Educating the Profession: 40 years of the IFLA Section on Education and Training 9783110375398, 9783110375268

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IFLA Publications

Edited by Michael Heaney International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions Fédération Internationale des Associations de Bibliothécaires et des Bibliothèques Internationaler Verband der bibliothekarischen Vereine und Institutionen Международная Федерация Библиотечных Ассоциаций и Учреждений Federación Internacional de Asociaciones de Bibliotecarios y Bibliotecas

Volume 170

Educating the Profession 40 years of the IFLA Section on Education and Training Edited by Michael Seadle and Clara M. Chu with Ulrike Stöckel and Breanne Crumpton

DE GRUYTER SAUR

ISBN 978-3-11-037526-8 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-037539-8 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-039634-8 ISSN 0344-6891 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress. Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2016 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Cover Image: Wavebreakmedia Ltd/Wavebreak Media/thinkstock Typesetting: Dr Rainer Ostermann, München Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck ♾ Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com

Contents About IFLA

Contents

 IX

Acknowledgement

 XI

Clara M. Chu and Michael Seadle Welcome Introduction to the book  1

1

Anna Maria Tammaro and Terry Weech Development of the Profession A History of the IFLA Section for Education & Training from 2004 to 2014  5

Section 1: Europe Michael Seadle Introduction  23 Michael Seadle 2 European Library and Information Science Schools

 26

Anne Welsh 3 “Expertise ... Certification ... Cultural Capital” The Education of Librarians in the UK  47 Tatjana Aparac-Jelušić 4 New Approaches, Structural and Organizational Changes in the PhD Programme in LIS/IS  68 Aleksandra Vranes, Ljiljana Marković and Aleksandar Jerkov 5 Library and Information Science Education and Training in Serbia  85

Section 2: Africa Michael Seadle Introduction  99

VI 

 Contents

Paul Sturges, Peter Burnett and Archie Dick 6 Anglophone Africa: Ibadan Sixty Years on An Historical Survey and Review of Trends in African LIS Education

 101

Bernard Dione 7 Fifteen Years of Training Librarians in French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa Outcomes and Perspectives  122 Uloma Doris Onuoha, Ngozi Blessing Ukachi and Rachael Folashade Aina 8 Library Education in Nigeria Repositioning for Professional Relevance in the 21st Century  134

Section 3: Americas Michael Seadle Introduction  147 Prudence Dalrymple 9 What’s in a Name? A Brief History of Informatics Education

 149

Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano 10 Library and Information Science (LIS) Education in Mexico

 165

Ana María Talavera-Ibarra and Aurora de la Vega-Ramírez 11 Library Education in Peru Historical and Future Perspectives  191

Section 4: Asia and Australia Michael Seadle Introduction  219 Janet Martin 12 LIS Education in the United Arab Emirates Past and Future Directions  221



Contents 

 VII

S.B. Ghosh 13 Looking back through More than One Hundred Years of LIS Education in India and Looking ahead  241 Ida F. Priyanto 14 The Development, Challenges, and Opportunities of Library and Information Science Education in Indonesia  258 Rosalie B. Faderon, Vyva Victoria M. Aguirre, Iyra S. Buenrostro and Johann Frederick A. Cabbab 15 The University of the Philippines (UP) School of Library and Information Studies Legacies, Challenges and Commitment to the Profession through Excellence in LIS Education  278



Mary Carroll 16 The Australian LIS Education Journey From Practice to Profession  302

Section 5: Special Perspective on Library and Information Science Education and Training Michael Seadle Introduction  321 Barbara B. Moran 17 International Quality Assurance in LIS Education

 323

Susan E. Searing 18 The Rise and Fall of the Library Science Library A History of Library Support for North American LIS Education

 352

Hadir A. Shady 19 The Bibliotheca Alexandrina’s Role in Library and Information Science Education and Training  373

VIII 

 Contents

Section 6: Possible Future Educational Approaches for LIS and its Development Michael Seadle Introduction  389 Ursula Georgy 20 Trends in Librarianship Training in Germany

 391

Josep Cobarsí-Morales, Alexandre López-Borrull, Eva Ortoll, Sandra Sanz Martos and Antoni Roig Telo 21 Undergraduate Distance Education in LIS in Spain 1999–2014 An Historical Perspective  405

Nosheen Fatima Warraich, Amara Malik and Kanwal Ameen 22 In Search of New Horizons Agenda of LIS Schools in Pakistan  420 Alison J. Pickard, Julie McLeod and Gobinda Chowdhury 23 From Professional Qualifications to iSchool@northumbria A 65-year Journey  433 Contributors

 447

About IFLA www.ifla.org IFLA (The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions) is the leading international body representing the interests of library and information services and their users. It is the global voice of the library and information profession. IFLA provides information specialists throughout the world with a forum for exchanging ideas and promoting international cooperation, research, and development in all fields of library activity and information service. IFLA is one of the means through which libraries, information centres, and information professionals worldwide can formulate their goals, exert their influence as a group, protect their interests, and find solutions to global problems. IFLA’s aims, objectives, and professional programme can only be fulfilled with the co-operation and active involvement of its members and affiliates. Currently, approximately 1,600 associations, institutions and individuals, from widely divergent cultural backgrounds, are working together to further the goals of the Federation and to promote librarianship on a global level. Through its formal membership, IFLA directly or indirectly represents some 500,000 library and information professionals worldwide. IFLA pursues its aims through a variety of channels, including the publication of a major journal, as well as guidelines, reports and monographs on a wide range of topics. IFLA organizes workshops and seminars around the world to enhance professional practice and increase awareness of the growing importance of libraries in the digital age. All this is done in collaboration with a number of other non-governmental organizations, funding bodies and international agencies such as UNESCO and WIPO. IFLANET, the Federation’s website, is a prime source of information about IFLA, its policies and activities: www.ifla.org. Library and information professionals gather annually at the IFLA World Library and Information Congress, held in August each year in cities around the world. IFLA was founded in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1927 at an international conference of national library directors. IFLA was registered in the Netherlands in 1971. The Koninklijke Bibliotheek (Royal Library), the national library of the Netherlands, in The Hague, generously provides the facilities for our headquarters. Regional offices are located in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Pretoria, South Africa; and Singapore.

Acknowledgement The editors would like to thank Dr Petra Hauke and Dr Joan Luft for their enourmous help with the copy editing, Breanne Crumpton for her diligence in editing, researching and preparing materials, and Ulrike Stöckel for her commitment to ensuring that the final draft was both formally and intellectually correct.

Clara M. Chu and Michael Seadle

Welcome

Introduction to the book

Overview This book grew out of the celebration of 40 years of the Section on Education and Training (SET) of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), which took place on 18 August 2014 in Lyon, France. The one-day summit employed the theme “Library and Information Education and Training: Confluence of the Past and Present Toward a Strong Future”, provided a forum for critical discussion that included keynotes, panels, and Ignite sessions, and was attended by participants from 50 countries, with over 150 individual registrations. The book has history as its focus in order to understand the diverse international scope of library and information education and training from the early nineteenth century to the early twenty-first century and beyond. It should also inform the future. The digital age is not the first time that libraries have encountered changes in their mission and internal processes, nor is the encounter with digital technologies especially new – it is in fact older than SET itself. SET began in 1974, at which time Henriette Avram had already developed MARC (MAchine Readable Cataloguing) at the Library of Congress in the United States, OCLC had started operations in Ohio, and James Aagaard was working on the first automation system at Northwestern University. The history of library education programmes varies broadly from region to region and country to country. The European programmes are generally the oldest and were often associated with some form of legal regulation of the profession. Regions where the countries and their national boundaries are newer, generally, have a shorter history. Local cultures and local literacy levels add more variation. Some of the oldest programmes are leading the way to a digital future while some of the newer programmes are more traditional. Nonetheless, all recognize the need to adapt to change.

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The Regions This book has sections on Europe, Asia and Australia, Africa, and the Americas. The experiences of libraries in these regions vary with their wealth, independence, and the value placed on education. Official educational systems are not always a good expression of the latter. The UK has, for example, a relatively long history of library training, but was late among the European countries to have a comprehensive and compulsory public educational system. Private education – the so-called “public schools” – was, however, well established. In Continental Europe the coincidence of library training with the growth of public educational systems was closer, and it is no surprise, since library growth requires literacy. In North America the commitment to public education began early – in the United States with the provisions for schools in the territories that became the Midwest. The Philadelphia Free Public Library, founded in 1731, was a striking example of the commitment to libraries and reading. The growth of universities also helped to establish libraries in the society, and made the need for library professionals more obvious. Canada followed a different, more urban, development path, but by the end of the nineteenth century libraries were part of the urban landscape there as well. The library training programme began at the University of Toronto in 1928. The development of library programmes in Africa began later and was closely involved with the colonial legacy. Sub-Saharan Africa had few libraries and no educational infrastructure that was comparable to those in Europe or North America. This means that the growth of library programmes largely coincided with the SET. India also had a long colonial background, but benefited from a well developed literature and collections that formed the core of libraries. The first programme began in 1911 and the number of schools in India has grown substantially. The programmes in other parts of Asia and South America are also largely products of the twentieth century.

Special Topics The special topics look at issues like accreditation, library school libraries, distance learning and case studies. Accreditation was a topic at the SET session during the 2015 IFLA Conference in Cape Town, South Africa. The goal is to ensure that the graduates of library programmes meet certain basic standards. The problem is to decide what those standards should be in a changing world. One of the oldest and largest accreditation programmes is run by the American Library



Welcome 

 3

Association and is described in one of the chapters. Library school libraries at one time played a role in accreditation and were considered important to give students hands-on practice. For a variety of reasons involving administrative efficiency and online access, most of the library school libraries have been merged into larger university collections. Distance learning is a popular topic generally in the academic world, and a number of library programmes have actively embraced distance learning. Nonetheless, face-to-face teaching continues to dominate. One case study looks at Northumbria University in the UK, which began as a polytechnic and grew into a serious research university. In recent years it was admitted to the iSchools group. A second case study looks at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina in Egypt, which is the modern re-creation of the famous Alexandrian Library.

Change and Education In the last forty years libraries have changed substantially and library schools have had to adapt. Topics like cataloguing that were the mainstay of training programmes in the 1970s have declined radically as the demand for cataloguing staff has dropped. Collection development was also a core topic at one time, but fewer and fewer librarians are involved with collection development as journals have become part of “big deals” on the part of publishers, and as monographic aggregators provide books based on profiles. Reference and information services have remained significant as a topic, but have shifted as the content has become more available online. One of the biggest challenges for library education programmes has been to predict future needs, so that they can prepare their students accordingly. It is clear that students with strong computing skills get jobs more quickly, and often with better pay, than those with traditional library skills. Among the iSchools there is a strong trend to offer courses on programming or in conjunction with computer science programmes. Graduates with these skills also tend to find jobs in industry or research projects. This means a substantial drain of what are often top students out of the library world. Some return, but many do not. At SET’s 40th anniversary celebration, opening keynote speaker Ismail Serageldin (Founding Director, Bibliotheca Alexandrina), in his talk “Embracing the Challenge, Inventing the Future”, described a fast-moving technological landscape where libraries would thrive with librarians as active learners, with library spaces re-imagined to meet evolving needs and contexts, and with professional values serving as the foundation of librarianship. In a complementary talk, closing keynote speaker Lynn Silipigni Connaway (Senior Research Specialist,

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OCLC Research) spoke about the opportunities in library and information professional education rather than a one-fit solution. This metamorphosis envisions an emphasis on people and relationship building, in order to develop service excellence. As SET itself looks forward, one of the themes that has strong support is library education and training for developing countries. The libraries that they serve often have less access to cutting edge technology and may need to follow more traditional practices for some parts of their operations. SET at 50 will likely look different than at 40. The pace of change may vary, but the technological direction is unlikely to alter.

Anna Maria Tammaro and Terry Weech

1 Development of the Profession A History of the IFLA Section for Education & Training from 2004 to 2014 The Section Education and Training (SET) of IFLA aims to improve Library and Information Science (LIS) education and to strengthen the links between foundational education and continuing professional development for professional and paraprofessional library staff. An overview of the history of the Education and Training Section from its establishment in the early 1970s through the year 2003 was completed by Russell Bowden and Ole Harbo under the title “Development of the profession: A history of the IFLA Section for Education & Training from 1974 to 2003”. In this chapter of the volume marking the 40th anniversary of the Section, the history for the years 2004–2014 is provided. When read in conjunction with the earlier history by Bowden and Harbo, the story of the Section for Education and Training for the forty years of its existence can be reviewed. In the ten years since the earlier book, LIS education worldwide has been facing the challenge of charting the future roles to be played by library and information professionals during times of considerable socio-economic and technological change. During these past ten years, the challenges in the information profession have gone beyond national boundaries and have become international concerns in the age of the World Wide Web. The information profession have come to focus less on physical collections and more on electronic access and information services that may be provided in a wide variety of contexts and formats, virtual as well as physical, electronic as well as analogue. The Section for Education and Training has attempted to meet the new challenges to programmes involved in educating information professionals by analysing methods of assessing quality assurance of LIS education programmes and the updating of LIS education curricula to meet the needs of 21st-century information professionals. In the most recent years, the Section also focused on the convergence of libraries, archives and museums, as the definition of what constitutes the information professions has expanded in the digital age. The activities since 2003 have included: –– reviewing the Guidelines for Professional Library/Information Education Programs (4th revised edition 2007) to determine their currency and relevance for LIS education and professional development in the dynamic information environment;

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 Anna Maria Tammaro and Terry Weech

–– developing international criteria for quality assurance of LIS education programmes; –– producing workshops and programmes at IFLA conferences on curriculum development and creative teaching methodologies and materials and disseminate the content of these programmes through the Newsletter to the members of the Section; –– exploring ways to have members of the Section from developing countries become more active through more regular communications with the Section.

2004 After much discussion a new model for IFLA’s guiding concepts for the years to come was approved. This model, the “Three Pillars” which are Society, Members and Profession, was promoted by Alex Byrne (IFLA President-elect 2003–2005; IFLA President, 2005–2007) (IFLA Governing Board 2004; Byrne 2004; Wilhite 2012). In 2004 IFLA was composed of 47 sections grouped under eight divisions. There was a formal internal and external review of IFLA Sections (IFLA 2005). Eventually all sections would have to complete the evaluation. Each division of IFLA was requested to have one section volunteer to participate in the test assessment process this year, and thus Education and Training volunteered. SET held successful meetings at the 2004 World Library and Information Congress (WLIC) in Buenos Aires. The theme of the SETs workshop was “The Challenges of Library and Information Science Education in the Developing World”, focusing on the opportunities and challenges of regional and international co-operations in library education in the developing world. The workshop took place off-site at the Universidad de Buenos Aires. The Section was represented in the Division VII programme in Buenos Aires on 23 August by C.R. Karisiddappa, Niels Ole Pors, and Terry L. Weech. They presented a paper on “Literacy Concepts in the LIS Curriculum”. The programme was well attended by representatives from all the sections in the Division. The E-learning discussion group, a SET-affiliated roundtable, had a successful session in Buenos Aires attended by nearly 100 participants. Plans were made to continue the E-Learning discussion group for another year. At the Berlin Conference in 2003, the IFLA Education and Training Section approved a survey on quality assurance models in LIS programmes, aimed at achieving greater transparency of professional qualifications and increasing international cooperation of LIS schools for quality assurance and accreditation.



1 Development of the Profession 

 7

Anna Maria Tammaro, on behalf of the Section received a 2004 IFLA research grant to investigate “The Quality Assessment of LIS Education”.

2005 In 2005 fourteen new members were elected to the Section’s Standing Committee. The overall number of Section members (organizational and individual) was 212. The Education and Training Section presented a joint programme at the 71st WLIC in Oslo with the Library Theory and Research Section. The programme discussed the Nordic tradition in teaching and research as well as papers on international perspectives in library and information science research and education. The Section also participated in the Division VII (Education and Research) programme in Oslo about “Recruitment and Careers”. Papers addressed not only the topics of recruitment and careers in the library and information science profession, but also recruitment to research careers and coping with employers’ requirements and expectations for new graduates. The E-learning discussion group, an Education and Training Section affiliated group, had a very successful session at the Oslo WLIC as well. Terry L. Weech and Niels Ole Pors received a research grant in 2005 to study the various patterns of education for digital librarianship. This study wanted to examine the curricular trends for digital librarianship and was intended to provide the background for the updating of the IFLA Guidelines for Professional Library/Information Education Programs. The study results were presented at the 2006 IFLA conference in Seoul, Korea. One of the issues discussed in 2005 was the revision of the Section’s statement of scope, to avoid conflict with the Continuing Professional Development and Workplace Learning (CPDWL) Section. CPDWL grew from a discussion group that was associated with Education and Training, and the Section scope statement had not been revised since this discussion group left and became an independent Section in IFLA. Members of CPDWL at the Oslo meeting of the Standing Committee noted that there were areas of overlap in the scope statements of the two sections that needed to be clarified. The update of the World Guide to LIS Education was problematic because obtaining responses from volunteers to provide the needed input for the successful updating failed. There was general agreement that members of the SET should try to salvage as much of the project as possible. It was also decided that SET should contact the regional editors once again. Chih-Feng P. Lin, who volun-

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teered as a regional editor, made the following suggestions, which indicate some of the difficulties of the project: 1. 2. 3.

4.

We should encourage LIS educational institutions to post English version on their website. Create a “Letter of Introduction” for our regional editors; this will confirm their authority to collect institutional information on behalf of IFLA. For data input of the World Guide, […] consult the regional editors before creating the database. These editors will help […] to choose fields that are appropriate for the individual regions. Examples include ZIP codes, which are different from country to different country; other examples will be telephone number, fax number... Finally, regional editors should be allowed to review and edit all data for their region.” (Personal communication from Chih-Feng P. Lin received at the meeting of the SET Standing Committee, August 2005).

2006 In 2006 SET had 207 organizational and individual section members. The meeting of the Division VIII Coordinating Board reviewed the plans for a new structure for sections. It was recommended that a section should have at least 50 members to exist as a section and that the number of members of a standing committee should be at least 10. If these two conditions were not met, the section would get time to market itself; if the section did not succeed in increasing its membership, it would cease its existence as a section and probably would be merged with another section or converted to a Special Interest Group (SIG). During the Section’s offsite programme, at the Department of Library and Information Science, College of Social Sciences, Ewha Womans University, the morning session consisted of four invited papers contributing to the topic of regional cooperation among LIS institutions in the area. The programme for the afternoon focused on lifelong education for LIS educators. A short preliminary report on the progress of the World Guide to Library and Information Studies Education was given. For the project concerning “Education in Digital Librarianship”, Standing Committee members were asked to provide information on relevant courses or programmes in their countries or regions. The project has been completed by the end of 2006. Anna Maria Tammaro’s 2004 IFLA research grant to investigate “The Quality Assessment of LIS Education” was completed in December of 2005. A summary of her findings appeared in the January 2006 SET Bulletin, and the full report was published on the Section website (Tammaro 2005, 2006).



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Terry Weech and Anna Maria Tammaro put forward a new proposal for recognition of qualifications worldwide. The proposal concerned the need for an update to the “Guidelines for Library and Information Science Education” and the incorporation of a quality assurance model and newer developments in the digital area. The IFLA Professional Committee decided to place the LIS Education in Developing Countries discussion group in Division VIII (Regions). Cooperation possibilities were discussed, including the possibilities for a joint sponsorship between Division VII (the Division SET is assigned to) and Division VIII. The standing committee supported that motion, which was brought forward to the next meeting of the coordinating board of Division VII. E-learning Discussion Group: due to a communication failure, the application for the renewal of the discussion group for E-learning was not sent in time. The committee decided to re-apply for the re-establishment of the discussion group. The request for renewal was unanimously approved by the Standing Committee and the request was forwarded to Division VII for submission to the IFLA Professional Committee for action at their December, 2006 meeting.

2007 The Section membership numbered 201. The Standing Committee had 22 members (and four corresponding). Division VIII in cooperation with SET sponsored and co-sponsored many programmes and presentations at the 73rd WLIC in Durban, South Africa. A sample of the events follows: –– “Advancing LIS education in Developing Countries: Views from LIS Educators and Practitioners” (Education and Training off-site session held at University of Kwazulu-Natal Library); –– “Collaboration Among LIS Schools in Africa”; –– “The Internet, Libraries And The Changing Information Behavior: Perspectives For Research And Education”; –– “Quality Assurance and LIS Education In Developing Countries” with the LIS Education in Developing Countries Discussion group. After several years of efforts on the part of a number of members and former members of the SET Standing Committee, the World Guide to Library, Archive, and Information Science Education 3rd revised edition was published by Saur in 2007 (Schniederjürgen 2007).

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At the WLIC in Durban, about 200 LIS educators and practitioners participated in the discussion of the SIG on E-Learning, promoted by the Section for Education and Training in collaboration with the Section on Information Literacy and the Section on Continuing Professional Development and Work Based Learning. The speakers presented different perspectives on how e-learning contributes to LIS education and continuing professional development and its implication for the operation of library services.

2008 In 2008 there was a revision of the IFLA structure. New statutes and rules were accepted and a new professional structure for the organization was ushered in. IFLA was composed of 43 sections grouped under four divisions, and this structure remains today. Special Interest Groups replaced Discussion Groups. In September 2008 SET had 195 members. The Section held an open session and an all-day offsite session at the 74th WLIC in Quebec City that focused on paraprofessional education programmes. The open session title was “Recruiting Sstudents into LIS Programs: Navigating towards Global Understanding”. The off-site session addressed the theme of “LIS Support Staff Education: Library Technicians & Library Assistants”. Ten papers were selected from Africa (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Rwanda, South Africa), Asia (India), Australia, Canada, Europe (Switzerland and Germany) and the USA. The site of the SET offsite conference in Quebec was the College CEGEP FrançoisXavier Garneau. The E-learning discussion group, co-sponsored by Education and Training Section together with Continuing Professional Development (CPDWBL) and Information Literacy Sections, had a session entitled “Putting the Learner into E-learning: Do Librarians Like to Learn Online?” The focus of the discussion was on moving to a learner-centred approach, including the impact this can have on learning and teaching, and on creating a facilitating environment in libraries. Four papers were selected, representing e-learning good practices in USA, Canada, Asia and Europe. Petra Hauke, Secretary of the Section, submitted the project “LIS Student Award” for an annual award to be given to LIS students for attending the IFLA World Library and Information Congress. The project objectives are: –– encouraging LIS students to submit papers regarding the current World Library and Information Congress (WLIC) theme;



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–– rewarding the best LIS student paper submission for the IFLA World Library and Information Congress each year; –– giving LIS students the opportunity to take part in an IFLA World Library and Information Congress; –– giving LIS students the chance to learn more about IFLA activities; –– preparing and encouraging the new LIS generation to participate in IFLA activities. To help students with less experience in abstracts/paper writing, a template for the abstract was published on the IFLA Section Education & Training’s website. This LIS Student Award project was approved by IFLA Governing Board, with financial support coming directly from the IFLA Headquarters. The Section prepared the guidelines for students submitting abstracts to the call for papers of IFLA Conferences and other illustrative material to promote participation in the Award competition. A poster about the LIS Student Award project was presented by Petra Hauke together with LIS students from Germany (Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin) during the Quebec conference poster session. The project “Feasibility of International Guidelines For Equivalency And Reciprocity Of Qualifications For LIS Professionals” by Terry Weech and Anna Maria Tammaro was intended to achieve the SET strategy of harmonizing the academic and professional status of LIS staff through internationally recognized qualifications for LIS positions. The final report of the Project “Feasibility of International Guidelines For Equivalency And Reciprocity Of Qualifications For LIS Professionals” was presented in Quebec (Tammaro and Weech 2008).

2009 In 2009 the WLIC IFLA Conference was in Milan. During the first meeting in Milan Agnese Perrone accepted a newly created position as Web Editor, and she became the first student to serve on the SET Standing Committee. The Section had 178 members in September 2009. IFLA’s new divisional structure was introduced during the Milan conference. SET became part of Division IV “Support of the Profession”. A better coordination within the Division and inside IFLA was expected. In response to this new organization, SET started to collaborate with other Sections in the Division for the organization of the next WLIC Conference in Gothenburg. The common theme reflected concerns about an apparent gap between research and practice, which has caused much worry among professionals and educators. New partnerships

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were explored to achieve the SET strategic goals. As in the past, SET continued to cooperate with the International Council on Archives (ICA), the Fédération Internationale de Documentation (FID) (until 2001) and UNESCO. During the congress in Milan the section started a collaboration with European Conference of Library and Information Education and Research (EUCLID), Association for Library and Information Science Education (ALISE) and Asia-Pacific Library and Information Education and Practice (A-LIEP) focusing on common problems for recognition of qualifications, and SET planned a satellite meeting in Gothenburg to focus on cooperation and collaboration between LIS schools and their associations. The section represented IFLA at the International Conference of the Round Table on Archives (CITRA) meeting in Malta about the education of archivists, and it began a discussion with ICA about education for preservation and access in the digital age. During the offsite session at the University Sala di Rappresentanza, “Recognition of Qualifications and Quality of LIS Education: The Bologna Process Challenges in a Changing World”, new forms of more interactive programmes like the “Roundtable of LIS Teachers Associations and LIS Education” were planned. An evaluation form was distributed to participants. A sub-group was formed to write down experiences and guidelines and to develop a checklist for session evaluations. During the SET open session “The Role of Library and Cultural Institutions Professionals in Cultural Heritage: Education for the Convergence of Libraries, Archives and Museums (LAM)”, professionals and educators in LAM demonstrated real issues of convergence. The conclusion was that the convergence should push educators to a more theoretical reflection about professionals’ backgrounds. A proposal submitted by Clara Chu, a newly elected member to the Standing Committee, with the title “Teaching International and Comparative Librarianship Through International Collaboration: A Web Resource”, was approved by IFLA Professional Committee. SET used the opportunity of the facilities available on the new IFLA website for offering a new service of documentation to all the Section members. The project to determine the “Feasibility of International Guidelines for Equivalency and Reciprocity of Qualifications for LIS Professionals” by Terry L. Weech and Anna Maria Tammaro was completed and was made available as “International Guidelines for Equivalency and Reciprocity of Qualifications for LIS Professionals: Draft guidance document for transparency, equivalency and recognition of qualifications” (Weech and Tammaro 2009). This report included the proposal for an international resource centre for relevant information on LIS education.



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The SET project for a Best Student Paper Award received the sponsorship of IFLA and EKZ Services for libraries. The first “Best Student Paper Award” went to Agnese Perrone for her paper with the title “Electronic Book Collections Development in Italy: a Case Study”.

2010 The number of Section members in November 2010 was 179, and the number section members who had enrolled as students had grown to 17 (9.5% of total Section membership). Forum and wiki pages were added to the SET website, in coordination with the SET Web, by the Section’s Web Manager Agnese Perrone (Italy). The challenge for SET in 2010 was to think of LIS education in terms of a new vision of library education in the digital environment. The SET open session at the IFLA WLIC in Gothenburg, Sweden started a discussion on the changes needed. Following the suggestion of Urbano Cristobal (Spain), the SET Standing Committee engaged in a full day brainstorming session during the Conference in Gothenburg to rethink SET strategy and its action plan. A forum was started inside the SET Web page so that Standing Committee members could communicate events and projects and could share discussions. An IFLA satellite session with the theme “Cooperation and Collaboration in Teaching and Research Trends in Library and Information Studies Education” was held in Boras, Sweden, on 8–9 August 2010, prior to the WLIC in Gothenburg. It was organized with SET and the IFLA Library Theory and Research (LTR) Section and in collaboration with ALISE, EUCLID and the Swedish School of Library and Information Studies in Boras, Sweden. The IFLA-ALISE-EUCLID satellite conference focused on the discussion of current projects in LIS education and research, and how to enable networking and the sharing of knowledge between the various LIS education groups. For the final round table of the satellite, SET invited Geir Magnus Walderhaugh, Chair of ICA-SAE (International Council on Archives, Section on Archival Education and Training) to discuss the common issue of recognition of qualifications. The collaboration with ICA-SAE continued with a research project on “Library, Information and Archives Education for Professional Identity”. The SET Open Session in 2010 had the theme “New Digital Directions And Library Education: Sustaining Library Education Programs”, with presentations from nearly every continent in the world. SET also co-sponsored a programme in two parts entitled, “Towards National Library Strategy: Opening Up Access to

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Research (1&2)” and “Bridging Advocacy And Research: A Joint Agenda For Filling Data Gaps, Training Research Skills and Enhancing Visibility”. The E-Learning SIG, which was affiliated with SET, sponsored a session entitled “Understanding the Value of ePortfolios to Reflect on and Present Learning and Professional Development”. The IFLA LIS Student Paper Award in 2010 went to Chiara Consonni (Italy) for her paper “Non Users’ Evaluation of Digital Libraries: A Survey at the Universita Degli Studi di Milano”. The Section’s standing committee decided to initiate a membership recruitment campaign, including a new project called “Adopt a student!”. This effort was based on the concept that every student, as a future LIS professional, should have the opportunity to participate in an international organization such as IFLA. By asking members of SET and others in IFLA to donate money to help defray the cost of a student membership to IFLA, the goal was to encourage LIS students and new professionals to become active in IFLA.

2011 The number of Section members as of December 2011 fell to 168, but student membership increased to 20 (12% of membership). SET’s Open Session at the 2011 WLIC in Puerto Rico was on the theme “Education for Digital Curation”, co-sponsored by the ICA Section for Archival Education and Training and the IFLA Sections on Preservation and Conservation and Information Technology. SET also had an off-site session hosted at the National Library and Archives of Puerto Rico. The theme of the meeting was “Internships and Placements for the New Information Society”. The E-Learning Special Interest Group open session focused on the question: “How Can the IFLA E-learning Special Interest Group Support Integration, Innovation and Information in Professional Learning?”. The IFLA LIS Student Paper Award for 2011 was presented to three finalists: –– 1st place: Cletus D. Kuunifaa, School of Information Studies, University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, United States for his paper on “Access to Information Legislation as a Means to Achieve Transparency in Ghanaian Governance: Lessons From the Jamaican Experience”; –– 2nd place: Petra Miočić, Department of Information Sciences, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, Croatia for her paper on “Use of Data Mining Systems as an Enhancement of Digital Libraries”;



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–– 3rd place: Alejandro Tinoco‐Carrillo and Daniel Gordillo‐Sánchez, Carrera de Ciencia de la Información – Bibliotecología, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia for their paper on “The New LIS Professional From the Interdisciplinarity and Colombian Context Perspective”. The SET project “Library, Information and Archive Education for Professional Identity” was funded by IFLA and carried out together with the International Council on Archives, Section on Archival Education (ICA-SAE). It focused on the role of LIS and archival education for professional identity and convergence of libraries, archives and museums (LAM). This project was an extension of the joint 2011 open session on Education for Digital Curation.

2012 The number of Section members slightly increased to 172 in December 2012, while student membership fell to 16 (9.3% of the total membership). The SET conference planning committee provided a conference programme on “International and Comparative Librarianship” (with the Library Theory and Research Section and the LIS Education in Developing Countries Special Interest Group) as well as a second programme on “The Influence of New Developments of Information Technology on Professional Development ion Libraries” (co-sponsored with the IFLA Information Technology Section) and a third programme on “Empowering Staff Through Preservation Training! How Your Library and Users Will Reap The Benefits” (co-sponsored with the IFLA Preservation and Conservation Section). The E-Learning Special Interest Group’s programme was on “Information Literacy Meets E-Learning: Let’s Talk About Interconnections and Outcomes” (co-sponsored with the IFLA Information Literacy Section) and the LIS Education in Developing Countries Special Interest Group’s programme was on “Building Collaboration Between LIS Educators and Practitioners in Developing Countries”. The IFLA Professional Committee reviewed the report from the E-Learning Special Interest Group (SIG), and accepted the SIG‘s conclusion that it had fulfilled its purpose. The E-learning SIG ceased to exist in 2012. The 4th revised edition of the Guidelines was updated and approved by IFLA. The Guidelines were updated to make them current and to incorporate and recognize indigenous knowledge in LIS education.

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The IFLA LIS Student Paper Award in 2012 was renamed as the IFLA/EKZ LIS Student Paper Award1 because the German library supplier Ekz.bibliotheksservice GmbH2 had co-sponsored the Award since its inception in 2009 and plans to provide ongoing sponsorship. The winning paper in 2012 was “Local Studies Centres: Transforming History, Culture, and Heritage in the Philippines” by Martin Julius V. Perez and Mariel R. Templanza, School of Library and Information Studies, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. The “Library, Information and Archive Education for Professional Identity” project, funded in 2011, was cancelled due to coordination issues and funding was returned to IFLA. The originally proposed “International Internship Survey, Resource and Marketplace” project received half of its funding from IFLA, with the recommendation to delete the “Marketplace” component. This project planned to collect data and create a web resource about internship guidelines and expectations in library and information science around the world.

2013 As of 26th September 2013 the Section had 171 members including 16 students (9.4% of the total). SET conference programmes in Singapore were all jointly-sponsored sessions, either with the Section on Library Services to Multicultural Populations and the Indigenous Matters Special Interest Group, the Section on Continuing Professional Development and Workplace Learning, and the Section on Statistics and Evaluation. SET co-sponsored a satellite conference, on “Global Collaboration in Information Schools”, with the Consortium of iSchools Asia Pacific3 at Nanyang Technological University on 15 August 2013. Nanyang also hosted “The Future of LIS Education in Developing Countries: The Road Ahead”, a satellite meeting of the LIS Education in Developing Countries SIG on 14 August 2013. The on-site session theme was “Libraries as Learning Organizations: How to Nurture Growth in Our Staff and Our Communities”, co-sponsored with the IFLA Continuing Professional Development and Workplace Learning Section.

1 http://www.ifla.org/set/student-paper-award, accessed on 14 December 2015. 2 http://www.ekz.de/, accessed on 14 December 2015. 3 www.cisap.asia/index.htm, accessed on 14 December 2015.



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Another open session was “Indigenous Knowledge and Multiculturalism in LIS Education and Library Training: Infinite Possibilities”, co-sponsored with Library Services to Multicultural Populations and Indigenous Matters Special Interest Group and “Bring Out the Fun of It! New Ways of Teaching and Communicating Statistics”, co-sponsored with Statistics and Evaluation Section. IFLA LIS Student Paper Award 2013 was awarded to Tamara Rhodes, School of Library and Information Sciences, North Carolina Central University, USA for her paper on “A Living, Breathing Revolution: How Libraries Can Use “Living Archives” to Support, Engage, and Document Social Movements” . A second place award was given to Elina Karioja, Oulu University of Applied Sciences, School of Business and Information Management, Finland for her paper on “How to Evaluate Library’s Sustainability? An Approach to Evaluating Model and Indicators”. A two-year project led by Clara M. Chu and Michael Seadle, “Library and Information Education and Training: 40 Years and Evolving” received IFLA funding for its first year. Its goal is to examine the past 40 years of SET’s role in LIS Education and LIS education in general, and to examine both the future of SET and LIS education.

2014 As of 30th January 2014 the Section fell to 139 members, 16 of them students (approximately 12% of Section membership). The SET 40th Anniversary Summit was held as an off-site day-long summit at the École Nationale Supérieure des Sciences de l’Information et des Bibliothèques (ENSSIB) as part of the 80th IFLA WLIC in Lyon. The Section’s on-site open sessions were: “Residence Models On The Rise – Chances and Challenges For New Librarians, Educators and Employers” (co-sponsored with the New Professionals SIG) and “Education For Information Literacy Practice: Contemporary Approaches For Developing Professionals” (co-sponsored with Information Literacy Section). No award was made of the IFLA LIS Student Paper Award in 2014 due to a shortage of submissions.

Conclusion In this time of change and globalization, time and space have not allowed coverage of all the issues for international LIS education that the SET could and should

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have discussed. One issue that should be noted is the falling numbers of SET members in the past decade, with 139 reported in 2014, down from over 200 in the beginning of the decade. In part, the fact that SET has spawned other sections that once were discussion groups or SIGs in SET may explain the drop. But further investigation of the decline in Section membership undoubtedly deserves consideration.

International cooperation We can affirm that in the last ten years SET has brought a renewed international and comparative perspective to its activities by supporting international dimensions and a global approach to education for LIS profession. IFLA SET has taken the lead in establishing a quality model for library education programmes with the goal of improving transparency and facilitating the recognition and quality of programmes of study. The Section has strengthened its international cooperation networks and has moved forward in line with the needs of the global dimension of education. The section has not only been active within the IFLA structure, but also has ongoing collaborations with organizations with similar concerns (in particular ALISE, A-LIEP, EUCLID and ICA-SAE). The collaboration with ICA ALISE, EUCLID and A-LIEP that culminated in the 2010 Satellite Conference in Borås, Sweden, provided a foundation that should be built on in the future. SET has worked to update the Section’s tools, such as the “International Guidelines for Equivalency and Reciprocity of Qualifications for LIS Professionals” and the “Guidelines for Professional LIS Programs”. Recent conferences were dedicated to the new directions of the LIS curriculum, including a digital framework in the face of globalization. The achievements of the SET project “International and Comparative Librarianship Communities” (ICL),4 have helped to found an international resource centre for the diffusion of best practices and subject benchmarking.

LIS Students and SET Another important pillar of the last ten years was the stimulus given to LIS students to be actively involved in the international discussions about LIS education. The typology of SET members has now changed: students represent about 10% 4 www.lisuncg.net/icl/, accessed on 14 December 2015.



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of the SET membership over the past decade. The growing number of students is due to the success of two projects: –– The Adopt-a-Student! Programme (see www.ifla.org/en/news/adopt-a-student and LinkedIn profile: www.linkedin.com/) encourages professors and other IFLA members to adopt a student and to take part in a mentoring programme. The programme now counts over 70 sponsors and 58 sponsored students; –– The IFLA LIS Student Paper Award (see: www.ifla.org/en/set/studentpaper-award-2010) annually selects the best student paper submitted to the IFLA Conference and accepted by one of the IFLA Sections.

LIS education worldwide? If LIS education in the United States is any indication, there are exciting activities as well as concerns, which are seen in other parts of the world (Chu 2012). Interest in archival and museum studies continues to grow and is reflected in the number of doctoral students conducting archival research and the demand for archival and museum studies courses and their offering in LIS programmes. Three types of LIS educational programmes are available worldwide: face-to-face course delivery only, online course delivery only, and programmes offering varied course delivery methods, with online courses and programmes growing. More LIS schools worldwide are joining the iSchools Organization.5 Citing Clara Chu (2012, 3): Given the social, technological, economic and political changes transpiring across the globe, the Section has much to address in our dynamic field. We need to work to provide LIS education that is accessible and affordable as well as addresses the latest technological trends, challenges to intellectual freedom, reduces the digital divide, connects theory and practice, and enhances information access.

References Bowden, Russell and Ole Harbo. 2004. “Development of the Profession: A History of the IFLA Section for Education & Training from 1974 to 2003.” http://www.ifla.org/files/assets/set/publications/set-history-1973-2003.pdf. Accessed on 11 January 2016.

5 http://ischools.org/, accessed on 14 December 2015.

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Byrne, Alex. 2004. “IFLA’s three pillars and WSIS.” http://www.ifla.org/publications/iflas-threepillars-and-wsis. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Chu, Clara M.. 2012. “Letter from the Chair.” SET Bulletin 13(2). http://www.ifla.org/files/assets/set/Bulletin/_SET_Bulletin2012-July%202012%20 Vol.13n2.pdf. Accessed on 11 January 2016. IFLA. 2005. “Annual report 2004” http://www.ifla.org/files/assets/hq/annual-reports/2004.pdf. Accessed on 11 January 2016. IFLA Governing Board. 2004. “IFLA’s Three Pillars.” http://www.ifla.org/three-pillars. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Schniederjürgen, Axel, ed. 2007. World Guide to Library, Archive and Information Science Education, 3rd revised edition. Munich: K.G. Saur. Smith, Kerry, Gillian Hallam, and S.B. Ghosh on behalf of the Education and Training Section of the International Federation of Library Associations. 2012. “Guidelines for Professional Library Educational Programs.” http://www.ifla.org/publications/guidelines-forprofessional-libraryinformation-educational-programs-2012. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Tammaro, Anna Maria. 2005. “Report on Quality Assurance Models in LIS programs.” http:// www.ifla.org/files/assets/set/s23_Report-QA-2005.pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2014. Tammaro, Anna Maria. 2006. “Findings of the survey of
quality assurance models in LIS programmes.” SET Bulletin 7(1) http://www.ifla.org/files/assets/set/Bulletin/set-bulletin-jan-2006.pdf. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Tammaro, Anna Maria and Terry Weech. 2008. “Feasibility of International Guidelines for Equivalency and Reciprocity of Qualifications for LIS Professionals.” http://www.ifla.org/publications/feasibility-of-international-guidelines-for-equivalencyand-reciprocity-of-qualificatio?og=64. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Weech, Terry and Anna Maria Tammaro. 2009. “Draft guidance document for transparency, equivalency and recognition of qualifications.” http://www.ifla.org/files/assets/set/Guidance_document_for_recognition_of_ qualifications_2009-3.pdf. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Wilhite, Jeffrey. 2012. 85 Years IFLA: A History and Chronology of Sessions 1927–2012. Berlin/ Munich: De Gruyter Saur.

Section 1: Europe

Michael Seadle

Introduction The idea of training a professional staff for European libraries reaches back to the nineteenth century in countries with relatively stable boundaries, educational traditions and national infrastructures such as France, Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Newly created countries such as Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic and Slovakia) and Yugoslavia (today Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, FYR Macedonia and Bosnia-Hercegovina) had a later start because the institutional infrastructure developed largely after independence. While the duties of librarians did not vary extensively across Europe, the educational assumptions and expectations shaped the professions in the different countries in ways that sometimes inhibited the sharing of resources and the establishment of international standards until the second half of the twentieth century. European library professionals regardless of country had many of the same problems to solve in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: they needed to provide some type of formal organization for the masses of bound paper objects, monographs and later increasingly serials that came in ever larger numbers from publishing houses, which were benefiting in turn from mechanization and a growing reading public. The scale of the increase was hard for libraries to cope with. They had to grow physically and develop tools to manage the increase and complexity at the same time. Except for research libraries, the early growth depended on the language of the country. In an era of strong nationalism, the local languages mattered both practically and ideologically. Language skills and classification systems were important for pre-World War Two libraries, especially for large research libraries, but research methodologies and more abstract ways of approaching problems were generally not. Librarian training in this era often involved internships and put a strong value on the practical skills that a new librarian needed to become useful immediately. The more theoretical elements of the education were limited to topics like book history and manuscripts, which not only tied students intellectually to the physical aspects of the information objects, but, because of the strong historical dimension, made a stronger connection to the humanities than to the sciences or to the more mathematical social sciences. Establishing a professional consciousness depended in part on the long process of obtaining official recognition. In the UK, as Anne Welsh explains, the Libraries Act of 1850, the founding of the Library Association in 1877, and the Royal Charter for the Association in 1898 were key steps toward official acceptance as a genuine profession. In Serbia the founding of the national library in

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1832 also played a symbolic role, even though Serbia had many libraries before then. Nonetheless professional training generally lagged well behind recognition. In the UK the process of shifting from an apprentice system to one based on academic degrees and higher education happened slowly, and full time education at universities came mainly after 1946 (Welsh, 48). Almost simultaneously in Serbia “a three-year Secondary School for Librarians … opened in 1948 in Belgrade” (Vranes, Marković and Jerkov, 88). Recognition and training came variously in other European countries. The first formal training programme opened in Paris in 1821, in Germany in 1886, and in Denmark in Copenhagen in 1918. The general conviction that formal training for professionals was necessary grew in Europe in the nineteenth century, and one result was that librarians began to stretch their concept of their role beyond the purely local management of buildings and books. As library programmes became established at universities in the second half of the twentieth century, it became important to find a curriculum that was both academic enough to match the expectations of research-oriented institutions and was practical enough to satisfy the hiring institutions. This tension comes across clearly in Welsh’s quote about librarian education from Sidney Webb: librarian training “... ought to provide a quite good undergraduate course of instruction in which the technical elements of Librarianship would play a part (but only a part)” (Webb 1917 as quoted in Welsh, 53). Part of the tension grows out of the need for librarians to have sufficient knowledge to make rational subject-based selections and, in more modern times, to advise readers about content. It is not unusual in Germany to favour librarians who have advanced academic degrees (even doctorates) in other subjects to serve as specialists (Fachreferenten), and it is not unusual for people to come to the profession from other fields. A challenge in recent times has been to elevate the technical side of librarian training to the level of university education. A main focus has been on cataloguing and classification, which are taught in virtually all countries and all programmes, and on management training. The curriculum has evolved as digital content slowly overtakes print media. Book history still plays a role in some new programmes as a tie to the past, but programmes now often include topics like computer programming and statistics as well as information retrieval, which has evolved from a paper-based past to being a highly technical and computing-oriented field with strong ties to computer science. Management courses help newly trained librarians to take on higher and more responsible roles as soon as they finish their programmes, since physical libraries remain large employers and handle relatively large amounts of money for the acquisition of new content.



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While the library programmes in the European countries had diverse origins, many have now become iSchools, partly in response to a reduction in jobs at traditional libraries for their graduates, and partly because of the growth in demand for people with more computing-oriented information science backgrounds and credentials. At present there are 21 members of the iSchools group in Europe in twelve countries, and the number is growing.

Michael Seadle

2 European Library and Information Science Schools Introduction This chapter looks at the development of library schools in continental Europe with an emphasis on Germany and France, but also including Denmark, the Czech Republic, and Bulgaria. The chapter is an overview, which necessarily leaves out many details for many countries, otherwise it would be a book in itself. The establishment of European library schools only makes sense in the context of other social and intellectual developments in the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Two major developments in particular affect the establishment of library schools: 1) a growing recognition of the importance of information both for research and for business, and 2) a growing desire for professional training of all sorts at the university level. The library profession’s quest for formal recognition and university-level education is just one example of these broader trends. Because of this broad scope, and the many countries involved, the reader needs to be aware of the sources and their limitations. Much of the material in the section on Context has no references because it counts as general knowledge, at least among professional historians. The section Early Curriculum relies heavily on German sources, especially those by Schrettinger (1829; 1834), since these are readily available to the author. While these German works about the theory and ideas behind library science most likely were not used in other countries, they were certainly known outside of Germany and may well have had broad influence within Europe. The information for the final section comes primarily from library school staff in those countries who answered a survey. In particular I would like to thank: Tanya Todorova (Bulgaria), Raphaelle Bats (France), Laura Skouvig (Denmark), Barbora Drobíková and Helena Lipková (Czech Republic), and Gertrud Pannier and Ulrike Stöckel (Germany). The information about France also builds on French-language materials available to the author. The sources specifically about Berlin come from Renate Rohde’s 2004 “Zur Geschichte der bibliothekswissenschaftlichen Ausbildung in Berlin”, from slides provided by Gertrud Pannier, and from the author’s conversations with colleagues. The German section focuses intentionally on developments in Berlin, since Ursula Georgy has a separate chapter about the library programme in Cologne.



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Context Information Formal education for librarians began in Europe in the nineteenth century at the conjunction of two trends: one involved the systematic gathering of information, and the other involved professionalization. Libraries and the people who worked in them have a long history in Europe going back at least to Roman times, but systematic collection-building was rare, and specific library-oriented training played at best a marginal role in library management. In the eighteenth century, with a few exceptions, the information content of libraries had a randomness whose charm, in so far as it had charm, reflected the interests of the owners. Nonetheless people in the eighteenth century began to value information about the external world. The French encyclopedists tried to pull all the world’s knowledge together, and Gibbon in Britain produced what was for a long time the single most comprehensive work about the Roman Empire. Quantity, completeness and factuality played a role in these works. Information is, of course, a culturally defined entity, and the factual basis of information in the eighteenth century was slowly starting to become recognizably modern. This encouraged the development of libraries as they became the obvious place where information could be found and verified. The nineteenth century hungered for facts. Explorers like Alexander von Humboldt set out to travel the world and to measure everything in it. This urge had its analogue in the humanities. Alexander’s brother Wilhelm pursued research on language and history. Malthus in Britain based his predictions about the miserable fate of humanity on the information he gathered in official statistics, and his arguments had considerable persuasive power, even if they were ultimately wrong. Mathematicians had long built on the work of prior mathematicians, and the more that other scholars followed their example, the more they needed institutions where the prior scholarly works could easily be found. The time was passing when even the most energetic scholars could read everything on their subject. Printing technology in 1700 had not changed radically since Gutenberg’s invention in the fifteenth century, but the mechanization of production processes in the early eighteenth century eventually also altered how printing worked. In 1814 The Times of London began using a new steam-powered cylinder press, which significantly increased its ability to print paper. Other publishers quickly followed suit and more books appeared. Prices dropped, though they were still not cheap. People who could not afford to buy books turned to libraries where they were available, which was generally only in cities.

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At the same time in the early nineteenth century universities began to emerge from an era in which their purpose seemed narrow and largely irrelevant for secular society. Oxford and Cambridge came under criticism in English as politicians slowly began to talk about reforming them. The University of Berlin became the symbol of a new kind of the university when it was founded in 1810 with a mission that included both research and teaching. Berlin’s focus on research eventually became a model for other universities in Europe, and especially for the new universities in the United States. The emphasis on research meant a greater need for information, and the ideal of involving students in research meant that they too needed access to information sources. Universities had long had libraries, but the library began to take on a more central role in the intellectual life of the university. At the end of the century the president of the newly established University of Chicago realized that it could not be a great university without a substantial and broad-based library, and he came to Berlin to buy the best and largest antiquarian bookstore he could find in order to make it the core of his new library collection – a clear statement about the centrality of information. Rockefeller (and others) paid the bill (Rosenthal 1979). In the mid nineteenth century technology continued to play a transformative role in information production. An important complement to the machine-powered presses was a cheap and abundant source of paper. Paper before the mid-century required significant rag content, which made it expensive. The chemistry to turn wood pulp into abundant cheap paper removed a constraint and enabled the publication of even more books, journals, and newspapers. Since paper is heavy, distribution to remote markets also caused problems, but distribution mechanisms improved constantly in the nineteenth century as canals, post carriages and trains enabled an ever faster movement of heavy goods such as books. Book stores also grew as distribution mechanisms, as did public libraries, sometimes on the basis of for-cost subscriptions. Reading increased as countries established schools where all citizens had a chance to get the basics of education, which in turn fed the demand for newspapers, where novels appeared in serial form, as did what passed for factual information about events and politics, depending on the political and social leanings of the reporters, publishers and readers. By the end of the nineteenth century, printed information was everywhere. People bought almanacs, yearbooks, encyclopedias, and other compilations. More importantly governments gathered facts, which enabled Karl Marx to spend his days in the British Museum (today the British Library), poring over government reports about social conditions before organizing the information into theories, volumes, and pamphlets. Knowledge had become an element of political power.



