 406-407; Rismondo 1953: 2-3; Gabričević 1956: 6; Dessenne 1957: 100, no. 245; Leclant 1963: 214; Selem 1963: 3, Figure 1; Perc 1968: 253, no. 92, t. VI/2; Selem 1970: 639-641; Selem 1989: 39-49, Figure 1; Selem 1997: 98-100, no. 3.1; Tomorad 2003: 55, fn. 281; Babić 2005; Tomorad 2005: 18; Tadinac 2011: 372-374, 386, 394-395, Figure 4; Belamarić 2015: 41; Belamarić 2016.
Figure 46. Grey jasper gem with the figure of Hermanubis, from Solin. Split: Archaeological Museum, I-1321. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Provenance: Solin (ancient Salona), Croatia. Date of discovery: uncertain, 19th century. Dating: 3rd century CE. Dimensions: 1.6 x 1.2 cm. Material: grey jasper. Condition: well preserved. Description: Oval-shaped gem, engraved on both sides. On obverse is a figure of a naked man with a jackal head and an Egyptian apron around his waist. The figure on the right holds the kerykeion or caduceus. In his outstretched left hand, he holds a bird with spread wings. This iconography represents the mythological syncretistic god Hermanubis. On the right side of the figure are carved the letters COVM, and on the left side the letters PATC. The reverse has the horizontally carved letters IAW. The inscriptions are part of a magical formula, this being a typical gnostic gem. Bibliography: Bulić 1896: 28; Šeper 1942: 13, no. 13, t. II.11; Perc 1968: 245, no. 87i; Selem 1997: 79, no. 2.29; Tomorad 2003: 54, fn. 271; Tomorad 2005: 19; Selem 2012: 43, no. 39.
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Chapter II. Croatian Travellers to Egypt from the 16th to the Middle of the 20th Century
71
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Croatian Travellers to Egypt: from the Early Modern Period to the Round Cruises of the ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ Shipping Company in the 1930s Mladen Tomorad During the Middle Ages, traces of any interest in Egyptian culture within the territory of the Kingdom of Croatia are lost. The first signs of new connections likely occurred at the end of the Middle Ages. Since seamen and merchants of Dalmatian communities and the Dubrovnik Republic traded with the Ottoman Empire, we can assume that there were new contacts with the Orient and Egypt in the late Middle Ages. Unfortunately, the names of possible early travellers and merchants were not recorded in the sources.
Other travellers included Franjo Jordan, who lived in Cairo in the middle of the 19th century as merchant,347 the priest Luka Ilić Oriovčanin, who was probably in Egypt during the construction (1859–1869), or opening of the Suez Canal in 1869,348 and Ferdo Pleše, a priest from Fužana, who was in Suez near the end of the 1860s or early 1870s, probably visiting Croatian immigrants who were involved anal.349 The sea captain Josip Forz Kožalić, from Rijeka, was a merchant who traded with Alexandria in the 1860s and early 1870s.350
The first indications of such travellers to Egypt appeared during the first half of the 16th century, when George Husz (c. 1510 – after 1566) spent a few years in Egypt. After he returned to his homeland, Husz wrote two manuscripts about his life and travels around the Orient, copies of which are held in libraries in the Vatican and Vienna.345
For most of these and other Croatian travellers and tourists to Egypt in the second half of the 19th and early 20th century, we only know that some of them bought antiquities there, e.g. Milan Tompa in the 1880s,351 and the government secretary Gustav Koritić (1857–1937)352 at the beginning of the 20th There were other individuals of whom we cannot be sure whether they actually travelled to Egypt or were just collectors of antiquities (e.g. M. Valjato from Kraljevica,353 the pharmacist Finkh from Zagreb,354
In the period after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517 up until the end of the 18th century, many Croatian travellers and merchants probably visited Egypt. Unfortunately, their names have not been preserved. The archives of Dalmatian cities and the Dubrovnik Republic contain documents confirming trade relations between the Adriatic centres and Egypt, thus we can be sure that a great many seafarers travelled to Egypt for commercial reasons. Today only a small number of them are known, and even fewer have left written records in the form of diaries, published articles, or books describing their travels to Egypt.
347 In 1866 he donated four shabtis to the Zagreb National Museum. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-386, E-453, E-495 and E-511. Inventory book of the Archaeological Department, Zagreb National Museum – Egyptian Collection: 24 no. 386, 25 no. 453, 27 nos. 495 and 511. Tomorad 2017a: 55. 348 Tomorad 2017a: 55. 349 In 1871 he donated one shabti figure acquired at an earlier date to the Zagreb National Museum. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-333. Inventory book of the Archaeological Department, Zagreb National Museum – Egyptian Collection: 23 no. 333. Tomorad 2017a: 55. 350 In 1872 he donated an ancient Egyptian oil lamp and a vessel, and in 1873 the Roman funerary oil lamp he bought in the village of Ramte, near Alexandria. Tomorad 2017a: 55. 351 In 1886 he donated one shabti to the National Museum in Zagreb. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-366. Inventory book of the Archaeological Department, Zagreb National Museum – Egyptian Collection: 23 no. 366. Tomorad 2017a: 55. 352 In 1905 he donated to the National Museum in Zagreb a vessel (E-225) and shabti (E-382) he bought in Egypt. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-225 and E-382. Inventory book of the Archaeological Department, Zagreb National Museum – Egyptian Collection: 17 no. 225, 24 no. 382. Tomorad 2017a: 55. 353 He donated one shabti bought in Cairo before 1900 to the National Museum in Zagreb. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-473. Inventory book of the Archaeological Department, Zagreb National Museu – Egyptian Collection: 26 no. 473. Tomorad 2017a: 55. 354 He allegedly purchased an Egyptian shabti in Egypt in the 19th or early 20th century. He later donated it to the National Museum in Zagreb, but the year of donation was not recorded. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-272. Inventory book of the Archaeological Department, Zagreb National Museum – Egyptian
With the increased interest in ancient civilisations at the end of the 18th and early 19th century, the first Croatian collectors of Egyptian antiquities became active, probably at the beginning of the 19th century. The names of the first collectors have been preserved in the inventory books of Croatian museums and institutions. One of the first was Mihael Barić (1791– 1859), a Croatian public official who lived and worked in Vienna. In 1859 he donated his small Egyptian collection of six artefacts, bought in Egypt in 1848/1849,346 to the National Museum in Zagreb.
345 346
Huszthii 1881; Matković 1881; Godec 1933; Hus 2017. Tomorad 2003: 20, 28.
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Egypt in Croatia In 1899 the famous Croatian explorers Mirko (1871– 1913) and Stjepan (1975–1936) Seljan reached Egypt. They walked from Karlovac to Trieste that January, arriving by steamer in early February in Alexandria, then travelling around Egypt for about two months. According to their preserved notes, they stayed in Damanhur, Tanta, and Cairo. From Cairo they sailed down the Nile to Wadi Halfa in the Sudan. Returning to Cairo, they then walked to Ismailia, Suez, and Port Said. From here they embarked on their explorations of Abyssinia, Somalia, and Kenya.366
the Croatian historian and archivist I. Bojničić (1858– 1925),355 S. Bojničić356 from Zagreb, and the university professor and zoologist S. Brusina (1845–1908).357 The brothers Nikola/Niko (1823–1892) and Frano (1821 – ?) Amerling lived in Egypt between 1842 and 1882. During their time in Alexandria and Cairo, they collected a great number of ancient Egyptian artefacts which they donated to the Dubrovnik Museum in 1872.358 In the last decades of the 19th century, Dubrovnik’s collection was added to by Tonko Kuraica and Ivo Nordelli, and there is a high probability that they acquired a few other ancient artefacts from somewhere in Egypt.359
Nearly four decades after Jakob Šašel completed the manuscript of his famous voyage to Egypt, Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin (1856–1919), the Croatian physician and amateur archaeologist, historian, anthropologist, ethnologist and collector of antiquities, made his visit to Egypt in November and December 1902. He travelled to Egypt as a participant in the First Egyptian Medical Congress, held in Cairo from 19th to 24th December.367 After returning home to Križevci in early 1903 he wrote and published a series articles in journals.368 In 1905 he published a book called U Egiptu! (In Egypt!),369 containing a small part of his unpublished manuscript – Moje putovanje u Egipat (My trip to Egypt).370
During the first half of the 1850s, Jakov Šašel (Germ. Jakob Schaschel, 1832–1903) travelled to Egypt and the Sudan as a member of the Ignatio Knoblecher Catholic mission in Khartoum.360 Several years after he returned home Šašel wrote his travel memoirs entitled Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan u Jahrenu 1853 i 1854.361 His manuscript provides one of the first descriptions of Egypt and the Sudan written in Croatia since the mid16th century.362 Further Croatian visitors to Egypt in the 19th and early 20th century included members of the aristocratic Paszthory-Varady family,363 and Count Marko Bombelles Jr, with his family, who resided near Varaždin.364 It is also very probable that at the same time the famous numismatic collector Carl Franz Nuber and the Imperial and Royal captain Franjo Folk from Osijek made visits.365
In May 1927, the famous Croatian sculptor Ivan Meštrović (1883–1962) travelled to Egypt, Palestine and Greece with several friends. During his eight-day stay in Egypt, from 4th to 11th May, Meštrović visited Cairo and its surroundings, as well as Luxor and Aswan.371 His impressions of the trip were published in an article Uspomene s puta po Istoku (Memories from a trip to Orient), published in Hrvatska revija in the early 1960s.372 After his return to Croatia, Meštrović was heavily influenced by ancient Egyptian art, culminating (1928) in his famous statue of Grgur Ninski, and began building his family tomb at Otavice, although it was never finished.373
Collection: 20 no. 272. Tomorad 2017a: 55. 355 He allegedly purchased an Egyptian shabti in Egypt in the 19th or early 20th century. It was later donated to the National Museum in Zagreb, but the year of donation was not recorded. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-432. Inventory book of the Archaeological Department, Zagreb National Museum – Egyptian Collection: 25 no. 432. Tomorad 2017a: 55. 356 He allegedly purchased two papyri in Egypt in the 19th or early 20th century. They were later donated to the National Museum in Zagreb, but the year of donation was not recorded. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-598-599. Inventory book of the Archaeological Department, Zagreb National Museum – Egyptian Collection: 31 nos. 598-599. Tomorad 2017a: 55. 357 He donated one Egyptian mummified arm to the National Museum in Zagreb sometime at the end of the 19th or beginning of the 20th century. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-657. Inventory book of the Archaeological Department, Zagreb National Museum – Egyptian Collection: 35 no. 657. Tomorad 2017a: 55. 358 Menalo 2003: 6; Tomorad 2003: 56; Tomorad 2016: 330; Tomorad 2017a: 68. 359 Tomorad 2003: 56; Tomorad 2016: 330; Tomorad 2017a: 68. 360 Tomorad 2018b: 51-64. 361 Schachel 1863; Šašel 2003; Kočevar 2003: 163-167; Kočevar 2008: 6-13; Tomorad 2017b. 362 Tomorad 2017a. 363 Tomorad 2002: 547; Tomorad 2003a: 71; Tomorad and Uranić 2006: 88; Tomorad 2017a: 84. 364 In the collection of the Varaždin City Museum there is a photograph in which he, his wife and son are riding camels in front of the Great Pyramids in Giza. 365 Kovač 2015: 94.
In the 1930s, Grga Novak (1888–1978), a Croatian scholar and professor of ancient history, travelled twice to Egypt (December 1932 – March 1933, and July 1935).374 His travels have been described in a series of articles Povijest.hr ‘Pustolovna braća Seljan krenula na ekspediciju u Afriku (1899)’. [https://povijest.hr/nadanasnjidan/braca-seljan-krenulana-ekspediciju-u-afriku-1899/]. 367 Tomorad 2017a: 50; Tomorad 2018b. 368 Gundrum 1903a; Gundrum 1903b; Gundrum 1903c; Gundrum 1903d. 369 Gundrum 1905. 370 Moje putovanje u Egipat. 1. dio Iz Križevaca u Kairo, 2. dio: Iz Kaira u Gornji Egipat po Nilu i natrag u Kairo. Zagreb, Zavod za povijest hrvatske književnosti, kazališta i glazbe – Odsjek za povijest hrvatske književnosti, Osobni arhivski fondovi – zbirke rukopisa i dokumentacijskoga gradiva 148 Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko, [Sig. 24, I/10]. Tomorad 2018: 316-317. 371 Photographs from this trip are held in the Meštrović Gallery, Split. Split: Meštrovićeva galerija: FGM-1174. 372 Meštrović 1962: 405-411. 373 Rittig 1929: 34-38; Jurić Šabić 2015; Jurić Šabić 2016. 374 Tomorad 2003: 117-121; Tomorad 2016: 235-239. 366
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Mladen Tomorad: Croatian Travellers to Egypt
published in the newspaper Novosti,375 the magazine Jadranska straža,376 and the travel diary U zemlji faraona (In the Land of Pharaohs).377
dokumentacijskoga gradiva 148 GundrumOriovčanin, Fran Srećko [Sig. 24, I/10]. Gundrum-Oriovčanin, F.S. 1903. Moje putovanje po Egiptu. Zagreb, Zavod za povijest hrvatske književnosti, kazališta i glazbe - Odsjek za povijest hrvatske književnosti, Osobni arhivski fondovi – zbirke rukopisa i dokumentacijskoga gradiva 148 Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko [Sig. 30, II/53]. Hus, J. 2017. Opis putovanja Jurja Husa – Description peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii, in: M. Kolar (ed.), Opis putovanja Jurja Husa – Description peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii: 33-182. Koprivnica. Huszthii, G. 1881. Description peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii, in: P. Matković (ed.), Description peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii. Starine 13: 1-38. Jurić Šabić, Z. 2015. Dekodiranje Meštrovića: ikonološka studija skica za dekoraciju kupole crkve Presvetog Otkupitelja u Otavicama. Split. Jurić Šabić, Z. 2016. Meštrovićev znak u Splitu. Split. Kočevar, S. 2003. Jakov Šašel i Slike Orijenta, in: J. Šašel, Slike s Orijenta nastale tijekom jednog putovanja u Egipat, Nubiju i Sudan godine 1853. i 1854: 163-167. Karlovac. Kočevar, S. 2008. Prilog za bibliografiju Jakova Šašela (1832-1903) – A contribution on the bibliography of Jakov Šašel (1832-1903), in: S. Kočevar (ed.), Jakov Šašel (1832-1903): 6-13. Karlovac. Kovač, M. 2015. Egyptian collection of the Museum of Slavonia in Osijek (Croatia), in: M. Tomorad (ed.), A History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture conducted in Southeast Europe: 93-105. Oxford. Matković, P. 1881. Gjuro Hus, Hrvat iz Rasinje, glasoviti putnik XVI vieka. Rad 55: 116-184. Menalo, R. 2003. Egipatska zbirka Dubrovačkog muzeja. Dubrovnik. Nazor, V. (1942) Od Splita do piramida. Zagreb. Novak, G. 1933a. Iz Trsta u Egipat. Na parobrodu ‘Gange’, o Božiću 1932. Novosti 13 (13th January 1933): 5. Novak, G. 1933b. Paris starog svijeta – Aleksandrija. Aleksandrija u prosincu 1932. Novosti 15 (15th January 1933): 11. Novak, G. 1933c. Po tragovima Kleopatre. Aleksandrija, 30. prosinca 1932. Novosti 22 (22nd January 1933): 9. Novak, G. 1933d. Kairo – Egipatski velegrad, njegovo lice i naličje, Kairo 5. siječnja 1933. Novosti 24 (24th January 1933): 10. Novak, G. 1933e. U Kairskoj čaršiji i ramazanskoj noći, Kairo, u siječnju 1933. Novosti 25 (25th January 1933): 11. Novak, G. 1933f. Dva grada Sunca - dva Heliopolisa. Heliopolis, u siječnju 1933. Novosti 28 (28th January 1933): 8. Novak, G. 1933g. K piramidama. Posljednji ostatak velegrada Memfisa. Gizeh, u siječnju 1933. Novosti 38 (7th February 1933): 12. Novak, G. 1933h. Keops, Kefren i Mikerin. Kod piramida, u siječnju 1933. Novosti 46 (15th February 1933): 8.
The famous Croatian physician Andrija Štampar (1888– 1958) visited Egypt on several occasions, and some of his travel diaries from the 1930s are held today in the Croatian State Archives.378 In his diary dated between 22nd and 26th September 1933, Štampar describes his trip from Genoa to Port Said in the large passenger ship SS Christian Huygens, in which he travelled to the Far East. In 1933 he was in Egypt, very briefly in Port Said and Suez,379 and into the Red Sea.380 The diary contains short descriptions of Port Said and Suez, and describes Egyptian everyday life.381 Sadly, the other two trips he made there in his lifetime were not documented. During the second half of the 1950s, Štampar met and talked with the Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Naser, most likely in Zagreb or Beograd; three photographs of that meeting are today preserved in the Croatian State Archives.382 Bibliography Grgec, P. 1933. Od Hrvatske do Indije – lutanja i putovanja Jurja Rasinjanina. Zagreb. Gundrum, F. 1903a. U Egiptu! Putopisna crta. Hrvatski planinar, vol. 6 nos. 7-8: 49-51. Gundrum, F. 1903b. U Egiptu! Putopisna crta. Hrvatski planinar, vol. 6 nos. 9-10: 65-76. Gundrum, F. 1903c. U Egiptu! Putopisna crta. Hrvatski planinar, vol. 6 nos. 11-12: 84-92. Gundrum, F. 1903d. Prvi egipatski medicinski kongres. Liečnički viestnik 3: 94-101. Gundrum, F. 1905. U Egiptu!: putopisna crtica. Zagreb. Gundrum-Oriovčanin, F.S. 1902a. Moje putovanje u Egipat: Iz Križevaca u Kairo. Zagreb, Zavod za povijest hrvatske književnosti, kazališta i glazbe - Odsjek za povijest hrvatske književnosti, Osobni arhivski fondovi – zbirke rukopisa i dokumentacijskoga gradiva 148 Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko [Sig. 24, I/10]. Gundrum-Oriovčanin, F.S. 1902b. Moje putovanje u Egipat: Iz Kaira u Gornji Egipat i natrag u Kairo. Zagreb, Zavod za povijest hrvatske književnosti, kazališta i glazbe - Odsjek za povijest hrvatske književnosti, Osobni arhivski fondovi – zbirke rukopisa i
Novak 1933a-n; Tomorad 2003: 117-121. Novak 1935; Tomorad 2003: 121-122. 377 Novak 1946; Tomorad 2003: 117-121. 378 Zagreb: Hrvatski državni arhiv, HR-HD-831 Andrija Štampar 5.1 Dnevnički zapisi. 379 Štampar 1933: 3. 380 Štampar 1933: 4-5. 381 Štampar 1933: 3. 382 Sačuvane su tri fotografije snimljene između 1955. i 1958. godine. Na njima je zabilježeno primanje Nasera sa Štamparom vjerojatno u Zagrebu. Zagreb: Hrvatski državni arhiv, HR-HDA-0831. 375 376
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Egypt in Croatia Novak, G. 1933i. U šumi stupova drevnih hramova. Luksor, 4. veljače 1933. Novosti 53 (22nd February 1933): 9. Novak, G. 1933j. U gradu boga Sunca. Meleui, u veljači 1933. Novosti 77 (18th March 1933): 16. Novak, G. 1933k. Na obali Nila uz muslimanski gradić i veliku prošlost. U Luksoru, u veljači 1933. Novosti 83 (24th March 1933): 4. Novak, G. 1933l. Na starom obratniku u Asuanu. Asuan, u veljači 1933. Novosti 91 (1st April 1933): 5. Novak, G. 1933m. Na jezeru koje pokriva hram Izide. Asuan-barage, u veljači 1933. Novosti 103 (12th April 1933): 16. Novak, G. 1933n. Misteriji Osirisa i Izide. Novosti 354: 20-22. Novak, G. 1946. U zemlji faraona. Zagreb. Rittig, S. 1929. Meštrovićeva vidjenja i verovanja. Nova Evropa 1-2 (11. 7. 1929): 34-38. Zagreb. Šašel, J. 2003. Slike s Orijenta nastale tijekom jednog putovanja u Egipat, Nubiju i Sudan godine 1853. i 1854: 172-256. Karlovac. Schaschel, J. 1863. Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Gradski muzej, KP-460. Karlovac.
Tomorad, M. 2003. Egipat u Hrvatskoj, egipatske starine u hrvatskoj znanosti i kulturi. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2016. Foundation of the Ancient Egyptian Collections in Croatia: Travellers, Private Collectors and the Genesis of the Collections (1800–1920), in: L. Hudakova and J. Hudec (eds), Egypt and Austria IX: Perception of the Orient in Central Europe (1800–1918): 325-340, 405. Krakow. Tomorad, M. 2017a. Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II. Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2017b. Jakov Šašel (Jacob Schaschel) and his travels to Egypt, Nubia and Africa 1853–52, in: N. Cooke and V. Daubney (eds), Lost and Now Found: Explorers, Diplomats and Artist in Egypt and the Near East: 49-70. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2018. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin (1856– 1919) and his voyage to Egypt during November and December 1902, in: E. Czerny (ed.), Egypt and Austria XI: In Search of the Orient: 313-335. Krakow. Tomorad, M. and Uranić, I. 2006. The Egyptian Collection of the Museum of the City of Varaždin, Croatia. Trabajos de Egiptología – Papers on Ancient Egypt (TdE) 3 (2004): 87-98.
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The Croatian Traveller George Husz from Rascinia: His Life in Egypt and the Near East (1532–1541) Mladen Tomorad The life of George Husz
from the fortress at Opoja,392 the Turks retaliated, burnt the fortress and pillaged the nearby village of Rasinja. Many of the prisoners captured during these raids were taken to Constantinople, among them George Husz.393
George Husz (lat. Georgius Huszthius; cro. Juraj Hus Rasinjanin; hung. Györy Husz Raszinyai, tal. Huszti de Raszinya) was born in the Croatian region of Podravina at the beginning of the 16th century. He was born in the village of Rasinja (lat. Rascinia) near Koprivnica in northern Croatia, close to the nearby border of Hungary; the exact year and date are still uncertain, but we can presume that he was born at the end of the first decade of the 16th century, between 1500 and 1510.383 During his youth he studied in Pécs in Hungary. In 1532, when he was enslaved by the Ottoman army, he was still a young Croatian humanist, having returned from his education in Pécs a few years earlier.384 Between 1541 and 1566 he wrote two manuscripts about his slavery and travels around the Ottoman Empire and the Orient (Map 2): Georgii Huz peregrination Hierosolimitana (1548)385 and Descriptio peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii (1566).386
Husz found himself in Constantinople in November 1532,394 along with other slaves; the Ottoman army being led then by Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent (1520–1566).395 By the end of November 1532, the young Croatian had been made a slave of the defterdar İskender Çelebi (?–1535).396 Soon after, as well-educated slave, he was taken to the Islamic religious school (ar. ةسردم, madrasah) for further study.397 There he learned the basic Arabic language and script, and how to play the trumpet.398 Husz was then keen to join the Ottoman army, hoping that it might provide him with a chance to escape to Christian territory.399 In 1533, having left the madrasah, Husz was transferred to become a slave to the Imperial trumpeter in nearby Galata.400
Enslavement and life in Ottoman captivity (September 1532 – March 1536)
In September 1533, the diplomatic mission of the Hungarian king, János Zápolya,401 guided by the Hungarian diplomat and statesman István Verbőczy (c. 1458–1541),402 came to Constantinople to see the Süleyman and discuss the temporary peace treaty.403 One member of this diplomatic mission was the Italian Ludovicum Gritti, who was on very good terms with the Ottoman Grand Vizier, Pargali Ibrahim Paşa (c. 1493–1536).404 The latter had his palace very close to
During the first half of the 16th century, the CroatianHungarian kingdom, within the Habsburg monarchy,387 was struggling to defend the eastern border of Western Christianity against the invasion of the Ottoman Turks.388 During the Summer of 1532, the Ottoman army raided northern Croatia after the unsuccessful siege of Kőszeg in Hungary,389 which prevented the Ottoman forces from advancing further towards Vienna. During one of the raids on Slavonia (northern Croatia) at the end of September 1532,390 George Husz was captured in Rasinja by the Ottoman army while retreating.391 A shot having been fired from a cannon at the Ottoman army
Isthuanfffii Histor. XI, 115b; Grgec 1933: 14; Općina Rasinja s.v. ‘Povijest’ [http://www.rasinja.hr/index.php/opcina-rasinja2/opcipodaci/povijest]. 393 Hus 2017: 45, 121; Šišić 1975: 291. 394 On 18th November 1532, Süleyman the Magnificent entered the city of Constantinople in great triumph. Hus 2017: 46, 122; Grgec 1933: 17-19. 395 Encyclopaedia Britannica s.v. ‘Süleyman the Magnificent’. [https:// www.britannica.com/biography/Suleyman-the-Magnificent]. 396 Hus 2017: 46, 122; Grgec 1933: 19. For Çelebi, see Wikipedia – The free encyclopaedia s.v. ‘İskender Çelebi’. [https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/%C4%B0skender_%C3%87elebi]. 392
Hrvatska enciklopedija, s.v. ‘Hus, Juraj’, vol. V (2003): 17. Hus 2017: 45, 121. 385 This is the shorter version of his manuscript written in Posonii (now Bratislava) and dated 10th November 1548. Vienna: Hofbibliothek, codex no. 9528. 386 This is the extended version of his earlier manuscript written in Rome and dated 27th October 1566. Rome, Vatican: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana reg. lat. 931. 387 The Croatian kingdom had been part of the Habsburg Empire since early January 1527. 388 For details on these wars against the Ottoman Empire, see in: Šišić 1975: 242-247, 285-294; Matuz 1992: 76-84; Inalcik 2002: 38-47. 389 Isthuanfffii Histor. XI, 115; Grgec 1933: 5-10; Šišić 1975: 289-290; Matuz 1992: 79; Inalcik 2002: 42. 390 Isthuanfffii Histor. XI, 115; Grgec 1933: 13-14. 391 Hus 2017: 45, 121; Šišić 1975: 290-291. 383 384
Hus 2017: 46, 122; Grgec 1933: 19-20. Hus 2017: 46, 122; Grgec 1933: 21. Hus 2017: 46, 122. 400 Hus 2017: 46, 122. 401 For details of his life, see in: Hrvatska enciklopedija, s.v. ‘Zapolja, Ivan (János)’, vol. XI (2009): 688. 402 For details of his life, see in: Hrvatska enciklopedija, s.v. ‘Verbőczy, István’, vol. XI (2009): 344. 403 Hus 2017: 46, 122; Grgec 1933: 22-23. 404 Encyclopaedia Britannica s.v. ‘Ibrahim Paşa’. [https://www. 397 398 399
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Egypt in Croatia
Map 2. The travels of Juraj Hus Rasinjanin (1532 – 1541). © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
execution of İskender Çelebi in Bagdad,411 Husz became the property of Süleyman himself, who passed him on to Grand Vizier Ibrahim Paşa, who sought educated slaves.412 A year later, on 15th March 1536, Ibrahim Paşa was strangled in Constantinople,413 and, soon after, Husz was taken once more to the Sultan’s court, who granted him his freedom.414
Galata, and because of these relations with Gritti their diplomatic mission was stationed there.405 Husz was stationed near this mission and came to hear about it. On the morning of 21st October 1533 he crept into one of the diplomatic wagons and started his journey to north.406 However, on 22nd November, after a month’s travel, Husz was once again captured by Ottoman troops near Smederevo,407 and by the end of 1533 found himself back in Constantinople,408 where he was promptly taken to the prison and sentenced to be caned to death. Somehow, he survived this terrible punishment, and soon after was forced to convert to Islam and re-join the Ottoman army as trumpeter.409
Service to an Arab captain and life in Egypt (March 1536 – June 1538) By the end of March, Husz was in the service of an Arab captain who was charged with the important task of transmitting the Sultan’s secret messages to the Egyptian Viceroy, Hadım Süleyman Paşa (c. 1467– 1547) in Cairo.415 Husz saw in this service the means to escape through the Mediterranean back to Christian
In the meantime, at the end of 1533, Husz’s master, İskender Çelebi, along with Ibrahim Paşa, went to the war against the Persians.410 In March 1535, after the britannica.com/biography/Ibrahim-Pasa-Ottoman-viziercirca-1493-1536]. 405 Hus 2017: 46, 122-123. 406 Hus 2017: 47, 123; Grgec 1933: 23. 407 Smederevo in 1533 was on the southern border of the CroatianHungarian kingdom. On today’s map of Europe, it is part of the Republic of Serbia. 408 Hus 2017: 47, 123. 409 Hus 2017: 48, 124; Grgec 1933: 25. 410 For details of the Ottoman war against the Persians, see in: Inalcik 2002: 45; Grgec 1933: 26-27; Hus 2017: 48, 124.
Hus 2017: 49, 125; Grgec 1933: 28. Hus 2017: 49, 125-126; Grgec 1933: 29. Hus 2017: 51, 128; Grgec 1933: 30-31. 414 Hus 2017: 52, 129; Grgec 1933: 32. 415 It is interesting that he was also Croatian, born in Zagreb, and was forced to convert to Islam. Later in his life he became a very important Ottoman statesman and military commander. For details of his life, see: Wikipedia s.v. ‘Hadim Suleiman Pasha’. [https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Had%C4%B1m_Suleiman_Pasha]. See also Hus 2017: 52-53, 129-130. 411 412 413
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Mladen Tomorad: The Croatian Traveller George Husz from Rascinia
territory, but not all went the way he planned.416 In the late spring of 1536 he travelled through the islands of Chios and Rhodes to Egypt, but with no opportunity to escape for a second time.417 He arrived in Egypt at the end of June, or early July, 1536. His first few days in Egypt were spent in Alexandria with the captain’s family; then, via the fortress at Rosetta, they continued their journey to Cairo, where the captain attended his secret meeting with Süleyman Paşa.418 At the end of July 1536, Husz witnessed the celebration of the flood of the Nile and the Nilometer at Cairo. Soon after this, the captain and his crew sailed into the Red Sea, where they supervised the repairs and preparation of the Ottoman fleet for its raids on India.419 For the next year and a half, Husz travelled around Egypt and spent much time in Alexandria with the captain and the Paşa’s family.420 In Alexandria he became friends with a merchant called Hyeronimum from Genova, who later helped him to escape to Italy.421
both the Orient and Europe (spices, cloth, precious stones, pottery, and metal ware). He also mentions that local Egyptian ‘Falahs’ worked for their Ottoman conquerors.425 During his description of the war with the Portuguese and the conquest of the Arab Peninsula in 1538/9, Husz also writes that he visited the ancient Egyptian city of Pi-Hahiroth, in Sinai, which was mentioned in Exodus.426 From an Egyptological point of view, the most interesting parts of Husz’s manuscript are his descriptions of the ancient monuments he saw during his stay, which were mostly covered in sand. In January and February 1538 he was stationed in Cairo,427 and, one day, he and his companions had access to mounts; taking donkeys, and arming themselves, they rode to the remains of the six pyramids, two miles south of Cairo.428 He describes the two large and four smaller pyramids. On the sides of one of the larger pyramids (Figure 48) he counted 146 steps. On one side was a small entrance,429 and via various passages they went to the middle chamber, finding the sarcophagus there. They spent nearly two hours inside. They did not measure the dimensions of the pyramid, but Husz wrote that on the top of the largest on could easily place a tent and spend time there.430 Earlier historians studying his manuscript thought that Husz was writing about the 5th-Dynasty pyramids of Abusir, north-west of Cairo (six pyramids of the pharaohs and several small pyramids of queens, which were most likely buried in the sand in 1538).431 Although it cannot be proved, it is much more likely that the author is describing the pyramid of Khufu (gr. Cheops) and the pyramid complex of 4th-Dynasty Giza (with its smaller pyramids for the queens, and three larger pyramids; most likely all the smaller (queen) pyramids were still buried in the sand in 1538). In any event, Husz was one of the first Europeans to enter these pyramids (in the first half of the 16th century) and is now one of the forgotten travellers to Egypt.
His stay in Egypt is described in the chapter of his book Hic commemorabo aliqua terrae et situm Aegypti. Husz describes the various Egyptian traditions and customs during the first half of the 16th century. He is also keen to detail the fauna and flora he encounters, e.g. the several types of balsam he finds in ‘El Matareya’ garden in Cairo,422 fruit (cherries, figs, palm trees and dates, peaches, grapes, melons, lemons, oranges), vegetables (sugar-cane, rice), and animals (birds, camels, sheep, giraffes, crocodiles and crocodile hunts).423 Husz goes on to describe Arab and Muslim customs, including the infamous celebrations of the Nile flood, which he saw for the first time at the end of July 1536. He details the Nilometer on Rhode Island, and the opening of the dams and canals for the upcoming flood. His description of Egyptians is broadly unfavourable, on account mostly of the elements of the pagan cults that were still practised (e.g. at the ceremonies of the Nile flood). He also moralises on what he saw as the immorality and harmfulness of dancing and celebrations in the streets of Cairo.424
Campaigns along the Arab peninsula and against the Portuguese city of Diu (June 1538 – June 1539)
The ruined city of Alexandria (Iskandariyyah) is also described, now lacking its former glory, as well as the fortress at Rosetta, from where they travelled to Cairo, in three days, on camels and in sailing boats. When he arrived, in June 1536, Husz writes about the wonderful mosques, madrasas, mausoleums, the tombs of the califs, and the bazars, full of wonderful things from
Husz spent the first half of 1538 with the Arab captain and his crew preparing for the war against the Portuguese in India. He described the whole complain and siege of the Portuguese city of Diu in his next Hus 2017: 53-63, 130-139. Exod. 14.2; Hus 2017: 74, 152. 427 In his manuscript he used the name of the old Egyptian capital – ‘Memphis’ – for Cairo. The real Memphis is located more than 25 km south of Cairo. 428 It seems that he used the so-called ‘German’ mile: 1 mile = 7.5 km. See also Hus 2017: 62, 138. 429 There is a similar entrance to the Khufu pyramid, Giza. 430 Hus 2017: 62-63, 138-139. 431 Matković was not sure if the pyramid described was one of the larger ones at Abusir or Giza. Matković 1881: 169. Grgec thought that the author was writing about the pyramids at Abusir. Grgec 1933: 45, 78 fn. 39. 425 426
Hus 2017: 52, 130. Hus 2017: 53, 130; Grgec 1933: 35. 418 Hus 2017: 53, 130; Grgec 1933: 36-39. 419 Hus 2017: 53, 130. 420 Hus 2017: 55, 131. 421 Hus 2017: 55, 159. 422 Hus 2017: 55-56, 131-132. 423 Hus 2017: 56-59, 132-135. 424 Hus 2017: 59-62, 135-138. 416 417
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Egypt in Croatia the Arab tradition that Eve is buried there.439 In March they went to Mecca (two days’ travel from the Red Sea) and Medina (seven days’ travel from Mecca), but the author provides few. Husz only mentions that he had no desire to see the tomb where the ‘impostor Muhammad’ was buried.440 After returning from Mecca, the Ottoman soldiers went back to the Red Sea, Husz providing a nice note that he cut some ‘ebony’ wood from a tree, from which he later made a small cross.441 After almost a year of travel the ships finally arrived back at Suez on 16th June 1539, a journey of some 12,000 km.442 By the end of 1539, George Hutz had left the service of his Arab captain in Egypt. A pilgrimage around the Holy Land and the Levant (January – Autumn 1540) At the beginning of 1540, Hutz began a ‘pilgrimage’ around the Holy Land and the Levant. On 3rd January 1540 he left Egypt through the desert443 and walked to Sinai, where he visited the Greek Orthodox monastery at Mt Sinai, St Catherine’s monastery near Mt Catherine, and the city of El Tor.444 From El Tor he went back to Egypt and after few days’ rest he continued his pilgrimage through the desert of Paran445 to Gaza and Eglon, and on to Jerusalem.446 Husz spent the next 28 days in the ancient city of Jerusalem. During that time, it was his base for visits to Solomon’s Temple, Golgotha, Mt Sion, Bethlehem, and Hebron.447 By the end of April he had left Jerusalem and continued on his way to Jacob’s Well in Shechem,448 to Samaria and Mt Tabor, and then to Capernaum, the Sea of Galilee, Dothan, the River Jordan, and along the old Roman road to Damascus.449 In the great city of Damascus he spent eight days visiting various locations.450 By the late spring of 1540 he was attached to a merchant caravan journeying to Tripoli, where he boarded an Ottoman ship to Pamfilia and the city of Antalya.451
Figure 48. George Husz drawing of the pyramid. © Vatican: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.
chapter (Profectus in Indiacum bellum ex terra Aegypti). The whole Ottoman fleet, with 80 vessels, was stationed in the small port of Suez, at that time a very small village with only 30 houses and one small fortress.432 Almost all the merchant vessels, with their crews, from Venice and the Dalmatian coast, that had been confiscated in 1537 in Alexandria, were part of this fleet.433 The armada was led by Hadım Süleyman Paşa, who boarded his flagship on 27th June 1538; the same day they started their voyage to India.434 Husz writes about how they passed Sinai and the Egyptian coast to Aden, where they stayed for a few days. Aden was described as the largest and wealthiest town on the Arabian Peninsula, defended by its strong fortress. It was ruled then by the Amir ben Dauda, who was lured on board Hadim’s flagship and promptly murdered at a banquet. Hadim then took Aden and it remained under Ottoman control until 1548.435 The Turkish fleet then continued their sail to Diu on 19th August 1538, with 76 warships. They sailed via Formosa all the way to Calcutta, where the Ottomans attacked the Portuguese ships,436 before starting their siege of Diu on 4th September. However, after two months, a Portuguese reinforcing fleet arrived and the Turks retreated on 6th November 1538.437 They reached Aden once more at the beginning of 1539, and by the end of February the Ottoman fleet were at Mocha, and then Zabid, both taken with much bloodshed.438 Husz goes on to write about the fleet’s arrival at Jeddah (and
Escape to Christian territory and life in Italy (Autumn 1540 – early 1541) From Antalya, in the company of a few Greeks and Turks, Husz moved further into Anatolia, where he
Hus 2017: 73-74, 149-150. According to his note we can presume that he did not go to Medina with other soldiers. Hus 2017: 74, 150. 441 Hus 2017: 74, 150. 442 Hus 2017: 72, 148. 443 Hus 2017: 79, 154. 444 Hus 2017: 79-80, 87-91, 154-155, 161-165. 445 His journey across the desert lasted 15 days. Hus 2017: 80, 155. 446 Hus 2017: 80, 155. 447 Hus 2017: 80, 93-99, 155, 167-172. 448 They most likely went along the main pilgrimage road, passing through Mizpah, Gophna and Mt Gerizim. 449 Hus 2017: 80-81, 156. 450 Hus 2017: 81, 157. 451 Hus 2017: 81, 157. 439 440
Grgec 1933: 46. Grgec 1933: 46. 434 Hus 2017: 65, 141. 435 Hus 2017: 66-70, 142-146. 436 Hus 2017: 71, 147. 437 Hus 2017: 71-72, 147-148. 438 Hus 2017: 73-74, 149-150. 432 433
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Mladen Tomorad: The Croatian Traveller George Husz from Rascinia
boarded a ship to the island of Chios.452 There, with the help of local monks, he managed to board a merchant ship to Messina, Sicily,453 seeing Etna along the way. In October (1540), he continued his journey on a vessel of the Spanish fleet on its way to Naples and Genoa.454 By the end of December our traveller was in Rome, where he a week or so in the house of Paulus Zondius, preposto of Zagreb and Estragon church in Rome,455 before reaching Ancona early in 1541.
His text reflects moral themes, comparing Muslim and Christian views. He was keen to detail the many religious groups he met along the way: Muslim Turks, Arabs, Egyptians, Indians, Eastern Christians (Copts, Greek Orthodox Christians, Jacobites, Armenians). What interest is that he never declares an affiliation for any of the Christian churches, and that he wrote about the good and bad aspects of all these cultures; occasionally expressing his strong disapproval of Christian customs, especially those related to the entering of churches.
Return to the Habsburg monarchy and later years (1541 – after 1566)
Bibliography
Husz boarded a ship in Ancona in early 1541 for Rijeka. At last back in Croatia, he travelled through Metlika to Zagreb and Slavonia.456 Sometime later, still probably in 1541, he set out for Bad Radkersburg, Ptuj, and Varaždin. He finally moved to Bratislava and Austria, where he lived for most of the rest of his life.457 The second version of his manuscript is dated 1566, thus we may presume that he died after that year – but the place of his death and where he is buried is unclear.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. s.v. ‘Süleyman the Magnificent’. [ h t t p s : / / w w w. b r i t a n n i c a . c o m / b i o g ra p h y / Suleyman-the-Magnificent] (accessed July 2019). Encyclopaedia Britannica. s.v. ‘Ibrahim Paşa’. [https:// www.britannica.com/biography/Ibrahim-PasaOttoman-vizier-circa-1493-1536] (accessed July 2019). Grgec, P. 1933. Od Hrvatske do Indije – lutanja i putovanja Jurja Rasinjanina. Zagreb. Hrvatska enciklopedija. s.v. ‘Hus, Juraj’, vol. V (2003): 17. Hus, J. 2017. Opis putovanja Jurja Husa – Description peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii, in: M. Kolar (ed.), Opis putovanja Jurja Husa – Description peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii: 33-182. Koprivnica. Huszthii, G. 1881. Description peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii, in: P. Matković (ed.), Description peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii, Starine 13: 1-38. Inalcik, H. 2002. Osmansko Carstvo. Zagreb. Isthuanffium, Nicolaum Pannonium. Friessme, Joannis Wilhelmi (ed.), Regni Hungarici historia per Nilolavm Isthuanffium Pannonivm ejusdem Regni Propalatium Libris XXXIV exacte descripta vol. I-XXXIV. Coloniae Agrippinae, MDCLCCCV. (Vindobonna, 1685). Matković, P. 1881. Gjuro Hus, Hrvat iz Rasinje, glasoviti putnik XVI vieka. Rad 55: 116-184. Matuz, J. 1992. Osmansko Carstvo. Zagreb. Općina Rasinja. s.v. ‘Povijest’. [http://www.rasinja.hr/ index.php/opcina-rasinja2/opci-podaci/povijest] (accessed July 2019). Radej Miličić, I. 2017. Izvještaj s rubova carstva: Juraj Hurs i njegov zarobljenički putopis, in: M. Kolar (ed.), Opis putovanja Jurja Husa – Description peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii: 7-30. Koprivnica. Stepanić, G. 2011. Creating a value-added text: Description peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii. Systasis 18: 1-14. Šišić, F. 1975. Pregled povijesti hrvatskog naroda. Zagreb. Wikipedia – The free encyclopaedia. s.v. ‘İskender Çelebi’. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0skender_ %C3%87elebi] (accessed July 2019). Wikipedia – The free encyclopaedia. s.v. ‘Hadim Suleiman Pasha’. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Had%C4%B1m_Suleiman_Pasha] (accessed July 2019).
Descriptio peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii The first version of his manuscript Georgii Huz peregrination Hierosolimitana is dated 10th November 1548 and was written in Bratislava. In it he describes his captivity in Ottoman lands (1532–1536) and his later travels to Egypt, the Eastern Mediterranean, the Arabian Peninsula, and India. In 1549 he offered it to the Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand I, in Vienna, along with the small ebony cross referred to above.458 It was dedicated to Michael de Rawen, prothonotary of Slavonia. In 1566 he dedicated the second, longer, version entitled Descriptio peregrinationis Georgii Huszthii, to privy counsellor Hieronymus Beck von Leopoldsdorf, in Rome. The longer version, comprising 38 pages, 28 pages of narrative and ten with descriptions of places, peoples, customs, geographical and cultural notes; the narrative describes his life in captivity as a military trumpeter and later as a pilgrim to the Holy Land. His descriptions of the places he visited are very short, except for those of Holy sites (only in the second version of his manuscript). Almost a third of his manuscript consists of quotations from the Bible and ancient writers (Homer, Aristotle, Pliny, Seneca, Plautus, Ovid, Vergil, and Juvenal), and occasionally asides from humanists, such as Erasmus.459 Hus 2017: 82, 158. Hus 2017: 83, 159. 454 Hus 2017: 84, 159. 455 Hus 2017: 84, 159. 456 Hus 2017: 84, 160. 457 Hus 2017: 84, 160. 458 Hus 2017: 74, 150. 459 Stepanić 2011: 6-11. 452 453
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Jakov Šašel (1832–1903) and His Travels To Egypt in 1853/4 Sanda Kočevar
Who is Jakov Šašel (1832–1903)? Jakov Šašel (Ger. Jakob Schaschel) (Figure 49) was born on 25th July 1832 near Ferlach/Borovlje in Carinthia, the southern region of Austria. It was the height of the gunsmith’s art in the middle of the 19th century, and Jakov was born into the family of a celebrated gunmaker, the eldest of six sons. During his childhood the family moved twice: first to Kranj in Slovenia, where Jakov completed four years of primary school between 1838 and 1842, and then to Ljubljana.460 Jakov learned his trade in his father’s gunsmith workshop and after that undertook his compulsory journeyman ship all over Austria,461 to learn his trade and become a master. Inspired by the writing of ‘Zgodnja Danica’, and an enthusiast of the Catholic church in Africa,462 he decided to join the Catholic mission463 of Ignatius Knoblecher (1819–1858) in Khartoum, Sudan, in the summer of 1853. The journey lasted four months, with the party crossing more than 4,000 kms. Poor travelling and living conditions in Africa led to severe physical problems; all developed scabies,464 many became seriously ill and some died. Šašel himself fell ill in Khartoum, with the German doctor treating him unsuccessfully, by bleeding him, and suggesting he should return to Europe.465 With his health worsening, he accepted this advice and was on crutches as he went on board ship.466 Although the date of his return is unknown, Šašel was back in Europe in the first half of 1854; one of his companions, the priest Jožef Lap records, in the last sentence of a letter written on 8th May 1854, that Hruška and Šašel had already returned to Europe.467
Figure 49. Jakob Schaschel, self-portrait. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
eldest sister of a local merchant. Next year the couple moved to Karlovac,469 where he opened a gunsmith’s shop in the main street. All of his six children were born there; their boys, Jakov (1862–1911) and Janko (1868–1926), both became Roman Catholic priests, with a talent for writing and painting like their father. The girls, except for the youngest, Sophia, who died as an infant, were teachers and died relatively young: Marija (1859–1895), Cecilija (1860–1889), and Ana (1864–1888).
After returning from the Sudan he moved to Novo Mesto, Slovenia, where his mother died while visiting him in 1855.468 There he worked as a gunsmith, as well as a drawing teacher at the Franciscan Gymnasium. He also found time, in January 1856, to marry Ana Kalčič, the Šašelj 1927a: 3. Šašelj 1927c: 5. 462 Šašelj 1927c: 5. 463 For further reading see: McEwan 1987. 464 Šašelj 1927a: 3. 465 Šašel 2003: 108. 466 Šašel 2003: 112. 467 Lap 1854: 127. 468 Šašelj 1928: 305. 460 461
469 There could be at least two reasons for his moving to Karlovac. In the second half of the 19th century the town reached the peak of its economic prosperity, gained as a lively trading centre en route to the harbours of the Croatian littoral. Kočevar 2013: 9. In addition, the place benefitted from strong and sustained good relations between the Franciscans of Karlovac and Ljubljana. Cvitanović 1970: 234.
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Karlovac he became a prominent citizen, determined to increase the level of craftsmanship in Karlovac. For his achievements as an artist and craftsman, he was awarded several medals at different exhibitions throughout the Monarchy.473 He died on 28th March 1903 and is buried in the Karlovac cemetery.474 Šašel’s paintings and other works are to be found mainly in the Karlovac City Museum, the Municipality of Karlovac, the Croatian History Museum, and the Diocesan Museum, Zagreb. A few examples are owned by churches and private collectors. Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in den Jahren 1853 und 1854 [‘Pictures from the Orient Taken during a Journey to Egypt, Nubia and Sudan in 1853 and 1854’] In 1863, Šašel completed (in German) his Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in den Jahren 1853 und 1854 (‘Pictures from the Orient Taken during a Journey to Egypt, Nubia and Sudan in 1853 and 1854’) (Figure 51). The leather-bound book, with gold lettering, consists of a Foreword and 143 pages of text, divided into four chapters. It is illustrated with 34 of Šašel’s gouache drawings, with captions below, including a self-portrait on the first page. A few chapters of the manuscript were published in sequels by the local newspaper, Svjetlo, in 1884.475 The manuscript is exhibited today on permanent display in the Karlovac City Museum.476 In 2003 it was published in a bilingual German and Croatian edition; in 2018 it was digitalised and is available via the online platform of the Gradski muzej Karlovac.477 Šašel’s stories about his travel most likely influenced other travellers from his hometown to Africa, for example his cousins Napoleon Lukšić (1863–1883) and Janko Mikić (1856–1897), the most famous Croatian explorer to Africa, Dragutin Lerman (1863–1918), and the brothers Seljan - Mirko (1871–1913) and Stevo (1875–1936).478
Figure 50. Jakob Schaschel, Two-wheeled hunting rifle of the ignition system on the cap. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-93. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Marija had a daughter, who continued living with her grandparents.470
Šašel’s book is much more than a travelogue; it is a valuable source for multi-disciplinary research, providing abundant data on the historical, ethnological, anthropological and geographical aspects of his journey.
After his arrival in Karlovac he met a countryman, the Franciscan monk and painter Franjo Prokopije Godler (1825–1909), who helped him with his painting skills.471 Besides working as a gunsmith (Figure 50), he was a successful inventor, engraver, illustrator, and designer of church furnishings.472 During his years in
Kočevar 2008: 11. Kočevar 2003: 163. 475 Svjetlo 1884a-d. 476 Karlovac: Karlovac City Museum, GMK-KP-460. 477 Gradski muzej Karlovac online, s.v. ‘J. Schaschel – Bilder aus dem Oriente von Jakob Schaschel’. [http://www.online-zbirke.gmk.hr/hr/ Predmet/3508/3]. 478 See more in: Kočevar 2013. 473 474
Šašel 2008: 13. Strohal 1906: 276-277. 472 For further reading see Kočevar 2008. 470 471
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Figure 52. Schaschel, Jakob, Moga, the chief of the Bari tribe from along the White Nile in Sudan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 51. Schaschel, Jakob. Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac, 1863. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
In an event, whether Šašel was the sole author of the travelogue or had help, the book is an interesting source whose value is underpinned by colourful drawings; these accompany the text and have captions below; they show everything he was interested in, and impressed, or deeply moved by: Moga,482 the chief of the Bari tribe; traditional costumes in Alexandria;483 cities and villages; 484 pyramids, ruins, temples, churches and monuments;485 the lives of local people (including tax collection, crocodile hunts, snake charmers, transports of Egyptian recruits or slaves);486 animals; landscapes;487 and the doings of the missionaries.488 The ten-year gap between the journey and the travelogue led to some mistakes, e.g. Moga (Figure 52) has a stool in his right hand, while the text mentions the other; and the illustration called ‘A donkey driver in Cairo’ appears in the chapter in the first part describing
At the same time, his work sheds a different light on the Catholic mission and Ignatius Knoblecher than appears in the newspapers of the time. For example, Šašel would write letters in the names of his companions in rather more detail, and these were the ones published, whereas those he wrote to his parents were more subdued.479 While the lively descriptions of his journey, landscapes, people and customs, present Šašel as a well-read man with a fairly broad knowledge of ancient history and its sources, two preserved letters480 to his parents show him as a man of more modest knowledge. Moreover, the language in these letters, as well as the orthography and grammar, are quite limited. It is clear that the gap of ten years gave him the opportunity to undertake research, include the data from his, and other letters by missionaries, even information he could not have witnessed himself, such as the lives of tribes south of Khartoum, or the deaths of some missionaries.481
He made at least two drawings of Moga, one for his parents and one for Luka Jeran. See also Šašelj 1927a: 3. Schaschel 2003: 122. 483 Schaschel 2003: 124. 484 Schaschel 2003: 126, 129, 143, 147-149. 485 Schaschel 2003: 128, 130, 132-136. 486 Schaschel 2003: 123, 125, 139, 140, 144, 150-151. 487 Schaschel 2003: 127, 137, 146. 488 Schaschel 2003: 138, 141-142, 145, 152-153. 482
Šašel 2003: 109-110. The letters are kept in the holdings of the Karlovac City Museum: Karlovac City Museum, GMK-11988 and GMK-11989. 481 Kočevar 2003: 165. 479 480
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Map 3. Jakov Šašel and his travel to Egypt and Sudan during 1853 – 1854. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
Jakov Šašel’s Journey to Egypt, Nubia and the Sudan in 1853/4 (Map 3)
Alexandria489 (Figure 53). Earlier, Družak spotted other errors:490 the illustration captioned ‘The King’s Tomb’ in the second chapter of the second part (‘The Ruins of Thebes’) (Figure 68),491 actually represents the Temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel, southern Thebes; and that the Colossi of Memnon exchanged places.492
On 22nd August 1853 a group of missionaries and craftsmen set out from Ljubljana to Trieste to join the Catholic mission of Ignatius Knoblecher in the Sudan. It consisted of five priests: Luka Jeran,493 Jožef Lap,494 493 Luka Jeran (Javorje, 1818 – Ljubljana, 1896), a Slovene Roman Catholic missionary priest, poet, writer and editor. Slovenska biografija s.v. ‘Jeran, Luka, papežev komornik (1818–1896)’. [https://www. slovenska-biografija.si/oseba/sbi255872/]. 494 Jožef Lap (Preddvor, 1819 – Khartoum, 1855), a Slovene Roman
Schaschel 2003: 123. 490 Družak 2003: 169. 491 Schaschel 2003: 135. 492 For further reading, see Družak 2003. 489
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Figure 53. Schaschel, Jakob, Egyptian felaheen with a donkey. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 54. Schaschel, Jakob, Egyptian family in Alexandria. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Joseph Gostner,495 Alois Haller,496 and Ignatz Kohl.497 The party also included the Viennese teacher Martin Ludvik Hansal498 and seven Slovene craftsmen: the gunsmith and locksmith Jakov Šašel,499 the carpenters Franc Bališ and Lovrenc Pavlin, the cooper Janez Klančnik,500 the shoemaker Jožef Kramar, the cartwright Martin
Mikuž, and the farmer Jakob Kobilica, who was skilled in various crafts.501 They split into two groups and four of them, including Šašel, went on a pilgrimage to Sveta Gora. On 25th August the whole party reunited in Trieste. Two days later, on 27th August, they set off aboard the steamship Calcutta. Making notes of sights along the way, the men steamed through the Adriatic, Ionian and Mediterranean, and arrived in Alexandria on the morning of 1st September, where they were greeted by Knoblecher himself, who introduced them to Moga, chief of the Bari tribe, whose colourful outfit thrilled Šašel (Figure 52).
Catholic missionary priest. Slovenska biografija s.v. ‘Lap, Jožef (1819– 1855)’. [https://www.slovenska-biografija.si/oseba/sbi317551/]. 495 Joseph Gostner (Vols, 1821 – Khartoum, 1858), an Austrian Roman Catholic missionary priest. Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich (BLKÖ) s.v. ‘Gostner, Joseph’, Band 5 (1859): 279. (20.1.2019). 496 Alois Haller (Untertefels, 1820 – Khartoum, 1854), an Austrian Roman Catholic missionary priest. Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich (BLKÖ) s.v. ‘Haller, Alois’, Band 7 (1861): 240. 497 Ignatz Kohl (St. Pölten, 1827 – Gondekoro, 1854), an Austrian Roman Catholic missionary priest. Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich (BLKÖ) s.v. ‘Kohl, Ignaz’, Band 12 (1864): 295. 498 Martin Ludvik Hansal (Dyjákovice, 1823 – Khartoum, 1885), a teacher in the mission school at Gondokoro. [https://www. knihovnazn.cz/component/k2/item/1502-hansal-martinludvik-1823-1885.html]. 499 McEwan 1987: 173. 500 Janez Klančnik (Dovje, 1823 – 1871), a Slovenian craftsman, Roman Catholic missionary and explorer. Klančnik Janez. Znojmo – Městská knihovna, s.v. ‘Hansal, Martin Ludvík (1823–1885)’. [https:// www.knihovnazn.cz/component/k2/item/1502-hansal-martinludvik-1823-1885.html].
In his travelogue, Šašel recorded sights and characteristics of the areas they passed through. A short record of his stay in Alexandria, which to him had started ‘to lose its Oriental look’, included descriptions of the church of St. Catherine, the costumes of local people, and even the abundance of donkeys and their use (Figures 53-54).
501
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Figure 55. Schaschel, Jakob, Houses of the fellaheen. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 56. Schaschel, Jakob, Cairo with Giza and the pyramids. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
On 3rd October they set off by boat for Thebes, a trip dependent on favourable winds. Šašel paid close attention to the Nile, that ‘the merciful river’, with its shores of millet, beans and watermelons. The voyage could be eventful – once they were threatened by pirates.
They stayed in Alexandria from 1st to 17th September 1853. Their onward journey took them up the Nile, and after eight days, surviving a storm as well as the stranding of their ship, they reached Cairo on the evening of 25th September. On the way Šašel described the landscape and poor villages (Figure 55). At the same time, he was fascinated by the reforms of Muhammad Ali represented in new, stone-built, public institutions (schools, factories, stables, granaries).
On the ninth day, around midnight, they reached the small town of Girga (Figure 59), where they stayed for three days waiting for a large quantity of flatbread to be baked, and where they witnessed two boats full of Egyptian soldiers and chained pirates sailing by (Figure 61). On their way to Thebes they also saw the Catholic church at Naqada (Figure 60).
In Cairo they settled in the Franciscan monastery, where they spent the following eight days. Šašel was delighted with this ‘Paris of the Orient’ and provided detailed descriptions of everything he saw: wildlife, houses, streets, crowds, harems, eunuchs, slaves, Biblical sights, and the great Giza pyramids (Figures 56-58).
They stayed among the ruins of Thebes for several days, visiting the Ramesseum, the Memnon colossi, 87
Egypt in Croatia the Theban necropolis, the temple of Medinet Habu, the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, and the temples at Karnak and Luxor (Figures 62-64). As with his illustrations, there are certain mistakes in the positions of some of these features in his work, i.e. Isnā placed north of Thebes, although it is south).502 They left Thebes at the end of October and reached Aswan two days later, where they visited the temple at Philae (Figures 65-66). After a few days at Aswan the group loaded their luggage on camels and set off again on donkeys (Figure 67). At Shellal they hired five smaller boats to continue their journey (Figure 68), departing on 21st November and reaching Kuruskū by the 26th (Figures 69-70). On the journey through the desert their luggage was loaded onto a caravan of 500 camels (Figure 71) and they moved slowly south through the Nubian Desert (Figure 71) to Abū Hamad (Figure 73). Šašel describes the magnificence of the wild desert nature – the dunes covering animal carcasses, the mirages, the endurance of the camel drivers, as well as the thrill of crocodile hunting on the banks of the Nile (Figure 74). They continued by camel along the Nile to Barbar, a large Sudanese town with a population of about 8,000 inhabitants in 1853.
Figure 57. Schaschel, Jakob, The old sycamore fig tree. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
At Barbar their luggage was transferred to a comfortable and fast mission-boat the Stella Matutina (Morning
Figure 58. Schaschel, Jakob, Pyramides in Giza. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Star) (Figure 75), from which they took pot shots at hippopotami (Figure 76). They celebrated Christmas on their journey (Figures 77-78) with holy masses, 502
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Figure 59. Schaschel, Jakob, The town of Girga. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 60. Schaschel, Jakob, Catholic church in Naqada. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 61. Schaschel, Jakob, The transport of Egyptian soldiers. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
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Figure 62. Schaschel, Jakob, Ruins of Thebes. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
fireworks, and a shower of meteorites. They arrived at Khartoum on 28th December 1853. At that time Khartoum was the capital, with a population of 25,000 people. Šašel noted that the region was surrounded by fertile land, although the people there were lazy and had to farm by hand. He stayed there the whole winter and early spring of 1854, Šašel spending his time describing war festivities and local customs, occupations, religion, marital customs, the slave trade (Figures 79-84), and prostitution among the tribes south of Khartoum (although he never went south himself).503 After several months of living simply in mud houses, and in a tropical climate that saw temperatures reach 60°C, Šašel, faced with the death of his companions and his own illness, left with the gardener Andrej Hruška and a group of French merchants for Alexandria. Once again, the trip took them along the Nile to Barbar, then on camels through the desert to Abū Hamad and Kuruskū, where they hired a boat to Shellal, then on camels and donkeys to Aswan, and at last by boat to Cairo; arriving exhausted, sick and hungry. Šašel stayed in the Franciscan monastery, and when he had recovered left for Alexandria, where he embarked on a ship for Trieste.
503
Figure 63. Schaschel, Jakob, Colossi of Memnon. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Kočevar 2003: 165.