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Professions It was not new in earlier centuries for universities to be training centres for certain professions, among them clergy, lawyers and physicians. In the nineteenth century universities began to play an increasingly important role in training people for the natural sciences, in particular for chemistry and physics, where well defined methods enhanced the reproducibility that was a hallmark of their success and became a basis for how people came to understand the concept of “science”. The training for historians also became increasingly formalized and systematic. At a time when the social sciences were in embryo, historians played a key role in understanding society and culture. Ranke, among others, began to insist on a factual basis in historical writing that required more scholarly apparatus in the form of footnotes and bibliographies. For the humanities, libraries and archives were a natural source of text-based information. Chemistry and physics also needed substantial collections of reference materials that could not always be housed in the laboratories themselves. The ability and willingness of these professions to manage on their own the scale of the collections they needed was limited, especially as the scale grew dramatically. Libraries became an essential apparatus. University libraries grew. National libraries began to collect all works published in the country through legal deposit acts. States like Bavaria also systematically began to collect manuscripts and other valuable works from monasteries and institutions. As the scale of these libraries increased, the need for professional management increased too. Hands-on experience – essentially apprenticeship – was the normal qualification for working in a library in the early nineteenth century. University-based training generally involved more abstract thinking than was typical for librarians, and even at the start of the twentieth century preparation to become a professional librarian still focused strongly on apprentice-like practical and hands-on training, rather than abstract ideas about organizing information and its role in research and society. Libraries were staff-intensive, with a need for many people to put books on shelves, to retrieve them for users, to repair their bindings, to put labels on them, and to prepare lists – later catalogue cards – to make it easier to find them. As libraries grew, a single librarian who truly knew a library’s collection gave way to multiple librarians who knew parts of the research collections for which they were responsible. Increasingly those librarians needed a level of subject-specific knowledge that they could get from studying at a university. This study was not training to be a librarian, however. Such training they still acquired on the job, apprentice-style. Formal, focused library programmes grew slowly. Most countries began with only one or two library training programmes, not always at universities. Although graduates could be considered to be a new elite,

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their training did not automatically enable them to take the top jobs, since many graduates were female and the best jobs routinely went to men. That changed only when the role of women changed in society. The early professional programmes for librarians could not escape the central fact that information came overwhelmingly in the form of print on paper, even though some electronic forms of information existed even in the nineteenth century in the form of telegraph and (for a limited number of people) telephone. Telegraph messages were rendered manually onto paper and existed largely as throwaway objects, except under unusually historic circumstances. Since the number of words in a telegraph message was minimal, their information content was comparable to a modern tweet. The telephone had no recording mechanism until the dictatorships of the 1930 took an interest in listening secretly to conversations. A telephone conversation was in a practical and legal sense just speech, and whatever information it contained was ephemeral. Multimedia existed in the form of phonograph records from the time of the first Edison wax cylinder. Libraries could in theory take an interest in collecting phonograph records, and a few music libraries did, but the recordings were notoriously fragile, which limited the number of uses before the sound became unreliable. Libraries with a conscious mission of collecting for the future had little use for such throwaway objects. Paper seemed solid, reliable over time, and serious. The problems of acid paper at the time were still unknown. One of the implications of paper’s dominance was a strong emphasis within the profession on the physical. This meant an interest in buildings, in storage devices, and in efficient ways of moving large numbers of moderately heavy objects from one location to another without ever losing track of where they were. Laboratories had a similar need for manage physical objects, but the people who handled laboratory supplies had a kind of servant status. Librarians as a profession aspired to something more.

Early Curriculum Topics Covered Early library programmes had no clear and obvious model to adopt for their curriculum. The professional programmes in medicine emphasised a balance of theoretical topics (such as anatomy) and hands-on experience (for example, with a cadaver). Practical elements were easy for librarian training programmes to find and to implement in neighbouring libraries, but theory was harder to invent.



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Many programmes turned to book history as the logical solution. History was a popular field of study in universities and book history seemed like a natural theoretical subject for students who would work with books and other forms of bound paper objects. It was also relevant in helping students to understand how the physical media for information had evolved over time. The granularity of the topics in book history was far smaller than the issues involving libraries themselves, but it was reasonable for early professional programmes to regard book history as preparing students in miniature for library-sized problems. For example, the organization of books into chapters gave them an intellectual structure similar to what libraries also needed. The increasing use of indexes after the 16th century improved information retrieval by enabling scholars to get information at the page level. Book-based discovery and retrieval tools mirrored what librarians wanted for their collections as a whole. The problem of information retrieval across books belonged to reference works and bibliographies. Many of the early library professorships had book history ties, and these have not entirely vanished, in part because the intellectual development of the elements of a book have remained effective metaphors for information management as a whole. Library history also played a significant role. Books about library science often included sections either discussing the development of libraries in general, or the history of a particular library. For example Molbech (1833) described the development of the Royal Library in Copenhagen in a nine-page addendum to Ueber bibliothekswissenschaft: oder einrichtung und Verwaltung öffentlicher Bibliotheken and refers to history in not quite 20% of the almost 300 pages. Manuscript collections received significant attention in early librarian training programmes, partly because libraries felt (and still feel) that they were special treasures. The programmes emphasised the history and variety of manuscripts. An example comes from Handbuch der Bibliothek: Wissenschaft, der Literatur u. Bücherkund (Schmidt 1840), which described the handwriting, the pictures, the types of parchment and where it came from. The author also warns about moisture and other dangers, and has a long discourse about different kinds of paper from different countries as well as their watermarks. A separate section discusses how to recognize the age of a manuscript. Nonetheless the training programmes put little or no emphasis on technical topics like the chemistry of the parchment or paper or the glues in the bindings, even though the chemistry was known at the time. Modern topics like information organization and information retrieval had different names in these early library programmes, but the goals were fundamentally the same. Information organization at the time relied on physical structures, because the paper had a weight and bulk and inflexibility that limited options. A dominant issue for European libraries at the turn of the twentieth century was

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the need to invent tools to manage growth. The number of print publications was outpacing the physical space available, and threatened to overwhelm the mechanisms for storage and retrieval. In theory books could have been disassembled into their constituent chapters (or journal volumes into their articles), since they often came unbound from nineteenth century publishers, but in practical terms this granularity made no sense, both because the smaller units (chapters, for example) would be more fragile, and because it would vastly increase retrieval efforts to deal with such fine granularity without much more flexible discovery tools. As a rational alternative, library programmes taught students how to describe the contents of the bound volumes more effectively using detailed bibliographic information. The invention of the catalogue card offered a radical step forward in the ability of librarians to make information available, and it reinforced the need for accurate and systematic cataloguing. High-quality bibliographic records did not, however, solve the issues of space management for bulky paper-based collections, and this was hard for library programmes to address at a theoretical level, even though it was in fact a classic information retrieval problem as well as an economic one. Efficient storage management generally meant maximizing limited space by putting new books on shelves in order by acquisition. Libraries used all the space available in rooms with high ceilings, even when ladders were required, and often packed books of the same height together to make the spacing between shelves denser and more uniform. The practice was an economic trade-off between the cost of space and the cost of staff to find and retrieve books. Such topics were relegated to the practical side of training without any scholarly attempt at a cost-benefit analysis. The intellectual tools to do this existed by the end of the nineteenth century, but had not yet reached the library world.

Topics Largely Ignored Theories and ideas about collection development played a surprisingly small role in early librarian-training programmes. The preferred alternative was to teach students about the book trade, since the programmes assumed that libraries were fundamentally repositories for books, and that any other forms of information were secondary. This meant that understanding the organization of the book trade was an essential element in building a respectable collection. The book trade emphasis had a perhaps unintended effect of reinforcing the dominant role of a relatively small number of respectable publishers, whose reputation and selection processes offered a kind of quality insurance that made mass selection easier. In theory subject specialists, especially at academic libraries,



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were expected to make the intellectual choices about content, but in practice the emphasis on the book trade prepared them to act as purchasing specialists. Journals played almost no role at all in the books used for training librarians in the nineteenth century. This is partly because the journal trade was far less developed than it is today, and partly because purchasing journals was easier and consumed only a modest part of the budget. A library ideally ordered a journal once and just kept getting it. The strong growth in the number of titles and the radical increase in prices is a phenomenon of recent decades. Gray literature played no visible role at all. Reference services and user services did not exist as concepts in a modern sense in early library training programmes. The only theoretical ideas about helping users came from developing better catalogue systems, without any plans to teach users how to understand and use the systems. The idea of librarians giving explicit training to students and other users about how best to exploit library resources appeared far in the future. Even at a time when academic libraries had become more focused on serving the information needs of particular clients such as professors, the service aspect of library training remained intellectually underdeveloped and did not change in any substantial way until the second half of the twentieth century. In part, user services were less needed because of a number of pragmatic developments that made the access problems more manageable. Important among these was splitting the collections into multiple smaller discipline-based libraries. Scholars liked this and it was convenient for academic library collections, because the relevant books for a discipline could be located next to their primary users. The departmental libraries were generally small enough that the local librarians and the most active users could reasonably know the collections intimately. This trend reinforced the need for a subject specialist with significant academic training outside of a library curriculum and perhaps with an advanced degree in another field. This situation had a mixed effect on librarian training programmes: the association with people from more traditional academic fields enhanced the reputation of library jobs, but it also meant that librarian training alone often did not suffice for some of the best jobs. Preservation was not generally an element of the training except in very limited aspects. The handbooks for librarianship included practical advice about handling manuscripts and warnings about moisture and insects, but did not address the broader questions of how to preserve information over long periods and through times of violent disruptions such as wars and revolutions. The durability of paper came into question only after the problems with acid paper became known, and the danger to library content from political extremism and censorship first became clear after the Nazis began publicly burning books. The

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prevalent idea was simply that research libraries and state and national libraries had an obligation to keep everything, and that that sufficed. This was harder in newly unified countries like Germany, but the Prussian State Library (today the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin) and the Bavarian State Library (Bayerische Staatsbibliothek) filled the gap until the founding of Die Deutsche Bücherei in Leipzig. Collecting took precedence over preservation as the most urgent issue for budding librarians to understand.

Developments in Selected Countries It would be difficult to describe the development of library schools in all 28 countries of the European Union. This section will look at just selected examples from five countries: Germany, Denmark, France, the Czech Republic, and Bulgaria. Dates and formal events are not the real content of history: they only provide a framework for the social and intellectual context, which represents the reality of change over time, even if that reality is often much harder to identify. The length of the sections varies proportionally depending on the context information available to the author. While the library schools in these countries started at varying times, they all grew broadly out of the ideas and attitudes of the nineteenth century transformations in the role of information and education. Language barriers and national attitudes discouraged some of the communication and sharing that might have gone on among the early library programmes, but these barriers played less of a role in the intellectual life of the countries than is sometimes portrayed. At the university level scholars traveled readily to whatever universities seemed to offer the most interesting opportunities. Before the First World War especially, German universities were highly regarded, in natural sciences like chemistry and physics, and in fields like philosophy. Librarians and library school professors may well have traveled less than others, but new academic fields like library science consciously built on new ideas and shared experience.

Germany Germany’s first chair of library science was not established in Berlin, but at the University of Göttingen in 1886 under the leadership of Karl Dziatzko. The chair likely resulted from a law two years earlier that established a “wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheksdienst” (scholarly library service) in Prussia, to which Göttin-



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gen then belonged. Dziatzko was a scholar of ancient literature and published in philological journals, but he also wrote about libraries and had published a work on “Entwicklung und gegenwärtiger Stand der wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken Deutschlands mit besonderer Berücksichtigung Preussens” (Development and Current Status of Scholarly Libraries of German with Particular Attention to Prussia) in 1893, three years before his professorship. He had published chapters about books in the ancient world, the change from scrolls to codex forms, and other topics that fit with the nineteenth-century belief that book history was a core component of library science. His successor was Richard Pietschmann, an ethnographer who had earlier written about the words for numbers in the Canary Islands in the Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (1879), but who switched his attention to book history toward the end of his career with a chapter on “The Book” in Die Allgemeinen Grundlagen der Kultur der Gegenwart (The General Foundations of Contemporary Culture) (1906). When Pietschmann retired, the First World War had already started and library science was not a wartime priority. His chair at Göttingen remained empty, and the government moved the position to the Friedrich-Wilhelm-Universität zu Berlin in 1921. Exactly why it was moved is not clear, especially since no one applied for the chair in Berlin. The Friedrich-Wilhelm-Universität zu Berlin eliminated the position in 1924 as part of a general financial restructuring. It is important to remember that the extreme post-war inflation in Germany ended only in 1923 and that it did real damage to state-supported institutions like universities, as well as to the salaries of state employees like professors. There is some reason to think that the job was not attractive. The financial situation changed for the better by 1925, when the university granted Fritz Milkau an honorary professorship. He was general director of the Prussian State Library, and had taken an active role in training librarians. He had also been politically active in the creation of a new law about librarian training. In 1928 he founded a Bibliothekswissenschaftliches Institut (School of Library Science) at the Berlin University, which in practice became the successor to the failed programme in Göttingen. Milkau was a professional librarian and wrote actively about libraries. The first volume of the three-volume Handbuch der Bibliothekswissenschaft that he edited appeared in 1931 and put a strong emphasis on traditional subjects like language, book history, illustrations, bindings and manuscripts. Georg Schneider’s article toward the end of the book contains the only reference to a “theory”, in combination with a history of bibliography (Schneider 1931). Milkau’s view of library science had a strong practical orientation, as might be expected of a practising librarian. The second volume appeared in 1933 just before Milkau’s death. It emphasised administrative topics, including a chapter by Milkau himself on politics. The third volume, which appeared after his death,

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was on library history. This Handbook was internationally praised. J.C.M. Hanson wrote about the first volume in Library Quarterly (1931, 489): “We have, then, before us a work truly monumental in scope and comprehensiveness”, and he goes on to praise it as a “reference on the history of books and libraries, as well as on the methods and technique incidental to their care and operation”. These topics have for the most part vanished from the curricula at the present day Berlin school. When Milkau became ill and retired in 1933, the Nazis had just come to power. Milkau’s successor also retired in a year, after which the professorship remained vacant and the School effectively closed. Dr Renate Rohde in her “Zur Geschichte der bibliothekswissenschaftlichen Ausbildung in Berlin” (Toward a History of Library Training in Berlin) (2004) lists four reasons why the school closed after so short a period, including a lack of students, disinterest on the part of the university, the lack of a plausible successor, and the State Library’s desire to regain control over training. The latter doubtless played a role, but the political situation in Germany likely contributed to the first three reasons. The Nazis were famously more interested in burning books than in collecting and preserving them, and choosing librarianship as a profession was not obviously an option with an attractive future. The Second World War, the defeat of Germany, and the Soviet occupation did nothing to improve the situation. The idea of a school for library science was not, however, entirely dead, and in 1953 the process of reestablishing the Berlin school began as part of a broader plan for training librarians in the German Democratic Republic (GDR). Part of the ideology of the GDR was to open university education to those who had not had it before, and reestablishing the Berlin school provided an opportunity to train librarians, who could be expected to provide their readers with books the Party approved of. The simple fact that the school had existed before the Nazis came to power may also have played a role, since reversing Nazi policies was itself a GDR priority. Horst Kunze, who was director of the State Library, may also have wanted to follow in Milkau’s footsteps by reestablishing the school. Like Milkau, the university gave him a professorship and he became director of the Berlin school. While Kunze wrote less than his predecessors, an article by him appeared in the US journal Library Trends in 1963 in an issue devoted to “Education for Librarianship Abroad in Selected Countries”. For the first time in the Berlin school’s history he emphasises information services to users. He writes that librarians have responsibility “for the careful selection and the exact cataloguing of recent accessions, for giving information to readers directly, by letter, or by telephone, and for the compilation of all kinds of bibliographies” (Kunze 1963, 143). The basic training (as Kunze describes it) still included library history, but it had expanded significantly to embrace the “devel-



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opment of the sciences” as well as reading about library “problems” in foreign texts (Kunze 1963, 143). Marxism-Leninism was also a subject at the Berlin school, and politics were not completely absent. For example, six students were exmatriculated in 1972 for political reasons, and the university suddenly changed the school’s director. The 1970s were a turbulent time in Germany as a whole, with active student protests at the Free University in West Berlin. Some politics were inevitable, but mostly the training at the Berlin school continued in a stable fashion as Kunze had described, with a balance between a more theoretical education and traditional practical training in libraries. When the wall fell almost twenty years later, a rapid series of structural changes occurred, including merging the school at the Free University into the one at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and effectively closing the former. The first newly selected professor for the combined Berlin school was Walther Umstätter, who brought a background in the natural sciences and who introduced bibliometrics as a new intellectual element. Risks to the Berlin school resurfaced, in part because of a financial crisis at the university, and in part because the school seemed not to be keeping up with intellectual developments elsewhere, especially at the so-called “iSchools” in the US, where the emphasis had shifted from books and libraries to information as a broader intellectual field. After protests and internal discussion, the university reversed its decision to close the school and reaffirmed its support by hiring two new professors, one internally, the head of the computer centre, and a second (the author of this article) externally, from the United States. Together they brought a strong emphasis on computer science and the social sciences. In 2008 the Berlin school became a member of the iSchool Caucus and one of its first two European members. Although library training remains as an element in the curriculum, a conceptual shift has made studying information as an academic topic the core of the School’s mission.

France Formal library training began earlier in France than in Germany. The Ecole des Chartes, which was founded in 1821 in Paris, was arguably the first formal library and archive school in Europe, perhaps in the world. Although it was primarily a school that offered training in historical research using libraries and archives, rather than a library school in the modern sense, it had a virtual monopoly on training French librarians in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Bettant 2012, 13). The school still exists today and its website calls it “[a]n institution in

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the service of history and the national heritage since 1821” (author’s translation).1 Despite the school’s prestige, its strong historical and archival focus made French librarians want more library-oriented alternatives. A 1932 law that created a new Technical Diploma for Librarians (DTB) provided an opening for other schools. Gabriel Henriot created a new school for librarians studying for the DTB in 1936 at the Catholic Institute in Paris. The programme emphasised the different kinds of libraries, but also included book history, bindings, and categories of books in the curriculum (Bettant 2012, 64). In 1950 in post-World War Two France, the new Fourth Republic introduced a series of reforms that led to national competition for civil service jobs in libraries and to the Diploma Supérieure Bibliothécaire (DSB), a higher-level librarian’s degree with compulsory training at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BNF). This new degree represented a turning point for French library training (Bettant 2012, 35). Its initial effect was limited, however, because the number of graduates who received this degree was quite small, rising to 32 in 1954. One problem was that many were seen as overqualified for the work. In December 1950, the Institut National des Sciences et Techniques de la Documentation (INTD) was created in Paris with the goal of training “documentalists”, the precursors of modern information scientists, who would not necessarily work in libraries. The INTD still exists to train “information specialists” and offers four specializations: managing information resources, making information available in all media, information retrieval, and training and advising users in information searching.2 The existence of this institute had the advantage of creating an information specialization that was not tied to libraries, and the disadvantage that it separated the training of documentation and later information experts from librarian training. This separation continued when the Ecole Nationale des Sciences des Bibliothèques (ENSB) was created in 1963. The long delay in its creation may have been due to the turmoil of the Algerian War (1954–62). Students had to have an undergraduate degree for admission to the school and they had to accept training for two years, during which they were paid. The students also had to agree to take civil servant positions in France for at least ten years. Those who did not want to become civil servants had to pay for the schooling. The government made “Information and Documentation Science” an academic field in 1974–1975, which made it possible to offer information science master’s degrees at French univer1 http://www.enc-sorbonne.fr/rubrique-ecole/ecole-nationale-chartes, accessed on 14 December 2015. 2 http://intd.cnam.fr/decouvrir-l-intd/presentation-de-l-institut/, accessed on 14 December 2015.



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sities. Later in 1983 the closely related field of “Information and Communication Science” became an official discipline. The ENSB became the “Enssib” (National Superior School for Library and Information Science) in 1992 at the same time as a legal reform in the status of librarians. The Enssib brought information science together with librarian training. Like the ENSB and like other European library schools that added “information” to their name, the Enssib continued to offer a diploma specifically for librarians. It also offered a master’s degree with a stronger focus on information science, but the differences in the two schools were marked. Enssib was located in Lyon, not Paris, and established a partnership with the University Lyon 1. ENSB was only a professional school, while enssib is both academic and professional. Currently the school offers five master’s degrees: “digital publication”, “digital archives”, “scientific and technical information”, “book heritage”, and the “politics of libraries and documentation”. Its goal at present is to integrate a digital dimension into everything taught to the students. (Raphaelle Bats, pers. comm., August 2014.)

Denmark In 1918 the new State Library School offered the first formal library training in Denmark, but the courses lasted only three months. In the 1920s the course time was raised to five months, and in 1938 it expanded to a full four years like other forms of higher education. The training alternated between theoretical topics and practical experience at libraries. This structure continued with an increasing focus on theoretical education until the beginning of the 1990’s. After 1956 the school became an independent institution, and in 1990 the “Royal School of Library and Information Science” (RSLIS) received permission to offer master’s degree programmes at the university level, one in information science and one in cultural communication. This dual character is unusual among European library programmes and may have come from the School’s being under the Ministry of Culture. It gives the Royal School’s research and education a unique profile. The RSLIS received full university status in 2000 and thus became able to grant doctoral degrees. It merged with the University of Copenhagen in 2013, but retains its identity and its programmes within that institution. (Laura Skouvig, pers. comm., August 2014.)

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Czech Republic While some courses for librarians were held at the National Library in the 1920s, the Institute of Information Science and Librarianship was not founded until 1950 in the Faculty of Arts and Philosophy at Charles University in Prague. Politics played a role, as they did in the German Democratic Republic, since the ruling communist party had an interest in controlling information. The Institute began with an emphasis on “classical librarianship” but shifted more towards communicating scholarly information in the 1960s. After the “velvet” revolution of 1989 brought democracy as well as access to the internet and other technologies, the training in librarianship and library management remained, but other specialities evolved. Librarianship is not an élite profession in the Czech Republic. It seems that Czech society perceives librarians as ill-paid, introverted people with limited personal competences. Many users, however, have “their own” librarian and think well of that person. A large percentage of the current LIS students found personal motivation in their own public libraries. Today students study “information science and librarianship” at the bachelor level, and they have an internship as an integral part of their studies. Other obligatory subjects are broader than in many library schools, and include philosophy, foreign languages, and sports. Students may choose between four specializations for their masters: librarianship, information science (including cyber-law and information economics), book culture, and new media studies (including video games as a socio-cultural phenomenon). Library and information science is currently taught at three Czech universities (in Prague, Brno and Opava), but the Institute of Information Science and Librarianship at Charles University is currently the only institution with a PhD programme. (Barbora Drobíková and Helena Lipková, pers. comm., August 2014.)

Bulgaria Since 1924 lectures on librarianship have been taught at Sofia University within the framework of history and philology studies. Todor Borov was the first professor of Librarianship and Bibliography. The library community’s main efforts focused on institutionalizing library and information science at the university level, and on creating a system of professional qualifications. The process followed two separate tracks, one apparently more oriented toward professional training and the other more academic. In 1950 a State Library Institute was founded in Sofia, and in 1953 library science became a separate specialty within the Faculty of History and Philology at Sofia University. Later in 1969 a new specialty in “Scientific



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Information” was established, and in 2003 the State Library Institute was transformed into the College and then a year later into the State University of Library Studies and Information Technologies. Its specialties included information security, cultural and historical heritage, library management, and computer science. Degrees in Library and Information Science are currently available at three universities in Bulgaria at the bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral levels. The status of the librarian profession in Bulgarian society seems to be similar to that in the Czech Republic. To improve it, the library community has been seeking to persuade stakeholders and governmental bodies to update the legislative and regulatory framework, and to adopt a national strategy for the digitization of cultural heritage. (Tanya Todorova, pers. comm., August 2014.)

Other European Countries This section provides some very basic information about library training in other European countries. The information comes largely from an issue of Library Trends from 1963. Most of the information is just the date when programmes started, but even this is interesting because of the diverse historical context. Spain was a very conservative monarchy, the UK a relatively liberal democracy, Poland a newly established Communist state, Greece a state torn by civil war, and the Netherlands a country on the upswing after a long period of economic stagnation. This diversity suggests that the idea of establishing programmes for training librarians cut across political and economic systems.

Spain In Spain the passage of a law was an essential element in establishing training for librarians: “The creation of the career service for these [national] libraries represented by CFABA was accomplished by a decree of May 8, 1859” (Lasso de la Vega 1963, 153).

United Kingdom “As early as 1880, just three years after it was formed, the Library Association began to turn its attention to professional training. By 1884 a syllabus of examinations had been worked out by a special committee appointed for that purpose

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in 1881, and in July 1885 the first examinations were held at two centres, London and Nottingham” (Harrison 1963, 123).

Poland In Poland, as in the German Democratic Republic and in Czechoslovakia, the post-war Communist governments supported the establishment of library training: “It was not until 1945 that the first regular Chair of Library Science (similar to a graduate library school in USA.) was inaugurated at the University of Łódź by Professor J. Muszkowski, eminent specialist in the book-world…” (Wieckowska 1963, 188).

Greece On 26 November 1949 the Emergency Law No. 1362 called for “the establishment, restoration and uniform organization of public libraries throughout the country.” “This farsighted piece of legislation included elaborate provisions for the financing, staffing, and operation of the libraries, including a section on library training” (Carnovsky 1963, 162).

Netherlands A “professorship in the science of the book and bibliography” was established at the University of Amsterdam in 1954. The “subjects were intended to be minors in the study of the history of literature” and it “was hoped that by making library science an academic discipline, more students would become interested in the theory and practice of librarianship” (Brummel 1963, 150).

Library Laws In Europe the law plays a significant role in defining and regulating professions, and the lack of a law can mean that a profession exists in a gray zone without clear status or benefits. Librarianship is old as an activity, but comparatively new as a legally recognized profession. This is one of the reasons that Fritz Milkau made an effort to have the Prussian state define the “Ordnung für die Annahme,



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Ausbildung und Prüfung der Anwärter für den wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheksdienst” (Regulations for the Acceptance, Training and Testing of Candidates for the Scholarly Library Service). Today a few German states such as Sachsen-Anhalt have formal library laws, but most do not. Like Germany, France has no library law per se, but a number of laws indirectly apply to libraries, especially legal deposit and the copyright laws. Bulgaria. Denmark and the Czech Republic have formal library laws that define library services, and, in the case of the Czech Republic, the law allows important exceptions for copying and digitization. Laws governing universities are also generally relevant for university-based training programmes and for university libraries. Learning the relevant laws, especially the copyright laws, plays a role in the curriculum of most European library programmes today, but the profession as a whole remains relatively unregulated and vaguely defined. Accreditation and degree standards in some countries regulate who counts as a librarian, but EU library schools have in general no special accreditation beyond what is required for universities. Essentially any people working in a library building can call themselves librarians, whether their titles are director or shelving clerk. This promotes a lowly image of the librarian in a professional hierarchy that includes physicians, lawyers, and engineers.

21st-century Transformations Since the year 2000 traditional European librarian-training programmes have been in decline, in the sense of preparing students for working in classic bricksand-mortar libraries with paper-based collections and readers willing to travel to the physical library for their information needs. The number of jobs in these traditional libraries has grown fewer for a variety of economic and technical reasons, among them the variety of broadcast and internet-based options for getting information and even for ordering paper-based books. Some governments have forced the trend by reducing library funding, resulting in a reduction in the number of new librarian positions. In many countries libraries have a growing role as a social gathering point or as a place to study and do research, and that has changed the role of librarians from being the guardians and dispensers of information to being facilitators for those who cannot find what they want on their own. The need for acquisition and management services is not less in the contemporary world, but new tools have allowed libraries to provide to provide adequate levels of service while employing fewer librarians. The fact is that graduates of classic library

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school programmes are competing for fewer and fewer positions, and the schools themselves have had to respond. The chief response has been to broaden the scope of training to embrace a wider range of information services, most of which are digital. This has increased the number of students applying to library schools that also emphasise information science, and it has had the effect of changing the focus of the courses toward more academic subjects and away from more applied ones. It has also created a potential split between schools with a stronger library orientation and those with a broader information emphasis. European membership in the iSchool group has increased substantially from three in 2009 (Berlin, Copenhagen, and Sheffield) to 21 today. The membership requirements for the iSchools include an active doctoral programme and external research money, which emphasises the academic over the hands-on aspects. The largest concentrations of European iSchools are in the Scandinavian countries (four schools), the Iberian peninsula (four schools), the British Isles (six schools), and the original Common Market countries (four schools). Not all of the European iSchools are former library schools: some come from management or technology backgrounds. In the short term there is no reason to expect that the schools with librarian training programmes will give these up, but they may well become less central as the schools struggle to remain relevant in the modern world.

Conclusion One of the explicit goals in establishing library schools in Europe in the past centuries was to help the profession gain recognition, and the schools played a significant role in giving the profession a measure of academic respectability. While the graduates did not have the status of lawyers or physicians or other better paid professionals, they formed a distinct social group with conferences, organizations, and scholarly publications. A history that ended with year 2000 could reasonably argue that the library schools had accomplished their original mission. Much has nonetheless changed in the past decade and a half. As librarian training shifts from the requirements for running a physical library to the study of information as an academic subject, the graduates are becoming more like the graduates of other academic disciplines with an intellectual preparation that can and often does lead to wide variety of jobs. For the schools it is a success that graduates in non-library jobs are often better paid, and that a new “information” profession has emerged. Those within the library community who cling to a fading past could view this negatively, but the more information-oriented pro-



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grammes tend to attract élite students, and the likelihood is that these graduates will define the profession’s future.

References Bettant, Audry. 2012. “Histoire de la formation du bibliothécaire: du DTB à l’ENSB (1932–1963)” (thesis, Université de Lyon). http://www.enssib.fr/bibliotheque-numerique/ documents/56676-histoire-de-la-formation-du-bibliothecaire-du-dtb-a-l-ensb-1932-1963. pdf. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Brummel, Leendert. 1963. “Education for librarianship abroad: Netherlands.” Library Trends 12: 147–152. Carnovsky, Leon. 1963. “Education for librarianship abroad: Greece.” Library Trends 12: 158–165. Dziatzko, Karl Franz Otto. 1893. Entwickelung und gegenwärtiger Stand der wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken Deutschlands mit besonderer Berücksichtigung Preussens. Leipzig: M. Spirgatis. Hanson, Jens Christian Meinich. 1931. “Review of Handbuch der Bibliothekswissenschaft Vol. I, Schrift und Buch by Fritz Milkau.” The Library Quarterly 1(4): 487–489. http://www.jstor. org/stable/40039691. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Harrison, J. Clement. 1963. “Education for Librarianship Abroad: United Kingdom.” Library Trends 12: 123–142. Kunze, Horst. 1963. “Education for Librarianship Abroad: East Germany, the German Democratic Republic.” Library Trends 12: 143–146. Lasso de la Vega, Javier. 1963. “Education for Librarianship Abroad: Spain.” Library Trends 12: 153–157. Milkau, Fritz, ed. 1931. Handbuch der Bibliothekswissenschaft. Vol. 1. Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz. Molbech, Christian. 1833. Ueber bibliothekswissenschaft: oder Einrichtung und Verwaltung öffentlicher Bibliotheken. Leipzig: Hinrichs. Pietschmann, Richard. 1879. “Ueber die Kanarischen Zahlworte.” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 11: 377–396. Pietschmann, Richard. 1906. “Das Buch.” In Die Allgemeinen Grundlagen der Kultur der Gegenwart, edited by Paul Hinneberg, 556–579. Berlin und Leipzig: Teubner. Rohde, Renate. 2004. “Zur Geschichte der bibliothekswissenschaftlichen Ausbildung in Berlin.” http://www.ib.hu-berlin.de/about/gesch/index.html. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Rosenthal, Robert. 1979. “The Berlin Collection: A History.” http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/ scrc/exhibits/berlin/history.html. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Schmidt, Johann August Friedrich. 1840. Handbuch der Bibliothek: Wissenschaft, der Literatur u. Bücherkund. Weimar: Voigt. Schneider, Georg. 1931. “Theorie und Geschichte der Bibliographie.” In Handbuch der Bibliothekswissenschaft, edited by Fritz Milkau, 1:828–849. Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz

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Schrettinger, Martin. 1829. Versuch eines vollständigen Lehrbuches der BibliothekWissenschaft oder Anleitung zur vollkommenen Geschäftsführung eines Bibliothekärs: in wissenschäftlicher Form abgefaßt.” München: Lindauer. Schrettinger, Martin, ed. 1834. Handbuch der Bibliothek-Wissenschaft, besonders zum Gebrauche für Nicht-Bibliothekare, welche ihre Privat-Büchersammlungen selbst einrichten wollen. Wien: In der Fr. Beck’schen Universität-Buchhandlung. http://reader. digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb10861535_00007.html. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Wieckowska, Helena. 1963. “Education for Librarianship Abroad: Poland.” Library Trends 12: 188–193.

Anne Welsh

3 “Expertise ... Certification ... Cultural Capital” The Education of Librarians in the UK

Introduction “I desire also to bring to the notice of the Trustees that better provision should be made for the higher education of librarians. It is very desirable that the higher training in librarianship should be associated with university institutions” (Adams 1915, 23). This was the assertion of the report to the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust that investigated the provision of libraries in the country, calling for an enhanced education for librarians in order to improve service overall. Almost 100 years later, we find ourselves revising the routes into librarianship, with a re-examination by our national library association, CILIP (the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals), of the core knowledge and skills that employers and the public should expect of its members. This chapter explores the history of librarianship in UK Higher Education and the impact of that history today.1

Apprenticeship The standard work on the history of library education in the UK presents a narrative arc beginning with workplace training and ending with Information as a graduate career (Bramley 1981). The birth of librarianship as a profession, variously marked in Britain by the passing of the Libraries Act 1850, the founding of the Library Association in 1877 and the granting of its Royal Charter in 1898 (Munford 1976), coincided with a reform of British universities in the mid nineteenth century that educational historians identify as having begun a shift from practice into higher education (Jarausch 2004). Within older professions, such as medicine and law, practitioners were involved in self-regulation and certification, to the extent that it has been observed 1 A briefer, earlier version of this paper was presented at CILIP’s Umbrella Conference on 2 July 2013.

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that “For professional careers, it was not expertise as such, but its certification which created cultural capital” (Jarausch 2004, 367). The history of qualifying associations stretches back to the founding of the first of the Inns of Court, Gray’s Inn, in 1391, but it is noteworthy that Millerson’s chronological list for England and Wales records only seven such organizations founded between 1391 and 1629, then none in the eighteenth century, followed by an explosion in the period 1800–1949, of which forty-two came into being in the nineteenth century. As a new profession, librarianship was part of a larger movement towards professionalization in the period, with similar career disciplines forming qualifying associations around the same time: the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors in 1868; the Institution of Municipal Engineers in 1873; the Royal Institute of Chemistry in 1877; the Institute of Bankers in 1879 and the Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales in 1880 (Millerson 1964, 246–258). From the mid nineteenth century onwards, we can trace a tension between the principles of universities, with their culture of general and theoretical education, and practitioners across all vocational disciplines, demanding an evergreater part in training relevant to the circumstances of particular jobs (Burrage 1984). Librarianship was comparatively slow to settle into higher education. In the USA, the first library school, founded by Melvil Dewey, ran classes at Columbia University from 1887 until 1889, when it transferred to the New York State Library at Albany (Miksa 1988). Here, classes were taught by a mixture of academic staff – who followed Dewey to Albany – and librarians (Mitchell 1950), setting the pattern for American library schools: “of the fifteen US schools founded before 1920 several were set up in libraries rather than in academic institutions” (Grogan 2007, 8). In the UK, the Library Association tried a variety of approaches, ranging from correspondence courses to lectures held at the London School of Economics (LSE), eventually establishing several library schools for full-time study (Bramley 1981), most of them founded after 1946, in non-university settings, usually technical colleges, to provide a Library Association syllabus over which the teachers at the schools had neither control nor input (Grogan 2007). Eventually each of the surviving library schools became affiliated to universities, granting their own degrees and diplomas (Bramley 1981). In the UK, library and information programmes are accredited by CILIP, but the examining of students is conducted in the same way as other degrees, by the teaching staff of the university. Accreditation is an important check and balance for the universities, “confirm[ing] the relevance of the course to current and developing practice in librarianship and information science, including very specialist sectors, and thus improve[ing] … employability” (CILIP 2013a). Since 2014, “All accredited programmes are



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assessed using the Professional Knowledge and Skills Base which identifies the core knowledge and skills of the profession” (CILIP 2014).

Qualification and Chartership Today, successful completion of an accredited course of study at university entitles an alumnus to refer to themselves as a “qualified librarian”. After obtaining a job, they can then enrol in CILIP’s chartership scheme, which includes a period of mentorship and reflective practice, reported in a portfolio which is assessed by members of CILIP. After successful completion of this process, a professional is entitled to refer to themselves as a “chartered librarian”. The current system of chartership by portfolio is the latest form of assessment for individual accreditation administered by CILIP since its formation in 2002, and, before that, since the 1960s, by its predecessor bodies, the Library Association and the Institute of Information Scientists. Accreditation of practitioners is defined by Forth et al. (2011, x) as pertaining to “situations in which an individual may apply to be accredited as competent by a recognized professional body or industry association … the criteria governing accreditation and the procedures regarding enforcement are entirely the responsibility of the accrediting body rather than the state”. The system is voluntary: those who are not chartered may practise as information professionals. An examination of 180 job advertisements in CILIP’s Library and Information Gazette between May 2006 and May 2007 found only 30 instances in which chartership was mentioned, as compared to 34 mentions of “customer service skills” and 129 mentions of relevant work experience (Orme 2008, 628). Even allowing for Orme’s point that the Gazette was only one source in which advertisements might be placed, and for Harper’s general caveats around the limitations of studies of advertisements in general and particularly his point that “Job adverts may be written to reflect a desired future state, rather than a current reality” (Harper 2012, 31), Orme’s figures and the absence in similar UK articles of a specific category for chartership2 do seem to indicate that there is plenty of space for those who are not chartered to practice as information professionals. Indeed, the latest figures for overall membership of CILIP (chartered and otherwise) stand at 13,470 (Dada and Colbert 2014, 7), a decline of around 10,000

2 Davies’s (2008) study of 97 health information vacancies between 1 April and 30 September 2006 found “Evidence of CPD (Continuing Professional Development)” was sought in 10% adverts, compared to 25% seeking “postgraduate qualification” and 51% seeking a “degree or diploma”. “CPD” would encompass chartership, alongside with other activities.

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members since 2005, when Broady-Preston (2006, 48) quotes a figure of “up to 23,000 members working in all sectors” given on the CILIP website. Despite this website assertion, traditionally, certain sectors have valued CILIP / Library Association qualifications more highly than others. Wood (1997, 10) notes the formation of the Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureaux (ASLIB) in 1924 as an indication that the Library Association was focused more on public libraries than special libraries. More recently, in an article that examines the various CILIP and non-CILIP groups of interest to the commercial sector, Newgass (2010, 116) asserts that “Practically no-one, particularly in the business, industry, and legal sectors, asks for a chartered professional today”. Certainly, the number of bodies that information professionals may join is extensive. Alongside CILIP, prominent organizations include the Art Libraries Society UK (ARLIS/UK), the British and Irish Association of Law Librarians (BIALL), the British Cartographic Society Map Curators Group, the International Association of Music Libraries, Archives and Documentation Centres / UK and Ireland (IAML/UK and Ireland) and the Special Libraries Association UK Chapter (SLA/UK). ASLIB, mentioned above, is still thriving, with the slogan “The Association for Information Management” (ASLIB 2011), and, of course, the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) has been organizing projects, meetings and activities since 1927 (IFLA 2015). There are also organizations with overlapping interests, such as the Archives and Records Association (ARA), British Computer Society (BCS), and the Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers, “the livery company for the Communications and Content Industries” (Stationers’ Company 2016), which has grown from the guild formed in 1403 for the City of London’s booksellers. It is clear that for information professionals operating in certain areas of UK librarianship, the market-place for associations is fairly crowded. In any self-regulating career discipline, the success of accreditation schemes like chartership relies on recognition by members of the profession, the public and, significantly, employers (Tamkin et al. 2013). Henczel (2013, 8) attributes decline in membership of library associations to “factors such as shrinking financial support from employers, greater demands on the professional’s time, the presence of a broad choice of relevant associations including those established to support non-library professions … the cost of membership and / or a perceived lack of value for money and irrelevance”. However this “irrelevance” may be perceived, and however we may view membership figures, Library Association and later CILIP accreditation has been and continues to be a vital stamp of authority for both undergraduate and graduate university LIS courses in the UK. As Dalton and Levinson (2001) point out, although it is notionally possible that a student might take courses in the area of



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Library and Information Studies (LIS) that are not accredited, by the time they were writing at the start of the new millennium it was the case that “Market forces ha[d] determined that potential LIS workers in the UK demand qualifications that confer professional status” – in this case, courses that are accredited by CILIP.

Professionalism and Professionalization The term “professional status” is somewhat problematic. Watson (2002, 94) has asserted that “notions of “profession” and the “professional” … are slippery and ambiguous”. He goes on to suggest that certain occupational groups have used the concept of professionalization as a means of reinvention, of “getting this honorific label attached to them” (Watson 2002, 99) – a label that denotes a level of altruistic public service as opposed to commercial motivations for jobs undertaken by members of that occupational group. Wilensky’s (1964) work outlines the evolution of certain professions (including librarianship, which he classes a “borderline area”) from occupations to professions: “Any occupation wishing to exercise professional authority must find a technical basis for it, assert an exclusive jurisdiction, link both skill and jurisdiction to standards of training, and convince the public that its services are uniquely trustworthy” (Wilensky 1964, 138). Having considered a range of existing and emergent professions, he finds common “crucial events in the push towards professionalization” (Wilensky 1964, 142–146). He includes librarianship as an example in his table of “The Process of Professionalization”, with a note stressing that the dates given concern the USA. If we look at the “crucial events” he identifies, with regard to UK librarianship, we find four out of the five entirely completed and one partially so. Full-time occupation: Full-time librarians may have been operating before 1600, but we know that by that date Bodley’s first librarian, Thomas James, “found he was obliged to work as long as ten hours a day in the library” (Clement 1991, 273). First national professional association: the Library Association was founded in 1877 and granted its Royal Charter in 1898 (Munford 1976). First training school: First summer school organized by the Library Association in London in 1893 (followed by Manchester in 1895, Aberystwyth in 1917, Birmingham in 1928); classes held at London School of Economics in 1902, preparing attendees for the Library Association examinations; first library school founded at University College London (UCL) in 1919 (Bramley 1981).

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Code of Ethics: The Library Association’s Code of Professional Conduct was approved in 1983. Sturges (2003, 95) discusses the “implicit” nature of the set of values he encountered when he entered the profession in 1960, and the awareness of the American Library Association’s Code of Ethics, which had been introduced in 1938. Demand for statutory protection of the area of work: Wilensky’s (1964, 145) exact wording is “There will be persistent political agitation in order to win the support of law for the protection of the job territory and its sustaining code of ethics” [his italics]. This type of protection, that is, licensing according to Forth et al.’s (2011, ix) definition, “in which it is unlawful to carry out a specified range of activities for pay without first having obtained a licence which confirms that the licence holder meets prescribed standards of competence”, has not been achieved, although the Library Association sought and received endorsement by the state through the granting of its Royal Charter in 1898, and maintains a register of chartered librarians. Certainly, viewed through this lens, librarianship can be seen to be fulfilling several criteria in terms of its claims to be a profession. Wilensky’s “optimal base of knowledge or doctrine for a profession” (1964, 149) hints at the difficulties that librarianship has sometimes faced in “claiming a monopoly of skill or even a roughly exclusive jurisdiction”. He asserts that the baseline “is a combination of intellectual and practical knowing, some of which is explicit (classifications and generalizations learned from books, lectures and demonstrations), some implicit (“understanding” acquired from supervised practice and observation)”. These “make long training necessary to persuade the public of the mystery of the craft”.

Library Education inside the Academy This brings us to the second component of that problematic phrase, “professional status” Status is a difficult concept to quantify, and in this respect we might turn to Catherine Minter’s discussion of the impact of eighteenth and nineteenth century library reform on what she terms “the ambivalent ideal of the librarian.”. In this, she identifies “a multiplication of the librarian’s duties and responsibilities, which meant that the office was no longer, or could no longer be treated as, a sinecure” (Minter 2013, 26). Certainly, at this period, the self-image of those involved in the curation of knowledge was evolving towards a more scientific model, in common with other newly-emerging professions (Rothblatt 1983).



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From its foundation in 1877, the Library Association sought “to unite all persons engaged in or interested in library work, for the purpose of promoting the best possible administration of existing libraries” (Bramley 1981, 12). From 1880 onwards, there were motions at the Annual General Meetings considering the training of library assistants, whose education at the time varied from library to library, with some excellent apprenticeships, such as those at the Bodleian and Birmingham Public Library, but there were concerns about the general education of junior assistants across the country (Bramley 1981, 13–19). Examinations according to a Library Association syllabus were held from 1885, but the numbers of those presenting themselves to be examined were low, and pass-rates even lower, even after the introduction of summer schools in London (in 1893) and Manchester (in 1895) and regular classes at the London School of Economics held from 1902 until the outbreak of World War I. 1915 brought the call for the involvement of universities in the education of librarians by Adams (1915) in his report to the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust which opened this paper, and this sentiment was echoed by Sidney Webb two years later, in a letter to the same organization: “In my view, the Library School ought to be part of a University institution; but then it ought to educate, and train in the best sense, cultivated Librarians, not juvenile assistants, who merely fetch and carry books. It ought to be open only to persons of 18 or 19 of fair secondary education; and it ought to provide a quite good undergraduate course of instruction in which the technical elements of Librarianship would play a part (but only a part)” [his italics] (letter of 25 June 1917 as cited in Munford 1976, 147–148). In this call, we can see the general unease Bramley (1981, 19) reports as being felt by some parts of the Library Association with regard to the general education of junior assistants. Indeed, the importance of “a broad general education (topics from other disciplines) as a significant component of the total educational programme for the library / information professional” (Smith, Hallam and Ghosh 2012) continues to be considered, and is enshrined in guidelines for educational programmes today. In the USA, the impact of a university education of librarians on their status had been considered by Dewey when, in 1883, he first proposed that his library school be established at Columbia: “We hardly over-rate the importance of the proposed undertaking to the library interest of the entire country in raising our work to the full rank of a regular profession, with its recognized courses of instruction, its certificates and degrees conferred by the university” (Conference of Librarians 1883, 288). As Rayward puts it, “It is clear that what Dewey wanted above all was that the mantle of academic respectability be thrown upon education for librarianship” (Rayward 1968, 309). As Jackson has pointed out, although “it is in no sense a criterion of professionalism whether certification is incorporated within

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a university framework … it has been usual for aspirant professions to find incorporation within the structure of universities for their training” (Jackson 1970, 5). The Carnegie United Kingdom Trust followed this usual route when in 1917 it called for “A technical training – based upon a sound preliminary course of general education” as “necessary to improve the status of the librarian, and to create a different attitude towards librarianship from that adopted today by those in whose power the financial prospects of the profession largely rest” (Carnegie United Kingdom Trust 1917, 18). After meetings with University College London, in 1918 proposals were drawn up by the Library Association for library schools across the country. A grant of £1,500 a year for five years was given by the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust for the formation of a library school at University College London (UCL), governed by the university authorities and the Library Association, covering all the subjects on the Library Association syllabus, but resulting, after two years, in the award of a diploma from the University of London, the parent body that granted all UCL degrees at that time. The award of this separate qualification resulted in an intense backlash from practitioners, led by the Library Assistants Association, who feared a two-tier system of qualifications, in which the university diploma was “likely to carry more weight with library authorities (on account of the words ‘London University’ on it than that of the Library Association)” (Fry 1921, 108). From 1923, the diploma was not awarded until candidates had completed a year’s post-qualification experience. On the other hand, by 1925, obtaining the UCL diploma exempted students from the Library Association’s Sectional Certificates: the completion of a thesis admitted them to the Register of Chartered Librarians (Bramley 1981). In this balance between the university education and the practical experience required of library school graduates, we can detect Wilensky’s (1964, 149) “intellectual and practical knowing” acquired through “a long training”. We can also see a temporal and spatial divide between the intellectual and the practical learning, with the former gained at university and the latter outside it; the university study coming first followed by the workplace experience.