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Figure 64. Schaschel, Jakob, Temple ruins in Thebes. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 65. Schaschel, Jakob, The cataract and the ruins of Aswan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 66. Schaschel, Jakob, Granite cliffs near the island of Philae. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
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Figure 67. Schaschel, Jakob, Camp in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 68. Schaschel, Jakob, Temples at Abu Simbel. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 69. Schaschel, Jakob, Camp of the Egyptian soldiers at Kuruskū. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
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Figure 70. Schaschel, Jakob, Punishment of the negro slave. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 71. Schaschel, Jakob, Caravan in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 72. Schaschel, Jakob, Arab praying in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
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Figure 73. Schaschel, Jakob, The village of Abū Hamad. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 74. Schaschel, Jakob, A crocodile hunt. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 75. Schaschel, Jakob, Stella Matutina. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMK-KP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
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Figure 76. Schaschel, Jakob, A hippopotamus. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac: City Museum, GMKKP-460. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Catalogue 1. Single barrel hunting rifle, back loading, system lefeaucheux (Figure 85) Collection: Karlovac: Karlovac City Museum, GMK-KP-92. Maker: Jakov Šašel. Dating: late 19th century. Dimensions: rifle length 120 cm, barrel length 81 cm. Material: metal. Description: The barrel is damascened with etched ornamentation on the top; it bears an inscription inlaid in gold on a ribbon that reads J. ŠAŠEL U KARLOVCU. All the metal parts of the rifle are decorated with engraved images of hunting animals. On the walnut rifle butt is a horn plate with images of deer: buck, doe and calf. Cf.: Zagreb: Croatian History Museum, HPM/PMH-11676, 11523, 10089, 10090. Bibliography: Šercer 1978: 75-78; Kočevar 2008: no 11, 74-75. 2. Double-barrelled hunting rifle, cap firing (Figure 50) Collection: Karlovac: Karlovac City Museum, GMK-KP-93. Maker: Jakov Šašel. Dating: late 19th century. Dimensions: rifle length 122 cm, barrel length 83 cm. Material: metal. Description: The barrels are damascened and decorated with an engraving of a shallow gilt ornament. On the connecting rod there is a calligraphic text that reads J. ŠAŠEL U KARLOVCU. All the metal parts are decorated with engraved images of hunting animals in natural surroundings. There is the image of a hunter hidden behind a tree trunk, with a pipe in his mouth and patting a dog’s head. The triggers are modelled in
Figure 77. Schaschel, Jakob, Chefta. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
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Figure 78. Schaschel, Jakob, Derar. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 79. Schaschel, Jakob, Negro village in Sudan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 80. Schaschel, Jakob, Native swing. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
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Figure 81. Schaschel, Jakob, Transportation of slaves in Sudan. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
the form of goggle-eyed reptiles with jaws agape and coiled tails with bodies decorated with gilt tendrils. The walnut rifle butt also bears carved hunting scenes. On the very corner of the butt there is a plate with the gilded crest of the Triune Kingdom of Slavonia, Croatia and Dalmatia, indicating that the rifle was made for the First Economic Exhibition in Zagreb in 1864. The ivory ending of the barrel holder is also very nicely executed, in the shape of a horned monster, with a silver shield between its horns, apparently for the initials of the future owner. Cf.: Zagreb: Croatian History Museum, HPM/PMH-11676, 11523, 10089, 10090. Bibliography: Šercer 1978: 75-78; Kočevar 2008: no 11, 74-75. 3. Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in den Jahren 1853. und 1854. (‘Pictures from the Orient Taken during a Journey to Egypt, Nubia and Sudan in 1853 and 1854’) (Figure 51) Collection: Karlovac: Karlovac City Museum, GMKKP-460. Maker: Jakov Šašel. Dating: 1863. Dimensions: 22.5 x 29.5 cm. Material: Paper, leather. Description: The book is bound in leather and the title is in gold lettering. It consists of a foreword and 143 pages of text divided into four chapters. Šašel illustrated the book with his own drawings in gouache technique. All the drawings are 15 x 21 cm. On the first page, before the title, there is a self-portrait. The rest of the text is accompanied with 33 coloured drawings with captions underneath.
Figure 82. Schaschel, Jakob, A mission boy by the grave of his benefactor. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
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Figure 83. Schaschel, Jakob, Voltures easting in the desert. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Figure 84. Schaschel, Jakob, A snake charmer. Taken from Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. © Karlovac: City Museum.
Inscription: BILDER AUS DEM ORIENTE VON JAKOB SCHASCHEL. Bibliography: Družak 2003; Schaschel 2003; Šašel 2003; Kočevar 2008: no 3, 59; Tomorad 2017.
Slovenska biografija s.v. ‘Jeran, Luka, papežev komornik (1818–1896)’. [https://www.slovenska-biografija.si/ oseba/sbi255872/] (accessed July 2019). Slovenska biografija s.v. ‘Klačnik, Janez, (1823–1871)’. [https://www.slovenska-biografija.si/oseba/ sbi274235/] (accessed July 2019). Slovenska biografija s.v. ‘Kocijančič, Ivan (1826–1853)’. [https://www.slovenska-biografija.si/oseba/ sbi282421/] (accessed July 2019). Slovenska biografija s.v. ‘Lap, Jožef (1819–1855)’. [https:// www.slovenska-biografija.si/oseba/sbi317551/] (accessed July 2019). Slovenska biografija s.v. ‘Milharčič, Matej (1812–1853)’. [https://www.slovenska-biografija.si/oseba/ sbi368852/] (accessed July 2019).
Bibliography 1. Encyclopaedia articles Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich (BLKÖ) s.v. ‘Gostner, Joseph’, Band 5 (1859): 279. Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich (BLKÖ) s.v. ‘Haller, Alois’, Band 7 (1861): 240. Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich (BLKÖ) s.v. ‘Kohl, Ignaz’, Band 12 (1864): 295.
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Slovenska biografija s.v. ‘Rihar, Gregor starješi (1796– 1863)’. [https://www.slovenska-biografija.si/oseba/ sbi507766/] (accessed July 2019). Slovenska biografija s.v. ‘Šašelj, Ivan Feliks (1859–1944)’. [https://www.slovenska-biografija.si/oseba/ sbi641102/] (accessed July 2019). Slovenska biografija s.v. ‘Volc, Jurij (1805–1885)’. [https:// www.slovenska-biografija.si/oseba/sbi808121/] (accessed July 2019). Znojmo – Městská knihovna, s.v. ‘Hansal, Martin Ludvík (1823–1885)’. [https://www.knihovnazn. cz/component/k2/item/1502-hansal-martinludvik-1823-1885.html] (accessed July 2019).
McEwan, D. 1987. A Catholic Sudan – Dream, Mission, Reality. Rome. Šašel, J. 1884a. Chartum. Svjetlo 29: 1-2. Šašel, J. 1884b. Chartum. Svjetlo 30: 3. Šašel, J. 1884c. Chartum. Svjetlo 32: 1-2. Šašel, J. 1884d. Chartum. Svjetlo 34: 1-2. Šašel, J. 2003. Slike s Orijenta nastale tijekom jednog putovanja u Egipat, Nubiju i Sudan godine 1853. i 1854. Karlovac. Šašelj, I. 1927a. Dve zanimivi pismi nekdanjega spremljevalca misijonarja Knobleharja na njegovem misijonskem potu v Egipt, Nubijo in Sudan iz leta 1853. in 1854. Slovenec 57: 3-4. Šašelj, I. 1927b. Dve zanimivi pismi nekdanjega spremljevalca misijonarja Knobleharja na njegovem misijonskem potu v Egipt, Nubijo in Sudan iz leta 1853. in 1854. Slovenec 61: 3-4. Šašelj, I. 1927c. Dve zanimivi pismi nekdanjega spremljevalca misijonarja Knobleharja na njegovem misijonskem potu v Egipt, Nubijo in Sudan iz leta 1853. in 1854. Slovenec 62: 4-5. Šašelj, I. 1928. Nepoznan slovenski slikar. Mladika 8: 304-306. Schaschel, J. 1863. Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac. Schaschel, J. 2003. Bilder aus dem Oriente aufgenommen während einer Reise nach Aegypten, Nubien, Sudan in Jahren 1853 und 1854. Karlovac. Šercer, M. 1978. Oružarska djelatnost karlovačkog slikara Jakoba Šašla, in: V. Zlamalik (ed.), II. kongres Saveza društva povjesničara SFRJ Celje, 6.-7.12.1978.: zbornik radova: 75-78. Celje. Tomorad, M. 2017. Jakov Šašel (Jacob Schaschel) and his travels to Egypt, Nubia and Africa 1853–54, In: N. Cooke and V. Daubney (eds), Lost and Now Found, Explorers, Diplomats and Artists in Egypt and the Near East: 49-70. Oxford.
2. Literature and sources Cvitanović, Đ. 1970. Franjevački samostan i župna crkva Sv. Trojstva u Karlovcu, in: Đ. Zatezalo (ed), Karlovac – radovi i građa iz dalje i bliže prošlosti, Zbornik 2: 193-241. Karlovac. Družak, A. 2003. Zapažanja uz ilustracije’, in: S. Kočevar (ed), Šašel, Jakov, Slike s Orijenta nastale tijekom jednog putovanja u Egipat, Nubiju i Sudan godine 1853. i 1854: 168-170. Karlovac. Frelih, M. 2005. Afrika, ki odhaja in se vrača: dr. Ignacij Knoblehar – katoliški misijonar v južnem Sudanu in raziskovalec reke Nil. Azijske in afriške študije IX.3: 4164. Kočevar, S. 2003. Jakov Šašel i Slike Orijenta, in: S. Kočevar, Šašel, Jakov, Slike s Orijenta nastale tijekom jednog putovanja u Egipat, Nubiju i Sudan godine 1853. i 1854: 163-167. Karlovac. Kočevar, S. 2008. Jakov Šašel (1832–1903). Karlovac. Kočevar, S. 2013 Afrika – Karlovčani u Africi u drugoj polovini 19. i početkom 20. stoljeća. Karlovac. Lap, J. 1854. Pismo gospod misionarja J. Lapa iz Hartuma, Zgodnja Danica 30: 126-127. Lopašić, R. 1906. Karlovac opisan i orisan. Karlovac.
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The Photographs of Antonio Beato in the Dubrovnik Archaeological Museum Mladen Tomorad Donors to the Egyptian Collection in the Dubrovnik Archaeological Museum
(Lima), and Costa Rica as a rich plantation owner and a collector of stuffed birds (from South America, mostly Brazil); it is also uncertain when and where he died. At some time in the second half of the 19th century, however, we know that Antun donated his collection of stuffed birds and various antiquities, collected from around the world, to the Dubrovnik museum.511
The ancient Egyptian Collection of the Dubrovnik Archaeological Museum was assembled through various donations in the second half of the 19th century, although only a few donor names as mentioned in the museum’s inventory register.
The only other recorded donors to the Egyptian Collection at Dubrovnik are Tonko Kurajica and Ivo Nordeli,512 however at the present time it is impossible to determine which items were given and when.513
Among the recorded donors the most important were the Amerling brothers: Frano (Dubrovnik, 1821 – ?), Nikola/Niko (Dubrovnik, 1823 – Vienna, 1892), and Antun (1833 – ?).504 From their many journeys around the world they gathered a great number of artefacts in Egypt, Africa, Japan and South America. It is most likely that they donated their collections to the Dubrovnik museum after 1872.505 The only recorded year of any donation is 1872,506 by Frano, then a well-known aristocratic businessman nobleman from Dubrovnik living in Alexandria.507 According to the museum’s inventory book, in 1872 the latter donated to the Dubrovnik museum a collection of archaeological artefacts, minerals, and rarities from his Cairo antiquities’ collection, as well as a collection of Japanese artefacts.508 At that time his brother Nikola was also a rich merchant living in Alexandria (between 1842 and 1882). After the British occupation of Egypt in 1882 the brothers reconsidered their positions, and both decided to leave Egypt;509 Frano died but the year and place of his death are uncertain. Nikola died in Vienna in 1892, and his remains were later transferred to Dubrovnik for a family funeral.510 In the second half of the 19th century the third brother, Antun, lived in Peru
Among the 228 Egyptian artefacts in the Dubrovnik Archaeological Museum there is a collection of 37 albumen prints (with 49 photographs) taken by the famous Italian photographer Antonio Beato.514 The year of their donation is not certain, but we may assume that they were donated sometime between 1872 and 1890, most likely from the members of the Amerling family, when residing in Alexandria and Cairo, or by two other donors to the museum. The life of the famous Italian photographer Antonio Beato (c. 1830/1835? – 1903/1906?) Antonio (or Antoine) Beato was most likely born during the early 1830s,515 somewhere in the Italian region of Veneto or Corfu. It is most likely he was raised on Corfu, which had been a British protectorate since 1815, and was thus a British citizen,516 although very little is known about the Beato family; according to various researches he had three siblings, including Felice (Felix) (c. 1834? – 1906?), himself a world-renowned photographer in the second half of the 19th century.517
504 Menalo 2003: 6-7; Tomorad 2003: 56; Tomorad 2005: 14; Tomorad 2015: 47; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229; Tomorad 2017: 68. 505 Tomorad 2001: 24; Menalo 2003: 6-7; Tomorad 2003: 56; Tomorad 2005: 14; Tomorad 2015: 47; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229. 506 Tomorad 2001: 24; Uranić 2002: 181; Tomorad 2003: 56; Tomorad 2005: 14; Tomorad 2015: 47-48; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229; Tomorad 2017: 68. 507 According to the periodical Slovinac: ‘Frano Amerling, a nobleman, [and] Dubrovnik merchant in Alexandria’, established several foundations for the benefit of the poor, widows, orphans and disabled people. Menalo 2003: 6; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229. 508 Menalo 2003: 6; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229. 509 Tomorad 2001: 24; Menalo 2003: 6; Tomorad 200: 56; Tomorad 2005: 14; Tomorad 2015: 47; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229; Tomorad 2017: 68. 510 Menalo 2003: 6; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229; Tomorad 2017: 68.
Menalo 2003: 6-7; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229. Tomorad 2001: 24; Menalo 2003: 6; Tomorad 200: 56; Tomorad 2005: 14; Tomorad 2015: 47; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229; Tomorad 2017: 68. 513 Tomorad 2001: 24; Tomorad 2003: 56; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229; Tomorad 2017: 68. 514 Dubrovnik: The Archaeological Museum, inv. nos. 1683-1719. Tomorad 2017: 68. 515 The exact date of his birth is not certain. Most historians and art historians usually date his birth somewhere between 1830 and 1835. Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century photography s.v. ‘Beato, Antonio’: 126. 516 Corfu was on and off part of Venetian territory from 1386 until 1815, when the Treaty of Paris placed it with the other Ionian Islands under British protection. Corfu became part of Greece in 1864. 517 For more on his life, see: Gartlan 2008: 128-131. 511 512
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It seems that the family moved from Corfu to Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, in 1844.518 During the early 1850s both brothers learned photography from Felice’s brother-in-law James Robertson, who worked as chief engraver to the Imperial Mint in Constantinople.519 It seems that they started their career in Malta between 1854 and 1856.520 After that, in early 1856, they arrived in the Crimea, where they were brought to the attention of British officers with Robertson’s assistance.521 During the 1856 Beato brothers travelled to Malta where they took serious of photographs as partners of Robertson.522 In early 1857 the Beato brothers, in the company of Robertson, visited and photographed various monuments in Greece.523 In early March of the same year they arrived in Jerusalem,524 and over the next few months photographed cultural and religious buildings and places in the Holy Land.525 The photographs they took in Jerusalem, Constantinople and Athens at that time were all signed as being by ‘Robertson, Beato & Co.’,526 indicating that the brothers now enjoyed a status equal to that of their senior partner and mentor.527
to Luxor sometime between 1862 and 1870.533 During Ikeda Nagaoki’s Japanese Mission to Europe in 1864, Antonio Beato took the memorable portrait of 27 samurai in front of the Sphinx at Giza.534 His work was sold widely to travellers on ‘the Grand Tour of Egypt’ from the 1870s until the end of the 19th century.535 Antonio Beato was one of Egypt’s most prolific photographers. His work appears in most of the composite travel albums of the time, through the turn of the century, and covers all aspects of the country: landscapes, architecture, ethnographic images, and genre scenes.536 It is known that he died in Luxor at some time between 1903 and 1906,537 but the exact year is uncertain. Antonio Beato’s photographs in the Dubrovnik Archaeological Museum Dubrovnik’s archaeological museum holds 37 albumen prints and 49 Antonio Beato photographs (Figures 85121b).538 They were all taken in Upper Egypt (Dendera, Thebes region, Edfu, Aswan region, Nubia and Abu Simbel) between 1862 and 1882 (Table 1).
Felice Beato departed in early 1858 for Calcutta, and his brother Antonio joined him in July of the same year.528 In India the brothers not only photographed various historical sites (Lucknow, Delhi, Cawnpore, Agra, Benares and Amritsar), but also the ‘Sepoy Rebellion’ and massacre at Lucknow, which happened at the same time.529 Upon arrival in India, Felice also established one of the first commercial photographic studios in Calcutta.530 Antonio left Calcutta in December 1859, probably for health reasons (presumably bronchitis brought on by the Indian climate), and headed for Malta.531
Antonio Beato is most famous for his photographs of Egyptian historical sites and their monuments, as we can see from his fine work. It is most likely that all the photographs were taken after he had moved his studio to Luxor (sometime between 1862 and 1870),539 thus explaining the absence of photographs taken from around Cairo and Lower Egypt.540 Various versions of his photographs survive today in museum and private collections around the world. The prints are mostly albumen copies of his glass negatives, probably taken in the 1860s and early 1870s. The majority of his albumen photographs are very similar images of the various ancient Egyptian historical sites and monuments he visited, with very little difference between them (perhaps slight variations in perspective, etc.). These albumen albums are mostly dated from the early 1860s to the end of the 1880s.
In 1860 Antonio Beato moved to Cairo, where he lived close to Shepheard’s Hotel on the Rue de Muski,532 where he first established his studio, before relocating Osman 1992: 72. Gartlan 2008: 128. 520 Osman 1994: 20; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 230. 521 Gartlan 2008: 128. 522 Gartlan 2008: 128. 523 Gartlan 2008: 128; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 230. 524 Osman 1994: 20; Gartlan 2008: 128; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 230. 525 Osman 1994: 20; Gartlan 2008: 128; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 230. 526 It is believed that the ‘& Co.’ refers to both Felice and Antonio Beato. Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 230. 527 Osman 1994: 20; Gartlan 2008: 128; Lacoste 2010: 2; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 230. 528 Hannavy 2008: 127; Gartlan 2008: 128; Lacoste 2010: 3; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 230. 529 Gartlan 2008: 128. 530 Hannavy 2008: 127; Gartlan 2008: 128; Lacoste 2010: 3; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 230. 531 Hannavy 2008: 127; Gartlan 2008: 128; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 230. 532 It is presumed that he did so because he mainly worked in Egypt, which had a large French-speaking population. 518 519
It is known that in 1887 at least two families (the Camperios and Vanderbilts) bought photographs in Egypt from Antonio Beato. Ivana Štimac and the present The exact date when he left Cairo and moved to Luxor is not certain. Some authors date it between 1862 and 1870. Perez 1988: 131; Hannavy 2008: 127; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 230. 534 Cobbing 1998: 60; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 230. 535 Hannavy 2008: 127; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 231. 536 Perez 1988: 131; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 231. 537 Hannavy 2008: 127; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 231. 538 Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 231; Tomorad 2017: 69. 539 Some historians of photography date it to 1862 or 1870, as mentioned earlier in the review of his life. 540 His earlier photographs taken in Lower Egypt are now in collections in Florence and Brooklyn, New York. Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 231. 533
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Egypt in Croatia Table 1: Antonio Beato’s photographs in the Dubrovnik Archaeological Museum. Inventory number Place/Monument
Dating
1683 1684 1685 1686 1687 1688 1689 1690 1691 1692 1693 1694 1695 1696 1697 1698 1699 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705 1706 1707a 1707b 1708a 1708b 1709a 1709b 1710a 1710b 1711a 1711b 1712a 1712b 1713a 1713b 1714a 1714b 1715a 1715b 1716a 1716b 1717 1718a 1718b 1719a 1719b
1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862 –1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882 1862–1882
Uncertain site/pillar capital Thebes/Karnak temple – the southern pylon Thebes/Temple of Amenhotep Thebes/Karnak temple – obelisks Thebes/Karnak temple – view from the north Aswan region/Philae temple – inner courtyard Edfu/Horus temple – relief Thebes/Luxor temple – colossal statue of Ramesses II and pylons Abu Simbel/Great Temple of Ramesses II Dendera/Hathor temple – pylon remains Dendera/Hathor temple – relief of Cleopatra VII and Caesarion Thebes/Karnak temple – inner courtyard Thebes/Karnak temple – battle relief from the reign of Ramesses II Aswan region/Philae island – Trajan’s kiosk Thebes/Luxor temple – statue of Ramesses II Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – Thutmose’s gate Aswan region/Philae temple – columns Thebes/Karnak temple – columns of first courtyard Edfu/Horus temple – pylons Luxor – date-palm trees Thebes/Karnak temple – valley of Sphinx and pylon view Nubia/View of 1st Cataract Thebes/Luxor temple – view of temple Thebes/Karnak temple – first courtyard Aswan region/Philae temple – view from the east Aswan region/Elephantine island – Roman baths Thebes/Memnon Colossus Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – relief of naval battle between Ramesses III and Sea People Thebes/Karnak temple – columns Aswan region/Philae temple – view of temple Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – view of temple Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – second courtyard Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – inner courtyard Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – palace high gate Edfu/Horus temple – inner courtyard Edfu/Horus temple – inner courtyard with entrance to the closed part of the temple Thebes/Ramesseum – temple with statues Thebes/Ramesseum – temple view Aswan region/Philae temple – inner courtyard Thebes/Karnak temple – view of obelisks from the north Thebes/Luxor temple – pylons and obelisk Edfu/Horus temple – view of temple with pylons Thebes/Gournah temple Thebes/Valley of the Kings – entrance Aswan region/Philae temple – temple view Nubia/Bicharin tribesmen Nubia/View of 1st Cataract Thebes/Luxor temple – temple view Thebes/Karnak temple – view from the ‘Sacred Lake’
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Figure 86. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the southern pylon at Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1684. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 85. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of pillar capital from the uncertain site. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1683. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 87. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Temple of Amenhotep at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1685. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
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Figure 90. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard at Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1688. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 88. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the obelisks in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1686. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 91. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the relief in the Horus temple in Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1689. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 89. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the northern view of Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1687. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
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Figure 94. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylon remains in Hathor temple at Dendera. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1692. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 92. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the colossal statue of Ramesses II and pylons in Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1690. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 95. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the relief of Cleopatra VII and Caesarion in Hathor temple at Dendera. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1693. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 93. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Great temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1691. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
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Figure 98. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Trajan’s kiosk at Philae island. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1696. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 96. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard in Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1694. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 99. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the statue of Ramesses II in Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1697. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 97. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the battle relief from the reign of Ramesses II in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1695. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
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Figure 102. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the columns of the first courtyard in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1700. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 100. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Thutmose’s gate in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1698. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 101. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the colums in Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1699. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
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Figure 103. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylons of Horus temple at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1701. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 104. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the datepalm trees at Luxor. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1702. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 105. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylon and the valley of Sphinx infront of Karnak temple at Luxor. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1703. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
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Figure 106. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the 1st Cataract. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1704. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 109a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the eastern view of Philae temple. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1707. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 107. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1705. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 109b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Roman baths at Elephantine island. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1707. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 108. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the first courtyard at Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1706. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 110a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Memnon Colossus at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1708. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
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Figure 110b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the relief of naval battle between Ramesses II and Sea People in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1708. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 112a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the view of Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1710. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 111a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the columns in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1709. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 112b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the second courtyard in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1710. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 111b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the view at the Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1709. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 113a Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard in Medinet Habu temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1711. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
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Figure 113b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of palace high gate in Medinet Habu at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1711. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 115a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the statues in Ramesseum at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1713. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 114a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of inner courtyard in Horus temple at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1712. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 115b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Ramesseum at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1713. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 114b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard with entrance to the closed part of the temple Horus at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1712. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 116a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the inner courtyard in Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1714. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
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Figure 116b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the northern view of obelisks in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1714. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 117b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Horus temple at Edfu. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1715. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 117a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the pylons and obelisk infront of Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1715. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 118a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Gournah temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1716. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 118b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the entrance to the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1716. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
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Figure 120b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of 1st Cataract in Nubia. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1718. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 119. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Philae temple. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1717. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 121a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of Luxor temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1719. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 120a. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Bicharin tribesmen in Nubia. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1718. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum. Figure 121b. Antonio Beato, Albumen photograph of the Sacred lake in Karnak temple at Thebes. Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum, 1719. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
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Egypt in Croatia Table 2: Comparative analysis between similar photographs from the Camperio journal and the collection of the Dubrovnik Archaeological Museum. Collection/Inv. no.
Attribute
Collection/Inv. no.
Attribute
Villasanta (MB): Biblioteca civica/Inv. no. 0089 Villasanta (MB): Biblioteca civica/Inv. no. 0103 Villasanta (MB): Biblioteca civica/Inv. no. 0112 Villasanta (MB): Biblioteca civica/Inv. no. 0113 Villasanta (MB): Biblioteca civica/Inv. no. 0116 Villasanta (MB): Biblioteca civica/Inv. no. 0118
Aswan region/Philae temple – temple view Thebes/Luxor temple – statue of Ramesses II Edfu/Horus temple – inner courtyard columns Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – entrance with Ptolemaic pylons Thebes/Karnak temple – Isis and Horus** The Karnak temple/Sety I in battle with his enemies
Dubrovnik: Archaeological museum/Inv. no. 1707 Dubrovnik: Archaeological museum/Inv. no. 1697 Dubrovnik: Archaeological museum/Inv. no. 1712 Dubrovnik: Archaeological museum/Inv. no. 1698 Dubrovnik: Archaeological museum/Inv. no. 1693 Dubrovnik: Archaeological museum/Inv. no. 1695
Aswan region/Philae temple – temple view Thebes/Luxor temple – statue of Ramesses II Edfu/Horus temple – inner courtyard columns Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – entrance of Thutmose* Dendera/Hathor temple – Cleopatra VII and Caesarion The Karnak temple/ Ramesses II battles with his enemies
This image was most wrongly attributed to the reign of Thutmose. This scene was wrongly attributed to Isis and Horus from the Karnak temple. It is the well-known relief from the Dendera temple with Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XV Caesarion.
*
**
108 photographs and the Brooklyn Museum another 56, with images of Egyptian landscapes, people, and historical monuments and sites. As shown in Table 4b, most photographs match the locations, historical sites and monuments.
author discovered a few photographic albums with one family journal while undertaking earlier research into the Antonio Beato collection in Dubrovnik.541 The first journal contains 14 Beato photographs, now kept in the Bibliotheca Civica in Villasanta, near Milan. This journal was written by Fanny Camperio (1872–1890) on her visit to Egypt with her parents, Manfred and Marie Siegfried, and sister Sita, between the 8th of January and 13th of March 1887.542 The photographs included in her journal were bought in Cairo and Luxor during their visit. There is a great similarity between six photographs from the Camperio journal and photographs in the Dubrovnik collection (Table 2). These photographs are almost the same, suggesting that they could have been taken at the same time. The Camperio journal also contains a photograph of the Great Pyramids at Giza. It is very likely that these images were photographed before 1887.
The main problems and mysteries surrounding the Antonio Beato photographs have to do with their dates. It is generally acknowledged that the photographs of Lower Egypt were taken while Beato was living in Cairo between 1860 and 1870, and those of Upper Egypt after 1862/1870, when he had moved to Luxor. In both the online collections researched the Antonio Beato photographs could not be dated with certainty. Most photographs were taken between the early 1860s and late 1880s. As previously mentioned, most of the ancient Egyptian artefacts donated to the Dubrovnik museum arrived in 1872, but there is a possibility that these photographs were donated later by the Amerling brothers, T. Kurajica, or I. Nordeli.
The American Vanderbilt family travelled to Egypt in the latter half of 1887, buying there two albums of Antonio Beato’s photographs taken between 1862 and 1887. These are now in the Library of the University of California, Los Angeles. From descriptions of the images it seems that many of them could be like those in the Dubrovnik Archaeological Museum,543 and certainly both collections contain the photograph of Bicharin tribesman (Dubrovnik inv. no. 1718a). The Antonio Beato photographs in both the Fratelli Alinari Collection in Florence and the Brooklyn Museum of Art in New York, the biggest online collections, were searched for comparative analyses with the photographs in Dubrovnik. The Fratelli Alinari Collection holds
During our research we discovered several, almost identical photographs in the above-mentioned photographic collections, i.e. that of the twelve Bicharin tribesmen, dressed in traditional clothes and with spears and shield.544 On this photograph (inv. no. 1718a) we also have the same Nubians with shields and spears, meaning that it was taken at the same time. The photograph from the Library of the University of California was bought in Egypt by members of the Vanderbilt family in 1887. The photograph of Nubians in the Brooklyn Museum of Art was donated by Alan Schlussel. Both images, from Brooklyn and Florence, were donated to the museums sometime during
Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 231. 542 Camperio 1887; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 231. 543 Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 231-232.
544 Cf. Dubrovnik: The Archaeological Museum, inv. No. 1718a; Florence: The Fratelli Alinari Collection, inv. no. FVQ-F-113119-0000; New York: The Brooklyn Museum of Art, inv. No. 86.250.6; Los Angeles: The Library of the University of California.
541
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Table 4: Comparative analyses of Antonio Beato photographs in the collections in Dubrovnik, Florence, and New York. Place/Monument
Dubrovnik: Florence: Fratelli Alinari New York: Brooklyn Archaeological Museum, Inv. No. Museum of Art, Inv. No. Museum, Inv. No.
Uncertain site/Pillar capital
1683
Thebes/Karnak temple – southern pylon
1684
Thebes/Amenhotep temple Thebes/Karnak temple – obelisks Thebes/Karnak temple – view from the north
1685 1686 1687
Aswan region/Philae temple – inner courtyard
1688
Edfu /Horus temple – relief Thebes/Luxor temple – colossal statue of Ramesses II and pylons Abu Simbel/Great Temple of Ramesses II
1689
FVQ-F-113115 FVQ-F-113114-0000, PDC-A-004574-0019 (other perspective), MFC-A-00477-034 FVQ-F-113114-0000 BAQ-A-001543-0074 FVQ-F-015902-0000 FVQ-F-147281-0000, MFC-S-000450-0003, FVQ-F-147590-0000
1690
FVQ-F-113102-0000
1691
FVQ-F-206709-0000
Dendera/Hathor temple – pylon remains
1692
MFC-S-000450-0018
Dendera/Hathor temple – relief of Cleopatra VII and Caesarion
1693
MFC-S-000450-0019
Thebes/Karnak temple – inner courtyard
1694
FVQ-F-113113-0000
Thebes/Karnak temple – battle relief from the reign of Ramesses II
1695
FVQ-F-049868-0000
Aswan region/Philae island – Trajan’s kiosk
1696
FVQ-F-113121-0000*
Thebes/Luxor temple – statue of Ramesses II
1697
Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – Thutmose’s gate Aswan region/Philae temple – columns Thebes/Karnak temple – columns of first courtyard
1698 1699
Edfu/Horus temple – pylons
1701
Luxor/Date-palm trees Thebes/Karnak temple – valley of the Sphinx and view of pylons Nubia/View of 1st cataract Thebes/Luxor temple – view of temple Thebes/Karnak temple – first courtyard Aswan region/Philae temple – view from the east Aswan region/Elephantine island – Roman baths
1702 1704 1705 1706 1707a 1707a
Thebes/Memnon colossus
1708a
Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – battle relief of naval battle between Ramesses III and Sea People Thebes/Karnak temple – columns Aswan region/Philae temple – view of temple Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – view of temple Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – second courtyard Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – inner courtyard
MFC-S-000450-0013
86.250.11. Gift of Alan Schlussel 1990.242.1. Gift of Alan Schlussel 86.250.20. Gift of Alan Schlussel 85.305.14. Gift of Matthew Dontzin 86.250.10. Gift of Alan Schlussel
1700 86.250.7, 86.250.7. Gift of Alan Schlussel
1703
FVQ-F-147283-0000
86.250.23. Gift of Alan Schlussel/
1708b 1709a 1709b 1710a 1710b 1711a
FVQ-F-147279-0000 FVQQ-F-121103-0000 FVQ-F-026380-0000
The same location but photographed from a different perspective. Florence: Fratelli Alinari Museum, inv. nos. PDC-A-OO4574-0051, MFC-A-004677-0042, FVQ-F-206721-0000, FVQ-F-121111-0000.
*
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Egypt in Croatia
Place/Monument Thebes/Medinet Habu temple – palace of Ramesses III Edfu/Horus temple – inner courtyard Edfu/Horus temple – inner courtyard with entrance to closed part of temple Thebes/Ramesseum – temple with statues Thebes/Ramesseum –view of temple Aswan region/Philae temple – inner courtyard Thebes/Karnak temple – view of obelisks from the north Thebes/Luxor temple – pylons and the obelisk
Dubrovnik: Florence: Fratelli Alinari New York: Brooklyn Archaeological Museum, Inv. No. Museum of Art, Inv. No. Museum, Inv. No. 1711b 1712a 1712b 1713a 1713b
FVQ-F-113108-0000/ MFC-S-000450-0012
1714a 1714b 1715a
Edfu/Horus temple – view of temple with pylons
1715b
Thebes/Gournah temple
1716a
MFC-S-000450-0005
Thebes/Valley of the Kings – entrance
1716b 1717
FVQ-F-121096-0000
Nubia/Bicharin tribesmen
1718a
FVQ-F-113119-0000
Nubia/View of 1st cataract
1718b
Thebes/Luxor temple – view of temple Thebes/Karnak temple – view from the ‘Sacred Lake’
1719a
Aswan region/Philae temple – view of temple
1719b
the 1880s. As for the other historical locations, it is very difficult to know when the images were taken or donated. For a terminus post quem as to when the photographs were taken, we can settle on 1862/1870, when A. Beato moved to Luxor; this means that all these albumen albums were created between 1862/1870 and 1887.
FVQ-F-121109-0000 BAQ-A-001543-0072, PDC-A-004574-0017x
85.305.16. Gift of Matthew Dontzin 86.250.19. Gift of Alan Schlussel 86.250.7. Gift of Alan Schlussel (front view)
86.250.6. Gift of Alan Schlussel 86.250.4. Gift of Alan Schlussel
great value of this collection. Thus far, sadly, we cannot confirm the exact dates for these photographs and albumen prints. Earlier research has shown that the various similar albumen print albums and copies had different dates, mostly between 1862 and the late 1880s. The images on these photographs well document what the typical tourist in the 1870s wanted to take home as souvenirs from Egypt.
The Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna has several almost identical photographs by Antonio Beato.545 According to the curators, all of these can be dated to 1865, according to the type of albumen printing paper used.546 It appears that no similar technical assessment to date the paper in any of the other museum collections has been undertaken.
For now, it is clear that all these photographs are very valuable tools for modern historical and archaeological research of Egyptian sites and monuments; in addition, they serve to document the state of preservation of the various monuments and sites in the second half of the 19th century.
Conclusion
Bibliography
The above analysis of Antonio Beato’s photographs in the Dubrovnik Archaeological Museum shows the
Camperio, F. 1887. Diari del viaggio in Egitto (1887) (1887 gennaio 8 – 1887 marzo 13). Villasanta (MB): Biblioteca Civica, Fondo Fondo Camperio [Serie Egitto 1887]. Cobbing, A. 1998. The Japanese Discovery of Victorian Britain: Early Travel Encounters in the Far West. Mitcham and Midsomer Norton. Gartlan, J. 2008. Beato, Felice, in: J. Hannavy (ed.), Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, vol 1: 128-131. London and New York.
545 These photographs contains images of the Pylon, the colossal statue and obelisk in front of the Luxor temple, Thebes (Dubrovnik, inv. no. 1690), the great temple of Ramesses II, Abu Simbel (Dubrovnik, inv. no. 1691), the colossal statue of Ramesses II in the Luxor temple, Thebes (Dubrovnik, inv. no. 1697), and the high gate of the palace in the temple of Medinet Habu, Thebes (Dubrovnik, inv. no. 1711b). 546 This information was given to the present author in September 2016 in Vienna, when attending the exhibition of early Egyptian photographs.
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Hannavy, J. 2008. Beato, Antonio, in: J. Hannavy (ed.), Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, vol 1: 127-128. London and New York. Lacoste, A. 2010. Felice Beato: A Photographer on the Eastern Road. Los Angeles. Menalo, R. 2003. Egipatska zbirka Arheološkog muzeja u Dubrovniku. Dubrovnik. Osman, C. 1992. The Later Years of James Robertson. History of Photography 16.1: 72-73. Osman, C. 1994. Another Piece of a Jigsaw. Photohistorian 105: 20-21. Perez, N.N. 1988. Focus East: Early Photography in the Near East (1839-1885). New York. Tomorad, M. 2001. Egipatske starine u hrvatskoj znanosti i kulturi. Master of Science thesis, Department of History at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zagreb, Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2003. Egipat u Hrvatskoj: egipatske starine u hrvatskoj znanosti i kulturi. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2005. The Egyptian antiquities in Croatia. PalArch 2.1: 1-33.
Tomorad, M. 2015. The Ancient Egyptian antiquities in institutional and private collections in Croatia, in: M. Tomorad (ed.), A history of research into Ancient Egyptian culture conducted in Southeast Europe: 31-58. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017. Staroegipatska civilizacija: vol. I Povijest i kultura starog Egipta, vol. II Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Štimac, I. 2016. Visualizing Egypt in the Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Dubrovnik and the Newspaper/travel Reports Published by Grga Novak between 1933 and 1945, in: A. Júnová Macková, L. Storchová and L. Jún (eds), Egypt and Austria X: Visualizing the Orient: Central Europe and the Near East in the 19th and 20th Centuries: 229-244. Prague. Uranić, I. 2002. Dubrovačka zbirka egipatskih starina. Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu, 3rd series, XXXIV: 181-204.
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Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin in Egypt at the End of 1902 Mladen Tomorad
Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin (1856–1919) – his life and work Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin (Figure 122) was a renowned Croatian scientist, physician, writer, amateur archaeologist, historian, and collector of the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. He was born in Oriovac in 1856547 and died in Križevci in 1919.548 He went to school in Oriovac, Osijek, Zagreb and Požega, and completed his medical studies in Vienna.549 From 1894 until the end of his life he lived in Križevci, where he was a professor of hygiene at ‘Gospodarsko učilište’ and head of the local hospital.550 Because of his work on tuberculosis and other diseases, the harmful effects of alcohol and tobacco, the importance of maintaining hygiene, the health of teeth and hair, and the problem of prostitution, he can today be considered as one of the initiators of public health in Croatia.551 As an amateur historian and archaeologist he was a member of the National Museum, for which he acquired valuable objects of all historical periods from the area of Križevci and Kalnik.552 His private collection of antiquities consisted of ancient coinage, weapons, tools, flags, pearls, statues, paintings, and historical documents. During his lifetime he collected the largest collection of objects associated with Josip Jelačić.553 The objects from his collection of antiquities are now in the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, the Croatian Museum of History in Zagreb, the City Museum in Križevci, the City Museum in Bjelovar, and the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Zagreb.554 Figure 122. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin. Križevci: City Museum, 5171. © Križevci: City Museum.
Fran Gundrum was also a great travel writer, providing accounts of his numerous travels around Croatia, the Mediterranean (Egypt, Tangiers, Morocco, Turkey), as well as European countries (Bulgaria, Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway).555
Short descriptions of his travels have been published in journals such as Prosvjeta, Hrvatska, Hrvatski planinar, Obzor, and Liečnički viesnik.556
Hrvatska enciklopedija vol. 4, s.v. ‘Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran’, 405; Tomorad 2018: 313. 548 Hrvatska enciklopedija vol. 4, s.v. ‘Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran’, 405; Tomorad 2018: 314. 549 Hrvatska enciklopedija vol. 4, s.v. ‘Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran’, 405; Tomorad 2018: 314. 550 Hrvatska enciklopedija vol. 4, s.v. ‘Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran’, 405; Tomorad 2018: 314. 551 Tomorad 2018: 314. 552 Tomorad 2018: 315. 553 Matoš 1909: 3; Matoš 1910; Husinec 2001: 256; KolarDimitrijević 2014: 21; Tomorad 2018: 315. 554 Tomorad 2018: 315. 555 Tomorad 2018: 316. 547
Gundrum also worked all his life on a still unpublished manuscript Iz Križevaca u Kairo – Iz Kaira u Gornji Egipat (From Križevci to Cairo – From Cairo to Upper Egypt) of 453 556 Gundrum 1900; Gundrum 1903a; Gundrum 1903b; Gundrum 1903c; Gundrum 1903d; Gundrum 1904; Gundrum 1905a; Gundrum 1905b; Gundrum 1907a; Gundrum 1907b; Gundrum 1907c; Gundrum 1907d; Gundrum 1908.
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pages.557 He also prepared an edited version of the same manuscript entitled Moje putovanje po Egiptu (My voyage around Egypt), which he probably wanted to publish but never did so.558 They contain very useful information about the archaeology, history and culture of ancient Egypt, the history of Egyptology, and about everyday life and the means of travel in Egypt at the beginning of the 20th century.
to Egypt with the train from Križevci to Zagreb.561 In Zagreb he took a train to Trieste, arriving on 19th November at 8.30 in the morning.562 The same day he bought a first-class cabin, for 130 golden forints,563 on the Austrian Lloyd vessel the SS Habsburg and walked around the city for the rest of the day.564 The next morning, 20th November at 10 o’clock, the ship left the port of Trieste565 and started its five-day journey to Alexandria.566 Gundrum records that the voyage did not go well because of the ‘gloomy, rainy weather’,567 during which ‘the fair-sized SS Habsburg had truly danced something approaching a jig upon the waves’.568
Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin in Egypt (November – December 1902) (Map 4) In 1902 Gundrum received news concerning a ‘First Egyptian Medical Congress’, which was going to take place in Cairo from 19th to 24th December that year. He had always wished to travel to this ancient land and so he applied to participate in the congress, as the only representative of the Croatian Medical Society.559 In his account published later he wrote: ‘The moment I heard that the capital of Egypt – Cairo – would host an international medical congress, the notion began to form that I might go there. Not only to hear the opinions of my colleagues, who in the less developed lands of the far east respond to their humane calling in difficult, even too difficult conditions; not only to learn about diseases which, thank God, there is not a trace of in our regions but also to visit other parts of the country besides Cairo, those I had heard stories about even as a child. I remember so vividly the tales of Aksanović, our religion teacher told us; for example, about how the Mother of our Lord escaped with Jesus to Egypt; how inside a basket floating down the Nile a child was found who in the course of time became a famous man and Israel’s lawmaker. I also remember the tales about pyramids and a city that had a ‘hundred gates’. … I have travelled a lot all over Europe; … Even the views somehow seem the same and you don’t really have time to rest your gaze on them since the train these days speeds so fast. Thus, I made up my mind to see other corners of the world.’560
On the morning of the 25th November 1902, the steamer finally arrived at the ‘large and impressive’ port of Alexandria,569 where ‘many sailing ships and steamers dock…, many thousands throughout the year’.570 Gundrum’s truly vivid prose is probably best in his description of the first daybreak he witnesses in Egypt: ‘When her rosy fingers open the gates from which the Sun is emerging, you see a crimson, a mighty crimson as if the sky were bathed in blood or Aurora had opened a huge, great oven, filled to the top with embers. It is this crimson which drives the night away, which flees fast, head over heels, to yield its place to the luminant day. The heavens take on blue, they are clear, giving one the impression that he can see far, far high up above. All the while the sun grows larger and larger creating an unusually pleasant heat, one which does not tire, does not smite.’ 571 After he had left the busy port, with a hundred other passengers, he started exploring the old city of Alexandria, where he saw ‘all sort of streets; wide and clean much like the European ones but others narrow, stench-filled, revolting, unclean like those in some cities in Italy or Sicily’.572 The streets were crowded with ‘different people, different colours, tanned, brown, all the way up to black, lighter black and white …’573 The things he noted immediately were the camels and palm trees, which he saw everywhere in the region of Alexandria.574 Gundrum was not impressed with the sightseeing opportunities of Alexandria:575
He planned to see the most important sites in the Nile valley several weeks before the start of the congress in Cairo. On 18th November 1902 he started his voyage
Gundrum 1902a: fol. 1; Tomorad 2018: 318. Gundrum 1902a: fol. 3; Tomorad 2018: 318. 563 Gundrum 1902a: fol. 21; Gundrum 2003: 12; Tomorad 2018: 318. 564 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 3-5; Gundrum 2003: 12; Tomorad 2018: 318. 565 Gundrum 1902a: fol. 5; Gundrum 1903a: 50; Gundrum 2003: 12; Tomorad 2018: 318. 566 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 5-24; Gundrum 1903a: 50; Gundrum 2003: 12; Tomorad 2018: 318. 567 Gundrum 2003: 12; Tomorad 2018: 318. 568 Gundrum 2003: 12; Tomorad 2018: 318. 569 Gundrum 1902a: fol. 24; Gundrum 1903a: 50; Gundrum 2003: 13; Tomorad 2018: 318. 570 Gundrum 1903a: 50; Gundrum 2003: 13; Tomorad 2018: 318; fn. 51. 571 Gundrum 1903a: 50; Gundrum 2003: 13; Tomorad 2018: 318. 572 Gundrum 1903a: 51; Gundrum 2003: 13; Tomorad 2018: 319. 573 Gundrum 1903a: 51; Gundrum 2003: 13; Tomorad 2018: 319. 574 Gundrum 1903a: 51; Gundrum 2003: 13-14; Tomorad 2018: 319. 575 Even so, in his unpublished manuscript he describes Alexandria and its monuments over 17 pages, i.e. he felt there was something 561 562
It is currently in the archive of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts. It is divided into two parts: Iz Križevaca u Kairo (From Križevci to Cairo), and Iz Kaira u Gornji Egipat (From Cairo to Upper Egypt). Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko. Iz Križevaca u Kairo – Iz Kaira u Gornji Egipat. Zagreb, Zavod za povijest hrvatske književnosti, kazališta i glazbe - Odsjek za povijest hrvatske književnosti, Osobni arhivski fondovi – zbirke rukopisa i dokumentacijskoga gradiva 148 Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko [Sig. 24, I/10]. Tomorad 2018: 317. 558 Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko. Moje putovanje po Egiptu. Zagreb, Zavod za povijest hrvatske književnosti, kazališta i glazbe Odsjek za povijest hrvatske književnosti, Osobni arhivski fondovi – zbirke rukopisa i dokumentacijskoga gradiva 148 GundrumOriovčanin, Fran Srećko [Sig. 30, II/53]. Tomorad 2018: 317. 559 Gundrum 1903d: 95; Tomorad 2018: 317. 560 Gundrum 1903a: 49-50; Gundrum 2003: 11-12; Tomorad 2018: 317. 557
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Map 4. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin and his travel to Egypt in 1902. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
‘A traveller is soon done with Alexandria. Very little is left of that ancient city founded in 332 BC by the Macedonian king Alexander the Great… The Column of Pompeii, the tombs, which lie not far away from it, as well as the newly opened catacombs, tempt the traveller. But all these and the museum too (GrecoRoman museum), can be compassed in a day or two, after which everyone hurries on to Cairo.’576
On 26th November, at 9 in the morning,577 he left Alexandria on the train to Cairo.578 On his trip there he saw picturesque Egyptian scenes, including fellahs, which he very vividly described.579 Approaching Cairo’s Kaljub station he saw the three great pyramids of Giza for the first time. ‘What a sensation awakened that moment in my soul! Far out there against the clear and Štimac 2016: 236; Tomorad 2018: 319, fn. 56. 577 The exact date was only given in his unpublished manuscript Iz Križevaca u Kairo. Gundrum 1902a: fol. 42; Tomorad 2018: 319. 578 Gundrum 1903b: 65-66; Gundrum 2003: 14. 579 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 42-43; Gundrum 1903b: 66; Gundrum 2003: 14-15; Tomorad 2018: 319.
worth seeing in the city, and that a traveller could still enjoy a day or two there. Gundrum 1902a: fols. 24-41; Tomorad 2018: 319. 576 Gundrum 1903a: 65; Gundrum 2003: 14. Thirty years later, a similar description of Alexandria was given by Grga Novak, another Croatian scholar. Novak 1933: 9; Novak 1945: 22; Tomorad and
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pure azure of the skies, I saw the silhouettes of these huge piles of stone which many hundred thousand human hands through the course of many years constructed into the shape they present themselves to us now! I saw what I had so longed to see, in real life, not as a picture, and as I got closer and closer to those witnesses of the ancient culture of a nation which many thousands of years ago created such works while our people … what? While our people perhaps did not even know what they were!... Three pyramids rise high, sprung perhaps from the vanity of three pharaohs and surely bathed in a sea of the tears of those who laboured to pile those heavy blocks one on another and then form them into their shape! How many sighs broke from those overburdened souls! How many curses burned within the hearts of the wretched multitude, who, exposed to the sun’s awful glare, had no option but to work? As the observer turns over these thoughts in his mind, the pyramids nevertheless appear to him as magnificent edifices with no other like them in the world, edifices before which one can only stand and gaze!’580
of different things (goldsmiths, shoemakers, harness makers, wheelwrights, potters, bookmakers, etc.).589 As a professor of hygiene and medical doctor he was not impressed with its ‘very narrow, sticky, dirty, smelly stuffy and dark streets’, where ‘the goddess Hygiea would look in vain ...’, and where ‘nobody worship her here, nor had any intention of doing so.’590 While he was walking around the busy streets of Cairo he went to the Garden of Esbekiah,591 the Mosque of Sultan Hassan,592 the Citadel,593 the Mosque of Muhammed Ali,594 the cemetery on the hills of Mukattam,595, and to Cairo university.596 As a collector of antiquities, historian and archaeologist he was impressed with the Museum,597 with its ‘real jewel’ of a collection:598 ‘In a beautiful building – there are no rooms that are not packed with almost everything found in Egypt up to now. From tiny statuettes to giant ones which once graced the entrances to temples; from small caskets with mummies of cats, dogs and children to sarcophagi in which kings were buried; all together with various pots, paints, furniture, cereals, flowers, precious objects, in a word, absolutely everything related to Egyptian history from its most ancient times. One is forced to stand and look!’599
Gundrum, around noon and after 3.5 hours by train, goes on to describe Cairo as an ‘interesting city of caliphs, with its countless mosques and their slender minarets’.581 He was obviously impressed with the monuments of Cairo and its surroundings, where the first-time visitors could see ‘an amazing number of various attractions’.582 The non-Arabic traveller would do well to know English, which is ‘understood by every dragoman, guide, every shopkeeper, donkeyand camel-driver, every waiter on Cook’s steamships, even though they are natives; every railroad clerk and Bedouin near the pyramids.’583 A knowledge of Italian and French is also useful, ‘but German is of little use’.584 Gundrum advises that first-time travellers go nowhere alone, and that they hire the services of a specialised guide or dragoman: ‘The dragomans, an interpreter or guide in Arabic-speaking countries, usually ask 4 kruna 80 shillings to 7 kruna 20 shillings for their services. The payment depends on the type of customer and how much they can pay.’585 In Cairo586 Gundrum visited the Arab part of the city, with its long Muski Street587 leading to the bazaars,588 where merchants offer all manner
Most likely Gundrum went to Giza the same day he arrived (26th November)600 and climbed to the top of the Cheops (e.g. Khufu) pyramid. ‘The steps are high, there is none less than one meter. They are not really stairs but the blocks of the construction. The outer layer disappeared long ago, and it is the step-like construction that is used for climbing. When I went up, I had to take a break several times and when I got to the top, my pulse was beating 132 times a minute. An awesome effort because of the unusual movement. My legs were ready to fall off at the ankles. However, it is amazing once you arrive at the top of the pyramid. Its top is missing. Who knows when it disappeared? From the top one can see the vast Libyan desert, the ochre sea of sand, bordered with lush green. A border between the lushest life and the most horrible death! One square Gundrum 1902a: fols. 52-71; Gundrum 1903b: 67; Gundrum 2003: 17; Tomorad 2018: 320. 590 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 50-51; Gundrum 1903b: 67; Gundrum 2003: 17; Tomorad 2018: 320-321. 591 Gundrum 1902a: fol. 71; Gundrum 1903b: 68; Gundrum 2003: 18; Tomorad 2018: 321. 592 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 76-79; Gundrum 1903b: 68; Gundrum 2003: 18; Tomorad 2018: 321. 593 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 79-83; Tomorad 2018: 321. 594 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 83-85; Tomorad 2018: 321. 595 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 86, 93-96; Gundrum 1903b: 68; Gundrum 2003: 19; Tomorad 2018: 321. 596 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 131-137; Gundrum 1903b: 67-68; Gundrum 2003: 18; Tomorad 2018: 321. 597 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 223-233; Tomorad 2018: 321. 598 Gundrum 1903b: 68; Gundrum 2003: 19; Tomorad 2018: 321. 599 Gundrum 1903b: 68; Gundrum 2003: 19; Tomorad 2018: 321, fn. 78. 600 His postcard with his image taken in front of the pyramids is dated 26th November 1902. Križevci: City Museum, inv. nos. 5167, 5547. 589
580 Gundrum 1902a: fol. 88, 155; Gundrum 1903b: 66; Gundrum 2003: 16; Tomorad 2018: 319, fn. 60. 581 Gundrum 1903b: 65-66; Gundrum 2003: 17; Tomorad 2018: 320. 582 Gundrum 1903b: 67; Gundrum 2003: 17; Tomorad 2018: 320. 583 Gundrum 2003: 17; Tomorad 2018: 320. 584 Gundrum 2003: 17; Tomorad 2018: 320. 585 Gundrum 1903b: 67; Gundrum 2003: 17; Tomorad 2018: 320, fn. 65. 586 His unpublished manuscript and the later published texts do not give the exact order according in which he visited each site in Cairo and its surroundings (Giza, Saqqara, Memphis, Heliopolis, etc.). It is most likely that he visits some sites between 26th and 28th November, and some others between 15th and 24th December 1902. Tomorad 2018: 320. 587 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 52-61; Tomorad 2018: 320. 588 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 61-71; Tomorad 2018: 320.
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Egypt in Croatia his list of sites, stopping to see the Hotel Gezira with its magnificent gardens.614 During his stay in Cairo Gundrum took the morning train to the village of Bedrashen, and after half an hour on a donkey came to the remains of the old city of Memphis, where he saw two gigantic statues of Ramesses II615 and stone blocks from the former palaces and temples that once adorned this important city.616 A little later he visited the remains of the ancient Egyptian necropolis of Saqqara,617 the Step Pyramid,618 Mariette’s house,619 and the tombs of Ty,620 Mereruka621 and Apis.622 On his way back to Cairo he stopped at Giza to see the pyramids of Chefren (Khafra) and Mycerinus (Menkaura).623
centimetre of fertile soil holds more live cells than many thousand square kilometres of that sea of sand. To the south one can see the pyramids of Saqqara and Dahshur, the Mukattam hills rise in the east… All in all, even if I had the chance again, I probably wouldn’t repeat my ascent up the pyramid.’601 He also went inside the pyramid, and that experience Gundrum liked even less: ‘… still less would I venture into its interior. It is not only that with great effort one enters a dark passageway – but there are no stairs or anything to hold on to, the stone is very smooth and there are parts where it is very steeply inclined downward or upward. Also, it is very hot inside, almost unbearably so and there is a smell of bats. At last and with great effort one comes to a larger space – which in fact is not aligned with the centre of the pyramid! – without decorations, in which an empty, heavy sarcophagus stands … That’s all!’602 Soon after the largest pyramid he visited the great Sphinx, which he wrongly attributed to Amenemhet III and dated to around 1600 BCE,603 and the ruins of a temple dedicated to Sokar-Osiris.604 After all these excitements Gundrum went to rest and eat in the nearby Mena House.605 On his return to Cairo by electric tram, he walked in the evening around the crowded city streets, lit by countless lamps,606 and visited the Variété and several other houses of entertainment with their gavazzi dancers.607 He also mentions that there is not much else for foreign travellers to do in Cairo in the evenings if they do not like to read or go to bed early.608 Around the city (and the rest of Egypt, he finds) most of the inns, day or night, are run by Germans.609
He also made excursions in the surroundings of Cairo: to Helwan, where he visited patients with tuberculosis and kidney problems;624 the sycamore trees at Matarieh, where, according to the New Testament story, the Virgin Mary with her family rested while fleeing Herod’s persection;625 an ostrich farm;626 Heliopolis,627 where he saw a well-preserved obelisk;628 and the impressive dam ‘used to irrigate fields and farms’.629 On 29th November 1902, at 9 o’clock in the morning, Gundrum left Cairo and started his Nile voyage to Luxor on the so-called ‘express’ steamer Nefert-Ari630 (Figure 123). This ship served the route from Cairo to Aswan, with 38 stops, during which the passengers could visit various places and monuments.631 He travelled first class
24; Tomorad 2018: 323. 614 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 121-122; Gundrum 1903b: 72; Gundrum 2003: 24; Tomorad 2018: 323. 615 Gundrum 1902a: fol. 191; Tomorad 2018: 323. 616 Gundrum 1902a: fol. 187-193; Gundrum 1903b: 72-73; Gundrum 2003: 24-25; Tomorad 2018: 323. 617 Gundrum 1902: fols. 193-204; Gundrum 1903b: 73-74; Gundrum 2003: 25-26. It is unclear when exactly he visited all these monuments and tombs in the Saqqara necropolis. It seems that he saw some of at the end of November and the rest during his second stay in Cairo, in the middle of December. Gundrum 1903b: 74; Gundrum 2003: 26; Tomorad 2018: 323. 618 Gundrum 1902: fol. 193; Gundrum 1903b: 73; Gundrum 2003: 25; Tomorad 2018: 323. 619 Gundrum 1902: fols. 194, 204; Gundrum 1903b: 73; Gundrum 2003: 25; Tomorad 2018: 324. 620 Gundrum 1902: fols. 194-196; Gundrum 1903b: 74; Gundrum 2003: 25-26; Tomorad 2018: 324. 621 Gundrum 1902: fol. 197. In his printed editions Gundrum mentioned this tomb as Meruka. Gundrum 1903b: 74; Gundrum 2003: 26; Tomorad 2018: 324. 622 Gundrum 1902: fols. 198-204; Gundrum 1903b: 73-74; Gundrum 2003: 25. This tomb was Serapeum, which was discovered by Auguste Mariette in 1850. Tomorad 2018: 324. 623 Gundrum 1902: fol. 213; Tomorad 2018: 324. 624 Gundrum 1903b: 68; Gundrum 2003: 19; Tomorad 2018: 324. 625 Gundrum 1903b: 68; Gundrum 2003: 19; Tomorad 2018: 324. 626 Gundrum 1903b: 68; Gundrum 2003: 19; Tomorad 2018: 324. 627 Gundrum 1902: fol. 97-110; Tomorad 2018: 324. 628 Gundrum 1902: fol. 101-103; Gundrum 1903b: 68-69; Gundrum 2003: 19; Tomorad 2018: 324. 629 Gundrum 1903b: 69; Gundrum 2003: 19; Tomorad 2018: 324. 630 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 3; Gundrum 1903b: 75; Gundrum 2003: 27; Tomorad 2018: 325. 631 Gundrum 1903b: 75; Gundrum 2003: 27; Tomorad 2018: 325.
Gundrum also visited Old Cairo and the remains of the ancient Roman fortress of Babylon610 and Rhoda Island,611 where he saw the Nilometer and the place where, according to the story, the pharaoh’s daughter found Moses in his basket,612 as well as the old church and crypt where, according to another story, the Virgin Mary spent some time with Jesus.613 Bulaq was also on 601 Gundrum 1902a: fol. 174; Gundrum 1903b: 69-70; Gundrum 2003: 20-21; Tomorad 2018: 322, fn. 80. 602 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 183, 201-210. Gundrum 1903b: 70; Gundrum 2003: 21; Tomorad 2018: 322, fn. 81. 603 ‘It is a male, the head probably representing King Amenemhet III… It is over 3,500 years old.’ Gundrum 1903b: 70; Gundrum 2003: 22; Tomorad 2018: 322. 604 Gundrum 1903b: 71; Gundrum 2003: 22; Tomorad 2018: 322. 605 Gundrum 1903b: 71; Gundrum 2003. 22; Tomorad 2018: 322. 606 Gundrum 1903b: 71; Gundrum 2003: 22; Tomorad 2018: 322. 607 Gundrum 1903b: 72; Gundrum 2003: 23; Tomorad 2018: 322. 608 Gundrum 1903b: 72; Gundrum 2003: 23; Tomorad 2018: 322. 609 Gundrum 1903b: 72; Gundrum 2003: 23; Tomorad 2018: 322. 610 Gundrum 1902a: fols. 146-148; Gundrum 1903b: 72; Gundrum 2003: 24; Tomorad 2018: 323. 611 In the 2003 English translation of his travel diary the name of this island is wrongly translated as the ‘Island of Storks’. Gundrum 2003: 24. For details of his visit to Rhoda Island, see: Gundrum 1902a: fols. 142-144; Tomorad 2018: 323. 612 Gundrum 1902a: fol. 144; Gundrum 1903b: 72; Gundrum 2003: 24; Tomorad 2018: 323. 613 Gundrum 1902a: fol. 123; Gundrum 1903b: 72; Gundrum 2003:
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Mladen Tomorad: Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin in Egypt at the End of 1902
Figure 123. The view of SS Cleopatra/Nefertari.
with 14 other passengers, all English.632 Gundrum visited many different places along the river to Luxor, most of them described later in his unpublished manuscript. He spent his most interesting time at Beni Hasan, where he visited the famous Middle Kingdom tombs,633 and Tell el-Amarna, where he went to the remains of the old city of Akhenaten and the surrounding tombs.634 At Asyut, a city of 42,000 citizens,635 he visited the tombs on the hill, the Arabian graveyard, and the local hospital which he liked.636 At 2 o’clock on the afternoon of 3rd December, the steamer stopped on the left bank of the Nile for the 3- to 4-hour excursion to Dendera.637 There he visited the temple of Hathor, built during the long period of
ancient Egyptian history (Middle Kingdom – Ptolemaic Period).638 In this part of the text Gundrum described the elements of the various ancient Egyptian temples he visited, their reliefs, paintings and sculptures.639 Soon after the passengers returned to their vessel it made another stop on the right bank of the Nile at Qena, with its 27,000 inhabitants, where the travellers could visit its workshops and coffee houses – where they were again entertained by gavazzi dancers.640 The following day, at 8 o’clock in the morning of 4th December, the steamboat made another stop at Luxor.641 Gundrum disembarked with sadness at leaving his English travelling companions;642 he stayed at Luxor until 7th December to see all the monuments in the
632 He paid 600 Austrian crowns for this journey. Gundrum 1903b: 75; Gundrum 2003: 27; Tomorad 2018: 325. 633 Gundrum 1902b: fols. 21-26; Tomorad 2018: 325. 634 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 27-28; Tomorad 2018: 325. 635 The exact date when he reached there is uncertain; the date was not mentioned in any edition of his travel accounts, but it must be a couple of days after he left Cairo, perhaps 1st or 2nd December. Gundrum 1903c: 84; Gundrum 2003: 29; Tomorad 2018: 325. 636 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 31-41. It is interesting that he mentioned the hospital only in his unpublished manuscript and 1905/2003 edition of his travel diary. It was not mentioned in paper published in Hrvatski planinar in 1903. Compare editions: Gundrum 1903c: 84; Gundrum 1905; Gundrum 2003: 29; Tomorad 2018: 325. 637 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 46-55; Gundrum 1903c: 84-85; Gundrum 2003: 29; Tomorad 2018: 325.
Gundrum 1903c, 85; Gundrum 2003, 29. He also mentioned the beautiful relief of Cleopatra VII carved on the outside wall of the Hathor temple at Dendera. Gundrum 1903c: 85; Gundrum 2003: 30; Tomorad 2018: 325. 639 Gundrum 1903c: 85; Gundrum 2003: 29-30; Tomorad 2018: 325326. 640 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 55-56; Gundrum 1903c: 85; Gundrum 2003: 30; Tomorad 2018: 326. 641 Gundrum 1903c: 86; Gundrum 2003: 30-31; Tomorad 2018: 326. 642 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 297; Tomorad 2018: 326. 638
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Egypt in Croatia
Figure 124. Luxor hotel, Luxor, at the beginning of the 20th century.
area.643 He stayed at the Hotel Luxor644 (Figure 124), from where he made several excursions to the great temples of Luxor and Karnak (4th December).645 The next day (5th December) he made an excursion to the Valley of the Kings, seeing the tombs of Ramesses I, III, IV, VI and IX, that of Seti I,646 and to the ruins of the temple of Seti I.647 On 6th December he went to Deir el-Bahri, where he visited the temples of Queen Hatshepsut, and the nearby smaller temple of Mentuhotep II,648 the Ramesseum,649 the valley of Deir el-Medina,650 the temple of Medinet Habu,651 the nearby necropolis of Sheikh Abdel-Quma,652 and, before he went back to his hotel, the famous Colossi of Memnon.653 On 7th December, his last day at Luxor, Gundrum spent the whole morning walking around town, where he visited the Austrian-Hungarian
diplomatic agent, who was a native Arab Catholic,654 the local hospital, mosque, and the school.655 Around noon on the same day he boarded another steamboat, the Amenarts, to continue his journey to Aswan.656 There he met one unnamed German writer and several Englishmen.657 He mentioned that he had an excellent time with enjoyable company for this part of his journey.658 The next day (8th December), around 10 o’clock in the morning, the boat stopped at Edfu, a city of some 14,000 residents, where the passengers visited the well-preserved Ptolemaic temple of Horus.659 In the evening of 9th December, they finally arrived at Aswan (population 12,000),660 where he stayed for the next four days at the Hotel Cataracte.661 Here Gundrum
Gundrum 1902b: fols. 297-362; Gundrum 1903c: 86; Gundrum 2003: 31; Tomorad 2018: 326. 644 The Hotel Luxor hotel was one of the oldest tourist hotels of the Luxor region, situated close to Manshya Street. It was built in late 1877 (probably October or November) in the surroundings of the Luxor temple and close to the river pier of Thomas Cook and Sons. It is recommended by Baedeker’s tourist guide and was a perfect residence for the tourists who came to Luxor for sightseeing. The hotel still exists, but it has been completely renovated over last two decades. 645 Gundrum 1902b: fols. 297-322; Gundrum 1903c: 86-87; Gundrum 2003: 31-32; Tomorad 2018: 326. 646 Gundrum 1902b: fols. 333-338; Gundrum 1903c: 87; Gundrum 2003: 32; Tomorad 2018: 326. 647 Gundrum 1903c: 87; Gundrum 2003: 32; Tomorad 2018: 326. 648 Gundrum 1902b: fols. 344-347; Gundrum 1903c: 87; Gundrum 2003: 32-33; Tomorad 2018: 326. 649 Gundrum 1902b: fols. 347-351; Tomorad 2018: 326. 650 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 351; Tomorad 2018: 326-327. 651 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 351-353; Gundrum 1903c: 87; Gundrum 2003: 33; Tomorad 2018: 327. 652 Gundrum 1903c: 87; Gundrum 2003: 33; Tomorad 2018: 327. 653 Gundrum 1902b: fols. 353-357; Gundrum 1903c: 87-88; Gundrum 2003: 33; Tomorad 2018: 327. 643
654 He did not mention his name. Gundrum 1903c: 88; Gundrum 2003: 33-34, Tomorad 2018: 327. 655 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 357-362; Gundrum 1903c: 88; Gundrum 2003: 34; Tomorad 2018: 327. 656 He dated this 4th December, but that date was obviously wrong, as he came to Luxor on 4th December and stayed there for four days. The actual date is 7th December. Gundrum 1903c: 88; Gundrum 2003: 34; Tomorad 2018: 327. 657 Among them there were several doctors, including the famous specialist Reginald Harrison, who later spoke at the opening of the congress at Cairo. The first ‘Egyptian Medical Congress’. The British Medical Journal, 3rd January 1903: 30; Gundrum 1903c: 88; Gundrum 2003: 34; Tomorad 2018: 327. 658 Gundrum 1903c: 88; Gundrum 2003: 34; Tomorad 2018: 327. 659 Gundrum 1902b: fols. 365-369; Gundrum 1903c: 88; Gundrum 2003: 34, Tomorad 2018: 327. 660 This number is different in various editions. In his unpublished manuscript it is given as 12,000, and in his published 1903/1905/2003 editions it is increased to 13,000. Cf: Gundrum 1902b: fol. 372; Gundrum 1903c: 88; Gundrum 2003: 34; Tomorad 2018: 328. 661 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 372; Gundrum 1903c: 88; Gundrum 2003: 34; Tomorad 2018: 328. This hotel was built in 1899, and today is known as the Hotel Sofitel Legend Old Cataract.
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Mladen Tomorad: Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin in Egypt at the End of 1902
visited the island of Elephantine with its Nilometer,662 walked around the city and its bazaar,663 the surrounding tombs, the ruins of the old Coptic monastery, the huge stone quarries, and the unfinished obelisk.664 He went to see the construction of the newly built Aswan dam,665 and visited Philae,666 with its temples dedicated to the goddesses Isis and Hathor.667 After sightseeing around Aswan, at 2 o’clock in the afternoon on 13th December, Gundrum boarded the SS Hatasoo and started his return trip to Luxor.668 The day after, on 14th December, he arrived at Luxor, where he took a train to Cairo,669 arriving at 7 o’clock in the morning on 15th December.670 The next day he went to see few more tombs in the Saqqara necropolis and the Giza pyramids for a second time.671 He stayed in Cairo until 24th December.672 Gundrum’s very vivid and thoughtful travelogue finishes with a few suggestions for future travellers to Egypt: all tourists should be healthy, both physically and mentally; they should know foreign languages (at least French); and have ample funds for all the various travel expenses (at least 30 to 40 crowns per day). Those wanting to visit all the important sites must travel by steamboat and allow at least 32 to 37 days from Trieste to Aswan and back. Finally, travellers should only drink water during the day and wear lightweight clothes (with warmer attire for the evenings).673 Figure 125. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin, U Egiptu! – Putopisna crta. Zagreb, 1905.
The First Egyptian Medical Congress, Cairo (19th– 24th December 1902) On the evening of 18th December 1902, the day before the official opening of the First Egyptian Medical Congress, a reception took place at Cairo’s Hotel Continental.674 Abbas Himli II, Khedive of Egypt, opened the event in the Opera House the following morning,675
with around 450-520 medical doctors attending,676 and representatives of Germany, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, the USA, France, England, Italy, Persia, Russia, Switzerland and Egypt presented in the region of 250 papers.677 The congress was divided into three sections (pathology, surgery, and diseases of the eyes) and took place in the Government School of Medicine, attached to the Kasr-el-Aini Hospital, Cairo.678 The presented papers mostly discussed the common diseases of the 19th and early 20th century and their treatments.679
Gundrum 1902b: fols. 375-378; Gundrum 1903c: 88; Gundrum 2003: 34; Tomorad 2018: 328. 663 Gundrum 1903c: 88-89; Gundrum 2003: 34-35; Tomorad 2018: 328. 664 Gundrum 1903c: 89; Gundrum 2003: 35, Tomorad 2018: 328. 665 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 372; Gundrum 1903c: 88-89; Gundrum 2003: 35-36, Tomorad 2018: 328. 666 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 372; Gundrum 1903c: 88-89; Gundrum 2003: 35-36; Tomorad 2018: 328. 667 Gundrum 1903c: 89; Gundrum 2003: 35-36; Tomorad 2018: 328. 668 During his return trip to Luxor he saw the remains of the temple at Kom Ombo. Gundrum 1903c: 89; Gundrum 2003: 36; Tomorad 2018: 328. His return voyage and second stay in Cairo was not mentioned in his unpublished manuscripts. 669 Gundrum 1903c: 89; Gundrum 2003: 36; Tomorad 2018: 328. 670 Gundrum 1903c: 90; Gundrum 2003: 36; Tomorad 2018: 328. 671 Gundrum 1902b: fol. 213; Gundrum 1903b: 74; Gundrum 2003: 26; Tomorad 2018: 329. 672 Gundrum 1903c: 90; Gundrum 2003: 36; Tomorad 2018: 329. 673 Gundrum 1903c: 91; Tomorad 2018: 329. 674 ‘The Egyptian Medical Congress’. The British Medical Journal, 3rd January 1903: 29; Gundrum 1903d: 95; Tomorad 2018: 329. 675 ‘The Egyptian Medical Congress’. The British Medical Journal, 3rd January 1903: 29; Gundrum 1903d: 95; Tomorad 2018: 329. 662
Gundrum wrote that 450 medical doctors attended the congress, with the correspondent of the British Medical Journal quoting 520. At the opening, the Secretary, Dr Voronov, mentioned that during the Congress 240 papers would be read, and that 520 doctors from around the world were attending, of whom 340 were residents of Egypt, 152 of these native Egyptians. This indicates that many foreign doctors were living in Egypt at the beginning of the 20th century. If these number are correct, then some 180 doctors from foreign countries attended the event. Compare correspondence and reviews in: ‘The Egyptian Medical Congress’. The British Medical Journal, 3rd January 1903: 29; Gundrum 1903d: 95; Tomorad 2018: 329. 677 ‘The Egyptian Medical Congress’. The British Medical Journal, 3rd January 1903: 29; Gundrum 1903d: 95. 678 ‘The Egyptian Medical Congress’. The British Medical Journal, 3rd January 1903: 29; Gundrum 1903d: 95; Tomorad 2018: 329. 679 ‘The Egyptian Medical Congress’. The British Medical Journal, 3rd 676
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Egypt in Croatia
Figure 126. Invitation to the public lecture about the journey in Egypt organized by 'Society of Croatian writers'. Zagreb, 3rd December 1903. Križevci: City Museum, 5547. © Križevci: City Museum.
famous Egyptologists Gaston Maspero, Emile Brugsch and Friedrich Wilhelm von Bissing, with whom they could talk about the collection in the newly opened building.685
In his review of 1903, Gundrum mentions the many interesting papers read at the Congress.680 In his opinion, the most interesting paper was presented by an Austrian, Dr Becker, who lived in Cairo for a long time. The latter discussed psychosis among the members of the European colony living in Cairo. According to his research in 1902, almost 2000 people from the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were living in Cairo (86% permanently, 1% in the winter, and tourists 2%). Of these, 62 individuals presented with various psychoses and mental illnesses (Tropenkoller or ‘tropical moral insanity’), associated with large consumption of alcohol!681
Return voyage from Egypt to Croatia (24th December 1902 – 15th January 1903) On the evening of 24th December, after the Congress closed, Gundrum took a train to Alexandria.686 He planned to leave Egypt on Christmas Day by the Italian steamer SS Vicenzo Florio, but because of the rough weather departure was delayed until 10 o’clock on the morning of 26th December.687 Gundrum wanted to visit Greece on his return trip, but because of the 17-day period of cholera quarantine there, he changed his plans and continued his trip to Messina, Sicily.688 All the way there he suffered from terrible seasickness.689 Having arrived at last, he visited various places on the island for a few days (Messina, Taormina, Catania, Syracuse, Agrigento and Palermo).690 Sightseeing over, he left Sicily for the one-day voyage to Naples, from where he progressed to Rome.691 Finally, after 58 days away, Gundrum reached Rijeka on 15th January 1903, on the steamer from
Most nights there was entertainment for the. On the evening of 19th December some participants made the trip to Giza, where there was a fête at the pyramids, with various traditional performances, and the Sphinx illuminated by lights. The delegates could also take short camel rides by moonlight, before supper at the Mena House Hotel.682 On 21st December a one-hour Nile cruise was laid on from the barrage;683 and the following night there was another reception, with music and gavazzi dancers.684 On 23rd December, Congress went to the Museum, where they were introduced to the
Gundrum 1903d: 101; Tomorad 2018: 330. Gundrum 1903c, 90; Gundrum 2003: 36; Tomorad 2018: 330. 687 Gundrum 1903c, 90; Gundrum 2003: 37; Tomorad 2018: 330-331. 688 Gundrum 1903c, 90; Gundrum 2003: 37; Tomorad 2018: 331. 689 Gundrum 1903c, 90; Gundrum 2003: 37; Tomorad 2018: 331. 690 Gundrum 1903c, 90; Gundrum 2003: 37; Tomorad 2018: 331. 691 Gundrum 1903c, 90; Gundrum 2003: 37; Tomorad 2018: 331.
January 1903: 30; Gundrum 1903d; Tomorad 2018: 329-330. 680 Gundrum 1903d: 96-100; Tomorad 2018: 330. 681 Gundrum 1903d: 99-100, Tomorad 2018: 330. 682 ‘The Egyptian Medical Congress’. The British Medical Journal, 3rd January 1903: 30; Gundrum 1903d: 101; Tomorad 2018: 330. 683 Gundrum 1903d: 101; Tomorad 2018: 330. 684 Gundrum 1903d: 101; Tomorad 2018: 330.
685 686
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Mladen Tomorad: Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin in Egypt at the End of 1902
Ancona,692 and soon he was on the train to Zagreb and back home in Križevci.693
Gundrum, F.S. 1902b. Iz Kaira u Gornji Egipat. [Unpublished manuscript]. Zagreb, Zavod za povijest hrvatske književnosti, kazališta i glazbe - Odsjek za povijest hrvatske književnosti, Osobni arhivski fondovi – zbirke rukopisa i dokumentacijskoga gradiva 148 Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko [Sig. 24, I/10]. Gundrum, F.S. 1903a. U Egiptu! Putopisna crta. Hrvatski planinar, vol. 6, nos. 7-8, 49-51. Gundrum, F.S. 1903b. U Egiptu! Putopisna crta. Hrvatski planinar, vol. 6, nos. 9-10, 65-76. Gundrum, F.S. 1903c. U Egiptu! Putopisna crta. Hrvatski planinar, vol. 6, nos. 11-12, 84-92. Gundrum, F.S. 1903d. Prvi egipatski medicinski kongres. Liečnički viestnik 3, 94-101. Gundrum, F.S. 1904. Nešto iz Bugarske – Statistika. Prosvjeta (1904) no. 6. Gundrum, F.S. 1905a. U Egiptu!: putopisna crtica. Zagreb. Gundrum, F.S. 1905b. Iz križevačkog kraja, Iz Križevaca u Vratno, putopisna crtica. Hrvatski planinar, vol. 8, nos. 7-8. Gundrum, F.S. 1907a. Nauplija, putopisna crta. Hrvatska nos. 9-12. Gundrum, F.S. 1907b. Uskrs u Atini. Hrvatska no. 74. Gundrum, F.S. 1907c. Putovanje u Tanger, putopisna crtica. Obzor, vol. 48, nos. 83-85. Gundrum, F.S. 1907d. Uskrs u Sevilli. Obzor, vol. 48, no. 234. Gundrum, F.S. 1908. Borbe pjetlova u Španiji, priopćenje. Prosvjeta (1908) no. 1. Gundrum, F.S. 2003. In Egypt. Križevci. Hrvatska enciklopedija. Vol. 4, s.v. ‘Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran’. Zagreb: 405. Husinec, F. 2001. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin – Gradski fizik u Križevcima. Križevci. Kolar-Dimitrijević, M. 2014. Kako je Antun Gustav Matoš vidio Križevce 1910. godine. U spomen 100. godišnjice smrti 2014. godine. Cris XVI.1: 7-24. Manojlović, G. 1923. Povijest starog Orijenta, knjiga I. Od najstarijih vremena do u jedanaesto stoljeće prije Isusa. Zagreb. Matoš, A.G. 1909. Iz knjiga i novina. Hrvatsko pravo no. 3974 (18th February): 3. Matoš, A.G. 1910. Oko Križevca. Hrvatska sloboda no. 239 (21st, 22nd and 25th October). Novak, G. 1933. Po tragovima Kleopatre. Aleksandrija, 30. prosinca 1932. Novosti 22 (22nd January): 9. Novak, G. 1945. U zemlji faraona. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2003. Egipat u Hrvatskoj. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2016. Foundation of the Ancient Egyptian Collections in Croatia: Travellers, Private Collectors and the Genesis of the Collections (1800–1920), in: L. and J. Hudakova and J. Hudec (eds), Egypt and Austria IX: Perception of the Orient in Central Europe (1800–1918): 325-340, 405. Krakow. Tomorad, M. 2018. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin (18561919) and his voyage to Egypt during November and
Publications and public lectures on his Egyptian tour Gundrum’s Egyptian tour was first described in a series of articles he called ‘U Egiptu’ and published in the journal Hrvatski planinar in 1903 (issues 7-12).694 The collection of these papers were later published as a small book in Zagreb (1905) with a few illustrations695 (Figure 125), and much later republished in English and Arabic in 2003.696 His review of the First Egyptian Medical Congress was published in Liečnički viestnik (no. 3/1903: 94-101), with detail information on the most interesting papers.697 After he returned to Croatia, Gundrum also presented several public lectures about his voyage to Egypt. The most important was held in Zagreb for The Society of Croatian Writers on 3rd December 1903698 (Figure 126). It was the first public presentation by a Croatian traveller on Egypt. A review of these lectures was never published, thus we cannot say how they were received by the public, however, judging by the success of similar lectures given by Gavro Manojlović and Grga Novak in the 1920s699 and ’30s,700 these lectures would have been highly appreciated. Bibliography Gundrum, F.S. 1900. Na Kalnik, putopisna crtica. Hrvatski planinar, vol. 3, nos. 4-5. Gundrum, F.S. 1902a. Iz Križevaca u Kairo. [Unpublished manuscript]. Zagreb, Zavod za povijest hrvatske književnosti, kazališta i glazbe - Odsjek za povijest hrvatske književnosti, Osobni arhivski fondovi – zbirke rukopisa i dokumentacijskoga gradiva 148 Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko [Sig. 24, I/10]. Gundrum 1903c, 90; Gundrum 2003: 37, Tomorad 2018: 331. Tomorad 2018: 331. 694 Gundrum 1903a; Gundrum 1903b; Gundrum 1903c. 695 Gundrum 1905. 696 Gundrum 2003. 697 Gundrum 1903d. 698 The invitation to his lecture was a postcard, with him on a camel in front of the Khufu pyramid at Giza, taken on 26th November 1902. The invitation was dated 29th November 1903. Križevci: The City Museum, inv. no. 5547. The same photograph was also used for a postcard he sent to various people he knew. Some of these postcards are now in the City Museum, Križevci. Tomorad 2018: 331. 699 Manojlović held his first lecture around New Year, 1922. Manojlović 1923, iv. 700 Manojlović held his lectures on 28th and 31st October 1931 in Zagreb. Details in: Tomorad 2003: 114-115. Novak held several lectures in Zagreb and Beograd between 1933 and 1935. Details in: Tomorad 2003: 119-121. These lectures were well and favourably described by reviewers in local newspapers: Jutarnji list (no. 7091; 29th October 1931), Politika (no. 9253, 17th February 1934, and no. 9254, 18th February 1934), Morgenblatt (no. 285, 2nd November 1933; no. 306, 26th November 1933; no. 52, 2nd March 1934; no. 8, 9th January 1935). 692 693
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Egypt in Croatia December 1902, in: E. Czerny (ed.), Egypt and Austria XI: In Search of the Orient: 313-335. Krakow. Tomorad, M. and Štimac, I. 2016. Visualizing Egypt in the Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Dubrovnik and the Newspaper/travel Reports
Published by Grga Novak between 1933 and 1945, in: A. Júnová Macková, L. Storchová and L. Jún, (eds), Egypt and Austria X: Visualizing the Orient: Central Europe and the Near East in the 19th and 20th Centuries: 229-244. Prague.
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Croatian Emigration to Egypt in the 19th and 20th Centuries Mladen Tomorad
In the 19th century, many ex-patriots from regions of the Habsburg Monarchy, and later the AustroHungarian Monarchy, lived in Egypt. Frane and Nikola Amerling, who lived in Egypt until 1882, were among the first of the eminent merchants to work in Alexandria and Cairo.701 The first major Croatian emigrant colonies, workers on the entrance to the Suez Canal, were established in 1859. Their number is difficult to determine, with estimates ranging from a few hundred to three thousand.702 The most famous individuals participating in the construction of the canal were Andrija Lončarić Josipov, who removed the last barrier between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and the Franciscan Lujo Čurčija, who blessed the opening ceremony in 1869.703
Figure 127. Refugee camp, El-Shatt, Egypt (1944 – 1946). Zagreb: Croatian State Archive, 1736-ES1322. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.
After completing the construction of the canal, some Croatians continued to live in Egypt, working mainly on along the channel. In 1895, Croatian and Slovenian emigrants founded the enlightenment society ‘Slavjanska sloga’ (‘Slavonic Concord’) in Alexandria, headed by Lujo Žaja.704 In the coming decades, the Society maintained links with its homeland and sent financial aid to the victims of the counter-revolutionary movements in 1903 and 1904.705 The number of Croats grew to 4,000 between the 1920s and 1940s, living mostly lived in Alexandria, Cairo, Port Said, Ismail and Suez, where they worked on the canal, or as sailors, factory workers, fishermen and merchants.706 In the 1920s and ’30s their standard of living was quite low, and their former social status declined as the ‘Slavonic Concord society’s standing decreased.707
Figure 128. Refugee camp, El-Shatt, Egypt (1944 – 1946). Zagreb: Croatian State Archive, 1736-ES1323. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.
During Second World War, in early 1944, approximately 30,000 civilians fled from Dalmatia to Vis, then to Bari, Tarento and finally to the Sinai Peninsula (Figures 127128). These were mostly residents of the Ravni Kotari region, Bukovica, Makarska, Vodice, and the islands of Hvar, Vis and Korčula, who were fleeing their homeland in fear of German retaliation. Their camp, under the command of the British army, was in El-Shatt, Egypt, where they spent a total of 18 months.708 During their stay several interesting drawings and watercolour paintings were made, now in the Croatian History
701 Menalo 2003: 6-7; Tomorad 2003: 56; Tomorad 2015: 47; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229. 702 Hrvatska enciklopedija, sv. 3 s.v. ‘Egipat: Hrvatsko iseljeništvo’: 362; Tomorad 2018. 703 Hrvatska enciklopedija, sv. 3 s.v. ‘Egipat: Hrvatsko iseljeništvo’: 362; Tomorad 2018. 704 Pečnik 1902; Pečnik 1919; Hrvatska enciklopedija, sv. 3 s.v. ‘Egipat: Hrvatsko iseljeništvo’: 362; Tomorad 2018. 705 Hrvatska enciklopedija, sv. 3 s.v. ‘Egipat: Hrvatsko iseljeništvo’: 362; Tomorad 2018. 706 Hrvatska enciklopedija, sv. 3 s.v. ‘Egipat: Hrvatsko iseljeništvo’: 362; Tomorad 2018. 707 Hrvatska enciklopedija, sv. 3 s.v. ‘Egipat: Hrvatsko iseljeništvo’: 362, Tomorad 2018.
708
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Bogdanić 1996; Mataušić 2007.
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Figure 129. Vitajić, Kuzma. 'Na Seuskom kanalu – At the Suez channel' (1944). Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, C HPM MRNH 3089. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.
Figure 131. Havona, Sofija. 'Slika iz našeg života u El-Shattu – Image from our lives in El-Shatt'. Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, MRNH-C 3318. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.
Figure 130. Vitajić, Kuzma. 'Iz El-Shatta – From El-Shatt' (1945). Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, HPM MRNH C 2513. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.
Museum, Zagreb (Figures 129-132).709 During their stay in El-Shatt, 856 people died from the severe living conditions in the desert area. Refugees returned to their homeland by the end of March 1946.710
Figure 132. Hodžić, Sabahudin. 'U pustinji – In the desert'. Taken from Naši pionir 4-5 (1944). Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum, MRNH C 3538. © Zagreb: Croatian Historical Museum.
After the Second World War, only a few hundred Croats lived in Egypt.711 In the mid-1950s, Yugoslavia was one of the main leaders of the new movement among 709 Zagreb: Croatian History Museum, MRNH-C-2513, MRNH-C 30893090, MRNH-C 3318 and MRNH-C-3538. 710 Hrvatska enciklopedija, sv. 3 s.v. ‘El Shatt’: 443; Tomorad 2018. 711 Hrvatska enciklopedija, sv. 3 s.v. ‘Egipat: Hrvatsko iseljeništvo’: 362; Tomorad 2018.
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Mladen Tomorad: Croatian Emigration to Egypt in the 19th and 20th Centuries
Figure 133a-c. Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Naser and Croatian medical doctor Andrija Štampar during one of the diplomatic meetings. Zagreb: Croatian State Archive, HR-HDA-0831. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.
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Egypt in Croatia Bibliography Bogdanić, N. 1996. El-Shatt naš zaboravljeni: 50. obljetnica hrvatskog zbjega na Sinaju 1944.-1994. Split. Hrvatska enciklopedija, sv. 3 s.v. ‘Egipat: Hrvatsko iseljeništvo’: 362. Hrvatska enciklopedija, sv. 3 s.v. ‘El Shatt’: 443. Mataušić, N. (ed.) 2007. El Shatt: Zbjeg iz Hrvatske u pustinji Sinaja, Egipat (1944. – 1946.). [Exhibition catalogue]. Zagreb. Menalo, R. 2003. Egipatska zbirka Dubrovačkog muzeja. Dubrovnik. Menalo, R. 2003. Egipatska zbirka Dubrovačkog muzeja. Dubrovnik. Pečnik, K. 1902. Slovenci v Egiptu. Koledar Družbe sv. Mohorja za navadno leto 1902: 51-57. Celovec. Pečnik, K. 1919. Slovenska kolonija v Egiptu. Slovenec 192 (22nd August 1919): 1-2. Tomorad, M. 2003. Egipat u Hrvatskoj, egipatske starine u hrvatskoj znanosti i kulturi. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2015. The Ancient Egyptian Antiquities in Institutional and Private Collections in Croatia, in: M. Tomorad (ed.), A History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture conducted in Southeast Europe: 31-58. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2016. Aegyptiaca and various forms of Egyptomania in Croatia, in: N. Guilhou (ed.), Liber Amicorum – Speculum Siderum: Nut Astrophoros – Paper presented to Alicia Maravelia: 349-364. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2018. Egipat u Hrvatskoj – hrvatska fascinacija starim Egiptom. [Exhibition at the Museum Mimara, Zagreb, 20 September – 14 October 2018]. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Štimac, I. 2016. Visualizing Egypt in the Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Dubrovnik and the Newspaper/travel Reports Published by Grga Novak between 1933 and 1945, in: A. Júnová Macková, L. Storchová, and L. Jún (eds), Egypt and Austria X: Visualizing the Orient: Central Europe and the Near East in the 19th and 20th Centuries: 229-244. Prague.
Figure 133d. Josip Broz Tito, Gamal Abdel Naser and Jawaharlal Nehru during one of their meetings. Zagreb: Croatian State Archive. © Zagreb: Croatian State Archive.
the underdeveloped states that found themselves in the interstice between East and West. Alongside Yugoslavia, the movement, known in world history as the ‘Non-Aligned Movement’, was also located in the Arabic Republic of Egypt, which at that time gained independence from the British Empire. During that period Croatian and Egyptian politicians (Figure 133a-d) formed good economic and political alliances, and soon afterwards numerous Yugoslav and Croatian companies participated in the construction of the Aswan Dam;712 of these, ‘INA’ and ‘Ingra’ were particularly prominent, and some companies are still active in the maintenance of the Aswan Dam.713
712 713
Tomorad 2016: 361, Tomorad 2018. Tomorad 2018.
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Ivan Meštrović in Egypt, May 1927 Zorana Jurić Šabić
In May 1927, the Croatian sculptor Ivan Meštrović travelled through Egypt, Palestine and Greece. He had set off with a group of theologians and clerics, including a parish priest from Zagreb, Msgr. Svetozar Rittig, who took photographs recording the trip.714 The journey lasted a whole month, from 1st May to 1st June 1927, with Meštrović and several of his fellow travellers visiting Egypt, Palestine and Greece.715 The first stop was Egypt, where they spent eight days, from 4th to 11th May (Figures 134-143). Lodging in Cairo, the group travelled around the country looking at the antiquities of ancient Egypt. The first day they visited the Pyramid of Cheops and the Great Sphinx in Giza, after which they headed for Memphis. A few days later, on May 8th and 9th, a group of the travellers visited Luxor (the Temple of Luxor, the Valley of the Kings, the temple of Queen Hatshepsut, the Ramesseum and the Colossus of Memnon), as well as the Temple of Amon in Karnak. The last places visited in Egypt were the Elephantine at Aswan and the Temple of Isis on Philae (10th–11th May). Meštrović had studied ancient Egyptian art since his student days and became more fully acquainted with it while staying in Paris (1908/1909) and many visits to the Louvre. However, direct contact with the greatest artistic achievements of ancient civilisation during his visit to Egypt in 1927 prompted him towards a more subjective interpretation of Egyptian religion. In his Memoirs from a Journey in the Orient,716 which he wrote just after returning from the trip, he dedicated a whole chapter to the ‘Sphinx in Giza’. The vast stone ‘godlike animal’ had a very marked effect on him and set him thinking along philosophical and theological lines. Gathering together his own impressions, Meštrović started with an interesting debate on the theme of eastern religions, allowing them equality with western theological thinking:
Figure 134. Ivan Meštrović by the Great Sphinx in Giza, in company with a local guide, a Bedouin. May 4th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
‘Content and sense? Oh my Lord, I said, seeking, invoking, paying respect to the invisible, which gives and holds all. One era has looked and honoured this way, another that way, but in essence it is the same, the source is the same, the purpose is the same.’717 The journey progressed with a visit to the Holy Land and the wellsprings of Christianity, which additionally deepened the sculptor’s specific conception of faith and religion. After Egypt, Meštrović and the group of clerics headed on towards Jerusalem. In the Holy City, they spent five days (15th –19th May), touring the most important sites: the Dome of the Rock, the Antonia on
714 The photographs in the album from the journey were made by Svetozar Rittig. They are kept in the Meštrović Gallery, Split. On each of the 39 photographs, Rittig records the time and place of the visit. Split: The Meštrović Gallery, FGM-1174. 715 Judging from the depiction of the journey, as seen in the photographs that document most of the places visited, Meštrović and his travelling companions visited Egypt, Jerusalem, some places in today’s Israel, Palestine, the Lebanon and Greece. 716 Meštrović 1962: 405-411.
717
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Meštrović 1962: 406.
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Figure 135. On the ruins of ancient Memphis, May 4th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 137. Ivan Meštrović (seated, first on the left) with travelling companions in the shrine of the Great Temple of Amon in Karnak, May 8th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 136. Meštrović’s travelling companions (Dr Josip Hohnjec, second on the left) in front of the Hall of Amenhotep III in the Temple of Luxor, May 8th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
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Zorana Jurić Šabić: van Meštrović in Egypt, May 1927
Figure 140. Temple of Queen Hatshepsut in Luxor, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery. Figure 138. Ivan Meštrović in the Great Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amon in Karnak, May 8th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 139. In Luxor by the bank of the Nile, in front of the Temple of Seti I, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 141. Ivan Meštrović in the Ramesseum in Luxor, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
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Figure 142. Ivan Meštrović (third on the left) in front of the Colossus of Memnon in Luxor, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 143. Temple of Isis on Philae island, May 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
the square of the former Temple of Herod, the Royal Tomb, Gethsemane, Jericho, and the place of Jesus’ baptism in the River Jordan. On 21st May, the group set off northwards to the place of Jesus’ birth in Nazareth, halting at the city of Nablus. In Nazareth they spent two days (22nd–23rd May), and a day after that they visited the temple complex at Baalbek. As their journey approached its end, the group visited Greece, having taken ship from Turkey. In Greece they lingered in
Athens and Corinth, looking around the antiquities and the ancient temples. On their way home, they embarked from the Greek port of Salonika. Bibliography Meštrović, I. 1962. Uspomene s puta po Istoku. Hrvatska revija XII (December 1962) vol. 4 (48): 405-411.
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Ivan Meštrović: His Fascination with Ancient Civilisations, as Reflected in His Postcards to Ruža Meštrović, May 1927 Sabina Kaštelančić
Introduction: Ivan Meštrović and his journey to Greece and Egypt, Spring 1927 From 1st May to 1st June 1927, Ivan Meštrović went with a group of clergymen and intellectuals to journey to Greece, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. This contribution is something of a picture-postcard travelogue,718 offering insights into the artist’s fascination with these countries, their tumultuous history, and the livelihoods of the people there. Monsignor Svetozar Rittig documented this journey with many striking photographs, such as the one of Ivan Meštrović in front of the Ramesseum on 9th May 1927 (Figure 144). The contents of Meštrović’s postcards to his first wife, Ruža Meštrović, sculptress, painter, and decorative artist, in Buenos Aires, where she was organising exhibitions of their work in 1928, have been preserved in the family archive and are as yet unpublished. Apart from being fascinating photographs of famous sites, the postcards are also of philatelic value in terms of their stamps and postmarks of the time. The photograph from the 1928 opening of the July exhibition ‘Exposicion Mestrovic’ at the Casa del Arte, in Montevideo, Uruguay, shows Ruža Meštrović in the centre (Figure 145). The Buenos Aires exhibition was also shown in May at the Asociación Amigos del Arte, Florida 659.
Figure 144. Monsignor Rittig’s photograph of the Ramessium with Meštrović in front, May 9th, 1927. Split: Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Meštrović’s portrait of Rodin, ‘The Sphinx’ A curious ‘foretaste’ of Meštrović’s long fascination with Egypt is revealed in his portrait of Auguste Rodin, made in Rome in 1914 (Figure 146). A year later, during his famous exhibition at London’s Victoria and Albert Museum,719 the sculptor was interviewed for T.P.’s Weekly,720 and when asked why he had not sculpted Rodin from life, Meštrović replied that in his opinion his great friend Rodin was the greatest living sculptor,
and as Rodin’s work should live for centuries to come, he had shaped the great man’s head on a body that resembled that of a sphinx to show that his art would live for ever, just like the Sphinx. Picture postcards of the Giza Pyramids and the Great Sphinx. Cairo, 4th May 1927 (Figures 147a-b)
718 These postcards are now kept in the private collection of the Kaštelančić family, Zagreb. 719 ‘Exhibition of the Works of Ivan Meštrović’, opened on 24th June 1915. 720 ‘Interview with Mestrovic, the great Serbian Sculptor’. T.P.’s Weekly, 24th July 1915. In: Prančević 2012.
This postcard clearly reveals the sculptor’s feelings for the iconic sites near Cairo. There are almost poetic comparisons to his native Dalmatia: 137
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Figure 145. Ruža Meštrović at Casa del Arte, Montevideo, Uruguay, July 1928.
Figure 146. Auguste Rodin by Ivan Meštrović, Rome, 1914. © Zagreb: Croatian Academy of Arts and Sciences Digital Archive.
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Figure 147a. The Pyramids at Giza and the Great Sphinx, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 147b. The Pyramids at Giza and the Great Sphinx, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
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Figure 148a. Abydos, Temple of Seti, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 148b. Abydos, Temple of Seti, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 149a. Jerusalem, The Wailing Wall, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
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Figure 150. Jerusalem, The Kings’ Tombs, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 149b. Jerusalem, The Wailing Wall, back of the picture postcard. Beginning of the letter. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 151. Jerusalem, The Kings’ Tombs, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
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Figure 152. Tombs of St. James and the propeth Zechariah in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 153. Jerusalem, Tomb of the Kings, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 154. Monastery in the Rocks, Kedron valley, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
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Sabina Kaštelančić: Ivan Meštrović
‘Giza and the Great Sphinx. Cairo, 4.V.: I have been here for three days now and am talking face to face with my old friends. The heat is extreme during the day, but the nights are pleasant and cool, the stars seem much nearer than in our country although there are no pyramids and tombs there ... (illegible) ... Many greetings, Ivan.’ The stamp depicts King Fuʾād, first Sultan of Egypt and Sudan in 1917, substituting the title of ‘King’ for ‘Sultan’ in 1922, when the United Kingdom recognised Egyptian Independence.721 Picture postcard of Abydos. Temple of Sety I, 9th May 1927 (Figures 148a-b) On 9th May 1927, Meštrović visited the site of one of the oldest cities of ancient Egypt, Abydos, selecting a postcard of the mortuary temple of Seti I to send to his wife Ruža. He tried ignoring the heat and joked about his sensitive skin: ‘Abydos, Mortuary Temple of Seti I., 9th May 1927: Heat of 48 degrees. Otherwise magnificent. Tombs and the rest beyond expectation. I am in my element, only my white blood bothers me. Greetings, y. [your] Ivan.’ Postcard from Jerusalem. The ‘Wailing Wall’, 15th May 1927 (Figures 149a-b) The hilly part of Jerusalem reminded Meštrović of the countryside of the Dalmatian highlands around Drniš and Sinj. The town’s character itself was very similar to Dalmatia, he wrote to Ruža – with the very same stone, which the trained eye of the sculptor would immediately notice. He was deeply impressed by the section of the ‘Wailing Wall’ where women cry, saying he had never seen anything as moving. Picture postcards from Jerusalem to the Kedron Valley During May, travelling across the Holy Land, Meštrović wrote an interesting account of his journey on four postcards (Figure 150), mailing them in an envelope: Jerusalem. The Kings’ Tombs (Figure 151); the Tombs of St James and the prophet Zechariah in the valley of Jehoshaphat (Figure 152); Jerusalem. Tomb of the Kings (Figure 153); and the Monastery in the Rocks, Kedron Valley (Figure 154).
Figure 155a-b. Nazareth, Church of the Annunciation, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Meštrović visited this sad land, he noted, where Jesus and the prophets had dwelt. The Dead Sea, then the Jordan River, resembling so much the Jadro, the river near Salona. In the vast desert, from the outskirts of 721 Encyclopaedia Britannica s.v. ‘Fuʾād I, King of Egypt’. [https://www. britannica.com/biography/Fuad-I].
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Figure 156a-b. Damascus, Syria, back of the picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 157a-b. Baalbek, Syria, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
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Sabina Kaštelančić: Ivan Meštrović
Figure 159. Athens, Meštrović on the Acropolis. Photograph by Monsignor Rittig. Copyright Photoarchives of the Meštrović Museums. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 158a-b. Athens, Acropolis, Caryatide Porch, picture postcard. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
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Figure 160. Ruža Meštrović at Giza. Family Kaštelančić private archive. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 161. Head of Shabti. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 162. Adolf Ernam, Sammlung Göschen, Die Hieroglyphen. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.
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Sabina Kaštelančić: Ivan Meštrović
Figure 163. Adolf Ernam, Sammlung Göschen, Die Hieroglyphen, pages. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.
Postcards from Damascus and Baalbek, Syria, 24th May 1927
Jerusalem to the Dead Sea, he had not seen a single bird, so much as a leaf or twig, nor a living soul. He usually mentions the temperature, unbelievably high, 52° C. Early in the morning he was in Bethlehem, then in Hebron, King David’s residence, then the site where Abraham had presumably been buried, and where he offered his famous sacrifice. The travelling party also visited David’s fishpond in Hebron, and Solomon’s on the road between Hebron and Jerusalem. He added:
‘Quite an interesting town but the atmosphere is not altogether pleasant’, Meštrović wrote from Damascus (Figures 156a-b), but more enthusiastically from Baalbek (Figures 157a-b), part of modern Lebanon: ‘I’ve climbed a hill of 270 m to reach this place. Tomorrow there’s another mountain of 4000 m to cross to reach the sea. I don’t mind at all, it is lovely.’
‘This whole highland looks so much like the countryside around Drniš, with a few sheep and goats and some grass and corn, then some olive trees and vineyards. These people have a very hard livelihood with this parched soil and no spring water. Now I can grasp the whole of their tragedy – an intelligent nation on utterly poor land which they could neither renounce nor could they live on. Sunday in Nazareth, then Syria, then Greece and then via Macedonia back home. This is the hardest part – it’s travelling by car all the time.’
Postcard from Athens. The Acropolis, Caryatid porch, 1st June 1927 (Figures 158a-b) ‘Everything seems so small after Egypt and Syria’, Meštrović sounds wistful, although always a great admirer of classical Greek sculpture and architecture; however, the journey was coming to an end. Both the photograph by Monsignor Rittig (Figure 159) and the postcard show the same location on the Acropolis of Athens.
Postcard from Nazareth. 21st May 1927. Church of the Annunciation (Figures 155a-b)
Ruža Meštrović in Egypt in 1933
Another card sent separately to Buenos Aires reveals how sharply observant Meštrović was, even when writing short messages:
A few years after Ivan Meštrović, Ruža Meštrović also travelled to Egypt on the SS Queen Mary of the Yugoslav Lloyd Company. Her photograph at Giza (Figure 160) was taken by the ship’s photographer, as there was a special photo studio on board, among other facilities, to entertain the passengers.
‘Samaria and Galilee more beautiful than Judea. Crop fields and cattle. Rocky slopes and hills, crops in the valley. Very little water just like in my homeland. Jewish colonies in the valley. Their life is hard, but they live idyllically, I do believe they will make it. Tomorrow off to Syria.’
The family archive contains Ruža’s souvenir from the cruise, a shabti head (Figure 161), as well as a booklet on 147
Egypt in Croatia Bibliography
hieroglyphs by Adolf Ernam, published by Sammlung Göschen, GJG (Figures 162-163).
Encyclopaedia Britannica. s.v. ‘Fuʾād I, King of Egypt’. [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Fuad-I]. (accessed July 2019). Meštrović, I. 1927. Picture postcards from Greece, the Orient and Egypt in May 1927. Zagreb: Kaštelančić Family archive. Meštrović, R. 1933. Souvenirs and photographs from the voyage to Egypt on the SS Queen Mary in 1933. Zagreb: Kaštelančić Family archive. Prančević. D. 2012. Ivan Meštrović u kontekstu ekspresionizma I art décoa. PhD Dissertation. Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zagreb, Zagreb.
Conclusion The picture postcards, souvenirs, and later artworks all show how both Ivan and Ruža Meštrović were so very impressed by their journeys to Egypt and other countries in the Middle East, enriching their imaginations and influencing their future ideas for their art.
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The ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ Shipping Company and Cruising Around the Mediterranean in the 1930s Mladen Tomorad The ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ shipping company was founded in January 1929 by the merger of ‘Atlantic Sailing Ivo Račić’ and ‘Yugoslav-American Sailing’.722 The management of the newly established company, ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ was based in Zagreb, with agencies in Split and Sušak.723 By 1929 the company owned a fleet of 25 steamships with a total tonnage of 207,296 and with almost 1000 seafarers employed.724 The company bought the luxurious tourist steamship of the SS Araguaya In the summer of 1930,725 which was later renamed the SS Kraljica Marija/Queen Mary 726 (Figure 164). At the time of this acquisition it was the only steamship catering for tourism, ‘equipped with all modern comfort for 400 passengers, all first class’.727 From 7th March 1931,728 when the steamship was ceremoniously welcomed into Split harbor, the Queen Mary was routed to sail around the Mediterranean, initially to Athens. In 1931 it maintained a regular twelve-day service (departing the 2nd and 16th of the month) from Sušak, Split, Dubrovnik, and south to Greece.729
Figure 164. Steamship 'Queen Mary'. Đivo Bašić: Lloyd Photographs: Testimonies of the Mediterranean from the cruises of Yugoslav Lloyd passenger steamships in the 1930s, published in Pomorski zbornik 47-48 (2013) and Neven Jerković: The Queen of the Eastern Adriatic coast, ‘Kraljica Marija’ (Queen Mary).
rooms had adjacent foyers or salons with a separate bathroom (there were also 20 shared bathrooms onboard). The ship’s crew consisted of clerks, valets, waiters, chefs, salesmen, hairdressers and musicians. There was a permanent physician and ambulance, and the ship had its own travel agency to book accommodation and tickets. As for entertainment there were seven salons, one for non-smokers, a restaurant for 200 passengers, and four decks for walking and leisure. An orchestra and jazz band played in the ‘Blue’ music hall during lunch, dinner, and into the night. Guests could also stay in the open café and bar, tobacco shop, bookshop, games room and promenade areas. The ship’s photographer was on hand to record happy memories. The lower and top decks offered tennis, bowls, gym, swimming pool, hairdressers, tailors, telegraph office, and even a small printing press (for notices and menus). And, of course, there was also the cinema to screen films every night.731
Yugoslav Lloyd offered travellers received first-class comfort at low cost, affordable to tourists of all social classes. As for specific personnel, we know the captain was Vicko Šimunković and doctor Petar Selem.730 The ship had first-class cabins for 400 passengers, with wardrobes, armchairs, washbasins, as well as beds; many Jelaska Marijan 2004: 231, 250-256. Jelaska Marijan 2004: 261. 724 Jelaska Marijan 2004: 258. 725 The former SS Araguaya, built in Belfast in 1906. It sailed from Southampton to Argentina and the River Plate in South America. During World War I, in 1917, it was used as a hospital ship. Bašić 2012: 276. In 1940 the vessel was sold to the French government and the name to Savoi. She was sunk on 8th November 1942 in the port of Casablanca during an attack by U.S. forces. Bašić 2012: 294. 726 The ship was named after Queen Mary of Yugoslavia. Bašić 2012: 276. 727 Split: State Archive, ‘Javni bilježnici srednje Dalmacije, Lujo Kargotić’, box 112, 34402/1931, Inset A. Jelaska Marijan 2004: 263. 728 For the first voyage along the eastern Adriatic coast, the famous Zagreb painter and editor of the magazine Svijet, Otto Antonini was hired to paint a great panorama of Dubrovnik in the main salon of the ship. After the formal reception, the many guests, including the orchestra of Maks Czepiczka, started their first two-day trip to Dubrovnik and Kotor. ‘Prvo svečano putovanje S/S ‘Kraljica Marije’’, Narodna svijest XIII.11 (11th March 1931): 1; ‘Još o svečanom putovanju Njez. Vel. Kraljice’, Narodna svijest XIII.12 (18th March 1931): 2; Svijet 21st March 1931; Kolveshi 2006: 79-80; Bašić 2012: 276. 729 SS ‘Kraljica Marija’, Jadranska straža IX.1 (1931): 4. 730 Bašić 2012: 284. 722 723
The ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ launched its first tourist route to Egypt in 1932, the so-called ‘Luxus-Express EuropeEgypt line’, with the SS Gange, from Trieste to Brindisi and Alexandria732 (Map 5). 731 732
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Bašić 2012: 283-284. With this line travelled around Christmas 1932 Croatian university
Egypt in Croatia
Map 5. Round trips wih steam boats during 1930’s. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
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Figure 165. Ruža Meštrović infront of mausoleum Račić in Cavtat. Round cruise of the SS ‘Queen Mary’ in 1933. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić© Family Kaštelančić.
Figure 166. Passangers PASSENGERS of the SS 'Queen Mary' in 1933. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić
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Figure 167. Ruža Meštrović at the Acropolis in Athens. Round cruise of the SS 'Queen Mary' in 1933. Family Kaštelančić private collection. © Family Kaštelančić.
In early 1933, the Queen Mary started to cruise around the Near East, on the route Venice–Split–Rhodos–Larnaca– Beirut–Damascus–Haifa–Jerusalem–Alexandria–Cairo– Luxor733 (Map 5). Between 1933 and 1938 the Queen Mary made numerous voyages around the Mediterranean, with occasional special tours to the Near East and Egypt.734 For example, in the Summer of 1933 she ran three ‘social-educational’ cruises from Venice: to Greece, the Orient and Dalmatia (7th – 27 July; to France, Spain and the North Africa (28th July – 5th August); and to Egypt, Palestine, Constantinople and Athens (13th September – 6th October).735 The Queen Mary made ten cruises in 1933 around the Mediterranean, with 30,000 miles crossed in 206 days736 (Map 5).
souvenirs from her cruise.738 Albert Deutsch-Maceljski shot a family movie he called ‘Travelling on the SS Queen Mary’, recording his time on the ship’s last educational cruise to the Eastern Mediterranean in 1933, from 13th September – 6th October. The film features family members in Athens, various entertainments onboard, then sightseeing in Constantinople, the Bosporus, Rhodes, Beirut, Lebanon, Damascus, Jaffa, Jerusalem, the Dead Sea, Bethlehem, Tel Aviv, and Cairo.739 In 1935 the ‘Jadranska straža’ society organised a two-week round cruise on the Queen Mary from Split, through the Aegean, to Egypt (Map 5). The executive committee of the society announced the trip in March 1935 and the response was enthusiastic. 270 passengers travelled on this educational cruise in June,740 among them Professor Grga Novak and the celebrated Croatian writer, and later politician, Vladimir Nazor: they both were to publish their own accounts of the trip.741 Prices
Among the many Croatian celebrities who travelled on these circular cruises in 1933 were the former wife of Ivan Meštrović, the sculptor Ruža Meštrović (Figures 165-167), and Albert (1867–1952)737 and Tilda Deutsch-Maceljski, members of the family of Croatian entrepreneurs and industrialists. In the family archives of Ruža Meštrović there are numerous photographs and
738 These items are kept by the family of Sabina Kaštelančić. During the exhibition ‘Egypt in Croatia: Croatian fascination with Ancient Egypt’ (Zagreb: Museum Mimara, 20th September – 14th October 2018) these important artefacts were presented to the public for the first time. 739 This film footage is now kept in the Croatian State Archive, Zagreb. It was shown to the public during the exhibition ‘Egypt in Croatia: Croatian fascination with Ancient Egypt’ (Zagreb: Museum Mimara, 20th September – 14th October 2018). 740 N. A. 1935: 114. 741 G. Novak published his account of the trip in Jadranska straža, with several illustrations from his previous newspaper reports. Novak 1935. V. Nazor published his book From Split to the Pyramids in the Second World War. Nazor’s book focuses on the perceived
professor Grga Novak. Novak 1933: 11; Novak 1946: 14; Tomorad 2003: 117; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 236. 733 ‘Turistički luksuzni parobrod ‘Kraljica Marija’, Jugoslavenskog Lloyda’, Jugoslavenski pomorac XIII.1 (1st January 1933): 5. 734 More details about these voyages in: Bašić 2012: 277-293. 735 Bašić 2012: 282-283. 736 ‘Izvještaj i zaključni računi za poslovnu godinu 1933’, Jugoslavenski Lloyd a. d. Split 1934: 8; Bašić 2012: 278. 737 Hrvatski bibliografski leksikon, s.v. ‘Deutsch Maceljski’.
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Map 6. Pilgramage to the Holy Land and Egypt (9th July – 4th August 1937). © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
depended on the category of accommodation (from 1st to 6th class): 1st class 6700 Yugoslav dinars; 2nd 5400; 3rd 4700; 4th 4100; 5th 3700; and 6th 3400 dinars.742 Running from 30th July to 16th July, the cruise started in
Split and stopped briefly in Dubrovnik and Budva. From there they steamed to Greece, visiting Olympia, Pyrgos (Katakolo), Piraeus, Athens and its surroundings, and Crete – Heraklion and Knossos.743 On 8th July, after a oneday cruise, the passengers arrived at Port Said, Egypt.744 The next day the party travelled by train to Cairo, where their agency, ‘Morgentours’, organised a professionally guided tour of authentic Muslim Cairo. The next day (10th July) they visited the archaeological sites of Memphis, Saqqara, Heliopolis, and the Giza pyramids. Monuments seen included the colossal statue of Ramesses II in Memphis, the Step Pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser, the Serapeum and several tombs at Saqqara,
differences between ‘Western’ and ‘Oriental’ civilisations, and it is often permeated with fiction. In search of the indigenous Ancient Egyptian civilisation, Nazor is disappointed with what he saw. In Port Said, during his fist contact with Egypt, Nazor witnessed a crowd of children asking for baksheesh. He was deeply disappointed in what he saw and pondered on how descendants from the mighty pharaohs could live so poorly and abjectly. His memories of it are restricted to some monuments from the Egyptian museum in Cairo and the GrecoRoman museum in Alexandria. He was especially disappointed with the ruins of the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis. More positively, Nazor is delighted with the Khan el-Khalili bazaar in Cairo, describing it as comparable to something from One Thousand and One Nights, where one can see the true, living image of Arab society. Nazor 1942. 742 N. A. 1935: 114.
743 744
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Rubić 1935a: 137-140; Rubić 1935b: 181-184; Bartulović 1935. Novak 1935: 233.
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Figure 168. Promo poster for the round cruise of the SS 'Queen Mary' in 1938. Đivo Bašić: Lloyd Photographs: Testimonies of the Mediterranean from the cruises of Yugoslav Lloyd passenger steamships in the 1930s, published in Pomorski zbornik 47-48 (2013) and Neven Jerković: The Queen of the Eastern Adriatic coast, ‘Kraljica Marija’ (Queen Mary).
prices, including meals, ranging from 4300 to 11,400 dinars.747 (Map 5)
and, of course, the Sphinx and Great Pyramids of Khufu, Khafra and Menkaura at Giza. Some travellers entered the famous pyramid and several managed to climb to the top of Khufu. There was a sightseeing tour around Cairo (between 11th and 13th July), when passengers could visit the Egyptian Museum, and the cultural and historical monuments of the city: the Mosque and Madrassa of Sultan Hasan, the Cairo Citadel, the tombs of the Mamluks, Khan el-Khalili Bazaar, Al-Azhar University. Numerous nightclubs and restaurants were also on the itinerary. On 14th July they travelled to Alexandria to see Pompey’s Column, the Greco-Roman Museum, the Kom El Shoqafa catacombs, Qaitbay Citadel, Montaza Palace, Mohammed Ali Square, Nouza Tower, Zoo, Corniche Walk, Stanley Beach, King Fouad I Street. From Alexandria they sailed back to Split via Kotor and Dubrovnik.745
The Princess Olga made a second Croatian pilgrimage to the Holy Land and Egypt between 9th July and 3rd August 1937, under the guidance of the Zagreb Cardinal Alojzije Stepinac and Josip Andrić (Map 6). More than 50 pilgrims (37 being Croats) joined the cruise.748 Travelling from Split to Piraeus, and after sightseeing in Athens, they continued their voyage to Haifa, Beirut, Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, and El Kantara. At the end of July they travelled from El Kantara to Cairo and Alexandria, where they briefly visited the most important monuments; from Alexandria they sailed back to Dubrovnik and Split.749 The pilgrimage was documented by the famous photographer Ljudevit Griesbach (1890– 1946) in photographs and film footage.750 In April 1938 the Princess Olga sailed on a scheduled route between Greece and Palestine–Egypt and took 4000 passengers that spring, however, because of the geopolitical situation in Palestine, and political tensions ahead of World War II,751 the route was cancelled on
Numerous cruises to the Eastern Mediterranean were organised on the Queen Mary from 1933 to 1938, and on the Princeza Olga/Princess Olga in 1937 and 1938,746 with
Bartulović 1935: 414-423; Novak 1935: 233-239; Tomorad 2003: 121-122. 746 In 1935 ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ bought the SS Princess Olga for cruises around the Eastern Mediterranean. Bašić 2012: 281. In 1940 ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ was forced to sell her to a Portuguese steamship company because of the unfavourable political situation in the Mediterranean. She was in operation until 1955 and then scrapped in a Belgian shipyard. Bašić 2012: 294. 745
Bašić 2012: 277. Rebić 1984: 557. 749 Rebić 1984: 557; Bašić 2012: 279-280. More detail in: Grbeša 2013. 750 The film was unfortunately destroyed by fire in the mid-1990s. The photographs from the Holy Land are now in the Archives of the Museum of the Blessed Alojzije Stepinac, Zagreb. 751 Bašić 2012: 280. 747 748
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Mladen Tomorad: The ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ Shipping Company
20th June 1938.752 From 19th May to 7th June, and from 24th September to 14th October 1938, the last threeweek cruises to the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt were organised on the Queen Mary753 (Figure 168). Soon afterward the ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’ was forced to sell both ships because of the political crises in Europe and the Middle East. The time of the great cruises around the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt has, temporarily, ended.
predvođena blaženim kardinalom Alojzijem Stepincem. Zagreb. Hrvatski bibliografski leksikon. s.v. ‘Deutsch Maceljski’. Jelaska Marijan, Z. 2004. Nastanak parobrodarskog društva Jugoslavenski Llyod i poslovanje društva čije je združivanjem nastalo. Anali Zavoda za povijesne znanosti Hrvatske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti u Dubrovniku 42: 231-272. Kolveshi, Ž. 2006. Otto Antonini, Zagreb i ‘Svijet’, in: ‘Svijet’ i Zagreb dvadesetih i tridesetih godina. Zagreb. Nazor, V. 1942. Od Splita do piramida. Zagreb. Novak, G. 1933. Paris starog svijeta – Aleksandrija. Aleksandrija u prosincu 1932. Novosti 15 od 15. 1. 1933.: 11. Novak, G. 1935. Novo putovanje Jadranske straže. Grčka i Egipat. 30 juna – 16 jula 1935. Jadranska straža XIII.6: 233-239. Novak, G. 1946. U zemlji faraona. Zagreb. Rebić, A. 1984. Hodočašća u Svetu zemlju u posljednjih 100 godina. Bogoslovska smotra 54.4: 553-560. Rubić, I. 1935a. Novo putovanje Jadranske straže, Grčka i Egipat, 30 juna – 16 jula 1935. I. Jadranska straža XIII. no. 4: 137-140. Rubić, I. 1935b. Novo putovanje Jadranske straže, Grčka i Egipat, 30 juna – 16 jula 1935. II. Jadranska straža XIII. no. 5: 181-184. Split: State Archive. Javni bilježnici srednje Dalmacije, Lujo Kargotić, box 112, 34402/1931, Inset A. Tomorad, M. 2003. Egipat u Hrvatskoj, egipatske starine u hrvatskoj znanosti i kulturi. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Štimac, I. 2016. Visualizing Egypt in the Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Dubrovnik and the Newspaper/travel Reports Published by Grga Novak between 1933 and 1945, in: A. Júnová Macková, L. Storchová and L. Jún (eds), Egypt and Austria X: Visualizing the Orient: Central Europe and the Near East in the 19th and 20th Centuries: 229-244. Prague.
Bibliography Anon. Izvještaj i zaključni računi za poslovnu godinu 1933. Jugoslavenski Lloyd a. d. Split 1934: 8. Anon. Još o svečanom putovanju Njez. Vel. Kraljice. Narodna svijest XIII.12 (18th March 1931): 2. Anon. Jugoslavenski Lloyd a. d. Split (Commercial). Jadranska straža XVI (1938) no. 4: 2. Anon. Prvo svečano putovanje S/S Kraljica Marije. Narodna svijest XIII.11 (11th March 1931): 1. Anon. SS ‘Kraljica Marija’, Jadranska straža IX.1 (1931): 4. Anon. Turistički luksuzni parobrod ‘Kraljica Marija’ Jugoslavenskog Lloyda. Jugoslavenski pomorac XIII.1 (1st January 1933): 5. Anon. Putovanje Jadranske straže u Grčku i Egipat. Propagandističko putovanje parobrodom ‘Kraljica Marija’ 30. VI – 16. VII. (Program putovanja, cijene mjesta i kratki opis putovanja. Jadranska straža XIII (1935) no. 3: 114. Bartulović, I. 1935. Morem u svet, Ovogodišnje putovanje Jadranske straže u Grčku i Egipat. Jadranska straža XII.10: 415-423. Bašić, Đ. 2012. Llyodovi slikopisi Kružna putovanja putničkih parobroda Jugoslavenskog Lloyda 1930ih godina (Mediteran kakav je bio 1930-ih godina). Pomorski zbornik 47-48: 269-302. Grbeša, C. 2013. Stepinčevim stazama po Svetoj Zemlji – 75. obljetnica Hrvatskog hodočašća u Kristovu domovinu
Bašić 2012: 280. ‘Jugoslavenski Lloyd a. d. Split (Commercial)’, Jadranska straža XVI (1938) no. 4: 2; Bašić 2012: 271. 752 753
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Grga Novak and his First Research Trip to Egypt (December 1932 – February 1933) Mladen Tomorad
Introduction
a review of this social-educational cruise.762 Novak visited Egypt for third and final time in 1963, as part of his research for the book Egipat – prethistorija, faraoni, osvajači, kultura which.763 We do not know whether he made any form of diary notes on this trip.