Scholarly Discipline As Noordegraaf (2011, 470) has discussed, “Education is generally seen as one of the major means for (re)making professionals, not only because it provides technical skills, but also because it socializes students into a professional field and teaches the social and moral sides of professional behavior”. As such, it is a fun-



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damental role of professional associations, and, as outlined above, the Library Association saw itself as a qualifying association from the outset. Any move away from its monopoly on the examination of entrants to the library profession was bound to be seen by some members of the LA as undermining a primary raison d’être. The tension between university and professional education is also fundamental. As Soffer (1987, 168) has described, early English universities (Oxford and Cambridge) “had deliberately created a closed community purposefully segregated from the outside world so that a ‘higher’ life could be assimilated and practised. Both the isolation and the emphasis upon a superior set of values persisted when the university became a secular, increasingly national institution”. Normally expressed in Britain as “liberal education” and in France as culture générale, we can hear its echoes in Webb’s (1917) assertion that a university-based library education “ought to educate, and train in the best sense, cultivated Librarians” [my italics]. University could, in other words, offer cultural capital as well as functional, explicit knowledge. As co-founder of the London School of Economics, Webb had, of course, been involved in the strategic management of the LSE classes for the Library Association exams, and his perspective was fairly wide, as a founder and former chair of the London County Council Technical Education Board. Whereas J.S. Mill is quoted by Bramley (1981, 11) as being hostile to the concept of university evolving to be “a place of professional education”, Webb had a clear agenda to introduce university liberal education to the profession, and warned the Library Association against too narrow a curriculum: “If we are ever to attain the goal of a university course of study for librarians, with the opportunity of taking a degree, in which some recognition is given to the librarian’s special subjects … we must provide for a much wider general culture” (Webb 1902, 201). In Higher Education teaching today, we recognize that students may undertake deep learning, in which they engage with our teaching in a conceptual way, making links between different elements of our syllabus and forming connections in a way that transforms their understanding. Alternatively, students can undertake strategic learning, in which they engage with elements of the syllabus in a task-oriented way, in order to pass exams. As educators, it is our role to devise our teaching materials in such a way that deep learning is encouraged, motivating the student to look below the surface of the information with which we are presenting them, since too much strategic learning can result not in understanding and knowledge but memorization of a list of seemingly unrelated facts (Biggs 1999). An emphasis on culture and cultivation can be seen to be an emphasis on deep learning. That is not to say that every “university man” of the pre-twenti-

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eth century era can be said to have engaged deeply with all aspects of his university curriculum – but, certainly, the aims expressed by Mill and Webb and other educational thinkers of their era indicate a motivation on the part of higher education providers. The scientific knowledge of the university was intended to develop mastery of a scholarly discipline. If librarianship were to become such a field, more was required than the strategic learning that was tested in the Library Association exams. However, it is not clear from the surviving records that the Library Association was approaching a university setting (first the LSE and then UCL) because it wished to found a scholarly discipline. Calls for university involvement centre on aspects of status – university is recognized as being appropriate for a “higher training in librarianship” because of the cultural capital associated with it. The Library Association felt competent to devise and administer a syllabus and exam. Yet, in the time that the LSE taught librarianship, we can see evidence of academe influencing the Library Association syllabus. Most notably, James Duff Brown’s lectures in Bibliography infliuenced the instructions to LA examiners on the marking of the Bibliography papers. In 1904, Duff Brown was appointed as one of the tutors for the Association’s correspondence course, and so his teaching influenced a wider range of students outside London. Indeed, first at the LSE and then at UCL, we see not only the first UK cohort of university-educated librarians, but also the first generation of librarian university teachers. Prominent members of the profession were appointed. Duff Brown himself worked in Clerkenwell, and before teaching at LSE in 1902 had already published a Handbook of Library Appliances (1892), Guide to the Formation of a Music Library and a Manual of Library Classification and Shelf Arrangement (1898). His Manual of Practical Bibliography was published in 1906, along with the first edition of his Subject Classification, which went into three editions. His most successful work was his Manual of Library Economy, first published in 1903, and still bearing his name through seven subsequent editions, although edited by others after his death in 1914. One of those others was W.C. Berwick Sayers of Croydon Public Library, whose own Introduction to Library Classification (first edition, 1918; 9th edition, 1958) and Manual of Classification for Librarians and Bibliographers (first edition, 1926; 5th edition revised by Arthur Maltby, 1975) were seminal for over half a century. Sayers is also credited with publishing the first manual for children’s librarianship, The Children’s Library (1912) and, twenty years later, A Manual of Children’s Libraries (1932). The UCL library school’s first Bibliography instructor, Arundell Esdaile, was a life-long member of staff at the British Museum Library, and his Student’s Manual of Bibliography (first edition, 1931; 4th edition revised by Roy Stokes, 1967) drew on his experience as a published bibliographer, and



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remained the standard text until the publication of Gaskell’s New Introduction to Bibliography in 1972. This first generation of UK library academics did not give up their work in libraries: teaching was an activity they undertook as part of their commitment to the profession – a commitment that was also reflected in their involvement with the professional associations. Sayers served as Secretary and later President of the Library Assistants Association and was responsible for the Classification element of the Library Association’s correspondence course from 1905. He became President of the LA in 1938. Other than his Manual of Bibliography, Esdaile is probably best known as editor of the Library Association Record for thirteen years, and for serving as LA President for six years (1939–1945) throughout the Second World War, a time which heralded great changes for library education in the UK.

Uneasy Co-existence The tensions between the Library Association and the LSE when the exams were set by the LA were a small precursor of further tension between the LA and the library school at UCL. While on the one hand, universities offered not only status but also a theoretical foundation for librarianship as a discipline, there were ongoing doubts as to the need for so much academic education in a practical discipline. Fry’s (1921, 108) (in)famous charge, that the university was guilty of “representing … the ton of theory without the ounce of practice” was only the first of many such accusations to dog library schools. In current times, the most vocal, though by no means the only, critic of overly theoretical teaching is Michael Gorman, born and trained in the UK before settling in the United States, and most famously editor of the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules 2nd edition (AACR2). He asserts, “If you study the evolution of library education, you will see a long march from the early period of vocational education of the practical type; to a middle period of a worthwhile amalgam of professional and intellectual education; to the current period in which abstract theory, especially in areas only marginally related to librarianship dominates” (Gorman 2004, 100). Certainly, in the 1920s and 1930s, and despite having been funded by money from the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, whose general mission was the improvement and sustenance of public libraries, UCL alumni found that their professional route forward was not, generally, to be employees of London local authority libraries. As Bramley (1981, 78–79) quotes L.A. Burgess as saying in 1936, “The theory that one can raise the standards of our profession by advising

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local authorities to refrain from promoting their experienced and competent staff in order to fill all senior posts with highly trained and cultured, but practically inexperienced, graduates was, from the first, doomed to unpopularity and ridicule”. Despite low employment rates (of 33–62.5%) in the year following library school in the 1930s (when the entire country was suffering a depression), from the first alumni generally went into posts in special libraries and information bureaus in London, or in public libraries in rural areas, where Chief Librarians tended to have less of a pool of trained staff from which to make appointments. Wood (1997, 10) highlights Baker’s contribution to the conference which led to the formation of ASLIB in 1924, and in which the library school director reached out to colleagues in special libraries to establish their ongoing educational needs. In any case, whether it was the campaign waged by the Association of Assistant Librarians; the storm over the propriety or otherwise of appointing as the UCL school’s first director Ernest A. Baker, who had led the LA side of the negotiations with the university; Baker’s openness to other emerging professional bodies; the school’s production of employees for special libraries instead of London municipal libraries; or simply a change in the make-up of the Library Association Education Committee, the idea that Baker had championed within the LA of a network of university-based library schools across the country did not come to fruition. In essence, the period from the end of World War I to the beginning of World War II saw three concurrent systems in place for the education of librarians: –– Library Association exams, for which study could be undertaken by correspondence, or at one of the summer schools that had grown up and continued to run, or at some of the larger libraries through in-house training schemes, or through independent study; –– Diploma of the University of London at the library school at UCL, which exempted students from the LA exams; –– Stand-alone training schemes that were neither affiliated to a university nor to the Library Association. A good example of this third category is the Bodleian Library at Oxford. A highly developed training scheme for “boys” had been put in place by Edward Nicholson, Librarian 1882–1912, as a means to recruit cheap staff who could be trained for promotion in-house, and according to Craster (1952, 258) this continued until World War II. It is important to note that there was no “big bang” moment at which the old apprenticeship system of training ended and was superseded by the LA examinations or by tertiary educational qualifications. There are today still occasional examples of senior librarians who have completed neither professional qualification (MA LIS or equivalent) nor chartership. In the School Library sector, adver-



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tisements often require a library qualification or a teaching qualification (Markless et al. 2009, 1–24). The rise of technology in libraries has also given birth to a new class of library worker, skilled in systems development work, some of whom, having decided against undertaking a library qualification or chartership, are happy to self-identify as “shambrarians” (Koster 2012). We might observe that of these three routes, the first two remain unchanged, while the third, “stand-alone training schemes” has been replaced by libraries recruiting and promoting staff with skills that the library values, whether or not the staff member holds library qualifications.

Full-time Education The period after World War II provided opportunities for the Library Association to think again about training schools across the country. The LA’s Emergency Committee (1940–1945, coinciding with Esdaile’s presidency mentioned above) published the McColvin Report (McColvin 1942), which made proposals for postwar reorganization of the public library system. Amongst other things, the report called for a system of progression in public libraries comparable with that used in schools (also governed by local authorities): “The equivalent to the “certification” which qualifies teachers for scale payment will be either Associateship of the L.A. as obtained under present conditions or as obtainable in future … it is hoped that this will involve a two years’ course at a library training school. Graduation will bring the benefit for librarians, as for teachers, of an advanced increment” (McColvin 1942, 176). University was identified as the learning space best able to equip the new workforce: “We must, as soon as we can, require that professional entrants should have enjoyed the educational, cultural and personal advantages of attendance at a university … The graduate desirous of entering a library would pass to a library school immediately upon graduation. There he would take a twoyear course after which he would start his library career, being placed on the professional scale and awarded the increments due for his qualifications” (McColvin 1942, 177). Of course, the changes suggested were happening in an era in which conscripted men were returning from war, and the government was keen that they should find employment, backing this up with Further Education and Training Grants from the Ministry of Labour. At the same time, libraries had been staffed throughout the war by those who had not been conscripted, and women had occupied relatively senior roles in the absence of male colleagues. This is not the place for a full discussion of the gender balance in UK libraries, but it is worth

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noting in passing that McColvin (1942, 179) called for the implementation of the “basic principle of equal pay for equal work”. The post-war library workforce consisted of those who had not been conscripted (male and female) who had worked in libraries during the war; returning servicemen whose library career had been interrupted by war-time service, and those who were new to librarianship entirely. In terms of both financial opportunity and workforce motivation, the McColvin Report was well-timed. Negotiations between the Library Association and various universities and bodies representing universities did not bear fruit. The old issues over who should set the examinations was a major block, and in the end, library schools were set up in 1946 in colleges and institutions of further education: Brighton Technical College (opened in 1947); City of London College; Glasgow and West of Scotland College of Commerce (the Scottish School of Librarianship); Leeds College of Commerce; Loughborough College; Manchester College of Science and Technology; and Newcastle-upon-Tyne Municipal College of Commerce (opened in 1947). The “1946 library schools” were joined in 1949 by Spring Grove Polytechnic, Isleworth and in 1950 by Birmingham College of Commerce. These library schools all prepared students for the Library Association examinations. As Grogan has put it, “Not only were the teachers allowed no say over the syllabus, they were also specifically excluded from any part in the setting or marking of the examinations used to assess their students”. For those of us teaching today, in an environment in which constructive alignment between syllabus and assessment is advocated as important for effective education, this situation seems intolerable. Banned from sitting on the LA Education Committee, the heads of the schools formed the Schools of Librarianship Committee in 1952, as a forum in which they could discuss common interests. Meanwhile, ASLIB was growing in size and began to make representations to the Library Association that they should widen their syllabus to accommodate the educational needs of special libraries. A joint Library Association/ASLIB syllabus committee was established in 1954, which again excluded the library schools. Only after this syllabus was rejected by LA members were the schools allowed representation on the Association’s Syllabus Subcommittee of 1957. The resulting 1964 syllabus was accompanied by the proposal that the normal mode of study should be full-time. The move from part-time to full-time study resulted in some assistants not being able to complete qualifications. The City and Guild’s Library Assistant’s Certificate was introduced in 1967 in an attempt to provide some training for junior staff, but, despite its popularity, a major flaw remained that, post-1964, it was not possible in public libraries to progress from it to a professional level: the full-time qualification was required (Russell 1985). On top of this, a list of duties suitable for professional and non-professional staff had



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been published (Library Association 1962), which contributed to a debate that continues today regarding the differences between library assistants and assistant librarians.

A Graduate Profession The existence of other library schools, most notably the one nearby at City of London College, enabled UCL to focus on postgraduate education. Alumni were required only to take the Final Part III Literature paper of the Library Association examinations. After this, they were entitled to apply to be Fellows of the Library Association (FLA). Fry’s (1921, 108) “two-tier system” had come into being: alumni of the newer schools, assessed using the Library Association’s own exams, were Associates (ALA), required to take the Literature paper and the other three Final Examinations to become Fellows. It was not until the changes of the 1960s that UCL was joined by other degree-awarding bodies. One driver for change came from within the Library Association itself, which decided to allow “internal examining” of the exams at library schools who met certain criteria. This was significant as the start of accreditation of library school courses in the way that we understand it in the UK today. One of the criteria to qualify for internal examining was that the library school should have degree-awarding status, either independently, or at least with “direct access to the principal officer (or board)” (Library Association Education Committee 1964). This was, clearly, a limitation for some of the library schools, but the establishment of the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA) in 1964, empowered by Royal Charter to award degrees, offered new opportunities. Its Librarianship Board was established in 1966, and the first degree course was approved the following year at Newcastle. Leeds, Birmingham and the North Western Polytechnic in London were approved in 1968, with the London qualification being an honours degree. Alumni of each of these courses were exempted by the Library Association from its exams (Wood, 1997). After having missed out on an opportunity in 1946, when a library school had been suggested at Cardiff, the College of Librarianship Wales was established in 1964 in Aberystwyth, the home of the National Library of Wales, and site of summer schools 1917–1925. Alongside Leeds, North Western Polytechnic, London and Birmingham, it was one of the first to gain the rights for internal examining of the LA Part I (Intermediate) paper, and, through entering into an arrangement with the University of Wales was able to offer a joint honours degree. In North-

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ern Ireland, the Queen’s University Belfast School of Library Studies opened in 1965, after negotiations with the Library Association regarding exemptions from LA exams since 1963. It is worth noting in passing that Eire already had a library school, established at University College Dublin in 1927, with courses led by academic faculty and library staff (Brown 2009). Meanwhile, England’s second university library school was opened in 1963 after discussions between the Librarians of Leeds University and Sheffield University and a working party organized by Sheffield University (Bramley 1981, 179). Like UCL, it had control over its curriculum, with the same exemptions for Library Association exams. The health and diversity of opportunity of UK library education were greatly enhanced by Sheffield’s progressive attitude to its new postgraduate courses: “We could think our syllabus through from first principles, the only predetermined factor in the pattern being that special consideration should be given to supplementing our courses for the more traditional types of library work, by special provision for science and technology graduates wishing to prepare for scientific and industrial information work” (Saunders 1965, 170). Arguably one of the strengths of LIS education in the UK is the different emphases of the focus of each of the courses. Today, each of the library schools accredited by CILIP has different strengths: Sheffield had maintained its reputation for technology, including MSc courses in Information Systems, Digital Library Management and Health Informatics, while UCL remains very traditional, still focusing on Cataloguing and Classification and still offering options in Bibliography and Services to Children and Young People. Aberystwyth, the first of the library schools to take up distance learning, continues to offer online courses, including some undergraduate and some second-level Masters (for those already holding qualifications in Information Studies). Northumbria also specializes in distance learning. Newer institutions that have been accredited recently indicate the wide scope of the discipline and the job market: Cranfield University offers MSc/PG Diploma Information Capability Management; King’s College London offers MA Digital Asset and Media Management; and Glyndŵr University in Wrexham offers not only a BSc (Hons) but also a Foundation Science qualification in Library and Information Practice. For students wishing to study overseas (or for overseas students wishing to proceed to charter with CILIP), Cologne University of Applied Sciences offers postgraduate and undergraduate qualifications (with teaching in German and English), and UCL Qatar offers an MA (with teaching in English), modelled on, but distinct from the course offered in London (CILIP 2014).



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Core Skills With such diversity in education, it would be fair to ask what are the core skills that link the offerings. In redesigning its Chartership and Continuing Professional Development (CPD) schemes, CILIP has led the way in establishing these. The current scheme, launched in 2013, is the Professional Knowledge and Skills Base (PKSB). A strength of this scheme and its predecessor, the Framework of Qualifications launched in 2005, is practitioner consultation and involvement (CILIP 2013b, 1). As well as providing a framework for skills assessment, and documenting the wide range of skills sought by employers in the sector, it forms the backbone of Chartership and re-validation in which CILIP members engage and is “used to assess which academic and vocational qualification are directly relevant to the profession” (CILIP 2013b, 1). Information professionals are not expected to have expertise in every single area of the PKSB at point of career entry, but they should have an awareness of the breadth of their profession, and, certainly, they should be able to demonstrate the core ethics and values that forms the centre of the “PKSB Wheel”, a diagram that outlines the headings. The ring of qualities surrounding core ethics and values are “professional expertise and generic skills” including organizing knowledge and information; knowledge and information management; using and exploiting knowledge and information; research skills; information governance and compliance; records management and archiving; collection management and development; literacy and learning; leadership and advocacy; strategy planning and management; customer focus, service design and marketing; IT and communication. These are surrounded by the “wider library, information and knowledge sector context”, which is itself surrounded by the “wider organization and environmental context” (CILIP 2013b, 2). Part of the documentation that library schools provide to the CILIP Accreditation Panel is a mapping of each of their course modules to the PKSB, and part of the discussion with the panel concerns this mapping. This is more than an administrative or background tool. If students are to progress from library school to become chartered librarians, it is, of course, helpful for their learning to have a narrative arc that is similar to the narrative arc that their chartership and CPD will take. It is early days for the PKSB, but it is perhaps the case that we now have achieved an equitable balance between our main professional association and our library schools: academics are able to structure the curriculum in a way that incorporates the core skills that the professional association has identified. In this way, it is to be hoped that those wishing to enter the profession have an educational path in which they benefit not only from the academic status of the university, but also from career academics’ skills in curriculum design and

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constructive alignment between course and examinations, as well as in catering for the learning styles of different students. Crucially, the curriculum has at its core the needs of the professional association, and through it practitioners and employers. Education in the UK is healthy, but it is not Nirvana. The concerns of the Library Advisory Councils for England and for Wales in the 1960s regarding supply and demand have not been addressed: in a higher education setting, there will always be a potential over-supply of qualified candidates, so that some will gain a vocational qualification that they are not able to use immediately. Following the Browne Report (Browne 2010), the cap on tuition fees for students in England and Wales rose from £3,290 to £9,000. This means that students are acquiring £20,000–£30,000 in fees alone during their undergraduate degree, and then face a further £6,000–£9,000 increase in debt to obtain their postgraduate qualification. Reduction in student numbers is, therefore, a threat to departments, while the cost of library education is a deterrent to students’ taking the qualification as soon as they are ready. The ladder from paraprofessional status to professional status is hard for some individuals to climb. Nevertheless, the importance of university education to many practising remains: beyond the MA LIS, many school and academic librarians return for postgraduate qualifications in teaching to assist in their roles within Information Literacy, while others take advanced courses in Information Science. Information Studies has come of age, both as a profession and as an academic discipline. In Jarausch’s (2004, 367) words in the title of this paper, it displays “Expertise … certification … [and] cultural capital”, three important elements of professional education.

References Adams, W.G.S. 1915. A Report on the Library Provision and Policy to the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust. London: CUKT. ASLIB. 2011. “History of ASLIB.” Available at http://web.archive.org/web/20111216172032/ http://www.aslib.com/about/history.htm. Accessed on 21 January 2016. Biggs, John. 1999. “What the Student Does: Teaching for Enhanced Learning.” Higher Education Research and Development 18(1): 57–75. Bramley, Gerald. 1981. Apprentice to Graduate: A History of Library Education in the United Kingdom. London: Clive Bingley. Broady-Preston, Judith. 2006. “CILIP: a twenty-first century association for the information profession?” Library Management 27(1/2): 48–65. Brown, Barbara Traxler. 2009. “Towards 100 years of LIS education and research at UCD.” Aslib Proceedings 61(3): 282–301.



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Browne, John. 2010. “Securing a Sustainable Future for Higher Education: An Independent Review of Higher Education Funding & Student Finance. London: Department for Business, Innovation and Skills”, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-browne-reporthigher-education-funding-and-student-finance. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Burrage, Michael. 1984. “Practitioners, Professors and the State in France, the USA and England.” In Education for the Professions: Quis Custodiet? ed. Sinclair Goodland, 26–38. Guildford: Society for Research into Higher Education. Carnegie United Kingdom Trust. 1917. Third Annual Report of Trustees. London: CUKT. Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP). 2013a. “Courses in Library and Information Studies Currently Accredited by CILIP.” http://www.cilip.org.uk/cilip/ jobs-careers/qualifications/accreditation/pages/default.aspx. Page no longer available on 12 July 2014. Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals CILIP. 2013b. Your Professional Knowledge and Skills Base: Identify Gaps and Maximise Opportunities Along Your Career Path. London: CILIP. Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals CILIP. 2014. “CILIP Accredited Qualifications.” http://www.cilip.org.uk/cilip/jobs-careers/starting-library-andinformation-career/how-become-librarian-or-information. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Clement, Richard W. 1991. “Librarianship and polemics: The Career of Thomas James (1572–1629).” Libraries & Culture 26(2): 269–282. Conference of Librarians. 1883. “Conference of Librarians, Buffalo, August 1883: The proceedings.” Library Journal 8: 287. Craster, Edmund. 1952. History of the Bodleian Library, 1845–1945. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Dada, Bose and Jill Colbert. 2014. “January to May 2014 Management and Membership Report.” http://www.cilip.org.uk/sites/default/files/documents/Finance%20and%20 membership%20report%208%20July%202014.pdf. Accesed on 11 January 2016. Dalton, Peter and Kate Levinson. 2001. “An Investigation of LIS Qualifications Throughout the World.” SET Bulletin 2(1): 12–24. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Davies, Karen. 2008. “Job Hunting in the UK Using the Internet: Finding Your Next Information Professional Role in the Health Care Sector and the Skills Employers Require.” Health Information and Libraries Journal 25: 106–115. Forth, John, Alex Bryson, Amy Humphris, Maria Koumenta and Morris Kleiner. 2011. A Review of Occupational Regulation and its Impact: UK Commission for Employment and Skills Evidence Report 40. London: UKCES. Fry, W.G. 1921. “Presidential address to the North Western Branch of the Library Assistants Association, held at the John Rylands Library, October 8th 1920.” The Library Assistant 15(270): 108. Gorman, Michael. 2004. The Concise AACR2. London: Facet Publishing. Grogan, Denis J. 2007. “Education for Librarianship: Some Persistent Issues.” Education for Information 25: 5–26. Hall, Richard H. 1968. “Professionalization and Bureaucratization.” American Sociological Review 33(1): 92–104. Harper, Ray. 2012. “The Collection and Analysis of Job Advertisements: A Review of Research Methodology.” Library and Information Research 36(112): 29–26. Henczel, Susan. 2013. “Professionalism: exploring the role and responsibility of our professional associations.” Paper preseted at the LIANZA Conference, 20–23 October, Hamilton, New Zealand, http://www.lianza.org.nz/sites/default/files/

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Sue%20Henczel%20-%20Professionalism%20Exploring%20the%20role%20and%20 responsibilities%20of%20professional%20associations.pdf. Accessed on 11 January 2016. IFLA. 2015. “About IFLA”. http://www.ifla.org/about. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Jackson, John A. 1970. “Editorial Introduction.” In Professions and Professionalization, edited by John A. Jackson, 3–15. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jarausch, Konrad H. 2004. “Graduation and Careers.” In A History of the University in Europe. Volume III. Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (1800–1945), edited by Walter Rüegg, 363–389. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Koster, Lukas. 2012. “I, Shambrarian.” LIS New Professional’s Toolkit. http://lisnewprofs. com/i-shambrarian/. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Library Association. 1962. Professional and Non-professional Duties. London: Library Association. Library Association Education Committee. 1964. “Report of the LA Subcommittee [on] Internal Examining.” Library Association Record 67(6): 203. Markless, Sharon, Elizabeth Bentley, Sarah Pavey, Sue Shaper, Sally Todd and Carol Webb. 2009. The Innovative School Librarian. London: Facet. McColvin, Lionel Roy. 1942. The Public Library System of Great Britain: A Report on Its Present Condition with Proposals for Post-War Reorganization. London: Library Association. Miksa, Francis L. 1988. “The Columbia School of Library Economy, 1887–1888.” Libraries & Culture 23(3): 249–280. Millerson, Geoffrey. 1964. The Qualifying Associations: A Study in Professionalization. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Minter, Catherine. 2013. “Academic Library Reform and the Ideal of the Librarian in England, France and Germany in the Long Nineteenth Century.” Library & Information History 29(1): 19–37. Mitchell, Sydney B. 1950. “The Pioneer Library School in Middle Age.” Library Quarterly 20(4): 272–288. Munford, William Arthur. 1976. A History of the Library Association, 1877–1977. London: Library Association. Newgass, Oriole. 2010. “A Candle in the Wind or a Beacon for the Future? Professional Associations – Facing an Uncertain Future?” Business Information Review 27: 112–117. Noordegraaf, Mirko. 2011. “Remaking Professionals?: How Associations and Professional Education Connect Professionalism and Organizations.” Current Sociology 59: 465. Orme, Verity. 2008. “You will be – : A Study of Job Advertisements to Determine Employers’ Requirements for LIS Professionals in the UK in 2007.” Library Review 57(8): 619–633. Rayward, W. Boyd. 1968. “Melvil Dewey and Education for Librarianship.” Journal of Library History 3(4): 297–312. Rothblatt, Sheldon. 1983. “The Diversification of Higher Education in England.” In The Transformation of Higher Learning, edited by Konrad Jarausch, 131–148. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Russell, Norman J. 1985. “Professional and Non-professional in Libraries: The Need for a New Relationship.” Journal of Information Science 17: 293–310. Saunders, Wilf L. 1965. “Inside the Library Schools 6: Postgraduate Education in Librarianship in the University of Sheffield.” Library World 67(786): 170. Smith, Kerry, Gillian Hallam, and S.B. Ghosh on behalf of the Education and Training Section of the International Federation of Library Associations. 2012. “Guidelines for Professional



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Library Educational Programs.” http://www.ifla.org/publications/guidelines-forprofessional-libraryinformation-educational-programs-2012. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Soffer, Reba N. 1987. “The Modern University and National Values, 1850–1930.” Historical Research 60(142): 166–187. Stationers’ Company. 2016. “About Us.” http://www.stationers.org/about.html. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Sturges, Paul. 2003. “Doing the Right Thing: Professional Ethics for Information Workers in Britain.” New Library World 104(3): 94–102. Tamkin, Penny; Linda Mitler, Joy Williamson and Paul Casey. 2013. Understanding Occupational Regulation: UK Commission for Employment and Skills Evidence Report 67. London: UKCES. Watson, Tony. 2002. “Professions and Professionalism: Should we Jump off the Bandwagon, Better to Study where it is Going?” International Studies of Management & Organization 32(2): 93–105. Webb, Sydney. 1902. “The Library Service of London: Its Coordination, Development and Education.” Library Association Record 4: 201. Wilensky, Harold L. 1964. “The Professionalization of Everyone?” American Journal of Sociology 70(2): 137–158. Wood, Kate. 1997. “Professional Education: Historical Overview.” In The Education of Library and Information Professionals in the United Kingdom, edited by Judith Elkin and Tom Wilson, 1–30. London: Mansell.

Tatjana Aparac-Jelušić

4 New Approaches, Structural and Organizational Changes in the PhD Programme in LIS/IS Introduction After a close study of doctoral theses written between 1930 and 2007 in the field of Library and Information Science (LIS), Sugimoto, Russell and Grant (2009) concluded that “literature on LIS doctoral education is fairly scarce” in the United States and Canada. Education in the field of LIS and Information Science (IS) has been covered in the Annual Review of Information Science and Technology (Mezick and Koenig 2008); yet, even in these very thorough works of research, there is a lack of information on doctoral studies. There are no entries on this theme in some of the major encyclopedias. In the leading journals of this field (such as the Journal of Documentation, Library and Information Science Research, the Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, and Education for Information), one will find the occasional investigation on the historical dimensions of educational programmes as well as on the influence of the changes in an information society on the core content, including the challenges of convergence and an interdisciplinary approach. We should also add the internationalization of education in the field of LIS and the changes in teaching methods due to e-learning. Yet theoretically based articles on doctoral studies in LIS and IS are rarely present and there are only a few overviews of changes in the LIS/IS doctoral education in a particular institution or programme. Hurt (1992), while discussing future trends in LIS, comments about the contemporary increase in the number of PhD programmes in the US. In his opinion, one of the consequences of this was the demand for more faculty who teach and research in the LIS/IS area of study. The number of students who continued on to doctoral programme was small, according to MacDougall and Brittain (1993, 363), until the 1990s. Yet there were locations, as in the UK, in which there was an increase only after it was required of lecturers in LIS departments that they complete a doctorate. Seeing that, in the late 1980s, LIS schools and departments began a process of the review and revision of existing programmes. Taking into account the number of students and the curriculum, significant changes (such as fewer courses taught, more research-oriented assignments, special workshops that enable students to acquire specific research skills, PhD forums that intro-



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duce newest research results) have been noted in the organization and structure of the PhD study as well. In other parts of Europe, discussions concerning new approaches and conceptual applications grew in intensity after the implementation of the Bologna Process. The main objective of the Bologna Process since its inception in 1999 “was meant to strengthen the competitiveness and attractiveness of the European higher education and to foster student mobility and employability through the introduction of a system based on undergraduate and postgraduate studies with easily readable programmes and degrees” (EHEA 2009). To better fulfil these goals, the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) was launched in March 2010. EHEA took over the responsibility for all activities that ensured more comparable, compatible and coherent systems of higher education in Europe. But in regard to postgraduate education there is still a scarcity of work on doctoral programmes and their outcomes for the development of LIS/IS as a scientific field, their connection to scientific investigations, the advancement of practical work in information institutions, and the education of the staff that lectures in the LIS/IS field at the university level. There is paucity of scholarship on doctoral studies in Europe, which should not come as a surprise, as traditions differ in regard to values, administrative procedures, financing models, qualification frameworks, etc. Also, doctoral studies began at certain universities at different times. The endeavours of the EU were, on the one hand, to increase the number of doctoral students, and on the other hand, to direct university studies towards scientific investigations. This was expected to result in closer ties between science and learning. In circumstances such as these, it is difficult to make a general synopsis for European countries, even in instances when one is dealing with regions that were once part of a socio-political whole, as in the case of the former Yugoslavia. When observing the development of European doctoral programmes for LIS/IS, it is necessary to consider that doctoral studies began at a later date in some countries; this timing difference has had a great impact on the development of LIS in general. For example, the process of the academicization of LIS in Nordic countries, according to Åström (2008, 722), is “fairly recent, beginning in the 1970s and resulting in full university status for LIS institutions in all four mainland Nordic countries in the late 1990s”. In the final decades of the 20th century, education in IS has to a large degree been coextensive with LIS education. One could say that at the beginning of the 21st century it is possible to follow notable structural changes regarding the merger of LIS/IS departments into larger university departments. The other important impetus for the redesign of LIS educational programmes was the revivification of the endeavour of the

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‘big four’ American universities to connect, and thus strengthen their teaching and research programmes (this is otherwise known as the iSchool movement) (Mezick and Koenig 2008). Since 2010, this “movement” has also been spreading to several European countries where certain universities with LIS/IS educational programmes decided to join in. To become a member of the iSchool community, they had to prove their research activities and PhD programmes. When discussing doctoral studies, it can be noted that, even in other scientific disciplines, the focus of investigation is on “establishing patterns, trends, and areas for improvement in doctoral education and the doctoral students’ experience” (Hartnett and Katz 1977). Subsequently, a notable importance has been given to preparing students for scholarship and research while studying at the graduate level, especially in regards to qualitative methods. Of great interest is Golde and Dore’s (2001) study of doctoral education across 11 disciplines and 27 universities. The findings of their research suggested that students do not understand the process of doctoral education or how to be effective in that process. Golde and Dore’s emphasis on process directed attention to the complex tasks and interaction that are embedded in the doctoral experience.

Overview of Doctoral Programmes in Europe Doctoral education was formally incorporated as the third cycle in the Bologna discussions in 2003 following a European University Association (EUA) project that identified the need to bring changes to doctoral education, and the EUA Bologna Seminar in Salzburg that identified common principles for that level. The Salzburg Principles (Christensen 2005) represented a key milestone in the reform process of doctoral education in Europe as they drew new common directions from the diverse reforms ongoing at that time in European countries (EUA 2010). The recommendations of these principles were included in the Bergen Communiqué (2005). Since the three-cycle degree system was seen at an advanced stage of implementation across the participating countries, a trend towards providing structured doctoral programmes has become one of the priorities after the London conference. The document London Communique (2007) pointed out that closer alignment of the EHEA with the European Research Area (ERA) should remain an important objective as to meet Europe’s objectives of strengthening research capacity and improving the quality and competitiveness of European higher education.



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In the last decade, education at the doctorate level has taken on new forms. The attempts to find answers to the challenges of the information age, especially in regards to the tie between education and the business sector, have prompted a focus on research and supervision of students’ work. According to Winckler (EUA 2009), doctoral education is a major priority for European universities and for EUA: It forms the first phase of young researchers’ careers and is thus central to the drive to create a Europe of knowledge, as more researchers need to be trained than ever before if the ambitious objectives concerning enhanced research capacity, innovation and economic growth are to be met.

In order to ensure the development and quality of doctoral studies, the idea of internationalization is also of great importance (Abdullahi, Kajberg and Virkus 2007); by bringing together a larger number of academic institutions when creating a study programme, doctoral students can cooperate with scholars of quality on their projects. According to the Salzburg II recommendations (EUA 2010), internationalization in doctoral education is understood and interpreted in different ways, ranking from internationalization at home (using the international profile of the home institution such as international doctoral candidates, staff, events and guest researchers), collaborative doctoral programmes (with individual mobility – such as co-tutelle) to international joint doctoral programmes (joint, integrated curricula, joint committees and juries, and the joint degree).

It is in this sense that the EU has financed and encouraged collaborative programmes, and several national foundations for the sciences have also provided the finances for new approaches and models of doctoral study. The aim in the end was to introduce works of scholarship and research as a measure of excellence with special attention directed toward awakening the interest of scholars and scientists to include doctoral students in their projects that would eventually lead to the publishing of works of research and participation in scientific congresses. Such an approach is visible from the programmes and official calls published on websites of several known universities that aim to attract the best students. The doctoral programme at the Berlin school (Institut für Bibliotheks- und Informationswissenschaft, IBI), for example, offers the only opportunity in Germany for a student to get a PhD in LIS. The doctoral programme follows the traditional German model with little or no required coursework on the assumption that students received sufficient methodological training during their MA studies and while writing a substantial MA thesis. But IBI has started to provide more explicit methodological training and support for doctoral students in some

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subject areas, offering a doctoral colloquium and monthly research colloquium that provide more intense training and interactions for doctoral students in the areas of digital libraries, knowledge management, and information retrieval.1 The aim of the doctoral programme in Information Studies and Interactive Media at Tampere University in Finland, as one of the three doctoral programmes in information science that are offered by the School of Information Sciences since 2012, is to prepare students for operations in the specialized fields of information and interactive media research by developing concepts, methods, and systems that enable information to be easily accessible and understandable by those who need it. The research focus areas are information retrieval, information seeking, and information and document management. The doctoral education is founded on the sustained and domestically and internationally recognized teaching and research carried out in the field of information studies and interactive media.2 The Royal School of Library and Information Science in Copenhagen designed its programme as a three year fixed-term research position. Other students are obliged to pay tuition fees. The length of the PhD programme is three years (equivalent to 180 ECTS points). Included in the programme is a sequence of courses and seminars equivalent to a maximum of six months’ student workload (30 ECTS) and a communication and dissemination of findings sequence as well as related work corresponding to a maximum of six months’ student workload (30 ECTS). The rest of the study period is earmarked for the PhD scholar’s own work with a PhD project, which should result in a doctoral dissertation. Thus, the dissertation part of the programme is equal to a minimum of two years’ independent and self-directed work with the PhD project. That means a full study load for two academic years (120 ECTS). These three examples are given just to reflect different approaches and intentions to harmonize students’ work load. The content of these programmes, and others that could be found on websites, differ and reflect the research interests among the staff or funded projects.

1 http://www.ibi.hu-berlin.de/de, accessed on 14 December 2015. 2 http://www.uta.fi/sis/en/doctoral_studies.html, accessed on 14 December 2015.



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The Croatian Tradition and the Changes at the Doctorate Level in the Field of the Information Sciences Although the information sciences were recognized as an interdisciplinary field of the social sciences and humanities by the decision of the University of Zagreb’s Council in 1983, its origins can be traced to the beginning of the 1960s when considering the establishment of postgraduate study in Documentation and Special Librarianship in 1961 at the Faculty for Science and Mathematics in Zagreb and at the Referral Centre (later known as the Centre for Study in Librarianship, Documentation and Information Sciences – CSLDIS) at the University of Zagreb in 1967 (Pehar and Aparac-Jelušić 2012). This formed the basis of what was later known as the “Zagreb school in IS”. In 1976, the first undergraduate programme was established at the University of Zagreb and, with the experience from the master’s programme at CSLDIS, both university-based programmes contributed to the development of the LIS/IS field into a systematic and formal academic area, and to the formal integration of information science into existing academic structures. The postgraduate programme continued to offer courses in a wider area of information studies, and students were awarded the academic title of Master of Information Sciences. The programme ran until the academic year of 1979/1980, when the last generation of postgraduate students enrolled (Bauer 1980). At the beginning of 1980, a new body took responsibility for the PhD in IS, the Scientific Council for Information Sciences at the University of Zagreb. In 1977, eight doctoral theses in information science were defended and among them was the thesis of Eva Verona (Kritovac 1991), one of the world-renowned experts in cataloguing, who influenced generations of ex-Yugoslav librarians and PhD students. After a four-year pause in 1985, the University of Zagreb founded a doctoral programme entitled “Joint Study of Information Science”, with courses in Archival Studies, Library Science, Museology, Information Systems and Communicology, to be carried out at the Faculty of Organization and Informatics in Varaždin until 1987, when Varaždin’s faculty was granted the permission to award doctoral degrees in the field of information science. In 1990, the Faculty of Philosophy in Zagreb received accreditation to award doctoral degrees in the field of information science and, in the academic year 1993/1994, the Department of Information Sciences established a postgraduate study entitled “Knowledge Organization and Theory of Heritage”. In 2009, the Department of Information Sciences at the University of Zadar became the third academic institution in Croatia to organize a PhD programme and award degrees in information sciences and interdisciplinary humanistic sciences. According to the data collected by Đ. Pečarić (2011), there

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were 136 doctoral theses in Information Sciences defended in Croatia between 1977 and 2007 at the University of Zagreb. From 2008 until 2014, there were 25 doctoral theses defended at the University of Zagreb and 7 at the newly established PhD programme in Zadar (data collected from HKD Novosti, newsletter of the Croatian Librarians Association).3 In other ex-Yugoslavia countries (universities in Beograd and Sarajevo), it was possible to complete a doctorate on the basis of the acknowledgment of one’s research papers; a formal doctoral education at these two universities, and at the University of Ljubljana, began at a later date in 2010. According to IFLA’s World Guide in Library, Archive and Information Science Education (Schniederjürgen 2007), in these regions, doctoral courses in LIS are offered nowadays by the following Higher Education Institutions: –– two universities in Bosnia and Herzegovina (the University of Sarajevo offered doctorates in the Library Sciences since the 1980s, and the University of East Sarajevo offers a PhD programme with a goal to “provide students with knowledge of the main topics of literature as well as with skills in librarianship and informatics”, although some data for Sarajevo universities is wrongly presented in the guide); –– the University of Belgrade, Department of Philology, offers a doctoral degree in Library Science; –– the University of Ljubljana offers an interdisciplinary doctoral programme in the Social Sciences and Humanities in which one can gain a doctorate in LIS/IS, and –– two Croatian universities offer programmes: the University of Zagreb, which has a doctoral programme in the information sciences at the Faculty of Philosophy, at the Faculty of Organization, and in the information sciences at the city of Varaždin, and the University of Zadar which started its PhD programme in 2009. If one should survey the structure and content of these studies on more than how these studies are organized, noticeable differences will appear, especially in the stance towards library science (Sarajevo and Belgrade) and information science (Ljubljana and Croatian Universities). The doctoral study at the Faculty of Philosophy in Zagreb was restructured in 2010 following the idea of a wide array of compulsory and elective courses from the field of information and communication sciences. The courses of Information Systems and Informatology, Library, Archival and Document Studies, Museology, Communications, Public Relations, Mass Media, Journalism, Lexicography, Ency3 http://www.hkdrustvo.hr/hkdnovosti, accessed on 14 April 2016.



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clopedia Studies, and the Organization of Knowledge form the basic structure of the programme. Students can select elective courses offered by other postgraduate studies at the Faculty of Philosophy and at the faculties of other universities in Croatia and Europe. A supervisor provides the student with direction by offering cooperation in research projects. A student’s work is evaluated through published research papers and participation in scientific congresses (Vodič 2012). According to the strategic vision of development, as expressed in the document Information and Communication Technology in the Strategy of Development of the Republic of Croatia (Budin et al. 2001), the rate of growth of the gross national product per capita correlates highly with the level of education and the state’s investment in education, as technology can be used for economic growth only if there is an educated work force available. Thus, following closely the recommendations of the EUA and EHEA, and actively participating in EU projects that aim at the modernization of third-cycle education, the Croatian doctoral programmes are directed towards a more considerable contribution to the national economy. Unfortunately, the economic situation at the moment is not promising and the decision about the best economic model to support doctoral students has not been reached yet. The number of students willing to cover their study costs on their own is diminishing, as is the number of future students in general. Thus, there is one more reason to closely connect doctoral studies with research projects.

The PhD Programme in IS at the University of Zadar Once the undergraduate and graduate LIS programmes were accredited in 2005, a new doctoral programme in information science, and other interdisciplinary studies related to the information phenomena, began to take shape at the University of Zadar. The approach taken was based on the notion that doctoral students should actively participate in accepted research projects led by their supervisors, or in projects in which their supervisors participate as researchers. The doctoral programme initiated at the Department of Information Sciences at the University of Zadar relies on five research projects which explore the organization, preservation and use of written heritage; the identification and interpretation of digitized medieval texts; the reception of texts; reader habits; information user behaviour; and new paradigms in publishing. Following strategic statements from the document titled Hrvatska u 21. stoljeću (Government of Croatia 2003), the PhD programme, “Knowledge Society

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and Information Transfer”, offered by the Department of Information Sciences at the University of Zadar, is based on the view that future experts will be able to contribute to: –– the quality of scientific and research work in the area of information science, with a special regard to the investigations of cultural heritage phenomena and publishing; digitalization; the preservation and representation of written heritage which originated in Central and South Europe; as well as different user studies and the investigation of reading habits and information needs; –– the quality of education at the academic level, the increase in the annual rate of professionals educated for information mediation, and the application of new technology in culture, education and science; –– the improvement of the educational process through the optimal usage of ICT and long distance education (DE) programmes. Due to changes in European higher education (the Bologna process), increasing demands for excellence in teaching, the expansion of scientific research in the field of information science as well as the growing need for interdisciplinary research (in which the segment of processing, transfer, usage and the preservation of information are extremely important), the authors of the programme recognized a growing need for a larger number of people with PhD degrees in the field of social sciences and information science in particular, as well as in the interdisciplinary humanistic studies (e.g. the digital humanities). In order to become a valuable partner at the European level, all Croatian universities should pay more attention to ICT and prepare a generation of future professionals and researchers that should be able to expertly manage changes in higher education and research work in the wide area of information studies. The approach taken by the University of Zadar in the design of the new PhD programme was therefore based upon the following objectives: –– initiate collaborative, scientific and research projects that engage teachers from different departments/faculties/universities. These projects should encourage interdisciplinary research on information phenomena, particularly those connected with heritage preservation and promotion, library and information science, publishing and bookselling, information usage and needs, information literacy, information habits and retrieval; –– provide opportunities for systematic education of university teaching and research staff capable of initiating and carrying out study programmes at the undergraduate and graduate level, since it was evident that there was a need for more research staff with the appropriate scientific and research degrees and titles;



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–– build up prerequisites for the University of Zadar and the University of Osijek as a principal partner that will enable them to become strong regional centres for interdisciplinary research. The institutional strategy of the doctoral programme is based upon the idea that partner universities should achieve important objectives such as: –– following the priorities of scientific research (especially in regards to national cultural identity as expressed in the strategic documents and calls for research proposals by the national research foundations in Croatia and Slovenia); –– systematically exploring citizens’ information needs and habits in modern society, with a goal of contributing to a stronger role of national cultures in the development of a global, and especially, a European information infrastructure; –– systematically exploring changes in management of publishing and bookselling, as well as provide the basic framework for an advanced study of the issues and phenomena related to e-learning and the management of educational information systems. One of the PhD programme’s objectives is to offer students the necessary knowledge and skills connected to interdisciplinary, organized research projects that deal with the origin, organization, preservation and usage of written heritage, especially in regard to the influence of new technology on the development of digital humanities. The Joint Graduate Programme in Digitalization of Cultural Heritage (organized by the Department of Information Sciences in Zadar and in Osijek), which resulted from a project financed by the Croatian National Science Foundation, has provoked great interest among students to continue their research in this particular field of study (Aparac-Jelušić 2007). The programme also aims to encourage critical thinking and provide the prerequisites for successful and responsible scientific work in the field of information science in line with the highest professional and ethical standards in scientific work. Following this objective, the summer schools have been organized every year since 2009 for PhD students not only from Zadar, but also from the PhD programme in Medieval Studies in Zagreb, Information Sciences in Ljubljana, and students from Graz, Ljubljana, Prague, Split, Rijeka, and several other universities.

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The Structure and Delivery of the PhD Programme In line with the expected development of the Department of Information Sciences in Zadar, especially in relation to the expected increase in the number of faculty, the new PhD programme had envisioned that it would enrol a higher number of PhD students in the first two cohorts: 22 in the academic year 2008/2009 and 18 in 2010/2011. Until 2010, it was possible to employ two researchers/research assistants every year, thus the number of employees rose from 2 to 15 between 2004 and 2010. From 2013, the number of students was not higher than 8 per year, and 10 doctoral dissertations and 24 synopses of doctoral theses were defended through 2015. The structure of the PhD programme at the beginning was based upon the idea of three compulsory courses (“Theory of Information Sciences”, “Methodology in Social Studies”, and “Theory of Information Retrieval”, which was later replaced by “Theory of Information Organization”), one module to be chosen between three offered (the so-called “Heritage module”, “User Studies module” or “Publishing module”), and a certain number of elective courses depending upon the number of ECTS acquired through published papers. In line with the planned development of departments in Zadar, Osijek, and Ljubljana, this programme is set up in such a way that, through the selection of offered elective courses, a new module could be developed and offered once the new research projects are approved and legal conditions are met (for example, research related to philosophical views of the digital age, or the pedagogical and psychological aspects of e-education). The doctoral postgraduate programme has been organized so that it adheres to the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS). It consists of four subject areas: –– theoretical-methodological courses: these, as a rule, should be taken during the first semester in the first year of study. Students are required to obtain 30 credits from this subject area. The aim of these courses is to introduce students to research methods in the social sciences, to ethical issues in research, especially in relation to scientific communication in a networked environment, the theory of information science, the theory of information retrieval, and research procedures in particular research areas; –– elective module courses and other elective courses: students select these courses according to their research interests, and the courses are expected to equip them with the knowledge necessary for the preparation and completion of a doctorate thesis. Students are required to obtain a minimum of 20 credits from elective module courses during the second semester, a minimum of 10 credits and a maximum of 20 credits from other elective courses during



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the third semester. A certain number of credits can be obtained from active participation in summer schools (4 to 10 ECTS); –– work with a supervisor: the aim here is to discuss and elaborate issues regarding scientific knowledge and problems in particular research areas, which will lead students to a final selection and preparation of a written proposal of their doctoral thesis. This work must broaden students’ knowledge and enable them to understand the contemporary works of research in their field of interest. Students are required to obtain 30 credits for their work with a supervisor and prepare a public presentation of their thesis proposal, as well as a minimum of 20 and a maximum of 30 credits for extra-curricular research activities; –– independent research under supervision: this encompasses research activity that should result in the submission of the doctoral thesis (deadline for its submission is prescribed by law). This carries 60 credits. Needless to say, researchers, and supervisors in particular, help students to become well prepared for scientific research and teaching work in the field of the social sciences, with an emphasis on the phenomena linked to the ‘knowledge society.’ Students are also expected to understand and critically evaluate the relevant literature from their field of interest and to master the skills necessary to solve the research questions they face. Students are expected to independently conduct research projects to be successful in their academic and research work. By following the statement that “in an academic setting, mentoring requires that a senior faculty member be willing to take the time to listen and provide direction to students and/or junior faculty members” (Ugrin, Odom and Pearson 2008, 343), special attention is given to the system of supervision and systematic work with students, which, when viewed historically, was never a strong characteristic of the universities of Central Europe. Students needed to overcome obstacles when learning a scientific method on their own, also preparing their dissertations on their own or working with one professor only. This was emphasised in the document known as the Salzburg II Recommendations (EUA 2010): “The European tradition of the Doctorate – as the production of a piece of original research under the supervision of one professor, with very little emphasis on taught courses – has been increasingly questioned in recent years”. It is a well-known fact, and research has also confirmed, that “mentoring can be a rewarding, sometimes frustrating, and a time consuming process” (Ugrin, Odom and Pearson 2008, 343). The new programme has implemented strict criteria regarding the work of both students and supervisors; yet assistant professors were also given the right to supervise if an associate or full professor would act as a co-supervisor. The dissertation process formally begins with a public pre-

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sentation and defense of a proposal and culminates in the public presentation, defense, and submission of the dissertation itself. Since it was envisioned that the programme should enable the assessment of the students’ workload and their research, the courses were grouped into two basic categories: research and learning within the programme, and research and learning outside of it (e.g., published research papers, active participation in summer schools, etc.). Upon the completion of the programme, students are expected to continue, if they wish, their education in Croatia and abroad (scholarships within EU funded programmes, Fulbright, German Academic Exchange Service – DAAD, etc.). They are also encouraged to find employment as research associates at various higher education institutions and research institutes that are in constant need of educated research scholars, as well as positions that include planning, management, and the evaluation of information systems and networks in national and regional information institutions, offices of national and local government, state archives, national libraries, museum documentation centres, and research and university computer centres. After five years of its accreditation, the PhD programme was evaluated and highly marked by students and faculty. Following their comments and suggestions, minor revisions of the programme were made and the second phase of the improvement has just started. The intention is to modify only the approach to modules to enable more flexible offering of the content and research skills through summers schools and a stronger mentoring process. Also, the revision will follow the EUA and EHEA documents, and national legal framework and recommendations that now allow a form that will offer more responsibility and formal ties to partner universities.