Grga Novak (1888–1978) was a university professor of ancient history at the University of Zagreb (Department of History, Faculty of Philosophy) from 1924 to 1959, and a member of the Yugoslavian Academy of Sciences and Arts.754 In the first half of the 20th century Novak was one of the rare Croatian historians and archaeologists who continuously studied the history and culture of ancient Egypt, and in the course of his academic career he published numerous papers and two books (U zemlji faraona [In the land of Pharaohs], Zagreb 1945, and Egipat – prethistorija, faraoni, osvajači, kultura [Egypt – prehistory, the Pharaohs, conquerors, culture], Zagreb 1967, on the history of Egypt.755 His public lectures and series of newspaper articles about his research trip to Egypt, published between 1932 and 1946, gave the wider general public the chance learn about the history, culture, religion, monuments, and everyday life in Egypt.756
Grga Novak in Egypt, 1932–1933 (Map 7) Around Christmas 1932, G. Novak used the ‘Yugoslav Lloyd’’s newly opened tourist line to Egypt from Trieste to Alexandria for his first voyage to Egypt. On 24th December 1932 he boarded the SS Gange in Trieste and, after six days at sea, arrived at Alexandria on 30th December 1932.764 For his basic information on customs and sightseeing Novak mostly used the Baedeker tourist guide.765 Like other Croatian travellers of the 19th and early 20th century (e.g. Šašel 1853, Gundrum 1902), Novak was not impressed by how Alexandria appeared in the early 1930s: ‘In Alexandria there is nothing today to attract the foreigner who does not come for business’.766 On arriving he booked a room at the Hotel Alexandria767 and went sightseeing, noting the one remaining column from the Serapis temple (the so-called Pompey Pillar), and the remains of pagan catacombs from the 2nd century CE.768 In his newspaper report, published on 22nd January 1933, Novak briefly describes the modern city of Alexandria, which at that time had roughly 700,000 citizens. He was very disappointed that almost nothing remained of the greatness of this ancient city.769
Grga Novak travelled to Egypt on three occasions. His first visit was from late December 1932 for two months,757 and while there he wrote a travelogue, with notes and impressions on Egyptian cities, culture, daily life, monuments, and history. Some of these notes he sent to the daily newspaper Novosti, and they were occasionally published between 13th January and 12th April 1933.758 Novak published his travelogue in 1946, with numerous photographs taken by him or his friends, as U zemlji faraona. The book contains thirteen texts published in Novosti759 and six unpublished articles written in February 1933.760 His second journey to Egypt was between 30th June and 16th July 1935, when he went on a cruise to Greece and Egypt in the Yugoslav Lloyd Queen Mary. This was organised by the Jadranska straža society,761 and for their journal he later published
After couple of days which he spent in Alexandria Novak on 5th January 1933 travelled by train from Novak 1935: 233-239. Novak 1967: 5; Tomorad 2003: 129; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 235. 764 His review with impressions on the voyage from Trieste to Alexandria was later published in a newspaper headed Iz Trsta u Egipat [From Trieste to Egypt]. Novak 1933a. In a second published article, Pariz starog svijeta Aleksandrija [Alexandria, Paris of the Ancient World], Novak imagines how the ancient city of Alexandria looked in ancient times, and reviewed its history, Hellenistic culture, and decline. Novak 1933b. 765 Novak 1933j: 16; Novak 1946a: 66-67. 766 Novak 1933c: 9; Novak 1946a: 22. 767 Novak 1933c. 9; Novak 1946a: 20. 768 Novak 1933c: 9; Novak 1946a: 22-23. 769 Novak 1933c: 9; Novak 1946a: 22-23. 762 763
Tomorad 2003: 115; Tomorad 2015: 4, 6; Tomorad 2017: 38-39. Detail description of his work and publications about Ancient Egypt in: Tomorad 2003: 115-134 756 Tomorad 2003: 116-122, 126; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 235-240. 757 Novak 1946a; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 236-239. 758 Novak 1933a-m; Tomorad 2003: 117-119; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 235. 759 Novak 1933a-m. 760 Novak 1946b-g. 761 Bartulović 1935; Novak 1935; Rubić 1935a; Rubić 1935b; Nazor 1942; Tomorad 2003: 121-122; Bašić 2012; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 235. 754 755
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Mladen Tomorad: Grga Novak and his First Research Trip to Egypt
Map 7. Grga Novak and his travel to Egypt in 1932/1933. © Mario Žerjav & Mladen Tomorad.
Alexandria to Cairo.770 Cairo was his base almost during the whole journey, and from there he travelled around Egypt in the company of two Croatians from Zagreb. For next two months Novak visited various cities, archaeological sites and monuments.771 The professor was impressed with Cairo and the feel of this modern Arabic megalopolis, and its din.772 In his writings he describes the everyday life of the people of the city, noting that modern Egypt in the early 1930s was a free country in name only, but in reality its government was still highly influenced by the British, whose soldiers still patrolled Cairo’s streets. Novak used his time in Cairo to walk around and meet various Egyptians, with whom he had interesting conversations. During these
the academic got the impression that the natives were far from pleased with the status quo. The only good thing they got from the British was education, which, in Novak’s opinion could provide them in the near future with an Egyptian independent state, uninfluenced by foreigners.773 One day, in the local coffee-house, Novak talked to an Egyptian high-school teacher about the people of Egypt and their customs.774 Among the huge mix of nationals he singles out the Copts as the descendants of the ancient Egyptian Christians: their number in 1933 was estimated as 850,000.775 In his later published writings Novak also describes the everyday life and customs of local felahs.776 Novak 1933d: 10; Novak 1946a: 31. Novak 1946a: 57. 775 Novak 1946a: 58-59. 776 Novak 1946a: 59-61. 773
Novak 1933d: 10; Novak 1946a: 27-28. 771 Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 236. 772 Novak 1933d: 10; Novak 1946a: 27-28. 770
774
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Egypt in Croatia forms of transport – from Rolls-Royce to camels.787 In the Giza area they are aware of the vast differences in housing: palaces, villas, modest dwellings and hovels.788 At the Giza necropolis they first went to the Khufu pyramid, and then to Khafra and Menkaura.789 They were too tired to climb Khufu and so just went to see the great Sphinx.790 After many hours at these incredible monuments they ended their day at the Mena House Hotel in Giza, where they drank tea and enjoyed the sunset.791
While in Cairo, Novak had the opportunity to photograph various scenes of Egyptian daily life, as well as the monuments. Some of these photographs were published in his newspaper articles, the encyclopaedia entry for Egipat [Egypt], published in Hrvatska enciklopedija [Croatian Encyclopaedia], and his book U zemlji faraona.777 Sadly the current whereabouts of these original photographs are unknown.778 The remaining published photographs from the 1930s and ’40s are of poor quality and almost impossible to reproduce. What comes over in his photographs is how much Novak seems to have enjoyed the colourful costumes of the Egyptians, especially the traders of the Khan el-Khalili bazaar, near Muski Street.779 One night, during the Ramadan celebrations, he visits the modern restaurant, ‘Kursaal’, in Elfi Bey Street, which was designed by Croatian architect Milan Freudenreich from Zagreb.780
Novak left Cairo at the beginning of February 1933 and went by train to the Upper Egypt region. He bought a train ticket to Aswan, with its scheduled stops at El Baliana, Dendera, Luxor, Edfu, Ombos, and Aswan. On the way to Aswan he wanted to make a stop somewhere close to Tell el-Amarna, so he arranged an overnight stay at Meleui, and with that plan started his journey.792 On the train he met an Alexandrian merchant who told him to cross the river at Der Mavas early in the morning and then to go to Amarna. He also advised him to leave Tell el-Amarna before sunset if he valued his life! According to his information, the inhabitants of Der Mavas were known thieves and killers, and it was very unwise therefore to stay near that village at night.793 At Meleui he was accommodated in a restaurant, where, for the first time during his stay in Egypt, he risked a traditional meal. He writes that he avoids eating in local restaurants, having been told in Zagreb that the cuisine might make him sick.794
While staying in Cairo in January 1933, Novak went to see several ancient sites around Cairo with his travelling companions – they seemed to have started at nearby Heliopolis. Novak comments on the state of preservation of this ancient Egyptian capital city: ‘Almost nothing remains from the ancient city except one obelisk’.781 At the same time he was very impressed with the European style of modern Heliopolis, redeveloped by Belgian planners at the beginning of the 20th century with wide avenues, parks, sport fields and palaces. He describes it ‘as the pride of modern Egyptians’, which he refers to as ‘the new Cairo’.782 He says also: ‘There is nothing here that can give us the impression that you are actually in an Oriental city.’783
The next morning, he drove from Meleui to Der Mavas, and then by donkey to the Nile, crossing on a small boat. His adventure ended at Tell el-Amarna and he spent the rest of the day sightseeing around the ancient ruins of Akhenaten and the nearby tombs.795
Aother day, by car, they visit Memphis and the Saqqara necropolis. The party was not impressed by the ancient capital city of Memphis, noting only, besides a great number of palm trees, one sphinx and a colossal statue of Ramesses II.784 After a short stay in Memphis they drive on for half an hour to the Saqqara necropolis. There they visited the Step Pyramid of the Pharaoh Djoser and the mastaba of Ti.785 From a distance they observe the ancient Old Kingdom pyramids at Dahshur and Abusir, but they do not travel further to see them.786
His next stop on the way to the Aswan was at El Baliana, which he describes as being a ‘place where you cannot see anything interesting’. He stopped there because he wanted to visit the remains of another ancient Egyptian capitol – Abydos: ‘the oldest holy city in Egypt and the first capitol of ancient Egypt’.796 At Abydos he visited the Archaic tombs in the ancient necropolis and the temples of Osiris, Seti I, and Ramesses II.797
The next day, Novak and his companions make the short drive from Cairo to Giza; on their way they see all Novak 1933a-m; Novak 1945; Novak 1946a. Unfortunately, according to my knowledge these photographs were not preserved in his legacy which is kept in the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb or in his family estate which is today in the possession of Slobodan Prosperov Novak. 779 Novak 1933e: 11; Novak 1946a: 33-36. 780 Novak 1933e: 11; Novak 1946a: 36. 781 Novak 1933f: 8; Novak 1946a: 39. 782 Novak 1933f: 8; Novak 1946a: 39. 783 Novak 1933f: 8; Novak 1946a: 39. 784 Novak 1933g: 12; Novak 1946a: 45-46. 785 Novak 1933g: 12; Novak 1946a: 46-48. 786 Novak 1933g: 12; Novak 1946a: 46. 777 778
Novak 1933h: 8; Novak 1946a: 49-50. Novak 1933h: 8; Novak 1946a: 50. 789 Novak 1933h: 8; Novak 1946a: 5355. 790 Novak 1933h: 8; Novak 1946a: 55. 791 Novak 1933h: 8; Novak 1946a: 56. 792 Novak 1933j: 16; Novak 1946a: 65. 793 Novak 1933j: 16; Novak 1946a: 65-66. 794 Novak 1933j: 16. 795 Novak 1933j: 16; Novak 1946a: 70-74. 796 Novak 1946a: 76. 797 Novak 1946a: 141. 787 788
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His next stop was Luxor, arriving on 4th February 1933. He took a room at the famous Winter Palace Hotel.798 His first visit was to the Amun temple at Karnak, the ruins of which he walked around until the sunset.799 While in Luxor he visits an unnamed coffeeshop, where the local dealers in antiquities offer him various imitations of ancient artefacts he declines to buy.800 Writing up this encounter he adds a very interesting remark: ‘Old antiquities can be safely bought only in the Museum in Cairo. There you can buy less valuable artefacts of little interest to the museum’.801 On 6th February Novak goes sightseeing to the Valley of the Kings. There he visits the tombs of Tutankhamun, Horemheb, Sety I, Thutmosis III, Amenhotep II, and the tombs of assorted ‘acquaintances from ancient Egyptian history’.802 The other ancient Egyptian monument in the Luxor area Novak visited on his return trip to Cairo.
Novak’s accounts of his tours of Egypt are only the second testimonies written by Croatian scholars to detail descriptions of life in Egypt, its customs and antiquities, and offer important accounts of Egypt in the last decades of British colonial rule. Conclusion Novak’s newspaper reports in early 1933, and the travel book he published later, are valuable sources for the study of Egyptian travel in the first half of the 20th century. His notes writing contains valuable information on the everyday life and customs of Egyptian society at the beginning of the 1930s. His descriptions provide glimpses of the monuments, and the means of travel around Egypt, and also contain highly interesting views on the problems of the Egyptian government and British colonial rule in Egypt at that time. Along with the unpublished diary of F. Gundrum (1902), Novak’s accounts represent valuable material for any international researchers interested in travel to Egypt in first half of the 20th century, and it is very much hoped, therefore, that, one day, both texts will be translated into English.
Continuing to Aswan, Novak visits briefly the Horus temple at Edfu and the Kom Ombo temple.803 The Hotel Cataract is Novak’s choice at Aswan, where he meets a few foreign tourists, mostly Europeans, in the evening. They tell him that they stay in Aswan mostly for its healthy climate.804 After his arrival Novak takes a boat trip to the island of Elephantine to see its ancient remains and the famous Nilemeter.805 The next day finds him on the 45-minute trip by train to Aswan and the Old Aswan dam, built between 1898 and its opening in December 1902.806 He also takes in the Isis temple at Philae, then covered with Nile water.807 After his few days at Aswan Novak returns to Luxor by train.
Bibliography Anon. Putovanje Jadranske straže u Grčku i Egipat. Propagandističko putovanje parobrodom ‘Kraljica Marija’ 30. VI – 16. VII. (Program putovanja, cijene mjesta i kratki opis putovanja. Jadranska straža XIII (1935) no. 3: 114. Bartulović, I. 1935. Morem u svet, Ovogodišnje putovanje Jadranske straže u Grčku i Egipat. Jadranska straža XII.10: 415-423. Bašić, Đ. 2012. Llyodovi slikopisi Kružna putovanja putničkih parobroda Jugoslavenskog Lloyda 1930ih godina (Mediteran kakav je bio 1930-ih godina). Pomorski zbornik 47-48: 269-302. Nazor, V. 1942. Od Splita do piramida. Zagreb. Novak, G. 1933a. Iz Trsta u Egipat. Na parobrodu Gange’, o Božiću 1932. Novosti no. 13 (13th January 1933.): 5. Novak, G. 1933b. Paris starog svijeta – Aleksandrija. Aleksandrija u prosincu 1932. Novosti no. 15 (15th January 1933): 11. Novak, G. 1933c. Po tragovima Kleopatre. Aleksandrija, 30. prosinca 1932. Novosti no. 22 (22nd January 1933): 9. Novak, G. 1933d. Kairo–Egipatski velegrad, njegovo lice i naličje, Kairo 5. siječnja 1933. Novosti no. 24 (24th January 1933): 10. Novak, G. 1933e. U Kairskoj čaršiji i ramazanskoj noći, Kairo, u siječnju 1933. Novosti no. 25 (25th January 1933): 11. Novak, G. 1933f. Dva grada Sunca–dva Heliopolisa. Heliopolis, u siječnju 1933. Novosti no. 28 (28th January 1933): 8.
During his second visit to Luxor, Novak stays for a couple of days at the Hotel de la Garre.808 This time he visits those temples on the western Nile bank (the Ramesseum, the Hatshepsut temple at Deir el-Bahri, the temple of Medinet Habu, and the Memnon Colossi.809 Novak is back in Cairo by the middle of February 1933. The next fifteen days are spent in a small hostel in Shari el Kasid Street.810 These last weeks are taken up with walks around the city’s streets and visiting various mosques, bazaars and small shops. At the end of the month it is time to think of home and the academic leaves Cairo. By the end of February 1933, he is back on the Suez Canal and boards a steamer for Trieste.811 Novak 1933i: 9; Novak 1946a: 85. Novak 1933i: 9; Novak 1946a: 85-86. Novak 1933k: 4; Novak 1946a: 95. 801 Novak 1933k: 4; Novak 1946a: 95. 802 Novak 1946a: 90–91. 803 Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 238. 804 Novak 1933l: 5; Novak 1946a: 101-102. 805 Novak 1933m: 16. 806 Novak 1933m: 16; Novak 1946a: 106-107. 807 Novak 1933m: 16; Novak 1946a: 105-106. 808 Novak 1946a: 112. 809 Novak 1946a: 112-127. 810 Novak 1946a: 163. 811 Novak 1946a: 163. 798 799 800
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Egypt in Croatia Novak, G. 1946e. Opet u Luksoru i okolici. U zemlji faraona: 109-112. Zagreb. Novak, G. 1946f. Tri najveće žene Egipta. U zemlji faraona: 115-138. Zagreb. Novak, G. 1946g. U centru arapsko-egipatske kulture. Kairo, krajem veljače 1933. U zemlji faraona: 163-169. Zagreb. Novak, G. 1967. Egipat – prethistorija, faraoni, osvajači, kultura. Zagreb. Rubić, I. 1935a. Novo putovanje Jadranske straže, Grčka i Egipat, 30 juna – 16 jula 1935. I. Jadranska straža XIII. no. 4: 137-140. Rubić, I. 1935b. Novo putovanje Jadranske straže, Grčka i Egipat, 30 juna – 16 jula 1935. II. Jadranska straža XIII. no. 5: 181-184. Tomorad, M. 2003. Egipat u Hrvatskoj: egipatske starine u Hrvatskoj znanosti i kulturi. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2015. 150 years of Egyptological Research in Croatia (1862–2012), in: M. Tomorad (ed.), A History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture conducted in Southeast Europe: 1-12. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017. Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II: Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Štimac, I. 2016. Visualizing Egypt in the Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Dubrovnik and the Newspaper/travel Reports Published by Grga Novak between 1933 and 1945, in: A. Júnová Macková, L. Storchová and L. Jún (eds), Egypt and Austria X: Visualizing the Orient: Central Europe and the Near East in the 19th and 20th Centuries: 229-244. Prague.
Novak, G. 1933g. K piramidama. Posljednji ostatak velegrada Memfisa. Gizeh, u siječnju 1933. Novosti no. 38 (7th February 1933): 12. Novak, G. 1933h. Keops, Kefren i Mikerin. Kod piramida, u siječnju 1933. Novosti no. 46 (15th February 1933): 8. Novak, G. 1933i. U šumi stupova drevnih hramova. Luksor, 4. veljače 1933. Novosti no. 53 (22nd February 1933): 9. Novak, G. 1933j. U gradu boga Sunca. Meleui, u veljači 1933. Novosti no. 77 (18th March 1933): 16. Novak, G. 1933k. Na obali Nila uz muslimanski gradić i veliku prošlost. U Luksoru, u veljači 1933. Novosti no. 83 (24th March 1933): 4. Novak, G. 1933l. Na starom obratniku u Asuanu. Asuan, u veljači 1933. Novosti no. 91 (1st April 1933): 5. Novak, G. 1933m. Na jezeru koje pokriva hram Izide. Asuan–barage, u veljači 1933. Novosti no. 103 (12th April 1933): 16. Novak, G. 1935. Novo putovanje Jadranske straže. Grčka i Egipat. 30 juna – 16 jula 1935. Jadranska straža XIII.6: 233-239. Novak, G. 1945. Hrvatska enciklopedija V. s.v. ‘Egipat’: 585-607. Zagreb. Novak, G. 1946a. U zemlji faraona. Zagreb. Novak, G. 1946b. Felahi, Kopti, Arapi. Kairo, u siječnju 1933. U zemlji faraona. Zagreb: 57-63. Novak, G. 1946c. U kraju prve socijalne revolucije u historiji. El Baliana, u veljači 1933. U zemlji faraona: 75-79. Zagreb. Novak, G. 1946d. Pohod Tutankamonu. U dolini kraljeva, 6. veljače 1933. U zemlji faraona: 8791. Zagreb.
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Chapter III. Egyptian Collections in Croatia Early Collectors and the Genesis of the Most Important Egyptian Collections in Croatia (1820 – 1950s)
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Collecting antiquities in Croatia probably started during the early modern period. From the 16th to the end of the 18th century the first travellers and merchants went to Egypt, so it could be assumed that they brought back souvenirs in the form of ancient artefacts from the Pharaonic periods. Unfortunately, we have no detailed information on the first collections, although they most likely centred around the Dubrovnik Republic (Republic of Ragusa) and Dalmatian coastal towns, such as Zadar or Split. In Europe at the turn of the 18th and 19th century the demand for artefacts from ancient civilizations increased considerably, and among these objects originating from Egypt found an important, if not central, place. The first traces of the names of those individuals whose collections are today to be found in numerous museums in Croatia originate from the early 19th century, although some of these collectors are not closely related to Croatian history and its territories. The most significant collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities currently held in Croatia is that of the famous Baron Franz Koller (Mnichovo Hradište, 1767 – Naples, 1826)812 (Figure 169). Koller was the member of a wealthy Bohemian family and educated in Kosmanosu and Prague.813 In 1784 he started his military career;814 by 1792 he became second lieutenant, and the next year promoted to first lieutenant.815 But it was during the Napoleonic wars that his military career developed apace. In 1800 he became major of the 9th Infantry regiment, and by 1805 was colonel and regimental commander.816 Between 1809 and 1813 he was promoted first to the rank of major general major and then marshal lieutenant,817 in 1815 escorting Napoleon to exile on Elba.818 His diplomatic career as such began at the end
Figure 169. Franz Koller. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
of the Napoleonic wars in 1815; that year he was sent to Naples as military representative of the Habsburg monarchy.819 In 1821 he again returned to Naples where he died in 1826.820 During his military and diplomatic service in Naples, Koller amassed a significant collection of archaeological antiquities.821 He probably bought from the well-known dealers Lancius and Papiandropulos.822 These individuals acquired Egyptian artefacts directly from Egypt, with consuls, such as
812 Wurzbach 1864: 339; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 199; Tomorad 2003a: 19; Tomorad 2016: 327. 813 Wurzbach 1864: 339; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 199; Tomorad 2016: 327. 814 Wurzbach 1864: 339; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 199; Tomorad 2016: 327. 815 Wurzbach 1864: 339; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 199; Tomorad 2016: 327. 816 Wurzbach 1864: 339-340; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 199; Tomorad 2016: 327. 817 Wurzbach 1864: 340; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 199; Tomorad 2016: 327. 818 Wurzbach 1864: 340; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 199-200;
Tomorad 2016: 327. 819 Wurzbach 1864: 340. 820 Wurzbach 1864: 341; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 199-200; Tomorad 2003a: 19; Tomorad 2016: 327. 821 Wurzbach 1864: 341. 822 Ljubić 1889: 1; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 201; Tomorad 2003a: 19; Tomorad 2016: 327-328. Archive documents of these purchases during Koller’s service in Naples are not preserved.
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Figure 170. Letter from Franjo Rački dated January 15, 1868 on collecting the funds for the purchase of the Koller Collection. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 171. Funds and costs for Koller’s collection Egyptian antiquities from 1868. Attachment A. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Drovetti and Salt, and acting as their assistants.823 After his death, the Koller collection was kept in Obřistov and later in Prague; it featured many things from ancient Egypt, the Pharaonic and Hellenistic periods, and the eras of ancient Greece and Rome.824 Between 1828 and 1868 parts of his archaeological collection were sold to various museum institutions around Europe. In 1828, Friedrich Wilhelm III, the Prussian king, bought the collection of Greek vases and Greco-Roman artefacts that are today held in the Altes Museum, the Neues Museum, and the Ägyptiches Museum in Berlin.825 In 1830, Professor Seyffarth from the University of Leipzig almost bought the collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities,826 but failed, and it later found its way into Zagreb’s National Museum.827 According to information from the 19th century, one
part of the collection crossed to England.828 Franjo Rački, the famous Croatian historian and President of the Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb, proposed, in 1867, the purchase of this collection.829 The same year the Imperial Crown Cabinet for Antiquities in Vienna estimated the value of the Koller Ancient Egyptian collection at some 7000 forints, nevertheless the Koller family decided to sell it to Zagreb for 3000 forints,830 and in the course of 1868, a great number of Croatian noble families and wealthy citizens (Elizabeta Drašković, Franjo Rački, Josip Juraj Strossmayer, Juraj Haulik, Levin Rauch, Julija Janković, Ivan Kralj, Nikola VranizanyDobrinić, etc.) raised the sum required to purchase the collection.831 In late April 1868, V. Tomek examined the collection (c. 2100 artefacts) in Prague and delivered it to Zagreb in six large boxes on 29th April 1868 (Figures 170-171).832
Tomorad 2016: 328. Wurzbach 1864: 341; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 200; Tomorad 2003a: 19; Tomorad 2016: 328. 825 Wurzbach 1864: 341; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 201; Tomorad 2016: 328. 826 Wurzbach 1864: 341; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 201; Tomorad 2003a: 20; Tomorad 2016: 328. 827 Ljubić 1889: 1; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 201; Tomorad 2003a: 20-27; Tomorad 2016: 328-329.
828 It seems that some artefacts from his collection are now in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and the British Museum, London. 829 Ljubić 1889: 1; Tomorad 2003a: 20. 830 Ljubić 1889: 1; Tomorad 2003a: 20. Letter of Franjo Rački of 15th January 1868, in: Tomorad 2003a, 21. 831 The most important documents related to the purchase of this collection were published in: Tomorad 2003a, 21-27. 832 Letter of V. Tomek from Prague, 28th/29th April 1868, pp. 1-2. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, box 33, doc. II;
823 824
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Table 1: Collectors of ancient Egyptian antiquities in Croatian museums and private collections. Collector
Profession/Place
Year
Provenance
Archaeological Museum, Zagreb Mihael Barić
Government official
1848/1849. Egypt/Cairo
Mijat Sabljar Franjo Jordan Franz Koller Vilelmina Spierer Luka Ilić Heinrich Brugsch
Museum curator/Zagreb Merchant/Cairo Baron/Habsburg Monarchy Widow/unknown Priest/Zagreb German Egyptologist
1865? 1866 1868 1868 1869 ?
Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt
Heinrich Brugsch
German Egyptologist
1871
Egypt
Number and Type of artefacts* mummy with its wrappings, mummified cat, the Book of the Dead, small artefacts shabti four shabtis c. 2100 artefacts two ancient Egyptian idols bronze ancient Egyptian idol Ptolemaic coin amulet and four pieces of various jewellery
Ferdo (Ferdinand) Pleše Aleksandar Pevalek
Priest/Fužane
1871
Suez, Egypt
Not known, Koprivnica
1872
unknown
Gržetić
Doctor/Senj
1872
Antun Gašparac
Not known, Delnice
1872
Josip Forz Kožalić
Sea captain/Rijeka
1872
Josip Forz Kožalić
Sea captain/Rijeka
1873
Ante Čorić Ljudevit Svarz The Lanza family
Not known/Vrcar, Bosnia Not known/Zagreb Split British Orientalist, traveller and diplomat Not known
1873 1874 1874
large Ptolemaic silver coin Ptolemaic/Roman coins (20 copper, unknown one silver) from the periods six Greco-Alexandrian and Roman Delnice/Croatia coins Ramte, near lamp and small vessel Alexandria Ramte, near Roman tomb candle Alexandria unknown Egyptian copper coin unknown Egyptian copper coin Salona shabtis
1882
Faiyum, Egypt
wooden masks
1886
Egypt
shabti
Doctor/Križevci
1898
Egypt
shabti
Archaeologist/Zagreb
1899
Sir Richard Burton Milan Tompa Fran GundrumOriovčanin Josip Brunšmid M. Valjato
Not known/Kraljevica Government secretary/ Gustav Koritić unknown Mrs Dall’Asta Rijeka Finkh Pharmacist/Zagreb Ivan Bojničić Doctor/unknown The Gymnasium Senj Stjepan Bojničić Doctor/unknown Spiridion Brusina Professor/unknown Juraj Haulik Archbishop cardinal/Zagreb Petar Karlić Doctor/Zadar City Museum, Varaždin Pasthory-Varady Archaeological Museum, Split The Lanza family Archaeological Museum, Dubrovnik Frane and Nikola Merchants Amarling Tonko Kuraica Ivo Nordeli
shabti
1900
Egypt, bought in scarab Graz, Austria Egypt shabti
1905
Egypt
vessel, shabti
? ? ? ? ? ? ? 1912
Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt Nin, Croatia
six pieces of jewellery shabti shabti shabti two papyri two mummified hands mummy with coffin two shabtis
?
Salona
shabtis, amulets, statuettes
1872
Egypt
very many of objects
? ?
Egypt Egypt
unknown number of objects unknown number of objects
19th century
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Egypt in Croatia
Collector
Profession/Place
Archeological Museum Osijek, Osijek
Vjekoslav Celestin Ludwig H. Fischer
Museum curator
Provenance
Number and Type of artefacts*
? 1893
Osijek Egypt?
small artefacts small amulet of Shu stele of Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered
Bettina Karusz
Widow of the merchant Ivan Krausz
1895
Osijek
Franjo Folk
Imperial and Royal Captain
1896
?
1897
?
sculpture of Osiris; relief plaque with goddess Nephthys two small bone scarabs
1898
?
faience amulets of Pataikos and Bes
1939
Aquileia
various small Egyptian artefacts
Karlo Franjo Nuber
Wholesaler and collector Imperial and royal Emerik Hild bookkeeper of Zadar’s military engineering service Monastery of St Euphemia, Kampor (island of Rab)
*
Year
Ivo Kugli Private collectors
Publisher, librarian
The Marchi family
Hvar
?
Central Dalmatia
The Machiedo family
Hvar
?
Central Dalmatia
various small artefacts related to the dissemination of ancient Egyptian cults various small artefacts related to the dissemination of ancient Egyptian cults
Data taken from the various inventory books of the archaeological museums of Zagreb, Osijek, Split, Dubrovnik, and Varaždin.
scholar and egyptologist Jacob Krall discovered, in 1892, that the wrappings of the (female) mummy838 (Figure 172) in the Barić Collection had Etruscan text written all over them:839 these linen wrappings are today known as the Liber linteus Zagrabiensis.840
In the 19th and early 20th centuries the institutional and private collections of ancient Egyptian antiquities in Croatia were increased by various smaller donations or purchases. The artefacts in these collections were mostly gathered by the higher social classes, mostly nobles, clerics, academics, etc. (Table 1). The best example is the Archaeological Museum in Osijek, with artefacts collected by Ludwig H. Fischer, Bettina Karusz, Franjo Folk, Karlo Franjo Nuber, and Emerik Hild.833
The Lanza and Carrara families (later Carrara-Bratanić, and today Marović) from Split, and the Marchi and Machiedo families from Hvar, were well-known general collectors of antiquities, including Egyptian items, which they collected mostly during the 19th century. Some of these artefacts later ended up in the collections of the Archaeological Museum in Split841 and the National Museum in Zagreb.842
In 1848/1849, the Croatian Mihael Barić (Semeljci, c. 1791 – Vienna, 1859), who lived and worked in Vienna as a government official to the Habsburg monarchy, bought a small collection of ancient Egyptian artefacts, including a mummy, most likely during his stay in Egypt.834 After his death in 1859 the collection was donated to the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Art, or the National Museum; his executer was his brother, Ilija Barić.835 Before his death the collection was kept behind a curtain in a special display.836 The collection was transferred to the National Museum in Zagreb in 1862, where it became the first part of what was later to become the Ancient Egyptian Collection.837 The Austrian
Carlo Lanza (Roccasecca, 1778 – Split, 1834) was a physician, and first director of the Museum of Antiquities in Split (today the Split Archaeological Museum in Split).843 He, according to preserved records in the inventory books of the Split museum, included some ancient Egyptian artefacts, from Solin, related to the worship of ancient Egyptian cults in Roman times.
Ljubić 1889: 2; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 203-208; Tomorad 2003a, 20, 25-26. 833 Kovač 2013: 15-19; Kovač 2015: 93-95. 834 Ljubić 1892: 60; Tomorad 2003a: 28; Tomorad 2003b: 54; Tomorad 2016: 329. The exact details of this purchase remain a mystery. 835 Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, box 46, docs. I-VII; Mirnik and Rendić-Miočević 1986: 41-71; Mirnik and RendićMiočević 1987: 31-48; Tomorad 2003a: 28, 82; Tomorad 2016: 329. 836 Ljubić 1892: 60; Tomorad 2003a: 28. 837 Tomorad 2003a: 82-83; Tomorad 2016: 329.
Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, inv. no. E-665. Krall 1892; Tomorad 2003a: 85. 840 Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, inv. no. E-664. 841 For more details, see the online Croato-Aegyptica Database (CADB), Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Split [croato-aegyptica. starapovijest.eu]. 842 The names of the members of the Lanza family who donated several ancient Egyptian artefacts to the National Museum in Zagreb are unknown. The inventory book of the Egyptian Collection only mentioned artefacts from Salona donated by the Lanza family. 843 Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 6 s.v. ‘Lanza, Karlo’: 427. 838 839
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Figure 172. Zagreb mummy' photographed at the end of the 19th century. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum, E-664. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 173. Frane Lanza. Split: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 174. Frano Carrara. Split: Archaeological Museum. © Split: Archaeological Museum.
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Egypt in Croatia His son, and successor, Frano Lanza (Split, 1808 – Santa Maria della Rovere, 1892) (Figure 173), was also a physician and keen amateur archaeologist; like his father, he studied the history of Split and its surroundings and was later director of the archaeological museum there from 1863 to 1872. In 1875 he moved to Italy, taking with him a part of his collection of antiquities and manuscripts;844 the exact location of this collection in Italy is, unfortunately, unknown. Frano Carrara (Split, 1812 – Venice, 1854) (Figure 174) was a famous historian, archaeologist and conservator. Like, Frane Lanza, his great rival, he also studied the history and archaeology of Split and its surroundings.845 It is known that he gathered a collection of antiquities during his lifetime, including the six shabtis that are now in the private Marović Collection, Split. We also know of several other families of antiquity collectors in the region of Dalmatia, who mostly lived in the regions of Salona, Split, Hvar, and Dubrovnik. The best known are the Marchi family846 from Split and the Machiedo family from Hvar,847 however documents related to their collecting activities are not preserved.848 In 19th-century Dubrovnik there were several people collecting ancient Egyptian antiquities, including the previously mentioned Tonko Kuraica, Ivo Nordelli, and the brothers Frane and Nikola Amerling849 (Figure 175): in and after 1872 they donated 228 Egyptian artefacts to the Dubrovnik Museum that they collected during their lifetimes or visits to Egypt.850
Figure 175. Nikola Amerling. Dubrovnik: Archeological Museum. © Dubrovnik: Archaeological Museum.
half of the 20th century, they were moved to the City Museum, Varaždin.852
Also, in the 19th century, the aristocratic PasthoryVarady family, who lived in Križovljan castle, near Varaždin in north-western Croatia, also possessed a small ancient Egyptian collection.851 Unfortunately no data about the genesis of this collection have so far been found. As far as we know, a certain family member collected six ancient Egyptian artefacts while on diplomatic service in Egypt. After his return to the Habsburg Monarchy/Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy these artefacts were kept at Križovljan, then, in the first
In the first half of the 20th century a significant collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities was gathered by Ante Topić Mimara (Korušce, 1898 – Zagreb, 1987). Over his life, Mimara stayed in Rome, Paris, Berlin, Munich, Tangiers, Salzburg, and Zagreb, where he met many famous European and international artcollectors.853 His love of art and culture ultimately resulted in an impressive collection comprising 3,750 objects, of which 505 are related to ancient Egyptian culture.854 Based on gift contracts to the City of Zagreb and SR Croatia, from 1973 to 1986, today’s ‘Mimara Museum’ was opened in 1987; the ancient Egyptian artefacts are kept in two collections, Glass and Ancient Civilisations.855
Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 6 s.v. ‘Lanza, Frano’: 427. Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 2 s.v. ‘Carrara, Frano’: 462. 846 Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 7 s.v. ‘Marchi’: 56. 847 Tomorad 2016: 330, 340. 848 For a list of ancient Egyptian artefacts, they collected, see in: Tomorad 2016: 340. The ancient Egyptian artefacts they collected are now accessible online via the Croato-Aegyptica Database (CADB) [croato-aegyptica.starapovijest.eu]. 849 See the previous chapter for Antonio Beato and his collection of albumen photographs in the Archaeological Museum, Dubrovnik. 850 More details in: Tomorad 2001: 23; Uranić 2002: 181; Menalo 2003: 6-7; Tomorad 2003a: 56-63; Tomorad 2005: 14; Tomorad 2015: 47; Tomorad and Štimac 229; Tomorad 2017: 68. 851 Tomorad 2002: 547; Tomorad 2003a: 71; Tomorad and Uranić 2006: 88; Tomorad 2016: 329. 844 845
Among the many individuals who assembled a considerable number of numismatic collections of Ptolemaic, Roman Republic and Roman Empire coinage relating to Egypt, was the numismatist and antiquities collector Benko Horvat (Vinkovci, 1873 – Zagreb, 852 Tomorad 2002; Tomorad 2003a: 71; Tomorad and Uranić 2006; Tomorad 2016: 329. 853 Tomorad 2003a: 63. 854 Tomorad 2003a: 63. 855 Tomorad 2017: 65-68.
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Mladen Tomorad: Early Collectors and the Genesis of the Most Important Egyptian Collections
Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 6 s.v. ‘Lanza, Frano’: 427. Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 7 s.v. ‘Marchi’: 56. Koščević, R. 2000. Arheološka zbirka Benko Horvat. Zagreb. Kovač, M. 2013. Ulaznica za drugi svijet. Egipatska zbirka Muzeja Slavonije/Ticket to the Afterlife. Egyptian Collection of the Museum of Slavonia. Osijek. Kovač, M. 2015. Egyptian collection of the Museum of Slavonia in Osijek (Croatia), in: M. Tomorad (ed.), A History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture conducted in Southeast Europe: 93-105. Oxford. Krall, J. 1892. Die etruskischen Mumienbinden des Agramer National-Museums. Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Philosophisch-historische Klasse, Bd. 41, III. Ljubić, Š. 1889a. Popis Arheološkog odjela Narodnog Zemaljskog Muzeja u Zagrebu, sv. I Egipatska sbirka. Zagreb. Ljubić, Š. 1892. Napisani povoji jedne mumije u narodnom muzeju u Zagrebu. Viestnik narodnoga zemaljskoga muzeja u Zagrebu XIV-2: 59-60. Menalo, R. 2003. Egipatska zbirka Dubrovačkog muzeja. Dubrovnik. Mirnik, I. and Rendić-Miočević, A. 1986. Liber linteus Zagrabiensis. Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu 3. s. vol. XIX: 41-71. Mirnik, I. and Rendić-Miočević, A. 1987. Liber linteus Zagrabiensis II. Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu 3. s. vol. XX: 31-48. Mirnik, I. and Uranić, I. 1999. Geneza Kollerove Egipatske zbirke Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu. Zbornik radova ‘Naš museum’: 197-208. Tomorad, M. 2002. Egipatske zbirke u Hrvatskoj s posebnim osvrtom na egipatsku zbirku Gradskog muzeja Varaždin, in: A. Mohorovičić and V. Stipetić (eds), Zbornik radova međunarodnog simpozija Stvaralački potencijali u funkciji društveno-ekonomskog i kulturnog razvoja sjeverozapadne Hrvatske, Varaždin 21. – 22. studeni 2002: 543-558. Zagreb-Varaždin. Tomorad, M. 2003a. Egipat u Hrvatskoj: egipatske starine u hrvatskoj znanosti i kulturi. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2003b. Zagrebačka egipatska mumija i lanena knjiga. Meridijani 77: 54-59. Tomorad, M. 2005. The Egyptian antiquities in Croatia. PalArch 2.1: 1-33. Tomorad, M. 2016. Foundation of the Ancient Egyptian Collections in Croatia: Travellers, Private Collectors and the Genesis of the Collections (1800-1920), in: L. Hudakova and J. Hudec (eds), Egypt and Austria IX Perception of the Orient in Central Europe (1800-1918): 325-340, 405. Krakow. Tomorad, M. 2017. Staroegipatska civilizacija: vol. I Povijest i kultura starog Egipta, vol. II Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Štimac, I. 2016. Visualizing Egypt in the Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Dubrovnik and the Newspaper/travel Reports
Figure 176. Medal of Benko Horvat made by Antun Augustinčić. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
1955)856 (Figure 176). Horvat collected a significant number of Greek and Roman coins, as well as other antiquities. His numismatic collection of c. 1000 coins was donated to the National Museum in 1928, and c. 600 other antiquities were donated in 1946 to the City of Zagreb (today housed in the Museum of Contemporary Art);857 a part of his numismatic collection is also kept in the Vinkovci museum. Ivo Kugli was a son of the famous Croatian librarian and publisher Stjepan Kugli.858 After the death of his father in 1915, Ivo and his brothers Rudolf and Zlatko, continued to run their family printing house and library until 1945.859 In 1939 Ivo bought a small collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities in the Italian city of Aquilea; we know that he bought it from a Jewish person trying to flee to America.860 After the Second World War Ivo donated the collection to the Monastery of St. Euphemia of Kampor on the island of Rab.861 Bibliography Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 2 s.v. ‘Carrara, Frano’: 462. Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 4 s.v. ‘Horvat, Benko’: 633. Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 6 s.v. ‘Kugli, Stjepan’: 325. Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 6 s.v. ‘Lanza, Karlo’: 427. Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 4 s.v. ‘Horvat, Benko’: 633. Koščević 2000; Tomorad 2003a: 42-48; Tomorad 2017: 61-65, 81. Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 6 s.v. ‘Kugli, Stjepan’: 325. 859 Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 6 s.v. ‘Kugli, Stjepan’: 325. 860 Tomorad 2003a: 75; Tomorad 2017: 79. 861 Tomorad 2003a: 75; Tomorad 2017: 79. 856 857 858
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Egypt in Croatia Published by Grga Novak between 1933 and 1945, in: A. Júnová Macková, L. Storchová and L. Jún (eds), Egypt and Austria X: Visualizing the Orient: Central Europe and the Near East in the 19th and 20th Centuries.: 229-244. Prague. Tomorad, M. and Uranić, I. 2006. The Egyptian Collection of the Museum of the City of Varaždin,
Croatia. Trabajos de Egiptología – Papers on Ancient Egypt (TdE) 3: 87-98. Wurzbach, C. 1864. Biographisches Lexicon des Kaisterhums Österreich vol. 12. s.v. ‘Koller, Franz’: 339343. Wien.
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Egyptian Collections in Croatia Mladen Tomorad
Introduction
of various materials, jewellery, fertility symbols, and statuettes of various deities, but also footwear, diverse types of vessels, canopic jars, animal depictions, and male and female statues. Among the numerous artefacts it is also possible to identify a larger collection of statuettes of various gods and goddesses, wooden and stone stelae with inscriptions, and painted depictions (mostly funerary in character), inscriptions on papyrus or linen wrappings, and examples of The Book of the Dead. From the Zagreb Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, the sarcophagi for the burial of human and animal remains, and mummies and mummy wrappings are particularly worthy of mention.
Modern Egyptian collections in Croatia were created from numerous private collections formed in the 19th and 20th centuries. Today these items are cared for in more than 35 museums and other institutional collections in Croatia.862 From our research carried out from 1999 to early 2019, at least 4855 artefacts related to Egypt can be found in Croatia (Table 1); among them at least 4336 artefacts are held in various institutional collections (Table 2, Charts 1-2). As well as in museum collections, ancient Egyptian artefacts can also be found in a great many private collections in all regions of Croatia. The total numbers are still uncertain, but we can assume that anything between 500 and 1000 artefacts will be in these private collections (Table 3).
The 13 sphinxes, or their fragments, that were once part of the decoration of Diocletian’s Palace in Split constitute another group of objects. In the Palace complex there are also several pillars, made of various types of Egyptian stone, and one pharaonic statue from the Ptolemaic Period.
Dating Egyptian artefacts Chronologically, Egyptian artefacts in Croatia can be dated from the oldest item, a Predynastic cup from the Badari Culture863 to modern items associated with the ‘Egyptomania’ craze of the 19th and 20th centuries – both artefacts and public monuments (Tables 1 and 4). The ancient Egyptian artefacts themselves date from the Predynastic Badari cup just mentioned to Coptic artefacts of the 5th to 7th centuries.864 Zagreb has several ‘Egyptomania’-period architectural monuments: the cemetery at Mirogoj has four modern obelisks that, at the beginning of the 20th century, stood in front of the National Theatre but which were transferred to Mirogoj just before the First World War. In Zagreb’s zoological park there used to be two sculptures of ancient Egyptian pharaohs. They were made by the famous Croatian artist Jozo Turkalj in the mid 1920s. Another obelisk was erected in Maksimir park in 1843.
The assemblage of glass in the Zagreb Mimara Museum features many artefacts of ancient Egyptian production, crafted in Pharaonic, Hellenistic, and Roman times. This is only collection of glass artefacts from Egypt in Croatian collections. The only Coptic collection in Croatia (from Late Antiquity) is represented by an assemblage in the Zagreb Mimara Museum. Croatian collections also contain numerous coins, e.g. of Ptolemaic kings and Roman emperors minted in Alexandria, and also Roman coins with depictions of ancient Egyptian deities. Most of these (1014 coins) are in the Numismatic Department of the Zagreb Archaeological Museum in Zagreb,865 but other coins are to be found in other archaeological and city museums, e.g. Pula, Rijeka, Split, Varaždin, Vinkovci, etc. These coins are mostly still unpublished and their numbers, therefore, are still uncertain.
Types of artefacts Most of the artefacts that relate to the Pharaonic Period of Egyptian history are small objects, held in museums and private collections. These collections are dominated by scarabs, amulets, shabtis, tablets
Many items related to the modern craze for ‘Egyptomania’ are also to be found in museum institutions in Croatia and in situ. These types of
For a detailed overview of the collections, see the Croato-Aegyptica website [croato-aegyptica.starapovijest.eu]. 863 Varaždin: The Varaždin City Museum, inv. no. AO-6521. 864 Zagreb: The Mimara Museum, inv. nos. 246, 340, 349, 351, 355-359, 361, 1719 and 3582. 862
865 A detailed catalogue of these artefacts was recently published by Ivan Mirnik. Mirnik 2016.
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Egypt in Croatia Table 1. Egyptian artefacts in institutional, museum and private collections in Croatia. Number of Egyptian artefacts
Museum, institution and private collections in Croatia Archaeological Museum, Zagreb
3279
Museum Mimara, Zagreb
505
Collection Kovačić-Bošnjak, Kutina/Ivanić Grad
500?
Archaeological Museum, Dubrovnik
228
Archaeological Museum, Split
132 (140)
Archaeological Museum of Istria, Pula
37
Maritime and History Museum of the Croatian Littoral, Rijeka
20 (30?)
Archaeological Museum, Osijek
18
Archaeological Museum, Zadar
16
Museum of Contemporary Art, Zagreb – Collection Benko Horvat
11
Monastery of St. Euphemia, Kampor on Rab – Archaeological Collection
10 (21?)
Franciscan Monastery, Košljun – Archaeological Collection
10
Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb
10
City Museum, Varaždin – Archaeological Collection
9
Diocletian’s Palace, Split
7
Museum of Croatian History, Zagreb
6
Marović Collection, Split
6
Franciscan Monastery, Sinj
5
Cemetary Mirogoj, Zagreb
5
Trakošćan Castle, Trakošćan
4
City Museum, Šibenik
3
Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts – Department for Croatian Literature, Theatre and Music, Zagreb
3
Regional Museum Varaždinske Toplice – Aquae Iasae Archaeological Park
3
City Museum, Split
2
Andautonia Archaeological Park, Ščitarjevo
2
Zagreb Zoo
2
Narona Archaeological Museum, Vid (Metković)
1
‘Grga Novak’ Archaeological Collection and Lapidarium, Centre for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage, Hvar
1
Zlatko Dragutin Tudjina Collection, The City Museum, Pregrada
1
The Lapidarium, City Museum, Senj
1
City Museum, Karlovac
1
City Museum, Koprivnica
1
City Museum, Križevci
1
City Museum, Požega
1
City Museum, Zagreb
1
Croatian State Archive, Zagreb
1
Glimb Family Collection, Nin
1
The Lapidarium, Novigrad (Istria)
1
The Lapidarium, Veliki Brijun
1
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Mladen Tomorad: Egyptian Collections in Croatia
Number of Egyptian artefacts
Museum, institution and private collections in Croatia Museo del Territorio Parentino, Poreč
1
Museum of Croatian Archaeological Monuments, Split
1
Park Maksimir, Zagreb
1
Perish Dorm, Kruševo
1
Private Collection Domančić, Split
1
Private Collection, Kaštelančić
1
Private Collection Lik, Kazale
1
Regional Museum Imotski – Archaeological Collection
1
Total number of artefacts
4855-4896?
Table 2. Egyptian artefacts in various types of institutional collections in Croatia. Number of Egyptian artefacts
Institutional collections Archaeological Museum, Zagreb
3279
Museum Mimara, Zagreb
505
Archaeological Museum, Dubrovnik
228
Archaeological Museum, Split
132 (140)
Archaeological Museum of Istria, Pula
37
Maritime and History Museum of the Croatian Littoral, Rijeka
20 (30?)
Archaeological Museum, Osijek
18
Archaeological Museum, Zadar
16
Museum of Contemporary Art, Zagreb – Benko Horvat Archaeological Collection
11
Monastery of St. Euphemia, Kampor on Rab – Archaeological Collection
10 (21?)
Franciscan Monastery, Košljun – Archaeological Collection
10
Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb
10
City Museum Varaždin – Archaeological Collection
9
Diocletian’s Palace, Split
7
Museum of Croatian History, Zagreb
6
Franciscan Monastery, Sinj
5
Trakošćan Castle, Trakošćan
4
City Museum, Šibenik
3
Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts – Department for Croatian Literature, Theatre and Music, Zagreb
3
Regional Museum Varaždinske Toplice – Aquae Iasae Archaeological Park
3
City Museum, Split
2
Andautonia Archaeological Park, Ščitarjevo
2
Narona Archaeological Museum, Vid (Metković)
1
‘Grga Novak’ Archaeological Collection and Lapidarium, Centre for Preservation of Cultural Heritage, Hvar Zlatko Dragutin Tudjina Collection, City Museum, Pregrada
173
1 1
Egypt in Croatia Number of Egyptian artefacts
Institutional collections The Lapidarium, City Museum, Senj
1
City Museum, Karlovac
1
City Museum, Koprivnica
1
City Museum, Križevci
1
City Museum, Požega
1
City Museum, Zagreb
1
Croatian State Archive, Zagreb
1
Lapidarium Novigrad, Istria
1
Lapidarium, Veliki Brijun
1
Museo del Territorio Parentino, Poreč
1
Museum of Croatian Archaeological Monuments, Split
1
Perish Dorm, Kruševo
1
Regional Museum Imotski – Archaeological Collection
1
Total number of artefacts
4336 (4365)
Chart 1: Relation between the number of Egyptian artefacts in the Zagreb Archaeological Museum and other institutional collections in Croatia.
Origins of the collections and artefacts
objects are mostly various vessels, candle sticks, clocks, furniture, as well as modern imitations of sphinxes and graves; they were all manufactured in the 19th and 20th centuries. Most are now in the Zagreb Museum of Arts and Crafts, but similar artefacts are kept in the Varaždin City Museum and Trakoščan Castle. It is more than likely that other items of ‘Egyptomania’ have found their way into other institutional collections in Croatia.
Ancient Egyptian artefacts in Croatian collections can be divided into two main groups in terms of their origins. 1.
The last group of artefacts relates to archive documents, paintings, photographs and diaries of Croatian travellers to Egypt, mostly during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
2.
174
Those artefacts acquired in Egypt from various antiquarians and 19th and early 20th century travellers. These were mostly purchased for private collections or museums (e.g. the Koller Collection in 1868), and later bought by, or donated to museums. Those artefacts discovered on Croatian territory during archaeological excavations of pre-Roman
Mladen Tomorad: Egyptian Collections in Croatia
Chart 2. Relation between the archaeological museums and other institutional collections in Croatia in terms of the number of Egyptian artefacts.
most of these collections within the online database Croato-Aegyptica (croato-aegyptica.starapovijest. eu). Before 1999, Croatian Egyptian collections in were neither classified nor analysed and were mostly unknown by the general public. Before this project, the only institutions to have had their collections presented and published in exhibition catalogues, and scientific periodicals were the archaeological museums of Zagreb867 and (in part) Split.868
or Roman settlements, mainly in the 19th and 20th centuries. This material is mostly associated with the diffusion of ancient Egyptian, or other, syncretistic cults that developed throughout the Greco-Roman period. The very popular cults of Isis, Serapis, Osiris, inter alia, arrived in Croatia mainly through intermediaries (sailors, merchants, soldiers), spreading new religious beliefs into regions of ancient Istria and Roman provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia (today’s Croatia). Such artefacts have been acquired by Croatian museums and private collectors, mostly via archaeological excavations, or in some cases by purchase. The material from this second category posed problems, especially in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, when they were often considered to be fakes. Fortunately, it has been recently established that these artefacts originated in Roman antiquity, and today are considered genuine.866
867 The Egyptian Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb was published in several catalogues. The oldest list of Egyptian artefacts was prepared by the custodian Šime Ljubić in 1871, but it was previously prepared by the German Egyptologist Heinrich Brugsch in 1869. Ljubić published the first two catalogues of the Egyptian and Numismatic Collection in 1889, but without any analysis of the artefacts. In 1970 the French Egyptologist Janine Monnet Saleh published the first modern catalogue, in which she mixed the inventory number of artefacts in many cases. In 2009 Igor Uranić, the current custodian of the Egyptian Department, finally published an accurate modern catalogue in Croatian and English. Cf. Ljubić 1871; Ljubić 1889a; Ljubić 1889b; Monnet Saleh 1970; Uranić 2009. In the early 20th century the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb began to publish various specialised exhibition catalogues and publications. They were published mostly by Josip Brunšmid, Marcel Gorenc, Ante Rendić-Miočević, Ivan Mirnik, Igor Uranić and Mladen Tomorad. Cf. Brunšmid 1904; Brunšmid 1905; Brunšmid 1907; Brunšmid 1914; Gorenc 1979; Rendić-Miočević 1982; Rendić-Miočević 1986; Mirnik and Rendić-Miočević 1986; Mirnik and Rendić-Miočević 1987; Rendić-Miočević 1993; Uranić 1996; Uranić 1999; Tomorad 2000; Tomorad 2001; Tomorad 2003a: 19-48, 81-92; Tomorad 2003b; Uranić 2003; Tomorad 2005; Uranić 2005; Tomorad 2006a; Tomorad 2011; Uranić, Čavka and Petaros 2012; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2015b; Tomorad 2017a: 52-65. 868 The Egyptian artefacts in the Archaeological Museum in Split have mostly been presented and published in Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata (Spalato, 1878–1918) and Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju
Collections and their scientific analyses and presentation Ancient Egyptian collections in Croatia, in the main, have only recently been fully classified and analysed. Over the last decade or so, those scholars working on the Croato-Aegyptica project have managed to publish 866
Tomorad 2006b; Tomorad 2018a.
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Egypt in Croatia hard to determine how many objects can be found in such collections; their origins and authenticity, as well as their cultural and historical value, are also very hard to assess as their owners have not registered their collections. Unless the Croatian government intervenes in some way, most of these collections will remain unknown to scholars and the general public.
From the end of the 1980s until today, the collections in the Zagreb Mimara Museum have only been partially published in various museum catalogues and articles.869 The collections in the museums of Dubrovnik870 and Pula871 have only recently been partly classified and published. Smaller collections in other museums and institutions have been mostly examined over the last two decades,872 the exceptions being the collections of the Franciscan Monastery, Sinj,873 the Archaeological Museum in Zadar, Zadar,874 the Archaeological Museum in Osijek,875 and the City Museum, Varaždin,876 all of which have been known previously and partly published. Over the last two decades they have been completely studied and published as part of to the Croato-Aegyptica Project.
Collections of Egyptian antiquities in Croatia The Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Zagreb Zagreb’s Archaeological Museum in Zagreb is a rare institution in Croatia that has systematically collected and presented ancient Egyptian antiquities since the middle of the 19th century. By the careful preservation and presentation of these collections, and via exhibitions, both permanent and temporary, this museum has become one of the most important institutions in Croatia, constantly giving the general public and scholars alike the opportunity to learn about the culture and history of ancient Egypt.
The private collections, however, are still mostly unknown and only rarely studied and published. During the time of the ‘Egypt in Croatia’ exhibition (Zagreb, September – October 2018), several unnamed private collectors contacted the present author to ask about the value of various, mostly smaller, ancient Egyptian antiquities. Sadly, at this moment, it is very
The Egyptian Collection in the Zagreb museum, the former National Museum of Croatia,877 has been assembled from different sources over more than 150 years of existence. The so-called ‘Zagreb mummy’ and its wrappings, the Liber linteus zagrabiensis,878 were probably the first ancient Egyptian artefacts to enter the museum. They were brought to the museum on 5th August 1862,879 when Mijat Sabljar (Dubica, 1790 – Zagreb, 1865) was curator of the archaeological department of the National Museum.880 Thanks to Bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer and Franjo Rački (historian, politician, and at the time president of the ex-Yugoslav Academy of Science and Art), the collection was augmented in 1868 by a large collection of Egyptian antiquities from the private collection of Baron Franz Koller (Mnichovo Hradište, 1767 – Naples, 1826).881
dalmatinsku (Split, 1919 to the present day). Most of the articles in these journals were published by Frane Bulić at the end of 19th and the early 20th century. The other articles were published by Petar Selem, Nenad Cambi and Jasna Žanić-Protić. Cf. Bulić 1979; Bulić 1885; Bulić 1886; Bulić 1887; Bulić 1888; Bulić 1896; Bulić 1903; Bulić 1908; Bulić 1910a, Bulić 1910b; Bulić 1910c; Bulić 1927; Selem 1963a; Selem 1969; Cambi 1971; Žanić-Protić 1988; Cambi 1993. The most important articles, in various journals and books, have been written since the early 1970s. Cf. Selem 1971; Selem 1972; Selem 1997; Tomorad 2000; Tomorad 2001; Tomorad 2003a: 5255; Tomorad 2005: 18-19; Tomorad 2006a; Selem 2008; Tomorad 2011; Selem 2012; Selem 2015; Tomorad 2015a; Tomorad 2015b; Tomorad 2017a: 73-76. 869 Lukšić 1987; Lukšić 1998; Ratković Bukovčan 2001; Tomorad 2001; Tomorad 2003a: 63-69; Ratković Bukovčan 2004; Tomorad 2005: 11-13; Tomorad 2006a: 16-18; Tomorad 2009: 541-544; Tomorad 2012b; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015; Tomorad 2017a: 65-68. 870 Uranić 2002; Menalo 2003; Tomorad 2003a: 56-63; Tomorad 2005: 13-16; Tomorad 2006a: 19-21; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229234; Tomorad 2017a. 871 Džin 2001: 18-21; Jurkić-Girardi 2001: 5-17; Uranić 2001: 22-28; Tomorad 2003a: 48-51; Tomorad 2006a: 24-25; Tomorad 2007; Tomorad 2017a: 76-78. 872 Tomorad 2001; Tomorad 2003a; Tomorad 2005; Tomorad 2006a; Tomorad 2006b; Tomorad 2017a: 79-90. 873 Cambi 1971; Selem 1979; Selem 1997: 93-95; Tomorad 2000; Tomorad 2001; Tomorad 2003a: 75-76; Tomorad 2004; Tomorad 2005: 22; Tomorad 2006a: 31; Tomorad 2006b: 287-288; Selem 2008; Tomorad 2011; Tomorad 2012a; Tomorad 2017a: 85-86. 874 Bersa 1900; Bersa 1906; Abramić 1913; Bersa 1915; Suić 1954; Suić 1965; Medini 1968; Suić, Batović and Belošević 1968; Perc 1968; Suić 1969; Selem 1972; Suić 1976; Suić, Batović and Belošević 1979; Giunio 2000; Giunio 2002: 29-37; Suić 2003; Tomorad 2003a: 5152; Tomorad 2005: 20; Tomorad 2006a: 27-28; Giunio and Gluščević 2007; Tomorad 2017a: 80-81. 875 Celestin 1895; Liebl 1900; Höger 1942; Degmežić 1954; Pinterović 1954; Perc 1968; Selem 1972: 38-40; Pinterović 1978; Selem 1980: 20-23; Filipović 1997a; Filipović 1997b; Radić 1997; Selem 1997: Göricke-Lukić 2000; Ivanković and Grubišić 2002; Tomorad 2003a: 73-74; Tomorad 2005: 21; Tomorad 2006a: 29; Bulat 2007; Selem 2008; Kovač 2013; Kovač 2015; Tomorad 2017a: 82-83. 876 Panić 1974; Panić 1976; Tomorad 2002; Tomorad and Uranić 2006; Tomorad 2009; Tomorad 2017a: 84.
Over the last 150 years, the Koller Collection, with various smaller donations and purchases from other private sources, has represented the collection of the Egyptian department.882 This contains approximately 2227 artefacts,883 of which the majority are small items (scarabs, amulets, shabtis, and the statuettes of gods), but there are also various stelae, Books of The The Museum was formed in 1846 and divided into four in 1939 (The Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, The Croatian History Museum, The Natural History Museum, and The Ethnographical Museum). 878 Zagreb: The Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department: inv. nos. E-664-665. 879 Tomorad 2003a: 83; Tomorad 2003b. 880 Tomorad 2003a: 31. 881 Details of this purchase are in: Mirnik and Uranić 1999; Tomorad 2003a: 19-33. 882 For a detailed list of all acquisitions, see in: Tomorad 2003a: 3337, 142; Tomorad 2005: 4-5; Tomorad 2006a: 7-10; Tomorad 2017a: 54-56. 883 Tomorad 2017a: 54-56. 877
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Dead, mummies, and sarcophagi.884 The collection chronologically comprises mostly artefacts from the Middle and New Kingdoms, the Late Period, and Greco-Roman material. The precise provenance of the artefacts is relatively unknown.
various ancient Egyptian deities (e.g. Apis, Isis, Osiris, Harpocrates). The Mimara Museum, Zagreb The Mimara Museum was founded by the City of Zagreb to house the large private collection of 3750 objects acquired by Ante Topić Mimara (Korušca, 1898 – Zagreb, 1987).894 Topić Mimara donated his collection to the Socialist Republic of Croatia and the Council of the City of Zagreb on 6th October 1973 and 29th October 1986.895
Zagreb’s Archaeological Museum in Zagreb also contains at least 36 artefacts related to the diffusion and worship of ancient Egyptian cults around the territory of Roman Illyricum.885 These are mostly statuettes of gods (Isis, Serapis, Hermes-Thot, Isis-Fortuna, and Harpocrates), as well as many other artefacts associated with the worshippers of Egyptian deities.886 The majority of these artefacts were acquired during the course of archaeological excavations from the first half of the 19th century. Several bronze Hermes-Thot, Isis-Fortuna, and Harpocrates statuettes, a sphinx, and other smaller artefacts originating from Greco-Roman Egypt came into the possession of the National Museum through the purchase of the Koller Collection in 1868.887
The artefacts of ancient Egyptian provenance are kept in the Archaeological and Glass Collections. The Archaeological Collection (ex-Collection of Ancient Civilisations) of the contains 617 objects dating from prehistory to the formation of the first medieval states. One part of the collection has 35 artefacts of ancient Egyptian origin, dating from Predynastic times to Late Antiquity.896 The collection contains three objects from the Naqada I–III cultures897 and 12 Coptic artefacts,898 making this assemblage unique in Croatia. The Glass Collection contains 470 Egyptian artefacts, with a chronological range from the New Kingdom to Late Antiquity.899 This is the only glass collection with artefacts of Egyptian provenance in Croatia.
The Numismatic Department of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb in Zagreb has a very large collection. Three parts of this are associated with the ancient Egyptian civilisation: Ptolemaic coinage;888 Roman Republican coins related to Marc Anthony and Cleopatra VII;889 and coinage from the Alexandrian mint of the Roman province of Aegyptus.890 There are at least 221 specimens of Ptolemaic coins, dated from the reign of Ptolemy II to Cleopatra VII.891 Most were purchased from various private collections, but among them there are also examples of Ptolemaic excavated from various hoards in Croatia.892 The collection from the Roman Imperial mint at Alexandria (from Augustus to Constantine I) is very large, and comprises at least 793 coins.893 These coins feature the images of various Roman emperors and their co-rulers, or the images of
The Archaeological Museum, Dubrovnik The large ancient Egyptian collection in the Archaeological Museum in Dubrovnik was assembled from donations of now mostly unknown collectors. The only known donors are Tonko Kuraica, Ivo Nordeli, and the brothers Frane (Dubrovnik, 1821 – ?) and Nikola (Dubrovnik, 1823 – Vienna, 1892) Amerling,900 who probably donated the majority of artefacts. Frane Amerling lived in Cairo in the second half of the 19th century. Nikola and Frane Amerling lived in Alexandria between 1842 and 1882, and during this time were both involved in the founding of the Dubrovnik Museum.901 In 1872 they donated a collection of ancient Egyptian
884 Detailed catalogues were published by J. Monnet Saleh and I. Uranić. Monnet Saleh 1970; Uranić 2009. 885 These artefacts come mostly from the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia, although there are several from other provinces of the south-eastern region of the Roman Empire. For a detailed list of these artefacts, see in: Tomorad 2003a: 40-42; Tomorad 2005: 7; Tomorad 2006a: 10-11; Tomorad 2017a: 58-60. 886 Brunšmid 1904 nos. 34-36, 161; Brunšmid 1905 nos. 162-165, 309; Brunšmid 1914; Gorenc 1952: nos. 51, 68-69; Perc 1968: 195196, 205, 208-214, 222-223, 273; Rendić-Miočević 1987: 201; RendićMiočević 1991: 134, no. 117; 139, no. 136; Rendić-Miočević 1993: 122-127; Rendić-Miočević 1996: 110 no. 104, 115, no. 123; Cambi 2003; Tomorad 2003a: 40-42; Tomorad 2005: 7; Tomorad 2006a: 1011; Tomorad 2017a: 58-60. 887 Brunšmid 1914: nos. 223-224, 262, 268-271; Tomorad 2017a: 5859. 888 Mirnik 2016: nos. 1-221, 20-88. 889 Zagreb: The Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Numismatic Collection: B1921-1922. Tomorad 2017a: 62. 890 Mirnik 2016: nos. 222-1014, 90-325. 891 For a detailed list and analysis, see: Mirnik 2016: nos. 1-221, 20-88. 892 Brunšmid 1897; Mirnik 1981: 36-49; Mirnik 1982; Mirnik 1987; Mirnik 1993; Mirnik 2000; Tomorad 2015b: 173-175. 893 Mirnik 2016: nos. 222-1014, 90-325.
Hrvatska opća enciklopedija vol. 10 s.v. ‘Topić-Mimara, Ante’: 809. Tomorad 2003a: 64. 896 For a detailed list, see: Tomorad 2003a: 64-67; Tomorad 2005: 11-12; Tomorad 2006a: 16-17; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015; Tomorad 2017a: 65-67. 897 Tomorad 2009: 541-544; Tomorad 2012b. 898 Tomorad 2003a: 65, 57; Tomorad 2005: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 17; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: 90-94, nos. 15-25, 106-111, Figures 15-25; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: 69-73; Tomorad 2017a: 66. 899 For a detailed list, see: Ratković Bukovčan 2001; Tomorad 2003a: 67-69; Ratković Bukovčan 2004; Tomorad 2005a: 12-13; Tomorad 2006a: 18; Ratković Bukovčan 2015; Tomorad 2017a: 67-68. 900 Menalo 2003: 6-7; Tomorad 2003: 56; Tomorad 2005: 14; Tomorad 2015: 47; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229; Tomorad 2017a: 68. 901 For more details about their collections and involvement in the genesis of the oldest museum collections, see in: Menalo 2003; Tomorad and Štimac 2016. 894 895
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Egypt in Croatia and Oriental artefacts to the local Dubrovnik Museum.902 According to records in the inventory book, all the ancient Egyptian artefacts were collected in Egypt. As the Amerling brothers were living in Egypt for 40 years, it can be assumed that they were probably donors of most of the artefacts. The archive records in Dubrovnik also mention Ivo Nordeli as a donor of a large collection of unknown objects, but as far as we know he was not mentioned as a direct donor to the new Archaeological Museum. Because of the lack of archive material, the history of the Egyptian collection there remains a mystery.
The Egyptian Collection in Split’s Archaeological Museum in Split is formed of three groups. The first, with at least 69 objects,909 features various Egyptian objects related to the diffusion of the ancient Egyptian cults in Dalmatia.910 The second group presents decorative objects from Salona and Diocletian’s Palace in Split (sphinxes911 and a fragment of a relief with images of everyday life in the Nile Valley).912 The third group contains the 59 Egyptian coins discovered in Dalmatia and on the islands of Hvar, Korčula, and Vis.913
Today the Egyptian artefacts in the collection can be divided into two groups. The first comprises 190 Egyptian objects (amulets, scarabs, statuettes of divinities, and various objects of everyday life) and one mummy, which seems to have been gathered from various human remains (inv. no. 1720).903 The majority of artefacts can be dated to the Late and Ptolemaic Periods of Egyptian history.904 The second group consists of the 37 albumen prints and 49 photographs taken by Antonio Beato in the second half of the 19th century.905
The Archaeological Museum of Istria in Pula houses 37 ancient Egyptian artefacts. These can be divided into three groups. The first comprises 15 items connected to the worship of Egyptian cults in the Hellenistic and Roman periods; these were found during archaeological excavations in the area of Istria and are connected to the cults of Serapis, Isis, Isis-Fortuna, Jupiter-Amon, and Hathor.914 The second group consists of seven bronze artefacts, of mostly votive character, which were probably discovered in the territory of Istria.915 The third group features 17 artefacts, mostly Egyptian shabtis and amulets that formed part of the collection of an unknown Austrian donor.916
The Archaeological Museum of Istria, Pula
The Archaeological Museum in Split, Split The Archaeological Museum in Split houses at least 132 artefacts906 connected to the diffusion of Egyptian cults in the Roman provinces of Dalmatia.907 They were discovered during various excavations, from the Early Modern period up until the 21st century, in the region of central Dalmatian territories and islands. The artefacts were acquired for the museum through archaeological excavations, by purchase, and donations by private individuals and families (e.g. Lanza from Split, Marchi, Machiedo from Hvar, and Lukanović from Šibenik).908
The Maritime and History Museum of the Croatian Littoral, Rijeka The Maritime and History Museum of the Croatian Littoral in Rijeka holds at least 20 Ptolemaic coins917 discovered in the area of the Croatian littoral (the northern Croatian islands and inland from them). The Archaeological Museum in Osijek, Osijek The Archaeological Museum in Osijek (ex-Museum of Slavonia) has 18 artefacts connected with the ancient Egyptian cults worshipped in the Roman province of Pannonia.918 These were acquired during archaeological
The only recorded year for donations is 1872, which relates to only three artefacts (inv. nos. 638, 639, 3808). Tomorad 2001: 24; Menalo 2003: 6; Tomorad 2003a: 56; Tomorad 2005: 14; Tomorad 2006a: 19; Tomorad and Štimac 2016: 229; Tomorad 2017a: 68. 903 Detail list in: Uranić 2002; Tomorad 2003a: 56-63; Tomorad 2005: 14-16; Tomorad 2006a: 19-21; Tomorad 2017a: 69-72. 904 In 2001, during the first analysis of the Egyptian objects, Igor Uranić identified 164 genuine and 31 fake objects, and one artefact (inv. no. 3809) which originate from Etruria. Uranić 2002. 905 Dubrovnik: The Archaeological museum, inv. nos. 1683-1719. Tomorad and Štimac 2016. 906 According the older publications by Frane Bulić museums housed at least eight more objects which now seems to be lost. 907 Bulić 1879; Bulić 1885; Bulić 1886; Bulić 1887; Bulić 1888; Bulić 1896; Bulić 1896; Bulić 1903; Bulić 1908; Bulić 1910a; Bulić 1910b; Bulić 1910c; Bulić and Karaman 1927; Novak 1932; Karaman 1937; Fisković 1950; Gabričević 1956; Selem 1961; Selem 1963a; Selem 1963b; Perc 1968; Selem 1969; Cambi 1971; Selem 1972; ŽanićProtić 1988; Cambi 1993; Selem 1993; Selem 1997; Selem 2000; Marin et. al. 2002; Selem 2002; Cambi 2003; Tomorad 2003a: 52-55; Tomorad 2005: 18-19; Tomorad 2006a: 22-24; Tadinac 2011; Selem 2012; Tomorad 2017a: 73-76. 908 Details in: Selem 1963b; Selem 1969; Selem 1997; Tomorad 2003a: 52-55; Tomorad 2016; Tomorad 2017a: 73. 902
909 According to the older archive documents it supposed to be 76 objects in this group but seven of them seems to be lost or misplaced. 910 The detail list in: Tomorad 2017a: 73-75. 911 From the Diocletian palace in Split. Split: The Archaeological museum in Split, inv. nos. B-8, C-161, C-238. Tomorad 2017a: 73. 912 From Salona. Split: The Archaeological Museum in Split, inv. no. D-150. Tomorad 2017a: 74. 913 For a detailed list, see: Tomorad 2017a: 75-76. 914 Jurkić-Girardi 2001: 5-17; Tomorad 2003a: 48-49; Tomorad 2005: 16-17; Tomorad 2006a: 24-25; Tomorad 2007: 43; Tomorad 2017a: 76-77. 915 Džin 2001: 18-21; Selem 2002; Tomorad 2003a: 49; Tomorad 2005: 17; Tomorad 2006a: 25; Tomorad 2007: 44; Tomorad 2017a: 77. 916 Uranić 2001; Tomorad 2003a: 49-50; Tomorad 2005: 17-18; Tomorad 2006a: 25; Tomorad 2007: 45; Tomorad 2017a: 78. 917 Still not studied or published, their number is uncertain, but at least 20 coins are stored in this museum; some older publications mention as many as 30. Mirnik 1982; Mirnik 1987. 918 Until recently their number was 19. In March 2019 it was discovered that one small artefact had been classified twice in previous publications. For a detailed list, see in: Perc 1968: 198-205,
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Diocletian’s Palace, Split
excavations in and around Osijek (ancient Mursa) and eastern Slavonia, and were gathered mostly by private collectors in the second half of the 19th century. The most notable discovery was a white limestone stele with a representation of the ancient Egyptian divinities (the so-called ‘Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered Stele’), which was discovered in Osijek’s Upper Town in the late 19th century.919
Diocletian Palace in Split was built at the end of the 3rd century by the Roman Emperor Diocletian (284–305). He was born in nearby Salona, the most important Roman city along the eastern Adriatic coast. His palace was decorated with various Egyptian elements (pillars, statues, sphinxes, etc.) and in the course of various reconstruction projects and archaeological excavations many of these elements have been uncovered: among these, at least 11 sphinxes, or their parts, have been uncovered so far. Four of these and their fragments are now housed in the Archaeological Museum in Split,926 the Museum of Split,927 and the Split Museum of Croatian Archaeological Monuments.928 Another seven sphinxes, or their fragments, can be found in various parts of Diocletian’s Palace.929 The most famous, well-preserved sphinx is part of the Palace’s peristyle.930
The Archaeological Museum in Zadar, Zadar The collection in the Archaeological Museum in Zadar has 16 ancient Egyptian cultic artefacts related to the diffusion of Egyptian cults in area of northern Dalmatia (mostly from Nin and Zadar).920 The Museum of Contemporary Art, Zagreb The Museum of Contemporary Art in Zagreb has 11 ancient Egyptian artefacts belonging to the large archaeological collection of Benko Horvat (381 items), which was donated to the City of Zagreb in 1946.921 The Egyptian artefacts in this collection can be dated from the 11th century BCE to the 11th century CE, and they comprise smaller artefacts (gems, scaraboids, shabtis, and statuettes of Osiris).922
The Franciscan Monastery, Košljun The Franciscan Monastery on Košljun has a large archaeological collection of material discovered on and around Krk; it features ten ancient Egyptian artefacts discovered during the unsystematic digging of the ancient necropolis behind the Šinigoj house, in Krk, most likely in the second half of the 19th or first half of the 20th century.931 One shabti can be dated to the 21st or 22nd Dynasty;932 a pseudo-shabti and three scarabs can be dated to the Ptolemaic Period;933 and five amulets of cats can be dated to the period of the Roman Empire (2nd–3rd century).934
The Monastery of St. Euphemia – The Archaeological Collection, Kampor (the island of Rab) The Monastery of St. Euphemia on Rab houses a diverse archaeological collection that also contains artefacts from the Ancient Near East and Egypt. The collection was donated to the monastery by Ivo Kugli after the Second World War.923 There is no information preserved on the date of the donation. It is known that I. Kugli purchased the ancient Egyptian artefacts in Aquileia in 1939 from a Jewish man fleeing from the Gestapo to the United States of America.924 The provenance of the artefacts is unknown. They could originate from ancient Egypt or from some province of the Roman Empire. The artefacts have not been studied, so we do not know if they are genuine. The collection consists of at least ten artefacts, however, according to the photographs, there could be as many as 21.925
The City Museum, Varaždin The Archaeological Department of the City Museum of Varaždin was founded in the first half of the 20th century. Among the various artefacts collected around the Varaždin area there are seven ancient Egyptian finds, six being part of the small Egyptian collection to the current photographs. Many artefacts displayed in a glasscovered shelf are in pieces. Without further analysis it is impossible to determine if these pieces belong to the same or different artefacts. For a list of possible artefacts, see: Tomorad 2017a: 79. 926 Split: The Archaeological Museum, inv. nos. B-8, C-161, C-238. Tomorad 2017a: 85. 927 Croato-Aegyptica, Split City Museum. [http://croato-aegyptica. starapovijest.eu/en/Catalogue/By%20institution/Split%20City%20 Museum,%20Split]. Tomorad 2017a: 85. 928 Croato-Aegyptica, Museum of Croatian Archaeological Monuments. [http://croato-aegyptica.starapovijest.eu/en/Catalogue/By%20 institution/Museum%20of%20Croatian%20Archaeological%20 Monuments,%20Split]. Tomorad 2017a: 85. 929 Croato-Aegyptica, Diocletian’s Palace. [http://croato-aegyptica. starapovijest.eu/en/Catalogue/By%20institution/Diocletian%20 Palace,%20Split]. Tomorad 2017a: 85. 930 Tomorad 2017a: 85. 931 Tomorad 2018b: 398. 932 Tomorad 2015c: 142-144; Tomorad 2018b: 399-400. 933 Tomorad 2015c: 144-145; Tomorad 2015d; Tomorad 2018b: 400404. 934 Tomorad 2015b: nos. 13-17, 190-193.
nos. 47-51; Selem 1972; Selem 1980; Filipović 1997a: 49-51; Filipović 1997b: 65-79; Selem 1997: 141-145; Tomorad 2003a: 73-74; Tomorad 2005: 21-22; Tomorad 2006a: 29; Kovač 2013; Kovač 2015; Tomorad 2017a: 82-83. 919 Celestin 1895; Liebl 1900; Höger 1942: 22-25; Perc 1968: 201-202, no. 49; Selem 1972: 39-40; Selem 1980: 20-21; Selem 1997: 142; Kovač 2013: 52-55; Kovač 2015: 95-96. 920 Selem 1997: 50-59; Giunio 2002: 29-37; Tomorad 2003: 51-52; Tomorad 2005: 20; Tomorad 2006a: 27-28; Tomorad 2017a: 80-81. 921 Koščević 2000; Tomorad 2003a: 70; Tomorad 2005: 22; Tomorad 2006a: 28-29; Tomorad 2017a: 81. 922 Tomorad 2017a: 81. 923 Tomorad 2003a: 75. 924 Bonifačić 1985; Tomorad 2003a: 75; Tomorad 2005: 22; Tomorad 2006a: 26; Tomorad 2017a: 79. 925 The exact number of artefacts is very hard to determine according
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Egypt in Croatia The Croatian History Museum, Zagreb
belonging to the aristocratic Pasthory-Varady family,935 and one scarab acquired by the museum in 2007.936 The Pasthory-Varady collection was probably assembled in the 19th century, when one family member was staying in Egypt during his diplomatic service. After his return to the Varaždin area, the artefacts were kept in the family castle at Križovljan. In the first half of the 20th century these pieces were moved to the Varaždin Museum.937 The Predynastic cup from the Badari or Naqade I culture938 is the oldest ancient Egyptian artefact in any Croatian institution, making this collection extremely important. The museum also has a 19th-century clock shaped in the ‘Egyptomania’ style, and one glass vessel with ancient Egyptian elements.
The Croatian History Museum in Zagreb has six artefacts linked to a Croatian refugee camp in the Sinai Peninsula between the summer of 1944 and March 1946. During that period around 30,000 Croatian civilians flew from Dalmatia to El-Shatt in Egypt.945 Several interesting drawings and watercolours were done at the time and five of these are now kept in the Museum.946 One small Christian cross made in the Egyptian desert is also in the collection.947 Smaller Egyptian collections in regional museums and institutions There are many museums in various regions of Croatia that have a few Egyptian artefacts.
The Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb The Zagreb Museum of Arts and Crafts holds ten objects linked to ancient. The collection of furniture includes a French secretaire with the Egyptian goddess Tawaret from 1860,939 and an Art Deco chair (1920s) shaped in the style of the Tutankhamun chair.940 The clock collection includes six clocks, dated from the late 18th century to the Art Deco period.941 The Museum also has a very small archaeological collection, with three unpublished ancient Egyptian artefacts: a shabti, a small oil lamp, and a scarab.942
In the north-west, near the Slovenian border, the impressive 18th-century castle at Trakošćan displays four 19th-century artefacts associated with the craze for ‘Egyptomania’: three bookcases with engraved Egyptian motifs, and one candlestick with a handle shaped in the form of an Egyptian pharaoh. These artefacts have not been published so far. In the nearby Aqua Iasae archaeological park, which is part of the Regional Museum of Varaždinske toplice, there are three monuments associated with the Egyptian cults introduced during the Roman Empire.948
The Franciscan Monastery, Sinj The archaeological collection of the Franciscan Monastery in Sinj has six ancient Egyptian artefacts: a Serapis bust, two shabtis, a bronze Isis statuette and two scarabs. Five of these artefacts were probably discovered in the Sinj area, having been brought to Dalmatia during the Greco-Roman period. Today they are associated with the diffusion of ancient Egyptian divinities in this area.943 One scarab was brought to Sinj from Egypt by the Franciscan priest Ante Jadrijević just before the Second World War.944
A little to the north-east, in the Pregrada Museum, there is a small Egyptian amulet of the god Bes. It came to the museum from Munich, donated by the private Tudjina Collection.949 The Department of Croatian Literature, Theatre and Music of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb has three unpublished manuscripts of Fran Srećko Gundrum Oriovčanin detailing his travels in Egypt in 1902.950 These diaries, with more than 700 pages of handwritten text, are still unpublished.
For the history and list of artefacts, see in: Tomorad 2003a: 71-72; Tomorad 2005a: 20-21; Tomorad 2006a: 30; Tomorad 2017a: 84. For a detailed analysis of the artefacts, see in: Panić 1974; Panić 1976; Tomorad 2002; Tomorad and Uranić 2006; Tomorad 2009: 539-541. 936 Tomorad 2017a: 84. 937 Tomorad 2003a: 71; Tomorad 2017a: 84. 938 Tomorad 2002; Tomorad and Uranić 2006: 88-89; Tomorad 2009: 540-541. 939 Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, inv. no. MUO 28966/1. 940 Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, inv. no. MUO 14634. 941 Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, inv. nos. MUO 11814, 15063, 19643, 20357, and 25169. 942 These artefacts are without inventory numbers. Personal communication with museum curator Marina Bagarić in February 2018. 943 Cambi 1971: 85-107; Selem 1979: 79-92; Selem 1997; Tomorad 2000; Tomorad 2003a: 75-76; Tomorad 2004; Tomorad 2005a: 22; Tomorad 2006a: 31; Tomorad 2006b; Uranić 2008: 70-73; Tomorad 2011; Tomorad 2017a: 85-86. 944 Cambi 1971: 100, fn. 82; Tomorad 2005a: 22; Tomorad 2006a: 31; Uranić 2008: 70; Tomorad 2017a: 85-86. 935
Bogdanić 1996; Mataušić 2007. Zagreb: The Croatian History Museum, inv. nos. MRNH-C 3318, MRNH-C 3089, MRNH-C 2513, MRNH-C 3318, MNRH-C 3538. 947 Zagreb: Croatian History Museum, inv. no. PMH 1559. 948 Kušan-Špalj and Nemeth 2015; Kušan-Špalj 2017; 949 Tomorad 2017a: 88. 950 Gundrum Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko. Moje putovanje u Egipat: Iz Križevaca u Kairo. Zagreb, Zavod za povijest hrvatske književnosti, kazališta i glazbe - Odsjek za povijest hrvatske književnosti, Osobni arhivski fondovi - zbirke rukopisa i dokumentacijskoga gradiva 148 Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko [Sig. 24, I/10]. Gundrum Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko. Moje putovanje u Egipat: Iz Kaira u Gornji Egipat i natrag u Kairo. Zagreb, Zavod za povijest hrvatske književnosti, kazališta i glazbe - Odsjek za povijest hrvatske književnosti, Osobni arhivski fondovi - zbirke rukopisa i dokumentacijskoga gradiva 148 Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko [Sig. 24, I/10]. Gundrum Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko. Moje putovanje po Egiptu. Zagreb, Zavod za povijest hrvatske književnosti, kazališta i glazbe - Odsjek za povijest hrvatske književnosti, Osobni arhivski fondovi - zbirke 945 946
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The Zagreb City Museum has the so-called ‘Head of an Egyptian Citizen’. This fine 26th-Dynasty sculpture was donated to the City of Zagreb in 1982 by the famous German actress Tilla Durieux951 and is now displayed there.
Roman archaeological sites, thus it is quite possible that it was brought to this region in Antiquity. The Museo del territorio parentino in Poreč, Istria, has small statuette of Isis-Fortuna. It was discovered nearby in Loron during archaeological excavations between 1994 and 1998.959
The Croatian State Archive in Zagreb keeps the diary of Andrija Štampar, recording his visit to Egypt and the Near East in 1932.952
In another Istrian town, Novigrad, two fragments of a small altar dedicated to Egyptian goddesses Isis were found. They were discovered in the mid 1950s and are now kept in a private lapidary collection in the courtyard of a house at no. 12, J. Malevac St.960
Some 20 km south of Zagreb, the Andautonia archaeological park in Ščitarjevo has an oil lamp with a Jupiter-Ammon head and a statuette of Hermes-Thot. These items are also related to the presence of Egyptian cults in the area.953
On the island of Veliki Brijun, near Pula in Istria, a monolith stone block with a relief of Jupiter-Amon is to be found in the local Lapidarium. It was discovered in Pula and transferred there from the Archaeological Museum of Istria, Pula, in 1949.961
The City Museum of Karlovac has Jakov Šašel’s handwritten diary with descriptions of his travels through Egypt and the Sudan in 1853/1854. It is illustrated with 34 watercolour paintings and bound in engraved leather.954
The Lapidarium of the Senj City Museum contains a fragment of a votive sculpture with an inscription dedicated to Serapis. It was discovered in 1898 at a nearby site and has been housed in this regional museum since 1962.962
To the east, in the City Museum of Križevci, a cornice with two lion figures made of white marble can be found. It was discovered during archaeological excavations in the local grave complex at St Rochus in the 1950s. It is associated with the cult of the ancient Egyptian god Serapis in the Roman province of Pannonia, and is dated to the end of the 2nd or early 3rd century CE.955
In Nin, within the house of the Glimb family, a large funerary cippus with the theophoric name Isidora was found at the end of the 19th century bricked into a wall.963
In Koprivnica there is another marble cornice of a stele with a pair of lions to be seen in the local museum; it was discovered in a lake near Gabajeva Greda in August 2001956 and it was transferred to the museum a month later.957
The City Museum at Šibenik has three artefacts related to the diffusion of Egyptian cults in this region: (1) an altar made of white limestone with an inscription dedicated to Isis from excavations made in Varvaria. It was previously kept in the Varvaria Lapidary at Bribirska Glavica;964 (2) an as yet unpublished bronze statuette of Hermes-Thot discovered in Danilo (ancient Municipium Riditarum), owned by Dragica Klarić;965 and (3) one bronze Ptolemaic coin with the head of Jupiter-Amon and an Isis cult symbol, discovered at Cape Ploče.966
In the region of Slavonia, the Požega City Museum has a handle with a relief of the head of Isis. It was discovered in May 1979 in a field near the village of Sesvete in the Požega Valley.958 Without detailed analysis and radiocarbon dating we cannot be sure if this object is a genuine ancient Egyptian artefact or an example modern ‘Egyptomania’ (‘Aegyptiaca’). The surrounding area contains several prehistoric and
In the parish court in Kruševo there is a Roman stone slab with an Isaic inscription.967
rukopisa i dokumentacijskoga gradiva 148 Gundrum-Oriovčanin, Fran Srećko [Sig. 30, II/53]. 951 Zagreb: City Museum, inv. no. MGZ 4759. Kadić 1984; Tomorad 2003a: 69; Tomorad 2005: 21; Tomorad 2006a: 34; Tomorad 2017a: 88. 952 Zagreb: Croatian State Archive, HR-HD-831 Andrija Štampar 5.1 Dnevnički zapisi. 953 Tomorad 2016: 191, 199-200. 954 Karlovac: City Museum, Karlovac, inv. no. KP 493. Kočevar 2003; Kočevar 2008; Tomorad 2017b. 955 Zajc 1954; Demo 1982; Horvat 1982; Kolar 2001; Tomorad 2003: 73; Tomorad 2005: 22; Tomorad 2006a: 34; Tomorad 2015b: 53; Tomorad 2017a: 88. 956 Kulenović and Muštra 2002; 957 Tomorad 2003a: 73; Tomorad 2005: 22; Tomorad 2006a: 33; Tomorad 2017a: 88. 958 Tomorad 2003a: 138; Tomorad 2017a: 87.
Jurkić-Girardi 2005: 204-205; Tomorad 2017a: 87. Mlakar 1957: 445-446, Figure 14; Tomorad 2003a: 75; Tomorad 2005a: 23; Tomorad 2006a: 32; Tomorad 2017a: 87. 961 Jurkić-Girardi 2005: 147; Tomorad 2006a: 32; Tomorad 2017a: 86. 962 Brunšmid 1898: 172-173, Figure 76; Salač 1915, no. 100; Marić 1933: 81; Perc 1968: 222, no. 70; Selem 1972: 8; Budischovsky 1977: 176; Glavičić 1994: 69-70; Selem 1997: 47, no. 1; Giunio 2002: 28; Glavičić 2005; Tomorad 2017a: 87. 963 Croato-Aegyptica: Glimb Family House, Nin. 964 Kuntić-Makvić 1982; Selem 1997: 59-61; Tomorad 2003a: 74; Tomorad 2005: 23; Tomorad 2006a: 32; Tomorad 2017a: 86. 965 Tomorad 2017a: 86. 966 Šešelj 2009: 321, no. 11; Tomorad 2017a: 86. 967 Selem 1997: no. 1.17, 112; Selem 2000: no. A1, 112; Tomorad 2003a: 53, fn. 230; Selem 2015: Add. no. 6, 44-45. 959 960
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The Grga Novak Collection on Hvar contains a bronze statuette of the ancient Egyptian god Nefertem discovered on the island.968 A few smaller Egyptian artefacts discovered on Hvar have been borrowed from the Split Archaeological Museum in Split and are now on display.969
As we can see, Egyptian antiquities in Croatia were mostly acquired in the 19th and 20th centuries; subsequently various private collectors donated their assemblages to museums or formed their own private collections – some of which were later sold to museums.
In Vid (Metković), the Archaeological Museum contains a female alabaster bust with common Isaic features (veil, Isaic knot, and scarf). It was discovered in 1968 during archaeological excavations on this site and is associated with the worship of the Egyptian goddess Isis in the Narona region.970
The largest and most important Egyptian collection was amassed in Zagreb in the second half of the 19th century in the National Museum. In 1939 that institution was separated into four, and the Egyptian Collection became part of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. More than two-thirds of the Egyptian artefacts in Croatia are kept in this institution, and the rest are spread all over Croatia. Most of these artefacts can be found in archaeological museums or other institutions that were mainly created from previously private collections (e.g. the Mimara Museum in Zagreb, or the Archaeological Museum in Dubrovnik).
The ‘Narodno sveučilište’ in Imotski has a bronze statuette of Isis-Fortuna discovered in 1986 near the Šarampov Bridge at Prološac (Imotski). The statuette is linked to the diffusion of Egyptian cults in the Roman province of Dalmatia.971 Private collections of ancient Egyptian antiquities
Almost all types of artefacts can be found in the Croatian collections, from Predynastic to Coptic. A significant part of the collections is represented by ancient Egyptian coinage from the Ptolemaic Dynasty and the Roman Empire (more than 1000 coins). Various items of ‘Egyptomania’ from the 19th and early 20th century can also be found, and the Mimara has a fine collection of glass from the late Hellenistic and Roman periods. Croatian museums and archives also hold several diaries of special interest that document travellers to Egypt in the 19th and early 20th century. Various postcards, posters, photographs, etc., are also in various collections, but most of these are still unknown to the general public and unpublished. Since 2004, the ‘Croato-Aegyptica Project’, has helped make many collections accessible online, in both Croatian and English.
Many private collections of ancient Egyptian antiquities are now in various regions of Croatia, mostly in larger cities such as Zagreb, Varaždin, Kutina, Sisak, Požega, Split, and islands such as Hvar. Of these, only a few are known to scholars and the general public. The largest private collection is owned by Dražen Kovačić and Žarko Bošnjak. In June 1991, just before the Croatian Independence War, their collection was exhibited at the Moslavina Museum, Kutina.972 According to the short publication on this exhibition it has approximately 500 artefacts. The items in this collection can be dated from Predynastic to Roman times. The origin of the collection is unknown. The Marović and Domančić families in Split have a small collection of shabtis from Salona and Hvar. The Lik family in Kazale (Istria) has a shabti discovered on their property during archaeological excavations in the mid1990s.973 Sabina Kaštelančić from Zagreb has a small head of a shabti she inherited from Ruža Meštrović.
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History of Egyptian Objects in the Archaeological Museum in Osijek Marina Kovač
Introduction
The Egyptian Collection
Ancient Egypt, its art and religion, as well as the landscape along the River Nile, has always fascinated humans, be it during the period of this ancient civilisation or in later eras up until the present day. The magic of this civilisation has touched several citizens from Osijek as well, who came into contact and had the opportunity to acquire Egyptian artefacts at some point in their lives. The individual items, which the owners decided to donate to the Museum at the time, have ended up as exhibits.
The Egyptian Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Osijek, although small, with a total of 16 objects, is extremely interesting. As previously mentioned, the Collection was initially part of the Museum of Slavonia. During the first years of the museum, it was formed exclusively of citizens’ donations,983 while certain objects (two) were found in the Mursa area.984 Additionally, one object was purchased, two only had a note about their origin and nothing else, and there is no data about the last four objects. All the objects from the Egyptian Collection were brought to the museum between 1893 and 1987.985
At the Archaeological Museum in Osijek there are 18 objects in total,974 most of which are confirmed to be of Egyptian origin or are mentioned in the relevant literature as objects created under the influence of Egyptian cults, mostly from the Roman era. These objects belong to three separate collections: the Egyptian Collection (16),975 the Collection of Roman Gold Jewellery and Gemstones (1),976 and the Collection of Roman Stone Objects (1).977 All the objects primarily belonged to the Museum of Slavonia in Osijek, which was established as the Museum of the Free and Royal City of Osijek on February 17, 1877.978 Over the years, the museum changed its name several times, from City Museum,979 Croatian State Museum,980 to the presentday Museum of Slavonia.981 Today, all the objects related to Egypt, as well as all the archaeological collections of the Museum of Slavonia, are part of the collections of the Archaeological Museum in Osijek.982
The history of the Collection The Collection started with a donation of a faience amulet of the god Shu (AMO-AA-1343),986 the first Egyptian object to enter the museum (Figure 177).987 The object was donated by Ludwig H. Fischer from Osijek, a person whose background and profession we have not been able to determine in more detail; there is only a Ljudevit Fischer,988 mentioned in the Zavičajnici grada Osijeka 1901 – 1946 (Almanac of the City of Osijek 1901– 1946), as a locksmith in the Szeged ironworks, born in Osijek in 1853, who might be considered as a possible donor of the amulet.989 A very stylised green faience amulet shows the god Shu kneeling with his right leg on the ground, while raising his arms to hold the heavens (Nut).990 This is a typical representation of Shu, the god of air and wind. This object belongs to the group of amulets – objects whose permanent power was believed to be protection against evil energies, disease and misfortune. Amulets were worn as pendants on a string around the neck, wrist, or attached to clothes, and could also be displayed in the home, for example above the bed. It was believed that the amulet’s power originated from its shape,
Several previous publications mentioned the faience hare amulet twice by mistake, so the overall number of Egyptian-related items in those publications was given as 19, instead of 18 objects. 975 Collection curator: Marina Kovač. 976 Collection curator: Marina Kovač. 977 Collection curator: Igor Vukmanić. 978 Pinterović 1958a: 8; Kovač 2017: 22. 979 The name appears in Franjo Buntak’s publication Osječki gradski muzej (Osijek City Museum). Buntak 1940. 980 In March 1942. Pinterović 1958a: 16. 981 The museum was called the Museum of Slavonia in 1948. 982 According to a decision of the government of the Republic of Croatia, the Archaeological Museum in Osijek was established on 1st December 2017; this is the date that all the archaeological collections of the Museum of Slavonia became an integral part of the newly founded museum, and the inventory labels MSO (Museum of Slavonia, Osijek) were changed to AMO (Archaeological Museum in Osijek). 974
Eight objects were donated in total, with one of them actually found in Osijek. Mursa is the Roman name for Osijek. 985 Radić 1999: 105-107; Kovač 2013: 15, 20; Kovač 2017: 22; Kovač in press. 986 Height: 2.6 cm; length: 1.6 cm; width: 1.5 cm. 987 Inventarna knjiga I.: inv. no. 1343. 988 Croatian version of the name Ludwig. 989 Sršan 2003: 211; Kovač in press. 990 Perc 1968: 203; Kovač 2013: 30-31, 59; Kovač 2015: 95. 983 984
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Figure 177. Green-glazed faience amulet of the god Shu. Osijek: Archaeological museum in Osijek, AA-1343. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek.
colour and the characteristics of its material. The socalled ‘funerary’ amulets, especially the ones made to be placed on a wrapped mummy or in the funerary chamber, were put in tombs to accompany and protect the deceased on the dangerous journey to the other world, the afterlife.991 The collection in Osijek mostly consists of amulets – ten in total, all of which are made mostly of green faience, except for two smaller bone scarabs.
Figure 178. Blue-green-glazed faience shabti, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological museum in Osijek, AA-6243. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek.
Two Egyptian objects found in the Osijek area that attract attention the most are the faience shabti figurine (AMO-AA-6243) (Figure 178) and the Pedi-Horpa-Khered votive stele (AMO-AA-2590) (Figure 179). Shabtis (eg. wŠbty) are small Egyptian figurines placed in tombs to serve the deceased and perform difficult tasks in their stead in the afterlife; they are often portrayed with various tools (hoes and pickaxes), baskets and bags. Egyptians believed they had to work for the god Osiris in the afterlife, just as they used to work for the Pharaoh while alive on earth. Shabtis appeared for the first time in the late Old Kingdom: glazed faience shabtis appeared at the beginning of the New Kingdom and were used until the end of Saite period.992 Greek and Phoenician merchants used to trade shabtis since the Late Period, and various Egyptian cult objects are known from across the Mediterranean until the end of the Saite period.993 One such glazed blue-green faience shabti figurine (AMO-AA-6243)994 (Figure 178) was found in the autumn of 1953 when infrastructure works were being done on the Vukovarska Road in Osijek, in front of the Osijek OLT foundry. This object has been discussed in several
Figure 179. Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered votive stele, from Osijek. Osijek: Archaeological museum in Osijek, AA-2590. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek
Andrews 1994: 6. Tomorad 2006: no. 19, 295; Kovač 2013: 59; Tomorad 2012: 276. 993 Tomorad 2017a: 651. 994 Height: 6.6 cm; length: 3.5 cm; width: 1.7 cm. 991 992
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Egypt in Croatia publications to date.995 In her article Iskapanja i arheološki nalazi na terenu Osijeka i njegove okolice 16. X. 1948. do kraja 1954. godine (iz muzejskog dnevnika) (Excavations and archaeological finds from Osijek and surrounding sites, from 16th October 1948 to the end of 1954 (from the museum diary)), D. Pinterović states that apart from many Roman finds, an Egyptian shabti figurine was also found996 during supervision conducted at the construction site of a family home997 (the ‘Volf House’).998 However, it seems that there is an error in the above-mentioned paper and pieces of data were switched, as there was an addition to the entry in the Inventarna knjiga II. (Inventory Book II) stating ‘po knj ul br 620 = pred OLTom 1953!!’999 We are inclined to favour the Knjiga ulaska (Entry Book), as that is the first documented entry about the object when it came to the museum, which means it was recorded in what may be thought of as ‘real time’ and can be considered correct. The Entry Book states that Milan Plećaš, a carpenter, handed over the object to the museum on 27th October 1953.1000 In fact, this is the only object1001 from the Egyptian Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Osijek for which we can safely say it was found in a Roman layer. Several publications1002 later claim the object was found in Stjepana Radića Street, near Osijek’s railway station, but this is not supported by the museum documentation. It seems that an error was made in the street name in B. Perc’s doctoral thesis in 1968, where the author records that the shabti figurine was found at the corner of Radićeva Street and Nazor Square, even though she meant to cite, as is evident from her literature, I. Degmedžić, and the known information that the shabti figurine was in fact found on the corner of Radičevićeva Street and Nazor Square.1003
The iconography of shabtis changed during the 18th Dynasty, when they began to carry various agricultural implements; before that they were shown with their hands across the chest.1005 The shabti is painted and lacks plastic definition, which is one of the reasons why P. Selem attributes it as a piece of folk production from Imperial times, imported from Egypt.1006 According to M. Tomorad, this is a type Tomorad class B1 shabti, or Schneider class VIIIA2, from the 3rd Intermediate Period to the 22nd Dynasty.1007 The role of shabtis outside Egypt has not been fully determined. Certain authors, such as V. Wessetzky, are not sure about the role of shabtis in cults beyond Egypt and relate them to the Roman army, while others, for example P. Selem, link them to Egyptian cults, especially the cults of Isis and Osiris during the period of affirmation of Egyptian cults in Roman times.1008 We believe that the shabti found in Mursa is related to the Egyptian afterlife cults of Isis and Osiris worshipped in the Roman province of Pannonia, which can be confirmed by another Egyptian find from the same area – the Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered votive stele. The Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered votive stele (AMO-AA-2590)1009 (Figure 179) came to the museum in March 1895 as a donation from Mrs Bettina Krausz,1010 widow of Ivan Krausz, a wholesaler and proprietor from Osijek. She informed the curator, Vjekoslav Celestin, that she had found among other stones in her rotary washing machine, one with ‘carved figures and an inscription’. Professor Celestin immediately tried to find out how the stele ended up in the rotary washing machine, as well as where and when it was found. The only piece of information he managed to discover was that the stele might have been dug up ten years before, during the construction of the Krausz family home.1011
Our shabti is presented in the standing position, the lower part of the body is missing, with crossed hands on the chest holding a hoe in each. Hoes point to difficult physical work that shabtis have to perform in the afterlife for their master. The shabti lacks serious plastic definition, it is mostly painted, with stylised klafts and baskets, or seed bags on its back.1004
Since there is no mention of an exact location of Bettina Krausz’s house in the Inventarna knjiga I. (Inventory Book I),1012 we managed to find the precise location of the family home in the documentation in the Osijek State Archives, while exploring the Egyptian Collection in preparation for the Ulaznica za drugi svijet. Egipatska zbirka Muzeja Slavonije // Ticket to the Afterlife. Egyptian Collection of the Museum of Slavonia exhibition in 2013. The location in question is at the very centre of Osijek in
Kovač 2013: 19-20; Kovač 2015: 100. Pinterović 1954: 173. 997 The same was mentioned by I. Degmedžić in 1957 and J. Leclant in 1958, citing D. Pinterović. Degmedžić 1954: 147; Leclant 1958: 98. 998 The south-east corner of present-day Ban Jelačić Square and Branka Radičevića Street, in Osijek’s Lower Town. 999 ‘according to the Entry Book number 620 = in front of OLT (Osijek Iron Foundry)’. Inventarna knjiga II., inv. no. 6243. 1000 Knjiga ulaska (1949–1953): no. 620; Kovač 2013: 19-20; Kovač 2015: 94-95; Kovač, in press. 1001 For the second object, the Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered stele, the exact location of the find has not been confirmed. 1002 As in: Perc 1968: 200; Selem 1997: 143; Tomorad 2003: 74; Selem 2008: 200. 1003 ‘Gefunden an der Ecke Radićstr. und Nazorpl. im J. 1954.’ Perc 1968: 200. 1004 Degmedžić 1954: 147-148; Leclant 1958: 98; Perc 1968: 200-201; Pinterović 1978: 136; Selem 1997: 143; Selem 2008: 200; Tomorad 2012: 277; Kovač 2013: 22–23; Kovač 2015: 100; Kovač, in press. 995 996
Tomorad 2012: 276. Perc 1968: 201; Selem 1997: 143; Selem 2008: 200. 1007 Tomorad 2016: 201, 207, 212; Tomorad 2017a: 652. 1008 Selem 1972: 65.; Tomorad 2006: 282; Tomorad 2017a: 651-652. 1009 Height: 40 cm; length: 26 cm; width: 12 cm. 1010 The only information we managed to uncover about her is that she was born in Styria in 1854 and was Ivan Krausz’s widow. Together, they had five children. 1011 Sršan 2003: 439; Kovač 2013: 52-55; Kovač 2015: 95-96; Kovač, in press. 1012 Inventarna knjiga I: inv. no. 2590. 1005 1006
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the Upper Town, on Lorenza Jägera Street.1013 Professor Celestin, who could not read hieroglyphic writing, wrote to Leo Reinisch on 2nd May 1895, asking him to read the inscriptions on the stele. Dr Reinisch responded quickly (6th May) by letter with an interpretation of the hieroglyphics. After this correspondence, Celestin published an article in Narodne novine 129,1014 entitled Egipatski kamen u osječkom gradskom muzeju (An Egyptian Stone in the Osijek City Museum).1015 Apart from Celestin’s article, there is an early one by H. Liebl on the stele from 1900, in Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes in Wien.1016 The stele has been mentioned since in almost every publication or paper even remotely related to Egyptian finds in the Republic of Croatia.1017 This rectangular stele made of limestone has a semicircular ending on the upper part. The main scene depicts three deities: Nephthys (goddess of tombs and the night),1018 Osiris (god of fertility, vegetation, and the underworld),1019 and Isis (goddess of fertility, love and medicine);1020 all are placed in the central register of the stele in bas-relief. Nephthys is standing on the left in the central field, wearing headgear – a combination of a stylised house and a basket, and holding a large was sceptre in her left hand and an ankh in her right hand. Osiris occupies the central position, standing on a small pedestal; he turns to the right towards Isis. He has an atef crown and holds a flagellum and a heqa sceptre. Isis is turned towards Osiris, her headgear is a solar disk between the horns of a cow, she is holding an ankh in her left hand, and a was sceptre in her right. The facial features of the goddesses are more detailed than those of Osiris. There are hieroglyphics between the heads of the gods which correspond to what they are saying – as in a comic book. The upper part of the scene is bordered by two semi-circular incised lines, with a winged sun and two stylised uraei below, while two lines of hieroglyphics, which are difficult to read, run along the border in the lower part. The inscription mentions Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered, who had the votive inscription carved, with an additional mention of Takhrud, probably his mother. The name of the dedicant consist of an Egyptian deity Harpocrates, quite popular in Hellenistic and Roman onomastics. The central register was executed earlier than the lower one and
Figure 180a. Clay figurine of the god Osiris. Osijek: Archaeological museum in Osijek, AA-1340. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek. Figure 180b. Relief tile featuring goddess Nephthys. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA-1341. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek
is of better quality, evident in the irregular and uneven hieroglyphics in the lower part that were clearly carved later. According to P. Selem, Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered imported the stele from Egypt, and it was probably made during the Ptolemaic or Roman era.1021 The shabti find and this votive stele are evidence of the existence of a community of worshippers of original Egyptian cults in Mursa. It bears mentioning that the site was connected via road to Aquincum, an important centre of the Egyptian cult.1022 The figurine of the god Osiris (AMO-AA-1340)1023 and a relief tile featuring goddess Nephthys (AMO-AA1341)1024 (Figure 180) were brought to the museum in 1896 as donations from the Imperial and Royal captain, Franjo Folk (30th September 1859 – 15th February 1917). After he finished the Real Gymnasium, he enrolled in the Osijek Cadet School, completing his last two grades in Budapest. He was stationed in Dubrovnik from 1880, where he served in the 22nd Primorje Coastal Regiment (Primorska pukovnija). His military career advancing,
Kovač 2013: 15-16; Kovač 2015: 93-94; Kovač, in press. Celestin 1895: 14. 1015 Kovač 2013: 17; Kovač 2015: 94; Kovač, in press. 1016 H. Liebl, 1900, Epigraphisches aus Slavonien und Süd-Ungarn, Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologiscen Institutes in Wien III, 98104. 1017 Celestin 1895; Liebl 1900: 102-103; Höger 1942: 22-24; Leclant 1958: 98; Perc 1968: 201-203; Selem 1972: 39-40; Pinterović 1978: 135-136; Selem 1997: 142-143; Filipović 1997: 68; Tomorad 2003: 73; Tomorad 2005: 21; Selem 2008: 171-173; Kovač 2013: 52-55; Kovač 2015: 95-96; Tomorad 2016: 199, 201, 206-207, 213; Tomorad 2017b: 82; Kovač, in press. 1018 Kovač 2013: 58. 1019 Kovač 2013: 58. 1020 Kovač 2013: 57. 1013 1014
Celestin 1895; Liebl 1900: 102-103; Höger 1942: 22-24; Leclant 1958: 98; Perc 1968: 201-203; Selem 1972: 39-40, 90; Selem 1997: 142143; Selem 2008: 171-173; Filipović 1997: 68.; Kovač 2013: 52-55; Kovač 2015: 95-96. 1022 Selem 1972: 37-38, 40. 1023 Height: 17.5 cm; length: 5.2 cm; width: 2.7 cm. 1024 Height: 7.9 cm; length: 2.8 cm; width: 1.5 cm. 1021
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Figure 181. Bone scarab amulets. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA-1605 and AA-1606. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek.
he was promoted to a captain of the first grade in 1893, and when holding that rank, he donated two Egyptian objects to his hometown museum. We have no accounts from his living relatives, family records, nor in the museum documentation, on how Folk acquired these Egyptian objects; he donated no further Egyptian objects after 1896. He continued to live in Vienna with his wife Anna (born Schöffberger), until his untimely death from lung cancer in 1917.1025
Figure 182a. Green-glazed faience amulet of the dwarf god Pataikos. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA-2665. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek. Figure 182b. Amulet of the dwarf god Bes. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA-2670. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek.
The figurine of Osiris (AMO-AA-1340) is made of clay, the god is shown standing with a white atef crown and a flagellum in each hand. On the dress over his legs, there are traces of hieroglyphics and a cartouche of Pharaoh Ramses II (1279–1212 BCE), third ruler of the 19th Dynasty. M. Tomorad classified the sculpture as a pseudo-shabti, Tomorad class C, likely an Aegyptica from the period between the 1st and 3rd c. CE.1026
many archaeological objects to the Museum of the Free and Royal City of Osijek that he is documented as its greatest donor and one of its founders.1030 As previously mentioned, numismatics was his primary area of interest and his initiative played a key role in establishing the Hungarian Archaeological Society on 14th May 1901.1031
The relief tile featuring goddess Nephthys (AMOAA-1341) is also made of clay, and the goddess is recognisable by her headgear, a combination of a stylised basket and house, which is also the hieroglyph of her name. Nephthys is holding a cartouche with the name of Thutmose III (1479–1425 BCE), the ruler from the 18th Dynasty.1027
These two bone amulets are virtually identical in terms of definition and dimensions – the sacred scarab’s wings are stylised, with a ‘T’ carved on the upper side, while the other wings are shown in relief on the sides. Both scarabs have carelessly carved hieroglyphics on the bottom part.1032
Two bone scarab amulets (AMO-AA-1605 and AMOAA-1606)1028 (Figure 181) were donated to the Museum in 1897 by Carl Franz Nuber (4th October 1872 – 23rd November 1935), the eldest son of a well-known Osijek merchant of iron and field tools. Nuber was educated in Osijek and went on to study at the Trade Academy in Graz. However, he was more interested in archaeology, especially numismatics, than his father’s business. He was a peculiar individual, who often switched between different pseudonyms1029 and donated so
The green faience amulet of the dwarf god Pataikos (AMO-AA-2665)1033 and the dwarf god Bes (AMO-AA2670)1034 (Figure 182) were donated to the museum by Emerich Hild, Imperial and Royal military-building accountant. While exploring the history of donors to the Collections, we discovered that Hild was born in Bilje, with his name listed as Imre Hild in the Baptismal court of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent). 1030 The founders of the present-day Museum of Slavonia are considered to be the timber merchant Franjo Sedlaković, curator and Professor Vjekoslav Celestin, and Carl Franz Nuber, numismatist. 1031 Inventarna knjiga I, inv. nos. 1605-1606; Kovač, in press. 1032 Kovač 2013: 42-45; Kovač 2015: 98-99. 1033 Height: 3.8 cm; length: 1.5 cm; width: 1.1 cm. 1034 Height: 2.6 cm; length: 2.3 cm; width: 0.8 cm.
Trischler 2017: 330-332; Kovač, in press. Tomorad 2017a: 651, 653. 1027 Inventarna knjiga I: inv. nos. 1340-1341; Perc 1968: 204; Kovač 2013: 48-51; Kovač 2015: 96-98. 1028 Height: 1.1 cm; length: 0.85 cm; width: 0.5 cm and height: 1.1 cm; length: 0.8 cm; width: 0.5 cm. 1029 He was known as Dragutin Nuber, then as Caius Flavius Nuber (he lived at Emperor Nero’s court) and as Fehim Kadija (he lived at the 1025 1026
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Registry. In the Osijek State Archives we found out that he attended the Great Royal Gymnasium in 1860/1861 and 1861/1862, with no record of him in the school registers of any Osijek gymnasium after that, which means that he probably moved out of the area. He reappears in the Documentary Collection of the Museum of Slavonia in a letter dated 29th December 1897, where he expresses his intention of donating his malacalogy collection to the City of Osijek, which he did in 1898. This letter also reveals that Emerich Hild was living in Zadar at the time and working for the local military engineering division.1035 There is no museum record of an exact date of the donation of these two Egyptian objects, nor how Emerich Hild came to acquire them. A green faience amulet features the god protector – Pataikos (AMO-AA-2665), who was often portrayed as a bald dwarf with short and crooked legs and a big belly.1036 Pataikos is closely related to Horus-the-Child, the demon god Aha (‘fighter’) and his later form Bes (‘guardian’). He is also often shown grasping snakes, crocodiles or scorpions, which demonstrates his courage and ability to chase away danger. He is often associated with the god of craftsmen Ptah, and his name Pataikos also means ‘little Ptah’.1037 Our specimen has the standard portrayal – nude, with short, bent legs and a large head.1038
Figure 183. Pseudo-shabti. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA-19469. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek.
Our pseudo-shabti depicts a nude man with African facial features. He is wearing a duplex wig, whose lower part is decorated with four rows of triangles in relief, narrowing from the shoulders to the ears and then going under the wig like a triangle. The decoration of the upper part looks like braids, while the lower one has curls. He is wearing a large necklace.1043 These pseudo-shabtis are associated with the area of Nubia or the Meroe Kingdom in southern Egypt and the Sudan. According to M. Tomorad, this is a type B pseudo-shabti, and the figurine should be considered an Aegyptiaca from Antiquity (1st–3rd c. CE).1044
The dwarf god Bes was often associated with the above-mentioned god Pataikos, and both were often depicted as crooked-legged dwarves. Bes was the god of marriage, fertility and birth, as well as the god of good humour and fun. This is why he was often shown dancing with an instrument, or a knife in his hand to chase away scorpions, snakes and evil powers with noise and music.1039 Our exhibit is not shown as a dwarf (AMO-AA-2670), but has a stylised face with lion-like features. The amulet is rectangular, with what could be simplified hieroglyphics on the reverse.1040
There is no detailed information for the remaining six objects (Figure 184) in the Egyptian Collection, including the green faience amulet of the god Thoth (AMO-AA1342)1045 and a hare amulet (AMO-AA-1344),1046 both of which have simply ‘Egypt’1047 stated as their country of provenance in the Inventarna knjiga I (Inventory Book I). Thoth, the scribe of the Last Judgement, god of wisdom, knowledge, moon, magic and astronomy, is represented on our amulet in one of his typical zooanthropomorphic forms1048 – with the body of a man and the head of the sacred Egyptian bird – ibis.1049 The hare amulet, apart from protection, was also an amulet for good fortune and blessing. It was usually worn by women, as a
The pseudo-shabti (AMO-AA-19469)1041 (Figure 183) is the only object in the Egyptian Collection to have been purchased. The item was bought from Jaša Avdija in 1987. The Inventarna knjiga V (Inventory Book V) states that the object was bought at an unknown location in Egypt in the late 19th century.1042
Matična knjiga krštenih rkt. 1849–1851; Imenik za školsku godinu 1860/1861, r. br. 21; Imenik za školsku godinu 1861/1862. r. br. 11; Vidović 2006: 111-114; Vidović 2008: 73-74; Kovač, in press. 1036 Kovač 2013: 58. 1037 Foley and Andrews 1994: 39. 1038 Inventarna knjiga I: inv. no. 2665; Perc 1968: 203; Kovač 2013: 2627; Kovač 2015: 99. 1039 Foley and Andrews 1994: 39-40; Kovač 2013: 56. 1040 Inventarna knjiga I: inv. no. 2670; Kovač 2013: 34-35. Kovač 2015: 99-100. 1041 Height: 8.2 cm; length: 4.4 cm; width: 2.9 cm. 1042 Inventarna kniga V: inv. no. 19469; Kovač, in press. 1035
Kovač 2013: 20, 24-25; Kovač 2015: 100-101. Tomorad 2017a: 651, 653. 1045 Height: 3.2 cm; length: 0.8 cm; width: 1.3 cm. 1046 Height: 2.2 cm; length: 3 cm; width: 1 cm. 1047 Inventarna knjiga I: inv. no. 1342., inv. no. 1344. 1048 B. Perc identified it as Anubis. Perc 1968: 203. 1049 Inventarna knjiga I: inv. no. 1342. Perc 1968: 203; Kovač 2013: 2333, 59; Kovač 2015: 103-104. 1043 1044
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Figure 184a. Clay figurine of Osiris. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA-194962. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek. Figure 184b. Green-glazed faience amulet of the god Thoth. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA-1342. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek. Figure 184c. Green-glazed faience amulet of a hare. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA1344. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek. Figure 184d-f. Three blue-green-glazed faience scarabs. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA-1432, AA-1433, AA-1434. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek.
Collection of Roman Stone Objects
symbol of fertility. Phonetically, the hieroglyph for hare is wn – the essence of life and the symbol of Osiris. Our hare is shown sitting like a sphynx, its body has lionlike muscles and its face is human.1050 There is no data in the Inventory Books with regard to the clay figurine of Osiris (AMO-194962)1051 and the three faience scarabs (AMO-AA-1432; AMO-AA-1433; AMO-AA-1434).1052 Osiris is shown standing with the white crown of Upper Egypt on his head (hedjet) and holding the ruler’s sceptres (flagellum and heqa). There are hieroglyphics under his arms over his dress. The three faience scarab amulets represent the dung beetle and have very similar features and dimensions; all three have hieroglyphics on the base.1053
One of the monuments at the Archaeological Museum in Osijek, which was probably made under the influence of Egyptian beliefs, is the crown of a stele made of hard sandstone (AMO-AA-6148)1054 with a depiction of two lions and a basket in between (Figure 185). This stone was found in 1951 in the Dalj Patriarchy courtyard (Roman Teutoburgium)1055 and was transferred to the Museum of Slavonia that same year.1056 This type of stele crown is very common in Pannonia1057 and the neighbouring provinces of Dalmatia, Dacia and Moesia.1058 According to V. Dautova-Ruševljan, this stele crown belongs to the architectural ‘Lion group’ type stele (1st–3rd c. CE, variants 1-4).1059
Inventarna knjiga I: inv. no. 1344. Perc 1968: 204; Kovač 2013: 2829; Kovač 2015: 104. 1051 Height: 17 cm; length: 3.9 cm; width: 1.9 cm. 1052 AMO-AA-1432 = height: 2.7 cm; length: 1.75 cm; width: 1.1 cm; AMO-AA-1433 = height: 1.8 cm; length: 1.3 cm; width: 0.9 cm; AMOAA-1434 = height: 1.6 cm; length: 1.2 cm; width: 0.85 cm. 1053 Inventarna knjiga V: inv. no. 194962.; Inventarna knjiga I: inv. nos. 1432, 1433, 1434. Kovač 2013: 20, 36-41, 46-47; Kovač 2015: 101-103; Kovač, in press.
Length: 110 cm; width: 47 cm; height: 37 cm. Site in the Croatian part of the Danube Limes. A Roman castellum was erected here in the 1st c. CE. 1056 Pinterović 1958b: 25, 38; Leclant 1958: 98; Dautova Ruševljan 1983: 31. 1057 We find a great number of these features in Sirmium, Bassinae, Cibale, Mursa and Poetovio. 1058 Inventarna knjiga I: inv. no. 6148. Pinterović 1958b: 39; DautovaRuševljan 1983: 49-51. 1059 Dautova-Ruševljan 1983: 35, 41-42. 1054 1055
1050
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Marina Kovač: History of Egyptian Objects in the Archaeological Museum in Osijek
Figure 185. Crown stele with two lions and a basket in between, from Dalj. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA-6148. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek.