Conclusion The EUA and EHEA documents report on the changes brought to PhD education in approximately the past six years. Universities that offer doctoral programmes focus on the need to embed such programmes at an institutional level by creating adequate structures, such as doctoral/research or graduate schools, and by introducing more thorough courses and summer schools. This is done with an aim to provide a dynamic research environment and create reliable quality standards for supervision and support. A number of new doctoral programmes are based on the vision that future PhDs in the information sciences should be capable of contributing to the quality



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of scientific and research work not only in the area of information science, but in other research fields where skilled people could encourage other scientists to use valuable information sources, help in deepening their information literacy skills, and contribute towards processes of scientific work evaluation. The increase in the annual rate of professionals educated for research and teaching in mediation of information, and the application of new technology in culture, education and science are important measures of the quality of the educational processes at the academic level. Another important aspect of the programme elaborated in this paper is its interconnectedness with research projects carried out in the field of information sciences undertaken by professors from the Department of IS and other departments in Zadar, such as Sociology, Psychology, Ethnology, Linguistics, and Art History. There are also several projects carried out by professors from the Department of Information Sciences in Osijek and the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana, as well as from partner institutions at Rutgers and UCLA (US), memory institutions (e.g. Croatian Academy of Arts and Sciences, National and University Library, university and monastery archives and libraries), research institutes (such as Institut Ruđer Boškovic), as well as for-profit (e.g. publishing houses, bookshops), and non-profit institutions (e.g. Croatian Academic and Research Network – CARNet, University Computer Centre – SRCE, Academic and Research Network of Slovenia – ARNES, Institute for Information, Science, Maribor – IZUM). These research projects are basically interdisciplinary and interconnected with the philosophy of information, information ethics, the economy of books and publishing, technology, sociology, communication science, computer sciences, etc. Projects, such as the Postgraduate Programme for Publishers (Oxford Brookes, Ljubljana), the European Joint Master Programme for Digital Libraries and Learning (Parma, Oslo and Tallinn) and the Joint Graduate Programme “Digitization of Cultural Heritage” (Zadar and Osijek) were/are supported by EU funds (Minerva, Erasmus) and the Croatian National Science Foundation, and were a valuable base for the further development of joint studies at the graduate and postgraduate level, as well as for the planned inception of the regional centre of excellence for the study of written heritage with origins in Central and South Europe. The Department of Information Sciences, University of Zadar, as the initiator and leader of the doctoral programme “Knowledge Society and Information Transfer”, has developed a fertile co-operation with reputable university teachers from the International Conference Libraries in the Digital Age (LIDA) and several summers schools that have been attracting distinguished lecturers, researchers and PhD students from the country and abroad.

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Five years after it was put into practice, the doctoral programme went through several minor changes based on some problems that were observed and some suggestions expressed by students. An example of this is that students must take two, rather than three courses in theory and methodology, whose objective is to master the theoretical and methodological knowledge needed for scientific and research work in the area of information science and humanities and to foster the development of independent scientific work by participants. It should be pointed out that this doctoral programme is an appropriate framework for further efforts to strengthen the scientific, teaching and research core in the field of information science in this region. Competent experts, lecturers at higher education institutions and researchers can be educated only on the basis of a clear developmental strategy of professional and scientific staff that will be capable of promoting ideas and mediating the information necessary for the development of a knowledge society and the application of ICT in culture, education, science and other fields.

References Abdullahi, Ismail, Leif Kajberg and Sirje Virkus. 2007. “Internationalization of LIS Education in Europe and North America.” New Library World 108(1/2): 7–24. Aparac-Jelušić, Tatjana. 2007. “Interdisciplinarni diplomski studij u polju informacijskih znanosti: digitalizacija pisane baštine.” (Interdisciplinary Graduate Study in Information Sciences: Joint Programme: Digitization of Written Heritage). In Združeni studiji, edited by Pero Lučin and Melita Kovačević, 19–32. Rijeka: NZZ. Åström, Fredrik. 2008. “Formalizing a Discipline: The Institutionalization of Library and Information Science Research in the Nordic Countries.” Journal of Documentation 64(5): 721–737. Bauer, Antun. 1980. “In Memoriam Boži Težaku.” Informatologia Yugoslavica 12(3/4): 13–15. Bergen Communiqué. 2005. “Bergen Communiqué: the European Higher Education Area: Achieving the goals.” http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/Declarations/Bergen_ Communique1.pdf. Accessed on 21 March 2014. Budin, Leo, Marija Bajica, Antun Carić, Vlatko Čerić, Vlado Glavinić, Ignac Lovrek, Robert Manger and Srebrenka Ursić. 2001. “Information and Communication Technology in the Strategy of the development of the Republic of Croatia.” http://www.cu.ipv6tf.org/casos/ strategy.pdf. Accessed on 19 April 2014. Christensen, Kristi Koch. 2005. “Bologna Seminar Doctoral Programmes for the European Knowledge Society.” http://eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/Salzburg_Report_ final.1129817011146.pdf. Accessed on 21 March 2014, European High Education Area (EHEA). 2009. “Bologna Process: European Higher Education Area: History.” http://www.ehea.info/article-details.aspx?ArticleId=3. Accessed on 30 March 2015.



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European University Association (EUA). 2009. “Home: EUA Council for Doctoral Education.” http://archive.eua.be/cde/Home.aspx. Accessed on 12 January 2016. European University Association (EUA). 2010. “Salzburg II Recommendations: European Universities’ Achievements Since 2005 in Implementing the Salzburg Principles.” http:// www.eua.be/Libraries/Publications_homepage_list/Salzburg_II_Recommendations.sflb. ashx. Accessed on 20 March 2014. Golde, Chris M. and Timothy M. Dore. 2001. At Cross Purposes: What the Experiences of Today’s Doctoral Students Reveal about Doctoral Education. Philadelphia: Pew Charitable Trusts. Government of Croatia. 2003. “Hrvatska u 21. stoljeću.” (Croatia in the 21st century). http:// www.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeno/2003/1429.htm. Accessed on 19 March 2014. Hartnett, Rodney T. and Joseph Katz. 1977. “The Education of Graduate Students.” The Journal of Higher Education 48(6): 646–664. Hurt, C. D. 1992. “The Future of Library Science in Higher Education: A Crossroads for Library Science and Librarianship.” Advances in Librarianship 16: 153–181. Kritovac, Dubravka. 1991. “Doktorske disertacije iz informacijskih i srodnih znanosti na Sveučilištu u Zagrebu: 1972–1990.” (Doctoral dissertations in information and related sciences at the University of Zagreb: 1972–1990). Informatologia 23(3): 129–134. London Communiqué. 2007. “London Communique: Towards the European Higher Education Area: Responding to Challenges in a Globalised World.” http://www.ond.vlaanderen. be/hogeronderwijs/bologna/documents/MDC/London_Communique18May2007.pdf. Accessed on 30 March 2015. MacDougall, Jennifer and J. Michael Brittain. 1993. “Library and Information Science education in the United Kingdom.” Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 28: 361–390. Mezick, Elizabeth and Michael E.D. Koenig. 2008. “Education for Information Science.” Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 42: 593–624. Pehar, Franjo and Tatjana Aparac-Jelušić. 2012. “On the Origins and Development of Information Sciences as an Academic and Research Field in Croatia.” In International Perspectives on the History of Information Science and Technology, edited by Toni Carbo and Trudi Bellardo Hahn, 74–82. Medford: Information Today. Pečarić, Ðilda. 2008. “Development of Information Sciences in Croatia. Bibliometric Analysis of Doctoral Dissertations in Information Sciences from 1978 to 2009” (doctoral dissertation, Saarbrücken). Schniederjürgen, Axel, ed. 2007. World Guide to Library, Archive and Information Science Education, 3rd revised edition. Munich: K.G. Saur. Sugimoto, Cassidy R., Terrell G. Russell and Sheryl Grant. 2009. “Library and Information Science Doctoral Education: The Landscape from 1930–2007.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 50(3): 190–202. Ugrin, Joseph C., Marcus D. Odom and J. Michael Pearson. 2008. “Exploring the Importance of Mentoring for New Scholars: A Social Exchange Perspective”. Journal of Information Systems Education 19(3): 343–350. Vodič. 2012. “Vodič kroz poslijediplomski doktorski studij informacijskih i komunikacijskih znanosti.” Zagreb: Filozofski fakultet. Odsjek za informacijske znanosti. http://www. ffzg.unizg.hr/infoz/hr/images/stories/poslijediplomski/brosura%20pds%20ik%20 znanosti%20ffzg.pdf. Accessed on 21 March 2014.

Aleksandra Vranes, Ljiljana Marković and Aleksandar Jerkov

5 Library and Information Science Education and Training in Serbia Introduction The digital age that we are currently living in has brought change and rapid development to Library and Information Science (LIS) education. One result of this phenomenon is the need for new pedagogical and didactic concepts and approaches, which clearly requires curricula revisions. Bearing in mind the importance and positive impact of digital technologies on learning outcomes of university students, Serbian universities are increasingly implementing information and communication technologies (ICT) in the teaching process. The Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade, as an educational institution marking two hundred years of tradition in higher education and boasting a wide range of educational, cultural and scientific interests and activities, currently offering the study of 34 languages, cultures and literatures, has recognized the need to contribute to the modernization and further development of the library and information science education and training in Serbia. Due to the fact that digital information and communication technologies have introduced into the sphere of higher education a new understanding of learning, teaching and education in general, and considering that universities have always been carriers of innovations, it became obvious to us that a change in the educational system is inevitable. Therefore, the Faculty of Philology continues to strive to incorporate into its study programmes the contents that will enable the further development of the necessary ICT competencies of our current and future students. We believe that we have created flexible curricula that provide our students with complex interdisciplinary knowledge and skills, encourage a high level of inventiveness, and result in the acquisition of interdisciplinary competencies essential in order to live and work in modern society, while primarily focusing on multilingualism, communication and presentation of culture, basic knowledge of programming and web administration, database analysis, media and information literacy, digital culture, editorial skills, etc. The education and training of library and information science staff started in Serbia at the university level in 1963, when the Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade founded the Department of Library Science, and it was during that academic year that the first regular four-year librarianship study programme was organized in Serbia. In accordance with the higher education



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reforms of 1978, which led to the modernization of the teaching process, librarianship studies were established as a four-semester interdisciplinary programme where students could listen to lectures on library organization, system catalogues, bibliographies and scientific information, as well as on the history of books and libraries. Within the elective courses, which were offered to students in addition to the compulsory courses in the period from 1988/89 to 1990/91, there was a two-semester course Foundations of Library and Information Science. Since 1990, the Department for Library and Information Science was introduced within the Centre for Graduate, Postgraduate and Doctoral studies at the Faculty of Philology. The following major reorganization of teaching began with the acceptance of the Bologna Process at the University of Belgrade, when the first generation of students enrolled in the new programme during the academic year 2006/2007. So far, 498 library and information science professionals have graduated at this department, 101 students have completed master’s studies in Library and Information Science, while 33 students have finished our integrated study programme Language, Literature, Culture. At this time, we intend to foster an innovation in education within our Library and Information Science Department, by introducing new ICT skills and knowledge into our reformed curricula, thus enabling our students to respond appropriately to the labour market and societal needs. The Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade, with its Department for Library and Information Science, contributes to the development process of continuing education by organizing various seminars and conferences, while realizing its projects in collaboration with the University Library “Svetozar Marković”, which represents its teaching base. The main aim of this department, the only one of this kind in Serbia, is to improve the teaching-research process in the mentioned area and encourage its involvement in cultural studies. This aim is achieved by expanding the field to archival science, museology, publishing, book-selling, and information and media literacy. This will enable the acquisition of necessary professional competencies and a higher rate of expert competitiveness on the labour market. The Department for Library and Information Science has initiated the digitization of printed and manuscript materials, indicating that the digital form of documents and the meticulous bibliographic data related to it, organized in developed normative files, provides both storage and the promotion of documentary-historical, scientific and cultural heritage, contributing to the development of a democracy of knowledge and reinforcing a reliance on distance learning. The concept of distance education, although it seems new, had its beginnings in the possibilities of massive duplication, in correspondence schools, through radio and television, and more recently

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through the internet; it has gained in quality through the process of a digitization of our cultural heritage.

Theoretical Framework On the one hand, libraries are the determining factor for the establishment of a national information infrastructure that can meet the requirements of the open, intellectually provocative market, as well as of a free and technologically advanced society. On the other hand, both the national being and the cultural identity of each nation are preserved through its national library records that built upon the library and information systems of the specific territory. Taking into consideration the fact that “the true nature of business (...) of the information” (Davidow and Malone 1992), its handling, storage, processing and distribution, are the basic requirements for each information profession. Librarianship and archive management can be regarded as specialized scientific disciplines that deal with the organization of knowledge and Knowledge Management. In line with theories of economic, political, social and cultural development (Barrington Moore Jr (Moore 1993), Alexander Gerschenkron (Gerschenkron 1962), W.W. Rostow (Rostow 1960), Henry Rosovsky (Ohkawa and Rosovsky 1973), Hofstede (Hofstede et al. 2010)), and of scientific revolutions and paradigm shifts (Thomas Kuhn (Kuhn 1996) and Rene Thom’s Theory of Catastrophes (Thom 1994)), the growth of national economies and cultures, especially of those pertaining to “late-comer” nations, could, in the present day and age, be viewed as highly dependent ones and correlated with the degree of development of knowledge organization and knowledge management, embodied in Library Science and Library Science Education, as its tool of dissemination throughout the economy, society and culture as a whole. Thus, the Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade has recognized the need to design, i.e. modernize, curricula for library and information science education and training, as this Faculty offers the only university programme in Library and Information Science in Serbia and aims at improving, amongst other things, the state of these professions in our country.



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An Historical Overview of Serbian Librarianship and the Current Library and Information System in Serbia The need for saving and lending written documents dates back to when they were first created and, although librarianship has developed with a dependence on other sciences, we should not ignore the fact that other scientific disciplines emerged from its own framework as well, such as the documentary and information sciences. Libraries and information systems of Serbia are based on the regulations, standards and recommendations of international organizations, such as IFLA and UNESCO. The international legal and professional documents were used to formulate local laws, and rules of procedure and conduct, as well as other enactments. Serbian librarianship mostly drew upon the experience and expertise of European (e.g., German and Russian) librarians in the second half of the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries, but later was influenced by the American theoretical school that established domination both on the basis of the prevalence of the English language and the expansion of its computer technology. Libraries in Serbia rank amongst the oldest in Europe. They were conceived eight centuries ago in monasteries (e.g., Hilandar, Mileševa, Matejča near Prilep, Žiča, Gračanica, Peć monastery, Krušedol, and Visoki Dečani), enriched in the spiritual lighthouses of the Middle Ages within churches (e.g., the Church of the Holy Apostles in Ras, 13th century) and the court (e.g., the ruling house of Nemanjić, despot Branković), and supplemented in public libraries and reading rooms, achieving all those characteristics in the 19th century that they retain to the present day. The twentieth century has brought the much-desired democratization of knowledge and rapid spread of public libraries, particularly after the end of World War II. The current Serbian library and information system rests upon 27 district libraries set up under the 1994 Law. They are grouped according to the following criteria: library register, cataloguing of library materials, technical assistance to libraries, supervision of the professional activities done at libraries, specialized training for librarians, requirements and conditions in order to work in libraries, as well as the recommendation of measures to promote library activities and their implementation. The most important institution in this regard is the National Library of Serbia,1 which on the one hand, supports the general process of decentraliza1 https://www.nb.rs/?change_lang=en, accessed on 30 July 2014.

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tion and on the other hand enables the preservation and promotion of the library and information system, including 2,486 libraries, 1,189 public libraries having 958 stationary and movable branches, 101 university libraries, 293 specialized libraries, and 1,175 school libraries. Situated in Belgrade as the National Library of the Serbian people, it was established in 1832, when it was given the right to store an obligatory copy of each publication printed on the territory defined by the law. Nowadays, it counts 4,500,000 library units, including 14 very valuable endowments and 25 independent collections. The National Library of Serbia is also a member of IFLA since 1973. Among other major libraries, we will mention the most important academic libraries of Serbia. The library of Matica Srpska,2 established in 1826 in Pesta and continuing its existence from 1864 onwards in Novi Sad, has 2,700,000 publications and is a centre of reference for all university libraries in Vojvodina. The University Library “Svetozar Marković”,3 with its origins in the library of the College, which existed in 1838, and the High School in 1864, is situated since 1926 in a building built by funds from the Carnegie Foundation. This library is of a general scientific nature: it contains 1,400,000 notebooks from all fields of human learning, 26 independent personal libraries, and a rich collection of master’s and doctoral dissertations written at universities in Serbia. The National and University Library “Ivo Andrić” that began as a district public library in 1944, is now an information and documentation centre of the University of Pristina, having about 1,000,000 library units. University libraries in Niš and Kragujevac complete the family of academic libraries in Serbia. After the establishment of many libraries in the 20th century, particularly after 1944, there was a need for making professional associations in order to follow the development of library science and to help with the process of the establishment and further development of libraries and mutual relations. Such efforts contributed to the creation of the Society of Librarians and associations for various types of libraries. This posed the need for the institutionalized education of an increasing number of highly qualified and fully competent librarians.

The Development of Library and Information Science Education in Serbia The beginning of library and information studies in Serbia dates back to the work of a three-year Secondary School for Librarians that was opened in 1948 in Bel2 http://www.bms.ns.ac.rs/bmseng101a.htm, accessed on 30 July 2014. 3 http://unilib.bg.ac.rs/eng/index2.php, accessed on 31 July 2014.



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grade. Its curriculum included twenty-one subjects, six of which were technical subjects related to librarianship. In 1950, it became a four-year school, completed by 31 cohorts of librarians before it was closed (Đorđević 1983). In the sixties, or more precisely in 1962, the higher education of library professionals was initiated. Specialized training reinvigorated the education of librarians, and the Faculty of Philology in Belgrade became the home of the Library Science major as a four-semester programme of an interdisciplinary character. Apart from the regular courses of study, it included lectures in the field of Library Affairs, Organization of Libraries, Catalogue Systems, Bibliography and Scientific Information, as well as History of Books and Libraries, during the third and fourth years of study. Such a form of education is acceptable and advisable in a period when one begins with the study, on the university level, of a scientific discipline that in many respects has the character of a subsidiary science. The disappearance of specialized education has had its positive and negative consequences. It is, perhaps, better to mention the negative one first that includes the elimination of the interdisciplinary quality of library studies. The first positive consequence has been the introduction of general educational subjects, which have comprised the elements of the history of writing, history of books and libraries, library economy, legal regulations, scientific information, bibliography and techniques of scientific work. The second and the most important consequence has been the establishment of the Department of Library and Information Science at the Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade.4 It admitted the first generation of students in 1991, developing simultaneously the first-degree studies lasting four years, and postgraduate ones, which include specialized studies lasting one year. The Faculty of Philology also offers MA studies lasting one year, as well as the three-year doctoral studies. Twenty-six cohorts at the undergraduate level of studies included 1,323 enrolled students, of which 498 students graduated from the Department of the Library and Information Science. In addition, 287 students were enrolled in master’s studies, so far eight cohorts in total, and 101 of them defended their master’s thesis successfully. This confirms the social need for the education of this kind of professionals and also affirms young people’s increased interest in this branch of science, as well as the scientific nature, vitality, justification, and flexibility of the curricula. Librarians who have graduated at the Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade have the opportunity to be mainly employed at the libraries within the country, while some of them, upon validating their diplomas, can begin their postgraduate studies or find employment abroad. 4 http://www.fil.bg.ac.rs/lang/sr/katedre/bibliotekarstvo-i-informatika/, accessed on 15 July 2014.

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General educational subjects, including the required study of two foreign languages during the four semesters of general linguistics, philosophy, culturology, psychology, and Serbian language and literature, have the purpose of providing general culture to librarians, for whom there has always been a claim to be universal professionals. The specialized subjects, examined in detail using foreign and domestic literature, are closely connected with the libraries in which one carries out the practice. Examination of seminar-exercise results, and work on current professional and scientific projects directed by the department’s professors, include ten fields of teaching. In the broadest sense, they could be defined as the history of writing, history of books and libraries, library affairs, catalogue and classification systems, historical and theoretical development of bibliography at national and international levels, development and characteristics of management and marketing, scientific information, information systems, computer linguistics, and the creation and use of databases. As for postgraduate studies, teaching is of a consultative character and it is based on the individual work of each candidate, whose average grade upon admission cannot be lower than eight at the undergraduate level. During their postgraduate studies, candidates take exams in Scientific Research Technique, Methodology of Research Work in Library Science, Informatics and in one of the optional subjects, depending on the candidate’s interest: History of Serbian Libraries, System of Scientific Informatics, or Archivistics and Bibliography. There are 60 students every year studying full-time in this programme, although our proposal regarding admission, which is also confirmed through an open competition, is to have 20 students financed from the budget and 20 partially self-financing ones. At the postgraduate level, there are five to ten candidates on the average. So far, 24 doctoral dissertations have been completed and defended at the Department, some of them by colleagues from Zagreb and Sarajevo, as well as from other university centres in the region.

Library Education and Training at the Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade The Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade strives for continuous improvement of library and information science education by developing curricula that include modern tendencies in the above-mentioned sciences. We intend to incorporate modern Information and Communication Technologies at the BA, MA, and PhD levels of study. This primarily refers to the courses held at our Department of Library and Information Science at the BA level of study,



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but also within the study programme Language, Literature, Culture (LLC)5 at all levels of study. The Faculty of Philology in Belgrade is fully aware of the fact that the status of library science is dependent on the successful creation of an educated, active, progressive, motivated, flexible and communicative librarian. Willing to educate efficient librarians and informationists, in accordance with modern trends in these scientific fields, the Faculty of Philology modernized its courses by focusing on library and information science education. The aim is also to align our library and information science curricula with the ones that have been successfully implemented at the most prestigious universities worldwide.

Information Science Education and Training at the Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade As the digital age imposed the need for librarians to be trained in order to work with modern digital technologies, as well as the necessity of digitizing library treasures and making them accessible by means of digital libraries, there have been an increasing number of information science subjects at the Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade. In 1986/1987 a meeting was held at the Faculty of Philology in order to confirm the appropriateness of librarianship studies at the university level, and the following conclusions regarding the information sciences subjects were made: that the information science courses should be transferred to the first years of studies and that the instructions for information science subjects should be carried out in cooperation with the colleagues from the Faculty of Mathematics. Under the old programme of the Library and Information Science Department of the Faculty of Philology in Belgrade (which was in force up to the 2005/06 academic year), there were four obligatory courses that exclusively dealt with the field of Information Science: Informatics I, II, III and IV. In order to modernize studies of library and information science, the Faculty of Philology designed entirely new programmes, which were implemented on two occasions (the first one lasted from 2006/07 until 2008/09 academic year and the second one, which is currently active, from 2009/10 until 2014/15 academic year). These new programmes introduced, in accordance with the Bologna principles (among others) the following elements in the information science courses: information literacy, internet and web technologies, programming, structure of information, databases and library information systems, multimedia documents, 5 http://www.fil.bg.ac.rs/lang/sr/nastava/master-akademske-studije/master-studijskiprogramme/, accessed on 16 July 2014.

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digital text, etc. We believe that we have given our students, by offering enriched courses within our Library and Information Science Department curricula, the opportunity of becoming not only librarians, but also future information and knowledge managers in the modern constellation of libraries, which are increasingly being digitized by means of modern ICT.

Language, Literature, Culture (LLC) Study Programme The modernization of teaching at the Faculty of Philology in Belgrade, initiated on the basis of the Bologna Process, and our interdisciplinary approach to studying contributed to the inclusion of the study of publishing, bookselling, media, information and communication literacy, museology and archival science in our undergraduate, master’s and doctoral programmes. Therefore, we have introduced the study of library science in the field of contemporary cultural studies offered at the doctoral level, under Language, Literature, Culture (LLC) study programme. We were guided by the idea that while students of the Library and Information Science Department can acquire basic profiling for their future profession by studying librarianship, we should also provide students of all other profiles the opportunity to choose subjects in this scientific area in order to improve their overall competitiveness in the field of culture. The Faculty of Philology in Belgrade has designed the study programme Language, Literature, Culture – LLC in order to encompass the observations of different cultures in multilateral dialogues, a wealth of disciplines and languages, modularity, interdisciplinarity and interculturality. This study programme, offered at the BA, MA, and PhD level of studies, consists of a very complex platform that enables more than 1,000 students to choose from more than 30 different languages, literatures and cultures. It is based on the mandatory choice of the main field of study, while offering multiple and flexible modularity through a wide range of diverse electives. The LLC study programme enables the creation of a solid curricular framework, provides the recognition of philology as a homogenous discipline within the humanities, and supports librarianship conceived and realized as a complex set of scientific disciplines that deal with the book and other media as carriers of information. While observing cultures in contact, it combines research and practice and promotes multilingualism and multiculturalism by creating intercultural bonds. The LLC study programme consists of four modules: language, literature, culture and librarianship. A wide range of courses is offered to students, while the only mandatory course at the MA level of studies is the Techniques of academic writing, since we felt that it was above all important to teach our future graduates



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about techniques of writing the thesis, taking into consideration the fact that the MA Thesis (as a final paper) is the ultimate task of these studies. At the PhD level, within the Language, Literature, Culture study programme, we have created several courses that aim to improve the status of library and information science education and training in Serbia. Some of them deepen the knowledge acquired during the master‘s studies, such as the course Libraries and Multiculturalism, while others emphasise other topics. These are: –– Libraries in Education; –– Librarianship and Bibliography; –– Publishing and Bookselling; –– Scientific Work in Archives; –– Libraries and Scholarly Communication; –– History of Libraries, Comparative Studies and Theory of Librarianship, and –– The Book – Traditional and Electronic.

The Digital Library of the Faculty of Philology, University of Belgrade The Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade created the Digital Library by digitizing the cultural heritage of its own collections first, which are the backbone of scientific thought in the fields of study of 34 languages, literatures and cultures, but also in the area of library, information and archival science. Professor Aleksandra Vranes, Dean of the Faculty of Philology, initiated and implemented this project of digitization, wherein 120,000 pages of extremely important materials were digitized and made absolutely searchable so far. This primarily refers to the prominent periodicals of the Faculty of Philology (Yearbook of the Department of Serbian Literature, Philology Review, Literature and Language, etc.), editions of doctoral dissertations defended at the Faculty of Philology, proceedings of international scientific conferences, monographs, anthologies and collections. The faculty has also digitized old and rare books at its disposal, as well as – what we are particularly proud of – the work of our Nobel Prize winner Ivo Andrić. This project is of paramount importance for both academics dealing with literary analysis and editors of critical editions, and we believe that it represents a direct and practical result of developed library and information studies at the Faculty of Philology of the University of Belgrade.

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Concluding Remarks In the 21st century, knowledge represents the primary form of capital harbored by humankind. The efficient organization of this vast and rapidly growing stock of capital, as well as the accompanying skills of Knowledge Management embodied in Library and Information sciences, form the solid stock of the state of the art of knowledge and research prerequisites and foundations in all areas of science, and they are therefore indispensable to each and every single work or research task. The university education of librarians, within such a milieu, assumes the central position in all fields of scientific and academic disciplines, as well as in any work or endeavour congenial to economic, cultural and social development, including the democratization and modernization of knowledge, especially in those countries which are currently en route to this development as “late, late-comers” in the 21st century. High-quality Library and Information Science education is, viewed in this broader development context, one of the vital development levers, upon which a successful transition from a pre-modern to a modern and swiftly developing society depends, and upon the quality and the outreach of which the successful and timely completion of the modernization process decisively rests.

References Davidow, William H. and Michael S. Malone. 1992. The Virtual Corporation – Structuring and Revitalizing the Corporation for the 21st Century. New York: Harper Business. Dean, John F. 2003. Digital Imaging and Conservation. New York: Cornell University. Đorđević, Ljubica. 1983. “Za dinamičnije obrazovanje i usavršavanje stručnih kadrova bibliotečno-informacionog sistema Srbjie.” Bibliotekar 35(1): 11–36. Gerschenkron, Alexander. 1962. Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Hofstede, Geert, Gert Jan Hofstede and Michael Minkov. 2010. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, 3rd edition. New York: McGraw Hill. Jurewicz, Lynn and Todd Cutler. 2003. High Tech, High Touch – Library Customer Service Through Technology. Chicago: American Library Association. Kuhn, Thomas S. 1996. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Moore, Barrington, Jr. 1993. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World. Boston: Beacon Press. Ohkawa, Kazushi and Henry Rosovsky. 1973. Japanese Economic Growth: Trend Acceleration in the Twentieth Century. Stanford: Stanford University Press.



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Rostow, W.W. 1960. The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thom, Rene. 1994. Structural Stability and Morphogenesis” Westview Press.

Section 2: Africa

Michael Seadle

Introduction It is striking that all three chapters about library education and training in Africa begin with the 1953 Seminar held in Ibadan, Nigeria, on “The Development of Public Libraries in Africa”. The timing was important, because the early 1950s were the tipping point between an African continent that consisted largely of European colonies and one with free and independent countries. All the chapters point to the legacy of the colonial past for African libraries. As Dione writes (p. 123): “Generally, in French colonies as well as in the Belgian empire, all professional librarians were generally European and trained in the Metropol”. This was true also for the English speaking colonies: “1953 Anglophone Africa had a certain amount of in-service training for work in libraries, but there was virtually no education for professional librarianship” (Sturges, Burnett and Dick, 104). This did not mean, however, that African librarianship was a blank slate ready for new ideas and new technologies. The colonial legacy had embedded conservative attitudes and a strong orientation toward paper, which the unreliability of local power supplies and network limitations likely enforced. A later exception in the 1990s were the mobile telephone networks, which grew quickly, offered some degree of reliability, and were sufficiently inexpensive for many people to afford. The social divisions were also a factor. Literacy was not universal, and the colonial legacy often emphasised publications in the languages of Europe rather than the indigenous languages, which exacerbated the social divisions and literacy problems, especially for public libraries, whose mission was to reach out to the community. The social divisions existed within the libraries as well. Sturges, Burnett and Dick write (p. 105): “The managers and professional librarians were European expatriates and the barriers between different categories and classes of library workers reflected the pattern in colonial society. African library clerks and assistants trained in this way were given hardly any serious responsibility and were offered no qualification.” The number of active library science programmes at African universities has grown. The first African member of the iSchools is Makerere University in Uganda, which, as Sturges et al. (p. 103) write “since the 1960s has carried the LIS flag in the region, sometimes under the most taxing conditions”. Anyone who remembers the regime of Idi Amin knows what an understatement this is. The good news for the library profession is that the number of programmes at universities has grown dramatically. Onuoha, Ukachi and Aina list 27 programmes in Nigeria alone. Dione lists 16 programmes in Francophone Africa, with only four countries having no programme at this time. This represents an enormous change

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in the 60 years since the Ibadan meeting. It takes time to create a profession in a continent where for all practical purposes the profession had no past, and it will take time before the infrastructure is in place to allow African libraries to engage fully with digital technology. Dione concludes with the need for post-graduate training. Onuoha, Ukachi and Aina write (p. 142) “... in the face of today’s technological advancement, there is need for library schools to reposition themselves for professional relevance...”. Sturges, Burnett and Dick (p. 119) emphasise the need for “staying in touch with local realities” while also “taking full advantage of global developments.” This will not be easy, but all three authors are hopeful that it can be done.

Paul Sturges, Peter Burnett and Archie Dick

6 Anglophone Africa: Ibadan Sixty Years on An Historical Survey and Review of Trends in African LIS Education

Introduction IFLA SET is celebrating 40 years with this volume, but to understand LIS education in Africa one needs a somewhat longer perspective. We suggest that it is necessary to look back just over sixty years to the historic Ibadan Seminar of 1953 on “The Development of Public Libraries in Africa”. Significantly, 1953 was also a relevant year in the history of IFLA, whose annual conference in Vienna initiated a fresh emphasis on library development in what was then generally referred to as the Third World. The Ibadan Seminar was convened by UNESCO, and the organization’s consistent intervention and influence at least in the first few decades with which we will deal was enormously significant. Amongst the seminar participants there were representatives from fifteen different African countries, including Kenya, Gold Coast (Ghana), Nigeria, Sierra Leone and South Africa. Although its primary concern was public libraries, the Seminar participants necessarily had a good deal to say about the education and training of librarians. Since that momentous gathering there has been massive change in African LIS education, and this chapter will attempt to capture its essential features. To tell the story in detail would require a substantial book. The history of African LIS education offers a rich mixture of themes which are not only of interest within the continent itself. Important themes that will be introduced and discussed in this chapter include the relationship between professional training and professional education; the indigenization of LIS education to replace the reliance on overseas scholarships; the search for cultural relevance in LIS curriculum design; the harmonization of curriculum across regions and globally; and the modernization agenda, with particular reference to information technology and the internet. However, the story continues. The questions that are raised mostly remain unresolved. African LIS education is still a work in progress. The countries with which we will deal are all in Southern Africa, Central and Eastern Africa and the Anglophone parts of West Africa. It is difficult, impossible the reader might say, to generalize as we will do across 15 or so countries that are often only connected in that they were mostly part of the British Empire. There is, however, a distinctive feature of the British colonial heritage that makes

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some generalization possible. This is a sense that among the attributes of a nation such as a flag and an anthem, a justice system and armed forces, a health service and an education system, there should also be libraries. A national commitment to libraries (however tentative and unconvincing this might have seemed at times) creates the need for personnel able to deliver services. We will outline the policy initiatives, guidance and assistance offered to address this need, chiefly by UNESCO in the first place, at Ibadan and in the decades after. We will then illustrate in slightly greater detail three more recent sources of significant input in the form of policy guidance (from IFLA), example and partnership (from South Africa), and support for curriculum development and staff development (from INASP).

Ibadan and after The Seminar took place from 27 July to 21 August 1953 at the new University College on the outskirts of Ibadan, and was part of a sequence of meetings on public libraries organized by UNESCO: in the UK 1948, Malmo, Sweden 1950, and São Paulo, Brazil 1951 (UNESCO 1954). There were three working groups at the Seminar and the third of these, led by Ahmed Omar from Egypt, dealt with Professional Training for Public Library Service. The recommendations of the Seminar included three (Nos. 14–16) that directly bore on library education. Essentially these called for the setting up of three library schools (serving English-, Frenchand Arabic-speaking countries) to provide high-level professional training for leaders; and the establishing of one year courses in institutions of higher education to train candidates for intermediate level posts. Only a few African institutions were providing library training and education around the time of the Ibadan Seminar. For a full and thorough account of these and later schools one might turn to Rosenberg (2000) but it is worth mentioning a few examples here. Some of the earliest initiatives in librarianship training were at Achimota in Ghana from 1945 onwards, and the University of the Gold Coast (later University of Ghana) has continued to be a leader. Another pioneering example is Kenya, where there were courses in practical librarianship in the early 1950s. In 1959 a school was established in Nigeria, appropriately at the University College in Ibadan (Aboyade 1983). The Carnegie Corporation donated $88,000 for this purpose. Other Nigerian schools followed at Ahmadu Bello, Zaria, Bayero, Kano, Maiduguri, Imo State, Etiti, Owerri and Nsukka, giving the country what might possibly be the biggest LIS education sector in Africa. Another prominent example is the East African School (EASLIS) at Makerere University in Uganda,



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which since the 1960s has carried the LIS flag in the region, sometimes under the most taxing conditions. Gradually, and in response to continuing demand for suitable personnel from employers, and prompted by discussion at conferences and seminars organized by international bodies, there were initiatives in more and more countries and a rather large number of university schools have been set up, for example in Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Kenya (with Moi University as a clear brand-leader), and elsewhere. The sector now contains too many competing programmes for them to be conveniently listed. Again, one of the most revealing initiatives came from UNESCO. Roberts (1986, 14) suggested that “Change in information education is central to eliminating the dependence syndrome and providing the impetus to direct future generations of information workers towards new service priorities more in line with Africa’s real needs.” This was the rationale for the establishment of a School of Information Studies for Africa (SISA) in 1990 at the University of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia. Ironically it failed to counter the dependence syndrome and by 2002, with UNESCO funds no longer flowing, it was reconstituted as the Department of Information Science of Addis Ababa University. During its short life SISA had arguably proved that there was no sustainable scope for a pan-African school, and the content of its teaching and research was certainly in no way more advanced than in many of the schools within national boundaries elsewhere in Africa. The new African LIS schools have generally aspired to teach for all levels of degree from Bachelor’s through to PhD but many retain Certificate and Diploma programmes. When looked at in detail, this represents considerable confusion over just what to teach and at what levels to offer the teaching. For instance, if we return to the Ibadan school: from 1960–1963 it prepared students for the (UK) Library Association’s examinations. It then began its own Diploma in 1963–1964 and by 1967 this was restricted to university graduates. In 1970–1971 it introduced a one year non-graduate Certificate, replaced in 1972–1973 by a two-year non-graduate Diploma. What we see in this process is a school, its creation inspired by the Seminar, struggling to find course structures and content that satisfied local need. What we do not have easy access to is evidence and testimony revealing what was happening in the schools. This will exist in informal and local publications, and in the stories of those who were involved, but fairly intensive research would be needed to pull it together. It is certainly beyond the scope of this chapter. In contrast, the public face of African LIS education has been seen in a bewilderingly long sequence of conferences, symposia, colloquia and other meetings, convened by various interested international bodies such as IFLA, FID, the Canadian agency CIDA, Swedish SIDA, and Germany’s DSE, some but not all of which receive passing attention in this chapter. However, the role of UNESCO was, as we have already noted, of central significance. In the years post-Ibadan,

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LIS education was debated, for instance at conferences in Nairobi and Enugu in 1963. A meeting of experts convened by UNESCO in Brazzaville Congo in 1976 called for “new regional [library] schools” supported by “a massive program of fellowships” for students. (UNESCO 1976) Soon afterwards there was a UNESCO regional training seminar at Dakar 1978. FID convened a conference on Problems of Identifying Training Needs for Library and Information Services in a Predominantly Non-literate Society at Ibadan University in 1981, and so on. To sum up trends from all of this discussion and the practical development that took place alongside, we must necessarily return to something that was said at Ibadan. This was the call for university programmes that would place their emphasis on encouraging students to examine problems and deduce principles rather than teaching specific techniques. These programmes would also convey “academic respectability” to the preparation of students for LIS employment. This effectively set a course which led to an African LIS educational structure providing for graduate professionals, non-graduate professionals and paraprofessionals (Ogunsheye 1974). At first this tended to mean non-graduate Diploma and Certificate courses provided by African institutions, and postgraduate courses (at first provided in Europe and to some extent in the United States). The point was that in 1953 Anglophone Africa had a certain amount of in-service training for work in libraries, but there was virtually no education for professional librarianship. It is impossible to state too strongly this vital distinction between training and education with which we will persist throughout this chapter. We describe the distinction as “vital”, not least because the terms “education” and “training” continue to be used in a loose and unconsidered way. Training means providing instruction in techniques, while education for LIS sets out to equip its graduates with ideas and principles which ensure they can quickly be trained in specific routines and almost immediately take on specialist and management roles. We will expand on this, and the problems that it has caused, not least for a LIS education that has a claim to be indigenous to Africa, in the next section.

Indigenizing Professional Training and Education Before discussing the problems associated with indigenization, it is necessary to expand on the two distinct aspects of training and the pattern of LIS education that can be found in most, if not all, Anglophone African countries. First there was the most basic form of training to work in a library, which took school leavers and drilled them in how to perform the most basic routines such as supervising



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reader behaviour, tidying and shelving, and the care and repair of books. The managers and professional librarians were European expatriates and the barriers between different categories and classes of library workers reflected the pattern in colonial society. African library clerks and assistants trained in this way were given hardly any serious responsibility and were offered no qualification. Secondly, as libraries grew and developed, college-level training opportunities began to be available to prepare local employees for slightly more demanding posts. Thus, in-service training might instruct someone in how to apply simple DDC class numbers, but a college course would probably explain some of the context for this and identify other classification systems. The brightest and most motivated of the assistants who had been trained on the job began to be offered opportunities for part-time study or places on college courses, typically to take a one year Certificate programme. Certificate programmes taught the systems used locally, with a certain amount of context. Another level was introduced to this as students with higher level school qualifications or a certain amount of experience and possession of a Certificate might be offered a Diploma course (usually two years). This provided rather more contextualizing content aimed at recruits at what was often referred to as paraprofessional level. Nevertheless, it was still essentially a training programme. This elaborate provision for different levels of training has arguably been the curse of both training and education in LIS in Africa. A body of experienced and often very thoroughly trained library workers, including paraprofessionals, was developed in virtually every Anglophone African country. Their talents were generally underused and promotion to higher grades was closed off. The response has not been to introduce promotion criteria based on experience and performance in the job, but to further multiply the levels at which LIS education is delivered so that individuals can meet qualification-based promotion criteria. Professional education at Bachelor’s and Master’s level was introduced from the 1970s onwards. A situation then emerged in which someone could conceivably enter library employment and train in-house for a year or two, after which Certificate-level study might follow and then a Diploma course. Some universities began to admit a few candidates with LIS Diplomas on to three- and four-year degree courses, and the route to a two year Master’s degree programme was then open. A successful holder of a Master’s degree would then be qualified to apply for a PhD programme. Although it might seem completely unlikely to anyone unfamiliar with the system, it is not hard to name senior LIS professionals who have been through three or more lengthy programmes of LIS training and education with a total duration of something like ten years. But we need to remember that for decades before this the chief means by which Africans studied to qualify for high-level posts was outside the continent.

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This was chiefly in the UK (for instance at the College of Librarianship Wales, and Loughborough University) with scholarships chiefly provided by the British Council. A number of institutions in the United States, and occasionally in other countries (Russia, Finland and Ukraine to give only three examples), played a part. Master’s programmes were the most common alternative, but some Africans took overseas Bachelor’s degrees, and the most able studied for PhD degrees. Newa (1990) summarizes the problems of overseas LIS education very effectively. The use of educational opportunities outside the continent provided a long-lasting theme for discussion in various forums. Natural doubts were raised about the relevance of European and North American LIS programmes to African circumstances. Logically following from these doubts there were calls for indigenization, in the sense of bringing education for librarianship home to the African continent. The burgeoning list of LIS education programmes in Africa answers the need for indigenization understood in this way. However, we should remember that the need to rationalize training has never been addressed to the same extent. What is more, there is another way to see the need for indigenization of LIS education: that is, the creation of programmes with local cultural relevance. Indeed, it is our contention that whilst the need for LIS education programmes in African countries with African teachers has been fully addressed, the question of African curriculum content has not. In the past African LIS schools had expatriate teachers and an imported curriculum. Now they have many African teachers educated overseas, textbooks written and published overseas, and worst of all, they display a limited willingness to question the paradigms embedded in this educational model. Put simply, indigenization has been a movement to reform an existing educational structure, rather than a principle that informs everything from structure through to curriculum content. A concern with cultural relevance might sometimes have been contained somewhere in the indigenization process, but not at its very heart.

Cultural Relevance and Harmonization of Curriculum 1984 can be seen as a pivotal year because of two initiatives: one towards cultural relevance in the curriculum and another towards international harmonization. Both were given shape by UNESCO, which in August of that year sponsored an IFLA pre-conference Seminar in Nairobi under the title “Education for Librarianship at the Grass Roots Level”. In October the very same agency also held an international symposium at which a group of experts drew up recommendations



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on harmonization. The possible contradiction between the two initiatives would always have been interesting, but their emergence in precisely the same year points up the countervailing pressures on African LIS curriculum particularly neatly. Did UNESCO not know what its right hand and its left hand were doing, or did it regard the two initiatives as compatible? Even if in hindsight it looks as if UNESCO was confused about the impact of its policy guidance, we could still imagine a rationale that reconciles cultural relevance and harmonization. This said, no one seems to have attempted a fully developed reconciliation of the two principles. As Bowden later put it, the objective of the Nairobi pre-conference was “to identify what needed to be taught to assist librarians to provide information and library services to extremely rural communities, as opposed to managing and administering public library services in urban centres” (Johnson et al. 1989, 9). Here we have the crux of the problem: Africa was and is still largely extremely rural. Globally librarianship as a profession has always found it easier to fit its services and procedures to urban circumstances. The typical problems of rural services such as distance, infrastructure (roads particularly), transport costs, literacy levels and relevance of content are only intensified in African circumstances. The problem of cultural relevance is not necessarily the most immediate of these concerns, but it is the most important. Such research as there is suggests that although the rural poor share many interests with their urban counterparts, they do have specific information needs (particularly for content relating to farming and other rural livelihoods). They also live and work in communities much more attached to traditional beliefs, influenced by traditional structures for the mediation of information and ideas, and the oral communication of information. At this time, there was virtually no literature that addressed the issue, with one notable exception being Aboyade’s (1982) pioneering paper that drew tentative conclusions from a small experimental information service in a Nigerian village. The Nairobi pre-conference was clear on the significance of service to the grass roots (IFLA 1985). Participants discussed the protection of the oral tradition of African culture at length. With this in mind they passed resolutions concerning the role of library and information workers in information flows and dissemination through sources other than the book. They identified the need not merely to support literacy programmes, but to assist the non-literate segment of the population with their information needs. A set of resolutions were passed which included several on training and education. In these they supported the extension of library services to everyone wherever they live, and called for flexible training and education programmes to update and refresh the knowledge that would equip library staff for this work. Their emphasis was very much on

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the library assistants and senior library assistants whom they envisaged as the providers of the frontline services to the public. They called for the writing and adaptation of relevant LIS textbooks, and evaluation of programmes for rural LIS services education so that they could be harmonized between countries. These important suggestions were supported by a set of very standard recommendations including: identification of a core LIS curriculum; measures to ensure LIS lecturers stayed in touch with practice; exchange programmes for LIS educators; joint research projects between LIS schools in Africa and other parts of the world; and standing conference of African LIS schools. Frankly these represent a loss of momentum after the initial identification of the specific problem of rural services. This was a major seminar on relevant LIS education that had quite simply failed to produce a fully articulated outline of what was needed for education of LIS professionals in rural services. There was however, at least one LIS school that placed cultural relevance high amongst its priorities. This was the Department of Library Studies, founded at the University of Botswana in 1979, under Professor Sam Kotei. He expressed the view that “the social determinants of the [African] region must be the bases for education and training”, quoting Mchombu that “There is a need to develop a new framework for an oralbased culture, a working-class, peasant population, where people live in rural areas” (Kotei 1983, 89). Mchombu himself has had a very distinguished career as researcher and teacher in both Botswana and Namibia which embodies precisely this intellectual struggle. At the same time, African LIS education has been heavily influenced by a seductive harmonization agenda that also goes back to 1984. The international symposium at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris on 8–12 October 1984, set out a plan for harmonization and after this, the importance of the idea seems to have been accepted with little question (UNESCO 1984). Interestingly, Bowden was also a spokesman for this (Johnson et al. 1989, 19), writing that “There was a consensus that a conscious effort should be made towards the realization of harmonization of education and training programmes” without having to rehearse the reasons why that should be the case. A harmonization agenda seeks to facilitate the movement of students between countries, the delivery of programmes across international boundaries and even the setting up of cross-border outposts of educational institutions. When talking of curriculum harmonization in LIS it is naturally normal to draw attention to the Bologna process in Europe which was initiated in 1999 to create an integrated European Higher Education Area. The process concentrates on the competencies expected to be found in learners graduating from a programme. The aim is to raise quality through “enhancing the international and intercultural dimension of teaching, research and higher education” (Tammaro 2014, 315).



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There is no doubt that a way such as this to raise quality levels in the programmes offered within a comparably homogenous cultural region like Europe is valuable. At the same time there is a danger inherent in adopting this concept in other regions, Africa particularly. Essentially the harmonization process prepares students for a trans-national labour market and as such it is inevitably a facilitator of the brain and skills drain from poorer countries. This sets up a seemingly insoluble dilemma. An institution owes it to its students to educate them to the highest possible standards, but if it does so it potentially removes them from the local labour market which is its first concern. If there is a solution it cannot be through programmes that compromise standards. Therefore it must be through equipping students with the highest level of competency for the specific needs of their own country and region. Cultural relevance can therefore be seen as the necessary counterweight to harmonization. Unfortunately, if there is to be a choice between international recognition and relevance to local circumstances the former is always likely to have the strongest appeal to students and lecturers.

The Modernization Agenda and African LIS Education By the 1980s, and 30 years on from Ibadan, the colonial period in Africa was effectively over, although South Africa was still isolated by apartheid and would be until the mid 1990s. At this time many African LIS curricula were still essentially print-related, despite attempts to help students understand information technology. Schools generally dealt with IT in lecture mode and were not equipped for hands-on experience. Book and library history topics were often prominent. Cataloguing and classification of a very conventional, but highly teachable, kind dominated curricula. There was also a disturbing lack of education in management (as opposed to the routines of library administration). This situation persisted, largely because of a lack of investment in programmes and their maintenance, and aspects of it are still apparent in LIS curricula. However, by the early 1980s it was becoming clear that there was a crying need for modernization in LIS education based on a response to the transformation of the total information world through information and communications technologies. Aboyade (1985, 9) in a presentation to FID’s 1984 Workshop on Curriculum Development in a Changing World in The Hague neatly encapsulated the rationale behind a modernization agenda. Modernization was needed to deal with the current realities of:

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1. the expanding sources of information; 2. the increase and complexity of information demands in society; 3. the modern and rapidly changing technologies to facilitate access. The realities identified by Aboyade placed obvious pressures on institutions in terms of programme structures and content. More importantly they created an underlying need for principles and procedures for the making, evaluating and sustaining of change. In a disturbing sense the realities identified by Aboyade were global first and African to a much more limited extent. The expanding sources of information included few that were generated in Africa. Furthermore, Africa’s citizens, including scientists, business people, politicians and administrators had learned not to expect access to them. Certainly Africa experienced powerful stirrings of information need, but the ways in which this need might be satisfied were unclear. Furthermore, right up until the turn of the millennium attempts to bring Africa up to speed with computer and Internet technology were frustrated by poor planning right through from institutional to national levels, and the painful inadequacy of all forms of infrastructure. New sources of inspiration and guidance were needed, but where would they come from? Such sources do exist and satisfyingly we can point in passing to an endogenous development that has revolutionized the African information scene since the turn of the millennium. This is the popular response to telecommunications deregulation, first through the massive take up of the mobile telephone, and then the ferment of innovative use of the technology by small businesses, individual entrepreneurs, informal developers and the users themselves. This has started to make a mark on the LIS literature, for example an early research study by Sturges and Harvey (2010), and it is beginning to influence LIS practice and education. However, we must recognize that innovation will not automatically translate itself into appropriate LIS education structures and content. For a particularly pungent and somewhat negative critique of the current status of the modernization agenda one could turn to Msafiri (2011). Research, ideas and models, and professional and academic debate are very much needed. Here we will deal with positive initiatives from three significant players that currently offer rather different contributions to a renewal process. These are IFLA and its programmes; South Africa’s professional example, research capacity and strong LIS education sector; and the work of external agencies, with International Network for the Availability of Scientific Publications (INASP) used as the exemplar.



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IFLA and its Programmes IFLA has been a source of powerful messages about LIS education during the years we are discussing here, but the strength of its contribution has grown in the second half of the period. Of course, the contribution of the Section on Education and Training (SET) and its predecessors has been central to this. First and foremost we have the “Standards for Library Schools” drafted by Guy Marco of Kent State University for what was then the IFLA Section of Library Schools and formally promulgated in 1976 (IFLA 1976). This was an extremely coherent and persuasive document. For their day the Standards were progressive and they retained much of their authority over the next 25 years. Since then they have gone through two further iterations, first in 2000, and more recently in 2012 (Smith Hallam and Ghosh. 2012). The Standards were explicitly a statement of principles designed to promote high quality LIS education. This led to what might now be seen as a certain basic ambiguity from the perspective of developing countries. Whilst stating that the differences between regions worked “to the disadvantage of library development” the Standards also embraced a principle of autonomy. According to this, “Each country should decide for itself what kinds of libraries and information specialists it needs” (IFLA 1976, 209). Effectively the LIS education planner was licensed either to treat difference as a hindrance or to encourage difference as an expression of autonomy. Such ambiguity was largely absent from the excellent advice that the Standards provided on the aims and objectives of the library school, its structure and financing, its accommodation, its library and its staff. On curriculum it was also clear and direct. LIS students should, for instance, be offered general education subjects to extend and strengthen their knowledge. Twelve core subject areas for the curriculum were set out, of which two that are open to question and one that is very positive deserve a word of comment. First, the curriculum should include ‘library’ management. Although this looks innocuous, it effectively points the teacher towards existing library administration routines, rather than the more dynamic management theory and practice that was already being taught in forward-looking library schools. Second, library history was to be offered as part of the core and although two out of three of the authors of this chapter have many years experience as researchers and teachers of library history they can see pitfalls in this. Modules on library history in the core have a tendency to reinforce in some students a preoccupation with the past as such rather than the lessons of the past. Thirdly, library automation was to be taught in the core. Given that progressive libraries had been automating for scarcely ten years at this time, this was a solid pointer to a forward-looking approach. There was no anticipation of the need to understand a virtual information environment,

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simply because that would have been a decade or two before its time. Despite the slight caveats expressed here and others that will emerge later in this section, no African library school would have suffered from using the Standards as developmental guidance. The 2000 revision as Guidelines for Professional Library/Information Educational Programs sought to move the focus of curriculum forwards from collection development to an engagement with the virtual information world. To this end it recast the recommendations on core curriculum in a list of ten elements, which normalized on the term ‘information,’ referring to information policy, generation, needs, transfer, organization, research application (to libraries), information management and information agency management, and evaluation of outcomes of information and library use. History is there but within an information environment element, which also includes policy and ethics. The curriculum is to be delivered with the support of appropriate library and IT resources, and access to the Internet. Once again there are clear and helpful messages that undoubtedly had the capacity to assist the modernization of African LIS schools. This said, the document retains the essential North American/European character of the 1976 Standards. It did not really speak directly to Africa. We would suggest, however, that the current 2012 version does talk very directly to those planning and delivering programmes in an African country. First of all it introduces the idea of programmes for a broader information sector including archives, museums and records management, and refers to the iSchool philosophy. On curriculum it makes the statement that “It is important that the core curriculum elements… include methods of the past as pathways to methods in a digitized environment; and embed indigenous knowledge and ways in the curriculum”. This is both illuminating (the past helps us come to terms with the future) and even a little revolutionary (indigenous knowledge matters). To the ten elements of core curriculum is added an eleventh: “Awareness of Indigenous Knowledge Paradigms”. Here we have the curriculum rendered culturally relevant in a simple phrase, which confirms IFLA SET’s reputation as a source of good guidance across the regions of the world. We should not however forget other messages relevant to LIS education from IFLA. The Continuing Professional Education Round Table (CPERT) has contributed in a series of conferences and proceedings volumes. For instance, papers by Jusu-Sherff and Jegede in an edited volume by Woolls (1993) translate the CPE concept into West African contexts, and show how LIS education programmes cannot by themselves guarantee a profession with the necessary up-to-date capabilities. ALP (IFLA’s Programme for the Advancement of Librarianship in the Third World) has argued that “Even in countries where library schools exist, the instruction given can be less than meaningful, being modeled after foreign, often



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conservative prototypes and of little use for contemporary or future librarianship in a Third World setting” (Bergdahl 1990, 17). To rectify this it has delivered a host of training programmes across the developing world, including Africa. IFLA’s contribution does not stop there. In a final example, the Freedom of Access to Information and Freedom of Expression (FAIFE) Core Activity has delivered workshops on health information across East Africa with strong implications for LIS curriculum content (Sturges 2009). All of this is helpful, but a source of good practice closer to home can help make it more real. South Africa offers just such a source.

South Africa and the African LIS Education Scene Early stirrings of South Africa’s engagement with African LIS education can actually be traced back to the segregation (1910–1948) and apartheid (1948–1994) periods. Notably, Douglas Varley and René Immelmann presented papers at the Ibadan Seminar. Immelmann’s paper (1954), “Establishing a library school”, was discussed extensively in the Final Report of the Seminar group that dealt with library training in Africa. Yet at the same time, some university LIS departments in South Africa during the 1950s and 1960s became increasingly tainted with racism. A cabal of senior professionals and educational leaders was associated with far-right and even fascist views. Under the guise of science, they applied their ideas to segregation in library services and to racist themes in the LIS curriculum (Dick 2001 and 2008). The South African Library Association (SALA), influenced by these leaders, pre-empted anticipated legislation that would introduce segregation in scientific and professional associations, and limited its membership to whites in November 1962. This led to the formation of a number of racially based library associations. Some of the SALA leaders’ protégés and students became influential library administrators and teachers at departments of librarianship, and perpetuated the apartheid ideology. Others became part of the apartheid censorship apparatus and even endorsed book burning (Dick 2004).There were LIS educators who advocated ideological neutrality or independent views, but these were few and far between. By the mid-1970s, apartheid legislation was beginning to impact all aspects of the lives of South Africans. Wider political developments led to engagement with African LIS education in cynical fashion when the National Party’s controversial policy of establishing independent homelands or ‘national states’ alienated the majority of South Africans from the land of their birth. These ethnicity-based ‘Bantustans’ were viewed as belonging to the rest of Africa. They were described

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in the library literature as independent African states. Accordingly, South African library cooperation with these “African states”, such as the Transkei and Bophuthatswana, were considered to be international library relations. Library education and training at university departments in these ‘national states,’ and at other universities established to serve apartheid’s ‘non-white’ ethnic groups, operated within an apartheid framework that dominated the library scene until the late 1980s. In some cases, the educational approach was inward-looking and advocated culturally conservative views of Africans (Manaka 1986). But at the same time an alternative approach began to emerge that would after 1994 allow South Africa’s extensive library infrastructure and its talented body of practising librarians and library educators to begin exerting a positive influence in a wider African region. This connected ideas of Africanization, citizenship, and an international outlook for libraries and librarianship that would shape professional training (Vermeulen 1989). This alternative approach became even more progressive in the activities of the Library and Information Workers Organization (LIWO), which was launched in 1990 and was, among other things, critical of the LIS curriculum. LIWO exchanged ideas with colleagues from other parts of the continent, and a series of Info Africa Nova conferences in Pretoria in the early 1990s provided a useful platform for promoting educational contacts (Stilwell 1993). LIWO was responsible for the influential National Education Policy Investigation for library and information services (NEPI-LIS) report, which stimulated significant changes in LIS education in a number of ways (Bell 2002). For example, the problem of too many departments of librarianship created by apartheid was addressed, and the articulation of library training at technicians with university-based education led to a more rational structure for LIS education. There was also a stronger emphasis on what was described as appropriate librarianship and information work. The Department of Librarianship at the University of Natal (now the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal – UKZN), for example, introduced a Development Librarianship module at the postgraduate level in the 1990s. Students were required to report on community service in rural areas, and there was a strong focus on school librarianship in remote areas. Collaboration with colleagues in Senegal on rural librarianship strengthened genuine African engagement, and eventually the UKZN Department of Librarianship’s course offerings attracted many African LIS students who chose to do their postgraduate studies there. LIWO members at other teaching departments also implemented changes in the LIS curriculum. By the first decade of the 21st century, increasing numbers of students from various parts of the continent enrolled for higher LIS degrees at South African universities. The need for competent information professionals at African univer-



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sity libraries to implement and manage information technology-related projects contributed to this trend. A good example of meaningful engagement by South Africa in the democratic period is the Carnegie Corporation-funded Master’s degree programme in Information Technology, offered by the University of Pretoria’s Department of Information Science. The programme targets middle-management information professionals working in libraries at tertiary institutions and faculty members at library schools in Sub-Saharan countries, and seeks to empower them with the knowledge and skills to apply modern information and communication technologies (ICTs) to teaching and learning (Dick 2012). Since 2011, each year’s intake of about twenty candidates from Anglophone sub-Saharan African countries typically completes coursework modules in the first year, and a mini-dissertation based on applied research in the candidate’s institution, in the second year. The curriculum, as may be expected, strongly reflects information-technology topics, but these are supplemented by contextual modules such as “The knowledge society and international librarianship”, “Organizational behaviour and leadership”, and “Knowledge management”. A shorter continuing-education programme for professional development, also funded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York, brought mid-career African academic librarians and LIS educators from across the continent to the University of Pretoria for a month in 2014. They were taught how to use innovations such as cloud services and storage, social media, and open source repositories to increase the growth of research outputs at their institutions. These educational initiatives, the participation of LIS educators at the African Library Summits in 2011 and 2013, and the recently-launched African Library and Information Association signify genuine South African engagement with the rest of Africa, and the promise of African librarianship rising! Yet it would be too much to expect that policy guidance from IFLA and examples of good practice from South Africa would be enough to facilitate change unaided. There is still a substantial role for interested agencies to assist with detailed planning and implementation.

International Agencies: INASP A number of agencies such as the Carnegie Corporation of America, and the Gates Foundation have been active in Africa in ways that have directly or indirectly contributed to the LIS curriculum and its teaching. The example of this source of assistance that we will describe here is that of the International Network for the Availability of Scientific Publications (INASP). INASP is an international development charity working with a global network of partners to strengthen the availability, access to and use of international research information by researchers in

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developing countries and the production, dissemination and access of research outputs from researchers in those same countries. INASP has worked for over 20 years in supporting librarians to acquire scholarly electronic literature and training them in the skills needed to manage and monitor access within their institutions. This has been accompanied by workshops on library consortium development; open source automation and institutional repository development have been organized, and yet the fruits of these activities have not always been as pronounced as one might have hoped. This was highlighted in the Arcadia report: “awareness of materials available amongst staff and students is low … A large number of the participants in the study seemed unaware of the range of resources provided to them” (Harle 2010, viii). There have been some exceptional and outstanding successes, but nevertheless the professional library literature is still replete with articles which highlight lack of access to and poor knowledge of e-resource availability, and the limited use of ICTs in library services and provision. As early as 2005 INASP identified LIS curricula as a key area in need of further development in an internal report (Rosenberg 2005): The future quality of university libraries relies on the quality of new library staff graduating from the various library schools… It is short sighted to ignore library schools and concentrate training support only on university libraries.

In addition: At the moment new graduates from library schools do not have the knowledge and skills required by university libraries. Curricula have not kept up with the needs of the new e-environment. Those teaching these subjects also need opportunities to upgrade their knowledge and skills prior to designing and teaching the new courses.

In response INASP contributed to the IFLA/ALP funded workshop the following year (November 2006) on integrating ICTs in Library and Information Science curricula in Africa, which took place in Namibia with participants from South Africa, Uganda, Tanzania, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Namibia. In 2007 INASP organized its first pilot workshop at the Department of Information Studies, University of Dar es Salaam. The aims were broad: –– to discuss the current skills and knowledge required by librarians and information workers; –– to review the existing LIS curricula; –– to identify areas where new courses need to be developed; –– to identify existing courses which need updating; –– to identify areas where LIS staff need to acquire new knowledge and skills in order to provide new courses or update courses;



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–– to provide LIS staff with opportunities to acquire new knowledge and skills (e.g., via distance-education courses, visits by experts from LIS schools or attendance at training events). Between 2008 and 2012 further curriculum workshops with similar objectives were supported at the request of individual schools. Institutions included: Open University of Tanzania, State University of Zanzibar, East African School of Library and Information Science (EASLIS, Uganda), Mekelle University (Ethiopia), National University of Rwanda, and the University of Ghana. At the same time a flow of criticism of LIS curricula continued to appear. Okello-Obura and Kigongo-Bukenya (2011) highlighted problems in Ugandan LIS education; Amunga and Khayesi (2012) described similar issues in Kenya; Mammo (2007) identified many skills that seem to be lacking (or not practised) by LIS professionals in Ethiopia; Saleh (2012a and 2012b) identified problems of LIS education in Nigeria from both the educators’ and the employers’ perspectives. In response, between 2012 and 2013 INASP commissioned four short research reports on the current state of LIS education in selected African countries: Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe. The findings of these reports were presented at the IFLA World Congress in Singapore (Burnett 2013), and further summarized in a recent IFLA publication (Abdullahi, Karisiddappa and Asundi 2014). Many of the same problems highlighted in earlier years were still in evidence. What had become clear is that curriculum review workshops alone are not the solution. While it is relatively straightforward to develop a revised curriculum on paper to reflect changing ICT and digital developments, there is no guarantee that the faculty can easily upgrade their knowledge to enable them to undertake the teaching of new subject areas. Additionally teaching practices were regularly identified as a problem area, but no amount of curriculum revision can address the issues of improving or modifying pedagogical skills. It is for these reasons that INASP introduced a cohesive and integrated LIS curriculum programme in April 2013. This is a five-year partnership programme between INASP and individual schools or departments that offer postgraduate Master’s courses. Five universities have now formally signed a MoU. These are: –– Jimma University, Ethiopia; –– Kenya Methodist University; –– Mzuzu University, Malawi; –– University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; –– University of Zambia. The goal of the programme is to help develop a cadre of young, professionally qualified graduate librarians in selected countries who have the requisite digital

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library knowledge and skills to manage and further develop the libraries in which they are employed, and at the same time to help to improve the subject and pedagogic skills of LIS faculty. Each party has agreed to undertake specific activities and contributions. INASP will offer curriculum review workshops involving international experts as facilitators and advisors, support pedagogical skills training in collaboration with the institution’s Centre for Academic Development (or equivalent if present) and fund continuing professional development activities. At the time of writing three curriculum workshops have taken place and one pedagogical skills seminar. We have been impressed by the willingness of staff to review curricula, their openness to constructive criticism and their recognition of shortcomings or skills gaps. They have been ready to identify areas for continuing professional development (CPD) and often acknowledge the need for pedagogical skills training. There have been challenges also: how to accommodate both those students that already have an undergraduate degree in LIS and those coming from other disciplines; the occasional reticence to discuss curriculum details with colleagues from other LIS schools; the question of how to involve institutional teaching or curriculum development units; how best to develop a tool for pedagogical skills self-assessment; the difficulty of identifying optimum methods for CPD. While it is still early to evaluate outcomes, we believe that the emphasis of this Programme on improving ICT/digital curriculum content, improving learner-centred approaches, and supporting greater opportunity for professional staff development will contribute to the development of young professional librarians capable of critical thinking, independent learning and able to respond to change in the rapidly evolving digital information environment.

Conclusions A vigorous African LIS education sector has emerged since the turn of the millennium. It has not yet succeeded in matching the giddying speed of change that popular engagement with technologies such as the mobile telephone is bringing to African society, but it is better geared to absorb and reflect modern realities than it was a decade or so ago. To facilitate this process of change and improvement there is plenty of guidance on curriculum content and pedagogical technique available from IFLA and other agencies including INASP. The sector also gains from the emergence of South Africa as a major player in the wider continent. However, what makes change a practical proposition, rather than a mere aspiration, is the availability via the Internet of ideas at the very time they first



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emerge, and electronic access to the global LIS literature and documentation. Although this new wealth of access has yet to be fully exploited, there are signs that LIS educators are realizing that they are no longer handicapped by having to work with a range of sources constrained by what their university libraries can acquire. There are problems to be solved: not least the excessive number of levels of qualification over which LIS content has to be stretched. The important thing is that African LIS has a young and talented teaching community. By staying in touch with local realities and taking full advantage of global developments they can demonstrate the capacity to satisfy the demands of a modern and relevant LIS education agenda.

References Abdullahi, Ismail, C.R. Karisiddappa and A. Y. Asundi, eds. 2014. LIS Education in Developing Countries: The Road ahead.” Berlin: De Gruyter. Aboyade, Olabimpe. 1982. “Communication Potentials of the Library for Non-literates: An Experiment in Providing Information Services in a Rural Setting.” Libri 34(3): 243–262. Aboyade, Olabimpe. 1983. “Education and Training of Information Professionals in Nigeria – Establishing an Identity.” In Education and Training in Developed and Developing Countries: With Particular Attention to the Asian Region, 63–72. The Hague: Federation Internationale de Documentation (FID). Aboyade, Olabimpe. 1985. “The Administrator’s Challenge in Curriculum Planning and Implementation”. In Curriculum Development in a Changing World: Papers Presented at the FID Education and Training Committee Workshop, The Hague, Netherlands, 17–20 September, 1984, edited by Marta L. Dosa and Thomas J. Froelich, 9–13. (FID Publication 645). The Hague: Federation Internationale de Documentation (FID). Amunga, Hellen and Marie K. Khayesi. 2012. “Library and Information Science Education in Kenya: An Overview of Potential and Challenges.” Paper presented at SCECSAL XX Conference, Nairobi. Bell, Fiona. 2002. “Democratisation of South African LIS Education: Some Causes and Effects.” Libri 52(2): 55–66. Bergdahl, Birgitta. 1990. IFLA’s Programme, Advancement of Librarianship in the Third World, ALP: a Proposal for the Future. Stockholm: Swedish Library Association. Burnett, Peter. 2013. “Challenges and problems of Library and Information Science Education in Selected African countries.” Available at http://library.ifla.org/175/1/199-burnett-en.pdf. Accessed on 12 January 2016. Dick, Archie L. 2001. “Science for ideology?: P C Coetzee and the Professionalization of Librarianship in South Africa.” Perspectives in Education 19(3): 85–108. Dick, Archie L. 2004. “Book Burning and the Complicity of South African Librarians, 1955–1971.” Innovation: Appropriate Librarianship and Information Work in Southern Africa 28: 31–40. Dick, Archie L. 2008. “Ethnic Identity and Library Development in Apartheid South Africa: The Cape Library Association, 1960–1975.” Libri 58(1): 1–14. Dick, Archie L. 2012. “LIS Education for Africa.” Information Development 28(3): 181–182.

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Harle, Jonathan. 2010. Growing Knowledge: Access to Research in East and Southern Universities. London, Association of Commonwealth Universities. IFLA 1976. “Standards for Library Schools.” IFLA Journal 2(4): 209–223. http://ifl.sagepub.com/ content/2/4/209. Accessed on 12 January 2016. IFLA 1985. Proceedings of the 50th General Conference, Nairobi. 1984. Munich: K.G. Saur. Immelmann, R.F.M. 1954. “Establishing a Library School.” In Development of Public Libraries in Africa: The Ibadan Seminar, 118–128. Paris: UNESCO. Johnson, Ian M., Fall A. Correa, Richard J. Neill and Martha B. Terry, eds. 1989. Harmonisation of Education and Training Programmes for Library, Information and Archival Personnel. Proceedings of an International Colloquium, London, Aug 9–15, 1987. Munich: K.G Saur. Kotei, Sam. 1983. “Opportunities and Challenges for Library/Information Education in Southern Africa.” In FID, Education and training in developed and developing countries; with particularly attention to the Asian region, 89–99. The Hague: Federation Internationale de Documentation (FID). Mammo, Wondimeneh. 2007. “Demise, Renaissance or Existence of LIS Education in Ethiopia: Curriculum, Employers’ Expectations and Professional Dreams.” International Information & Library Review 39: 145–157. Manaka, S.P. 1986. “Education for Librarianship and Information Service in Developing Communities.” In National Libraries: Some South African and International Perspectives on Challenges and Opportunities, edited by Johannes Anton Boon, Peter Lor and Karel P. Prinsloo, 99–107. Pretoria: State Library. Msafiri. 2011. “What Information Professionals Need to Know.” Information Development 27(3): 224. Newa, John. 1990. “The Foreign Study Dilemma and the Need for a ‘New International Education Order’.” In Translating an International Education into a National Environment, edited by Julie I. Tallman and Joseph B. Ojiambo, 157–175. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. Ogunsheye, F. 1974. “Library Education and Manpower Planning in Africa.” Paper presented at IFLA General Council meeting, Washington, November 1974. Okello-Obura, Constant and I.M.N. Kigongo-Bukenya. 2011. “Library and Information Science Education and Training in Uganda: Trends, Challenges and the Way Forward.” Education Research International. http://www.hindawi.com/journals/edri/2011/705372/. Accessed on 12 January 2016. Roberts, Kenneth, ed. 1986. Regional Post-graduate Programs in Information Science in Anglophone Africa. Ottawa: IDRC. Rosenberg, Diana. 2000. “An Overview of Education for Librarianship in Anglophone Sub-Saharan Africa.” In Education for Librarianship and Information Science in Africa, edited by Michael Wise, 11–33. Colorado Springs, CO: International Academic Publishers. Rosenberg, Diana. 2005. Towards the Digital Library: Findings of an Investigation to Establish the Current Status of University Libraries in Africa. Oxford: INASP. Saleh, Adam Gambo. 2012a. “Educators’ Perspective on Library Education in Nigeria.” Library Philosophy and Practice. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/705/. Accessed on 12 January 2016. Saleh, Adam Gambo. 2012b. “Employers’ expectations of library education in Nigeria.” Library philosophy and practice. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/688/. Accessed on 12 January 2016. Smith, Kerry, Gillian Hallam, and S.B. Ghosh on behalf of the Education and Training Section of the International Federation of Library Associations. 2012. “Guidelines for Professional



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Library Educational Programs.” http://www.ifla.org/publications/guidelines-forprofessional-libraryinformation-educational-programs-2012. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Stilwell, Christine. 1993. “More than a Mere Novel Reading: An Examination of Proactive South African Librarianship.” In Proceedings of the Info Africa Nova Conference, Vol. 1, edited by A.G. Coetzer, 91–118. Pretoria: Info Africa Nova. Sturges, Paul. 2009. “Stimulating IFLA’s Ethical Conscience: FAIFE 2003–9.” IFLA Journal 35(2): 117–122. Sturges, Paul and Jasmine Harvey. 2010. “The Cell Phone as Appropriate Information Technology: Evidence from The Gambia”. Information Development 26(2): 148–159. Tammaro, Anna Maria. 2014. “The Internationalisation of LIS Education: The Bologna Process Approach.” In Collaboration in International and Comparative Librarianship, edited by Susmita Chakraborty and Anup Kumar Das, 314–320. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. UNESCO. 1954. Development of Public Libraries in Africa: The Ibadan Seminar. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO. 1976. Meeting of Experts on Planning Documentation and Library Networks in Africa (NATIS). Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO. 1984. International Symposium on the Harmonisation of Education and Training Programmes in Information Science, Librarianship and Archival Studies: Final Report. Paris: UNESCO. Vermeulen, Wilhelmina Margaretha. 1989. The Africanisation of the Public Library: A Paradigm for Change. [KwaDlangezwa]: University of Zululand. Woolls, Blanche. 1993. Continuing Professional Education and IFLA: Past, Present and a Vision for the Future. Munich: K.G. Saur.

Bernard Dione

7 Fifteen Years of Training Librarians in French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa Outcomes and Perspectives French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa is composed of 17 countries of west and central Africa using French as an official language. This group of 17 adjacent countries forms a half-circle from Mauritania in the west and Chad in the east to the Democratic Republic of Congo in the south (Manning 1988). It includes former French colonies belonging to two federations, AOF and AEF, and the former Belgian colonies Congo Belge (which became Zaïre and now République Démocratique du Congo), Rwanda, and Burundi. Afrique Occidentale française (AOF) was a federation including, from 1895 to 1958, eight West African French colonies (Mauritania, Senegal, Soudan français (now Mali), Guinea, Ivory Coast, Niger, Haute-Volta (now Burkina Faso) and Dahomey (now Benin). As for Afrique Équatoriale française (AEF), it was a federation of four French colonies of central Africa: Gabon, Moyen-Congo (now Republic of Congo), Chad and Oubangui-Chari (now the Central African Republic). At a cultural level, French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa is characterized by great ethnic and cultural diversity, expressed by about 700 languages spoken by the populations of this region of the continent (Manning 1988). The history of the book and of libraries in French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa is a consequence of the establishment of colonial administrations (Sène 1992; Maack 1981), and the situation of libraries in the colonies was largely dependent on the colonial metropolitan state (mother country). In Belgian colonies, in particular in Congo (now RDC), the situation of libraries was relatively more developed than in the French colonies, although it became worse at independence, as Cassiau-Haurie (2004, 2) noted: The number of libraries at the eve of independence, as the last official report on the Belgian colonial administration mentioned, amounted to 432 libraries in the country […]. Seven years after independence, Mr. Victor N’Koinzale, Head of the National Library and Public Official Libraries, presented a pitiful situation: only 24 libraries still survive in the country.

In the French colonies, there were little libraries in the Cercles (the smallest units of the colonial political administration). These libraries played an important role: they represented for the colonists their only connection with the intellectual culture of Europe. Hence the General Governor Jules Brévié, a reputed colonial



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officer accustomed to remoteness from the mother country, enacted a circular in 1931 to encourage the Commandants de Cercles to develop the collections of these little libraries (Maack 1982, 192). The French colonial administration, which was a strongly centralized one, made early efforts to coordinate education, research, and the development of libraries. Very few public libraries in either Belgian or French colonies seem to have been managed by a professional staff. An example is the first of them, the public library of Saint-Louis, Senegal, as Sène (1992, 309– 310) pointed out: Depending directly on the Head of the administrative office, its technical management was assigned to a head librarian who was not skillful enough. Samson Télémaque, Director of the Post Office of Saint-Louis, was the appointed Curator of the library by a decree of October 3rd, 1850.

The same fact is noticed by Cassiau-Haurie (2004, 10), who notes that in Belgian Congo, even in the official public libraries for Europeans: […] The State often appointed an insufficient staff, without specific qualifications and busy at other tasks. Besides, the generally low compensation of librarians (almost a volunteer job) only led to negligence and lack of interest in their work.

In the public libraries for Congolese people, “the responsibilities of a librarian were assumed by a user, under the supervision of a European manager who took interest in the library” (Cassiau-Haurie 2004, 21). Generally, in French colonies as well as in the Belgian empire, all professional librarians were generally European and trained in the mother country. No formal programme for training librarians existed in the colonies. One of the first attempts to train information professionals in AOF was undertaken by André Villard, who was appointed Archivist of AOF in 1937. Villard appears to have been the first to establish, from 1937, a training programme to provide an adequate technical staff for the archives and libraries of the colonies (Maack 1982, 197). Established in Dakar, in the Archives of AOF, this training programme was also meant to support the management of the public libraries of the colonies under their supervision. The training of librarians was later undertaken by the library of the Institut Français d’Afrique Noire (IFAN) of Dakar. The initiators were two French paleographic archivists, heads of the Documentation Section of IFAN, and a former librarian of the national library of Paris. The training programme consisted of a practicum for a period of one to six months and sometimes more. Some librarians who attended these courses continued their training either in the library of the Musée de l’Homme in Paris, or were prepared for the Certificat d’Aptitude aux

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Fonctions de Bibliothécaire, or attended courses for the Diplôme Supérieur de Bibliothécaire in France (Dadzie 1961). In the three years from 1958 to 1960, all French-speaking Sub-Saharan African countries gained their independence. The new states quickly become aware of the necessity to manage information in order to conduct their governments better. The situation of libraries was almost the same in the different French-speaking Sub-Saharan African countries: the organization and functioning of public libraries were in embryonic state (Dadzie 1961). Apart from the university libraries closely related to the former mother country and libraries of foreign cultural centres, particularly French and American ones, the states did not implement any policy to enforce library service. The young African state governments, facing various challenges and having multiple and complex tasks demanding their attention, failed to care for the training of qualified librarians (Dadzie 1961) and for the creation of libraries able to meet their populations’ information needs. The first professional association of librarians, the association for the development of libraries in Africa (AIDBA), founded on 13 September 1957 at Saint-Louis, Senegal, would play an important part in the development of training, even if its actions were limited due to shortage of resources (Seguin 1964b). In April 1961, on a proposal of AIDBA, the Direction of Libraries of France began a special training course at Toulouse for African libraries At the end of this six-month training course, candidates went to Paris from October 1961 to May 1962 to attend courses to prepare the Certificat d’Aptitude aux Fonctions de Bibliothécaire. The level of studies required was the French Baccalaureat (Dadzie 1961). In Central Africa in October 1961, the Centre d’Enseignement Supérieur de Brazzaville began a training course for archivists, librarians, and documentalists, aimed at pupils in middle school who had received the General Certificate Secondary Education (Brevet d’Etudes du premier cycle) (Dadzie 1961). It was with UNESCO support that the training of librarians from French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa experienced a step forward. In its 1961–1962 programme, UNESCO launched a regional centre in Dakar for the training of librarians for the French-Speaking Sub-Saharan African countries, the Centre Régional de Formation des Bibliothécaires (CRFB) (Dadzie 1961). The opening of this centre was the result of a long process. First, from 1953, UNESCO had supported the Nigerian government in organizing, at Ibadan, the first regional training course on the development of African public libraries (UNESCO 1954). The training course led, with the support of UNESCO, to a regional service of public libraries headquartered at Enugu, as well as the creation of the Association of West African librarians and the foundation of schools of librarianship in Nigeria and Ghana. It was during this seminar that the idea of



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creating a school to train French-speaking librarians in Senegal was launched (Horrocks and Schofield 1962, 119; UNESCO 1954). Afterwards, in Addis Ababa, during the Conference of African Heads of State on the development of education in Africa, participants (in particular UNESCO) insisted on the creation of a large number of libraries that should be provided with qualified librarians. UNESCO organized a second training course on the development of libraries in Africa, still in Nigeria at Enugu in 1962. Participants in the Enugu Seminar confirmed the huge shortage of libraries and noted (Horrocks and Schofield 1962, 119) that: There is a strong need for librarians. Without this staff, it is not possible to manage efficiently libraries. The only mean to meet this need is to create specialized training courses. The situation of librarians depends on a great number of factors, but academic qualifications and a professional degree are vital. It is now possible to implement in Africa an original model of training for librarians, with original methods and original contents.

The training course of Enugu marks a real consciousness of the necessity to plan the training of librarians in order to make it the core element of the development of libraries in black Africa. The objectives of the schools of librarianship in Africa have been defined as follows (Willemin 1967, 321): a) to ensure a level of culture and qualifications which will bestow to the state and to library profession an honorable rank among the other traditional professions; b) to pay a great attention on the future needs of libraries; c) to adapt, if necessary, the present teaching methods to local circumstances; d) to facilitate the publication of original works, specially dealing with African issues. The fact that the teaching of librarianship generally existed in English-speaking African countries, but not in French-speaking Africa, prompted UNESCO, after an agreement with the Senegal Government to create the Centre Régional de Formation des Bibliothécaires (CRFB: Regional Training Centre for French-speaking Librarians) in Dakar on 28 March 1962 (Seguin 1964a). The first courses of the Centre – an eight-month term per year – were opened to students from Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo-Brazzaville, Congo-Léopoldville (now RDC), Dahomey (now Benin), Gabon, Guinea, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso), the Malagasy Republic, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, Chad, Togo, and Senegal (Seguin 1964a). The courses began on 4 November 1963, under the supervision of an UNESCO expert, Mr Louis Séguin, librarian from the Public Library of Boulogne-sur-Mer

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(France).The first degrees, Certificats d’Aptitude aux Fonctions de Bibliothécaire, were delivered on Monday, 22 June 1964 by Dr Ibra Wone, Ministry of National Education of Senegal, in the presence of personalities from the University of Dakar and UNESCO. UNESCO had signed an agreement with the State of Senegal to link the CRFB to the University of Dakar. Thus in 1967 the CRFB became, by decree N° 67–1235, of 15 November 1967, the Ecole des Bibliothécaires, Archivistes et Documentalistes (EBAD) with a University Institute status. Until 2004, EBAD had two cycles in its curriculum: (1) a first cycle for the training of technicians, recruiting candidates with a Baccalaureat degree; and (2) a second cycle created in 1983, recruiting candidates with a Bachelor Degree or a First Cycle Degree from EBAD with three of years professional experience. The training period of both cycles was two years. EBAD has offered an e-learning programme since 2000 and adopted the LMD Reform in 2005. It now offers a Bachelor’s and a Master’s Degree in Information Science in both distance and on-site settings. Table 7.1 provides statistics that give an idea of EBAD contribution to the training of French-speaking librarians. Table 7.1: Statistics of EBAD Graduates per Country, per Section, and per Cycle from 1979 to 2009.1 Country

Benin Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Comoros Congo Ivory Coast Gabon Gambia Guinea-Bissau Upper Volta Madagascar Mali Niger

Archives 1st 2nd cycle cycle

Libraries 1st 2nd cycle cycle

Documentation 1st 2nd cycle cycle

Total

%

19 31 3 38 7 21

1 5 1 4 5 0

15 29 8 47 0 12

2 0 1 3 0 0

12 45 3 48 7 20

8 12 0 7 5 0

57 122 16 147 24 53

2,23% 4,78% 0,63% 5,76% 0,94% 2,08%

12 5 33 35 2 1 12 4 3 13

0 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 9 43 13 0 2 14 5 11 9

0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 5 1

5 20 46 46 0 1 33 7 15 40

0 0 2 5 0 0 0 7 1 0

18 34 128 103 2 4 59 25 35 63

0,71% 1,33% 5,02% 4,04% 0,08% 0,16% 2,31% 0,98% 1,37% 2,47%

1 Source: http://www.ebad.ucad.sn/diplomes/statistiques.html, accessed on 19 December 2015,



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Table 7.1: continued. Country

Rwanda Senegal Seychelles Chad Togo Zaïre Mauritania Haïti Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Sierra Leone TOTAL

Archives 1st 2nd cycle cycle 8 375 1 11 48 3 0 0 0 0 0 629

0 55 0 5 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 75

Libraries 1st 2nd cycle cycle 14 392 0 11 32 11 2 1 1 2 1 633

1 67 0 3 6 0 0 0 0 1 0 76

Documentation 1st 2nd cycle cycle 6 398 0 37 50 2 3 0 4 0 1 784

0 89 0 5 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 124

Total

29 1376 1 73 149 17 5 1 5 3 2 2551

%

1,14% 53,94% 0,04% 2,86% 5,84% 0,67% 0,20% 0,04% 0,20% 0,12% 0,08% 100,00%

Apart from CRFB, training programmes for librarians were relatively scarce in French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1960’s (Dadzie and Strickland 1963, 28–29). Dadzie and Strickland mention training only in three countries: in Congo-Léopoldville, Guinea and Mali. In Congo, Dadzie and Strickland (1963) refer to a librarianship programme which was planned to begin in October 1963 at the Central Library of the University. This programme was to welcome candidates with four years of education after primary school and provide training in evening courses. The programme apparently did not survive, however. In Guinea, the National Library started a training course in 1961 for non-professional librarians to serve in Ministries, educational offices and establishments. Attendees at this training course had to obtain an elementary degree first or be simply designated by a Ministry or an office. The training was planned to last for three years and was structured as follows: Generalities (20 hours), Classification (20 hours), Cataloguing (20 hours), Bibliographic Orientation (20 hours). Finally, in Mali in 1963, the Ministry of Information initiated an introductory course on Documentation issues. Opened to candidates holding a Brevet d’Etudes of the First Cycle, this course, lasting one week to two months, was destined to train assistant librarians. Any programme mentioned in the Directory of Dazie and Strickland (1963, 28–29) has been sustained. These are the actions of UNESCO that would enable the development of the professional training of librarians in French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa.

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UNESCO offered scholarships to citizens from French-speaking countries to be trained at CRFB. But it quickly became difficult (even impossible) to sustain over a long period this programme allowing students from French-speaking countries to come to study in Senegal. From 1981 to 1983, UNESCO launched a programme to support the creation of national schools of Information Science. Within its General Programme of Information (PGI), UNESCO – convinced that training information professionals in their home countries would have a great impact on the organization and evolution of library and information Science qualifications – supported a programme for the creation and elaboration of national and regional training programmes in the Information field. During this period, feasibility studies had been ordered by Benin (Lafont 1982, 1983), Burkina Faso (Lafont 1985), Burundi (Lafont 1988), Congo (Lafont, 1979), etc. with UNESCO support. It was only at the beginning of the 1970’s that many countries of the region began to implement training programmes for librarians. The oldest training programme recorded by Schniederjürgen (2007) was created in 1977 in Niger. One of the first national training programmes for librarians is probably one in Niger, established in 1977 at the later called Institut de Formation aux Techniques de l’Information et de la Communication (IFTIC). IFTIC is now an Institute of Abdou Moumouni University of Niamey, Niger and trains for information, communication and documentation careers. In Benin, the decision to implement a national training programme for librarians was taken in 1979. After the feasibility study conducted by Lafont (1983) on behalf of UNESCO, the Benin government decided to create the Centre de Formation aux Carrières de l’Information (CEFOCI) in November 1981 (Mehissou 1982). In 1975, the Centre Régional de Promotion du Livre en Afrique (1975) launched a collective consultation in order to establish a training programme for librarians. This programme was later hosted by the Ecole Superieur des Sciences et Techniques de l’Information et de la Communication (ESSTIC) in Cameroon. The ESSTIC succeeded the Ecole Superieure Internationale de Journalisme de Yaoundé (ESIJY), a multinational school, founded on 17 April 1970 to train journalists. Nationalized by Cameroon in 1982, the ESIJY became the Ecole Superieure des Sciences et Techniques de l’Information (ESSTI) and in 1991 was named the Ecole Superieure des Sciences et Techniques de l’Information et de la Communication (ESSTIC). ESSTIC offers a professional bachelor’s degree and a Master’s degree in Documentation. In Ivory Coast, the training for librarians was established in 1991. It was hosted by the Ecole de Formation à l’Action Culturelle (EFAC), one of the schools that compose the Institut Nationale Superieure des Arts et de l’Action culturelle (INSAAC).



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Guinea established training with the creation of the Ecole Superieure des Sciences de l’Information (ESSI) founded in 2003 at Julius Nyerere University of Kankan. In Mali, the curriculum Métiers du Livre, des Archives et de la Documentation (MLAD) was launched on December 2004 at the Faculty of Languages, Arts and Human Science at the University of Bamako. The MLAD Programme is now linked to the Institut Universitaire de Technologie (IUT) of the University of Letters and Human Science of Bamako. Its objective is to train, in a two years’ common curriculum, information professionals qualified for librarian, archivist and documentalist work. In 2011 the Programme launched a Bachelor’s Degree in Digitization. The existence of the MLAD curriculum is a response to one of the recommendations of a Seminar held in 1978 in Bamako, which gathered 78 library professionals. In Burkina Faso, UNESCO sent an expert in 1985 “to advise authorities on the creation and implementation of an intermediate level training for librarians, archivists and documentalists at the Ecole nationale d’Administration et de Magistrature (ENAM)” (Lafont 1985). But this training was not implemented. It was only in 2005–2006 that an association called the Groupe d’Appui à la Formation Professionnelle des Bibliothécaires, Archivistes et Documentalistes (GRAF-BAD) established the Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l’Information documentaire (ISTID). At ISTID, the training is composed of two cycles, each lasting two years. The second cycle trains technicians on documentary information, recruits candidates with a BEPC Degree (Secondary School) and provides a Certificat d’Aptitude Professionelle. As for the superior cycle, it recruits candidates with a Baccalaureat and trains technician at a superior level. For this level, a BTS degree is delivered with two options (Archives and Librarianship-Documentation). The Democratic Republic of Congo is certainly the largest French-speaking Sub-Saharan African country. In this country, the first two institutions which provided training in Documentary Science and Techniques no longer exist. They were the Institut national d’Archivistique, de Bibliothéconomie et de Documentation (INABDO) and the Department of Librarianship of the Faculty of Business Administration and Economic Science of the Protestant University of Congo. INABDO was created in 1977 by the International Association for the Development of Documentation, Libraries and Archives in Africa (AIDBA). As for the Department of Librarianship of the Faculty of Business Administration and Economic Science of the Protestant University of Congo, it offered training in librarianship and documentation beginning in the 1989 –1990 academic year and for at least five years thereafter (Masens Mukis and Dimweka Kinkela 2005).

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Now, four institutions are in charge of the training of librarians-documentalists: the Département des Sciences et Techniques documentaires de l’Institut supérieur de statistiques de Kinshasa, the Département des Sciences et Techniques documentaires de la Faculté des Lettres de l’Université de Kinshasa, The bibliologie et documentologie Option of the Faculté de Communication Sociale des facultés catholiques de Kinshasa and the Département d’édition multimédia de la faculté des Sciences de l’Information de l’Institut facultaire des Sciences de l’Information et de la Communication (Masens Mukis and Dimweka Kinkela 2005). The examination of applicants’ files at EBAD allows the identification of other training programmes. For example in Gabon, besides the Institut Universitaire des Sciences de l’Organisation, Sophie Noutoume Emane (IUSO), which offers a training for technicians, we discover that a CAPES degree in Documentation is mentioned, offered by the Ecole Normale Superieure of Libreville. At Congo-Brazzaville, Marien Gouaby University offers a Master in Communication Science and Techniques with an option in Documentation. Finally, in Burundi, the Institut Supérieur de Commerce (ISCO) of the University of Burundi delivers a high-level Degree in Librarianship. After describing the historical background and the training programmes for librarians in French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa, it is important to identify the challenges that the schools of Librarianship and Information Science are facing, and to suggest perspectives to improve their situation. We cannot discuss the training of librarians in French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa without referring to the social, economic, and political conditions in which librarians practise their profession in this region. This region is characterized on a social and economic level by poverty and a high illiteracy rate and on a political level by instability and armed conflicts. Besides, it is characterized by a weak library network and particularly by a lack of a library profession, and these factors affect recruitment. The profession of librarian, being less valorized and poorly known, does not attract recruits. The lack of vision of decision-makers as far as libraries are concerned is the reason why there is neither a policy nor a development plan for libraries on this region. In addition to this, popular discourse makes decision-makers believe that with Internet, Africa no longer needs libraries. As a consequence, the weakness of library networks leads to a high rate of unemployment among graduates, who eventually are discouraged and change profession. The important technological changes we are experiencing directly influence the training of librarians. These technological changes must accompany the replacement of equipment, a revision of curricula and capacity-building programmes for teachers. Therefore, the budgets of the training schools for librar-



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ians are not sufficient to support the wages of staff. The budgets scarcely cover the costs related to the replacement of equipment and pedagogical materials, the fees related to teachers’ mobility, and the undertaking of research programmes on specific issues dealing with the region. For this reason, courses are reduced to the repeated coverage of available books which are not often up-to-date. The fact that in the French-speaking community there are no foundations like the Carnegie Foundation that support the development of libraries and capacity building for librarians constitutes a great handicap, in addition to the lack of public policies. Finally, when we compare the different training programmes for librarians in French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa, we wonder at the diversity of status of the institutions as well as the levels of trainings, of programmes, of the duration of studies and the denomination of degrees. In the face of all these challenges, it seems important to propose innovative solutions if we want to make the training – and beyond that, the library profession – more dynamic in this region. The first action to undertake seems for us to be the revision and the harmonization of the curricula of the schools of librarianship in the French-speaking Sub-Saharan African region. A workshop on LIS curriculum in the Francophone Africa School, organized by EBAD and funded by IFLA/ALP was held on 12–14 August 2007, in Dakar, Senegal. Delegates from LIS Schools in seven countries (Senegal, Cameroon, Niger, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso and Gabon) attended this workshop. But the conclusions of this workshop were followed by no actions. In this connection, the adoption of the LMD reform by most of the universities of the region constitutes an opportunity. IFLA should support schools of librarianship in implementing harmonized programmes founded on common references, common instances, and common accreditation processes. IFLA should launch a comparative study on LIS programmes of the region as the first step of the process of harmonizing curricula. In partnership with professional associations from the region, training schools should work to valorize the image of the librarian profession and to sensitize decision-makers on the role of libraries in the 21st century. The schools should also work to implement mechanisms to found research on libraries, on information needs and practices in Africa in order to constitute a scientific corpus relevant to the situation of African populations. Finally, issues related to training and continuing education of staff are important. The implementation of post-graduate training in schools of Librarianship and Information Science with regard to the development of research in the field seems to us inevitable.

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References Cassiau-Haurie, Christophe. 2004. “Les Bibliothèques publiques du Congo belge à la veille de l’indépendance : la grande illusion.” Paper presented at 18e Colloque international de bibliologie de l’Association internationale de Bibliologie (AIB): 1er Colloque congolais de bibliologie du Comité congolais de l’Association Internationale de Bibliologie, Kinshasa, 27 novembre – 3 décembre 2004. http://www.aib.ulb.ac.be/colloques/2004-kinshasa/ fulltext/09.pdf. Accessed on 5 June 2014. Centre Régional de Promotion du Livre en Afrique. 1975. Consultation collective en vue d’établir un programme de formation des bibliothécaires : 9–11 Octobre 1975 : Rapport final. [Yaoundé]: Centre Régional de Promotion du Livre en Afrique. Dadzie, Kwakuvi E. W. 1961. “Libraries, Bibliography and Archives in French-Speaking Countries of Africa.” UNESCO Bulletin for Libraries 15(5): 250. Dadzie, Kwakuvi E.W. and J.T. Strickland, eds. 1965. Directory of Archives, Libraries, and Schools of Librarianship in Africa = Répertoire des archives, bibliothèques et écoles de bibliothéconomie d’Afrique. Paris: UNESCO. Horrocks, S.H. and J.E. Schofield, 1962. “Stage d’études régional sur le développement des bibliothèques publiques en Afrique.” Bulletin l’UNESCO à l’intention des bibliothèques 17(2, suppl.): 114–132. Lafont, Suzanne. 1979. La Formation de documentalistes, de bibliothécaires et d’archivistes: République populaire du Congo – (mission). Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0003/000365/036537fb.pdf. Accessed on 31 January 2016. Lafont, Suzanne. 1982. La Formation et le perfectionnement de spécialistes de l’information documentaire: République populaire du Bénin – (mission). Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0005/000548/054806fo.pdf. Accessed on 31 January 2016. Lafont, Suzanne. 1983. Programme de formation en sciences et techniques de l’information de l’Université nationale: République populaire du Bénin – (mission). Paris: UNESCO. http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0005/000548/054806fo.pdf . Accessed on 31 January 2016. Lafont, Suzanne. 1985. Formation des aides bibliothécaires-archivistes-documentalistes: Burkina Faso – (mission). Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0006/000680/068024fo.pdf . Accessed on 31 January 2016. Lafont, Suzanne. 1988. Création d’une section de bibliothéconomie: Burundi – (mission). Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001810/181009fb.pdf. Accessed on 31 January 2016. Maack, Mary Niles. 1981. Libraries in Senegal: Continuity and Change in an Emerging Nation. Chicago: American Library Association. Manning, Patrick. 1988. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa: 1880–1985. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Masens Mukis, Justin and Edmond Dimweka Kinkela. 2005. “La Formation en bibliothéconomie en République Démocratique du Congo.” Paper presented at Association Internationale de Bibliologie. 3e conférence nationale des Bibliothèques et Centres de documentation de la RDC Kinshasa (24 mai – 28 mai 2005). http://www.aib.ulb.ac.be/ colloques/2005-abadom/fulltext/19.pdf. Accessed on 5 June 2014. Mehissou, Mathieu. 1982. “La formation des professionnels béninois de l’information documentaire.” Archived at http://web.archive.org/web/20070615155802/http://www. adadb.bj.refer.org/article.php3?id_article=27. Accessed on 12 January 2016.



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Schniederjürgen, Axel, ed. 2007. World Guide to Library, Archive and Information Science Education, 3rd revised edition. Munich: K.G. Saur. Seguin, Louis. 1964a. “Le Centre régional de formation de bibliothécaires de Dakar.” Bulletin de l’UNESCO à l’intention des bibliothèques 18(3):109–112. Seguin, Louis. 1964b. “Projet de rapport final sur la mission effectué à Dakar (Rep. Du Sénégal) par M. Louis Seguin, Expert de l’UNESCO en Matières de bibliothèques, du 1/4/1963 au 30/6/1964.” http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001810/181009fb.pdf. Accessed on 31 January 2016. Sène, Henri. 1992. “Les bibliothèques en Afrique Occidentale Française: 1880–1958.” Libri 12(4): 306–329. UNESCO. 1954. Development of Public Libraries in Africa: The Ibadan Seminar. Paris, UNESCO. Willemin, Silvère. “La formation professionnelle des bibliothécaires en Afrique.” Bulletin de l’Unesco à l’intention des bibliothèques 21(6): 320–329.

Uloma Doris Onuoha, Ngozi Blessing Ukachi and Rachael Folashade Aina

8 Library Education in Nigeria

Repositioning for Professional Relevance in the 21st Century

Introduction The thirst for knowledge has always led humans to seek education, and as such many countries of the world, including Nigeria, place a high premium on the education of their citizens. Adjudged the most populous country in Africa and the eighth most populous country in the world with a population of over 150 million, Nigeria is located on the Atlantic coast in West Africa, bordered by Benin on the West, Niger and Chad on the North, and Cameroon on the East (Academic American Encyclopedia 1994). The history of formal education in Nigeria dates back to the colonial period but has evolved over the years. While the colonial period used a system of decentralization in which educational systems in the Northern, Eastern and Western parts of the country varied, the post-independence era saw a unification of the educational system for the entire country. During the post-independence era, the country has witnessed several educational policies such as the 7-5-2-3 educational policy (7 years of primary education, 5 years of secondary school, 2 years Higher School Certificate Levels, and 3 years of university education) which was later revised to the 6-3-3-4 educational system (6 years of primary education, 3 years of junior secondary school, 3 years of senior secondary school, and 4 years of university education). The 6-3-3-4 system was replaced with a 9-3-4 system in 2009, which called for 9 years of uninterrupted schooling made up of 6 years of primary education, and 3 years of junior secondary, 3 years of senior secondary and 4 years of university education. Recently the Minister of Education, Prof. Ruqquayat Rufa’I, as cited by Awoyinfa (2013), affirmed that plans are on the way for the introduction of a 1-6-3-3-4 (1 year of pre-primary, 6 years of primary education, 3 years for junior and senior secondary education with 4 years of university education) aimed at giving Nigerians high-quality and pragmatic education. To obtain education in librarianship, one has to pass through the educational system to the university level where it is hoped that one would attain the skills/ competencies needed to contribute positively to libraries and related information service organizations in the country. Although library education can be acquired from colleges of education and polytechnics, the products of such schools are



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not recognized as professional librarians: only a first degree from a university is accepted as the foundation for library professional training in Nigeria (Ogundipe 2005). This chapter therefore focuses on library education from the perspective of universities.