As is evident from the monument itself, the stele was slightly narrower than the base of the crown, which features two lions lying down, both damaged. We can only see the contours of a lion on the left, while the lion on the right is missing a part of its spine and head. There is a wicker basket between the lions, probably a calathus,1060 with a line of inscription along the upper edge, with the letters DIS M(anibus). The workmanship is quite rough, and the stone has suffered much damage.1061
area of Croatia, mostly in coastal Dalmatia, Istria and Pannonia.1065 Certain authors, for example, B. Gavela and P. Selem, associate this type of headstone and its symbolism with the cult of the chthonic god Serapis.1066 Indication that the stone is actually related to the cult of Serapis is also supported by the calathus in the centre – Serapis’ common attribute. A calathus, a woven wicker basket, is also visible on our monument, and represents fertility and abundance as attributes of Serapis. It was usually shown on the god’s head, and according to some, it is a symbol of the sun deity, from which the polytheistic deity Zeus-Helios-Serapis originates (Jupiter-Amon-Serapis), who was accompanied by lions, symbols of time, whose symmetrical composition originates from Mesopotamia, where the cult of Serapis was present early on.1067
The motif of lions on Roman headstones originates from old Eastern cults, primarily the Phrygian goddess Cybele,1062 the Great Roman Mother of Gods, who was often portrayed with two lions: on these stones, however, this is probably a decorative element. The presence of her cult on headstones is associated with Attis1063 and her mourning the loss of her tragically deceased lover.1064 The cult of Cybele and her darling Attis during the Roman Imperial times has been confirmed by a series of archaeological finds in the
On the basis of the DIS M inscription, D. Pinterović dated the stone to the early 2nd, possibly second half of the 1st century, while P. Selem is more inclined to attribute it to the early 2nd century, as do B. Perc and V. DautovaRuševljan, who also date it to the 2nd century.1068 This monument might have come from the stele of a soldier
Calathus is a flared vessel/basket, like a flower bud, with a narrow bottom and a wide rim; it could be made of ceramics, wood, wicker or metal. It was used to store wool and knitting tools, as well as food, such as, cheese, oil, milk, fruit, etc. Calathus is also a symbol of transition from virginhood to marriage. Hurschmann 2006; Dillon 2003: 225. 1061 Pinterović 1958b: 38; Perc 1968: 205; Dautova-Ruševljan 1983: 31; Selem 1997: 145; Selem 2008: 119-120. 1062 Her cult spread on the Italic territories in 204 BCE. Nikoloska and Vilogorac Brčić 2014: 103. 1063 Attis – a Phrygian deity, lover of goddess Cybele, celebrated as a god of vegetation. Their story of love, deceit, revenge, self-indulgence, and death symbolises the shift of the seasons – his death is a sign that nature moves into hibernation, and when he is reborn it is the sign of upcoming spring. Selem 2008: 423; Vilogorac 2008: 105. 1064 Pinterović 1958b: 39; Dautova-Ruševljan 1983: 50. 1060
1065
103.
Pinterović 1967: 73-76; Nikoloska and Vilogorac Brčić 2014:
Serapis is shown as a man with thick hair and beard, and with a calathus or modius on his head. When he is on his throne, he wears a long dress and is often accompanied by a lion or cerberus. Selem 1972: 54. 1067 Gavela 1956: 43-47; Pinterović 1958b: 40; Perc 1968: 205; Selem 1972: 15, 40, 54; Pinterović 1978: 136-137; T. XLIV, 1; DautovaRuševljan 1983: 50. 1068 Pinterović 1958b: 40; Perc 1968: 205; Selem 1972: 40; DautovaRuševljan 1983: 31. 1066
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Egypt in Croatia from one of the Roman auxiliary units1069 stationed in Teutoburgium.1070 This monument in the Collection of Roman Stone Objects is one of several whole or partly preserved stelae tops1071 featuring lions and the accompanying decorative repertoire.1072 These have not been associated with Egyptian cults in previous publications, even though they share the same characteristics as the stele crown from Dalj cited here. Collection of Roman Gold Jewellery and Gemstones
Figure 186. Dark green jasper intaglio with Harpocrates. Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek, AA-1406. © Osijek: Archaeological Museum in Osijek.
The Collection of Roman Gold Jewellery and Gemstones includes an oval intaglio gem made of dark green jasper featuring Harpocrates (AMO-AA-1406) (Figure 186).1073 It was found in Mursa and donated by the Museum of Slavonia’s most prominent donor, Carl Franz Nuber.1074
lotus is the flower that brings life back to the deceased. Our representation of Harpocrates can be related to the old cult idea of the primal sun sailing on a golden lotus from the waters of Nun, later shown as a nude boy on a lotus flower. Through this, Harpocrates is associated not only to the chthonic, but also to the solar cycle (birth of the sun).1077
Young Harpocrates, god of silence, secrets and confidentiality, is sitting nude on a lotus flower, his left index finger close to his mouth, and he is probably holding a flagellum1075 in his right hand, which links him to Osiris. He is wearing the duplex crown of Egypt – pschent, which radiates five sun rays. There is a Greek inscription on the reverse belonging to Kraton of Athens. P. Selem claims it is impossible to tell whether Kraton brought the gemstone to Mursa or it arrived in Mursa indirectly with another owner. It is believed that the gemstone was executed finely and precisely with Hellenistic features.1076
Jasper, the semi-precious stone used to make this gem, was believed to have magic powers, and the gemstone itself, from the motif of Harpocrates, could be considered a gem-amulet. The Greek inscription, according to D. Pinterović and P. Selem, suggests the gemstone originated from the Greek East, arriving in Mursa during the Severan period in the 3rd century.1078
This representation of Harpocrates as a nude boy is a typical one and relates to the cult of Isis and Serapis. Apart from being nude, he is always shown with a finger lifted to his lips – the symbol of silence and mystery, and with the pschent crown – symbol of his connection to the young Horus. Sometimes he holds a lotus flower or sits on it, the latter being the case with our gemstone. The
Conclusion As we have seen, the Egyptian objects of the Archaeological Museum in Osijek are located within three different collections – the Egyptian Collection, the Collection of Roman Gold Jewellery and Gemstones, and the Collection of Roman Stone Objects. Although the Egyptian Collection is small, it is of interest. In addition to the amulets – the most numerous group (10) – the Collection also includes two Osiris figurines, a relief tile featuring Nephthys, a pseudo-shabti figurine, and two extremely relevant items for the Collection – a shabti figurine and the Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered votive stele, which were both found in the Mursa area. The Harpocrates gemstone from the Collection of Roman Gold Jewellery and Gemstones was also found in the Osijek area, and the stele crown featuring two lions and a calathus from Dalj, as part of the Collection of Roman Stone Objects, relates to Serapis’ cult in Roman Pannonia.
Auxiliary units stationed in Teutoburgium were the ala II Hispanorum Aravacorum (41–85), ala I praetoria civium Romanorum (106–200) and ala I civium Romanorum (3rd c. CE). Vukov 2017: 41. 1070 Selem 1972: 40. 1071 These are: AMO-AA-660 (Osijek, Lower Town, 3rd c.); AMO-AA-663 (Osijek, Lower Town, 2nd c. CE) and AMO-AA-676 (Osijek, Citadel, 3rd c. CE) – only lion bodies; AMO-AA-7316 (Osijek, Lower Town, 3rd c. CE) – lion with a human head; AMO-AA-8928 (Osijek, Vukovarska cesta, 2nd c. CE) – lions with a pine cone between them; AMO-AA-8977 (Popovac, 2nd c. CE) – lions and Medusa and two lion with a calathus between them, no inv. number (Osijek – Drava, at Hadrian’s Bridge). 1072 Inventarna knjiga I: inv. nos 660; 663. and 676; Inventarna knjiga II: inv. no. 7316; Inventarna knjiga III: inv. no. 8928 and 8977. Brunšmid 1900: 34-35; Dautova-Ruševljan 1983: 24, 28; Pinterović 1967: 73; Göricke-Lukić 2011: 48, 51-53, 66-67. 1073 Maximum diameter: 1.65 cm; minimum diameter: 1.1 cm; thickness: 4 mm. 1074 Inventarna knjiga I: inv. no. 1406. 1075 Flagellum – a type of sceptre with three strings, a ruler’s symbol related to Osiris. 1076 Inventarna knjiga I: inv. no. 1406. Pinterović 1965: 36-37; Pinterović 1978: 136, T. LXVI, 3; Perc 1968: 199; Selem 1972: 38-39, 61; Selem 1997: 144-145; Selem 2008: 130-131. 1069
The finding of the shabti, the Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered votive stele and the Harpocrates gem, prove that 1077 1078
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Selem 1972: 60-61; Pinterović 1978: 136. Pinterović 1965: 37; Selem 1997: 144-145; Selem 2008: 131.
Marina Kovač: History of Egyptian Objects in the Archaeological Museum in Osijek
there was a community of worshippers of the original Egyptian cults linked to Osiris and Isis in Mursa. All these items that we associate with Egyptian civilisation are testaments to the time and worship of Egyptian and various syncretistic cults and religions in Roman Mursa, where, apart from Egyptian cults, traces of Mithraism, Sabazius and Cybele worship, Judaism, and others, have also been recorded.
Höger, M. 1942. Ein äegyptisches Denkmal in Osjeker Museum. Osječki zbornik I: 22-25. Hurschmann, R. 2006. Kalathos, in: H. Cancik, H. Schneider and M. Landfester (eds), Brill’s New Pauly. [https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/ brill-s-new-pauly/kalathos-e605580?s.num=22&s. start=20] (accessed 21 February 2019). Kovač, M. 2013. Ulaznica za drugi svijet. Egipatska zbirka Muzeja Slavonije/Ticket to the Afterlife. Egyptian Collection of the Museum of Slavonia. Osijek. Kovač, M. 2015. Egyptian collection of the Museum of Slavonia in Osijek (Croatia), in: M. Tomorad (ed.), A History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture Conducted in Southeast Europe: 93-105. Oxford. Kovač, M. 2017. 140 godina poslije/140 Years Later, in: Tvrđa u Osijeku/Festung in Essegg/Fortress in Osijek: 2239. Osijek. Kovač, M. (in press). The Egyptian Collection of the Museum of Slavonia and its Donors, in: M. Tomorad (ed.), Proceedings of Egypt and Austria XII: Egypt and the Orient: The Current Research (Zagreb, 17–22 September 2018). Zagreb. Leclant, J. 1958. Fouilles et travaux en Égypte, 1955– 1957. Orientalia, Vol. 27, no. 1: 75-101. Liebl, H. 1900. Epigrapiches aus Slavonien und Süd-Ungarn. Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes in Wien III: 98-104. Nikoloska, A. and Vilogorac Brčić, I. 2014. Velika Majka Bogova na spomenicima iz Hrvatske. Radovi Zavoda za hrvatsku povijest Filozofskoga fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu 46: 103-128. Osječki zbornik II-III 1948. Osječki zbornik II-III. Osijek. Perc, B. 1968. Beiträge zur Verbreitung ägyptischer Kulte auf dem Balkan und in den Donauländern zur Römerzeit (mit besonderer Berücksicksichtigung des Quellenmaterials aus dem Gebiet des heutigen Staates Jugoslawien). PhD Dissertation, University of München, München. Pinterović, D. 1954. Iskapanja i arheološki nalazi na terenu Osijeka i njegove okolice 16. X. 1948. do kraja 1954. godine (iz muzejskog dnevnika). Osječki zbornik IV: 169-173. Pinterović, D. 1958a. O razvoju osječkog muzeja. Osječki zbornik VI: 7-22. Pinterović, D. 1958b. Novi i neobjavljeni rimski kameni spomenici s terena Murse i okolice. Osječki zbornik VI: 23-64. Pinterović, D. 1965. Geme s terena Murse. Osječki zbornik IX-X: 25-56. Pinterović, D. 1967. Nove rimske skulpture u Muzeju Slavonije. Osječki zbornik XI: 67-81. Pinterović, D. 1978. Mursa i njeno područje u antičko doba. Osijek. Radić, M. 1999. Muzej Slavonije u Osijeku 1877. – 1997, in: M. Radić (ed.), Osnivači i prvi kustosi muzeja u Hrvatskoj: 104-116. Osijek.
Bibliography 1. Archive sources Imenik za školsku godinu 1860/1861. Imenik za školsku godinu 1860/1861 (HR-DAOS-157, Kraljevska velika gimnazija), knj. 16, no. 21. Imenik za školsku godinu 1861/1862. Imenik za školsku godinu 1861/1862 (HR-DAOS-157, Kraljevska velika gimnazija), knj. 17, no. 11. Inventarna knjiga I (1-4000). Arheološki muzej Osijek. Inventarna knjiga II (4001-8000). Arheološki muzej Osijek. Inventarna knjiga III (8001-14289). Arheološki muzej Osijek. Inventarna knjiga V (18909-20974). Arheološki muzej Osijek. Knjiga ulaska 1949–1953. Knjiga ulaska (1. srpnja 1949 –14. lipnja 1953.). Muzej Slavonije. Matična knjiga krštenih rkt. 1849–1951. Matična knjiga krštenih rkt. 1849 – 1951, Župa Belje, Tom III. (HRDAOS-500, Zbirka matičnih knjiga), no. 39. 2. Literature Andrews, C. 1994. Amulets of Ancient Egypt. London. Brunšmid, J. 1900. Colonia Aelia Mursa. Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu, Vol. 4, No. 1: 21-42. Buntak, F. 1940. Osječki Gradski muzej. Osijek. Celestin, V. 1895. Egipatski kamen u osječkom gradskom muzeju. Narodne novine 61 (6th June 1895): 129. Dautova-Ruševljan, V. 1983. Rimska kamena plastika u jugoslovenskom delu provincije Donje Panonije. Novi Sad. Degmedžić, I. 1954. Egipatska figurica nađena u Osijeku. Osječki zbornik IV: 147-148. Dillon, M. 2003. Girls and Women in Classical Greek Religion. London/New York. Filipović, S. 1997. Antička arheologija, in: M. Radić (ed.), Blago Muzeja Slavonije: 65-79. Osijek. Foley, K. Pataikos [http://archaeologicalmuseum. jhu.edu/the-collection/object-stories/ancientegyptian-amulets/pataikos/] (accessed 28 February 2019). Gavela, B. 1956. Antički spomenici grčko-egipatskog sinkretizma u našoj zemji. Starinar n. s. 5-6/19541955: 43-51. Göricke-Lukić, H. 2011. Nekropole rimskodobne Murse. Osijek. 197
Egypt in Croatia Selem, P. 1972. Egipatski bogovi u rimskom Iliriku. Godišnjak Centra za balkanološka istraživanja IX, 7: 5-104. Selem, P. 1997. Izidin trag. Split. Selem, P. 2008. Izabrana djela Petra Selema – Lica bogova. Zagreb. Sršan, S. (ed.) 2003. Zavičajnici grada Osijeka 1901. – 1946. Izvori za povijest Osijeka i Hrvatske. Knjiga XV. Osijek. Tomorad, M. 2003. Egipat u Hrvatskoj: egipatske starine u hrvatskoj znanosti i kulturi. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2005. The Egyptian antiquities in Croatia. PalArch’s Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology 2, 1: 1-33. Tomorad, M. 2006. Shabtis from Roman Provinces Dalmatia and Pannonia and their Role in Egyptian Cults during Roman Empire, in: H. Györy (ed.), Aegyptus et Pannonia III – Acta Symposii anno 2004: 279310. Budapest. Tomorad, M. 2012. Ancient Egyptian Funerary Statuettes in Croatian Collections. Opuscula Archaeologica 36: 275-282. Tomorad, M. 2016. The phases of penetration and diffusion of Egyptian artefacts and cults in the region of Istria and Illyricum (from the 7th c. B.C. to the 4th c. A.D.), in: H. Györy (ed.), Aegyptus et Pannonia V: 185-226. Budapest. Tomorad, M. 2017a. The Ancient Egyptian shabtis discovered in the regions of Roman Illyricum
(Dalmatia, Pannonia) and Istria: provenance, collections, typological study and dating, in: G. Rosati and M.C. Guidotti (eds), Proceedings of the XIth International Congress of Egyptologists, Florence Egyptian Museum, Florence, 23–30 August 2015: 650-655. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017b. Staroegipatska civilizacija, sv. 2: Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb. Trischler, E. 2017. Franjo Folk – značajan donator Muzeja Slavonije. Godišnjak Njemačke zajednice/DG Jahrbuch 24: 329-336. Vidović, S. 2006. Sudbina utemeljujuće zbirke Prirodoslovnog odjela Muzeja Slavonije Osijek. Članci i građa za kulturnu istoriju istočne Bosne 19: 111118. Vidović, S. 2008. 110 godina donacije Emericha Hilda utemeljujuće zbirke Prirodoslovnog odjela Muzeja Slavonije Osijek, in: Ž. Miklošević and M. Vinaj (eds), S druge strane ogledala: 71-79. Osijek. Vilogorac, I. 2008. Atribut andetrijskog Atisa, in: H. Tomas (ed.), Znakovi i riječi 2. Signa et litterae II – Zbornik projekta Mythos - cultus - imagines deorum: 105-112. Zagreb. Vukov, M. 2017. The beneficiary altars on the Danube limes in Croatia, in: D. Bajnok (ed.), Alia Miscellanea Antiquitatum. Proceedings of the Second Croatian– Hungarian PhD Conference on Ancient History and Archaeology: 39-51. Budapest/Debrecen.
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Catalogue of Selected Artefacts from Institutional Collections in Croatia Mladen Tomorad 1. Clay cup (Figure 187) Collection: Varaždin: Varaždin City Museum, AO 6521, not on display. Ex-Pasthory-Varady Collection (19th – early 20th century, Križovljan Castle). Provenance: Upper Egypt, unknown site. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: between 4500 – 3800 BCE, Badari or early Naqada I culture. Dimensions: H. 8.9 cm, diameter of opening 6.8 cm; bottom diameter 4.3 cm. Material: clay. Condition: well preserved. Description: This clay cup from the Varaždin City Museum is a small vessel, made of fine burnished clay with a polished outer surface. It was handmade and is well preserved, but the colours are a little pale. Its inner surface is painted from grey-black to dark brown. The outer surface is divided into two sections: the upper section is painted black and the lower section is painted red-brown. Discussion: The cup was probably used in everyday life. It shows characteristics of both the Badari and Naqada I culture. Because of these characteristics it can be dated as Class BR black-topped polished red Badari pottery, or as the oldest Amratian SD 30 black-topped pottery. When Petrie and Quibell, in 1894/1895, began digging a prehistoric necropolis and settlements of Upper Egypt near Naqada, they found, among other objects, several types of pottery. After a few years of digging Petrie established a full sequence of the necropolis in 1899. Some decades later he wrote his well-known periodisation of Naqada pottery, but he was unable to establish any fixed dating. He marked the oldest sequence and materials as SD 30, and the period of the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt as SD 76. Excavations in the 20th century have changed the dating of the oldest so-called ‘Amratian’ sequence from SD 30 to SD 38, and the periods of unification as SD 63. The common pottery from the earliest Amratian or Naqada I (c. 4000 – c. 3500 BCE) period was black-topped and red painted. In the first decades of the 20th century G. Brunton and G. Caton-Thompson dug the necropolis and settlements of the El Badari region. They found a culture whose remains fall outside the range of sequential dates made by Petrie, and therefore allotted them numbers from SD 1 to SD 29. The pottery from the Badari culture (c. 5500 – c. 4000 BCE) is thinner than
Figure 187. Clay cup from Badari culture. Varaždin: City Museum, AO 6521. © Varaždin: City Museum.
other forms made in Predynastic periods. The unique type is black-topped and red-painted pottery with black inner surface. It is the oldest Egyptian artefact housed in Croatian museums. Bibliography: Tomorad 2002: 550-552; Tomorad 2003a: 65, 67; Tomorad 2005a: 21; Tomorad and Uranić 2006: 87-98; Tomorad 2006a: 265; Tomorad 2009a: 540-541; Tomorad 2015a: 51; Tomorad 2016a: 329, 339; Tomorad 2017a: 84; Tomorad 2017b: 256. 2. Vessel (Figure 188) Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – The Archaeological Collection, ATM 230, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown site. Date of discovery: unknown. 199
Egypt in Croatia from very small to very large (occasionally two or three times the size of this Mimara example). Cf.: Chicago: The Oriental Institute Museum, E10862; London: The Petrie Museum, UC.4428, UC.15587, UC.15595; London: The British Museum, EA29314; New York: The Brooklyn Museum of Art, 35.1314; Liverpool: The Liverpool Museum, 49.47.401. Bibliography: Tomorad 2003a: 64, fn. 384; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 16, 270; Tomorad 2009a: 543; Tomorad 2012a: 187-189, Figure 1; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 2, 87, 99, Figure 2; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: no. 1, 60, Figure 49; Tomorad 2015a: 46; Tomorad 2017a: 65, 67, Figure 85; Tomorad 2017b: 255, Figure 19. 3. Bowl/plate (Figure 189) Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 231, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown site. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: c. 3200 – 2700 BCE, Naqada III and Archaic periods. Dimensions: H. 4.5 cm; D.: 15 cm. Material: travertine. Condition: thicker rim on the top of the vessel is damaged, one small part is missing. Description: The vessel is made in shape of shallow bowl or plate. Thicker rim narrows down from the top to the bottom of the vessel. Discussion: This type of bowl was used in everyday life. It was probably excavated at some Predynastic or early Dynastic necropolis. Similar types of bowl were commonly excavated in the area of Abydos, Hierakonpolis and Naqada, Tarkhan, and the Memphis
Figure 188. Vessel. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 230. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Dating: c. 3600 – c. 3200 BCE, late Naqada I and Naqada II culture. Dimensions: H. 6.7 cm; upper diameter: 11.3 cm; bottom diameter: 4.5 cm. Material: red breccia. Condition: damaged surface. Typology: Petrie 1920, Naqada I, type E. Description: Vessel in the form of squat, globular jar with small round base (4.5 cm), relatively short neck and elevated convex wide rim. The small pierced cylindrical handles are placed on both sides. These shapes of vessels, with cylindrical lugs and rims, as on this example, were mostly crafted during the period of the Naqada culture. Discussion: The item was used in everyday life. Such vessels were very often excavated in various tombs, where they were placed as typical funerary equipment. The example is made from red breccia. Breccia was one of the first types of stone to be commonly used for vessels from the Naqada I period until the end of the 4th Dynasty. Vessels made from red and white breccia were usually made during the Naqada cultures. The stone for this vessel was probably cut from some quarry on the west bank of the Nile, north of Niniah, near Asyut, in the region of Thebes and near Esna. The surface of the vessel is damaged in several central areas; holes are clearly visible. Although three pieces of rim are missing, artistically this is a very nice artefact. This type of round-bodied squat vessel was very popular in the period from the late Naqada I (c. 3600– 3500 BCE) to Naqada II (c. 3500–3200 BCE). Such vessels were commonly excavated at almost all Predynastic sites from these periods. During Naqada I-II, similar vessels were made in various kinds of stones (mostly red breccia and porphyry), and in wide range of sizes,
Figure 189. Bowl/plate. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 231. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
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region during archaeological excavations at the end of the 19th and into the 20th century. Cf.: Chicago: The Oriental Institute Museum, E11063, E7611; Leiden: Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, F1960/12.419b; London: The Petrie Museum, UC.16920, UC.14982, UC.35621; New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 12.181.28, 12.181.38; Mariemont: The Royal Museum of Mariemont, B.108. Bibliography: Tomorad 2003a: 64, fn. 385; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 16; Tomorad 2009a: 543; Tomorad 2012a: 189-190, Figure 2; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 3, 87-88, 99, Figure 3; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: 60, Figure 50; Tomorad 2015a: 46; Tomorad 2017a: 65, 67, Figure 86. 4. Small bottle (Figure 190) Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 233, not on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown site. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: c. 3500 – c. 2700 BCE, Naqada II and Archaic periods. Dimensions: H. 10.3 cm; W. 5 cm. Material: terracotta. Condition: well preserved, only the small piece of the opening is missing. Description: The upper part of this unusual vessel is elongated and narrow, then until the middle section the lower part gradually widens and then again gradually narrows down until the bottom of the vessel. Small handles are visible on both sides of the vessel. The entire lower part is ornamented with a thin, web-like pattern. The middle section of the potbellied lower part is decorated with an unidentified figure in squat position with marked eyes and large ears. Near the bottom two arms with hands are also visible at the front, back of the legs, and part of the body on left and right sides. Discussion: This vessel was probably used in everyday life as cosmetic bottle. It was probably found in some Predynastic grave, where it was placed as common funerary equipment. The iconography of the strange figure carved on this small bottle/vessel is reminiscent of the well-known presentation of the ancient Egyptian goddess Hathor. She was most often represented in anthropomorphic form as a woman wearing a long wig bound by a fillet. The middle part of the potbellied lower part of this vessel is decorated with a figure with large eyes and huge ears, very similar to the early anthropomorphic form of the goddess Hathor. A thin, web-like pattern is formed like some huge, long wig, which was also common in iconographic representations of Hathor. Bibliography: Tomorad 2003: 64, 65, fn. 386, Figure 57; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 16; Tomorad 2009a: 543-544; Tomorad 2012a: no. 3, 190-192, Figure 3;
Figure 190. Small bottle. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 233. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 1, 87, 99, Figure 1; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: no. 3, 60, Figure 51; Tomorad 2017a: 65. 5. Statuette of a man (Figure 191) Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 243, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, probably from Upper Egypt. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: c. 2055 – c. 1650 BCE, Middle Kingdom. Dimensions: H. 14.2 cm, W. 4.4 cm. Material: wood. Condition: damaged surface. Description: Small statuette of a porter on a small pedestal. His face is round with nicely shaped eyes, nose, mouth, and ears. He has a typical, short Egyptian hairstyle, rather bigger on the back. His chest is uncovered he wears a typical Egyptian apron over his hips. The hands are lowered next to the body in the position of a porter carrying some cargo. Discussion: This type of statuette is a typical product of the 11th and 12th Dynasties. It was probably discovered in a Middle Kingdom tomb, probably in Upper Egypt. Bibliography: Previously unpublished. Tomorad 2003a: 64-65, fn. 389, Figure 58; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 17; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 4, 88, 201
Egypt in Croatia
Figure 192. Shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-310. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum. Figure 191. Statuette of a man. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 243. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
100, Figure 4; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: no. 4, 61, Figure 52; Tomorad 2017a: 65. 6. Shabti (Figure 192) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-310, not on display. Ex-private collection of Franz von Koller. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: c. 1985 – c. 1650 BCE, Middle Kingdom, 12th– 13th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 10.5 cm. Material: Limestone with patina. Condition: damaged surface. Typology: Schneider 1977, class III. Description: Mummiform. Coarsely made limestone shabti with traces of patina and red paint. Short wig with one part extending onto back. Oval, crudely made face without artificial beard; eyes with brows; ears are not indicated. Arms with hands crossed on chest. Unreadable, pale inscription written in black paint. Bibliography: Monnet Saleh 1970, no. 583, 128; Uranić 2007, no. 231, 147; Tomorad 2011a: 115, 117, 123, Pl. 2; Tomorad 2017a: 54.
Figure 193. Funerary stele of Kay. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-583. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
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7. Funerary stele of Kay (Figure 193) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-583, not on display. Ex-private collection of Franz von Koller. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: early 19th century. Dating: c. 2055 – c. 1650 BCE, Middle Kingdom Dimensions: H. 43, W. 30 cm. Material: limestone. Condition: well preserved. Description: A colourful, painted stele made in a traditional manner with an oval top. On the top there is a hieroglyphic inscription written in ten vertical rows with the offering formula peret-herw and a list of gifts. Below the inscription is an inscribed scene on which a man and female figures are standing in front of an offering table covered with various types of food. A stele is dedicated to Kay, the son of Khuit and SatBastet-hotep. Discussion: The stele belongs to the Kay group of stelae from the Middle Kingdom period. In Ljubić, the list of Egyptian artefacts in the National Museum, in 1889, dated it to the Old Kingdom, but it was later re-dated to the Middle Kingdom. There are 29 Egyptian stelae in Croatian museums today. The majority are in Zagreb’s Archaeological Museum in Zagreb; the stele from Pedi-Hor-pa-Khered is in the Archaeological Museum in Osijek; and the stele of Mery-Mery is in the Varaždin City Museum. Bibliography: Ljubić 1889a: no. 16, 25; Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 4, 14; Uranić 1996; no. 55, 92; Uranić 2009: no. 94, 68, 70, 72; Tomorad 2017a: 54.
Figure 194. Statuette of a woman. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 244. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
8. Statuette of a woman (Figure 194)
periods, but the wig is very unusual. The use of silver can suggest that the items was probably discovered in some elite Egyptian tomb. Bibliography: Previously unpublished. Tomorad 2003a: 64, fn. 396; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 17; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 5, 88, 100-101, Figure 5; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: no. 6, 6162, Figure 54; Tomorad 2017a: 65.
Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 244, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: c. 2055 – c. 1069 BCE, 11th–20th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 24 cm, W. 5.4 cm. Material: Wood and silver. Condition: well preserved. Description: The woman wears a long wig that reaches her forehead and drops down on both sides of her head, all the way to her breasts. The style of the wig is uncommon and unusual. Her face is oval with large, black eyes; the nose and mouth are carved on the face. Large ears are carved on both sides of her head. Her very long arms are lowered next to her body, below the hips. Her hands are long and flat. She is dressed in a long dress that covers her entire body. Her feet are placed on a small wooden pedestal. Discussion: This wooden statuette was probably crafted during the Middle or New Kingdom periods. Its artistic features are typical of female statuettes of these
9. Head of an unknown Pharaoh (Figure 195) Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 229, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: c. 1985 – c. 525 BCE, 12th–26th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 15.5 cm, W. 15 cm. Material: granite. Condition: damaged, and lower part missing. Description: The head is made of coarse-grained lightbrown granite. The hair is covered by nemes which adhere to the rim of the uraeus. The face is oval, with a nicely crafted nose; ears, eyes and mouth are visible. 203
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Figure 195. Head of an unknown Pharaoh. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 229. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 196. Female shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-259. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
The artificial beard under the chin is mostly missing, only a small part remains. Discussion: The head with its features represents some Egyptian pharaoh, who cannot presently be identified; any accurate dating is difficult. Bibliography: Previously unpublished. Tomorad 2003a: 64, fn. 390, 66, Figure 60; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 17, 269-270; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 7, 88-89, 102, Figure 7; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: no. 5, 61-62, Figure 53; Tomorad 2017a: 65.
lappet wig without artificial beard. Empty hand crossed, narrow sleeved with indicated arms. Face is oval; eyes with brows, ears are well shaped. Uninscribed. Bibliography: Ljubić 1889a: no. IV.5, 8; Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 643, 141; Uranić 2009, no. 182, 137; Tomorad 2011a: 115-116, 123, Pl. 1; Tomorad 2017a: 54. 11. Small jug (Figure 197) Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 1337, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: c. 1417–1400 BCE, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, reign of Amenhotep II. Dimensions: H. 9.8 cm, W. 4.3 cm. Material: glass paste. Condition: well preserved. Description: Jug made of light blue paste. A tall, slender neck is raised from the oval body. A slender handle, cut out of the same piece of glass paste, stretches from the tip of the belly to the upper part of neck. The opening hole is flat, bulging, and slit with pieces of orange-green glass paste. The surface of the whole jug is rough.
10. Female shabti (Figure 196a-b) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-259, not on display. Ex-private collection of Franz von Koller. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: early 19th century. Dating: c. 1550 – c. 1295 BCE, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 17.8 cm. Material: wood. Condition: very good; vertical split from middle of chest to knees; cracked at area of left foot. Wide, burned cut on the back of wig. Typology: Schneider 1977, class VB1. Description: Mummiform. New Kingdom plain female 204
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Bibliography: Tomorad 2003a: 68, fn. 416, Figure 67; Tomorad 2005a: 13; Tomorad 2006a: 18; Ratković Bukovčan 2015: 76-77, Figure 84; Tomorad 2017a: 67. 12. Bowl/plate (Figure 198) Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological collection, ATM 234, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: c. 1390–1352 BCE, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, reign of Amenhotep III. Dimensions: H. 4 cm, W. 20 cm. Material: faïence. Condition: well preserved. Description: Round bowl/plate made from turquoisecoloured Egyptian faïence. Central and inner part decorated with fish (Tilapia nilotica) framed in a circle. Around it are drawn four lotus flowers. The rim is decorated with wavy ribbon. Discussion: This type of plate is a typical product of the 14th century BCE. Bibliography: Previously unpublished. Tomorad 2003a: 64, fn. 392, 66, Figure 59; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 17; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 13, 90, 105, Figure 13; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: no. 8, 62-63, Figure 56; Tomorad 2017a: 65.
Figure 197. Small jug. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 1337. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
13. Funeral stele of Mery-Mery (Figure 199) Collection: Varaždin: Varaždin City Museum, AO 5279, not on display. Ex-collection of the Pasthory-Varady family (19th–early 20th century, Križovljan Castle). Provenance: Egypt, probably from Saqqara. Date of discovery: 19th century. Dating: c. 1390–1352 BCE, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, reign of Amenhotep III. Dimensions: H. 54.6; W. 38.7 cm. Material: limestone. Condition: well preserved. Description: The stele is made in a traditional manner with an oval top. Its front is divided into three registers. On the top there are two wDAt eyes. Between them there is a Snw sign and usH vessel with nw below. Below the eyes can be seen jmj-wt on the left and Dd pillar on the right. The whole image consists of two gods on the left, and the deceased praying to them on the right. The gods are Osiris and Anubis, although the latter is named Upuaut. Above Osiris is written his title xntj-jmntj (‘First among those who are in Amenti’), while behind Upuaut there is a title nb tA-Dsr (‘Master of the Holy Land’). Osiris is holding a stick and flagellum, while Upuaut has risen to the left, with the anx cross in his right hand. Before the gods there is an offering table with two lotus flowers, as well as two cartouches bearing names of Amenhotep III. While Nebmaatre’s name is readable, the other with the name Jmn-Htp HkA wAst is scraped. On
Figure 198. Bowl/plate. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 234. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
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Egypt in Croatia bearing different offerings. The first figure has no wig; he holds a bunch of papyrus flowers. He is followed by the second male holding two lotus flowers – one in each hand. He wears a wig. The third feature behind Khuy is a woman wearing a long wig and bringing a small stool with two lotus flowers. She wears a long dress reaching the ground. There is a short inscription in five vertical lines above the offering table in the middle of the scene. Two figures representing the parents are shown in the same way as in the middle register. Discussion: The limestone funerary stele of Mery-Mery (Mry-mry) is an interesting document from the 18th Dynasty. It seems that the owner was an eminent scribe in the service of the daughter of Amenhotep III. He was a ‘Military scribe, of the Lord of two lands’, ‘overseer of craftsmen’ and ‘overseer of domain of the king’s daughter, Sitamun’. A few monuments that document his life have so far been discovered. A private stele with his name from Memphis, and two fragments from a wall in the Saqqara necropolis are in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (inv. nos. 34186, K 49-50). Fragments of walls from the Saqqara necropolis (Inv. No. A.P. 6), few shabtis, and three statuettes are in the Leyden Museum. One stele of Mery is also in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples. It seems that the side walls in the Leiden museum, and the wall fragments from Cairo are parts of the same wall. Prince ¤At-imn was a famous daughter of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye; she was born about 1368 BCE. In various Egyptological literature she is known as Sitama, Sitamon or Satamun. There are some indications of a possible conflict between Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton) and Sitamun, who, as the king’s eldest daughter, was also a potential inheritress of the throne. This is partly confirmed by the fact that her name was erased in several places in Egypt. Her cartouche was also partly erased on this stele. Bibliography: Panić 1976; Tomorad 2002: 548-549; Tomorad 2003a: 5, 67; Tomorad 2005a: 20; Tomorad 2006a: 30; Tomorad and Uranić 2006: no. 2, 89-93; Tomorad 2015a: 51-52, Figure 38; Tomorad 2016a: 329, 339; Tomorad 2017a: 84, Figure 110; Tomorad 2017b: 256-257, Figure 20.
Figure 199. Funeral stele of Mery-Mery. Varaždin: City Museum, AO 5279. © Varaždin: City Museum.
the right side of the representation Mery-Mery stands with hands raised in adoration before the deities. His clothing is typical for the New Kingdom period – short skirt and long, transparent garment. He also has a wig and large collar. The text is placed between the man and the deities and spreads in three vertical lines from left to right. In the middle register Mery-Mery (standing on the left) is performing invocation offerings for his parents’ souls. The parents are sitting on the right at the table full of offerings. The text in five vertical lines (this time from right to left) divides the scene in two parts. The parents are sitting on chairs with lion’s legs, and their names are expunged. In two horizontal rows before them is written ‘father’ and ‘mother’, but where the names are expected to be there is a gap. Their clothes are like those of Mery-Mery. The mother’s transparent garment reaches the ground. On their wigs are cones of aromatic oil. On the woman’s cone there is also a fillet with lotus bud. The father is holding a lotus flower in his right hand while the mother places her right hand on her husband’s right shoulder. In the lower register a man named Khuy or Hy (¡j) and his families (four individuals in total) are bringing offerings to the same two people. Khuy was probably the surname, or other name of Mery-Mery. Behind Khuy, two males and a female are standing in a line
14. Shabti of Ta-aa-hotep (Figure 200av/rv) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-270, E-271, not on display. Exprivate collection of Franz von Koller. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: early 19th century. Dating: c. 1550 – c. 1186 BCE, New Kingdom, 18th –19th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 21 cm. Material: painted wood. Condition: very good, although slightly damaged surface at the bottom; some damage to paint on face. 206
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Figure 200. Shabti of Ta-aa-hotep. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-270, E-271. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 201. Shabti of Osiris Tjanefer. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-309. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Typology: Schneider 1977, class VB4. Description: Mummiform. Female dressed in white clothing with red stripes. New Kingdom elaborate female black-painted wig with headband without artificial beard. Visible wesekh collar painted in red and pale blue. Arms crossed on the chest. Red-painted empty hands crossed opposite, un-sleeved. Face is oval and nicely shaped, painted in red; eyes with brows are painted black; ears not indicated. Reversed trapezoidal bag with crossed fibres on the back, painted in orange. Hieroglyphic inscription with dedication in one framed column closed at top. Text is written in black ink. Discussion: In the Egyptian Department of Zagreb’s Archaeological Museum in Zagreb there are two identical wooden shabtis of Ta-aa-hotep. She was a cult singer, chantress, or priestess of Amon. Bibliography: Ljubić 1889a: no. IV.28-29, 8-9; Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 626, 139; Uranić 2009, no. 178, 136; Tomorad 2011a: 115-116, 123, Pl. 1; Tomorad 2017a: 54.
Date of discovery: early 19th century. Dating: c. 1295–1186 BCE, New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 13.3 cm. Material: black schist. Condition: very good; foot slightly damaged. Typology: Schneider 1977, class VC5. Description: Mummiform. New Kingdom striated lappet wig with one horizontal band on lappets without artificial beard. Wesekh collar with three rows worn on the chest. Hands crossed opposite, un-sleeved, arms not indicated. Handled whips in both hands. Empty bag with crossed fibres on right shoulder. Round face with ears; eyes with brows. Inscribed hieroglyphic text with four lines in back, facing column on front. Bibliography: Ljubić 1889a: no. IV.45, 9; Monnet Saleh 1970, no. 614, 137; Uranić 2009, no. 230, 147; Tomorad 2011: 115, 117, 123, 126, Pl. 2; Tomorad 2017a: 54. 16. Scribe’s palette with cartouche of Ramesses II (Figure 202av/rv)
15. Shabti of Osiris Tjanefer (Figure 201av/rv)
Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-185, on display. Ex-private collection of Franz von Koller. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: early 19th century.
Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-309, not on display. Ex-private collection of Franz von Koller. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. 207
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Figure 202. Scribe’s palette with cartouche of Ramesses II. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-185. © Mladen Tomorad.
Dating: c. 1279–1213 BCE, New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty, reign of Ramesses II. Dimensions: H. 5.2 cm; W. 38 cm. Material: wood. Condition: very well preserved. Description: Scribe’s palette in the form of a wooden box with lid, containing wooden rods for writing. It has two hollows on the surface for black and red ink. Protective cartouches are carved around the hollows. On the underside a carved cartouche of Ramesses II. Bibliography: Ljubić 1889: no. 110, 4; Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 904, 182; Gorenc 1979: 36; Tomorad 2003a: 33, fn. 4; Tomorad 2005a: 3-4, fn. 3; Tomorad 2006a: 7; Uranić 2009: no. 454, 206; Tomorad 2015: 40; Tomorad 2017a: 58, Figure 75. 17. Shabti of the royal scribe Nebnofer (Figure 203av/rv)
Figure 203. Shabti of the royal scribe Nebnofer. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-307. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-307, not on display. Ex-private collection of Franz von Koller. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: early 19th century. 208
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Dating: c. 1295–1069 BCE, New Kingdom, 19th–20th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 16.2 cm. Material: dark slate. Condition: very good. Typology: Schneider 1977, class VIB3. Description: Dressed in everyday clothing. New Kingdom composite duplex wig, upper part striated, lower part echeloned with artificial beard. An elaborate wesekh collar is worn on the chest consisting of two rows of beads. Arms on the chest crossed right over left. Narrow hoe in right and broad hoe in left hand. Plain trapezoidal bag at the back. Round face with very small ears; eyes with brows, red painted lips. Hieroglyphic text in one vertical column beneath knees. Bibliography: Ljubić 1889a: IV.45, 9; Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 589, 129; Uranić 2009: no. 229, 147; Tomorad 2011: 115, 117, 123, 126, Pl. 2; Tomorad 2017a: 54. 18. Shabti dedicated to a prophet of the goddess Bastet (Figure 204av/rv) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-473, not on display. Ex-private collection of M. Valjato from Kraljevica. Donated in 1900. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: 19th century. Dating: c. 1069 – c. 945 BCE, 3rd Intermediate Period, 21st Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 12 cm. Material: green-glazed faïence. Condition: damaged surface on both sides; broken around neck. Typology: Schneider 1977, class IXF. Description: Dressed in everyday clothing with flat back. 3rd Intermediate Period reis with short tripartite wig without artificial beard. Hands crossed right over left; sleeves not indicated. Stylised hoes in both hands; without bag. Head without ears; face is oval and damaged. Eyes with brows are closed. Very pale hieroglyphic inscription in one vertical framed column below arms is dedicated to a prophet of the goddess Bastet. Discussion: J. Monnet Saleh previously dated it to the New Kingdom;1079 I. Uranić did not date it.1080 Bibliography: Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 622, 139; Uranić 2009: no. 376, 177; Tomorad 2011: 115, 121, 125, Pl. 5; Tomorad 2017a: 55.
Figure 204. Shabti dedicated to a prophet of the goddess Bastet. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-473. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: early 19th century. Dating: c. 1069–715 BCE, 3rd Intermediate Period, 21st– 23rd Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 11 cm. Material: blue-glazed faïence. Condition: damaged surface on front and back. Typology: Schneider 1977, class VIIIB2. Description: Mummiform. Female worker. 3rd Intermediate Period common lappet wig with twisted fillet and seshed headband. Without artificial beard. Arms crossed on chest. Hands crossed left over right, unsleeved. Holding hoes in both hands. 3rd Intermediate Period trapezoidal bag with crossed fibres at the back. Face is round, ears are poorly shaped; eyes with brows painted black. Unreadable and very pale hieroglyphic inscription in one vertical column. Discussion: J. Monnet Saleh dated it to the New Kingdom.1081 I. Uranić did not date it.1082 It seems that particular shabti was dedicated to a cult singer, chantress or priestess of Amon, whose name is not
19. Blue-glazed faïence shabti (Figure 205) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-490, not on display. Ex-private collection of Franz von Koller. 1079 1080
Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 633, 139. Uranić 2009: no. 376, 177.
1081 1082
209
Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 623, 139. Uranić 2009: no. 390, 180.
Egypt in Croatia
Figure 205. Blue-glazed faience shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-490. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 206. Black-slate shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-277. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
readable. Bibliography: Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 623, 139; Uranić 2009, no. 390, 180; Tomorad 2011: 115, 121, 125, Pl. 6; Tomorad 2017a: 54.
Bibliography: Ljubić 1889a: IV.14, 8; Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 651, 142; Uranić 2009, no. 198, 140; Tomorad 2011: 116, 123, 126; Tomorad 2017a: 54. 21. Statuette of Osiris (Figure 207)
20. Black-slate shabti (Figure 206a-b)
Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 238, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: c. 1069– 664BCE, 3rd Intermediate Period, 21st– 25th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 59 cm; W. 22 cm. Material: bronze. Condition: damaged; the lower part, from hips to feet, is missing. Description: The statue represents the god Osiris. He is wearing the crown of Upper Egypt with uraeus on his head. In his hands he is holding the typical Pharaonic symbols of power – crook and flail. Inlay missing from eye cavity; the top of beard has a small hollow – probably for a missing artificial beard. His body is shaped in typical Osiris mummy style. Bibliography: Previously unpublished. Tomorad 2003a: 64, fn. 388; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a:
Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-277, not on display. Ex-private collection of Franz von Koller. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: early 19th century. Dating: c. 715–664 BCE, 3rd Intermediate Period, 25th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 23 cm. Material: black slate. Condition: good; on the front some damage to artificial beard and feet; on the back missing left top part of wig. Typology: Schneider 1977, class XA2. Description: Mummiform. 3rd Intermediate Period striated lappet wig with artificial beard. Hands crossed opposite, un-sleeved; arms not indicated. Holding small baskets and hoes in both hands; broad hoe in right and narrow and blunt hoe in left hand. Face is round; ears, nose, eyes with brows and mouth are nicely shaped. The original inscription was mechanically erased. 210
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Figure 208. Ba bird. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 242. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum. Figure 207. Statuette of Osiris. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 238. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
still visible on feet. Discussion: This statuette represents the Ba bird, associated with an element of the Egyptian soul. Bibliography: Previously unpublished. Tomorad 2003a: 65, fn. 402; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 17; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 10, 89-90, 104, Figure 10; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: no. 12, 64-65, Figure 60; Tomorad 2017a: 66.
17; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 9, 89, 103, Figure 9; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: no. 13, 65, Figure 61; Tomorad 2017a: 66. 22. Ba bird (Figure 208)
23. Green udjat-eye amulet (Figure 209av/rv)
Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 242, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: c. 1069–664 BCE, 3rd Intermediate period, 21st– 25th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 12.8 cm; W. 8 cm. Material: wood. Condition: damaged; colour missing from most areas. Description: Typical presentation of the Egyptian Ba bird. Human-shaped head with typical wig coloured in black. Its face is oval; eyes and ears are large. The colour is washed away in parts, and the surface is damaged. The lower part of the statuette is shaped in the form of a bird. It has wings, now without colour, on both sides of the body. The undersides of the wings spread to the small pedestal on which it stands. Traces of black colour
Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, P-30337, not on display. Ex-private collection of unknown Austrian donor. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: 19th century. Dating: c. 1069–30 BCE, 21st–33rd Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 3.5 cm; W. 4.2 cm; T. 0.8 cm. Material: faïence. Condition: very well preserved. Description: Amulet representing the udjat-eye – the eye of Re/Horus, a solar and creative principle in Egyptian mythology. The lines of the eye are made in relief and coloured black. The tears in both eyes are nicely shown on this piece, one emerging vertically and the other spirally. Discussion: It was probably worn singly around the neck. This type of amulet had many attributes in 211
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Figure 210. Lotus/water lily flower. Pula: Archaeological Museum, P-30343. © Mladen Tomorad.
no. 10, 56-57; Tomorad 2015a: 48, fn. 55; Tomorad 2017a: 78; Tomorad 2017b: 253, fn. 58; 25. Shabti of Hor-ankh-byty (Figure 211av/rv) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-549, not on display. Ex-private collection of Franz von Koller. Provenance: Egypt, probably from Thebes area. Date of discovery: early 19th century. Dating: 664–610 BCE, Late Period, early 26th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 12 cm. Material: glazed pottery. Condition: damaged; broken below knees; lower part of the figure is missing. Typology: Schneider 1977, class XA3. Description: Mummiform with back-pillar and wig separated. Saite plain lappet wig with plaited artificial beard. Hands crossed opposite, un-sleeved; arms not indicated. Pick in left hand, narrow hoe and cord in right hand. Saite trapezoidal bag, with crossed fibres and loop, is suspended behind the left shoulder. Wellmodelled oval face with large ears, eyes with brows, long nose and thick lips. Hieroglyphic inscription in two framed vertical columns. Trapezoidal base. Discussion: Hor-ankh-byty (Hr-Ax-bit), was the son of Kha-en-Khonsu and Nefer-Neith. It depicts the abbreviated form of the shabti spell, a variant of the late 25th Dynasty. Numerous shabtis of the same individual are housed in various museums around the world. It was probably made at the beginning of the 26th Dynasty. Cf.: Leiden: Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, AF55, London: British Museum, BM 8950, BM 34095; Brussels: Musées royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, E 3539; Cambridge: The Fitzwilliam Museum, E 334-1954; St. Louis: City Art Museum, 29:34; New York: The Corning Museum of Glass, 59.1.585; Paris: Musée du Louvre, 2734, 3352; Oxford: Ashmolean Museum, 1879.269; Torino: Museo Egizio, 115;
Figure 209. Green udjat-eye amulet. Pula: Archaeological Museum, P-30337. © Mladen Tomorad.
Egyptian mythology; it was commonly used in everyday life as magical protector. Bibliography: Uranić 2001: no. 8, pp. 24, 26, Figure 11; Giunio 2002: 27-28, fn. 18; Tomorad 2003a: 50, fn. 207; Tomorad 2003a: 50, fn. 207; Figure 45; Tomorad 2005a: 18; Tomorad 2006a: 24; Tomorad 2007: no. 9, 43, 55-56; Tomorad 2015a: 48, fn. 55; Tomorad 2017a: 78, Figure 100; Tomorad 2017b: 253, fn. 58. 24. Lotus/water lily flower (Figure 210av/rv) Collection: Pula: Archaeological Museum of Istria, P-30343, not on display. Ex-private collection of unknown Austrian donor. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: 19th century. Dating: c. 1069–30 BCE, 21st–33rd Dynasty. Dimensions: D. 1.5 cm, T. 0.8 cm. Material: faïence. Condition: well preserved. Description: Light-green piece of amulet jewellery in the form of the Egyptian water lily, or lotus flower, with five petals. Bibliography: Uranić 2001a: no. 14, 28, Figure 14; Giunio 2002: 27-28, fn. 18; Tomorad 2003a: 50, fn. 213; Tomorad 2005a: 18; Tomorad 2006a: 24; Tomorad 2007: 212
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Figure 211. Shabti of Hor-ankh-byty. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-549. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Frankfurt am Main: Liebieghaus, 1714. Bibliography: Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 658, 145; Uranić 2009, no. 420, 185-186; Tomorad 2011: 115, 122, 126; Tomorad 2017a: 54.
Figure 212a-d. Complete set of the Canopic jars of Ketjen. Varaždin: City Museum, AO 5280, AO 5281, AO 5282, AO 5283.. © Varaždin: City Museum.
26. Complete set of the Canopic jars of Ketjen (Figure 212a-d) Collection: Varaždin: Varaždin City Museum, AO 52805283, not on display. Ex-Pasthory-Varady Collection (19th–early 20th century, Križovljan Castle). Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: c. 664–610 BCE, Late Period, 26th Dynasty, reign of Psammetichus I. Dimensions: Imsety canopic jar (AO 5280) (Figure 212a): H. 33 cm, W. 17.4 cm; lid: H. 9.3 cm, W. 12.4 cm; inscription: H. 10.5, W. 7.2 cm. Hapy canopic jar (AO 5281) (Figure 212b): H. 32 cm, W. 17.4 cm; lid: H. 8 cm, W. 13.2 cm; inscription: H. 11 cm, W. 7.5 cm. Duamutef canopic jar (AO 5282) (Figure 212c): H. 32
cm, W. 17.2 cm; lid: H. 11.1 cm, W. 13.2 cm; inscription: H. 10.5 cm, W. 7.5 cm. Qebehsenuef canopic jar (AO 5283) (Figure 212d): H. 31.2 cm, W. 17.6 cm; lid: H. 9 cm, W. 13 cm; inscription: H. 10.7 cm, W. 6.6 cm. Material: alabaster. Condition: The surface on canopic jars AO 5280 and AO 5281 slightly damaged. Descriptions: Canopic lid in the form of a human head representing the Egyptian god Imsety (AO 5280) (Figure 212a). On the front a hieroglyphic inscription in four columns. Canopic lid in the form of a baboon head representing the Egyptian god Happy (AO 5281) (Figure 212b). On the front a hieroglyphic inscription in four columns. 213
Egypt in Croatia Canopic lid in the form of a jackal head representing the Egyptian god Duamutef (AO 5282) (Figure 2012c). Completely preserved. On the front a hieroglyphic inscription in four columns. Canopic lid in the form of a falcon head representing the Egyptian god Qebehsenuef (AO 5283 (Figure 212d). On the front a hieroglyphic inscription in four columns. Discussion: The text contains a king’s name, Wahibre, which was the prenomen taken by two kings: Psammetichus I and Apries. An unsolved problem in the text is the owner’s name – Ktjen (KTn), which also means ‘chariot driver’. It is always written before the king’s name, so it can also be understood as ‘Wahibre’s chariot driver’. Even a previous translation by M. Panić1083 does not offer a solution. It is also possible that the title ‘chariot driver’, because of its importance, became a personal name of the owner. Canopic jars belong to the Late Period, probably during the reign of Psammetichus I (early 26th Dynasty). That dating is made according the orthography of a few words and the cartouche of Psammetichus I. The typology of K. Sethe and G.A. Reisner has helped with the dating of these inscriptions – type XIX, 26th Dynasty. The magical phrases on the canopic jars are dedicated to the god pairs: Isis-Imsety, Nepthis-Hapy, NeithDuamutef, and Serketh-Qebehsenuef. All these phrases are different. Based on Raisner’s classification we can rank them in the 5th group of canopic jars with inscriptions. This type appears for the first time in the 26th Dynasty. The Egyptian Collection of the Zagreb Archaeological Museum in Zagreb also includes 23 canopic jars with lids (inv. nos. 606-628) and 22 canopic lids (inv. nos. 629-650), mostly from the 3rd Intermediate and Late Periods. One canopic lid is also to be found in the Mimara Museum (Zagreb). Four canopic jars from the Varaždin City Museum are among the most beautiful examples in any of Croatia’s museums. Bibliography: Panić 1974: 15-31; Tomorad 2002: 549550; Tomorad 2003a: 8, 66-67; Tomorad 2005a: 20; Tomorad 2006a: 30; Tomorad and Uranić 2006: nos. 3-6, 93-97; Tomorad 2015a: 51-52, Figure 38; Tomorad 2016a: 329, 339; Tomorad 2017a: 84, Figures 110-111; Tomorad 2017b: 256-257, Figure 20.
Figure 213. Shabti of Uah-ib-re-em-akhet. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-442. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Typology: Schneider 1977, class XIA1. Description: Mummiform with back-pillar and wig separated. Saite plain lappet wig with plain artificial beard. Hands crossed right over left; un-sleeved, right sleeve short. Broad hoe and cord in right hand and narrow and pointed hoe in left. Saite trapezoidal bag with crossed fibres is suspended behind the left shoulder. Face is oval with large, nicely modelled ears and eyes with brows; thick lips. Hieroglyphic inscription in eight framed horizontal lines contains common shabti spell. Trapezoidal base. Discussion: The Egyptian Collection of the Zagreb’s Archaeological Museum in Zagreb has two shabtis dedicated to Uah-ib-re-em-akhet (inv. nos. 438, 442). He was a son of the mistress of the house of Sedy. Bibliography: Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 674, 149; Uranić 2009, no. 348, 171; Tomorad 2011: 116, 123, 126; Tomorad 2017a: 54.
27. Shabti of Uah-ib-re-em-akhet (Figure 213a-b) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-442, not on display. Ex-private collection of Franz von Koller. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: early 19th century. Dating: 664–525 BCE, Late Period, 26th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 17.7 cm. Material: glazed pottery. Condition: very good. 1083
28. Shabti (Figure 214) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-362, not on display. Ex-private collection of Franz von Koller. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location.
Panić 1974.
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Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: first half of 19th century. Dating: c. 390 BCE, Late Period, 29th–30th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 164 cm. Material: human remains. Condition: damaged, not well preserved. Description: Mummy of unknown woman; mummified in the early 4th century BCE using the ancient Egyptian process. Two small, round metallic objects (diam: 3 cm) are visible on the front of the skull. The brain was extracted trans-nasally. The arms are placed along the body with the head leaning forward. The thorax has major deformities caused by the mummification process: the sternum is moved to the right-hand side. The thorax is eviscerated, and the remains of the resin used for embalming can still be traced inside it. There is a cut on the left side of pelvis for extracting organs. All the bones of the body are deformed. Discussion: The mummy was aged by radio-carbon dating (C14) to 390 BCE. It was wrapped in 3.5 m of linen wrappings inscribed with an ancient Etruscan script. According to the data from the early 1860s it was acquired in Cairo around 1847/1848 by Mihael Barić. After his death in 1859 it was donated to the museum. The latest research by M. Čavka indicates that the woman died aged around 40. In the early 1990s the mummy was in a very bad state of condition and in 1997 it was preserved by the expert N. Gabrielli, using authentic natural chemicals, with which he reembalmed the whole body. Bibliography: Ljubić 1871: 48-49; Ljubić 1889a: 18-20, Tab. I, Figures 22, 24, 26; Gorenc 1979: 16-17; Mirnik and Rendić-Miočević 1986: 41-71; Plavšić and Hančević 1986: 99-103; Rendić-Miočević 1993: 122-127; Mirnik and Rendić-Miočević 1996: no. 67, 95; Tomorad 2003a: 6, 20, 28, 31, 81-89, Figure 34, 74, 76-77; Tomorad 2003b: 54-59; Tomorad 2005a: 3; Uranić 2005: 49-51; Tomorad 2006a: 7; Tomorad 2009: 19; Uranić 2009: no. 127, 107-109, 112; Čavka 2012: 67-69; Tomorad 2015a: 38, 42, Figure 36, 44, Figure 37c; Tomorad 2016a: 327, 329, 338; Tomorad 2017a: 36, Figure 57, 53, Figures 71-72; Tomorad 2017b: 243, Figure 4.
Figure 214. Shabti. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-362. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Date of discovery: early 19th century. Dating: 525–343 BCE, Late Period, 27th–30th Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 10.5 cm. Material: turquoise-glazed pottery. Condition: good; slightly damaged surface. Typology: Schneider 1977, class XIC. Description: Mummiform with back-pillar. Late plain lappet wig with plain artificial beard. Hands crossed right over left, both sleeves indicated. Pick without cross bar in left hand and narrow hoe and cord in right. Late basket is suspended behind left shoulder. Narrow face with large ears, damaged long nose, open eyes with brows, and thick lips. Uninscribed. Trapezoidal base. Discussion: J. Monnet Saleh1084 and I. Uranić1085 dated it to the Ptolemaic Period without further analysis. Bibliography: Previously unpublished. Monnet Saleh 1970: nos. 770-880, 162; Uranić 2009: no. 273, 155; Tomorad 2011: 115, 118, 123, Pl. 3; Tomorad 2017a: 54.
30. ‘Liber linteus zagrabiensis’ (Figure 216) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-665, on display. Ex-private collection of Mihael Barić. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: first half of 19th century. Dating: 399–343 BCE, Late Period, 29th–30th Dynasty. Dimensions: W. up to 35 cm; L. 340 cm. Material: linen. Condition: well preserved. Description: The linen wrappings of the ‘Zagreb Mummy’ are 340 cm long. Six parts are preserved. These parts are cut in strips, 35 cm wide. The inscription on the wrappings is divided into 12 columns with different
29. ‘The Zagreb Mummy’ (Figure 215) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-664, on display. Ex-private collection of Mihael Barić. 1084 1085
Monnet Saleh 1970: nos. 770-880, 162. Uranić 2009: no. 273, 155.