Overview of library education in Nigeria The history of library education in Nigeria dates back to the 1953 UNESCO seminar on the development of public libraries in Africa which was held at the then University College, Ibadan. At the end of that seminar it was recommended, among other things, that an institution for the training of librarians in Africa be established. It was not until 1959 that actual training in librarianship kicked off with the arrival of John Harris as the librarian of the University College, Ibadan. Prior to this time, Nigerians who desired training in librarianship went to Britain to qualify for the Associateship of the Library Association. The second library school was soon to follow in 1968 with the establishment of the library school at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. By the mid 1970s it became apparent that the two library schools could not meet the nation’s library needs, and hence two additional schools were established at Bayero University, Kano and University of Maiduguri. However, with the establishment of more universities in Nigeria and the growing awareness of the importance of libraries for national development, there was an obvious need for more library schools to provide professional service. As noted by the National Universities Commission (NUC) (2007), Library and Information Science education in Nigeria is expected to: –– produce Library and Information professionals for all types of libraries, information and documentation centres; –– equip the graduates of the programme with relevant theoretical knowledge, practical skills and techniques to develop and enhance their job performance; –– encourage the spirit of enquiry and creativity among the Library and Information professionals so that they are capable of understanding emerging concepts on the role of information in a complex multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and largely non-literate society like Nigeria; –– provide prospective Library and Information professionals with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignments and to make them adaptable to any changing situation; –– provide an understanding of the role of the new communications technology (e.g., internet) in the handling of information.

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As at the time of writing there are about 23 polytechnics and colleges offering Library and Information Science programmes at the Certificate, Ordinary, National, and Diploma levels; but the graduates of such schools are referred to as paraprofessionals. As noted earlier, the focus of this chapter is on universities. Currently, there are 27 universities offering library education in Nigeria, namely: –– Abia State University; –– Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi; –– Adeleke University, Ede; –– Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria; –– Babcock University, Ilisan-Remo; –– Bayero University, Kano; –– Baze University, Abuja; –– Benson Idahosa University, Benin City; –– Benue State University, Makurdi; –– Delta State University, Abraka; –– Edo State University (Ambrose Alli University) Ekpoma; –– Enugu State University of Science & Tech, Enugu; –– Federal University of Technology, Minna; –– Federal University of Technology, Yola; –– Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Lapai; –– Imo State University, Owerri; –– Kwara State University, Ilorin; –– Madonna University Okija; –– Nnamdi Azikwe University, Awka; –– Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijebu-Ode; –– Umaru Musa Ya’adua University, Katsina; –– University of Calabar; –– University of Ibadan, Ibadan; –– University of Ilorin, Ilorin; –– University of Maiduguri; –– University of Nigeria Nsukka; –– University of Uyo. It is interesting to note that most of the schools offering library education in Nigeria are accredited by the National Universities Commission except for Enugu State University of Science & Technology, as seen in NUC’s list of approved/ accredited programmes of Nigerian Universities (2012). Due to the professional nature of librarianship, however, the Federal Government of Nigeria also charged the Librarians’ Registration Council of Nigeria (LRCN), established by Act No. 12



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of 1995, with the responsibility of regulating the practice of the library and information science profession in Nigeria. LRCN is empowered among other things to determine who is a Librarian, maintain discipline within the profession, determine standards of knowledge and skills to be attained by persons seeking to become registered as Librarians, and maintain a register of Librarians. In its capacity as a regulating body for the library profession, LRCN (2016) recently published its approved list of universities offering library education in Nigeria. Out of the 27 universities offering library education, only two universities (7%) failed to make the accreditation list.

Competencies Needed by the 21st-century Librarian Every profession now lends itself to the use of technology. As information professionals, librarians are expected to be at the forefront of technology use for a number of reasons. As information professionals, it is expected that apart from having good knowledge of ICTs, librarians should be instrumental in extending ICT literacy to the larger society. As affirmed by Ukachi and Onuoha (2013) the advent of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and the adoption of the exploding internet and media technologies in library services have caused expansion and dramatic changes in information provision and communication processes. This new trend obviously demands new competencies for the 21st-century librarian. According to the Special Libraries Association (SLA 2003), competencies are a combination of skills, knowledge, and behaviours important for organizational success, personal performance and career development. In order to fit into the new technological environment, there is therefore, a need for librarians to acquire new skills, knowledge and behaviours that will guarantee the survival of libraries. SLA (2003) advocates three areas of competencies, which are professional, personal and core competencies. Professional competencies relate to the practitioner’s knowledge of information resources, access, technology and management, and the ability to use this knowledge as a basis for providing the highest quality information services. Personal competencies represent a set of attitudes, skills and values that enable practitioners to work effectively and contribute positively to their organizations, clients and profession while core competencies anchor the professional and personal competencies as information professionals are expected to understand the value of developing and sharing their knowledge

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through association networks and by conducting and sharing research at conferences, in publications and in collaborative arrangements of all kinds. Drawing from the set of competencies outlined by SLA, many librarians and authors have come to share similar visions. The Nigerian scenario is not different: Ononogbo (2012) also outlines the competencies of the Nigerian librarian in the 21st century as: (a) IT competencies (b) professional competencies and (c) personal competencies. The argument for IT competencies is based on the fact that there is a preponderance of digital libraries over traditional print-based libraries, which means that librarians must have the required skills (IT competencies) necessary for assessing, processing information in a requisite format. Aman and Norliyana (2002) elaborated further on this by noting that a competent librarian is expected to have the thirteen key IT competencies namely: IT basics, word processing, electronic mail, Internet and intranet, graphics, presentation and publishing, spreadsheet, project management, design, development and administration of databases, systems maintenance and programming. As a mediator between information seekers and information resources, the attitude and values of the librarian come into play, as there will always be a need to offer personal assistance to those in need of information. Edegbo (2011) recognizes these facts by affirming that the librarian of the future will have to act as a facilitator, advisor, consultant, instructor, navigator, searcher, researcher, evaluator, organizer, preserver, promoter, communicator, technical expert, manager, leader, entrepreneur and visionary.

Library School Curriculum in Nigeria Library education in Nigeria provides for broad training in librarianship and not specialization as public, or special, or academic librarians. Ogundipe (2005) attributes this lack of specialized training to lack of organized job systems for different types of libraries. The curriculum in most Library schools is modeled after the NUC (2007) benchmark for library education in Nigeria. Although placed under the faculty of Education by NUC, the benchmark requires that students take some compulsory and elective courses to qualify for graduation. Core courses are central to the degree programme and are listed as: –– Libraries in Their Social and Cultural Setting; –– Introduction to Libraries and Information Resources; –– Bibliography; –– Organization of Knowledge I; –– Historical Development of Libraries in Nigeria;



–– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––

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Organization of Knowledge II; Collection Development; Reference and Information Sources and Services; Technical Services in Libraries; Introduction to Information Science; Management of Libraries and Information Centres; Indexing and Abstracting; Automation in Library Services and Information Centres; Library and Information Services to Rural Communities; Research and Statistical Methods; Research Project; Field Experience (SIWES).

In addition to the core courses, students are required to take cognate courses (prescribed course units from related fields which are required for an understanding and appreciation of the student’s major field), restricted electives (optional courses taken from defined areas from which students are to choose specific courses) and unrestricted electives (courses which are opted for by the student in accordance with his or her own interest). Courses that fall within the above-mentioned categories include but are not restricted to: Library and Information Centres Visits; Literature for Children and Adolescents; Serials Management; The Information User; Computers and Data: Book Production and Publishing. Although most library schools in Nigeria endeavour to offer the core courses as listed out by NUC (2007), they are found to differ on elective courses offered. In an examination of the curriculum in five library schools, Saleh (2012) identified variations in the curriculum especially with courses tagged “elective”. Courses considered as “core” were, however, found to be common to all five schools. Even in schools where Information Technology courses were found to be offered, the choice of courses differed among schools. The current trend is, however, not encouraging and calls for harmonization through a re-assessment of the curriculum in library schools.

Professional Relevance of Library Education in Nigeria The major aim of education is to meet the needs of the society, and therefore it is expected that graduating from a library school should automatically equip one to work in a library or information environment. It is, however, sad to note that

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this is not always the case, as Cronin (1982) points out that professional qualification does not automatically guarantee acceptability in the eyes of employing organizations. This is particularly so as employers are not just seeking for people with theoretical knowledge but those who can marry theory with practice. The need for competent library personnel in today’s environment is heightened by the technological changes which have come to shape the present library environment. Such changes according to Sangal (1995) are manifested in the forms of users’ needs, information resources, and communication technology. Although library schools make concerted efforts to meet the competency needs of the modern library, evidence suggests that this is yet to be fully achieved. Conant (1980) lamented that employers lack confidence in the functions of library schools as gatekeepers to the profession. Ita (1986) in an earlier study attributes some of the reasons for lack of confidence by employers to individuals and not necessarily the schools, by stating that the products of the undergraduate programmes are generally weak and less imaginative. A recent study by Okoye (2013) on the competencies of professional librarians using 89 librarians in Federal Universities in South-East Nigeria found no correlation between acquired and applied skills from library school and place of work respectively. The study specifically noted that even though courses such as web-site development, web-page design, web-page maintenance and database management were taught at library school, most of the respondents showed poor application of such skills at their place of work, leading the author to conclude that poor application of skills may be as a result of respondents’ not being exposed to challenging opportunities that demanded such skills while in school.

Factors Affecting Library Education in Nigeria Sixty-six years of library education in Nigeria have not been without challenges. Apart from its own peculiar challenges, library education is equally affected by others that are ravaging the educational system in the country. These include poor power supply, incessant strikes by university educators and the dearth of technological infrastructure. A study by Ogu (2008) catalogued a list of issues facing university education in Nigeria, among which are infrastructural inadequacies, budgetary constraints and diminishing scope of mentoring junior researchers by seasoned and senior researchers due to brain drain. In the case of library education, these problems equally manifest as students can sometimes take technology-based courses without any access to the computer or internet as the case maybe. Even when some universities make efforts to provide ICT equipment,



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their use is not necessarily assured due to unreliable power supply. Experienced library teachers who would have been around to mentor new ones have left the country to seek greener pastures in other parts of the world. Budgetary constraint is not just a challenge facing the funding bodies of universities, who are expected to provide basic infrastructure, but also a challenge for the student as an individual who has to tackle the rising cost of school fees, books and other consumables. While focusing on the challenges of library schools in Nigeria, Igwe (2005) noted outdated curricula, poor human and financial resources, lack of access to necessary information and resources for learning, and poor communication among key issues that some library schools are contending with. Ahmed (2012) on the other hand, identified several other factors such as: micro curriculum – that is, the curricula of some schools are narrow in scope and as such cannot provide their graduates with self-reliance education; poor ICT skills among teachers and poor quality of students admitted into library schools, as these are mainly made up of students who never intended to study library science but who found themselves in the programme because they failed to meet the admission requirement for their preferred field of study. Although NUC requires that students undertaking library education participate in industry assignments to gain practical experience, the state of some libraries in Nigeria makes this impossible. As noted by Ashcroft and Watts (2005) there is a serious lack of awareness of computer capabilities and skills in libraries and this makes it difficult for students to get practical experience with which to compliment the theoretical knowledge acquired in library school.

The Way forward There is no doubt that library education in Nigeria needs to be repositioned for professional relevance. To reposition library education, thought must be given first to the quality of teachers in library schools, as the axiom says, “You cannot give what you do not have”. Efforts should be made by the university administration to scout for capable teachers within or outside the country to ensure proper training of today’s students, who invariably will form the teachers of tomorrow. Teachers already in library schools should also take up the challenge of updating their knowledge. This could be achieved through conference and workshop attendance, taking advantage of free online courses, or even looking for schools outside the country where one could participate in staff exchange programmes. While the universities concentrate on ensuring the employment of qualified teachers to run library schools, libraries in the country should also think of devel-

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oping staff and providing necessary infrastructure to aid work. This is of particular importance not only to ensure the quality of services provided by libraries but to also ensure that the students who come to the library for industry experience gain meaningful experience working under practising librarians. In order to ensure a congruence between education acquired in library schools and the skills needed to perform in libraries, there is need for a re-examination of the library school’s curriculum in the face of today’s library and information work environment. With qualified library teachers and an improved curriculum in hand, the next step in repositioning library education for professional relevance would be to assess the quality of students admitted into library schools. Library schools should, therefore, re-examine the idea of accepting students who are not interested in the profession but who are there by accident of not being accepted in their chosen fields of study. This is because such students often lack the motivation needed to strive towards practical understanding of library education: they often use any means possible to pass through examinations without internalizing the essence of the course. Students who are admitted into library schools should be provided with the infrastructure necessary for effective learning. The funding bodies (government or relevant organizations) should ensure the provision of books, computer laboratories with internet connection, standby generators and so on to enhance learning activities, encourage internalization of knowledge and facilitate easy application of acquired knowledge from library schools to places of work.

Conclusion The future of library education in Nigeria no doubt lies in the hands of the library schools whose main duty it is to provide the necessary manpower. For libraries to be effective, especially in the face of today’s technological advancement, there is need for library schools to reposition themselves for professional relevance by taking necessary steps that would ensure the production of library school graduates capable of manning the 21st-century library.

References Academic American Encyclopedia. 1994. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Incorporated. Ahmed, Abdulganiy Okanla. 2012. “Modern Trends in Library and Information Science Education in Nigeria: Challenges and the Way Forward.” Library Philosophy and Practice.



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http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2106&context=libphilprac. Accessed on 20 May 2014. Aman, Mohammed and B. Norliyana. 2002. “Excellent People-oriented Strategies for Digital Libraries.” World libraries 12(2). http://cybra.lodz.pl/Content/1175/vol12no2/aman_ v12n2.html. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Ashcroft, Linda and Chris Watts. 2005. “ICT skills for Information Professionals in Developing Countries: Perspective from a Study of the Electronic Information Environment in Nigeria.” IFLA Journal 31(1): 6–12. Awoyinfa, Samuel. 2013. “Policy Somersault as FG Dumps 9-3-4 for 1-6-3-3-4.” Archived at http://web.archive.org/web/20150603183647/http://www.punchng.com/education/ policy-somersault-as-fg-dumps-9-3-4-for-1-6-3-3-4/. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Conant, Ralph W. 1980. The Conant Report: A Study of the Education for Librarianship. Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. Cronin, Blaise. 1982. The Education of Library and Information Professionals: A Conflict of Objectives? London: Aslib. Edegbo, Wilson. 2011. “Curriculum Development in Library and Information Science Education in Nigerian Universities: Issues and Prospects.” Library Philosophy and Practice. Paper 560. http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~mbolin/edegbo.htm Igwe, Ukoha O. 2005. “Harnessing Information Technology for the 21st Century: Library Education in Nigeria.” Library Philosophy and Practice Paper 28. http://digitalcommons. unl.edu/libphilprac/28. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Ita, Nduntuei. O. 1986. “The BLS Degree and the Job Market in Nigeria.” Paper presented at the 3rd National Conference on Library Education held at Owerri 15–16 December. Librarians’ Registration Council of Nigeria (LRCN). 2016.. “List of Accredited Library Institutions.” http://www.lrcn.gov.ng/LIST%20OF%20ACCREDITED%20LIBRARY%20 INSTITUTIONS.pdf. Accessed on 14 January 2016. National Universities Commission (NUC). 2007. “Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards for Undergraduate Programmes in Nigerian Universities: Education.” Archived at http:// web.archive.org/web/20140630094642/http://www.nuc.edu.ng/nucsite/File/DASS/ BMAS%20Education_Final.pdf. Accessed on 14 January 2016. National Universities Commission (NUC). 2012. “List of Approved/Accredited Programmes of Nigerian Universities.” Archived at http://web.archive.org/web/20150702043804/ http://www.nuc.edu.ng/nucsite/File/Approved_Accredited%20Programmes%20of%20 Nigerian%20Universities-Listed%20by%20University.pdf. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Ogu, Emmanuel. 2008. “Challenges facing Nigerian universities.” Nigeria World 30 September. http://nigeriaworld.com/articles/2008/sep/300.html. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Ogundipe, O. O. 2005. The Librarianship of Developing Countries: The Librarianship of Diminished Resources. Lagos: Ikofa Press. Okoye, Michael Onuchukwu. 2013. “Assessment of Competencies of Professional Librarians in Nigeria.” Library Philosophy and Practice. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ libphilprac/979. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Ononogbo, R. U. 2012. “The Nigerian Librarian in the Information Age: The Demands, Competencies and Dilemmas.” In Personnel Issues in the 21st Century Librarianship: Papers Presented at the Maiden Conference of Nigerian Library Association, Abia State Chapter, held at National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, 11th–13th December, edited by R. U. Ononogbo, A. N. Uhegbu, M. C. Nwosu & C.P. Uzuegbu, 12–24. Umuahia:

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Zeh Communications. https://www.academia.edu/2924517/Personnel_Issues_in_ the_21st_Century_Librarianship. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Saleh, Adam Gambo. 2012. “Educators’ Perspective on Library Education in Nigeria.” Library Philosophy and Practice. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/705/. Accessed on 12 January 2016. Sangal, D.G. 1995. “Relevance of Library and Information Science Education to Professional Practice in Nigeria.” In Library Education in Nigeria: The Way Forward: Proceeding of the 7th NALISE Conference held at Bayero University, Kano. June 29th–30th, edited by Michael Wise. Kano: Dept. of Library Science, Bayero University. Special Libraries Association. 2003. “Competencies for Information Professionals of the 21st Century”, revised edition. http://www.sla.org/about-sla/competencies/. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Ukachi, Ngozi Blessing and Uloma Doris Onuoha. 2013. “Continuing Professional Development and Innovative Information Service Delivery in Nigerian Libraries: Inhibitors and the Way out.” Annals of Library and Information Studies 60: 269–275.

Section 3: Americas

Michael Seadle

Introduction The Americas North and South have different colonial and cultural traditions. While US Americans and Canadians are generally most aware of their British heritage, substantial German, Irish, French, and Scandinavian heritages influence both countries in their early history. Central and South America have a Spanish and Portuguese colonial history, but also indigenous cultures and a substantial pan-European immigration. In general, the colonial past played only an indirect role in the development of libraries and library education, but it defined lines of communication to the European mother countries. Language helped to shape developments in the region as well as to separate the northern countries from their Latin-language neighbours. In the chapter about the United States, Prudence Dalrymple gives “A Brief History of Informatics Education”, as her title suggests. She looks back at the development of computers and at technologies thinkers like Vannevar Bush and Frederick Kilgour. She concludes with a reference to Molière (Dalrymple, 162) to suggest that “It may not be too far from the truth to suggest that for forty years, we, like M. Jourdain, have been speaking like informaticians without knowing it”. Her argument is that library education and training have virtually become part of information technology, since the ways that libraries function today have become so dependent on technology that the boundaries have blurred. Today the iSchools play a notable role among the North American library education programmes. Many were once library schools that have redefined their role to embrace information technology. The situation in Mexico partly mirrors that in the US for a number of reasons. As Martínez Arellano writes (p. 184): “Certainly, changes in the names and programme content of library schools in Mexico were the result of the development of the field; however, the influence from its northern neighbour cannot be overlooked, an example being the adoption of the terms ‘Information’, ‘Information Sciences’…”. One of the reforms that the author foresees (p. 185) is that “… the establishment of a core curriculum, common for all LIS schools in our country, should be a necessary condition for the internationalization of library education”. Internationalization clearly plays an important role for Mexico to ward off isolation and the dominance of its northern neighbour. Internationalization is also a topic for library education in Peru. The authors write “the two Peruvian LIS programmes must make a commitment to improve our relationships with other schools in Latin America” (Talavera Ibarra and de la Vega Ramírez, 213). Talavera Ibarra and de la Vega Ramírez (p. 184) also speak

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about the need for a “harmonization of curricula” at regional meetings. While Peru is a small country compared to Mexico or the United States, it is clearly a challenge for only two schools to provide librarians for the whole country. The authors recognize (p. 184) that “research is not intensive in the LIS field compared to other disciplines”. The topics are, however, ones that would be recognized anywhere in the world (p. 209): they “…include bibliometrics, evaluation of scientific journals, developing information skills …, information access and citizenship, censorship, continuing library education, non-traditional labour market, public libraries, information literacy, social web and library services, university libraries and archives, among others”.

Prudence Dalrymple

9 What’s in a Name? A Brief History of Informatics Education Introduction The forty-year history of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions’ (IFLA) Section on Education and Training (1974–2014) coincides with the transformation occurring in society worldwide due to widespread adoption of information technology and digital communications. In the 1970s, Apple and Microsoft were founded within two years of each other (1975 and 1976 respectively), and the internet made its debut to the public only a few years later. Few would dispute the enormous impact of these technological developments on daily life throughout the world. Libraries were among the first to adopt these technologies, possibly because of the close association between libraries and scientific and medical information management, characteristic of the post-World War II era exemplified in Vannevar Bush’s article “As We May Think” (Bush 1945). By 1974, Frederick Kilgour was already three years into combining his medical library expertise with computer technology to create what would eventually become WorldCat, the world’s largest catalogue of library materials (OCLC 2015). In 1974, the Research Libraries Group was also created to pursue related goals. At the National Library of Medicine (NLM), a similar process had been under way since the 1960s. In 1974, MEDLINE was created, the first large-scale, successful, on-line, library-based bibliographic system and the first international telecommunications-based science information network, not only in the United States but worldwide. In 1978, a million searches had been completed on MEDLINE (Miles 1982); by 2009, that figure had risen to one billion searches yearly, or 3.5 million searches daily, and it continues to increase. In the space of a professional lifetime, enormous shifts have occurred in our ability to organize materials and make them accessible for use by the general public worldwide. What impact have these changes made on the educational programmes that prepare individuals to work in this radically different environment? And, one may ask, are these changes sufficient? The roots of many of these changes lay in the nascent field of computer science. Funding to build many of these systems came from sources in science and medicine where the need to provide for systematic organization and access to cumulative scientific knowledge has long been recognized as essential to

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the progress of the field. The purpose of this chapter is to examine one result of these changes – the emergence of informatics as a part of Library and Information Science (LIS) education. The chapter will open with a history of the ways in which terminology used to describe the field which we currently refer to as library and information science has evolved and how it has affected the direction of the field. It will give a brief overview of the field known as informatics, and will give examples of the various types of informatics education and practice, concluding with an interpretation of the possible impact of informatics on LIS education and training in the future.

From Library Economy to Informatics The words we use reflect our times and our worldview. When Melville Dewey founded the American Library Association (ALA) and the first library school at Columbia University in the late nineteenth century, he referred to the field as “library economy”. In the early twentieth century, library economy was replaced by library science in an effort to bring greater intellectual legitimacy to the field (Richardson 2010; Miksa 1988; White 1976). As the rise of computer technologies in library operations advanced, some in the special libraries community used the term “documentation” to refer to handling the rapidly expanding body of scientific information, though some working in other types of libraries continued to prefer the term “library science”. But by the 1960s, the term “information science” had replaced documentation, and educational programmes in information science were being established at a number of high-profile universities such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Georgia Institute of Technology and Ohio State University (Williams and Zachert 1986). Such programmes were frequently interdisciplinary in nature but distinctly different from the programmes that focused on the management (“economy”) of libraries and were accredited by the ALA. Thus for a period of time, two parallel paths existed. One was focused on “documentation” and served the scientific community, often in specialized information agencies, while the other retained an emphasis on libraries. To some extent, different educational pathways for entry into these two worlds also emerged. For an excellent history of the emergence of information science, see Saracevic (2010). With the growth and increased application of computer technology in library operations, the boundaries between these two fields began to blur, which resulted in a re-naming of educational programmes/degrees. Along with renaming has come the need to re-examine the field’s definitions and boundaries, and the ways



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in which the professional workforce is prepared for entry into practice. Educational programmes that had previously focused almost entirely on preparing professionals for work in libraries began to include courses in information science. Soon a movement emerged that advocated insertion of the term “information” into the names of library-related degrees and programmes (Varlejs and Dalrymple 1987). Since then, the field has continued to evolve; in 1992, the accrediting body for the field in North America used the phrase “library and information studies” to refer to the programmes it reviews (Committee on Accreditation 2008, revised 2015). Further evolution in the naming has continued, however, as several programmes, such as the University of Michigan, omitted the term “library” from their names altogether. Today, the names of schools and programmes vary in their inclusion of the term “library” but most continue to use “information” in the name of an ALA-accredited degree programme (see section below on “iSchools”). For additional discussion on the evolution of the field, the reader is referred to the Introduction to the Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, where editors Bates and Maack give their rationale for using the plural form “sciences” (Bates and Maack 2010). Much ink has been spilled in attempts to define “information”. It is a term readily recognized, but often used imprecisely. “Information” seems to be everywhere and nowhere; it is both an object and a process. A popular dictionary tells us that information is “The act of informing or the condition of being informed; communication of knowledge.” It is also “processed, stored, or transmitted data and even a numerical measure of uncertainty” (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 2011). Other common descriptions of information science are the information life cycle and the information transfer cycle, both of which capture the essence of information while retaining the subtle differences between information per se and information in relation to individuals and activities. The former is often described as the information life cycle which focuses on information itself. The information transfer cycle focuses on information’s effect on another entity, emphasising its role as informative, enabling taking action or making a decision. The information life cycle and the information transfer cycle, taken together, represent the fundamental activities associated with library and information sciences; that is, information and knowledge creation, communication, identification, selection, acquisition, organization and description, storage and retrieval, preservation, analysis, interpretation, evaluation, synthesis, dissemination, and management. These have been widely recognized as the scope of the field for ALA accreditation as noted above. They are further illustrated and discussed in Greer, Grover and Fowler (2015).

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The English word “informatics” is derived from the French “informatique” and refers to the application of computers to process information; it is often used as an equivalent to computer science per se. Until very recently, the term “informatics” has been more commonly used in Europe than in North America. The morphology of information + ics uses the accepted form for names of sciences, as in linguistics or optics, as well as matters of practice, such as economics or politics. “Informatics” thus carries with it a subtle nuance that differentiates it from other “information-related” terms. Using “informatics” conveniently sidesteps arguments as to whether information science is a science, a study, or a practice, and whether it is a unified discipline or simply a collection of applications (Fourman 2003). Most explanations of informatics include the “informatics pyramid” (Figure 9.1) in which the lowest and widest level of the pyramid represents data, indicating the abundance of data that permeates society.

Figure 9.1: The Informatics Pyramid.

The next level is information, or processed data, followed at the top by knowledge, in which information is transformed through application and analysis to solve problems. While the data–information–knowledge pyramid is not unique to informatics, it is regarded as fundamental to the field. The informatics pyramid represents the transformation of raw data into meaningful knowledge; it is usually assumed that the processes involved are computational in nature and add value to the data. For example, a single blood-pressure reading may have little meaning, but when several readings are aggregated into a trend displayed visually, they provide a valuable diagnostic indicator and can facilitate action. As early as 1972, the term “informatics” was used by Hans Wellisch in an article in the Journal of Librarianship, entitled “From Information Science to Informatics: A Terminological Investigation” (Wellisch 1972). This appears to be the



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first use of the term “informatics” in the English-language-based library literature. In giving his rationale, Wellisch posited that because there was no consensus as to the core concepts of information science, the term informatics, “already in wide use in other countries”, should be used to describe the discipline emerging from documentation. Historically, informatics has been linked with the application of computing in the context of another domain (Groth and MacKie-Mason 2010). This association differentiates it from information science, which is “domain neutral”, a term coined by this author to indicate the fact that it is by applying information science to a specific domain that informatics gains its relevance. While information science embraces all things digital, it remains distinct from computer science. Computer science concerns itself with algorithms and processing capacity – computation in its purest form – and is domain agnostic.

Informatics – Information Science Applied to a Domain? Throughout the forty-year period that this chapter addresses, practitioners and educators have debated the value of specialized subject knowledge to the librarian or information professional. At the beginning of the twentieth century, John Cotton Dana founded the Special Libraries Association, aimed at information professionals who serve the needs of specialized fields rather than the general public. This tradition has been perpetuated by individual library associations, each focusing on specific areas of expertise. Shortly after World War II, two major reports – one by Joseph L. Wheeler (1946) and the other by J. Periam Danton (1946) – advocated developing specializations as part of library school curricula. While their approaches were different, both acknowledged the value of acquiring specialized knowledge in order to serve the growing needs of the government and scientific communities as part of the professional preparation. The founding of the School of Information Science at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech) provides an interesting example of the impact of this emphasis on specialized knowledge. In 1963, a National Science Foundation grant to the Georgia Tech Library to provide training for personnel for scientific and technical libraries ultimately led to the formation of the School of Information Science, the first of its kind in the United States. The School subsequently evolved into the nation’s first College of Computing and is now known for its close interdisciplinary connections to other domains (Price, Kinman and Vidor 1986). Despite its birthright in the university’s library, the School of Information

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Science never sought accreditation from the American Library Association, possibly because it more closely resembled what we call informatics – a combination of information science and a subject domain. Cox and Rasmussen offer a similar case study in their discussion of archives and information systems and technology (Cox and Rasmussen 1997). Although they approach the topic from a somewhat different perspective, they agree that specialized knowledge should be integrated into professional preparation in deliberate fashion. They emphasise the importance of “doing” by means of research, fieldwork and practice, all within the first academic degree. In their words, they “believe that the core principles [of LIS] emerge better developed and with specific or practical application through specializations” (Cox and Rasmussen 1997, 256). In some cases, notably medicine and law, information professionals have used the strength of their professional associations to advocate that specialized subject knowledge is needed for practice. Since 1948, medical librarians have maintained a certification process (later transformed into professional recognition) that specifies a body of knowledge and skills considered essential for entry into the field and required continued education to maintain status (Williams and Zachert 1986). By the time that library education had completed its transition from an undergraduate programme to a graduate one, however, interest in promoting specialization as part of professional preparation was abandoned in favour of a strong core curriculum. The core curriculum functions as a statement of the scope of the field as noted above; and this role of the curriculum, coupled with the fact that libraries in the United States and Canada have adopted accreditation by the American Library Association as a de facto requirement for most professional positions, has made the ALA’s accreditation standards a pivotal force in determining the scope and character of education for the field, albeit one that is largely library-centric. Today, the word “informatics” in English is rarely seen uncoupled from a domain name such as medical informatics, business informatics or legal informatics, differentiating it from computer science. Indeed, even several years ago, Fourman searched the term “informatics” along with a domain name and reported the frequency with which specific domains were tied to informatics. Among the types of informatics he identified are: bioinformatics, medical informatics, health informatics, museum informatics, nursing informatics, geoinformatics, neuroinformatics, social informatics, business informatics, dental informatics, molecular informatics, environmental informatics – even library informatics (Fourman 2002). The list has continued to expand to include nearly every conceivable application – automotive informatics, ocean informatics, personal informatics and entertainment informatics, to name a few.



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Although the preceding arguments might suggest that the model of “information skills plus domain knowledge” – the hallmark of informatics – has existed for over a century, opinions and approaches to the acquisition and role of specialized subject knowledge as part of LIS education vary. In North America, LIS education is rarely taken as part of an undergraduate degree. Instead, a common preparation for an LIS career starts with an undergraduate degree, frequently, though not exclusively, in the social sciences and humanities, followed by a professional master’s degree accredited by the ALA. This structure enables basic knowledge in a subject area to be acquired prior to the graduate professional degree. Petrinic and Urquhart (2007) examined whether librarians with a humanities degree could transfer to roles requiring expert health knowledge as successfully as those possessing a science degree. They found that with on-the-job training and practical exercises, candidates could acquire the needed subject expertise almost immediately upon graduating. Elsewhere in the world, educational patterns may differ. In 2009, Bronstein’s analysis of a sample of 30 LIS programmes worldwide showed that the curricula were dominated by courses aimed at content provided to specific groups of users, as well as to content in general. The second largest group of courses was technology-related and a third group provided students with knowledge in subject areas not related to information and librarianship, suggesting that domain knowledge is considered an important component of LIS education (Bronstein 2009). Indeed, the 2012 IFLA Guidelines state that “students should acquire a broad general education (topics from other disciplines) as a significant component of the total educational programme for the library/information professional” (Smith, Hallam and Ghosh 2012). While not stated specifically, it is clear that the information professional must possess a broad, general education as well as the knowledge and skills specific to information science. Thus, the balance between core LIS knowledge and skills, and knowledge in a specific domain is expressed in different ways at different times, but what is paramount is that the information professional identifies with the information professions, rather than with the domain-specific group. In other words, a law librarian identifies as an information professional, not an attorney, even though she may hold a law degree. The following section looks more closely at instances in which information science is intimately coupled with domain knowledge – instances that are likely described as “informatics”.

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Education for Informatics and LIS The close connection between informatics and an application domain can sometimes be troublesome in designing education and training programmes. It is not unusual to hear educators ask questions such as “is informatics best understood and practised by those who possess the domain knowledge and then later acquire the computation skills and information science background? Or is it better to acquire a background in information science and then acquire the necessary domain expertise?” The latter approach may be familiar to academic librarians who frequently possess a master’s or doctorate in a domain or subject field in addition to their education and experience in library and information science. The answers to these questions have implications for the recruitment and training of a professional workforce, as organizations may wonder whether to hire domain experts and give them information skills or hire information experts and give them domain expertise. Indeed, there are US initiatives aimed at attracting and supporting individuals who possess a doctorate in a subject area to acquire additional knowledge and skills for positions in academic libraries (Council on Library and Information Resources 2015). The relationship of domain expertise to information skills has been the subject of a long-standing debate within LIS – the value of specialized subject knowledge to the preparation of the librarian or information professional. To understand more fully the ways in which LIS education is positioned relative to informatics education, it is useful to take a closer look at the subject matter of a select few informatics programmes located in universities primarily in North America and Europe. The programmes fall into two general categories – those that are characterized by their approach to practice and research, and those that are associated with specific professional fields. Social informatics and community informatics fall into the former category, while health, biomedical, and museum informatics are examples of the latter. This discussion will focus on an example of each type: community informatics and health informatics. Specific details are drawn from the literature, as well as the author’s personal knowledge and experience.

Community Informatics Community informatics is closely allied with social phenomena, such as community networks both person-centred and technology-centred. Library practices, such as information and referral services, are examples of community informatics



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as they manifest in various digital information networks (Durrance and Pettigrew 2002). An emphasis on the needs of average citizens – not the highly educated professional – falls clearly within the scope of librarianship whose early origins lay in providing access to information to all, a necessary condition for a democratic society. Community informatics is a direct outgrowth of social informatics, which was developed and popularized in the United States by Kling in the 1980s, but owes its early conceptualization to the Norwegian sociologist Stein Braten and computer scientist Kristen Nygaard (LeRoux 2010). Social and community informatics differ in scope, with the former being more general and the latter being more specific and action-oriented. However, both align closely with the interest and scope of contemporary LIS with an interest in social inclusion, the interaction between people, groups and technology, and the transformation of society through digital technologies. It is not surprising that many LIS programmes have coursework in community informatics, sometimes undertaken jointly with other departments on campus. Examples of programmes where community informatics are part of the programme can be found at the University of Illinois, Indiana University, the University of Oklahoma and Rutgers University. The curricula include courses such as Community Informatics, Community Engagement, Digital Divide: Policy, Research and Community Empowerment, Youth Services Community Engagement, Civic Entrepreneurship and Public Institutions, Community Information Systems, Community Informatics Studio, and Social Informatics (examples taken from the websites of the University of Illinois, Rutgers University, Indiana University, University of Oklahoma).

Biomedical and Health Informatics Biomedical and health informatics exemplify a different educational model. Rather than being based in academic institutions offering degree programmes, early biomedical informatics education was initiated by a library – the National Library of Medicine (NLM). In 1972, the NLM first provided funding to academic institutions to develop programmes that would prepare individuals for research in biomedical informatics. Most of the “trainees” were physicians; fewer than half of the admitted students were library and information professionals (Florance 2014). At the same time, the NLM funded a number of institutions through its Integrated Academic Information Management (IAIMS) programmes that helped health sciences libraries re-design their services to place them at the hub of digital health information management. Similar leadership has emanated from health sciences libraries, such as the Biomedical Library at Vanderbilt Univer-

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sity, the Welch Library at Johns Hopkins, the Library at the National Institutes of Health, which provide a kind of “laboratory” for the application of biomedical informatics principles and practice. These library-based activities, however, are not formal education programmes culminating in an academic degree. Indeed, even the NLM training programmes did not start out offering degrees, despite their intellectual rigour. Most biomedical informatics education started out in this fashion, and only recently have degree-granting programmes become prevalent. This change came about in part because of the recent infusion of government funding to prepare a workforce in health informatics needed to deal with the conversion to digital health. As of 2015, the Academic Forum of the American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA), founded in 2009, lists over 50 full members with 10 “emerging” members, each of which represents a full academic programme offering at least one informatics degree.1 Many of these programmes resemble the NLM training programmes both in their student population and their location within clinical departments, while others are in iSchools, schools of health administration, engineering or computer science; most promote collaboration with a wide variety of other disciplines and are more recognizable as traditional academic degree programmes. These are likely to be located in iSchools or in universities where an LIS programme is also located. Some US examples can be found at San Jose State University, the University of Washington, Drexel University, and the University of Maryland, among others. In the UK, the University of Sheffield and Northumbria University offer degrees in health informatics through an interdisciplinary arrangement with relevant units. Because of their relationship to a domain, informatics degree programmes are likely to have additional affiliations to reflect their broader scope, and their faculties often encompass several different disciplines. That is, unlike traditional disciplinary faculties such as chemistry, English or psychology, informatics faculty frequently hold doctoral degrees in many different subjects. Sometimes biomedical informatics education is located in a special centre or institute, often including a medical school, enabling students to make valuable interdisciplinary connections and to absorb the “culture of medicine”. Examples of this approach can be found at the University of Missouri, Northwestern University and the University of Minnesota. Sometimes the centre includes a library or information component, perhaps a by-product of an IAIMS (Integrated Academic Information Management Systems) initiative. When an informatics programme is located at an institution where there is a graduate programme in library and information 1 The listing may be found at https://www.amia.org/programs/academic-forum, accessed on 15 January 2016.



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science, there is frequently a close affiliation between them, and the LIS programme is likely to identify itself as an “iSchool.” The iSchool movement and its impact on informatics education are discussed in a separate section below. In all of its various manifestations, informatics involves people, information and technology. It is interdisciplinary and highly contextual, focusing on the use and applications of digital information. The compound phrase of informatics plus a domain reflects the traditional values of librarianship – a focus on the use of information – but it is not necessarily associated with a specific institution such as a library. Unlike computer science, which is largely theoretical, and library science, which is associated with an institution, informatics uses computing knowledge and skills to solve a broad array of everyday problems. Just as computing no longer belongs solely to computer science, and statistics no longer belongs solely to Departments of Statistics, library/information science is no longer limited to the physical building of the library. Indeed, the IFLA Guidelines for education acknowledge (Smith, Hallam and Ghosh 2012) that: Today library information educational programmes extend beyond the physical collections and buildings to the virtual world of the Internet. Today the concentration is on information provision to users in a variety of contexts, public, private and third sector; users who may not be necessarily able or willing to enter the library building or environment.

Library Informatics Digital libraries are an excellent example of the ways that digital data is organized to perform an informative function; processed (organized and curated) data can be applied to solve problems and create new knowledge. Such is the essence of “library informatics.” While the term “e-science” has often been used to describe digital libraries, library informatics could just as easily be used. In fact, the term “library informatics” specifies many of the functions associated with libraries, while also allowing that these functions are carried out in diverse settings, not necessarily within the physical or organizational entity known as the library. That is, individuals possessing the knowledge and skills associated with librarianship may perform information-related tasks through computational applications quite separate from the physical and administrative entity known as a library. Or, similar individuals may facilitate answering questions (traditionally known as “reference service”) by designing databases and search engines meant to be accessed directly by the public. Although Amazon uses an economic model quite different from the public library, it efficiently distributes books and other reading materials worldwide, performing the function traditionally known as cir-

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culation. It is common for corporations and other entities to aggregate bundles of resources, re-packaging them for distribution through contracts–changing the nature of traditional materials selection. Additionally, both formal and informal ways of organizing and describing materials occur through curation and tagging. These examples illustrate the application of informatics principles to a specific societal function known as “a library” by individuals possessing the knowledge and skills associated with a specific professional field usually known as library and information science. That is, these examples distinguish between the individual professional and the organization in which the work is performed. Differentiating between the person doing the work and the institutional environment presents an opportunity to re-position the field of LIS relative to computing – which is not institution-based – but more importantly, to engage in a vigorous exploration of the domain and the societal functions associated with the institution known as the library. Such an exploration can engender a useful discussion regarding the role and definition of the library as an institution in the twenty-first century and build a foundation upon which educational programmes and professional jurisdiction can be built. Evidence of such exploration is beginning to appear in the professional press (Bertot and Sarin 2015).

iSchools: A New Model? The ability to marry information knowledge and skills with a domain through interdisciplinary educational experiences gets to the heart of informatics. As early as the late 1980s, conversations were taking place among educators who identified “information” as an opportunity for growth, and they began to effect change within their graduate programmes. They also created an organization known as the “iSchools”.2 The vision of the iSchools – to bring together people, information and technology for the betterment of society – is similar to that of informatics. The use of information technology to solve everyday problems is compatible with both informatics education and education for professional work in libraries and other information-centric organizations. At the time of this writing, there are 59 iSchools worldwide, with approximately half of the members located outside North America. A recent internet search of all iSchools using the search string “informatics in [name of university]” showed that nearly all iSchools are engaged in informatics, either through degree programmes or research institutes. Since countries have differing patterns 2 http://ischools.org/, accessed on 14 December 2015.



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of preparation for entry into practice, the existence of a degree programme at one or more of the three levels – baccalaureate, master’s and doctoral – was considered as having informatics education. In almost all cases, the informatics activities were associated with a technology-related field as well as a subject domain, illustrating the importance of establishing a rich environment for the education of information professionals and promoting interaction among the disciplines and the information professions. In North America, most of the institutions engaged in informatics activities are also iSchool members and more than half of all LIS programmes accredited by the American Library Association offer informatics programmes in conjunction with other units on their campuses. While some programmes are modest, consisting of a certificate or a minor, many institutions offer a master’s degree and a few offer a doctoral degree in conjunction with one or more units on campus. Clearly, the interdisciplinary nature of informatics is growing throughout the world, either in conjunction with an LIS programme or separately from it.

Informatics without Knowing It? The past 40 years have brought enormous technological change to the LIS field. Practitioners and educators alike have responded to innovation, often leading the transition from a print culture to a digital one and facilitating ubiquitous access to materials, anytime, anywhere. Professional practice, theory and research have evolved as well, recognizing the fluid and complex nature of the ways in which individuals and groups interact with information and materials according to the situation at hand. Accompanying this evolution is a greater awareness of the context in which information-related behaviour takes place; this awareness has led to a re-examination of the field in relation to allied disciplines whose focus is similar, such as social informatics and human computer interaction. This chapter has presented the perspective that informatics represents a next step in the evolution of education for the information professions, one that is significantly influenced by the evolution in digital technologies. The opportunities afforded by “Big Data”, and an expanding interest in the context of information behaviour along with a growing recognition that “context matters”, suggest that informatics may be a logical evolution for LIS. Forging alliances with sister fields, such as information systems, data analytics, and computer science, to create “knowledge” or domain fields denoted by “xxxxx informatics”, are likely to result in greater recognition of the contributions of all the information professions to a cohesive and productive transition to the digital age.

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As noted in the introductory section of this chapter, information professionals have grappled for decades with many of the issues currently facing health and biomedical informatics – usability, interoperability and standards, to name a few. Information professionals have also clearly articulated their position on privacy of user records and have tried to provide equality of access to services whenever feasible. Information professionals know the value of information organization and have a breadth of experience in this area that is now being recognized as data proliferate at an increasingly rapid pace. Few areas of life – whether work or leisure – are immune from the impact of this “data deluge” and increasingly, the information professions have partnered with experts from many domains to address their information problems. In so doing, the field of informatics emerges, the product of both the heritage of information science and the domain knowledge of multiple, diverse fields. As this chapter was written in anticipation of the 40th Anniversary of the Section of Education and Training (SET), which was celebrated at IFLA in Lyon, it seems appropriate to pause and recall a moment a little more than 400 years ago. At the Château de Chambord, just 400 kilometres from Lyon, Molière’s comédie-ballet Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme was first performed for the court of Louis XIV. The leading character M. Jourdain was played by Molière himself, who delivered one of the most memorable lines of the script: Par ma foi ! il y a plus de quarante ans que je dis de la prose sans que j’en susse rien, et je vous suis le plus obligé du monde de m’avoir appris cela.

which translates as: By my faith! For more than forty years I have been speaking prose without knowing it. I am much obliged to you for having taught me that. 

It may not be too far from the truth to suggest that for forty years, we, like M. Jourdain, have been speaking like informaticians without knowing it. Or, if you prefer, the informaticians have been library and information scientists all along.

References The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 2011. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Bates, Marcia J. and Mary Niles-Maack, eds. 2010. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, 3rd edition. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Bertot, John C. and Lindsay Sarin. 2015. “The Future of the MLS.” American Libraries (March/ April): 40–41.



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Bronstein, Jenny. 2009. “Current Trends in Library and Information Studies Curricula.” Libri 59: 78–87. Bush, Vannevar. 1945. “As We May Think.” The Atlantic Monthly 176: 101–108. Committee on Accreditation of the American Library Association. 2015. “Standards for Accreditation of Master’s Programs in Library and Information Studies.” http://www.ala. org/accreditedprograms/standards. Accessed on 14 April 2015. Council on Library and Information Resources. 2015 “Fellowships in Academic Libraries.” http:// www.clir.org/fellowships/postdoc/info/academic-libraries. Accessed on 15 May 2015. Cox, Richard J., and Edie Rasmussen. 1997. “Reinventing the Information Professions and the Argument for Specialization in LIS Education: Case Studies in Archives and Information Technology.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 39: 255–267. Danton, J. Periam. 1946. Education for Librarianship: Criticisms, Dilemmas, and Problems. New York: Columbia University, School of Library Service. Durrance, Joan. C. and Karen E. Pettigrew. 2002. Online Community Information: Creating a Nexus at Your Library. Chicago: American Library Association. Florance, Valerie. 2014. “Training for Informatics Research Careers: History of the Extramural Informatics Training at the National Library of Medicine.” In Informatics Education in Healthcare: Lessons Learned, edited by Eta S. Berner, 27–42. New York: Springer. Fourman, Michael P. 2003. “Informatics.” In International Encyclopedia of Information and Library Science, 2nd edition, edited by John Feather and Paul Sturges, 237–244. London: Routledge. Greer, Roger C., Robert J. Grover, and Susan G. Fowler. 2013. Introduction to the Library and Information Professions, 2nd edition. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited. Groth, Dennis and Jeffrey MacKie-Mason. 2010. “Education: Why an Informatics Degree?” Communications of the ACM 53: 26–28. LeRoux, C.J.B. 2010. “Social Informatics vs Community Informatics: A Brief Overview of Their Origins and Current Status.” Mousaion 28: 34–44. Miksa, Francis L. 1988. “The Columbia School of Library Economy, 1887–1888.” Libraries & Culture 23(3): 249–280. Miles, Wyndham D. 1982. A History of the National Library of Medicine: The Nation’s Treasury of Medical Knowledge. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Library of Medicine. http:// collections.nlm.nih.gov/bookviewer?PID=nlm:nlmuid-8218545-bk. Accessed on 5 May 2015. OCLC. 2015. “A Brief History of WorldCat.” http://www.oclc.org/worldcat/catalog/timeline. en.html. Accessed on 1 January 2016. Petrinic, Tatjana and Christine Urquhart. 2007. “The Education and Training Needs of Health Librarians – the Generalist versus Specialist Dilemma.” Health Information and Libraries Journal 24(3): 167–176. Price, Jean, Virginia Kinman and Ann Vidor. 1986. “A History of the Georgia Tech Library.” The Georgia Librarian (November): 98–102. Richardson, John V., Jr. 2010. “Library Science in the United States: An Early History.” In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, 3rd edition, edited by Marcia J. Bates and Mary Niles Maack, 3440–3448. New York: Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Saracevic, Tefko. 2010. “Information Science.” In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, 3rd edition, edited by Marcia J. Bates and Mary Niles Maack, 2570–2585. New York: Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

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Smith, Kerry, Gillian Hallam, and S.B. Ghosh on behalf of the Education and Training Section of the International Federation of Library Associations. 2012. “Guidelines for Professional Library Educational Programs.” http://www.ifla.org/publications/guidelines-forprofessional-libraryinformation-educational-programs-2012. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Varlejs, Jana and Prudence W. Dalrymple. 1987. “Publication Output of Library and Information Science Faculty.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 27: 71–89. Wellisch, Hans. 1987. “From Information Science to Informatics: A Terminological Investigation.” Journal of Librarianship 4: 158–187. Wheeler, J.L. 1946. Progress and Problems in Education for Librarianship. New York: Carnegie Corporation. White, Carl M. 1976. A Historical Introduction to Library Education: Problems and Progress to 1951. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. Williams, Robert V. and Mary Jane Zachert. 1986. “Specialization in Library Education: A Review of the Trends and Issues.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 26: 215–223.

Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano

10 Library and Information Science (LIS) Education in Mexico Introduction The beginning of library and information science (LIS) education in Mexico dates back to the fourth decade of the twentieth century. Between the 1940s and 1950s the first Mexican professional schools in the capital city were established. The Escuela Nacional de Biblioteconomía y Archivonomía [National School of Librarianship and Archival Studies] in 1945, and the Colegio de Biblioteconomía [College of Librarianship] in 1945 at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) [National Autonomous University of Mexico] in 1956. The establishment of these two first library schools in Mexico responded to the need to train professional personnel for the effective operation of libraries at that time, so these first programmes focused on the acquisition of library knowledge and skills. At that time they included in their names the Spanish term “Biblioteconomía”, similar to the English word “Librarianship”. However, years later, The UNAM Colegio de Bibioteconomía changed its name to Colegio de “Bibliotecología” (Library Science). Besides the two library schools mentioned above, there are at the present time six other schools or programmes at the undergraduate level in different Mexican universities: Escuela de Ciencias de la Información [Information Sciences School] at the San Luis Potosí Autonomous University, Licenciatura en Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información [Library and Information Science Undergraduate Programme] at the Nuevo Leon Autonomous University, Licenciatura en Bibliotecología y Gestión de la Información [Library Science and Information Management Undergraduate Programme] at the Chiapas Autonomous University, Licenciatura en Ciencias de la Información Documental [Documentary Information Sciences Undergraduate Programme] at the Mexico State Autonomous University, Licenciatura en Ciencias de la Información [Information Sciences Undergraduate Programme] at the Chihuahua Autonomous University, and Licenciatura en Bibliotecología y Gestión del Conocimiento [Library Science and Knowledge Management Undergraduate Programme] at Guadalajara University. At the graduate level, there are four universities granting an LIS Master degree: Maestría en Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información [Master in Library and Information Science] at the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (ITESM); Maestria en Bibliotecología [Master in Library Science] at El

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Colegio de Mexico [The College of Mexico]; Maestría en Gestión y Usos de la Información [Master in Information Management and Use] at the Autonomus Metropolitan University, and Maestría en Gestión de Servicios Informativos [Master in Information Services Management] at the Ciudad Juárez Autonomous University. Moreover, the National Autonomous University of Mexico grants a Master’s and a Doctorate Degree in Library Science and Information Studies. It is clear that there is a great diversity in the names of schools and programmes, as well as in their focus; however, most of them have included the terms Information or Information Science. The objective of the present paper is to identify, analyse and discuss how Mexican LIS schools have evolved and what challenges they will face in the future.

Demographic, Education and Library Context Mexico is located in the Northern Hemisphere of the American Continent. Its land area is 1.96 million km2, so it ranks 14th in the world for its area. Its northern border is with the United States and the southern with Guatemala and Belize. It is bordered on the East by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea and to the West by the Pacific Ocean. The number of inhabitants, according to the latest population census of 2010 is 112,336,538, which places it as the eleventh most populous country in the world (INEGI 2012). Along with 19 other countries from the American continent, it forms the region known as Latin America, named for the Latin origin of its two predominantly used languages , Spanish and Portuguese. Mexico consists of 32 states and a Federal District, which is the capital of the country, commonly known as Mexico City, which together with 60 other suburban municipalities makes up the metropolitan area. This is the country’s largest urban conglomeration with 20,116,842 inhabitants (INEGI 2014a) and according to United Nations data, the third in the world, along with New York, behind Tokyo and Delhi (Ciudad de México 2012). The education system in Mexico comprises three levels: basic education that includes primary education (six years) and secondary education (three years); upper secondary education equivalent to high school (three years); and higher education that usually is received in universities and colleges, and includes undergraduate studies, commonly called “licenciatura” and aimed at the training of professionals in various fields, as well as graduate studies (master and doctorate degrees). The diverse aspects of the country such as the economic, social and cultural areas are centralized, including the education field. Therefore, the coun-



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try’s largest university, the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), is located in Mexico City. UNAM provides education to over 337,000 students, including 27,210 in graduate programmes, 196,565 in “licenciatura” and 113,179 in high school. It has a library system composed of 131 libraries which has the largest collection in the country, with 6,650,123 volumes and 1,495,518 titles. (UNAM 2014) There are also 723 other universities and higher education institutions in the metropolitan area with 381 libraries (INEGI 2013a). Also, in various cities across the country there are another 1,279 libraries in 36 universities and higher education institutions (Vázquez Martínez 2013). Mexico also has a national network of public libraries, comprising 7,338 libraries located in different municipalities across the country. Additionally, the country has 5,691 school libraries (INEGI 2014b), which are in need of further development.

The First Library Science Schools As has been mentioned previously, between the 40s and 50s of the twentieth century, the first library schools were established in Mexico City, the Escuela Nacional de Biblioteconomía y Archivonomía [National School of Librarianship and Archival Studies], and the Colegio de Biblioteconomía [College of Librarianship] at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. The genesis of library schools in Mexico happened in parallel with the establishment of others in various Latin American countries: Panama (1941), Peru (1943), Uruguay (1943), Venezuela (1948), Chile (1949), and Colombia (1956). The creation of these schools responded to the need to train professional personnel for the proper functioning of libraries at that time, which meant that the first programmes focused on the acquisition of knowledge and technical skills related to information organization and library services (Múnera Torres 2006).

National School of Librarianship and Archival Studies In 1944, during the Third National Congress of Librarians and First of Archivists, the project for the creation of the Escuela Nacional de Biblioteconomía y Archivonomía (ENBA) was introduced, which was approved by the then President, General Manuel Avila Camacho, and the school was formally established on 20

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July 1945, being attached to the Libraries Department of the Public Education Secretary. Throughout its history, the ENBA has been attached to diverse offices of the Public Education Secretary, but it has always been an entity of it (ENBA 2014). From its inception to date, the ENBA prepares professionals in Library Science and Archival studies, however, this document only reports on the preparation of the former. The establishment of the ENBA responded to the need to train practising librarians who worked in the Ministry of Education. The first courses that the ENBA offered were for “... teachers, adjunct teachers and technicians (paraprofessionals) on Librarianship and Archival studies”, maintaining this orientation until 1952 when it established a formal programme to form technical librarians, lasting two years, with the requirement of high school completion, or failing that, to have worked in a library for a minimum of two years, as well as another programme, the Master of Librarianship (equivalent to the current “licenciatura”) with the requirement of having completed high school studies” (Salas Estrada cited by Escalona Rios and Cabral Vargas 2005). It was not until 1975 that the ENBA changed the denomination of its master’s programme to “Licenciatura” in Librarianship. However, the trend for training technicians and undergraduate professionals remained for nearly fifty years until 1993 when the ENBA focused its academic work on the exclusive preparation of undergraduates (ENBA 2014). At this point it is worth mentioning that unlike library education in the United States, Canada, and other European countries, the professional education of librarians in Mexico and Latin America is placed at the undergraduate level, which is called “licenciatura”. A “licenciatura” is usually an academic degree awarded by a university or college; the programme generally lasts four years, but can range from three to five years, depending on the country. University students get a “licenciatura” in a specific field that enables them to work as professionals in their respective professional areas. In Library Science a “licenciatura” allows a person to work as a librarian in public, academic and special libraries. In the latest revision of the Library Science undergraduate curriculum in 1998, the need was recognized to define study tracks which could help to bring together subject courses under common objectives for each track and also to allow the establishment of appropriate relationships and sequences among courses to avoid omissions and duplications in curriculum content. In this curriculum, the following study tracks were included: Technical Organization, Services, Administration, Collection Development, Social Issues, Methodology, and Automation (Pérez Paz 1998). Since the year 2000, the ENBA has offered the “Licenciatura” in Librarianship, lasting nine semesters, and included a terminal intermediate training level called Professional Associate. This implies that students have to attend and pass the first five semesters to get this intermediate Professional Associate degree. During the first five semesters, the curriculum is focused on technical training



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and practical skills of the profession, which facilitates students entering the job arena (Pagaza García 2003). There is also the option for students who wish to continue their studies to complete the “Licenciatura” degree in another four semesters. Also, it is worth noting that since 1998, this programme is offered both on campus and in distance mode, particularly to meet the training needs of librarians in institutions of higher education in different states. Pérez Paz (1997) pointed out the following regarding this option: The “Licenciatura” in Librarianship in the open and distance mode supports the needs that have been put forward by the Regional Coordinations of the National Network of Higher Education Libraries at their annual meeting, to reduce the enormous lack of professional staff in this type of library. Likewise, it has been included in the Annual Development Plan of the National Council for Library Affairs of this library’s organization Finally, it is important to mention that the ENBA is the only institution that maintains the term “Biblioteconomía” (Librarianship) in its name, its curricula and diplomas awarded, since it was established by a presidential decree, which means the process to make changes in its denomination are often complicated.

College of Library Science (National Autonomous University of Mexico) The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) was established in 1956 within the School of Philosophy and Literature, the current College of Library Science, under the name College of Librarianship and Archival Studies, offering professional training in these areas until 1975, when archival studies was eliminated. The first Library Science curriculum offered in this institution was the Master of Librarianship (although this was equivalent to the current “Licenciatura” degree) as a temporary measure in which university libraries from this institution required librarians with proper training for the organization of resources and services in them. This programme was strongly influenced by United States library schools and had a strong orientation towards the organization of library resources (Licea de Arenas and Valles 2001). In 1960, due to overall curricular changes in the School of Philosophy and Literature, the initial programme led to an undergraduate and a master’s degree in this discipline, although the term “Biblioteconomía” (Librarianship) continued to be used until 1966, when it was changed to “Bibliotecología” (Library Science). The 1960 curriculum showed a trend toward Bibliographic Organization: courses

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in this area constituted 34% of the curriculum, while those dealing with Administration and Services were 21%, a similar percentage to those in General Culture, and those related to History area 24% (Escalona Rios 2005). In addition to adopting the term “Bibliotecología” (Library Science) in the College’s name, a new curriculum was established in 1966, which remained in effect until 2002. Nevertheless, during this time, teachers who taught the different subjects included new topics in them at their discretion, according to advances in Library Science; however, this fact caused content duplication in diverse courses. Torres Vargas (1996) points out that study tracks of this curriculum were Cataloguing and Classification, Bibliography, Library Management, Information Services, Library Science Research, and Didactics of Library Science. On the other hand, Escalona Rios (2006) mentions that the structure of this curriculum grouped its courses in the following areas: Introduction to the Discipline, Bibliography, Information Services, Librarianship, Technical Services for Books, Library Science Teaching, and Library Science Research. One aspect that is important to highlight in the history of the College of Library Science is the student increase, which dates back to 1979 and the opening of a morning schedule; until that time, only an evening timetable was offered and the number of enrolled students was low as a consequence. Another factor in the student increase was that in 1975, the National Autonomous University of Mexico gave librarians who were performing professional activities in university libraries academic status, requiring at least a “Licenciatura” degree. The current curriculum of the College of Library Science was developed during the period 1998–2001 by a faculty committee, led by Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano in his role of College Coordinator. It was approved on 29 July 2002, and implemented in September of the same year (Ramírez Velasquez and Figueroa Alcántara 2009). This curriculum reflects the intention of producing a librarian who knows all kinds of resources, from historic documents to modern electronic resources, and is able to properly organize them, in order to provide efficient library and information services, using modern management techniques and current technology, as well as being able to use applied research for solving problems in his/her professional practice. Therefore, the courses in this curriculum were grouped into six areas: Bibliographic and Information Resources; Bibliographic and Documentary Organization; Library Services, Information Services Management; Information Technology; and Research and Teaching in Library Science. The college maintained its name, but the degree granted now is “Licenciatura” in Library Science and information Studies. Finally, it is pertinent to mention that in 2004, Adolfo Rodríguez Gallardo (Coordinator of the Graduate Programme in Library Science and Information Studies), Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano (Director of the University Centre for Library Science Research) and Augusto César Ramírez Velázquez (Coordinator of



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the College of Library Science) presented to Ambrosio Velasco Gómez (Director of the School of Philosophy and Literature) a proposal to offer the “Licenciatura” in Library Science and Information Studies nationally in distance mode (supported by online education systems on the web), to support the training needs of librarians across the country. Taking into account the features of this new education proposal, it was considered suitable to integrate the project into the Open University and Distance Education Division at the School of Philosophy and Literature, with Patricia Rodríguez Vidal Lucia and Pedro Joel Reyes López taking care of its conclusion and implementation (Ramírez Velázquez and Figueroa Alcántara 2009). The “Licenciatura” in Library Science and Information Studies has been offered by UNAM in distance mode since 2009.1

Library and Information Science (LIS) Schools in the Mexican States As a response to the need for professional librarians in different Mexican states, starting in 1980, diverse LIS schools and programmes were established across the country. In addition to the schools mentioned in the previous part of this chapter, there are currently six other LIS schools and programmes in different Mexican universities, all of them including the word “Information” in their names. These are the Information Sciences School at San Luis Potosí Autonomous University, in central Mexico; the Library and Information Science Undergraduate Programme at Nuevo Leon Autonomous University, in the north; the Library Science and Information Management Undergraduate Programme at Chiapas Autonomous University, in the south; the Documentary information Sciences Undergraduate Programme at Mexico State Autonomous University, a neighbouring state of Mexico City; the Information Sciences Undergraduate Programme at Chihuahua Autonomous University, in northern Mexico; and the Library Science and Knowledge Management Undergraduate Programme at Guadalajara University, in the central region.

1 http://suayed.unam.mx/oferta/fichas_distancia/lic_biblio_ffilo.html, accessed on 23 December 2015.

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Information Sciences School (San Luis Potosí Autonomous University) The School of Information Sciences is rooted in the creation of the “Licenciatura” in “Biblioteconomía” (Librarianship) in 1980 at the School of Economics at the Autonomous University of San Luis Potosi, based on an agreement of the rectors and university authorities from the states of Aguascalientes, Durango, Queretaro, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas, as a response to the lack of professional staff that would address their library problems. In 1988, this undergraduate programme acquired the status of Librarianship Coordination, becoming an organizational unit reporting directly to the University Rector. A change in the name and rank of this academic institution took place in 1998, becoming thereafter the School of Library Science and Information. In 2006, other significant events occurred, one being the implementation of an undergraduate programme in Archival Science, which again brought a change in its name, becoming the School of Information Sciences (UASLP 2012). This name was justified by offering this undergraduate programme and another one in Library Science. It is worth noting that this school is the only one in Mexico that has a similar rank with schools in other disciplines. The first curriculum of this school was comprised of 54 courses, distributed in the following academic areas: Introductory; Bibliographic Organization, Administration, Information Services, General and Support. This plan was continuously revised several times without substantial modifications (Torres Vargas 1996, Escalona Rios 2006). In 1988, a new curriculum, which included 56 courses grouped into four curricular themes was approved. These themes were (Martínez Rider 2005): Social: Knowledge of the context in its diverse dimensions (historical, political, economic, cultural, etc.) as well as the role of information units (libraries, archives, information or documentation centre) play; Humanistic: Elements that allow students to develop a creative, critical and committed attitude, by analysing current cultural values and retaining a basic understanding of ontology and ethics, as well as having a critical knowledge regarding the country’s development; Methodological: Elements for the implementation, interpretation and understanding of Library Science phenomena at different levels and dimensions, as well as to provide tools for submitting proposals, programmes and research projects. It seeks to promote the use of qualitative and quantitative methodologies;



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Discipline: It includes five areas: Foundations, Information Analysis and Organization, Information Services, Economics and Information Management, and Information Technology. The current curriculum of the School of Information Sciences, approved in 2006, is based on competencies and responds to the school’s mission: “Prepare reflective, ethical, critical and innovative professionals in the management of documentary information, by developing the skills and competencies required to manage, select, organize, analyse, preserve and disseminate documents in any format, and to create documentation products and services such as the management of information centres and systems with efficiency and quality, that may be adapted to the needs of the current and future society” (UASLP 2012).

Library and Information Science Undergraduate Programme (Nuevo Leon Autonomous University) This programme was established in 1984 within the Faculty of Philosophy and Literature at the Autonomous University of Nuevo León to meet the need for information professionals in the local, regional and national settings. In 1999, the curriculum was revised to update it, including the developments in science and technology and social changes. In fact, the 1999 curriculum emphasises the study and use of information technologies, whose importance in LIS education was increasing at that time, motivating considerable changes in both cataloguing and classification, and in the selection, as well as in the retrieval, storage and delivery of information. Regarding its focus, this curriculum mixed theory with practice as required by Library and Information Science professional practice; thus, the theoretical courses were complemented with workshops to apply the knowledge gained. (Escalona Ríos et al. 2011) In 2005, curriculum restructuring occurred, which contributed to achieving the main purpose of this programme: Prepare professionals in Library and Information Science with a high sense of social responsibility and professional ethics, able to manage all information units by applying policies, criteria and international standards in the development and organization of library collections, as well as in the design, implementation, automation, and evaluation of processes and services in libraries, archives and information centres. Committed to learning and meeting the information needs of the user community in public and private institutions, promoting the generation, transmission and storage of new knowl-

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edge with the intention to promote beneficial and significant changes in their development contexts (UANL 2014).

Library Science and Information Management Undergraduate Programme (Chiapas Autonomous University) This programme emerged from concerns of people and institutions interested in Library Science development, which were expressed publicly during the XXII Mexican Library Science Congress, held in May 1991, in Tuxtla Gutiérrez in the state of Chiapas. During this event, the State Government and the Autonomous University of Chiapas (UNACH) noted their interest in the creation of a “Licenciatura” in Library Science. In 1992 this was established in the UNACH School of Humanities, in order to train librarians to address the information requests made by the society (UNACH 2014a). The curriculum that was designed for this Library Science programme aimed to train professionals able to address and respond to the expectations of professional practice, and to give the students humanistic and technical foundations, as well as to develop the skills and attitudes which enable them to provide appropriate advice and guidance to users on the use and optimum utilization of resources and library services, satisfying the users’ information needs and interests for recreation and self-education purposes. The programme was planned to be completed in nine semesters, during which students had to take 49 courses grouped in six areas. These areas were Information Users, Information Services, Information Technology, Organization of Information Units, Research, and Document Classification Systems. Moreover, students had to take seven semesters of English, which were reduced in 2001 to four (Chacón Escobar 2005). Currently, the name of this programme has been changed to “Licenciatura” in Library and Information Management and it is expected the students will be able to “plan, design and manage information units, organized manually or computerized, such as libraries, documentation centres, and archives among others, as well as generate strategies that promote the use of information systems in order to successfully face the growing development of information and its demand. Moreover, the student will have the ability to answer to local, regional and national information needs, and to adapt and rationalize the use of technological advances and new methodologies that are developing in the profession” (UNACH 2014b).



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Documentary information Sciences Undergraduate Programme (Mexico State Autonomous University) In September 1992 the “Licenciatura” in Documentary Information Science was created at the School of Humanities in the State of Mexico University. This programme aimed at the confluence of three disciplines: Library Science, Archival Science, and Documentation. Library Science was defined as the study of libraries and the diverse document types preserved by them, as well as the application of principles to organize, preserve, manage and retrieve scientific texts. Archival Science was defined as the study of the management of documents generated as a result of the daily administrative activities in institutions. Documentation was defined as the science of the management of information and documents, regardless of their media (Estrada Lara et al. 2005). The first curriculum of this programme grouped its courses in five areas: Information Theory, Information Technology, Research, Humanistic Issues, and Languages. In 1999 the curriculum was updated and the courses were grouped into the following areas: Foundations; Disciplinary (Archival Science, Library Science, and Documentation); Humanistic, Research; Management; Technology; and Reprographics (Salazar Méndez 2005). Referring to the latest curriculum, established in 2004, Estrada Lara, Ramírez Aceves and Hernández Carmona (2005) mention that the courses that the students had to take were grouped in six tracks, these being: Archival Science, Library Science, Documentation, Information Technology, Information Evaluation, and Research. Finally, the current objective of this programme is to train highly competitive professionals whose knowledge and application of documentary techniques, supported by technological elements, would streamline the processes related to the identification, organization, processing, analysis, systematization, retrieval, protection, use, preservation and dissemination of documentary information. It is also noted that students of this programme will be able to identify, apply and evaluate the theoretical and methodological foundations on which Library Science, Archival Science, and Documentation are based. In addition, students will gain the ability to design retrieval models and systems and information services, applying the needed tools to meet the social demands on all information-documentation processes (UAEM 2014).

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Information Sciences Undergraduate Programme (Chihuahua Autonomous University) This programme was established in 1990, but Tarango Ortiz and Lau (2003) make mention of an overall redesign and modification of it, because its curriculum had been vaguely defined, had an overlap with other programmes of this university, such as Communication Sciences and Philosophy, and its content showed obsolescence because it had not been updated since its creation. Students of this programme, taught at the School of Philosophy and Literature of the Autonomous University of Chihuahua (UACH 2008), will be able at the end of their studies to: –– apply ethically the cognitive and methodological foundations of Information Sciences in any organizational context, both in document processing and in knowledge generation; –– process documents in all formats through their cataloguing, classification, indexing and abstracting; –– design, develop and evaluate information centres and services in different ways for different knowledge areas, applying the principles of general administration; –– develop through information processing, the structure of diverse products and services of documentation and information, which would contribute to support training and education, information dissemination, organizational documentation, corporate communications, and research and development, through use of print and electronic media; –– contribute to the creation, dissemination, analysis and preservation of diverse documents, aligned with their cultural, social, historical and legal context according to the needs of specific users. Furthermore, Tarango Ortiz (2010) points out that from 2008, this programme includes a curriculum model based on competencies, which are related to the following professional issues: a) Information Organizations, b) Information Resources, c) Information Products and Services, d) Information and Communication Technology, e) Information Dissemination, and f) Languages for Information media.



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Library Science and Knowledge Management Undergraduate Programme (Guadalajara University) This “licenciatura” is the third one established in the city of Guadalajara, Jalisco, the second city in population and economic importance in the country. Formerly, there were two other programmes which closed, the first one at the Autonomous University of Guadalajara (a private institution) from 1970 to 1988, and the second one at the University of Guadalajara from 1980 to 1986 (Carrión Rodríguez 1990). Since 2006 the Virtual University System of Guadalajara University has offered the “Licenciatura” in Library and Knowledge Management in distance mode (García Orozco 2007). The objectives of this programme (UDG 2014) are: –– Train professionals of high academic standing, with a solid education that will enable them to manage information units, identify and meet the information needs of society, and select and develop the human resources needed for the development of services. –– Develop a reflective and critical understanding for carrying out analyses and proposals on the pragmatic use of resources and information services, use the acquired knowledge and scientific and technological advances to benefit the community, and apply marketing principles to services and information products, which constitute an added value to the organization. –– Undertake teaching in the Library and Information Studies field to have national programmes and projects in the field of information, libraries, document organization and dissemination, and publishing and information industries. This programme aims to develop the core competencies of the information professionals or information managers, which are related to the knowledge of resources, access, technology and management, as well as the ability to use this knowledge as the basis for providing information services of the highest quality. This programme includes four areas of core competencies: organization management, resource management, marketing services, and application of tools and technologies (García Orozco 2007). The courses of the curriculum are grouped into the following areas: Context, Diagnosis and Planning, Organization and Research, Collection Development and Information Sources, Technology, Administration and Management, and Projects (UDG 2014).

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Graduate Programmes Library Science education in Mexico has also been taught at the graduate level. As mentioned earlier, the National Autonomous University of Mexico offers Master’s and Doctoral Programmes in Library Science and Information Studies [Maestría y Doctorado en Bibliotecología y Estudios de la Información]. Additionally, four more institutions offer master’s degrees in Library and Information Science, which have different names and characteristics, but similar to the undergraduate programmes, all of them have included the term “Information” in them. The universities granting an LIS Master’s Degree are: Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education [Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, ITESM), Master in Library and Information Science; The College of Mexico [El Colegio de Mexico], Master of Library Science; Autonomous Metropolitan University [Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana], Master of Information Management and Use; and Ciudad Juárez Autonomous University [Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez], Master of Information Services Management. Moreover, it is important to mention that in the late 1970s there were two other Master’s programmes: the Master of Library Science, established in 1978 at the Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon, and the Master of Library and Information Sciences, established at the University of Guanajuato (Carrión Rodríguez 1990), which were closed, so they have not been included in this document.

Master and Doctoral Programme in Library Science and Information Studies (National Autonomous University of México) The master’s programme offered by the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) is the oldest, because as mentioned above, it was established in 1960 as a result of restructuring all curricula at the Faculty of Philosophy and Literature. The degree was called a Master’s in “Biblioteconomía” Librarianship until 1966 when it was renamed Master of “Bibliotecología” (Library Science). In 1960, the UNAM Faculty of Philosohy and Literature offered a “licenciatura” and a Master’s degree in Library Science. The “licenciatura” studies prepared students for professional practice, with technical and practical courses, while the master’s programme focused on training for teaching in the discipline, and it lasted one year after the completion of the “licenciatura” programme (Barberena Blasquez 2001).



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Barberena Blásquez (2001) also notes that in 1966, the name of the Master of “Biblioteconomía” was changed to Master of “Bibliotecología” “Library Science” because in Spanish, the last part of this term (-logía) indicates “study”, which appropriately allowed a wide range of issues related to libraries to be covered, and not just those dedicated to practical issues, like their administration. Also, included in the new curriculum, were other academic requirements such as the preparation and presentation of a thesis and translation of a language at the beginning of the programme and another at the end. In 1972, a new degree programme was approved for the Master of Library Science, with the main objective to prepare “librarians able to perform in the profession, at a level of excellence, administration, teaching, research or specialized functions, attaining a high innovative, technical or methodological level (Barberena Blásquez 1992). Graduates from the “Licenciatura” in Library Science and other disciplines could enroll in this programme. They needed to have previously approved, as a requirement for admission, undergraduate courses in Library Science, according to their background and academic antecedents. This curriculum required students to complete 56 credits, and they could select among the following seminars (eight credits each) and courses (four credits each) based on their interest: Seminars: Informatics, Applied Computing to Libraries, Education Methods, Medical Libraries, Medical Information, Transliteration, Publications of International Agencies, Comparative Library Science, Manuscripts Organization. Specialized courses: Academic Libraries, General Linguistics, Universal Decimal Classification, Scientific Management, Lexicography of Library Science (Barberena Blásquez 2001). This programme was in effect until 1998, but during that time, seminars and courses were adapted to advances in Library Science. In the 90s it was considered necessary to fully transform this graduate programme, because it no longer met the needs of the discipline and the demands of the labour market. Therefore, a group of researchers and professors from the University Centre for Library Science Research (CUIB) of UNAM was given the task of developing a new graduate programme that would support the emergent demands and trends of the discipline. This new programme, approved by the University Council of the UNAM in 1998, considered the need to systematically address all issues related to the discipline in what was called the Graduate Programme in Library Science and Information Studies (Martínez Arellano and Rodríguez Gallardo 2005). One of the key features of this new graduate programme was the inclusion of doctoral studies, in addition to the master’s degree programme. Also, according to university regulations, this graduate programme, like every other one at the

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UNAM, is supported by a research institute and a school. In this case, it is the Institute of Library and Information Research (formerly the University Centre for Research in Librarianship) and the School of Philosophy and Literature; researchers and professors of these both institutions participate as teachers in its diverse courses, as well as thesis advisors. The seminars, courses and academic activities of the master’s and doctoral programmes in library and information studies, are organized into the following specializations: Information, Knowledge and Society; Information Organization; Information Technology; Library and Information Systems and Services; and Information Users. The Master of Library Science and Information Studies has as its objective to provide students with broad and solid training in one of the knowledge fields of this programme in order to introduce them to research and teaching, and to educate them to develop a strong aptitude and specialization for professional practice. Students must take eight seminars (eight credits each) and four courses (four credits each), which are grouped within the areas outlined above. Students who come from other disciplines must take and have previously approved, as an admission requirement, the following undergraduate courses: Library Science Foundations, Document Organization Foundations, Information Services Foundations, Reference Services 1, Reference Services 2, and Collection Development (UNAM 2010). It is also important to mention that this Master’s programme is taught in faceto-face and distance modes, and taking advantage of this latter modality, external branches have been established in diverse Mexican universities: Autonomous University of Yucatan, Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí, University of Guadalajara, and Autonomous University of Tabasco. This option aims to meet the demand for training at a high level in the various states and to prepare professionals who can implement future master’s programmes locally. Moreover, the doctoral programme in Library and Information Studies aims to provide students with a solid foundation in research in order to produce original knowledge, and rigorous preparation for academic or professional careers. Therefore, doctoral students have as their main academic activity a research project in one of the specializations of the programme, under the direction of three advisors, making up their doctoral committee. Doctoral students should have the “licenciatura” or master degree in Library Science (UNAM 2010) as a pre-requisite. It is also important to highlight that this is the only doctoral programme offered in Latin America in Spanish.



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Master of Information Sciences (Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education) The Master of Library and Information Science has as its origin the Master of Library and Information Science, established in 1999, within the Virtual University of the Technological Institute of Superior Studies of Monterrey (ITESM), a private educational institution. This programme, taught in online mode, was designed to prepare library staff who worked at the ITESM system, since requirements for accreditation of programmes in American universities include having librarians with a master’s degree, although the current library staff now includes librarians educated in other educational institutions. Subsequently, its name changed to Master of Science in Information and Knowledge Management, then to Master of Information Science, and then to its current title, Master of Information Sciences. The Master of Library and Information Science is designed for the professional who works in diverse areas such as physical and digital libraries, database management, and human resources. The curriculum includes labour skills required by the market, integrated in three areas: libraries administration, library area; and information technology (ITESM 2016). The courses included in these programme areas are: Management of Information Services and Organizations, Information Needs and Acquisition (Printed and Electronic), Human Resource Administration, Information Resources and Reference Services, Organization of the Information, Theory of Knowledge, nformation Access, Information Technologies and Organizations, and Selecting and Using Technology-based Distributed Learning (ITESM 2016).

Master of Library Science (The College of Mexico) This Master’s programme in Library Science was established in 2004 at the Daniel Cosío Villegas Library of the El Colegio de México (COLMEX 2010). Academic librarians of the Daniel Cosío Villegas Library participated in developing and teaching in this programme, because they hold positions of teacher-researcher (Morales López 2009). The main objective of this Master of Library Science is to prepare qualified students to serve as librarians able to (COLMEX 2010): –– act as managers, planners, and practitioners who are informed, creative, responsible and skilled in the field of academic library systems and specialized in social sciences and humanities, in the present and the foreseeable future;

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–– contribute to specialized competency development, through the practice of teaching, research and knowledge sharing; –– analyse, evaluate, design and implement the application of new technologies, and the means to innovate in library systems. This Master of Library Science programme is integrated into four main areas: –– Theoretical Area: Courses that are devoted to the analysis of phenomena encountered in Library and information Science, as well as to the critical examination of the contributions of other disciplines; –– Technical and Methodological Area: Courses are intended to introduce students to the various techniques and research methodologies needed in their academic work and in the preparation of their master’s thesis; –– Specialization Area: Specialization courses allow students to specialize and delve deeper into a particular subject area; –– Research Area: Seminars and academic advice for preparing a thesis.

Master of Information Management and Use (Autonomous Metropolitan University) The Master of Information Management and Use was established in 1999 at the Autonomous Metropolitan University (UAM) Xochimilco Unit in collaboration with the University of Havana. Its purposes are: To prepare highly qualified professionals with a strong background in the study, use, application and dissemination of scientific knowledge or its products, as a major form of support to solving life problems collectively; to promote broad and effective use of information systems; and to select and apply appropriate strategies to search for information to support the different processes of problem solving and decision making (Licea de Arenas et al. 2000).

Master of Information Services Management (Ciudad Juarez Autonomous University) The Master of Information Services Management was established in 2011 at the Institute of Social Sciences and Administration of the Autonomous University of Ciudad Juarez (UACJ), in the state of Chihuahua.



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The objective of this programme is to contribute to professional staff development in information units to update and certify their knowledge, and open their horizons in order to design innovative information services consistent with the changing world of science and knowledge, as well as to plan and manage the development of print and electronic collections to meet information needs, and apply knowledge management to support local, national and international academe (UACJ 2013a). The entry requirement for this online degree is a “licenciatura” in Library Science or in another discipline, in which case a minimum one-year experience working in libraries is required. The courses included in this programme are basic, advanced, and electives. The basic level includes courses on Information Resources and Reference Services (on-site and online), Knowledge Management, Information Literacy in Education, information Services Management, Collection Development and Management. Courses at the advanced level include Intellectual Capital Management, Strategic Management of libraries, Thesis Seminar. Electives: Communication Strategies with the User, Technological Resources Management and Web Content Management, Audit of Library Services. These courses are taught by academicians from the UACJ, and guest teachers from the Carlos III University of Madrid (UACJ 2013b).

Development, Current Status and Challenges Since the 70s, there has been an increase in Library and Information Science programmes, both undergraduate and graduate, adding to the two first programmes at that time in the capital city; later ones were established in various states. The first specialty programmes included in their names the term “Biblioteconomía”, similar to the English term “Librarianship” such as Escuela Nacional de Biblioteconomía y Archivonomía [National School of Librarianship and Archival Studies, Colegio de Biblioteconomía [College of Librarianship] at UNAM; and Licenciatura en Biblioteconomía [Undergraduate in Librarianship] at Autonomus University of San Luis Potosí. Etymologically, the word “Biblioteconomía” is formed from the Greek words “biblion” (book), “theke” (box or closet) and “nomos” (standard, rule). Thus, “Biblioteconomía” was conceptualized as the body of knowledge and practical experience related to the books and the administration and organization of a library, emphasising its practical aspects and standards. Obviously, this conceptualization was superseded by time and new approaches and perspectives of the profession, which led to its substitution with the word “Bibliotecología”, which is derived from the Greek words

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“biblion”, “theke” and “logos” (field of study). The meaning of both terms is similar; however, the difference is the scientific approach underlined by the term “logos”. Therefore, “Bibliotecología” (Library Science) was conceived as the body of knowledge related to the study of books and other materials, as well as to the principles, objectives, services, systems, norms and standards of the library. For this reason, schools began to include in their names the term “Bibliotecología” (Library Science) Certainly, changes in the names and programme content of library schools in Mexico were the result of the development of the field; however, the influence from its northern neighbour cannot be overlooked, an example being the adoption of the terms “Information”, “Information Sciences”, and others similar in the library school names and programmes in Mexico. Hjørland (2007) mentions that in the latter part of the 60s, library schools began to add the term “Information Science” to their names. The first school to do this was the University of Pittsburgh in 1964. Other schools followed this trend during the 70s and 80s, and during the 90s. Almost all the schools in the U.S. have added “Information Science” or a related term in their names. Similarly, Library Science schools and programmes in Mexico have added to their names the terms “Information” or “Information Science”. As in other parts of the world, in Latin America and Mexico there has been debate about the meaning and use of the terms “Library Science” and “Information Science”, as well as the study field of each one. Some have argued that Library and Information Science constitutes a new, more comprehensive discipline that integrates two formerly different disciplines. However, others have argued “Information” has been added to the Library Science school names and programmes only to improve their professional image, providing an appearance of modernity. Escalona Ríos (2008) has pointed out that professional degrees granted in Latin America (including Mexico) are diverse, using about eleven different names to refer to the same degree. There is a prevailing trend to use in the degree names only the term Library and Information Science(s) and to try to expand the range of their programmes; but their objectives and the professional profile of their graduates continue to be the same: to prepare librarians able to preserve, organize and disseminate information in diverse formats in order to meet the information needs of society and individuals. In this sense, their focus tends to be the same as in the past, that is, to train librarians for all types of libraries, information centres, documentation, information systems, archives and other units in which information is offered. In line with their contemporary degree name change, a few institutions are moving the field of study beyond the traditional settings, including courses like database creation, telecommunications networks, and learning resource centre



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management, among others. As in other regions and countries, institutions respond to trends in terminology and make subsequent changes in their curriculum in a desire to reflect modernity. Terms used in Latin American and Mexican library school names and programmes are as diverse as their curricula, suggesting the necessity of defining the meaning of Library and Information Sciences (LIS). Some LIS schools and programmes have included many courses related to information and communication technologies (ICTs), neglecting those related to essential and basic training of librarians, addressing only the professional trends related to technology use. Certainly, it is important to adapt the programmes and courses of LIS schools to the new environment of our society; however, we must not lose sight of the essential goals of our profession. Likewise, Gorman (2004, 5) recommends caution: The seductions of modern communications technology have led many library educators to concentrate on that technology and dismiss anything about libraries that is not amenable to a technological solution. This is a world in which fantastic schemes for virtual libraries and the worlds’ recorded knowledge available on the Internet and the Web are presented as if they were real components of the short-term future, despite the fact that they fly in the face of history and facts. We do not need these urban myths to be propagated in LIS schools or, worse, to be presented as facts to a new generation of librarians.

In times of dynamic change, there is a need to define the field of study of Librarianship and Information Science in a way that will support effective design of the core training for librarians in our country, as well as including the knowledge and basic skills needed to identify globally as members of the profession. It is appropriate to establish a common core curriculum for all Mexican LIS Schools that would also be useful for other Latin American schools, using Gorman (2004, 7) as a prompt: “The nub of the question of library education, as it is with any level of education in any subject, is what is taught. It is instructive to look at what goes on in libraries and the areas in which a would-be librarian should be knowledgeable, if we are to devise a core curriculum that would apply to all schools.” The common curriculum, proposes Gorman (2004), should include the following areas that represent the key feature of Library Science: “Collection development and acquisitions; Cataloguing; Reference and library instruction; Circulation, maintenance, preservation, etc.; Systems; Management; Types of library”. Moreover, this core curriculum should be part of the “licenciatura” education, because as has been pointed out earlier, unlike other countries, LIS education for professional practice in Mexico is at the undergraduate level, while graduate education is aimed at achieving a specialization in a specific discipline

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area at the master’s level, and training in research at the doctoral level. This core curriculum would establish the difference between undergraduate education and graduate education, since certain subjects of this proposed core curriculum are currently taught at the Master’s level, although they should be part of training for professional practice at the undergraduate level. Furthermore, the establishment of a core curriculum, common for all LIS schools in our country, should be a necessary condition for the internationalization of library education in general. This condition would facilitate student exchange, where students can take courses in other schools or programmes in the region or the world, and professors in any school could give courses at another institution, enriching LIS education programmes globally. A way to approach this participation is distance learning, which enhances access and the internationalization of library education. Students could take courses with compatible content in other Mexican or Latin American programmes, through a previously established international collaboration. It is vital to link international cooperative work, and create the academic networks through which they can consolidate projects aimed at the development of our profession at national, regional and international levels and to facilitate the interaction among instructors and students, to contribute to the overall development of the LIS field. It is important to reiterate that ICT use in LIS education now provides this opportunity.

As a Concluding Remark In this work we have described the origin and evolution of LIS schools and programmes in Mexico. Currently, LIS education, like education in other disciplines, is being affected and changed by the ICTs used in professional practice, education and research, which introduces a number of challenges. Knowing the origin and development of Mexican LIS schools and programmes enables the examination of elements necessary for having better education programmes, suitable for educating students in the age in which we are living, without neglecting the basic principles of Library and Information Science. Without any doubt, the extent of this issue and the extension of this work reveal many aspects of Mexican LIS education that need to be researched and discussed. Therefore, this contribution is presented as the starting point for such studies and for more extensively understanding LIS education in our country as it has been, is, and can be developed for the future.



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Calva González, 303–315. México: UNAM. Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. Morales López, Valentino. 2009. “Diagnóstico de la potencialidad de la investigación y docencia de los profesores del Programmea de Maestría en Bibliotecología de El Colegio de México.” In Potencialidades de investigación y docencia iberoamericanas en Ciencias Bibliotecológica y de la Información, edited by Salvador Gorbea Portal, 373–392. México: UNAM. Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. Múnera Torres, María Teresa. 2006. “Panorama actual de la enseñanza de la Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información en América Latina y el Caribe.” Paper presented at the 8° Congreso Nacional de Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información, mayo 31 a junio 2. Cartagena de Indias: ASCOLBI. Pagaza García, Rafael. 2003. “El Profesional Asociado: primer ciclo de formación de las licenciaturas que ofrece la Escuela Nacional de Biblioteconomía y Archivonomía.” http:// eprints.rclis.org/6102/1/RAFAELPAGAZA.pdf. Accessed on 2 June 2014. Pérez Paz, Nahúm. 1997. “La modalidad de educación abierta y a distancia de la Escuela Nacional de Biblioteconomía y Archivonomía.” In XXVIII Jornadas Mexicanas de biblioteconomía, 30 de abril al 2 de mayo de 1997. Memorias, 125–133. Cocoyoc, Mor. México: AMBAC. Pérez Paz, Nahúm. 1998. “Adecuación y actualización de los planes y programas de estudio.” In Encuentro de Educadores e Investigadores de Bibliotecología, Archivología y Ciencias de la Información en Iberoamérica y el Caribe (4: 1998: Maracaibo, Venezuela): Memoria, 2–4. Maracaibo: Escuela de Bibliotecología y Archivología. Ramírez Velázquez, César Augusto and Hugo Alberto Figueroa Alcántara. 2009. “Esbozo histórico del Colegio de Bibliotecología, 2001–2009.” Anuario de Bibliotecología y Estudios de la Información, 2008. Nueva Época 1: 27–47. http://ru.ffyl.unam.mx:8080/ jspui/bitstream/10391/776/1/03_ABEI_Ramirez_Figueroa_49-54.pdf. Accessed on 2 June 2014. Salazar Méndez, Enedina. 2005. “La Licenciatura en Ciencias de la Información Documental en la Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México.” In La educación bibliotecológica en México a través de sus instituciones, edited by Lina Escalona Ríos, 117–152. México: UNAM. Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. Tarango Ortiz, Javier. 2010. “Educación por competencias: caso Licenciatura en Ciencias de la Información, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua.” In Las competencias en el perfil bibliotecológico en América Latina, edited by Lina Escalona Ríos, 57–66. México: UNAM. Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. Tarango Ortiz, Javier and Jesús Guadalupe Lau Noriega. 2003. “Procesos de cambio curricular en ciencias de la información: caso UACH.” In XXXIV Jornadas Mexicanas de Biblioteconomía, Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco (Mexico), 14–16 May 2003, 131–150. http:// eprints.rclis.org/6104/1/JAVIERTARANGO....pdf, Accessed on 2 June 2014. Torres Vargas, Georgina Araceli. 1996. “Panorama en educación e investigación de la Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información en México.” In Reunión de investigadores y educadores de Iberoamérica y el Caribe en el área de la Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información, edited by Martha. A. Añorve, Elsa. M. Ramírez Leyva and M. del Rocio Graniel Parra, 302–320. México: UNAM. Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua (UACH). 2008. “Licenciado en Ciencias de la Información.” http://www.uach.mx/academica_y_escolar/carreras/planes/2008/11/04/ facultad_de_ciencias_de_la_informacion/. Accessed on 2 June 2014.

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Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez (UACJ). 2013a. “Maestría en Gestión de Servicios Informativos.” http://www.uacj.mx/ICSA/Humanidades/MGSI/Paginas/default.aspx. Accessed on 2 June 2014. Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez (UACJ). 2013b. “Maestría en Gestión de Servicios Informativos [Convocatoria] .” http://www.conpab.org.mx/Documentos/convoca/ Maestria%20en%20Gestion%20de%20Servicios%20Informativos.pdf. Accessed on 2 June 2014. Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (UAEM). 2014. “Oferta educativa. Licenciatura.” Facultad de Humanidades. Ciencias de la Información Documental 2004. http://dep. uaemex.mx/curricular/sitio_/index.php. Accessed on 2 June 2014. Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León (UANL). 2014. “Licenciatura en Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información.” http://uanl.mx/oferta/licenciatura-en-bibliotecologia-y-ciencia-de-lainformacion.html. Accessed on 2 June 2014. Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí (UASLP). 2012. “Escuela de Ciencias de la Información. Antecedentes de la Escuela de Ciencias de la Información.” http://www.eci. uaslp.mx/. Accessed on 2 June 2014. Universidad de Guadalajara (UDG). 2014. “Licenciatura en Bibliotecología y Cultural [sic] – 2014.” http://www.udgvirtual.udg.mx/lbgc-2014. Accessed on 2 June 2014. Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas (UNACH). 2014a. “Oferta educativa, Licenciatura en Bibliotecología.” Available at https://web.archive.org/web/20130404084455/http://www. unach.mx/cultura/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=25:izquierdo&catid =2:pintores&Itemid=8Accessed on 21 January 2016. Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas (UNACH). 2014b. “Licenciatura en Bibliotecología y Gestión de la Información.” Available at https://web.archive.org/web/20130404084455/http:// www.unach.mx/cultura/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=25:izquierdo& catid=2:pintores&Itemid=8. Accessed on 27 February 2016. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM). 2010. “Programa de Maestría y Doctorado en Bibliotecología y Estudios de la Información.” http://132.248.242.14/~posgrado/ posbiblio/pdf’s/01/TomoIPlanesdeEstudioNormasOperativasyAnexos.pdf. Accessed on 2 June 2014. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM). 2014. “Portal de estadística universitaria.” http://www.estadistica.unam.mx/numeralia/. Accessed on 2 June 2014. Vázquez Martínez, Juan Angel. 2013. “Situación de las bibliotecas universitarias mexicanas.” http://www.conpab.org.mx/Documentos/diagnostico/DIAGNOSTICO%20 FEBRERO%202013.pdf. Accessed on 2 June 2014.

Ana María Talavera-Ibarra and Aurora de la Vega-Ramírez

11 Library Education in Peru Historical and Future Perspectives

Introduction Peru is a country in the central part of South America over the Pacific Ocean, with a total area of 1.285 nillion km2. It has a variety of landforms, climates and fauna and flora which makes it a country with great diversity in terms of people, cultural, socio-economic conditions, natural resources, and the like. The bases of its economy are the mining and marine resources. According to the Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (INEI) (National Institute of Statistics and Informatics) the Peruvian population is estimated in 30’814,175 million in 2014 (INEI 2015). The World Bank (2015) estimates that the gross national income (GNI) per capita has grown from $2,530 USD in 2005, to $6,270 USD in 2013, and the percentage of people living in poverty has lowered from 55.6% in 2005 to 23.9% in 2013. In general, education is considered as an essential requisite for development. In this respect, Peruvian education is not at a good level. Results of international tests, like PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment), show low performance by our students (the second lowest in Latin America). Government support of education is still poor, but from 2.9% of GDP in 2005 it has increased to 3.3% in 2013 (World Bank 2014). Thus, the population growth and the economic improvement demand more efforts to meet the requirements of scientific, educational, social and cultural development. Moreover, reading promotion and library development in the country are not yet at their optimal level for pursuing a good education. Basic education lasts for 12 years (from 5 to 16–17 years old), after that students can access higher education (university and non-university). Courses are offered normally in two semesters per year, each one 17–18-week long with small differences among the institutions. Each university programme has established a number of credits (compulsory and electives) to finish the programme. In this respect, a credit means one hour per week of theoretical classes or two hours per week of practical classes. According to the Superintendencia Nacional de Educación Universitaria (SUNEDU) (National Board of Higher Education), in 2015 we have 142 universities throughout the country, from which 51 are public and 91 private (SUNEDU 2015). The great growth has occurred in the last decade, particularly due to a special Law

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passed in 1996 (D.L. No. 882), which gave opportunities and tax breaks to individuals or private institutions wishing to invest in education. Trying to control this situation, a new university law was passed in 2014 (Law No. 30,220, 9 July 2014) but is not yet enforced. Accreditation at the university level is a new trend at many universities and particularly in professional programmes within the universities, to ensure that institutions of higher education meet the highest quality requirements, needed to lead change in society. The transformations that the world has experienced since the second half of the 20th century as a result of the technological revolution has had a huge impact on the entire human endeavour. One of the most important changes has taken place in the information world, because of the emergence of a global economy based primarily on the production and transfer of information. As a consequence, the management and organization of information have become crucial to organizations and governments. It is necessary to ensure that technological advances taking place in the information society are geared to improve processes of governments, corporations and institutions but also to improve the quality of life of citizens. For these reasons the education of library and information science (LIS) professionals is vital in the context of an information society. LIS education is a well-developed topic in the professional literature, and always addressed in seminars, specialized lists, social networks, textbooks and the like. The popularity of the topic appears to be due to the need to ascertain the core knowledge of the profession, and to maintain information professionals prepared for present and future needs. We need a professional willing to take on challenges with initiative and creativity, thoughtful, analytical and critical, demonstrating competencies to navigate sudden changes. (Escalona 2010, 90) A good recommendation would be to follow the IFLA Trends report, which mentions the need to be prepared for new challenges due to the amount and rapid change of the information environment (IFLA 2013). That is not an easy task, particularly for countries outside the developed world, or the mainstream of the profession. LIS education in Latin America dates back to the beginning of the 20th century, Brazil and Argentina being the first ones to offer courses in the field (Hurtado 1995, 86–87). Most of the Latin American countries have adopted a first LIS degree at the undergraduate level (Bachelor), and the professional degree called Licenciatura, with some offering graduate programmes (master and doctoral degrees) (Martínez 2013, 6). A review of LIS Education in Latin America is the seminar Infobila held in 2005 in Mexico (Martínez Arellano and Calva González 2005), and the summary prepared by Múnera Torres (2006). Regional and Ibero-American professional meetings of LIS educators and researchers have taken place during the last decades, in order to discuss the role of



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their LIS schools and professional associations and to reach agreements in LIS education (harmonization of curricula, LIS areas, competencies of the LIS professional and proposals of joint research). Meetings to be noted include Encuentros de la Asociación de Educadores e Investigadores de Bibliotecología, Archivología, Ciencias de la Información y Documentación de Iberoamérica y el Caribe (EDIBCIC) (Meetings of the Association of LIS Educators and Researchers from Ibero-America and the Caribbean), taking place from 1993 to 2008 (Lascurain 2011); and Encuentros de Directores y Docentes de las Escuelas de Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información de los países del Mercosur (Meetings of LIS School Directors and Educators of LIS from Mercosur countries) from 2000 to 2012 (Barber 2006; EUBCA 2012).

LIS Education in Peru: An Historical Overview As a consequence of a terrible fire suffered by the Biblioteca Nacional del Perú (National Library of Peru), on 10 May 1943, most of its infrastructure and collections were destroyed. To address the situation the Government called Jorge Basadre, a well-known historian, and, at that moment, chief librarian of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos (UNMSM), to take charge of the reconstruction of the National Library. Basadre accepted the responsibility with certain conditions one of which was to create a library school to produce professional librarians to work with him on that mission. (De la Vega 1984, 28) A detailed description of the beginnings of the Escuela Nacional de Bibliotecarios (ENB) (National School of Librarians) can be found in MacKee (1966). According to her, the ENB was created within the National Library by Presidential Decree nº. 12 of 23 June 1943. Classes began in 1944 with 37 students, of whom only 26 graduated, after a five-month course. The aim of the ENB was to prepare personnel for the reconstruction of the National Library and gradually to supply personnel to other libraries from the public sector. The subjects taught were: Management and Economy of Libraries (including a part dedicated to Children’s libraries), Bibliography (with special reference to Spanish, American and Peruvian Bibliography), Cataloguing and Classification, Book History (with emphasis on Spanish and Peruvian Book History), Contemporary Libraries and Library Associations and Paleography (Pardo 1991, 78–79). Despite the large number of universities, now only two of them, both in Lima (one public and one private), offer the LIS education as described below. After many years running as the only professional school in Peru, approximately 600 people studied at the ENB, of whom 302 librarians graduated (Silva Santisteban 1984, 8). The curriculum varied and was updated according to the advances of the

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profession and the exchange of experiences with similar schools in other parts of the world. Thus, curriculum moved from a five-month duration in 1944 to a threeyear programme in 1976 and to a final four-year programme until 1980. Ronlad Wyllys, consultant on a special UNESCO mission in 1977, recommended on his report that the ENB should be integrated into a university, as the most important step for librarians and libraries in order to play the role they should assume for the socioeconomic development of the country (Ronald Wyllys 1977, 3). In 1979 the ENB also received the advice of J.R. Ortiz, consultant from the Organization of American States, who proposed a curriculum of five years for the career of Librarianship and Documentation at the university level (De la Vega 1984, 42). Following the recommendations of these two experts, graduates from ENB and professionals from the Asociación Peruana de Bibliotecarios (APB) (Peruvian Librarians Association), succeeded in their aspiration of transferring the ENB to a University, thus, on 13 May 1980 the National School of Librarians was transferred to the UNMSM by Presidential Decree Nº 0079-80—Ed (De la Vega 1984, 43). As a university career it was established within the Facultad de Letras y Ciencias Humanas (Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences), and became the Escuela Académico Profesional de Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información (Academic-Professional School of Library and Information Sciences). The students from ENB were also transferred to the UNMSM School and after two additional years of studies, received their Bachelor’s degree (Miranda-Meruvia 2005, 213). At the same time, the oldest private university in Peru, the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PUCP) (Pontifical Catholic University of Peru) was planning at the beginning of the 1980s to have a professional degree for librarians. In those days there were good prospects at PUCP for creating the new programme: the British Council had recently sponsored with success an 18-month Diploma course about information systems, a good collection of specialized literature was already in use; besides, the university library was and continues to be one of the best university libraries in the country, so it could support the launching of a new career; and the British Council was ready to continue supporting the university project. With the gained experience the PUCP decided to open the LIS programme in 1985. Some classes began in that year, though the programme was officially opened in 1986. The LIS programme became part of the Facultad de Letras y Ciencias Humanas (Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences), and was officially named Especialidad de Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información (Specialty of Library and Information Science), one of the eight programmes taught at that Faculty. The Specialty has had three curricula: 1986, 1998 and 2004 (new name: Especialidad de Ciencias de la Informacion (Specialty of Information Sciences)) (PUCP 2004), and a new curriculum will be in place in 2016.