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Figure 215. The Zagreb Mummy. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-664. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 216. Liber linteus zagrabiensis. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-665. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
palaeographic analysis, various names of the Etruscan gods were identified. It seems that the wrappings contain a religious ‘Book of the Dead’ that contained sacrificial gifts and other funerary customs. According to data from the early 1860s it was acquired in Cairo around 1847/1848 by Mihael Barić. After his death in 1859 it was donated to the museum. Bibliography: Ljubić 1871: 48-49; Ljubić 1889a: 18-20, Tab. I, Figures 22, 24, 26; Gorenc 1979: 16-17; Mirnik and Rendić-Miočević 1986: 41-71; Plavšić and Hančević 1986: 99-103; Rendić-Miočević 1993: 122-127; Mirnik
numbers of rows (from 26 to 35 rows). The letters on the linen wrappings were written in red ink, and each column is separated with the frame coloured in cinnabar ink. The whole text has 1130 Etruscan words. This is the longest surviving Etruscan text in the world. Discussion: During radio-carbon dating (C14) the mummy and its wrappings were dated to 390 BCE. In 1892 the Austrian Egyptologist Jakob Krall discovered that the wrappings were inscribed in the Etruscan language. Since then the inscriptions have been published in numerous publications. According to the 216
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and Rendić-Miočević 1996: no. 67, 95; Tomorad 2003a: 6, 20, 28, 31, 81-89, Figure 34, 74, 76-77; Tomorad 2003b: 54-59; Tomorad 2005a: 3; Uranić 2005: 49-51; Tomorad 2006a: 7; Uranić 2006: 197-202; Tomorad 2009: 19; Uranić 2009: no. 127, 107-109, 112; Čavka 2012: 67-69; Tomorad 2015a: 38, 42, Figure 36, 44, Figure 37c; Tomorad 2016a: 327, 329, 338; Tomorad 2017a: 36, Figure 57, 53, Figures 71-72; Tomorad 2017b: 243, Figure 4.
are painted with various iconographic scenes related to funerary religious beliefs and customs of ancient Egypt. The head of the coffin is dressed in a wig with green, red and yellow stripes. Above the forehead she has a typical red ribbon. Her eyes are nicely shaped in black and white colours; above the eyes there are black eyebrows. The large ears are nicely shaped on both sides of the face; the nose and mouth are well shaped. Below the neck a hieroglyphic inscription is painted in six sections. Various Egyptian gods are also painted on the front of the coffin. Ptah-Sokar-Osiris is painted on the base of the exterior coffin. He is surrounded by a huge cobra which forms an uraeus to the height of his crown. In his hand he holds a sceptre. The goddess Isis, with spread wings, is painted on the chest of the inner coffin. The four sons of Horus are also painted on the different scenes, and the deceased woman stands in front of the Ennead of gods. The djed-pillar, with symbols of the East and West, and a Sun with two uraei, are painted on the white background of the rear sides of the coffin. Discussion: The coffin was made during the Ptolemaic Period although the mummy inside does not belong to the same period. In 2010 it was discovered that the mummy is not the mummy of Kareset, but that of a man who lived in the middle of the 9th century BCE. This male mummy was probably placed in the coffin in the early 19th century by some antiquity traders. Bibliography: Ljubić 1889a: Mumije no. 4, 20; Monnet Saleh 1970: no. 898, 181; Uranić 2009: no. 116, 94, Figure 116, 96; Čavka 2012: 71-73; Tomorad 2017a: 54.
31. Coffin of Kareset (Figure 217) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Egyptian Department, E-668, on display. Ex-private collection of Franz Koller. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: early 19th century. Dating: 332–30 BCE, Hellenistic Period, 32nd–33rd Dynasty. Dimensions: L. 189 cm; W. 63 cm. Material: wood. Condition: well preserved. Description: Anthropomorphic coffin made for the lady Kareset. She was a daughter of Padi-Ptah. It consists of two separated sarcophagi – inner and outer. These
32. Alabastron (Figure 218) Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 1343, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: 4th–3rd century BCE, the Hellenistic period (332–30 BCE), 32nd–33rd Dynasty. Dimensions: H. 1.4 cm; W. 3 cm; D. 3.3 cm. Material: glass. Condition: well preserved. Description: Alabastron made by winding around a solid core. The elongated body with a rounded bottom is made of blue glass. The entire surface is decorated with feather pattern formed by yellow and light blue threads that stand out against the blue ground. Two small opposing handles are applied to the upper part of the body. Their function is decorative. The body of the alabastron tapers into a slender neck that runs into a broad, flaring mouth. The rim is rounded. Bibliography: Ratković Bukovčan 2001: no. 7, 16-17; Tomorad 2003a: 68, fn. 421; Ratković Tomorad 2005a: 13; Tomorad 2006a: 18; Ratković Bukovčan 2015: 79-80, Figure 89; Tomorad 2015a: 46; Tomorad 2017a: 67.
Figure 217. Coffin of Kareset. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Egyptian department, E-668. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
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Figure 218. Alabastron. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 1343. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum. Figure 219a-b. Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII tetradrachm. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, B1922. © Mladen Tomorad.
33. Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII tetradrachm (Figure 219a-b) Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Numismatic Department, B1922, not on display. Provenance: Syria. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: 36–33 BCE, Ptolemaic Period, 33rd Dynasty. Condition: well preserved Description: Marc Antony and Cleopatra VII tetradrachm. Head of Marc Antony in right profile. Part of the inscription ANTWNIOC AVTOKPATWP TPITON TPIWN ANDRWN is preserved. Bust of Cleopatra VII with diadem in hair in right profile. Part of the inscription BACILICCA KLEOPATRA QEA NEWTERA is preserved. Cf.: London: Previously unpublished. British Museum, BMC 56. 34. Small bowl (Figure 220) Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 1350, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: 1st century CE, Roman Empire. Dimensions: H. 4.4 cm; W. 17 cm. Material: glass. Condition: well preserved. Description: Bowl made using millefiori technique. The surface is made of hexagonal plaques of blue glass, in the centre of which are flowering lilac twig motifs. The bowl is shallow and round, and the upper part of the rim curves out slightly. The floral pattern is formed in the upper part of the vessel by pinching. The joints between plaques are clearly visible as the vessel was not polished. A thin ribbon formed by intertwining and spiralling threads of milky glass is applied to the rim. Bibliography: Tomorad 2003a: 65, fn. 407, 67, Figure 64; Ratković Bukovčan 2004: 20, no. 17, 76; Tomorad 2005a:
Figure 219b.
Figure 220. Small bowl. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 1350. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
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13; Tomorad 2006a: 18; Ratković Bukovčan 2015: 83, Figure 94; Tomorad 2015a: 46; Tomorad 2017a: 68.
Severus, minted in Alexandria. Bibliography: Mirnik 2016: no. 488, 176-177.
35. Roman imperial coin of Alexander Severus (Figure 221av/rv)
36. Fragment of Coptic linen tunic (Figure 222) Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 246, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: 5th–6th century CE. Dimensions: H. 24.8 cm; W. 21.7 cm. Material: linen and woollen cloth. Condition: well preserved. Description: Square fragment of a cloth. In the centre is a large square surrounded by double lines in brownyellow thread; between a part made from black thread. In the central circle a hare is embroidered in black thread. On all for angles there are square black-yellow geometric objects, and between them are four fishes made from black thread. Discussion: Fragment probably part of some tunic, and this is only surviving part. The rest of the cloth was perhaps cut into pieces and sold to other collectors by the same antiquities dealer. Bibliography: Previously unpublished. Tomorad 2003a: 65, fn. 407, 67, Figure 64; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 17; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 25,
Collection: Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb – Numismatic Department, C7959, not on display. Provenance: Egypt, Alexandrian Mint. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: 222–223 CE, Roman Empire, reign of Alexander Severus (222–235 CE). Dimensions: Wt. 12.32 g; Diam. Ɵ 23.5 cm. Material: bronze. Condition: well preserved. Description: Bust of Alexander Severus in right profile; wearing paludamentum, cuirass and aegis. Bust of Serapis with modius with lotus on the other side. In field LB. Dotted border. Discussion: From the 2nd year of reign of Alexander
Figure 221av/rv. Roman imperial coin of Alexander Severus. Zagreb: Archaeological Museum – Numismatic department, C7959. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 222. Fragment of Coptic linen tunic. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 246. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
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Bibliography: Previously unpublished. Tomorad 2003a: 65, fn. 408, 66, Figure 61; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 17; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 22, 93; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: no. 32, 72-73, Figure 80; Tomorad 2015a: 46; Tomorad 2017a: 66.
37. Coptic ampulla with image of St Menas (Figure 223)
38. Coptic oil lamp (Figure 224)
Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum - Archaeological Collection, ATM 351, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: 6th century CE. Dimensions: H. 12 cm; W. 10 cm. Material: terracotta. Condition: damaged; the top is missing. Description: Round ampulla with small handles on both sides. In the centre of the artefact is a carving of St Means, dressed in uniform of a Roman soldier: military tunic, short skirt and boots. He is standing between two camels. Discussion: Menas was a Roman soldier who refused to relinquish his Christian faith during the prosecutions at the beginning of 4th century CE. He became a saint after his martyrdom. In Late Antiquity ampullas like this were commonly crafted and used by pilgrims.
Collection: Zagreb: Mimara Museum – Archaeological Collection, ATM 357, on display. Ex-private collection of Ante Topić Mimara. Provenance: Egypt, unknown location. Date of discovery: unknown. Dating: 5th–7th century CE. Dimensions: H. 11.2 cm; W. 15 cm. Material: bronze. Condition: well preserved. Description: Typical Late Antiquity lamp with long nose; there is a thin handle on the other side of the nose. On top of the opening is a small round cover with a rooster on it. Bibliography: Tomorad 2003a: 65, fn. 406; Tomorad 2005a: 12; Tomorad 2006a: 17; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014: no. 17, 91-92, 107, Figure 17; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2015: no. 27, 70-71, Figure 75; Tomorad 2015a: 46; Tomorad 2017a: 66.
Figure 224. Coptic oil lamp. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 357. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
Figure 223. Coptic ampulla with image of St Menas. Zagreb: Mimara Museum, ATM 351. © Zagreb: Mimara Museum.
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Chapter IV. Egyptology in Croatia
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Development of Egyptology in Croatia Mladen Tomorad
Introduction In the middle of the 19th century, when the first scholars and expeditions began their work in the Near East and Egypt, Croatian historians and archaeologists were mostly concerned with their own national history. Until the early 20th century Croatian historians and archaeologist rarely studied ancient Egyptian antiquities and history. There are many reasons for this. Croatia was a relatively small state separated between Hungarians and Austrians in the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy. Because of the national movement after 1835, Croatian scholars were mostly concerned with the history of Croatian historical territory, from prehistory to the modern times. At the same time, the national museum collection had a relatively collection of original ancient Egyptian artefacts (between 3000 and 4000), which were divided between many institutional and private collections. As a poor, mostly peasant country, Croatia lacked the funds and scholars to engage directly in archaeological excavations in Egypt, or to study ancient Egyptian history, culture or religion. These issues prevented Croatia from starting independent research into Egypt and the Near East. From 1874, Croatian scholars could only study history at the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Zagreb.1086 At that time, the Department of World History did not have the relevant source materials, books, periodicals, and catalogues to enable scholars to study the history and culture of the Ancient Near East. Figure 225. Heinrich Brugsch. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.
The first collections of ancient Egyptian antiquities and initial research The first Egyptological research in Croatia began in 1869, when the famous German Egyptologist Heinrich Brugsch visited Zagreb’s National Museum. He was invited by Šime Ljubić (curator and director of the Archaeological department) to examine the newly acquired ancient Egyptian collection of Franz Koller.1087 The Koller Collection was bought from his relatives in 1868, and came to the National Museum at the end of April that year.1088 It contains around 2100 ancient
Egyptian artefacts, which were bought with the help of several Croatian enthusiasts and businessmen (Josip Juraj Strossmayer, Franjo Rački), aristocratic families (Drašković, Rauch, Janković, Vranizany-Dobrinović, etc.), and Juraj Haulik, Archbishop of Zagreb.1089 In 1867 and early 1868 they donated between them 3000 forints for the purchase of the Koller’s Egyptian collection.1090
Tomorad 2015a: 1; Tomorad 2018a: 251. Tomorad 2003a: 20; Tomorad 2015a: 3. 1088 Ljubić 1889a: 2; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 202; Tomorad 2003a:
20; Tomorad 2015a: 1; Tomorad 2016c: 328-329. 1089 Tomorad 2003a: 20. 1090 Ljubić 1889a: 1; Mirnik and Uranić 1999: 201; Tomorad 2003a:
1086 1087
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Egypt in Croatia and orientalists came to study this mummy, which at that time was still wrapped in its linen, inscribed with signs of an unknown language and script, as was noted by Brugsch in 1869. From the 1820s, several ancient Egyptian artefacts appeared in other various museums and private collections in Croatia. The largest and most important of these were formed in Split (from 1820), Dubrovnik (from 1872), Pula (from the second half of the 19th century), Osijek (from the end of the 19th century), and Zadar (from the end of the 19th century).1095 Various smaller collections also appeared in other regions of Croatia from the end of the 19th century.1096 Interest by international scholars in the ‘Zagreb Mummy’ and its linen wrappings had already begun by 1872, Brugsch informed Rudolf Krehl of his previous observations. Over the next 20 years the linen wrappings were studied by R. Krehl (1872), the Austrian Egyptologist Leo Reinisch (1873, 1878), the British travel writer and orientalist Richard F. Burton (1877, 1886), E. Brock (1878), and the British vice-consul in Trieste, Philip Proby Cautley (1878).1097 During the detailed research undertaken by the Austrian Egyptologist Jacob Krall in Vienna in 1891 and 1892, it was discovered that the mummy was wrapped in the longest known example of Etruscan text.1098 Soon after this the linen wrappings became known as the ‘Liber linteus zagrabiensis’. At the same time, the first successful photographs of these wrappings were made by J.M. Eder1099 (Figure 227). During the Viennese, J. Wiesner analysed the ink of the inscriptions and V. von Ebner examined the mummy’s hair.1100 Over the next 100 years and more there have been numerous monographs, articles, etc. on the mummy and its linen wrappings,1101 and today it is considered one of the most valuable artefacts of ancient history preserved in Croatia.
Figure 226. Šime Ljubić. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
After its arrival, in 1869, H. Brugsch (Figure 225) was the first to examine and catalogue the material.1091 Š. Ljubić (Figure 226), using Brugsch’s notes published the first catalogue of the collection in 1871.1092
The first Croatian scholars The Egyptian collections that were gradually forming in the museums and institutions, and the artefacts discovered during archaeological excavations on Croatian territory, enabled scholars to undertake their own Egyptological research. From 1869 many international scholars visited Zagreb and Split to study the Egyptian material kept there.
Since 1862 the Archaeological Department of the National Museum in Zagreb was augmented by several small donations of ancient Egyptian artefacts. The first, and most important of these smaller donations was in 1862, when Mihael Barić and his brother Ilija donated several ancient Egyptian items to the museum. Among these was the famous ‘Zagreb mummy’, with its linen Etruscan wrappings (‘Liber linteus Zagrabiensis’), and several other objects.1093 These were the first documented ancient Egyptian artefacts to enter the National Museum in early August 1862.1094 As a result of the work of Ljubić in Zagreb, many world scholars
For a full list of artefacts in Croatian collections, see: Tomorad 2005a; Tomorad 2017a: 52-90; Tomorad 2017c. 1096 Details in: Tomorad 2003a; Tomorad 2016c; Tomorad 2017a: 79-90. 1097 Tomorad 2003a: 83-89; Tomorad 2017a: 39. 1098 Tomorad 2003a: 85-86. 1099 Tomorad 2003a: 86. 1100 Tomorad 2003a: 86. 1101 Mirnik and Rendić-Miočević 1986; Mirnik and RendićMiočević 1987; Mirnik, Rendić-Miočević and Uranić 1996; Tomorad 2003a: 86-89; Tomorad 2003b; Tomorad 2017a: 36, 39. 1095
20; Tomorad 2016c: 328-329. 1091 Tomorad 2003a: 83-84; Tomorad 2017a: 39. 1092 Ljubić 1871; Tomorad 2015a: 4; Tomorad 2017a: 37, 39. 1093 Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, E-664-E665. 1094 Tomorad 2003a: 83; Tomorad 2017a: 36.
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Figure 228. Gavro Manojlović. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.
Figure 227. Fragment of the linen clothing from the wrappings of Zagreb Mummy. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
During the 1870s and early 1880s, the first scholars to interest themselves in Ancient Egyptian civilisation arrived at the Archaeological Department of the National Museum in Zagreb (Š. Ljubić) and the Department of World History at the Faculty of Philosophy in Zagreb (G. Manojlović)1102 (Figure 228). At the same time, several important Croatian cultural and political figures, such as Josip Juraj Strossmayer, Franjo Rački and Izidor Kršnjavi, began publishing on the collections of ancient Egyptian artefacts in Croatia.1103 In the second half of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, Croatian archaeological journals linked to museums in Zagreb and Split began to publish many articles written by researchers such as Frane Bulić (1846–1934) (Figure 229), Josip Brunšmid (1858–1929) (Figure 230), and Viktor Hoffiller (1877–1954) on the appearance of ancient Egyptian cults within the borders of Roman Pannonia and Dalmatia. During the 19th and first half of the 20th century, many works, both
1102 1103
Figure 229. Frane Bulić. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.
Tomorad 2018a: 251. Tomorad 2003a: 91-92.
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Figure 230. Josip Brunšmid. Zagreb: Archive of the Archaeological Museum. © Zagreb: Archaeological Museum.
Figure 231. Grga Novak. Zagreb: Archive of the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zagreb. © Zagreb: University of Zagreb.
international1104 and local,1105 appeared on the famous Egyptian sphinxes from Diocletian’s Palace in Split. Development of Egyptological studies at the Universities At the end of the 19th century and early 20th century the first scholars to interest themselves in the history of the Ancient Near East and Egypt appeared at the University of Zagreb. The first was Gavro Manojlović (1856–1938), Professor of History of the Ancient World at the Faculty of Philosophy.1106 In 1925 he was succeeded by Grga Novak (1888–1978), Professor of Ancient History1107 (Figure 231). After Novak’s retirement in 1959 his post remained open for several years,1108 before Petar Selem (1936–2015) (Figure 232) was appointed in 1964. He was the first Croatian Egyptologist to study the history and culture of the Ancient Near East and Egypt in Paris and Strasbourg.1109 After Selem retired in 2006, his subjects at the Faculty of Philosophy were taught by M. Tomorad, I. Vilogorac Brčić, and I. Uranić.1110 M. Tomorad began teaching Ancient Egyptian history 1104 For details of these articles and books, see: Tomorad 2003a: 9293, 102. 1105 Bulić and Karaman 1927; Novak 1932. 1106 Tomorad 2003a: 108-115; Tomorad 2018a: 251-252. 1107 Tomorad 2003a: 115-134; Tomorad 2018a: 253-254. 1108 Tomorad 2018a: 255. 1109 Tomorad 2003a: 169; Tomorad 2018a: 255. 1110 Tomorad 2018a: 256.
Figure 232. Petar Selem. © Mladen Tomorad.
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Until the end of 1990s, Ancient Egyptian history and culture were rarely studied by Croatian historians. At that time the focus was mostly on aspects of the diffusion of ancient Egyptian cults in Illyricum and the artefacts kept in the country’s museums and institutions. Such material was studied in the main by a wide spectrum of historians, archaeologists, art historians, and in some cases philologists. These researchers mostly studied traces of ancient Egyptian civilisation to be found within Croatian territory during the Graeco-Roman period.1114 From the early 20th century, several Croatian scholars (e.g. F.S. Gundrum Oriovčanin, G. Novak, A. Štampar, D. Rendić-Miočević, M. Gorenc, P. Selem, I. Mirnik, A. Rendić-Miočević, M. Tomorad, I. Uranić) have visited Egypt. Some have published their accounts in newspapers and journals (i.e. F. Gundrum Oriovčanin, G. Novak, A. Štampar).1115 Others have recorded their experiences in the form of the professional reports that are now in museum records (D. Rendić-Miočević, M. Gorenc, A. Rendić-Miočević).1116 The first phase of the development of Egyptology in Croatia started in 1862, when the first Egyptian artefacts (from the private collections of Barić and, later, Koller) entered the National Museum in Zagreb. The first examinations of these Egyptian artefacts were carried out by the curator Mijat Sabljar, who examined the Barić material in the summer of 1862.1117 By the end of the 19th century these specific collections began to attract the interest of other scholars – both local and international – and, at the same time, Egyptian artefacts in other collections were also being investigated.1118
Figure 233. Petar Lisičar. Zagreb: Archive of the Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža. © Zagreb: Lexicographic Institute Miroslav Krleža.
at the University of Zagreb in 2009 and still has the position today.1111
The first publications on Ancient Egyptian civilisation in Croatia were related to the country’s museum and private collections. The first works, mostly catalogues, were prepared and published by Š. Ljubić,1119 and based on studies of the Koller Collection in Zagreb’s National Museum. In 1887 Ljubić also wrote and published the first article written by a Croatian scholar on the diffusion of ancient Egyptian cults in the Graeco-Roman world: the topic was the statuette of Harpocrates discovered in northern Croatia, which came to the museum around the same time.1120
The new Department of History was opened at the Faculty of Philosophy in Zadar in the 1950s: it was the first such department outside Zagreb and its first ancient history professor was Petar Lisičar (1908–1987) (Figure 233).1112 From the late 1980s several other departments were opened in Osijek, Rijeka, Pula, Split, and Zagreb – where students of history could study Ancient Egyptian history, mostly as part of the general study of the Ancient World within their 1st year BA programme.1113 Phases of the development of Egyptology in Croatia
From the late 1870s, numerous articles on analyses of ancient Egyptian artefacts discovered in Croatia appeared in various journals.1121 Most were published by
Croatian interest and studies into Ancient Egypt mostly developed over several stages, starting with the development of the first Egyptian collections. This development was slow, and we can divide it into several phases.
For a detailed analysis, see Tomorad 2003a. Tomorad and Štimac 2016; Tomorad 2018d; Tomorad 2018g. 1116 Tomorad 2003a: 165. 1117 Tomorad 2003a: 31. 1118 Tomorad 2003a: 81-98. 1119 Ljubić 1871; Ljubić 1889a; Ljubić 1889b. 1120 Ljubić 1887. 1121 Tomorad 2014: 419-448. 1114 1115
Tomorad 2018a: 258. Tomorad 2003a: 166-169; Tomorad 2018a: 256-257. 1113 Tomorad 2018a: 257-259. 1111 1112
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Egypt in Croatia F. Bulić1122 and J. Brunšmid1123 at the end of the 19th and early on in the 20th century, but many other Croatian and foreign scholars also published at that time.1124 At the end of 19th century the first translation of Herodotus’ Histories was published in Croatian.1125 A few years earlier, in 1883, the first monograph on the history of the Ancient Near East was published in Zagreb – Histoire des peuples de l’Orient, written by the famous French Egyptologist Gaston Maspero; this was translated into Croatian (Poviest iztočnih naroda u starom vieku)1126 by Gavro Manojlović, who soon after was appointed professor of Ancient History at the University of Zagreb.1127 The second phase of the development of Egyptology in Croatia started at the beginning of the 20th century, concluding in the 1950s. During that phase the first professors interested in the history and culture of Ancient Egypt joined the University of Zagreb (G. Manojlović, G. Novak). Other scholars continued to research institutional collections around Croatia at the same time and focused on the presence and diffusion of Isis cults within Croatian territory in the Roman period. During this second phase, the first monographs and encyclopaedia articles were written by Croatian scholars.1128 G. Manojlović1129 published Povijest Starog Orijenta (History of the Ancient Near East) in 19231130 (Figure 234), it was the first book attempting to provide a comprehensive historical account of the Ancient Near East up until the 12th century BCE. In 1927 Manojlović also wrote a philosophical approach to history entitled Sile pokretnice i pravilnosti u univerzalnoj historiji (The Universal Forces and Laws of History), in which he included certain elements of the history of the Ancient Near East and Egypt.1131
Figure 234. Gavro Manojlović. Povijest starog orijenta. Knjiga I. Od najstarijih vremena do u jedanaesto stoljeće prije Isusa. Zagreb: Matica hrvatska, 1923.
articles and a monograph on Egypt and its history.1132 He also travelled to Egypt several times and published his accounts in various newspaper articles and a book.1133 During the 1930s and ’40s his public lectures and newspaper articles enabled a much wider public audience to become interested in Ancient Egypt’s history and culture.1134 He also wrote the first articles in the Croatian Encyclopaedia on the history and culture of Ancient Egypt.1135 His most important work was his book Egipat – prethistorija, faraoni, osvajači, kultura (Egypt – Prehistory, the Pharaohs, conquerors, culture)1136 (Figure 235), which was the first monograph on the civilisation written by any Croatian scholar.
From the early 20th century, Grga Novak, archaeologist, historian and first amateur Croatian Egyptologist, worked as a professor at the Department of History at the Faculty of Philosophy in Zagreb. During his academic career Novak published a great number of Bulić 1879; Bulić 1885; Bulić 1886; Bulić 1887; Bulić 1888; Bulić 1896; Bulić 1896; Bulić 1903; Bulić 1908; Bulić 1910a; Bulić 1910b; Bulić 1910c; Bulić and Karaman 1927. 1123 Brunšmid 1897; Brunšmid 1904; Brunšmid 1905; Brunšmid 1907; Brunšmid 1914. 1124 For an analysis of these publications, see: Tomorad 2014: 419448. 1125 Herodotus, The Histories published in Croatian as Herodotova povijest (1887); the translation from ancient Greek was by August Musić. 1126 Maspero 1883. 1127 Tomorad 2018a: 252. 1128 Tomorad 2003a: 99-134. 1129 Tomorad 2003a: 108-115; Tomorad 2018a: 251-252. 1130 Manojlović 1923. 1131 Manojlović 1927. 1122
Petar Lisičar was another important university professor. Between 1956 and 1975 he published four academic textbooks on the history of Ancient Egypt1137 Tomorad 2003a: Novak 1933a-m; Novak 1935; Novak 1946a. Tomorad 2003a: 116-127. 1135 Novak 1934; Novak 1941a-c; Novak 1945a-b. 1136 Novak 1967. 1137 Lisičar 1956. 1132 1133 1134
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Figure 235. Grga Novak. Egipat – prethistorija, faraoni, osvajači, kultura. Zagreb, 1967.
Figure 236. Josip Broz Tito and Jovanka Broz infront of Abu Simbel, 1962. Beograd: Museum of Yugoslavia, 1962-189-164. © Beograd: Museum of Yugoslavia.
and the Ancient Near East.1138 He also published an article on the diffusion of the Isis cult within Croatian territory.1139
The third phase of the development of Egyptology in Croatia started at the beginning of the 1960s and ended with the new millennium. During this phase the first Croatian Egyptologists were trained aboard (P. Selem, I. Uranić). The focus of the research was related to the various aspects of the diffusion of the Isis cults in Istria and Illyricum, but with certain aspects of the social background to these cults.1141 At the same time the first papers and books associated with Egyptian music,1142 literature,1143 architecture,1144 and religion1145 were also written by Croatian scholars.
In the mid-1950s, Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980) and Gamal Abdel Naser (1918–1970) created the foundations for very good political, economic and cultural cooperations between Yugoslavia and Egypt. Tito visited Egypt as many as 17 times between up until 1980, with the first trip from 28th December 1955 to 6th January 1956 (Figure 236). During the numerous meetings between the two leaders, many gifts were exchanged. Tito received from the Egyptian government several ancient Egyptian artefacts that can be seen today in the Museum of Yugoslavia, Belgrade.1140
1141 These articles were written by N. Cambi, V. Jurkić-Girardi, B. Kuntić-Makvić, J. Medini, M. Nikolanci, P. Selem and M. Suić. 1142 Antić 1971; Andreis 1989. 1143 Selem 1973a; Selem 1973b; Selem 1976; Petrović 1982; Višić 1989; Višić 1993. 1144 Gvozdanović 1962; Milić 1990; Hudec 1998. 1145 Gospodinović 1993; Uranić 1997.
Lisičar 1966; Lisičar 1972; Lisičar 1975. Lisičar 1961. 1140 Tomorad 2018g. 1138 1139
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Egypt in Croatia During this period three centres developed autonomously within the territory of Yugoslavia that were interested in exploring ancient Egyptian culture and history (Belgrade, Zagreb and Ljubljana). Sava P. Tutundžić and Miroslava Panić worked in Belgrade at the Department of Philosophy in Belgrade. Two further centres were created in Zagreb: the Department of History of the Faculty of Philosophy, with Professor Petar Selem, and Zagreb’s Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, where Duje Rendić-Miočević, Marcel Gorenc, Ivan Mirnik and Ante Rendić-Miočević published on the Egyptian collections. Meanwhile Bernarda Perc worked in Ljubljana, linked to the National Museum and the Faculty of Philosophy.1146 The academic career of Petar Selem began at the beginning of the 1960s and he was the most important Croatian Orientalist and Egyptologist of the second half of the 20th century. He studied Egyptology and the history and art of the Ancient Near East in Strasbourg and Paris, under the supervision of the famous French Egyptologist J. Leclant.1147 From the early 1960s until his death in 2015, Selem published innumerable articles and books related to the various aspects of the diffusion of Oriental and Egyptian cults within the Roman provinces of Pannonia and Dalmatia;1148 these articles looked in detail at the many questions raised by these cults in Croatia.1149 As professor of Ancient Egyptian history, he also published several Old Kingdom and 1st Intermediate period sources in Croatian,1150 his most important publication being Izidin trag, published in 19971151 (Figure 237).
Figure 237. Petar Selem, Izidin trag. Split: Splitski književni krug, 1997.
Archaeological Museum in Zagreb was presented with a sarcophagus and mummy from the 21st Dynasty. The sarcophagus was donated in 1973, and after political machinations between the Yugoslav republics as to where the sarcophagus should go on display, it was decided that it should be kept permanently in the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, where the largest Egyptian collection in Yugoslavia was located.1152 A further result of these issues between individual republics and research centres was that a concession for archaeological excavations in Egypt never came to life. The inability to negotiate on the part of Slovenian, Croatian and Belgrade archaeologists and historians ultimately resulted in the loss of the concession for excavation.
During the second half of the 20th century, specific written contributions by experts resulted to do with analyses of the diverse artefacts held in Croatia’s museums (M. Gorenc, D. Pinterović, D. Rendić-Miočević , V. Jurkić-Girardi, P. Selem, N. Cambi, I. Mirnik, H. Kadić, A. Rendić-Miočević, I. Uranić, etc.). There were also series of newspaper articles and historical monographs (G. Novak, P. Lisičar, I. Uranić), and articles on Oriental cults (P. Selem, J. Medini, M. Suić, N. Cambi, V. JurkićGirardi), Egyptian literature (P. Selem, S. Petrović, M. Višić), mythology (P. Selem, B. Gospodinović, I. Uranić), and Egyptian architecture (S. Gvozdanović, B. Milić, M. Hudec). In 1974, as a symbol of friendship and gratitude for the assistance Yugoslavia provided to Egypt during the rescue of the monuments of ancient Nubia, the
In 1978, Bernarda Perc, the only Slovenian Egyptologist to achieve a good level of co-operation with numerous Egyptological centres around the world, succeeded in organising the event called ‘Week of the Ancient Near East’ in Ljubljana (25th September – 1st October). As part of this event, a scientific symposium ‘Problems of the Ancient Egypt’ was held, where Duje Rendić-
Tomorad 2018g. Tomorad 2003a: 169; Tomorad 2018a: 255. 1148 Selem 1961; Selem 1963a; Selem 1963b; Selem 1969; Selem 1970; Selem 1971; Selem 1972; Selem 1979; Selem 1980; Selem 1988; Selem 1993; Selem 1997; Selem 1999; Selem 2000; Selem 2002; Selem 2006; Selem 2008; Selem 2009; Selem 2012; Selem 2015. 1149 Tomorad 2003a: 169-180. 1150 Selem 1973a-b; Selem 1976; Selem 1977. 1151 Selem 1997. 1146 1147
1152
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Tomorad 2003a: 142.
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Miočević, Marcel Gorenc and Petar Selem participated as Croatian representatives.1153 At the end of the 1970s, the exhibition ‘The Art of Ancient Egypt’ was supposed to be held in Yugoslavia. Duje Rendić-Miočević and Marcel Gorenc, both from the Zagreb Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, were discussing its organisation on their study trip to Egypt in December 1977.1154 According to an agreement between the Egyptian and Yugoslav delegations, a large travelling exhibition was to be organised for Ljubljana, Zagreb, Sarajevo and Belgrade (for two months in each city in 1979); it was even suggested that a collection of artefacts from Tutankhamun’s tomb would follow in 1980.1155 Unfortunately these plans were never finalised because of an inability to reach agreement between the political and cultural institutions of the Yugoslav Republics. The active co-operation of museum institutions at the end of the 1970s continued with a study tour of museums in Egypt (2nd–10th December 1979), during which several experts from Zagreb’s Archaeological Museum in Zagreb had the chance to compare their collection with those of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and determine the value of items held in Croatia.1156 Sadly, however, the archival reports from that time provide no information on the achievements and information acquired on that particular visit.
Figure 238. Igor Uranić, Stari Egipat – Povijest, književnost i umjetnost drevnih Egipćana. Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 2002.
The fourth and last phase of the development of Egyptology in Croatia began in early 2000. Over the last 20 years many new aspects of research on the history and culture of ancient Egypt have flourished, and three Croatian scholars have studied Egyptology aboard (M. Tomorad, D. Rafaelić and P. Ščukanec-Rezniček). At the same time interest in ancient Egyptian history has increased significantly within Croatian universities. In 2003 a first Egyptological project – Croato-Aegyptica Electronica – was initiated, the main aim of which is to develop a unified online Egyptological database of artefacts related to Egyptian culture in Croatia. The first website was created in 2004, but various technical issues meant that the site was closed in 2014. In 2015 a new website (croato-aegyptica.starapovijest.eu) was created for this project, using a bilingual Croatian-English database. Over the same period, studies in almost all fields of Egyptology were undertaken by Croatian scholars (notably I. Brčić Vilogorac, M. Čavka, M. Kovač, D. Rafaelić, P. Selem, K. Šekrst, M. Tomorad, and I. Uranić), and numerous articles have been published (history, art history, history of collections, history of Egyptology in Croatia, travellers to Egypt, Egyptomania, funerary customs and beliefs, architecture, religion, medical studies, analysis of artefacts in Croatian
collections, Egyptian languages, etc.). Important books have also been published, including monographs by I. Uranić and M. Tomorad. Igor Uranić started his academic career as the second Croatian Egyptologist in the early 1990s. He studied Egyptology at the University of Budapest at the end of the 1980s and soon after joined Zagreb’s Archaeological Museum in Zagreb as curator of the Egyptian department.1157 He started immediately to analyse the material systematically and publish articles on what is the largest Egyptian collection in Croatia.1158 To date he has published a great deal on the history and culture of ancient Egypt. His most significant works include those related to religion (Sinovi Sunca (1997) and Ozirisova zemlja (2005)), history, and literature (Stari Egipat – Povijest, književnost i umjetnost drevnih Egipćana (2002, 2005) (Figure 238), Životi Egipćana (2013)). He has also published a guide and catalogue of the Ancient Egyptian Collection in Zagreb.1159 At the end of 2012, Tomorad 2003a: 180-188. Uranić 1990; Uranić 1992; Uranić 1994; Uranić 1996a; Uranić 1996b; Uranić 1999a; Uranić 2003a; Uranić 2003b; Uranić 2004; Uranić 2005c; Uranić 2006; Uranić 2009; Uranić, Čavka and Petaros 2012. 1159 Uranić 2005a; Uranić 2009. 1157 1158
Tomorad 2003a: 164. Tomorad 2003a: 163-64. 1155 Tomorad 2003a: 163-165. 1156 Tomorad 2003a: 165. 1153 1154
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Figure 239. Mladen Tomorad, Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. I.: Povijest i kultura starog Egipta. Zagreb: Hrvatski studiji, 2016.
in Croatia and international,1163 funerary customs, architecture, religion,1164 history, and every-day in ancient Egypt from prehistory to the Arab conquest.1165 From 2003 M. Tomorad has also been director of the first Egyptological project in Croatia – CroatoAegyptica Electronica1166 – and the main editor of two websites related to the history of the ancient world and Egypt.1167 He has published several books on Ancient Egypt (Egipat u Hrvatskoj (2003), The History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture Conducted in Southeast Europe (2015), Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. I: Povijest i kultura starog Egipta (2016) (Figure 239), Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II: Uvod u egiptološke studije (2017) (Figure 240), Egypt 2015: Perspectives of Research. Proceedings of the Seventh European Conference of Egyptologists (2nd–7th June, 2015, Zagreb) (2017), and Slavne žene stare povijesti (2018)).
Uranić and Kristina Šekrst began a series of lectures on the ancient Egyptian language at the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. A result of their cooperation is the first book on the language and grammar written by Croatian scholars.1160 Mladen Tomorad started his academic career as an assistant in the Ancient History Department within the Faculty of Philosophy in Zagreb. He studied history and museology in Zagreb, and Egyptology in Manchester. He began his research in the mid-1990s at the Department of History, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zagreb, where he worked from 2000 to 2011. Since 2011 he has been professor of Ancient History in the Department of History and Croatian Studies at Zagreb. Over the last 20 years his research has centred on material held in institutional and private collections in Croatia,1161 the diffusion of ancient Egyptian cults during the GraecoRoman period,1162 the development of Egyptology
Tomorad 2016b; Tarasenko and Tomorad 2017; Tomorad 2017d; Tomorad 2017e; Tomorad 2017f; Tomorad 2018b; Tomorad 2018c. 1163 Tomorad 2003a; Tomorad 2004b; Tomorad, Čavka, Uranić and Šekrst 2015; Tomorad 2016c; Tomorad 2017a. 1164 Tomorad 2000; Tomorad 2002; Tomorad 2004a; Tomorad 2005b; Tomorad 2005c; Tomorad 2006b; Tomorad 2006c; Tomorad 2009a; Tomorad 2009d; Tomorad 2009f; Tomorad 2011; Tomorad 2012b; Tomorad 2012c; Tomorad 2012d; Tomorad 2014b; Tomorad 2015d; Tomorad 2015g; Tomorad 2016a. 1165 Tomorad 2004d; Tomorad 2008; Tomorad 2009e; Tomorad 2016a; Tomorad 2016d. 1166 Tomorad 2004c; Tomorad 2007b; Tomorad 2009b; Tomorad, Čavka, Uranić and Šekrst 2015; Tomorad and Zlodi 2015; Tomorad 2017a. 1167 Croato-Aegyptica Electronica (www.croato-aegyptica.hr) and Stara povijest (www.starapovijest.eu).
Šekrst and Uranić 2014. Tomorad 2000; Tomorad 2002; Tomorad 2003a; Tomorad 2003b; Tomorad 2004a; Tomorad 2005a; Tomorad 2006a; Tomorad 2006b; Tomorad and Uranić 2006a; Tomorad and Uranić 2006b; Tomorad 2007a; Tomorad 2007b; Tomorad 2009a; Tomorad 2011; Tomorad 2012b; Tomorad 2012e; Čukman Nikolić and Tomorad 2014; Tomorad 2015b; Tomorad 2015f; Tomorad 2016c; Tomorad 2017c; Tomorad 2017d; Tomorad 2017f; Tomorad 2018c. 1162 Tomorad 2000; Tomorad 2004a; Tomorad 2005b; Tomorad 2005c; Tomorad 2006b; Pernjak and Tomorad 2014; Tomorad 2014a; Pernjak, Štruklec and Tomorad 2014; Tomorad and Deac 2014; Tomorad 2015c; Tomorad and Sliwa 2015; Tomorad 2016a; 1160 1161
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Figure 240. Mladen Tomorad, Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II.: Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb: Hrvatski studiji, 2017.
Figure 241. International scientific conference Istraživanje povijesti i kulture starog Istoka i Egipta na prostoru jugoistočne Europe, Zagreb, 18 – 20 June 2012.
Figure 242. Programme of the international conference CECE7 – VIIth European Conference of Egyptologists. Egypt 2015: Perspectives of Research. Zagreb, 2 – 7 June 2015.
233
Egypt in Croatia Exhibitions The first exhibition of Ancient Egyptian antiquities in Croatia was put on in the early 1870s, when selected items from the Koller Collection were presented to the general public in the National Museum in Zagreb. Various other artefacts were also part of permanent exhibitions in other Croatian museums from the late 19th century. The selection of the permanent exhibition of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb changed several times, the first of these was in 1975,1168 and the latest selection was made in spring 2005.1169 The first temporary exhibition (entitled Povoji Zagrebačke mumije) as organised in the National Museum in Zagreb in November and December 1936.1170 Most of the other temporary exhibitions were held in Zagreb’s Archaeological Museum in Zagreb: Staroegipatski arheološki spomenici i dokumentacija zaštite spomenika Egipta i Nubije, Skulpturalni drveni sarkofag iz starog Egipta (XXI. dinastija) (1975, January – April),1171 Egipatska brončana plastika (December 1978 – February 1979),1172 Egipatski skarabeji (1981, March – July),1173 Bogovi, duhovi i demoni starog Egipta (October 1999 – May 2000),1174 Mumije – mit i znanost (December 2012 – February 2013).1175 Other temporary exhibitions were presented in the Archaeological Museum of Istria in Pula (Egipatski skarabeji, 1981;1176 Egipatska zbirka Arheološkog muzej u Zagrebu, 1986;1177 Egipatska religija i antička Istra, 2001).1178 In the Museum of Moslavina in Kutina the private collection of Dražen Kovačević and Žarko Bošnjak was presented to the public in June 1991.1179 In 2000 in the Museum of Contemporary Art in Zagreb there was also an exhibition entitled The Archaeological Collection of Benko Horvat that included several ancient Egyptian artefacts.1180 In the Archaeological Museum in Dubrovnik the exhibition Egipatska zbrika Arheološkog muzeja u Dubrovniku was opened in March 2003.1181 During the summer of 2012 the same exhibition was presented to the public in the Archaeological Museum of Narona in Vid, near Metković.1182 The Museum of Slavonia in Osijek opened in 2013 an exhibition called Ulaznica za
Figure 243. Poster of the exhibition Egipat u Hrvatskoj – hrvatska fascinacija starim Egiptom – Egypt in Croatia – Croatian fascination with Ancient Egypt. Zagreb: Museum Mimara, 20 September – 14 October 2018.
A significant increase in international connections has enabled the organisation of three international Egyptological conferences in Zagreb since 2012 (Research of the history and culture of Ancient Egypt in Southeast Europe (June 2012) (Figure 241); CECE7 – The 7th European conference of Egyptologists (June 2015) (Figure 242); Egypt and Austria XII (September 2018)). At these three conferences, run by the Department of History and Croatian Studies of the University of Zagreb, around 150 papers were presented by scholars from various European countries, Egypt, Australia, and the USA. These conferences generated new connections and several new areas of cooperation that resulted in student exchanges, invited lectures, project, books and articles.
Gorenc 1979; Tomorad 2003a: 140-144. Uranić 2005a. 1170 Tomorad 2003a: 40. 1171 Tomorad 2003a: 40. 1172 Tomorad 2003a: 40. 1173 Tomorad 2003a: 40. 1174 Tomorad 2003a: 40. 1175 Uranić, Čavka and Petaros 2012. 1176 Tomorad 2003a: 144. 1177 Tomorad 2003a: 144. 1178 Tomorad 2003a: 147. 1179 Tomorad 2003a: 145. 1180 Tomorad 2003a: 146. 1181 Menalo 2003. 1182 Egipatska zbirka Arheološkog muzeja u Dubrovniku (http://www. dumus.hr/hr/arheoloski-muzej/izlozbe/egipatska-zbirkaarheoloskog-muzeja-u-dubrovniku/). 1168 1169
In September and October 2018, the Mimara Museum in Zagreb put on the exhibition Egypt in Croatia: Croatian fascination with Ancient Egypt was held in (Figure 243). This was the first exhibition in Croatia to cover all aspects of Egyptological research, from Antiquity to modern times. 234
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drugi svijet. Egipatska zbirka Muzeja Slavonije.1183 During September and October 2018, the exhibition Egypt in Croatia: Croatian fascination with Ancient Egypt was held at the Mimara Museum in Zagreb.1184 In early September 2019 the latest exhibition, to be called Egyptian treasure in Osijek – Croatian fascination with Ancient Egypt, will open in the Archaeological Musuem Osijek.
Bugarski-Mesdjian, A. 2004. Les ‘cultes Orientaux’ en Dalmatie Romaine. Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju dalmatinsku 96: 563-718. Bulić, F. 1879. Le gemme del Museo di Spalato. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata II: 147. Bulić, F. 1885. Descrizione delle lucerne fittili che si conservano nell’ I. R. Museo di Spalato. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata VIII: 127. Bulić, F. 1886. Descrizione delle lucerne fittili che si conservano nell’ I. R. Museo di Spalato. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata X: 127. Bulić, F. 1887. Descrizione delle lucerne fittili che furono aquistate dell’ I. R. Museo di Spalato. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata X: 192. Bulić, F. 1888. Le Gemme del Museo di Spalato. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata XI: 15, 20, 84, 165, 179, 180. Bulić, F. 1896. Le gemme del Museo di Spalato. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata XIX: 28. Bulić, F. 1903. Le Gemme dell’ I. R. Museo di Spalato. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata XXVI: 112. Bulić, F. 1908. Materiale e provenieza della pietra, delle colonne, nonchè delle sfingi del Palazzo di Diocleziano a Spalato e delle colonne ecc. delle basiliche cristiane a Salona. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata XXXI: 98101. Bulić, F. 1910a. Escavi nella necropoli antica pagana di Salona detta Hortus Metrodori negli anni 1909. e. 1910. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata XXXIII: 30. Bulić, F. 1910b. Appendice all’ articolo escavi nell’ Hortus Metrodori. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata XXXIII: 134, 135. Bulić, F. 1910c. Le Gemme dell’ I. R. Museo di Spalato. Bullettino di archeologia e storia Dalmata XXXIII: 142. Bulić, F. 1927. Dvije riječi o figuri ‘Bes’-a na jednoj brončanoj vazi u splitskom arheološkom Muzeju. Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju dalmatinsku XLIX: 105. Bulić, F. and Karaman, Lj. 1927. Palača cara Dioklecijana u Splitu. Zagreb. Cambi, N. 1971. Nove potvrde egipatskih kultova u antičkoj provinciji Dalmaciji. Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju dalmatinsku LXV-LXVII: 85-107. Čukman Nikolić, I. and Tomorad, M. 2014. Artefacts from the Ancient Near East and Egypt in the Collection of Archaeology of the Mimara Museum in Zagreb, Croatia, in: M. Tomorad (ed.), Research of the history and culture of the Ancient Near East in Southeast Europe: 1. Croatia – Selected problems: 85-126. Saarbrücken. Džin, K. 2001. Egipatske votivne figurice u lararijima, in: K. Džin (ed.), Egipatska religija i antička Istra: 18-21. Pula. Džin, K. 2005. The cult of Sabasius in Pula. Histria antiqua 13. Brijuni-Medulin-Pula: 345-351. Filipović, S. 1997a. Arheološki odjel, in: M. Radić (ed.), Muzej Slavonije Osijek 1877–1997: Blago muzeja Slavonije: 49-51. Osijek.
Conclusion As we can see in the previous discussion, Egyptology in Croatia slowly developed over several phases. From the early analysis of Croatian institutional collections to modern forms of research, historians and Egyptologists have managed to develop Croatian Egyptological studies. We still do not have university study of Egyptology per se, but almost all aspects of Egyptology can be found within various university programmes, mostly at the University in Zagreb. The only elements still lacking are a domestic society and/or institution to help develop Croatian efforts even further. All of us who study Ancient Egyptian history and culture hope that something along these lines will be soon materialise. Were also hope that joint international cooperation between international universities and institutions will allow Croatian scholars to start excavations in Egypt. For now, we must just wait and see what the future will bring. Bibliography Andreis, J. 1989. Povijest glazbe. Zagreb. Antić, B. 1971. Muzička enciklopedija Leksikografskog zavoda I. s. v. ‘Egipatska muzika’: 23-26. Zagreb. Bobovec, A. 1991. Egipatska kolekcija Kovačević–Bošnjak. Kutina. Brunšmid, J. 1897. Nekoliko našašća novca na skupu u Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji. Našašće italskih i afrikanskih novaca u Mazinu. Vjesnik hrvatskog arheološkog društva n. s. II (1896/1897): 42-49, 58-67, 79-80. Brunšmid, J. 1904. Kameni spomenici hrvatskog narodnoga muzeja u Zagrebu. Vjesnik hrvatskog arheološkog društva n. s. VII. Brunšmid, J. 1905. Kameni spomenici hrvatskog narodnoga muzeja u Zagrebu. Vjesnik hrvatskog arheološkog društva n. s. VIII. Brunšmid, J. 1907. Kameni spomenici hrvatskog narodnoga muzeja u Zagrebu. Vjesnik hrvatskog arheološkog društva n. s. IX. Brunšmid, J. 1914. Antikni figuralni bronsani predmeti u hrvatskom narodnom muzeju u Zagrebu. Vjesnik hrvatskog arheološkog društva n. s. XIII. Bugarski-Mesdjian, A. 1999. Le forum de Zadar et les ‘Cultes Orientaux’. Histria Antiqua 5/99: 67-74.
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Tomorad, M. 2016d. Aegyptiaca and various forms of Egyptomania in Croatia, in: N. Guilhou (ed.), Liber Amicorum – Speculum Siderum: Nut Astrophoros – Paper presented to Alicia Maravelia: 349-364. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017a. Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II: Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2017b. Jakov Šašel (Jacob Schaschel) and his travels to Egypt, Nubia and Africa 1853–52, in: N. Cooke and V. Daubney (eds), Lost and Now Found: Explorers, Diplomats and Artist in Egypt and the Near East: 49-70. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017c. The Ancient Egyptian Collections in Croatia and the Project Croato-Aegyptica Electronica, in: C. Derricks (ed.), Collections at Risk – New Challenges in a New Environment: 237-268. Atlanta. Tomorad, M. 2017d. Shabtis from the Museum and Private Collections in Croatia: Dating and Typological Study, in: M. Tomorad and J. PopielskaGrzybowska (eds), Egypt 2015: Perspectives of Research. Proceedings of the Seventh European Conference of Egyptologists (2nd–7th June 2015, Zagreb – Croatia): 219239. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017e. Shabtis from the Late and GraecoRoman Periods: Proposal for the Classification (Typology) of Shabtis Discovered Outside Egypt, in: K.A. Kóthay (ed.). Burial and Mortuary Practices in Late Period and Graeco-Roman Egypt: 323-336, Pl. 74-77. Budapest. Tomorad, M. 2017f. The Ancient Egyptian shabtis discovered in the regions of Roman Illyricum (Dalmatia, Pannonia) and Istria: provenance, collections, typological study and dating, in: G. Rosati and M.C. Guidotti (eds), Proceedings of the XI International Congress of Egyptologists (Florence, Italy 23–30 August 2015): 650-655. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2018a. Sveučilišna nastava povijesti starog Egipta u Hrvatskoj (1874.–2015.): povijest i mogućnosti razvoja, in: D. Agičić and B. Janković (eds), Sveučilišna nastava povijesti u Hrvatskoj: 251261. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2018b. Various manifestations of Isis cult in the region of Istria, Illyricum and Pannonia and its diffusion to the Central European Region (2nd c. B.C. – 4th c. A.D.). Shodoznanvstvo 81: 58-99. Tomorad, M. 2018c. The Ancient Egyptian collection of the Franciscan Monastery on the island of Košljun: A case study of the possible evidence of the earlier penetration of Ancient Egyptian artefacts in Illyricum, in: M. Milićević Bradač and D. Demicheli (eds), The Century of the Brave: Roman conquest and indigenous resistance in Illyricum during the time of Augustus and his heirs – Proceedings of the international conference, Zagreb, 22–26. 9. 2014: 397-405. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2018d. Fran Gundrum Oriovčanin (1856– 1919) and his voyage to Egypt during November and December 1902, in: E. Czerny (ed.), Egypt and Austria XI: In Search of the Orient: 313-335. Krakow. 240
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Tomorad, M. 2018e. Život žene u staroegipatskom društvu, in: M. Tomorad et al., Slavne žene stare povijesti: životi žena u društvima starog svijeta: 53-62. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2018f. Kleopatra II. i Kleopatra III., in: M. Tomorad et al., Slavne žene stare povijesti: životi žena u društvima starog svijeta: 99-106. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2018g. Egipat u Hrvatskoj: hrvatska fascinacija starim Egiptom (Exhibition at the Museum Mimara, Zagreb, 20th September – 14th October 2018). Zagreb. Tomorad, M. et al. 2018, Slavne žene stare povijesti: životi žena u društvima starog svijeta. Zagreb. Tomorad, M., Čavka, M., Uranić, I. and Šekrst, K. 2015. Current Egyptological research in Croatia’. Studies in Ancient Art and Civilization 18: 283-305. Tomorad, M. and Deac, D.A. 2014. A Pseudo-Shabti statuette discovered in Tibiscum (Dacia Superior). Acta Mvsei Porolissensis – Istorie-Etnografie XXXV (2013): 223-234. Tomorad, M. and Novak, J. 2018. Zenobija, in: M. Tomorad et al., Slavne žene stare povijesti: životi žena u društvima starog svijeta: 271-278. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Pernjak, D. 2018. Hatšepsut, in: M. Tomorad et al., Slavne žene stare povijesti: životi žena u društvima starog svijeta: 79-88. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Sliwa, J. 2015. Tri staroegipatska skarabeja iz Arheološke zbirke franjevačkog samostana na Košljunu, Hrvatska – Three Ancient Egyptian scarabs from the Archaeological Collection of the Franciscan Monastery on Košljun, Croatia. Prilozi Instituta za arheologiju 32: 243-250. Tomorad, M. and Štimac, I. 2016. Visualizing Egypt in the Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Dubrovnik and the Newspaper/travel Reports Published by Grga Novak between 1933 and 1945, in: A. Júnová Macková, L. Storchová and L. Jún (eds), Egypt and Austria X: Visualizing the Orient: Central Europe and the Near East in the 19th and 20th Centuries: 229-244. Prague. Tomorad, M. and Tepeš, K. 2018. Kleopatra VII, in: M. Tomorad et al., Slavne žene stare povijesti: životi žena u društvima starog svijeta: 107-131. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Uranić, I. 2006a. The Egyptian collection of the Museum of the City of Varaždin, Croatia. Trabajos de Egiptología – Papers on Ancient Egypt (TdE) 3 (2004): 87-98. Tomorad, M. and Uranić, I. 2006b. Ancient Egypt in Zagreb: A report on a little-known Egyptological collection in Croatia. Ancient Egypt vol. 6 no. 6 issue 36 (June/July): 43-46. Tomorad, M. and Zlodi, Goran 2015. Development of the ‘Croato-Aegyptica Database’, in M. Tomorad (ed.), A History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture conducted in Southeast Europe: 161-164. Oxford. Tonković, S. 1991. Brončana statua Izide–Fortune iz Prološca, Imotski. Obavijesti Hrvatskog arheološkog društva XXIII fasc. 3: 53-54.
Uranić, I. 1990. Pogrebna stela Min–Nakhta u Arheološkome muzeju u Zagrebu. Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu 3. s. XXIII: 183-189, Tab. 1-2. Uranić, I. 1992. Prilozi o skarabejima srca u Arheološkome muzeju u Zagrebu. Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu 3. s. XXIVXXV: 249–262, Tab. 16. Uranić, I. 1994. Sarkofag i kartonaža Kaipamau. Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu 3. s. XXVI–XXVII (1993.–94.): 145-156, Tab. 1-2. Uranić, I. 1996a. Egipatska zbirka, in: D. Balen and Z. Dukat (eds), Muzeopis 1846–1996: 89-95. Zagreb. Uranić, I. 1996b. Egipatska skulptura u Arheološkom muzeju u Zagrebu. Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu, 3. s. XXVIII-XXIX (1995–96): 229-251. Uranić, I. 1997. Sinovi Sunca–Vjerovanje starih Egipćana. Zagreb. Uranić, I. 1999a. Bogovi, duhovi i demoni starog Egipta – Gods, Spirits and Demons of Ancient Egypt. Zagreb. Uranić, I. 1999b. Akvizicija zbirke skarabeja i skaraboida Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu. Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu 3. s. XXX-XXXI: 273-279. Uranić, I. 2001. Duhovi i demoni starog Egipta, in: K. Džin (ed.), Egipatska religija i antička Istra: 22-28. Pula. Uranić, I. 2002a. Dubrovačka zbirka egipatskih starina. Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu 3 s. XXXIV: 181204. Uranić, I. 2002b. Stari Egipat: povijest, književnost i umjetnost drevnih Egipćana (1st edition). Zagreb. Uranić, I. 2003a. The Coffin and the Cartonnage of Kaipamaw. A Delta-man in Yebu, Occasional Volume of the Egyptologists’ Electronic Forum no. 1: 81-87. Uranić, I. 2003b. Egipatski predmeti, in: A. RendićMiočević (ed.), Na tragovima vremena (iz arheološke zbirke Mateja Pavletića): 12. Zagreb. Uranić, I. 2004. Sedam brončanih figura Harpokrata. Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu 3. s. XXXVI: 191203. Uranić, I. 2005a. Egipatska zbirka–Vodič. Zagreb. Uranić, I. 2005b. Stari Egipat: povijest, književnost i umjetnost drevnih Egipćana (2nd revised edition). Zagreb. Uranić, I. 2005c. Book of the Dead Papyrus Zagreb 601. Studien der Aegyptische Kultur 33: 357-371, Tafel 1-6. Uranić, I. 2005d. Ozirisova zemlja: egipatska mitologija i njeni odjeci na zapadu. Zagreb. Uranić, I. 2006. Three Hypocephali from Zagreb. Drevnij Egipet, Sbornik trudov associaciii po izučeniju drevnego Egipta ‘MAAT’: 146-150, Pl. 59-61. Uranić, I. 2009. Aegyptiaca Zagrabiensis. Musei Archeologici Zagrebiansis Catalogi et Monographiae Vol. 4. Zagreb. Uranić, I., Čavka, M. and Petaros, A. 2012. Mumije: znanost i mit/Mummies: science and myth. Zagreb. Višić, M. 1989. Egipatska knjiga mrtvih. Sarajevo. Višić, M. 1993. Književnost drevnog Bliskog istoka: Enuma Eliš–Gilgameš. Zagreb.
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Chapter V. Egyptian Revival and ‘Egyptomania’ in Croatia
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Egyptian Revival and Modern ‘Egyptomania’ in Croatia Mladen Tomorad Introduction
Egyptian revival in Croatian architecture and sculpture in the 19th and 20th centuries
‘Egyptomania’ is a contemporary term created in the second half of the 20th century. It denotes a ubiquitous passion for Ancient Egypt that is manifested in all forms of modern society: architecture, film, art exhibitions, literature, tourism and science. Its roots can be traced back several centuries. At the beginning of the 19th century, following the publication of Denon’s Description of Egypt, an interest in ancient Egyptian civilisation began to grow. Over the next two centuries, many scientific discoveries came to light, and Egypt gradually became the 20th century’s leading cultural and tourist attraction, whose influence is now visible in popular culture and art.
Egyptian revival in architecture, which started elsewhere in Europe at the end of the 18th century, surely influenced the many architects who redesigned old, or built new parks and buildings in various parts of Croatia. It also seems possible that some were also influenced by Freemasonry, which was greatly influenced by ancient Egyptian traditions. At the cemetery in Vrbovec is the tomb of the De Piennesa family, built under Masonic influence in the 19th century. Its upper part is decorated with a pyramidal structure typical of ancient Egyptian funeral architecture.1186 It seems that the modern obelisks standing in many city parks and cemeteries were influenced not only by their ancient counterparts but possibly by Freemasonry.
Interest in collecting Greco-Roman and Egyptian antiquities began in many European regions in the 16th century. Exactly when ‘Egyptomania’ of any kind took root in Croatia remains unknown, but it probably developed in the 17th and 18th centuries, when mariners and various travellers from Dubrovnik and other coastal cities visited Egypt and returned with artefacts as souvenirs. Unfortunately, no source preserves the names of these early explorers and collectors, but many of their later counterparts, from the early 19th century onwards, are known. Interestingly, for that same period, there are no traces of collecting antiquities in the regions that remained under Ottoman control (e.g. Bosnia and Herzegovina until 1878; Serbia below the Danube,1185 and Montenegro, until the middle of the 19th century; Macedonia until 1913). In these regions, collecting started only after liberation from Ottoman rule. It seems that Egyptomania and the collecting of antiquities was part of Western culture, and incontrovertibly these Croatia trends can be traced widely in western and central Europe. At the end of the 18th and early 19th century modern objects influenced by ancient Egyptian civilisation appeared on the markets around Europe. Soon such artefacts found their way into the houses of aristocratic and wealthy Croatian citizens with a keen interest in ancient Egypt and its forgotten treasures. In the 19th and early 20th centuries Egyptian revival artefacts also appeared in various museum institutions in Croatia.
A very interesting example of Egyptian-influenced cemetery architecture is the Grubišić family tomb in the Mirogoj cemetery in Zagreb (Figure 244); according to the latest research by M. Bagarić it seems that this tomb was built between 1930 and 1932: by family Cabas.1187 It is a unique tomb, constructed as an ancient Egyptian pyramid with an entrance decorated with papyriform pillars common to temples.1188 Unfortunately, the historical context of this tomb is unknown; a search of the cemetery archives yielded no information regarding the architect or time of building, nor has any historical background or the professions of members of the Grubišić family come to light. The reason behind the commissioning of such a tomb is also unknown, but it is hoped that future research will reveal answers. The oldest modern obelisk was erected in Zagreb in 1835, at the corner of Vlaška Street and the eastern gate of the Kaptol, near Ribnjak park; it was constructed by the Austrian sculptor Adolf Wagner. Sadly, it was badly damaged in a storm in 1875 and was removed soon after.1189 The best known monument was built in Maksimir, the largest park in the city, with the financial support Tomorad 2016: 357; Tomorad 2017: 130. Bagarić, in press. Zagreb: The Zagreb State Archives: Construction permit of 11th March 1930, No. 7167-XVI-1930. 1188 Tomorad 2016: 358; Tomorad 2017: 130. 1189 Knežević 2004: 258-259.
The northern region of Serbia, today known as Vojvodina, was part of Croatia and Hungary until 1918. In various cities in that region (e.g. Sombor, Subotica, Novi Sad, etc.), and in the eastern parts of Croatia (e.g. Osijek and Vinkovci), several Egyptian collections can be traced.
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Figure 245. Obelisk in Maksimir park in Zagreb. © Mladen Tomorad. Figure 244. The Cabas family tomb at Mirogoj cemetery in Zagreb. © Mladen Tomorad.
period, in 1925, the so-called ‘Croatian falcon’ was erected in Maksimir Park;1195 it was greatly inspired by ancient Egyptian Horus sculptures.
of Zagreb Archbishop Juraj Haulik in 1843 (Figure 245).1190 The four smaller obelisks were placed in front of the Zagreb National Theatre at the end of the 19th century.1191 Just before the First World War they were moved to a location in front of the main gates of the Mirogoj cemetery1192 (Figure 246).
During the Art Deco period the house designed by the architect Dionis Sunko for the firm ‘Isis’ was built at 12 Pavla Hatza Street in Zagreb. According to the project’s documentation, now in the Croatian State Archives in Zagreb, this house was intended to have decoration inspired in the main by ancient Egyptian reliefs and other architectural motives. However, monetary restraints meant that most of the walls remained undecorated.1196
During the 19th and early 20th centuries similar obelisks were constructed in parks in other Croatian cities, especially in the north (e.g. Čakovec, Hrvatska Kostajnica, Nova Gradiška).1193
Decorative furniture, ornaments and jewellery
The Art Deco period was greatly inspired by various elements of the Egyptian revival. Probably the best example is within the Zagreb Zoological Park, opened to the public in 1925. Several years after its opening, at sometime between 1925 and 1930, the two sculptures called ‘Egipćani’ (‘The Egyptians’) were erected in front of the reptile house1194 (Figure 247). During the same
European interest in ancient Egyptian artistic elements extended to the craftsmanship of furniture and jewellery and sometimes to the decoration of entire rooms; as part of the Habsburg/Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy, Croatia also experienced these influences. Museums in Zagreb and northern Croatia have in their
Tomorad 2016: 357; Tomorad 2017: 125. Chvala 1895: 96. 1192 Bagarić 2011: 188-193; Tomorad 2016: 357; Tomorad 2017: 125. 1193 Tomorad 2016: 357; Tomorad 2017: 125. 1194 These statues were commonly attributed to the sculptor Jozo
Turkalj. Tomorad 2016: 357-358; Tomorad 2017: 128. According to M. Bagarić, no confirmation of his authorship can be found in the archives. Bagarić, in press. 1195 Štulhofer 2005: 173-174 1196 Bagarić, in press.
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Figure 246. Obelisk in front of Mirogoj cemetery in Zagreb. © Mladen Tomorad.
collections several pieces of various styles of furniture influenced by ancient civilisations (Egypt, Greece, and Rome). Such decorative furniture has graced the apartments and houses of wealthier members of Croatian society since the early 19th century. Antique furniture appears to have been very popular until the middle of the 20th century, and certain pieces can still be found in some antique shops in Zagreb (and most likely elsewhere in Croatia).1197 Since the end of the 18th century, in addition to cabinets of Egyptian antiquities displayed in special rooms in the homes of the elite, wealthy Croatians would collect furniture and clocks with ornamentation that offered to the viewer Egyptian sphinxes, pillars, and other familiar motifs. The portrait of Kristofor Stanković, painted by the Mihael Stroy around 1833/1834 and displayed in the Zagreb City Museum, is another example of early 19th-century Egyptomania. In this portrait, Stanković poses on an armchair decorated with typical Egyptian sphinxes1198 (Figure 248). Alas, this armchair has not survived, but the portrait is most likely one of the oldest examples of Egyptian revival furniture in Croatia. Figure 247. One of the two sculptures entitled Egipćani - The Egyptians. Zagreb: Zoological Garden. © Mladen Tomorad. 1197 1198
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Tomorad 2016: 358-359. Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum, MGZ 1269.
Egypt in Croatia contemporary jewellery maker Nenad Sovilj has produced silver pieces influenced by ancient Egyptian designs, stating in 2008 that the Art Deco style and ancient Egyptian art had greatly influenced his third jewellery collection.1199 Conclusion Croatia has had a long history of connections with Egypt. During the early modern period these connections resumed through merchant trading with Ottoman Egypt and the development of early private and museum collections; the private collections can be linked to modern European ‘Egyptomania’, which flourished at the end of the 18th and early 19th century. Egyptian revival influences can be traced in Croatia in various architectural elements, decorative furniture, and jewellery. This subject has rarely been studied and more research is needed to shed light on the Egyptian revival in terms of its influence on Croatian arts and architecture. Bibliography Bagarić, M. 2011. Arhitekt Ignjat Fischer. Zagreb. Bagarić, M. (in press). Egypt in an image of the 19th and 20th centuries Zagreb: Buildings, monuments and street furniture, in: M. Tomorad et al., Egypt in Croatia: Croatian Influences with Ancient Egypt from Antiquity to Modern Times. Oxford. Chvala, J. 1895. Doček Njegova Veličanstva u Zagrebu. Viesti Družtva inžinira i arhitekta 8: 96. Knežević, S. 2004. Nadbiskupski/Langov trg: mijene i poništenje. Radovi Instituta za povijest umjetnosti 28: 250-269. Štulhofer, A. 2005. Sportska arhitektura u Zagrebu. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. 2016. Aegyptiaca and various forms of Egyptomania in Croatia, in: N. Guilhou (ed.), Liber Amicorum – Speculum Siderum: Nut Astrophoros – Paper presented to Alicia Maravelia: 349-364. Oxford. Tomorad, M. 2017. Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II. Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb.
Figure 248. Kristofor Stanković sitting on an armchair with Egyptian sphinxes. Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum, MGZ 1269. © Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum.
Some other examples of 19th- and early 20th-century Egyptian revival furnishings are now to be found in Trakošćan Castle, on the northwest border of Croatia, in the City Museum in Varaždin, and the Museum of Arts and Crafts in Zagreb. These museums hold various clocks, tables, cabinets, and candlesticks decorated with Egyptian elements (sphinxes, male and female figures dressed after the pharaonic fashion, Egyptian pillars, etc.). Croatian interest in the Egyptian revival did not end with early 20th-century domestic furnishings. The
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Tomorad 2017: 132.
Egypt as Imaged by 19th- and 20th-Century Zagreb: Buildings, Monuments and Street Furniture Marina Bagarić Obelisks in Old and New Zagreb The appearance of architectural elements that, in form and symbol, were inspired by the art of ancient Egypt can be found in Zagreb in the first decades of the 19th century. At that time, more precisely according to the 1837 census, the city’s population was about 15,000 inhabitants.1200 City life was concentrated on the hill of Grič, where citizens’ houses and noblemen’s palaces were located, along with governmental institutions and venues of social interactions. The demolition of the walls of medieval Grič began on the southern side in 1812, and promenades were built in their place. The hill of Kaptol is located to the east of Grič, with the Cathedral and the Archdiocese Palace, with its walls and towers. Today’s main city thoroughfare, Ilica Street, is in the southern suburban area of Grič, marked on the 1825 city plan as Strasse nach Steyermarkt (Styria Road), and Vlaška Street, on the east side of the Kaptol hill, then called Wiener Strasse (Viennese Street). In Ilica and Vlaška Street were houses of small traders and craftsmen. The main confluence of all the city’s urban life was Harmica Square, today Ban Jelačić Square. In art, architecture and urban planning the main model was Vienna, and the prevailing style of the first decades of the 19th century was the Biedermeier Style, a derivative of Neoclassicism which was characteristic of central Europe. At that time in Zagreb, the most beautiful gardens were commissioned by church dignitaries, and these came to bear the first signs of ‘Egyptomania’ in the city, landmark being Laxenburg and Schönbrunn parks, with features and architecture complete with, among other things, numerous references and quotations of ancient Egyptian art.1201
Figure 249. Hermann Bollé, Design for obelisk, Zagreb, 1895. Illustration taken from the journal Viesti družtva inžinira i arhitekta.
Immediately after his appointment as the Bishop of Zagreb in 1829, Aleksandar Alagović (1760–1837) undertook the restoration of a neglected marshy area northeast of the cathedral.1202 This area of Ribnjak (literally fish pond) was turned into a landscaped garden by Leopold Klingspögl, who was previously in the service of Count Batthyány at Nagykanizsa.1203 He constructed a system of lakes and promenades, and had
a variety of trees and flowers planted. It was recorded that a garden temple was erected in the park, and some of the sources also mention sculptures of Kora, Minerva and Osiris, which were not preserved.1204 In honour of the completion of the work at Ribnjak, the first obelisk was erected in Zagreb in 1835 (Figure 249). It was the
Almanah grada Zagreba 1931: 545. Hajos 1989: 52, 100, 135. 1202 Dobronić 1991: 109; Maruševski 1997: 92. 1203 Kunitsch 1831: 289-295. 1200 1201
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Maruševski 1997: 92.
Egypt in Croatia work of the sculptor Adolf Wagner and was located at the beginning of Vlaška Street, in front of the eastern entrance to the Archdiocese Palace, at the point where the bishopric complex on the hill and suburbia meet. The obelisk was based on three spheres and placed on a pedestal decorated with statues of saints and angels. The statues were the work of Franz Marsch, who also created statues in the park itself. In a storm in 1875, the obelisk was damaged; restoration was estimated to be difficult, and thus the entire monument was removed, despite the wish of the public to restore it.1205 We can sense the popularity and importance of the Vlaška Street obelisk in the image of the city and the collective memory today through the popular prints and pictures of the esteemed Zagreb cityscape artist Branko Šenoa in 1915 (Figure 250). The second Zagreb obelisk commemorates the same kind of endeavour – the completion of Maksimir Park. Bishop Maksimilijan Vrhovec (1752–1827) began the work of turning the diocesan estate, located east of the city limits, into an ‘English-style’ park in 1787.1206 After a long break, the works were completed in 1843 at the time of the Bishop, later Cardinal, Juraj Haulik (1788–1869, Bishop of Zagreb from 1837). The landscape architect Johann Michael Sebastian Riedl, and the builder Franz Schücht, both of whom were previously engaged in similar work on the Laxenburg estate,1207 participated in the design of Maksimir Park. In honour of the completion of the project, Haulik erected an obelisk in a part of the park called the ‘Dahlia Valley’. This obelisk was the work of Joseph Kässmann, the Viennese artist who made some of the sculptures in the park. Erected on a pedestal, the sides of the monument were decorated with a gilded laurel wreath, as were the sides of the obelisk.
Figure 250. Branko Šenoa, Obelisk in Vlaška street, Zagreb, 1915, oil on canvas. Private collection in Zagreb.
visually effective and create a strong conclusion for a promenade of the garden.1208 The Zagreb welcoming committee for the Habsburg Emperor entrusted the task of forming the obelisks (the ‘pyramids’) to leading architects Hermann Bollé and Hönigsberg and Deutsch atelier.1209 These obelisks were made of wood, and their relief embellishments of plaster and cement. The entire composition was painted white and adorned with leafy
In the late 19th century, the time of many new styles, Zagreb’s architecture and urban design witnessed the construction and erection of an obelisk as part of the festive decorations for the visit by Emperor and King Franz Joseph’s visit to Zagreb in the autumn of 1895. The choice of obelisks, along with triumphal arches, which were arranged around the city, can be easily interpreted by their symbolism of persistence and durability – virtues the Habsburg Emperor wished to emulate. Defined in the Baroque period, obelisk symbolism would go on to be abundantly used in the construction of the Schönbrunn Imperial Castle Garden, where the obelisks were located at the key points of the complex. Two obelisks were placed at the main entrance, and a third formed part of the fountain and grottoes (Obeliskbrunnen), which are
garlands.
Four obelisks were placed in a semicircle in front of the newly constructed Croatian National Theatre, which the Emperor himself was to open during the same visit. However, since the obelisks in front of the Theatre were conceived as permanent urban features for the new square, they were made of durable material – chiselled stone (the mason being Ignjat Franz, 1855–1942), and wrought iron lamps were mounted on their tops. In the coming years, however, it became obvious that the obelisks did not suit the square in front of the Theatre: the city’s traffic became chaotic in that area, and in 1911 it was decided the square needed rearrangement1210 (Figure 251). Re-planning was undertaken, with a sculpture – The Well of Life – by Ivan Meštrović, made
Knežević 2004: 258-259. Maruševski and Jurković 1992: 3-67. 1207 Riedl was the chief supervisor of all the works in Laxenburg. Hajos 1989: 230. 1205
Hajós 2004: 151-153. Chvala 1895: 96. 1210 Bagarić 2011: 188-193. 1208
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Figure 251. Obelisks in front of the Croatian National Theater building, postcard, around 1900. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
according to the plan of architect Ignjat Fischer. The obelisks were exiled to the Mirogoj Cemetery complex (two are in front of the main entrance and two in front of the mortuary). The daily newspapers of the time approved, writing that these monuments were appropriate for the cemetery ‘by their pyramidal shape’.1211
same location, the obelisk was moved south, on the axis of Croatian Fraternal Union Street, to Novi Zagreb, at the crossroads with Dubrovnik Avenue. Under the influence of Viennese ‘Egyptomania’ In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Croatian students went to learn architecture in Vienna. At the Academy of Fine Arts (Akademie der bildenden Künste) Viktor Kovačić (1874–1924) and Vjekoslav Bastl (1872– 1947) studied with Otto Wagner, Lav Kalda (1880–1956) with Viktor Luntz and Friedrich Ohmann, and Hugo Ehrlich (1879–1936) was taught by Karl König at the College of Technology (Technische Hochschule). At the time, however, young architects were more influenced by Adolf Loos than their college tutors. Loos’s positive critique of Kovačić’s student work in Neue Freie Press in July 1898 was the beginning of a friendship between the two architects. Nevertheless, Loos had only a limited bearing on Kovačić’s design career. His influence was far greater on Kovačić’s tastes and habits in everyday life. In that respect, it can be assumed that the Croatian architect, just as Loos, his life mentor, accepted ‘Egyptomania’, to which other champions of Viennese modernism as well – Wagner, Moser, and Hoffmann – were not immune.1212 After completing his studies in Vienna, Kovačić returned to Zagreb in 1899, and in 1904 employed aspects of ancient Egyptian – forms and symbols – as one of the variants in his project to decorate
In the interwar period, the obelisk form was used to advertise the events of the Zagreb Fair (Velesajam). These ‘pyramids’ were made of wood and were regularly placed at the busiest locations – on the way to, and inside the city. The last obelisk (so far) set up in Zagreb is also related to the Zagreb Archdiocese. In 1994, the 900th anniversary of the Archdiocese and City of Zagreb was marked with the erection of an obelisk at the crossroads of Vukovar Avenue and Croatian Fraternal Union Street; it was the idea (and design) of the architect Branko Silađin (1936). The granite obelisk with a metal-covered top was located near the headquarters of the city’s administration complex, at the crossroads of important roads, one of which leads to Novi Zagreb, across the Sava River. From its erection, the obelisk provoked public concern. It was declared a ‘masonic monument’, and was once given a cross, which was soon removed. Due to the decision at the end of 2018 to place a monument to the first Croatian President, Franjo Tuđman, at the 1211
Nasadi izpred kazališta, Narodne novine, 26th August 1911.
1212
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Alofsin 1993: 103-107, 172-176.
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Figure 252. Viktor Kovačić, Design for The King Tomislav Square – stairs to the main railway station, 1904. Zagreb: The Archive of the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croatia. © Zagreb: The Archive of the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croatia.
a flight of stairs in Franjo Josip I Square (now King Tomislav Square) in Zagreb.1213 According to Kovačić’s design, the wide staircase would lead from the park to the main station; at the top of the staircase, to left and right, large Egyptian sphinxes would be placed on massive pedestals. On the plateau in front of the station building there were to be obelisks with streetlamps. On the same design sheet is Kovačić’s sketch of a Greek sphinx that the architect might have seen in the parks of Belvedere or Schönbrunn. Obviously, the Egyptian type seemed to him a more effective solution for the square in Zagreb (Figure 252). By the end of 1904, and into the next year, Kovačić made several more proposals for the design of the square (these were competition projects), in which he left out the monumental sphinxes, but kept the obelisks; but in the end none of the proposals were realised. Not put off, Kovačić would again use obelisks in his projects for military cemeteries in 1917, however in these the function and message of the form were markedly different from his approach to the more important city squares. A lesser, yet more interesting trace of Kovačić’s ‘Egyptomania’ can be found in his notebooks: among the many drawings of furniture, mostly made during the architect’s visits to Vienna between 1905 and 1918, 1213 The project was not realised. For more on the project, see: Knežević 2003: 134-136.
Figure 253. Viktor Kovačić, Egyptian tripod, drawing in a sketchbook, around 1905. Private collection in Zagreb.
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there is also a drawing of the Loosian three-legged ‘Egyptian stool’ (ägyptischer Hocker) (Figure 253). In addition to this, Loos also designed the so-called ‘Thebes stool’, and both of these ‘Egyptian’ pieces are often seen in photographs of Loos’s interiors – from his own Vienna apartment (1902), to the Brummel apartment in Czech Plzeň (Pilsen, 1927). Today, we do not know whether Kovačić’s Egyptian stools formed part of some of his Zagreb interiors, however, with certainty, we can claim that the design was used in an interior by another Croatian ‘Loosovian’ architect, Zlatko Neumann (1900–1969). Neumann studied architecture at the College of Technology, and he collaborated with Loos from 1919 to 1927, first in his Viennese atelier and then as an associate in Paris.1214 Upon his return to Zagreb, Neumann, among other projects, designed numerous private interiors, frequently under strong Loosian influences. On a preserved photograph of one apartment in Zagreb’s Petrinjska Street from the 1930s, the Loos three-legged stool is visible. Confirmation that this type of stool was a well-known ‘prop’ in Zagreb apartments can be found in the home of Miroslav Krleža, one of the most important Croatian writers (now Memorial Space at Krležin Gvozd 23). In signage
Figure 254. Letterhead paper of the Isis Pharmaceutical Company, 1918. Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb. © Zagreb: State Archives in Zagreb.
In the period between Viennese ‘Egyptomania’ (c. 1900) and more global interest (post 1922), a Zagreb-based pharmaceutical company, founded in the summer of 1918, sought inspiration in the rich repository of ancient Egyptian art. According to its name – Isis, given by its founder Gustav Janaček – the company had all of its visual identity based on the heritage of ancient Egypt. The first Isis logo – an image of the goddess in a rectangular frame – is not particularly inventive, the drawing being simply a was copy, i.e. an illustration based on the Isis lexeme taken from Mayer’s Grosse Konversations-Lexicon (Figure 254). Over time, however, the gifted designers and architects were engaged to develop promotional material for companies (greeting cards, posters, magazines, etc.), as well as their presentations at trade fairs (Figures 255-257). This is how the Isis pavilion came to be designed by architect Drago Korbar (1907–1981) at the Chemical Pharmacy Exhibition held at the large Zagreb Fair in 1934. His design, with the central image of the goddess Isis was described as ‘simply elegant’ and ‘tasteful’1215 (Figure 258). In the early 1930s, the Zagreb Atelier Tri was engaged to design the packaging of pharmaceutical products, leaflets, envelopes, advertisements, and greeting cards. It was they who first incorporated a simple logo for the company in their packaging design, for example on greeting cards. They went on to come
Figure 255. Atelier Tri, Label design for Brunsov pamuk, Zagreb, around 1930, Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb.
Kahle 2015: 32. Kemijsko-farmaceutska izložba na Zagrebačkom zboru u Zagrebu, Apotekarski vjesnik , 25th October 1934, No. 20: 1076. 1214 1215
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Egypt in Croatia up with a variety of images combining both Egyptian and medicinal motifs for other materials. Further proof that the iconic monuments of ancient Egypt were well known to them can be found on the advertising they created for cruises in the Eastern Mediterranean, for example the SS Queen Mary, which they designed at the same time. The architect Dionis Sunko (1879–1935), who was commissioned for a 1920 project for the headquarters of Isis at 12 Pavla Hatza Street, Zagreb; in this he gave free rein to his imagination (Figures 259-262). He designed a three-storey mansard building, composed of three linked parts (street, courtyard and lower central building), in which, besides business premises, were also living spaces and warehouses.1216 The fairly narrow main facade of the building and public interiors were designed with reliefs and sculptures inspired by Egypt. On the draft of the design project, Sunko drew two figures of Isis over the main entrance to the building, and between them he imagined a relief ornament with widespread wings, in front of which was a shield. Above the arch of the main entrance, and over the arches of the large glazed show-windows left and right, he planned a series of water-lily buds, or papyrus relief motifs. Colossal pilasters, located along the central axis of the facade, have capitals with wide, parallel-shaped leaves, like typical Egyptian ‘palm columns’; similar sequences of leaves are on parts of the cornices of the final window axes. On the draft design of the longitudinal section of the building, Sunko foresaw luxurious decorations on the walls of the vestibule: in the central part of the long wall, in a special niche framed by columns, Isis is presented on a throne, surrounded by adorants, and on the sides were drawn figures in rows typical of ancient Egyptian painting and sculpture; in their background are sun rays. Unfortunately, with construction nearly completed, a meeting of Isis’s executive board (May 1921) concluded that the ‘sculptural decoration’ on the new building was ‘not necessary’.1217 In the end, only some embossed flower buds above the ground floor arches were put up, along with leafy capitals and sequences on the cornice. The walls of the vestibule remained undecorated.
Figure 256. Atelier Tri, Label design for Saharin, Zagreb, around 1930, Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb.
Echoes of ‘Egyptomania’ worldwide after 1922 Due to the obvious connections of ancient Egyptian culture with death, Zagreb’s cemeteries are crammed with tombstones in obelisk form. The central city cemetery of Mirogoj has one of the most significant examples of Egyptomania in all Zagreb’s 20th-century architecture – the Cabas Family mausoleum, built in Figure 257. Atelier Tri, Label design for the greeting card, Zagreb, around 1935, Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb.
1216 The project documentation is kept in the State Archives in Zagreb (Collection of Construction Documents). 1217 Zagreb: State Archives, HR-DAZG-271.
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Figure 258. Drago Korbar, Design of the booth at Zagreb Fair, 1934, Photo in the journal Apotekarski vjesnik.
the form of a pyramid1218 (Figure 263). The entrance to the mausoleum is flanked by columns with capitals and a tree trunk in the shape of a papyrus. These columns support beams decorated with relief sequences of leaves, inspired by the same ancient Egyptian tradition. According to construction data, the mausoleum was designed in the early 1930s and completed in September 1932. The project was signed off by Miroslav König (1871–1943), Zagreb sculptor and stonecutter, and Velimir König (1897–1956), a master stonemason. The commissioner of the construction was Antun Cabas (1862–1933), a factory owner, originating from Medea, near the Italian town of Gorizia. With his wife Ella (1884– 1932) he lived in Croatia from 1920, when he became a co-owner of the Brick, Tiles and Clay Goods Factory in Karlovac, together with Josip Rendelli and Ivan Trepp. 1219 From 1930, Ella Cabas ran a millinery store – Yellow House (Žuta Kuća) – in Frankopanska Street. 1220 In addition to the above-mentioned obelisk, Maksimir Park has several monuments made under the influence of ancient Egyptian culture and art. These monuments were created in the interwar period, so their inspiration can be referenced through a new wave of Egyptomania that spread through Europe after 1922, when Tutankhamen’s tomb was discovered. Within Maksimir Park, in its southern part, a modern zoo was opened 1218 The mausoleum is often referred to after the name of its later owners – the Grubišić Family – who have attached a new black marble slab above their entrance with their family name. For mausoleum construction documentation, see: Zagreb: State Archives, construction permit, 11th March 1930, No. 7167-XVI-1930. 1219 Zagreb: State Archives, HR-DAZG-10, City of Zagreb, Auxiliary offices, file No. 126.267 from 1932. Kovačević 2013: 46. 1220 Zagreb: State Archives, HR-DAZG-10, City of Zagreb, Auxiliary offices, file No. 126.267 from 1932. The ‘Yellow House’ (Žuta Kuća), a ‘Parisian fashion salon’, was opened in 1927 by couturier Mira Sirovatka. Here one could also buy the creations of members of the first Croatian design association – ‘Djelo’ (Žuta kuća, Svijet, 3rd December 1927).
Figure 259. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, photo around 1925, Private collection, Zagreb.
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Figure 260. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, design for the main entrance, 1920, State Archives in Zagreb.
Figure 261. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, design for the hallway, 1920, State Archives in Zagreb.
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Figure 263. Mausoleum of Cabas family, Mirogoj cemetery, Zagreb. © Marina Bagarić.
Figure 262. Dionis Sunko, Isis commercial and residential building, Zagreb, detail of the main facade, photo: Marina Bagarić, 2018.
Figure 264. Dwellings for giraffes in the style of an Egyptian temple, Maksimir Zoo, Zagreb, 1931. Sketch taken from the Jutarnji list.
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Figure 265. The statue of Pharaoh, Maksimir Zoo, Zagreb, photo around 1938. Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum. © Zagreb: Zagreb City Museum.
in 1925, and by about 1930 the modernisation and construction of new park features and animal pavilions began.1221 The designers were architects and engineers from the City Construction Office, and the common theme of the design was to style the new buildings after the county of origin of each species; thus the camel enclosure had elements of Arab architecture, the exotic Asian birds inhabited a small pagoda, and a sort of African hut was erected for the ostriches. The giraffe house was conceived in the form of an Egyptian temple, but it was never built: we know about it only from an article in the daily newspaper.1222 The article contains a description and a sketch drawing, from which we may conclude that the model was similar, for example, to the temple at Esna (Figure 264). The same source reveals that two pharaonic sculptures were planned for the front of the enclosure – 4 m tall and mounted on pedestals 1 m high. The sculptures were made and are now in front of the ‘Tropical House’ built much later1223 (Figure 265).
At the other end of Maksimir Park is the Mogila (tumulus, barrow) – a monument with its ‘Croatian Falcon’ (Hrvatski Sokol), the form influenced by ancient Egyptian culture (Figure 266a-b). It needs some imagination to understand the choice of Egyptian style for a monument erected by a patriotic gymnastic society on the occasion of the 1000th anniversary of the Croatian Kingdom in 1925.1224 The inspiration, perhaps, can be interpreted as the spirit of the times, but also by looking at pages in the biographies of the monument’s two authors. The Mogila Falcon project was the work of Zagreb architect Aleksandar Freudenreich (1892– 1974), notable in the 1920s for his luxurious neoHistoricism villas and family houses. The monument’s pyramidal shape (founded on an earthen mound of material brought from 155 Croatian historical sites), a ‘time capsule’ in its interior, and the choice of name mogila, which in the old language means a grave, are clear nods to the most famous and representative form of Egyptian funeral architecture. Another clue is that Freudenreich’s brother, Milan (1900–1973) was also an architect, who settled in Cairo one year before this project.
For more on the Zagreb zoo, see: Kolveshi, 2015. Naš zoološki vrt pred velikim promjenama, Jutarnji list, 14th July 1931. Kolveshi 2015: 89. 1223 Without reference to any sources, it was common to attribute pharaonic sculptures to the Zagreb sculptor Jozo Turkalj, and they date to between 1925 and 1928. During thorough research for an exhibition on Zagreb’s Zoo, and when preparing this contribution, no confirmation could be found of Turkalj’s involvement. As the sculptures are associated with arrangements for the Zoo (c. 1930), it 1221 1222
may be concluded that the previous dating is incorrect. Roje Depolo 2001: 14; Kolveshi 2015: 163. 1224 For more on the Mogila project, see: Štulhofer 2005: 173-174.
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Figure 266. Sculptor Ivo Kerdić and architect Aleksandar Freudenreich with the statue Croatian Falcon, Zagreb, photo around 1925. Zagreb: Fine Arts Archive at the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts. © Zagreb: Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts.
Figure 267. Aleksandar Freudenreich, Monument to the Croatian Falcon Society, Maksimir Park, Zagreb. © Marina Bagarić.
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Egypt in Croatia Bagarić, M. 2011. Arhitekt Ignjat Fischer. Zagreb. Chvala, J. 1895. Doček Njegova Veličanstva u Zagrebu. Viesti Družtva inžinira i arhitekta 8: 96. Dobronić, L. 1991. Biskupski i kaptolski Zagreb. Zagreb. Hajós, B. 2004. Schönbrunner Statuen, 1773-1780: ein neues Rom in Wien. Wien. Hajós, G. 1989. Romantische Gärten der Aufklärung: Englische Landschaftskultur des 18. Jahrhunderts in und um Wien. Studien zu Denkmalschutz und Denkmalpflege. Köln/Wien. Kahle, D. 2015. Architect Zlatko Neumann. Buildings and Projects Between World Wars. Prostor 49: 20-41. Kerdić, I. 1953. Moj život i uspomene (manuscript) Zagreb. Knežević, S. 2003. Kovačićeve vizije uređenja zagrebačkih trgova i perivoja 1905. – 1909, in: M. Begović (ed.), Arhitekt Viktor Kovačić. Život i djelo, zbornik radova znanstvenog skupa: 133-160. Zagreb. Knežević, S. 2004. Nadbiskupski/Langov trg: mijene i poništenje. Radovi Instituta za povijest umjetnosti 28: 250-269. Kolveshi, Ž. 2015. Zoološki vrt u Zagrebu 1925.–2015. Zagreb. Kovačević, B. 2013. Karlovačka industrija i bankarstvo između dvaju svjetskih ratova (1918. –1941.). Karlovac. Kunitsch, M. 1831. Neueste Garten-Anlagen zu Agram in Croatien. Algemeine deutsche Garten-zeitung: 289295. Passau. Maruševski, O. and Jurković, S. 1992. Maksimir. Zagreb. Maruševski, O. 1997. Kultura vrtova i perivoja, in: V. Maleković (ed.), Bidermajer u Hrvatskoj. Zagreb. Roje Depolo, L. and Mažuran Subotić, V. 1993. Ivo Kerdić. Retrospektivna izložba. Zagreb. Roje Depolo, L. 2001. Joza Turkalj. Zagreb. Štulhofer, A. 2005. Sportska arhitektura u Zagrebu. Zagreb.
The famous falcon was planned for the top of the mogilapyramid (Figure 267), with the commission given to the sculptor Ivo Kerdić (1881–1953), who was educated and worked in Vienna, and was well acquainted with Adolf Loos through his architect friends.1225 Just how much the Viennese influence of Adolf Loos’s ‘Egyptomania’ affected Kerdić’s design for the falcon, and how much was defined by the basic form of the ‘pedestal’ remain open questions. What is clear is that there is a striking resemblance between Kerdić’s falcon and Egyptian sculptures of Horus. In support of Ivo Kerdić’s Egyptian inspiration are his memories of the events of later years, when he visited Egypt and its sites in 1936, directly as a guest of the architect Milan Freudenreich. Kerdić, with obvious fascination, mentioned the ‘Egyptian nightingales’ – the falcons that ‘Egyptians so many times chiselled in stone and cast in bronze’.1226 Unfortunately, Kerdić’s falcon was never placed on top of the Mogila. The sculpture was destroyed in a politically motivated break-in at the artist’s studio in 1926.1227 In 1929, King Aleksandar Karađorđević, then ruler of Yugoslavia, banned all ‘Croatian Falcon’ activities.1228 The Maksimir Mogila was restored in 1995, and a new sculpture of a falcon with outstretched wings set on the top, the work of sculptor Mladen Mikulin. Bibliography Alofsin, A. 1993. Frank Lloyd Wright – The Lost Years 1910– 1922. A Study of Influence. Chicago/London. Alujević, D., Der-Hazarijan Vukić, A. and Ferber Bogdan, J. 2011. Mirogojski opus Ive Kerdića – između umjetnosti i obrta. Anali Galerije Antuna Augustinčića Klanjec 31: 21-80. Anonymous 1931. Almanah grada Zagreba. Zagreb.
Kerdić 1953: 33-78. Kerdić 1953: 101-107. 1227 Alujević, Der-Hazarijan Vukić and Ferber Bogdan 2011: 2427. 1228 Roje Depolo and Mažuran Subotić 1993: 33. 1225 1226
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Ivan Meštrović – Creating Art for Eternity: Meštrović’s Fascination with Ancient Egypt as Illustrated by the Family Mausoleum in Otavice Zorana Jurić Šabić
Impressions of Ancient Egypt in Meštrović’s artworks Immediately on returning from his journey to Greece and Egypt (1st May – 1st June 1927), Ivan Meštrović set about continuing the work he had started earlier. For example, he completed the Monument to Gregory of Nin (1927)1229 (Figure 268) for the city of Split, in the new version of which his immediate experience of monumental Egyptian statues was echoed. Although at first designed as a figure 5.5 m high, the model made was a good deal bigger. The ultimate size, with a height of almost 8 m, was a surprise to Svetozar Rittig when he visited Meštrović’s studio in Zagreb. ‘A few days after returning I visited Meštrović in his studio. I was really taken aback: ‘Good Lord, brother, your Gregory of Nin, while we were on the road, grew to the size of the Colossus of Memnon.’ ‘Yes, well – we saw there the way one ought to work. These are monuments. Thousands of years and all the barbarians of this world have not managed to destroy the statues of Egypt, and yet those of Phidias have vanished.’’1230 By intentionally the placing of the monument on the peristyle of Diocletian’s Palace in Split, Meštrović clearly expressed his political views and his resistance to the then current Italian encroachments in Dalmatia. Although the public and art establishment criticised the placing of the huge statue in the very heart of Diocletian’s Palace, thinking that this diminished the
Figure 268. Sculpture of Gregory of Nin by Ivan Meštrović. Split.
value and integrity of a unique monument of ancient culture, Meštrović persisted in his intention. It is very telling that he shaped the monument according to the specific givens of the immediate surroundings, incorporating the view of it into the semi-circular arches of the ancient colonnade. Rather fittingly, much earlier an Egyptian sphinx had found its permanent lodging under the same arches, giving Meštrović’s monument a symbolic backdrop (Figure 269).
Monument to Gregory of Nin was first unveiled in 1929 on the peristyle of Diocletian’s Palace after much debate. During the Second World War, the Italian occupying authorities decided to disassemble it (in 1941). It was put in its current position only in 1954, overlooking the Golden Gate – the northern entrance to the Palace. Grgur Dobre was the Bishop of Nin, with authority over the then kingdom of Croatia. Together with the first king of Croatia, Tomislav, he took part in the Church Councils held in Split in 925 and 928, at which, among other things, there was discussion of the use of the Old Slavonic liturgy, which was opposed by the Pope and the Latin clergy. Understood and interpreted as a fighter for the preservation of the national language, during the 19th and early 20th century, Grgur Ninski, or Gregory of Nin, became a symbol of the aspiration for the independence of the Croatian church. Putting up a monument to the ‘Defender of the Glagolitic script’ was aimed at marking the thousand-year battle for the preservation of the national patrimony and the continued existence of the nation. See: Jurić Šabić 2016. 1230 Rittig 1929: 34-38. 1229
The creation of art for eternity: the family mausoleum in Otavice While the Monument to Gregory of Nin was a direct impression of Egyptian art, continued meditation on it 261
Egypt in Croatia was to be manifested in another project of Meštrović’s. In this he was to show far greater uninhibitedness in the free interpretation of the powerful impressions that he had absorbed during his visit to Egypt, Palestine and Greece. Since 1922, when his father Mate had died, the sculptor had been thinking of building a family mausoleum in their home village of Otavice. Thus, there is no surprise in his fascination for the Pharaonic tombs he had wondered at in Egypt, calling them ‘stone tents’, and that they left a profound impression on him. In his ‘Memories from a Journey in the Orient’ he mulled over the interpretation of eternity and eschatology: ‘They [the pharaohs] were of the same mixture as us now. They were troubled by the thought of their personality, of their self beyond the grave… Few of them know, that the All Being is common, and that His Being is in Intransience and his Eternity in incessant change and [his] calm is in non-vanishing, for non-vanishing and coming into being are one and the same.’ Meštrović 1962: 411. The building of the family tomb started in summer 1928, and the hundred drawings that he had worked on so far achieved their final form. Designing the outer envelope of the building, Meštrović insisted on simple geometrical forms and the cleanness of the surfaces, on which the structure and massiveness of the stone
Figure 269. The original positioning of Meštrović’s Monument to Gregory of Nin on the Peristyle of Diocletian’s Palace in Split, from 1929 to 1942. Foto Stühler. Photographic Archives of Meštrović Atelier in Zagreb. ©Photographic Archives of Meštrović Atelier in Zagreb.
Figure 270. Church of the Most Holy Redeemer – Meštrović family mausoleum in Otavice, 1930. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2815. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
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Figure 271. Church of the Most Holy Redeemer – Meštrović family mausoleum in Otavice, a view of the interior. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2823. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
would best come out. In this manner he achieved a marked monumentality for the building, which in this case had nothing to do with the dimensions, since the chapel was no more than about 13 m broad and high (Figure 270). In the interior of the church, Meštrović created an uninterrupted harmonic and centrally organised space. The wall surface was articulated with the alternation of square and semi-circular niches, in which stone reliefs were gracefully located (Figure 271). The muted lighting and the meticulously worked out refined sculptural programme create a special feeling, completely unusual for the space of a Christian church. As against the tradition of the iconography of western Christianity, which takes as its central visual motif the theme of Christ’s passion, Meštrović achieved an atmosphere of optimism and meditative calm. This is particularly visible in the depiction of Christ on the altar. The Eternally Crucified (Figure 272) is not actually racked on the cross but is borne on the wings of seraphim. The mild expression on the face of Christ and his youthful body, together with the archaic smile and serenity on the face of the seraphim, can be compared with depictions of oriental deities.
Figure 272. Eternally Crucified (1930), a relief by Ivan Meštrović at the altar of the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2933. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
The four Evangelists (Cat. 273-276) placed in the semicircular niches that fill up the space of the diagonal 263
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Figure 273-276. The four Evangelists. (1931), a relief by Ivan Meštrović at the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
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Figure 277a-c. Commercial photographs and picture postcards that Ivan Meštrović collected on his journey around Egypt, published by Photoglob. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-804, 805, 806. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
axes of the cruciform ground plan of the church are characterised by a different visual language. The basreliefs are graced by geometrical stylisation and are subordinated to the architectural frame, in harmony with the formal and compositional characteristics of the Art Deco style. But what is still more apparent is the clearly visible inspiration in the art of ‘Ancient Egypt’. Having drunk directly from the source, Meštrović here faithfully applies his impressions of Egyptian art. Judging from the many photographs that he brought from Egypt, it was the Egyptian reliefs that attracted his attention the most (Figure 277a-c). Standing out among them are depictions of the Egyptian gods, which we can recognise as the immediate sources for Meštrović’s Evangelists. He was particularly moved by the way in which figures were depicted on the ancient Egyptian reliefs, the compositional canon of which he partially adopted: the face is shown in profile, but the body frontally.
For the work on the ceiling of his dome (Figure 278) Meštrović was to show a further elaboration of his entirely individual approach to the design of the iconographic programme.1231 For it he devised an elaborated programme in the technique of fresco, but unluckily was never able to finish it. However, he did leave behind a large number of drawings, studies and sketches for the decoration of the ceiling. Instructed precisely by the felt experience of different cultures and religions, in his iconographic programme Meštrović intended to pay his respect to the founders of the great world religions. The large number of these sketches (72 drawings) tells us how deeply he reflected upon a proper iconographic programme and how long he searched for a solution that would satisfy him.
An elaborate description and identification of Meštrović’s unfinished programme for the decoration of the dome of the church of the Most Holy Redeemer was first published in: Jurić Šabić 2015.
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Figure 278. The uncompleted ceiling of the dome of the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer with subsequently placed fresco prototypes. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Photographic Archives of Meštrović Gallery, FGM-2934. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
versions (Figure 279-280). We can recognise him principally according to the ancient Egyptian head covering, the klaft (nemes?) kerchief. In some drawings he additionally decorated the traditional kerchief with the head of the asp (uraeus), symbol of the pharaoh’s divine origin. Sometimes in his arms the pharaoh will hold the disk of the sun, symbol of the supreme god of Egypt – Ra. In so doing he additionally confirms the identity of the Egyptian ruler, the symbol of divinity that rules through him, and in him is embodied.
In the literature to date, Meštrović’s iconographic programme of the dome has always been interpreted in the same way: ‘Above the cornice at the base of the cupola are portrayed the founders of the great religions. Above them are three levels of planets and three levels of great-winged archangels, rising symbolically to the universe, whereon stands the Redeemer in triumph.’1232 However, a more precise identification of the seated figures will show who, why and how Meštrović portrayed them, and how the concept can be viewed within his theological and philosophical discourse. From early Christianity, the dome was reserved for the representation of the heavenly vault, its base being supported by gospel writers, apostles or prophets, the very foundations of religion. Meštrović abided by the metaphorical depiction of the heavens but went beyond the boundaries of a single religion.
How telling is the arrangement that Meštrović applies on the only completed part of the prototypes for the frescos: Moses sitting opposite a pharaoh. They are juxtaposed as equally matched opponents in a conflict in which at the end Moses was victorious on behalf of the Jewish people, whom he liberated from the fetters of Egyptian slavery. A further arrangement of the figures can be reconstructed on the basis of Meštrović’s drawings. Judging from them, the artist’s intention was to depict all the great world religions, as well as to combine the profane and the sacred, in a wish to honour the greatest spiritual achievements of humanity, in art and religion. Among the representatives of the great world religions, places of honour were won by artists – by Michelangelo and Meštrović himself, as constructor of his own funeral edifice (Figure 281-282). Such an equation of artists with prophets is in line with his thinking that the artist
Alongside representatives of Judaism, Islam, Confucianism, Christianity and Hinduism, an important place was to be occupied by the religion of Ancient Egypt, embodied in its this-worldly representative, the figure of a pharaoh. Meštrović worked the representatives of ancient Egyptian religion in several 1232
Rice 1948.
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Figure 279. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Pharaoh. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-271. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 281. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Michelangelo. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS269. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 280. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Pharaoh. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-272. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
Figure 282. Ivan Meštrović: Study for the Decoration of the Dome of the Church of the Most Holy Reedemer – Self-portrait. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg. Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS270. © Split: Meštrović Gallery.
is directly inspired by God and that the artistic idea and its physical manifestation are reflections of the divine nature.1233
greatest spiritual and artistic teachers, surmounting the borders of geography, culture and religion, and becoming a shrine to art and faith and tolerance.
A reconstruction of Meštrović’s extremely complex iconographic programme reveals the artist’s highly personal and above all idiosyncratic worldview. And, certainly, a particular impression had been made on him by the Journey in the Orient of 1927, and by the direct contact with the visual language of ancient cultures, expanding the horizons of his spiritual comprehension. Delving into the secrets of the unfinished dome we can conclude that Meštrović’s last resting place – the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer – was his dedication to the
Catalogue of works
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1. Ivan Meštrović – Monument to Gregory of Nin (Figure 268) Provenance: unveiled in Split in 1929. Place and dating: Zagreb, 1927. Dimensions: 758 x 397 x 180 cm. Material: bronze. Reference: Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg (FGM-3752).
Meštrović 2010: 9.
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Egypt in Croatia Place and dating: Zagreb, c. 1938. Dimensions: 90 x 125 cm. Material: charcoal on paper. Reference: Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg (FGM-2777)
2. Ivan Meštrović – Eternally Crucified (Figure 272) Provenance: carved in stone in the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer in Otavice in 1931 by Antun Augustinčić. Place and dating: Zagreb, 1930. Dimensions: 311 x 225 x 54 cm. Material: stone. Reference: Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg (FGM-2933).
8. Ivan Meštrović – Pharaoh (Figure 280) Collection: Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-287. Study for the decoration of the ceiling of the dome of the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer Place and dating: Zagreb, c. 1938. Dimensions: 45.6 x 63 cm. Material: dark brown crayon on paper. Reference: Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg (FGM-2759).
3. Ivan Meštrović – St John Evangelist (Figure 273) Provenance: carved in stone in the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer in Otavice in 1931 by Vanja Radauš. Place and dating: Zagreb, 1931. Dimensions: 350 x 150 cm. Material: limestone. Reference: Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg (FGM).
9. Ivan Meštrović – Michelangelo (Figure 281) Collection: Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-269. Study for the decoration of the ceiling of the dome of the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer. Place and dating: Zagreb, c. 1938. Dimensions: 90 x 126 cm. Material: charcoal on paper. Reference: Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg (FGM-2774).
4. Ivan Meštrović – St Matthew The Evangelist (Figure 274) Provenance: carved in stone in the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer in Otavice in 1931 by Grga Antunac Place and dating: Zagreb, 1931. Dimensions: 350 x 150 cm. Material: limestone. Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg (FGM).
10. Ivan Meštrović – Self-portrait (Figure 282) Collection: Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-270. Study for the decoration of the ceiling of the dome of the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer. Place and dating: Zagreb, c. 1938. Dimensions: 90 x 126 cm. Material: charcoal on paper. Reference: Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg (FGM-2775).
5. Ivan Meštrović: St. Luke Evangelist (Figure 275) Provenance: carved in stone in the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer in Otavice in 1931 by Marijan Matijević Place and dating: Zagreb, 1931 Dimensions: 350 x 150 cm Material: limestone. Reference: Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg (FGM).
Bibliography Jurić Šabić, Z. 2015. Dekodiranje Meštrovića: ikonološka studija skica za dekoraciju kupole crkve Presvetog Otkupitelja u Otavicama. Exhibition catalogue. Split. Jurić Šabić, Z. 2016. Meštrovićev znak u Splitu. Split. Meštrović, I. 1962. Uspomene s puta po Istoku. Hrvatska revija XII (December 1962), vol. 4 (48): 405-411. Meštrović, I. 2010. Michelangelo: Eseji umjetnika o umjetniku. Zagreb. Rice, N.L. 1948. The Sculpture of Ivan Meštrović. Syracuse. Rittig, S. 1929. Meštrovićeva vidjenja i verovanja. Nova Evropa, nos. 1-2 (11th July 1929): 34-38. S. Ć. 1925. Meštrovićev put u Japan. Sastanak s Tagorom. Večernja pošta 1205 (13th July 1925): 3. Šeparović Palada, M. 2016. Ivan Meštrović: Spomenik Grguru Ninskom u Splitu. Split.
6. Ivan Meštrović – St Luke The Evangelist (Figure 276) Provenance: carved in stone in the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer in Otavice in 1931 by Dragutin Orlandini Place and dating: Zagreb, 1931 Dimensions: 350 x 150 cm. Material: limestone. Reference: Photograph by Zoran Alajbeg (FGM). 7. Ivan Meštrović: Pharaoh (Figure 279) Collection: Split: Meštrović Gallery, GMS-271. Study for the decoration of the ceiling of the dome of the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer.
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Influences of Egyptian Style in Furniture Making: Examples from the Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb Vanja Brdar Mustapić The influence of ancient Egypt and ‘Egyptomania’ as a fascination with Egyptian civilisation, manifested itself in various spheres, including interior design, interior furnishings and furniture, starting from Antiquity (i.e. Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli, around 153 CE), reappearing in the work of G.B. Piranesi (Caffè degl’Inglesi, Rome, 1768), and the craze for ‘Egyptomania’ during the Napoleon Period, the characteristic Empire style of Thomas Hope (Egyptian Room in his London House from 1799 to 1804), the furniture of Liberty and Co. (end of the 19th century), right up to ‘Tut-mania’ in the 1920s.
general reception of the Egyptian Style in Croatia in this period, there is one visual example from the Zagreb City Museum influenced by it. It is the portrait of Kristofor Stanković, a Zagreb merchant who financed the construction of the Zagreb Theatre (Mihael Stroy, 1833/1834). Stanković is seen sitting in a representative Empire armchair with a dominant gilt-winged sphinx figures as armrests (Figure 248). 1. Table, part of salon suite (Figure 283) Collection: Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 28966/1, on display. Provenance: France. Dating: c. 1860.
The situation in Croatia in the first half of the 19th century Items of furniture with Egyptian decorative motifs and shapes held in the Museum of Arts and Crafts in Zagreb do not represent the situation in Croatia in terms of the reception of Egyptian-style influences, but only stylistic features within the history of European furniture.
2. Writing desk (Figure 284) Collection: Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 26661, on display. Provenance: Austria. Dating: c. 1820–1830. Discussion for Cat. nos. 1-2: The salon suite from the Museum of Arts and Crafts dates to the second half of the 19th century and includes a table almost identical to the one made at the beginning of the 19th century by the leading French Empire-Period ébéniste F.H.G. Jacob-Desmalter (1770–1841). The son of the famous Georges Jacob also worked for Napoleon and his family, often to the designs of Perceir and Fontaine. The top of the Desmalter table was a Classical mosaic from Herculaneum, later replaced by a marble slab. It was originally in the Palais de l’Élyesée, in the bedroom of Napoleon’s sister Caroline Murat (1808), and after much travelling, it has been in the Grand Trianon in Versailles since 1882. The original has gilt bronze figures of griffins, while our table has winged sphinxes, which also appear as armrests of the armchair from this set.
Among them, the earliest are Empire and Biedermeier artefacts, most often with motifs of sphinxes and obelisks. ‘Egyptomania’ was sparked by Napoleon’s Egyptian Campaign (1798/1799), after which his official draftsman, Baron Dominique-Vivant Denon, issued a series of drawings in his Voyage dans la Basse et Haute Egypte (1802). Egyptian motifs were also an integral part of Recueil de Décorations Intérieures (1801 and 1812), the key work for the formation of the Empire style of Napoleon’s architects, Ch. Percier and P.F.L. Fontaine. In Croatia, the Empire style developed primarily in miniature portrait painting and artistic crafts. During the brief period of French rule in Croatia (1806, Illyrian provinces from 1809 to 1813) the School of Arts and Crafts was founded in Zadar in 1810, from where students were sent for further education in France. This certainly contributed to the expansion of the style. However, this fashion also dispersed, developed and lasted, even after Napoleon’s fall, until the 1840s, as the official style (Italy, Germany, Russia ...) on the one hand, and within middle-class taste and production on the other. For the latter we have examples in other branches of artistic crafts in Croatia.
3. Secretaire (Figure 285a-c) Collection: Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 9866, on display. Provenance: France. Acquired from the family of Janko Burgstaller in Zagreb in 1954. Dating: c. 1860. Discussion: Since ancient times, Egyptian obelisks have been placed in European cities. On Biedermeier furniture, characteristic for the style, the motif of the
Although from the provenance of Egyptian-style furniture within the Museum of Arts and Crafts in Zagreb we cannot come to conclusions about the 269
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Figure 283. Table, part of salon suite. Zagreb: Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 28966/1. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
Figure 284. Writing desk. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 26661. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
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Vanja Brdar Mustapić: Influences of Egyptian Style in Furniture Making
Figure 285a-c. Secretaire. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 9866. © Mladen Tomorad.
black, flat wooden obelisk is applied symmetrically to the front side of the artefact. In the period of Historicism, when modern technologies enabled the imitation of various materials, the impression of a Classical artefact was achieved with patina effect, as seen on the metal details of this secretaire with Classical and Neo-classicist elements. Egyptising figures with nemes on their heads, were used as consoles. Iconographical elements point to the representation of Tawaret, the Egyptian goddess of pregnancy and childbirth, made in free interpretation of a combination of various elements, which, in any case, is characteristic of Historicism. 4. Chair (Figure 286) Collection: Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 14634, on display. Provenance: Central Europe. Dating: c. 1925–1930. Discussion: The discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb in 1922 sparked another wave of ‘Egyptomania’. This Art Deco chair, apart from the characteristic mixture of Classical elements, reflects Egyptian influence, not in the decorative repertoire but in the design itself – all four legs end with frontally facing lion paws, characteristic of the naturalistic design of ancient Egyptian furniture.
Figure 286. Chair. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 14634. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
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‘Egyptomania’ and Clock Production: Examples from the Museum of Arts and Crafts, Zagreb Vesna Lovrić Plantić
‘Egyptomania’, which appeared in the 18th century, manifested itself in the renewed interest in using ancient Egyptian artistic elements in painting, architecture, and the applied arts. It is no surprise, therefore, that at that time Egyptian motifs also often began to appear on clock cases. Egyptian connections with the creation of timekeeping devices can be traced from the 2nd second millennium BCE: they are attributed with the invention of the first two elementary clocks – the sundial and the water clock. The earliest preserved water clocks in Egypt date from the time of the New Kingdom: the most beautiful example was made during the reign of Amenhotep III and was found in 1904 in the sanctuary of the temple in Karnak. As for sundials, there are two basic types – one measures shadow length, and the other its direction. In 2013, a sundial (c. 1500 BCE) was discovered in the Valley of the Kings, and it was divided into 12 hours. Since it was found at the area of the workers’ settlement, for those employed in the construction of the tombs, it might have been used to keep track of daily working hours. Obelisks are assumed to be the first sundials: in the beginning, the shadows they cast allowed the day to be split into two, before and after noon, with the shortest shadow for the winter and the longest for the summer solstice. Later, around the obelisk, lines were drawn which allowed for the reading of smaller time segments. As many as eight obelisks were transported from Egypt to Rome at the beginning of the Christian era. 1. Longcase Clock with a Musical Mechanism (Figure 287) Collection: Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 15063, on display. Provenance: Eltz Castle, Vukovar. Place and dating: Dresden, 1794, Johann Gottfried Kaufmann. Discussion: In the second half of the 18th century, clockmakers began to use Egyptian forms and motifs; thus, the form of an obelisk became popular, primarily in France at the time of Louis XVI. In Croatian museums there are several interesting clocks which, with their shape and/or repertoire of iconographic elements,
Figure 287. Longcase Clock with a Musical Mechanism. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 15063. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
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Figure 288. Mantel clock with sphinx. Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 25169. © Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts.
mirrored the Egyptian influence. Among them is certainly this most representative large, longcase clock, with its musical mechanism, from 1794; it is signed by Johann Gottfried Kaufmann, the famous Dresden builder of musical instruments and clocks. His corpus is undoubtedly reminiscent of an Egyptian sarcophagus, and a lotus motif is applied on the clock door, perforated and covered with fabric for a better sound flow. The clock originates from Eltz Castle in Vukovar and is today exhibited as part of the Permanent Exhibition of the Museum of Arts and Crafts in Zagreb.
Dating: c. 1930. Discussion: The Pylon gateway at the entrance to the temple in Luxor was an inspiration for the designer of this clock made in Vienna at the beginning of the 19th century. This clock is also from the Collection of the Museum of Arts and Crafts in Zagreb. Appliques depicting Egyptian soldiers, and a reclining figure of a lion on the top, create a logical complement to its basic form. However, the most widely used figure on clocks in Croatian museums is a sphinx – single or in pairs, sitting, reclining or standing, with or without wings; mostly they flank or sometimes support the architecturally designed parts of clock cases. Most of these clocks date from the first decades of the 19th century, only the French marble mantel clock with sphinx figure on the top was made in the 1930s, during a new, large wave of ‘Egyptomania’, inspired by the discovery of Tutankamun’s tomb in 1923.
2. Mantel clock with sphinx (Figure 288) Collection: Zagreb: Museum of Arts and Crafts, MUO 25169, on display. Provenance: France. Bought from the ‘Agram’ antiques shop (Passage of the Baković Sisters, Zagreb) in 1994. 273
Project Croato-Aegyptica Mladen Tomorad The basic aim of the Croato-Aegyptica project is to produce targeted and selected databases of relevant material related to the cultural influences of Egyptian civilisation within the historical territory of Croatia and based on the artefacts in institutional and private collections. The CADB database (croato-aegyptica. starapovijest.eu), accessible through the Stara povijest website, guarantees domestic and international scientific researchers and cultural institutions a complete insight into the richness of Croatian
Egyptological material, offering a quick and easy search of its entire holdings and displaying data appropriate to the public in both Croatian and English. The idea of launching a project through which all the collections of Ancient Egyptian materials and monuments in Croatia could be researched, and whose artefacts could then be systematically scientifically and professionally elaborated, was conceived during the second half of 2001. In the period from October 2003
Figure 289. Croato-Aegyptica web site, 2004 - 2011. © Mladen Tomorad.
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Figure 290. Description of the artefact from the database 'Croato-Aegyptica Electronica', 2004. © Mladen Tomorad
(Figures 289-290), when financial support for the project started, until 2018, almost all the museum collections in Croatia were preliminarily processed (some of the material was thoroughly analysed and processed within the project, and some only preliminarily processed within the museum systems of the Republic of Croatia).
povijest website was completed. In the forthcoming period, the plan is to complete the processing of the remaining known collections (the archaeological museums of Dubrovnik, Split, and Zagreb) and the inclusion of new collections in an already existing database (the Museum of Arts and Crafts in Zagreb). In addition, the Croatian-Egyptian terminology and a multilingual thesaurus for the CADB database are being developed (Cat. Figures 291-292).
During the spring and summer of 2017, the first phase of data collection and digital representations from several databases and their joint presentation within the Stara 275
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Figure 291. Croato-Aegyptica database, 2018. © Mladen Tomorad.
Figure 292. Description of the artefact from the database 'Croato-Aegyptica Electronica', 2018. © Mladen Tomorad
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Bibliography
Tomorad, M. 2017. The Ancient Egyptian Collections in Croatia and the Project Croato-Aegyptica Electronica, in: C. Derricks (ed.) Collections at Risk – New Challenges in a New Environment: 237-268. Atlanta. Tomorad, M. and Zlodi, G. 2005. Croato-Aegyptica Electronica – Database of the Egyptian Antiquities in Croatian Museums and Private Collections: Documentation Vs. Communication Approach, in: M. Šojat-Bikić (ed.), Documentation & Users – Proceedings of the CIDOC Annual Conference: 1-18. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Zlodi, G. 2012. Razvoj baze podataka i portala Croato-Aegyptica Electronica, in: M. Tomorad (ed.), Istraživanje povijesti i kulture starog Istoka i Egipta na prostoru jugoistočne Europe, Zagreb, 18.-22. lipanj 2012: 47. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Zlodi, G. 2015. Development of the ‘Croato-Aegyptica’ Database, in: M. Tomorad (ed.), A History of Research into Ancient Egyptian Culture conducted in Southeast Europe: 161-164. Oxford. Tomorad, M. and Zlodi, G. 2016. Projekt CroatoAegyptica Electronica: iskustva okupljanja građe, interoperabilnosti metapodataka i razvoja egiptološkog nazivlja u višejezičnom okruženju. Šesti festival hrvatskih digitalizacijskih projekata, Zagreb 21.-22. travanj 2016: 31-32. Zagreb. Tomorad, M. and Zlodi, G. 2017. Staroegipatska civilizacija sv. II: Uvod u egiptološke studije. Zagreb.
Tomorad, M. 2004. Croato-Aegyptica Electronica. Database of the Egyptian antiquities in Croatian museum and private collections. PalArch, Archaeology of Egypt Series/Egyptology 3, 2: 7-11. Tomorad, M. 2004. Croato-Aegyptica Electronica – Database of Egyptian Antiquities in Croatian Museums and Private Collections, in: Third Central European Conference of Young Egyptologists. Egypt 2004: Perspectives of Research, Warsaw 12–14 May 2004, Abstracts of papers: 13. Warsaw. Tomorad, M. 2004. Croato-Aegyptica Electronica: Database of the Egyptian Antiquities in Croatian Museums and Private Collections, in: Ancient Studies – New Technology 3: The World Wide Web and Scholarly Research, Communication, and Publication in Ancient, Byzantine, and Medieval Studies, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA, Highlands Room, University College Center December 3–4, 2004: 19. Harrisonburg. Tomorad, M. 2006. Model računalne obrade i prezentacije staroegipatskih predmeta u muzejskim zbirkama u Hrvatskoj. [doktorska disertacija]. Zagreb: Odsjek za informacijske znanosti, Katedra za muzeologiju, Filozofski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Tomorad, M. 2007. Croato-Aegyptica Electronica – model obrade i analize staroegipatskih predmeta u muzejskim i privatnim zbirkama u Hrvatskoj: dokumentacijski i komunikacijski pristup. Muzeologija 41-42 (2004/2005): 218-239. Tomorad, M. 2009. Croato-Aegyptica Electronica – Database of the Egyptian antiquities in Croatian museums and private collections, in: J. PopielskaGrzybowska (ed.), Proceedings of the Third Central European Conference of Young Egyptologists. Egypt 2004: Perspectives of Research. Warsaw 12–14 May 2004: 183190. Pułtusk.
Internet portals (2004 – 2014) Croato-Aegyptica Electronica. Main editor: M. Tomorad. Editorial panel: H. Gračanin, I. Malus Tomorad, M. Tomorad, P. Selem, and I. Uranić. (2014 – today) Stara povijest. Main editor: M. Tomorad (http://www.starapovijest.eu).
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At first sight, it seems that ancient Egyptian history and culture have no meaningful ties with present-day Croatia. However, when we scratch beneath the surface of the common idea of Egypt, that of a distant and ancient civilisation, we notice that its elements have been present in Croatia ever since antiquity. Egypt in Croatia provides a closer look at many aspects of the presence and fascination of ancient Egyptian culture in Croatia, from antiquity to the present. The topics explored are the artefacts discovered in present-day Croatia (mostly from the early 19th century), Croatian travellers to Egypt from the 16th to the middle of the 20th century, Egyptian collections in Croatia and early collectors from the 1820s until the 1950s, an overview of the development of Egyptology of study within Croatia as well as the various elements of ‘Egyptomania’ found in Croatia, mostly from the beginning of the 19th century. Mladen Tomorad is a senior researcher and the professor of the Ancient History at the Department of History, Croatian Studies, University of Zagreb (Croatia). He studied history, ancient history, museology and Egyptology at the University of Zagreb and the University of Manchester and has PhD in ancient history and museology.
Archaeopress Egyptoloy www.archaeopress.com