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Undergraduate Professional Education By professional education we mean higher education at universities that grant the degree of Bachiller (Bachelor academic degree) and the Licenciado (professional degree) in LIS.

The University of San Marcos (UNMSM) School The UNMSM LIS School is one of the Peruvian current LIS programmes. LIS students enter the University to study the integrado (integrated), for one year, with other students of the Faculty. From their second year they become LIS full time students. The web page of the School mentions in its presentation and graduate profile (UNMSM 2015a) the following: La Escuela Académico-Profesional de Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información forma profesionales bibliotecólogos altamente calificados, con valores éticos y conocimientos científicos y tecnológicos en el acopio, procesamiento, análisis, acceso y difusión y gestión de la información, que contribuyan al mejoramiento permanente de nuestra sociedad. (The Academic-Professional School of Library and Information Sciences prepares highly qualified professional librarians with ethical values and scientific and technological knowledge in the collection, processing, analysis, access, dissemination and management of information, who contribute to the continuous improvement of our society).

The School aims to prepare graduates to identify and meet information needs, to promote an active participation in information systems; to know formal and informal information sources; and to dominate the processing of documentary materials and the automation processes for information storage and retrieval. Since the creation of the UNMSM School, there have been seven different curricula, from 1981 to the current one of 2004. As Miranda-Meruvia mentioned (2005, 214), this is not a common practice at the University. In a personal interview with Rosalia Quiroz, current Director of the LIS School (2015), she mentions that a new curriculum is almost ready to be approved, but the new Peruvian University Law, and renewal of UNMSM authorities, prevent its approval at present. The main LIS areas in the UNMSM curriculum are presented in Table 11.1 ordered by the number of credits. These areas were organized by the authors.

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Table 11.1: UNMSM: areas of the LIS curriculum. Areas

Main contents

General studies

Spanish Language, Literature, Philosophy, History, Mathematics, Biology, Logics

11

35

4

14

Management & Projects

Management of information units, planning, evaluation, Project design, Marketing

8

25

0

0

Information processing & Cataloguing, classification, retrieval** information retrieval

6

23

0

0

LIS Foundations

Introduction to LIS, Epistemology, Legislation of libraries and librarians

6

20

3

11

Information Technology

TIC, Databases

5

19

0

0

Resources & Services

User services and resources, Internet and users

6

18

1

3

Information units & Development***

Types of information units, School and Academic libraries, Seminars on Information for development

5

18

0

0

Research & Methods

Statistics and Research methods, Dissertation elaboration

5

16

1

3

Archives & Preservation

Archives public and private, preservation of different materials

3

9

1

3

Practicum

Practice in different information units

1

9

0

0

56

192

10

34

Total areas 10 * Students must select 8 credits from electives. ** Three of the courses are workshops. *** Three of the courses are seminars.

Required courses No. No. courses credits

Electives Courses* No. No. courses credits



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The current curriculum includes 53 required courses, which make 192 compulsory credits, which added to eight (out of 34) elective credits total the 200 credits required to complete their studies.1 According to Quiroz (2015), the new curriculum will allow for more elective courses, up to 24 credits, and a practicum of 200 hours. To obtain the Bachelor’s degree students must take all the credits required, including the practicum (360 hours) and a certificate of English language proficiency. In a study related to the value of the practicum in LIS education, Jara de Súmar and Talavera Ibarra (2011, 10) found that many respondents from UNMSM considered that they have enough experience working in information units, and rather prefer the job experience to be recognized as the practicum. Most of the practicum is unpaid, so students cannot devote time for practicum when they are living on a salary, causing some of them to be reluctant to take that course or postpone it. However, some of them value the practicum as a good opportunity to enter the labour market. To obtain the “Licenciado” degree, students must submit a dissertation. An alternative way to obtain it is to take a special course, after three years of experience in the field, and prepare a professional report related to their work. This is right now the most preferred option. Table 11.2 shows the number of UNMSM graduates since 1991, the average of students who finished the whole programme is 62 per year, while the number of registered students at the School is almost 260 per year. Numbers show that not all the students obtain the Bachelor’s degree, due mainly to the non-proficiency in the English language or missing of the practicum. While others do not obtain the Licenciado degree because of the lack of time to prepare the dissertation or the professional report. Table 11.2: Graduates at UNMSM School. (Source: Personal communication from Rosalia Quiroz, 20 April 2015). Year 1991–2014 Total*

Students who finished LIS studies

Bachelor’s degree

Licenciado Degree

877

611

273

* Numbers are approximate. The number of Licenciado includes those who previously obtained the Bachelor’s degree.

1 The complete current curriculum can be found at http://letras.unmsm.edu.pe/index.php/escuelasydep/biblio, accessed on 24 December 2015.

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Students are needed by different institutions as library assistants, almost from the beginning of their LIS studies, allowing them to get practice and knowledge and sometimes better positions while they continue their LIS studies. Tables 11.3 and 11.4 show the current faculty members at UNMSM LIS School: Table 11.3: UNMSM: LIS Lecturers by category. (Source: Personal communication from Rosalia Quiroz, 20 April 2015). Lecturers

Category

Year 2014 Ordinary

Professor 1

Associate 7

Assistant 8

1

7

8

Under Contract Total

Total Teaching Assistants 4 4

16 4 20

Table 11.3 reflects the total number of the teaching staff at the LIS School, although the “Integrado” teachers are not included, as they do not belong to the LIS school nor work on a full time basis. Table 11.4: UNMSM: LIS Lecturers by degree. (Source: Personal communication from Rosalia Quiroz, 20 April 2015). Lecturers

Degree

Year 2014 Permanent Under Contract Total

Licenciado 7 4 11

Total Master Doctor 5 4 5

4

16 4 20

Most of the teaching staff has obtained their Master degree in another area or outside the country, as no LIS Master degree was available in Peru until 2007, when the UNMSM School began to offer a Master in Library and Information Science.

The PUCP Programme The PUCP programme began in 1986, and it is part of the Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences. Students enter the University to study at the Faculty of General Studies, where they must take a 4-semester programme on general topics, like History, Philosophy, Linguistics, Literature, Mathematics, and the like. When



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they finish the general programme, they can choose among different specialized fields like Management, Law, Accounting, Social Sciences, and Arts and Human Sciences. Within the Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences, there are eight different options, LIS being one of them. The purpose of the Specialty and the graduate profile are described in the most recent brochure of the programme (PUCP 2014): La Especialidad forma profesionales capacitados en el tratamiento estratégico de la información para la toma de decisiones. Como egresado de esta Especialidad verás a la información como un bien que debe ser gestionado eficientemente para que las organizaciones generen conocimiento y alcancen sus objetivos, y te especializarás en el diseño de productos y servicios de información empleando la tecnología como herramienta fundamental. (The Specialty prepares professionals trained in the strategic management of information for decision making. As a graduate of this Specialty you will see information as an asset that must be managed efficiently for organizations to generate knowledge and achieve their goals and you will study the design of information products and services using technology as a fundamental tool).

Among the functions that the graduate on Information Sciences can perform are to manage information with efficiency; to evaluate information sources; to use informatics tools to implement, develop and exploit information systems; to use techniques of management and marketing of information systems, units and services. Also, to understand and apply principles of planning, organization and evaluation techniques to information units and services; and to communicate in oral and written forms in the academic field. The current curriculum is a three-year programme, covering different topics of the LIS field, and some areas of Telecommunications and Written and Oral Communications. The curriculum totals 118 credits, including nine credits from electives of the LIS field and other nine credits from electives of any other area of knowledge. The 118 credits include two research seminars for the preparation of the dissertation as well as the practicum. Since 2008 a proficiency certificate on English language is also required to finish the programme. Apart from the theoretical classes, courses in the areas of information technology, information organization and retrieval, information resources, and research methods; include 2–3 weekly hours of practical work Table 11.5 presents the current curriculum areas of the LIS programme as they appeared in the LIS brochure of 2007 (PUCP 2007). We have ordered the areas according to the number of credits they include.

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Table 11.5: PUCP programme: areas of the LIS Curriculum. Areas

Main contents

Information Technologies

TIC, Information Architecture, Information systems, Database Management, Telecommunications, Digital Libraries

5

17

1

3

LIS Foundations

Introduction to LIS, Recorded knowledge, Information and society, Deontology, LIS topics

5

14

3

10

Information processing & handling

Cataloguing, classification, information retrieval, analysis and dissemination of information

4

14

0

0

Research

Statistics and Research methods, Dissertation elaboration

4

13

0

0

Information Management

Foundations of Management, Management of information services, Knowledge Management, Marketing

4

12

1

3

Communications Communication Theory, Oral and written workshops, electronic publishing workshop

4

10

Archives & Museology

Archive, Museology, Records management, preservation

3

9

3

9

Information Resources & Services

User services and resources, Internet and users

2

7

Practicum

Practice in different information units

1

4

32

100

8

25

Total areas = 9

Required courses No. No. courses credits

Electives Courses No. No. courses credits

To obtain the Bachelor’s degree students must take all 118 credits and take an English exam. To obtain the Licenciado degree they must submit a dissertation accompanied by an oral presentation. Another way to graduate as Licenciado is to take a one-semester updating course especially devised for that purpose. Students must previously have completed their Bachelor’s courses three years before as a minimum, to be admitted to the programme.



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The practicum is done in the last semester of studies. The institutions where the practicum takes place are selected according to student preferences, suggestions of the practicum coordinator or availability of the institutions. De la Vega and Arakaki (2011, 82) state that the practicum takes place mostly in non-profit organizations that are part of the educational, cultural and social areas. They affirm that the science, technology and business sectors as well as public and school libraries have been unsolicited locations for practica, either because they are not attractive to students, the profession is “invisible” for some potential employers or because libraries were not in the conditions to accept a practicum programme. They also mention that although the curriculum includes the development of skills in management, communication and technological fields in their coursework, the students do not find a place of direct application in most of the cases studied. The PUCP programme has always had a limited number of students, enrolling from 20 to 35 students per year. In 2014 it had 24 registered students. Some of them come from the General Studies programme; others transfer from other universities or from other PUCP specialties (PUCP 2015). Since 2011 students with university degrees in other subject areas can also access the LIS programme to pursue a second Licenciado degree with a reduction on the number of credits; this option is named Licenciatura Especial (Special Licenciatura). In the past years, different strategies have been developed to attract more students, though not all of them have proved to be successful. There are many potential reasons that limit the enrollment of students to the LIS programme, one of those being that the university is a private one and the tuition is not affordable for many people; another may be the unattractive salaries and the few positions students find after graduation; and a further one could be the poor library tradition in the country. Due to these reasons “parents are reluctant to pay high tuition fees to obtain a degree that doesn’t guarantee secure and well paid employment”. (Talavera Ibarra and Jara de Sumar 2009, 8) The coordinator of the Specialty, Monica Arakaki states (personal communication to authors, 28 April 2015) that among the current strategies to attract students to the LIS programme, the PUCP Central Office of Admission organizes fairs for school students who, during the visit to the university, receive flyers, attend talks about the career, and answer questions from the attendants. Experiential workshops are also organized where school students witness the activities performed by information professionals. Although the Specialty has a blog, a new strategy has been designed that is proving successful: the use of social networks like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and Slideshare, which are especially dedicated to a younger audience (16+ years old). They can follow and receive news from the Specialty and the LIS field, in a language appropriate to their age, in contrast to the language used in the blog, which is more geared to professionals and the general public.

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One important issue to mention is the new curriculum ready to be implemented in 2016, where very innovative topics and methodologies are included. It is developed under the model of a competence-based curriculum, and may attract more students interested in technologies, management and research. Five LIS areas have been highlighted: Technologies and information systems, Management of organizations and sources of information, information organization and preservation, research and scientific communication, and social dimension of information and knowledge. Table 11.6: PUCP: Graduates from LIS programme. (Based on information in the intranet site of PUCP http://campusvirtual.pucp.edu.pe/, accessed 24 December 2015). Programme*

Students who finished the programme

Bachelor’s degree

Licenciado Degree**

96 37**

88 30*

40 12

123

118

52

LIS students Information Sciences students Total

* Until 2006, graduates were granted the degree of Bachelor in LIS, from 2007 until now, the degree is Bachelor in Information Sciences. ** Numbers of Licenciado include those who have previously obtained the Bachelor’s degree.

Tables 11.7 and 11.8 show the current PUCP LIS faculty. As shown, only four lecturers are full time and eleven part-time. All lecturers (except one) have obtained a Master degree in a foreign country while teaching assistants have a Bachelor or Licenciado degree. The Specialty also has a communication assistant. The numbers are: Table 11.7: PUCP: LIS Lecturers by Category. (Based on information in the intranet site of PUCP http://campusvirtual.pucp.edu.pe/, accessed 24 December 2015). Lecturers

Category

Year 2014

Professor/ Ordinary

Full time Hourly based Total

Total Associate Lecturer/ Ordinary

2

1

2

1

Assistant Lecturer/ Ordinary

Under contract

1 1 2

8 8

Teaching Assistant/ under contract

2 2

4 11 15



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Table 11.8: PUCP LIS Lecturers by degree. (Based on information in the intranet site of PUCP http://campusvirtual.pucp.edu.pe/, accessed 24 December 2015). Lecturers Year 2014

Bachelor

Licenciado

Master

Doctor

Total

1

2

10

2*

15

* Additionally two professors holding the Master degree have doctorate studies concluded.

As many other Latin American programmes, the UNMSM and the PUCP, have a curriculum whose LIS areas are quite similar, although some differences are visible on the emphasis they dedicate to each area. In the case of the area of LIS foundations, Mercosur includes communications, archives, museums, information units and culture and society, which in the Peruvian programmes are covered by different areas. Table 11.9 below shows the LIS areas recommended, with the percentage dedicated to each one. Table 11.9: LIS areas recommended by EDIBCIC and Mercosur compared to the Peruvian programmes. Areas in EDIBCIC (1996)

Areas in Mercosur (1998)*

LIS Foundations

LIS Foundations (14%) LIS Foundations (6.5%)

LIS Foundations (14%)

Information Processing

Information Processing (20%)

Information Processing and Retrieval (12%)

Information Processing and Handling (14%)

Information Resources and Services

Information Resources and Services (20%)

Information Resources and Services (9.3%)

Information Resources and Services (7%)

Information Technology

Information Technology** (16%)

Information Technology (9.9%)

Information Technology (17%)

Management of information units

Management of information units (20%)

Management and Projects (13%)

Information Management (12%)

Research

Research** (10%)

Research (8.3%

Research (13%)

Practicum (4.7%)

Practicum (4%)

Practicum

Areas in UNMSM (2004)***

Areas in PUCP (2004)****

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Table 11.9: continued. Areas in EDIBCIC (1996)

Areas in Mercosur (1998)*

Areas in UNMSM (2004)***

Areas in PUCP (2004)****

Archives & Preservation (4.7%)

Archives & Museology (9%)

Information units (9.3%)

Communications (10%)

General Studies * Percentage refers the weight recommended for each area by the II Encounter (EUBCA 1997). ** These areas were dropped from the recommended LIS areas by the V Encounter in 2001, as they were considered transversal to the whole curriculum. *** Percentage based on the areas included in Table 1. The general studies were not counted, only compulsory credits considered minus the general studies =157. **** Percentage based on the areas included in Table 5. Only compulsory credits are considered (100 credits).

In terms of accreditation, none of the Peruvian LIS programmes have initiated the process, while other Latin American countries are well advanced on this respect. Chile, Colombia and Argentina were the first countries to start. “Although there are important regional and national initiatives, projects, and studies about quality assurance in higher education, there is not much literature in the LIS field.” (Arakaki 2015, 198). In her research Arakaki conducted case studies of the accredited LIS Schools of Mexico, Colombia and Costa Rica.

Graduate Education A Master’s degree in Library and Information Science was created in 2007 by the UNMSM LIS School as part of the Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences, Graduate Section. It ran in 2007 and 2008: 14 students were admitted to the Master’s. All of them finished their studies but have not obtained the Master’s degree yet. (Quiroz 2015.) Apart from that, at the same University, the Facultad de Ingeniería de Sistemas e Informática – Unidad de Posgrado (Faculty of Systems Engineering and Informatics – Graduate Unit) created in 2010 a Master’s degree entitled “Maestría en Gestión de la Información y el Conocimiento” (Master in Information and Knowledge Management) together with the University Paul Valéry of Montpellier, France. The programme was offered to graduates from any subject area, though 80–85% of students came from the LIS field. The Master’ consisted of 13 courses



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and lasted four semesters. (UNMSM 2015b). To get the degree students had to submit a dissertation. The agreement with the French university ended after 15 out of 20 students obtained their Master’s degree The Master’s continues to be offered by the UNMSM, and subsequent student intake from 2012 to 2014 amounts to 46 people, none of them have obtained their degree yet (Victor Miranda, pers. comm., 15 January 2016) . The PUCP LIS programme does not have a Master’s degree yet, one of the reasons being the actual process of implementing a new study plan; after its consolidation it is the intention to create a Master’s in the field. At present the PUCP has two LIS Diploma programmes, devised to people who have already obtained a university degree in different subject fields. We detail them as continuing education programmes under the next section.

Continuing Education and Other Activities The PUCP established in 1990 a Diploma programme entitled Diploma de Estudios en Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información (Diploma of Studies in Library and Information Science) with the purpose of training professionals from different disciplines working in libraries or who were interested in the LIS field. Although admission is still open to this programme, there have not been registered students since 2011. One reason could be that the Special Licenciatura opened a better opportunity for graduates of other disciplines to obtain an academic degree rather than a diploma. Table 11.10: PUCP: Graduates from Diploma programmes.* Programme On-campus** Virtual*** Total

Registered students*

Diploma granted

53 159 212

35 106 141

* Included those students who registered in some subjects or withdrew the programme. ** Programme started in 1990. *** Programme started in 2004.

With the facilities afforded by the creation of a virtual platform at the university for distance learning courses, the Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences created in 2004 a virtual Diploma programme entitled Diplomatura de Formación y Actualización en Ciencias de la Información (DIFACI: Diploma for Education and

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Updating in Information Sciences). As in the case of the previous diploma, it was devised for people who already have a degree in other areas of knowledge and want to pursue a career in the LIS field. This diploma includes eight subjects in two semesters. To get the Diploma, students must take all courses and present their proposal in a final public session. Since its creation it has graduated 106 people. Although the Peruvian academic and professional community in LIS is still small, seminars, round tables and conferences are organized during the year, with the participation of Peruvian and foreign visiting lecturers. The organizers are regularly the two LIS schools; the Peruvian Library Association (CBP); the Consortium Altamira, that brings together mainly university libraries from the whole country; and the Peruvian North American Cultural Institute (ICPNA), among others. Since 2012 the CBP and ICPNA international congresses added pre-conference workshops on different topics. These activities are normally attended by professional and non-professionals; a detailed description can be seen in the Appendix. Talavera Ibarra (2005, 403) indicates that it is a practice during the conferences and congresses that apart from the papers presented, representatives and vendors of software and bibliographic databases show their products, offering demonstrations and some workshops about new features. With the support of IFLA (International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions), particularly with its Building Strong Library Associations (BSLA) programme delivered by the Action for Development through Libraries Programme (ALP), different workshops were offered during 2012–2013, related to the librarians’ role, image, benefits he/she brings to society and his/her Library Association. Also, workshops on advocacy were taught in Peru, São Paulo and Bogotá, during 2014, most of them attended by LIS professionals (IFLA 2015). Meanwhile, students from each LIS programme organize annually a two- or three-day colloquium as an opportunity to present research, experiences and to debate different issues of the LIS field. Apart from that the UNMSM LIS students organize every year the Seminario de la Realidad Bibliotecológica (Seminar on the Reality of Librarianship) a regular subject on their eighth semester. Topics vary according to the students’ interests. It is an opportunity to invite national and international professionals in order to discuss LIS matters. These activities are attended mainly by students, but also by professional and nonprofessional personnel. With regards to support staff training it must be said that none of the LIS schools provide it on a regular basis. However, one of the functions of the National Library is to “Lead, implement and evaluate actions and training programmes, technical training and retraining in the field of library and informa-



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tion science to enhance the institutional development of the National Library” (Biblioteca Nacional del Perú 2015). The Directorate of Public Libraries of the National Library used to have a regular programme for library technicians and school teachers which was called Programme of Continuing Education (Talavera Ibarra 2005, 398). At present there isn’t any provision to attend regularly to the needs of this important sector. The majority of libraries and information centres of the country are managed by non-professional personnel even when the Law No. 29181 from 2008 only allows libraries with less than 3,000 books to be administered by non-professionals. A new law of the National Library System, enacted in 2013, raises expectations on this respect. According to the new law, one of the functions of the System is to promote the training of the members of the National Library System. The law also dictates the creation of technical institutes of library and information sciences responsible for providing the quality and technical professionals in sufficient numbers to address the management of public libraries for the national development of research and studies in these areas. So far there is not information on this respect. Meanwhile the training activities have been carried out by other institutions, including the LIS programmes, the Peruvian Library Association, some universities and NGO’s which have programmed courses or workshops occasionally. These activities have taken place in Lima and other cities of the country. Courses have an emphasis on cataloguing and classification but in the last years, especially in places where there are no professional librarians, training covers other issues as well.

Research Although research is not intensive in the LIS field compared to other disciplines, especially in developing countries, it seems that the importance given to higher education worldwide in the context of the knowledge society is having an impact on research development in universities of countries like Peru, where Vice Chancellorships for Research and also research grants have been created in order to stimulate the realization of research in all specialties. It also encourages its dissemination in repositories and journals of national and international scope. This situation which is also caused by the trend in accreditation of universities has resulted in a growing interest in research and publication on the part of lecturers, being the LIS teaching staff part of that trend. The UNMSM Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research was established in 2005, since then, it has created incentives for research projects and provides 33

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grants annually to the Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences. There are also grants for the best ten undergraduate dissertations in the same Faculty. (Estrada and Alfaro-Mendives 2014, 210–211). In the same article Estrada-Cuzcano and Alfaro-Mendives (2014, 219), analysed the professional reports that students submit to obtain the Licenciado degree at the LIS School. They consider that research at the School has improved in recent years, not only in quantity but also in quality, and observe that students are using techniques and instruments for more valid data collection. However, they regret that the presentation of dissertations is almost zero due to the facilities offered in the seminar taken towards the Licenciado degree. Out of 261 graduates from 2000 to 2012, only five students submitted a dissertation (2%). The authors (2014, 215) presented a table with a distribution of the topics covered by LIS dissertations. The first five most recurrent topics are as follows: –– Library services 58: 22%; –– Management of information units 31: 12%; –– Evaluation of information units 23: 9%; –– Technical processes 19: 7%; –– Archival science and archives 17: 7%. With reference to methods the vast majority of the studies are descriptive and the most used instruments for data collection are surveys and observation; also, interviews and bibliographical review. At the same time they suggest that the LIS School should have a database of relevant research topics, focused on solving specific problems, and can cover theoretical and practical gaps in the case of dissertations and professional reports. (Estrada-Cuzcano and Alfaro-Mendives 2014, 220). PUCP created its Vice Rectorate of Research on 2009, at present it has 94 research groups in the whole university. The Arts and Human Sciences cover 16% of those groups. Two of the groups have the presence of LIS lecturers. The Vice-Chancellor for Research has different ways to encourage and support research. One of them is the institutional and financial support for research projects to lecturers after a research contest. Another is the support to the best undergraduate and graduate dissertation projects. Also, it gives research awards annually to research done by lecturers, undergraduates and graduates. LIS lecturers are active in research; one of them has won an award. In addition to that, every year the Office for Teaching Staff organizes a contest for teaching innovation projects; two LIS lecturers won in 2014 and one in 2015. As required by the Vice Chancellor, the Specialty has established the following lines of research: –– scientific communication and open access to information; –– information Science education and job market;



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–– information and knowledge management; –– information literacy, seeking behaviour and use of information. Research lines can be assessed by the university according to its articulation with research projects, publications (books, articles on indexed national or international journals, proceedings, etc.); dissertations, academic activities, number of researchers from PUCP and other institutions, and number of students participating in research projects. With reference to students’ research, out of 42 students who obtained the Licenciado degree, 21 (50%) did it by submitting a dissertations; the others opted for the special course. Regarding the research topics studied, they include bibliometrics, evaluation of scientific journals, developing information skills (at school and in the adult population), information access and citizenship, censorship, continuing library education, non-traditional labour market, public libraries, information literacy, social web and library services, university libraries and archives, among others.

Publications LIS publications are scarce in Peru. In the last decade, few publications have been issued. We can mention that lecturers from UNMSM and PUCP have published some articles on the topics of: open access, copyright, archives, book preservation and conservation, epistemology, accreditation, library education, public libraries, information literacy, and the like. Many of them were published in national journals like Docencia e Investigación, Fenix, and Bibliotecologos, or in online journals Biblios, Alex@ndria, Summa Humanitatis, AccesBib, etc. and also in international journals like Crítica Bibliotecológica, Investigación Bibliotecológica, Libri, Perspectivas em Ciência da Informação, Pez de Plata, International Library and Information Review, and Revista Interamericana de Bibliotecología, among others. Three periodicals in the LIS field were published, which are discontinued now, Claustro Pleno, Infobib, and Bibliotecologos; the current ones are in electronic format like Biblios,2 Alexandri@3 and AccessBib.4 The PUCP LIS programme publishes on a regular basis a series called Temas de Bibliotecología e Información

2 http://biblios.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/biblios, accessed on 15 April 2016. 3 http://revistas.pucp.edu.pe/index.php/alexandria, accessed on 24 December 2015. 4 http://accesbib.blogspot.com/, accessed on 24 December 2015.

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(Issues on Library Science and Information); some of them are now available at the University’s repository.5 Lecturers and graduates from both universities have also submitted and presented papers to national and international conferences, like the IFLA annual congresses, the CBP international congresses, the ICPNA seminars or the Altamira Jornadas. Some of those papers appeared on the proceedings of those events (print or digital). In 2014 a paper was submitted by a PUCP LIS lecturer to the Second European Conference on Information Literacy, held in Croatia. Also two PUCP lecturers have contributed to book chapters on the topics of cataloguing education in Peru and accreditation processes in three LIS programmes in Latin America. In addition, the Peruvian Library Association has published two books on School libraries, and Public libraries. At the same time, small pamphlets devised for the general public or library assistants, have been issued by some NGOs or Special projects, like “Tapurisunchis” or “Hatun Nani” or “CEDRO”, most of them devoted to the organization of small or rural libraries, library services or reading promotion.

Job Market We cannot end this chapter without discussing the issues related to the job market. De la Vega (2005, 195) states that there is a particular feature in the Peruvian case, where students enter the labour market at the beginning of their library science studies. Halfway through their career most of the students are working in libraries and documentation centres or independently performing tasks specific to a librarian. Although, this might seem a positive and revealing feature of the high demand for students and graduates, it does not align in many cases with a stable job, decent salary, holiday entitlement or retirement pension. This situation confirmed what Villanueva (2009) has found when hiring professional librarians and realized that they have many years of experience even though they were recent graduates. Even more students are hired for short term periods and temporary contracts and employers don’t seem to recognize the value of hiring a professional rather than a student. At the same time the students don’t seem to recognize that they cannot work at the same level and with the same knowledge and responsibility than a fully graduated LIS professional. In the case of PUCP this distortion of the market may be a big factor regarding the low student intake. (Talavera Ibarra and Jara de Súmar 2009). 5 http://repositorio.pucp.edu.pe/index/discover?scope=%2F&query=temas+de+bibliotecologia+e+informacion&submit=Buscar, accessed on 24 December 2015.



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In a study about the practicum in the LIS curriculum, Jara de Súmar and Talavera Ibarra (2011, 9) found that a common situation to both library schools was that students in their practicum had to perform traditional tasks, such as processing materials and lending. The authors consider that “many of the training centres were looking for solutions to their lack of staff and accepted a practicum to fill the circulation and information desks”. In the case of the PUCP, De la Vega and Arakaki (2011, 84) confirm that trend and add that almost half (47%) of the activities in the practicum correspond to information organization and analysis; the second largest group (with 30%) is related to the service area, and the rest (23%) is distributed in project management, information retrieval and others. With respect to the place of work, Jara de Súmar and Talavera Ibarra (2011, 8) found that “probably due to the characteristics of their own university, there was a clear tendency for PUCP students to work in private entities and for UNMSM students to go to public institutions”. None of the PUCP graduates went to work at the National Library. With regard to the job market, a 2013 survey of UNMSM students, which was sent to approximately 620 graduates with a bachelor degree, shows that of the 198 valid responses, over 46% are working in university libraries, followed by 18% working at information centres; fewer numbers were obtained for archives and special libraries, and the least was the National Library with less than 8%. With reference to the functions they perform at work, the respondents said they are working on library management (31.8%), organization of information (30.3%) or information services (28.8%). The changes that are being planned in the curriculum reform of both LIS schools are taking into account the new areas that information professionals must conquer, beyond the traditional ones. The emphasis given in the past to the development of skills related to the handling of information either manually or with technologies must include competencies in leadership that equip the professional to adapt easily to change and furthermore to promote it, and also to change the stereotyped image of the profession. (Palomino 2002; Johnson, Fuertes Medina and Herrera 2001).

Conclusions There is a need to educate professional staff in library and information science that can meet the challenges of the information society, especially to promote the democratic access to information and knowledge. There is also a need to educate information professionals to be attentive to the rapid changes occurring

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in society, especially in the field of information technology; but their education should emphasise not only these skills and the new forms of information processing and services in traditional and non-traditional workspaces, but also in managerial skills and ethical values, so that they can help effectively to close social gaps, build capacities in the citizens and contribute to scientific, social and economic development. Although these aspirations are present in the case of Peruvian LIS schools, there are still reasons that delay the expansion of LIS education in the country. Peru has a population of more than 30 million inhabitants; however, as we have seen, there are only two LIS schools, both situated in Lima, the capital city. This reality has severe consequences for the provision of adequate library and information services, because large sectors of the population are unattended by information professionals, who prefer to work in Lima, because of the better working conditions offered. A new law of the National Library System is intended to create technical institutes to meet the needs of libraries of the public sector. However, there is still a need to create other LIS programmes at university level preferably out of the capital city. The two LIS schools, one public and one private, coincide in their objectives with respect to the professionals they prepare and the job market towards they are oriented. Both offer a programme which graduates general librarians, not specialized in any subject or library functions at the undergraduate level; and both are in the process of a curriculum change in response to the new paradigms of higher education and the challenges of modernization and globalization. Both library schools are striving to achieve their objectives despite the low budget of the public university, and the low number of students of the private one. The situation prevents for now that both programmes develop all their potential. The process of curricular change in which both schools are engaged involves a deep and valuable reflection on how students learn, how teachers teach, what workspaces graduates are expected to occupy, etc. This important process envisions an improvement and updating of the contents and the methodology of the educational process, which can ensure better levels of quality in LIS education in Peru. Although the current trend of LIS schools in the world is to become iSchools, our reality shows that we cannot follow this trend completely, because our students are still required by libraries, especially academic and specialized. Thus our curriculum will have to continue to make a balance between traditional contents and new approaches to the profession as it is aimed at the global level. But it must be taken into account that, besides a curricular change, there are other variables involved in improving the provision of educational services: lecturers, infrastructure, collections, links with the community, etc. In the case of the UNMSM LIS School, budget for acquisitions and maintenance of collections



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and equipment is low, as in other public universities; and salary structure is the subject of protests by lecturers and other university workers from time to time, making it difficult to attract and retain good faculty. In the case of the PUCP, the low number of students is a problem that dates back many years. The new strategies to increase the numbers can be decisive to overcome the difficulty. However, the existence of a stereotype of the profession must be acknowledged as one, which does not help to attract as many students as other professions, especially if the university is private. The accreditation process that involves the evaluation of various factors of the educational quality has not been implemented yet in the two LIS schools, but it is expected to occur due to the current trend of Peruvian universities. Finally, we must mention that the two Peruvian LIS programmes must make a commitment to improve our relationships with other schools in Latin America, to develop joint activities, both in teaching and research, allowing us a greater representation in the international arena.

References Arakaki, Mónica. 2015. “Accreditation processes in Latin America: An exploration into the cases of Library and Information Science (LIS) Programs in Mexico, Colombia and Costa Rica.” In Quality assurance in LIS education: an international and comparative study, edited by Makiko Miwa and Shizuko Miyahara, 197–220. New York: Springer. Barber, Elsa. 2006. “Encuentros de Educadores e Investigadores en el Área de Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información: panorama histórico.” http://www.edicic.org/textos/Panorama_ Historico_Encuentros.doc. Accessed on 30 April 2015. Biblioteca Nacional del Perú. 2015. “Funciones.” http://www.bnp.gob.pe/portalbnp/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=33&Itemid=470. Accessed on 29 April 2015. De la Vega, Aurora. 1984. “Education for Library and Information work in Peru: a review of the situation with some recommendations for the future” (master’s dissertation, University of Wales). De la Vega, Aurora. 2005. “La Formación profesional en Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información en Perú: situación y perspectivas”. Paper presented at Seminario Infobila como Apoyo a la Investigación y Educación en Bibliotecología en América Latina y el Caribe, edited by Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano and José Luis Calva González, 172–209. México: UNAM, Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. De la Vega, Aurora and Mónica Arakaki. 2011. “Las prácticas pre profesionales en la formación en Ciencias de la Información: el caso de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PUCP).” Revista Interamericana de Bibliotecología 34: 77–86. Escalona, Lina, ed. 2010. Las competencias en el perfil bibliotecológico en América Latina. México: UNAM, Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. Estrada-Cuzcano, Alonso and Karen Alfaro-Mendives. 2014. “Situación y perspectivas de la investigación científica en la Escuela de Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información de

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la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos: 2000–2012”. Perspectivas em Ciência da Informação, 19: 207–222. Escuela Universitaria de Bibliotecología y Ciencias Afines (EUBCA). 2012. “Antecedentes. [Announcement to the IX Encuentro de Directores y VIII Encuentro de Docentes de las Escuelas de Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información del Mercosur, 3,4,5 octubre de 2012 , Montevideo, Uruguay].” http://rbm.eubca.edu.uy/sites/default/files/text/ Antecedentes.pdf. Accessed on 19 April 2015. Hurtado Galván, Laura. 1995. Desarrollo desde arriba y desde abajo: información, documentación y comunicación en las ONG’s de América Latina. Cusco: Centro Bartolomé Las Casas; Piura: Centro de Investigación y Promoción del Campesinado. IFLA. 2013. “Riding the Waves or Caught in the Tide?: Navigating the Evolving Information Environment. Insights of the IFLA Trend Report.” http://trends.ifla.org/insights-document. Accessed on 29 April 2015. IFLA. 2015. “BSLA: Impact Reports.” http://www.ifla.org/bsla/impact. Accessed on 29 April 2015. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (INEI). 2015. “Estado de la Población Peruana 2014.” http://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/ Lib1157/libro.pdf. Accessed on 19 April 2015. Jara de Sumar, Juanita and Ana María Talavera Ibarra. 2011. “Value of the practicum in library and information science education in Peru.” Paper presented at IFLA 77th World Library and Information Congress, Puerto Rico, August 13–18. http://conference.ifla.org/ past-wlic/2011/120-sumar-en.pdf. Accessed on 22 April 2015. Johnson, Ian M., Aurelia Fuertes Medina and Luis A. Herrera. 2001. “Management education in Latin America and the Caribbean.” Education for Information 19: 3–18. Lascurain Sanchez, María Luisa. 2011. “Prólogo.” In Memoria del VIII Encuentro de la Asociación de Educadores e Investigadores de Bibliotecología, Archivología, Ciencias de la Información y Documentación de Iberoamérica y el Caribe, 12, 13 y 14 de noviembre del 2008: la Dimensión Docente e Investigadora de las Ciencias de la Información y de la Documentación en Iberoamérica: diagnóstico regional, edited by Elías Sanz Casado, Salvador Gorbea Portal and María Luisa Lascuraín Sánchez, v–vi. México: UNAM, Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. MacKee de Maurial, Nelly. 1966. “La Escuela Nacional de Bibliotecarios”. Fénix 16: 243–270. Martínez Arellano, Filiberto Felipe and José Luis Calva González, eds. 2005. Seminario Infobila como Apoyo a la Investigación y Educación en Bibliotecología en América Latina y el Caribe. 2005, memoria 16, 17, y 18 de marzo de 2005. México: UNAM, Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. Martínez Arellano, Filiberto Felipe. 2013. “What is Library and Information Science (LIS) in Latin American Library schools.” Revue de l’enssib 1: 1–24. http://revue.enssib.fr/n%C2%B01-2013. Accessed on 30 April 2015. Miranda-Meruvia, Isabel. 2005. “La Escuela Académico-profesional de Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Perú: recuento y perspectivas.” Paper presented at Seminario Infobila como Apoyo a la Investigación y Educación en Bibliotecología en América Latina y el Caribe, edited by Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano and José Luis Calva González, 210–227. México: UNAM, Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Bibliotecológicas. Múnera Torres, María Teresa. 2006. “Panorama actual de la enseñanza de la Bibliotecología y Ciencia de la Información en América Latina y el Caribe.” Paper presented at the



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8° Congreso Nacional de Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información, mayo 31 a junio 2. Cartagena de Indias: ASCOLBI. Palomino, Norma Estela. 2002. “Leadership Education at Library and Information Studies (LIS) Schools” ( master’s dissertation, University of Texas at Austin). Pardo S., Teresa. 1991. “El primer cuarto de siglo de la Escuela Nacional de Bibliotecarios.” Fénix 36–37: 60–124. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PUCP). 2004. Plan de Estudios: Especialidad de Ciencias de la Información. Lima: PUCP, Facultad de Letras y Ciencias Humanas. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PUCP). 2007. Ciencias de la Información. Lima: PUCP, Facultad de Letras y Ciencias Humanas. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PUCP). 2014. Ser egresado de Ciencias de la Información de la PUCP es: gestionar información para crear conocimiento. Lima: PUCP, Facultad de Letras y Ciencias Humanas. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PUCP). 2015. “Ciencias de la información.” http:// facultad.pucp.edu.pe/letras-ciencias-humanas/ciencias-de-la-informacion/. Accessed on 29 April 2015. Silva Santisteban, Teresa. 1984. Índice de tesis de la Escuela Nacional de Bibliotecarios. Lima : Biblioteca Nacional del Perú. Superintendencia Nacional de Educación Universitaria (SUNEDU). 2015. “Universidades”. http://www.sunedu.gob.pe/universidades/. Accessed on 30 April 2015. Talavera Ibarra, Ana María. 2005. “Education for Cataloging and Related Areas in Peru.” In Education for Library Cataloging: International Perspectives, edited by Dajin D. Sun and Ruth C. Carter, 389–406. New York: Haworth Information Press. Talavera Ibarra, Ana María and Juanita Jara de Súmar. 2009. “The recruitment challenge: attracting prospective students to the LIS programme at the Catholic University in Lima, Peru.” Paper presented to IFLA 75th World Library and Information Congress. LIS Education in Developing Countries Pre-Conference, Milan, August 18–21. http://conference.ifla.org/ past-wlic/2009/lis-preconference-milan.pdf [full paper not available]. Accessed on 22 April 2015. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos (UNMSM). 2015a. “Escuela Académico Profesional de Bibliotecología y Ciencias de la Información.” http://letras.unmsm.edu.pe/index.php/ escuelasydep/biblio. Accessed on 19 April 2015. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos (UNMSM). 2015b. “Facultad de Ingeniería de Sistemas e Informática, Unidad de Posgrado, Maestría en Gestión de la Información y el Conocimiento.” http://sistemas.edu.pe/posgrado/carreras/maestrias/Maestria-GestionDel-Conocimiento. Accessed on 19 April 2015. Villanueva, C. 2009. “Gestión de personal y gestión de bibliotecas: hipótesis sobre sus relaciones.” In III Jornadas nacionales de bibliotecas universitarias: conocimiento para innovar, 63–69. Lima: Altamira. Wyllys, Ronald. 1977. Perú. Escuela Nacional de Bibliotecarios. Paris: UNESCO. World Bank. 2014. “Data: Peru.” http://data.worldbank.org/country/peru. Accessed on 19 April 2015. World Bank. 2015. “World view 2015: World Development Indicators: Size of the Economy. Table 1.1.” http://wdi.worldbank.org/table/1.1. Accessed on 19 April 2015.

Section 4: Asia and Australia

Michael Seadle

Introduction This section examines programmes in the Asia Pacific region, which have their own culturally rich heritage plus an admixture of colonial experience with western powers that also shaped their library education and training perspectives. Five countries will be discussed here: India, Australia, the Philippines, the United Arab Emirates, and Indonesia. These countries include a significant part of the world’s population. A chapter on China was unfortunately unavailable, but it is worth noting that China has been particularly active in library education and training. The School of Information Management at Wuhan University is the oldest programme in China with a tradition that goes back to the nineteenth century and predates the programmes in many western countries. Wuhan is also a long-time member of the international iSchool Caucus and a recognized leader in research. The school publishes a number of journals and hosts international conferences. India is another Asian country with long established library education traditions going back to S.R. Ranganathan, who is among the most quoted library professionals. Professor S. B. Ghosh, himself a distinguished library educator, describes the changes in course content, the accreditation process, and the impact of international trends on Indian library training and education. He concludes (p. 257): “as far as LIS education is concerned, it is ... essential that a separate accreditation agency in line with the American Library Association or Library Association (UK), or a separate body constituted by the government, be established”. Australia is a country with active engagement in library education and training. Mary Carroll takes the story back to the British prison hulks and convict transport ships that brought some of the first settlers to the continent. She writes (p. 302) that “[o]n board ship a ‘librarian’ was at times appointed from amongst the convicts…”. The US also influenced developments through “the injection of funds by the Carnegie Corporation of New York”. She concludes (p. 315): “It does appear that the close relationship between education and association which has sustained the profession for many years may be under threat as education is increasingly moved out of the control of educators and into the hands of government”. British colonialism influenced both India and Australia. For the Philippines, Spain and later the US were the colonial powers. In the early twentieth century the first training of librarians began, but library scholars were “sent abroad for advanced training at the library school in the University of Wisconsin-Madison and other American universities” (Buenrosto-Cabbab et al., 380). A new building

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for library training is being planned on the campus of the University of the Philippines (Buenrosto-Cabbab et al.). The United Arab Emirates is a very new country, in contrast to the others in this group, and one with the financial resources to invest in education, though not all sectors have benefited equally. School libraries, for example, “are historically very poorly funded, resourced and staffed…” (Martin). The first successful master’s programme has only recently graduated its first students. Martin concludes (p. 223): “The history of LIS education in the UAE has generally followed a rocky road, although there are many positive changes in the LIS profession in recent years”. Indonesia is very large and populous nation and consists of a string of islands that does not facilitate internal communication. It was long a Dutch colony and the experience “did not make Indonesians familiar with libraries” (Priyanto, 259). Nonetheless library education has existed in Indonesia for 60 years, but the country has as yet no doctoral programme. Schools rely instead on studying overseas. Priyanto concludes (p. 275): “Shortage of relevant materials in the national language may be fulfilled by asking more faculty members to write and publish their papers in the open-access journals”.

Janet Martin

12 LIS Education in the United Arab Emirates Past and Future Directions

Introduction This chapter will outline the short history of Library and Information Science (LIS) education in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), including a recent proposal for the development of a new LIS programme at one university, with the attendant drivers and impediments to implementation which have similarly affected other LIS programmes in this country. An analysis of the problems encountered by past and existing LIS programmes in the UAE will be contextualized within the experiences of international LIS educators, and the work of peak library organizations such as International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) in this area. Issues such as the changing environment of the LIS professional and the value placed on libraries and information professionals worldwide will be briefly discussed. Within this context, this chapter will then analyse the issues impacting on the development of LIS education in the UAE, including government policy, new directions in the establishment of library and archival services, Emiratization of the workforce, emerging library organizations to support networking and development, and LIS programme issues such as course content, accreditation, the role of professional associations, and potential LIS teaching faculty.

UAE Background The UAE is a prosperous and quickly developing part of the Middle East, having only formed as a new country under a monarchical system of government in 1971. Modern cities and skyscrapers now replace what were nomadic fishing and trading villages just over 40 years ago, with education to a post-graduate level now widely available to Emirati males and females (the national Arab population) (UAE Interact 2011). As in several other wealthy and stable new countries, rapid cultural and economic change is fuelling the desire of governments to appear at the forefront of educational innovation. The UAE has a well developed and technologically advanced telecommunications infrastructure (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia 2009), with Fibre to the Home Network being actively rolled out across the country (Paul

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Budde Communication 2011). The UAE population records some of the highest internet usage in the Middle East (often higher than world averages), 92% of internet connections used are broadband, and mobile phone penetration is extremely high at over 200% (Telecommunications Regulatory Authority 2014).

History of UAE Libraries and Librarianship By contrast, the development of library and archival services within the UAE has been slow, suffering historically from low resourcing and poor status. The UAE National Library was established in 1981, and aside from several small services, only in recent years has a movement to develop modern public library services gained momentum, largely in the major emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai (Al Khoori 2014; Dubai Culture and Arts Authority 2014). The National Archives, founded in 1968 as the National Centre for Documentation & Research, is one of the oldest archival repositories in the Arabian Gulf, becoming the National Archives of the UAE by legislative decree in 2008.1 The National Archives has now established both a central facility in Abu Dhabi, and according to Dr Abdulla Reyes, Director General of the National Archives, over 200 government bodies with a requirement to collect and organize an archival service are active (National Archives 2015). It is acknowledged, however, that few Emirati staff tasked with managing these archival services have the expertise or qualifications to effectively service the requirements of this recent legislation. After federation of the UAE in 1971, the drive to improve educational standards has resulted in massive changes at both school and tertiary education levels, with illiteracy rates for Emiratis falling from around 75% in 1971 to 6% in 2011 (UAE Yearbook 2013 2014). As well as the development of 1,185 schools (both public and private), there are 75 licensed tertiary education institutions in 2014 in addition to the national higher education systems of University of the UAE (UAEU), Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT), and Zayed University (ZU) (CAA 2014; National Bureau of Statistics 2014). Tertiary education institutions are required by Standard 6 of the Standards for Licensure and Accreditation, 2011 to ensure that “the professional library staff is sufficient in number, has appropriate professional training and is able to serve the students and faculty through bibliographic instruction, access to collections, both print and electronic, and to other forms of information technology during all hours of operation” (CAA 2011, 23). Higher education libraries in the UAE are now usually managed by qualified 1 http://www.na.ae/en/, accessed on 24 February 2016.



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expatriate librarians, and in many cases this involves multiple professional positions. School library services however, are historically very poorly funded, resourced and staffed, even in recent times, with an acknowledgement that only around 8% of library managers hold a library science degree completed since 1990 (DiPrete et al. 2004; McNally 2003). One employer survey comment from the 2013 ZU feasibility study confirms that these historical problems persist: Libraries in government schools are often locked, poorly resourced, and lucky to have any staff at all. Staff are often failed teachers, or teachers who are looking for an easy option. There is usually no teaching, and no computers or internet in these libraries. They are just a baby-sitting service when used at all. (Employer comment VIII March 2013, in Martin 2013, 15)

Educational authorities in Dubai and Abu Dhabi recognize and are actively addressing these issues, with anecdotal evidence suggesting that poor school library experiences have substantially contributed to the low regard with which many Emirati students view library services and librarianship. The Abu Dhabi Education Council (ADEC), for example, has developed a library management plan which “is developing and transforming traditional school libraries into 21st-century Learning Resource Centres [LRC]... a place where quality LRC programmes and qualified LRC Specialists improve the reading fluency, general literacy, and overall academic performance of students” (ADEC 2009). Several attempts at developing LIS programmes have been made since the turn of the century, but with limited success for a range of reasons. One of the earliest attempts at formal library training in the UAE began in the Higher Colleges of Technology in 2002, although this LIS Diploma programme ceased by 2008. Certainly in the Sharjah campus (Al Ain campus statistics are currently unavailable), the programme attracted 15–20 students per year, and most students graduated and were employed in the field. As well as an institutional move away from Diploma towards full Bachelor programmes at the time, one of the curriculum designers centrally involved in this course development noted her understanding of the main reasons for lack of ongoing support for the course: “In my experience in the UAE there was not a lot of understanding about the importance of, or support for, training library staff among the Emiratis or expats – very different from other Middle Eastern countries” (anonymous personal communication, 24 March 2014). In September 2008 the Abu Dhabi Vocational Education & Training Institute (ADVETI) also established a Diploma of Library and Information Services, which was accredited by the UAE Commission for Academic Accreditation (CAA) in 2011. This two year paraprofessional course graduated 58 students over the four years

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that it was offered, but the programme was discontinued in line with the strategic objective to deliver vocational programmes which offer graduates good prospects for employment. A previous teacher in this course credited one reason for the falling student interest in this course to a perception by Emiratis that an equivalent diploma-study commitment in other subject areas, such as human resource management, would result in much higher paying employment upon completion. Importantly, it was also noted that ADEC required the minimum of a Bachelor degree for employment within school libraries, making the Diploma qualification offered at ADVETI inadequate for this substantial employment opportunity (anonymous personal communication, 30 June 2014). There have been several attempts to initiate Master’s programmes for library, archival or information management qualifications within the UAE, although none have been particularly successful to date. Zayed University undertook discussions within the UAE in 2009 and 2010 about the possible development of Graduate Certificate programmes in library and archival sciences, and by May 2010, work had progressed well on the development of a Master of Science in Information Management, in coordination with an established United States library school. With inevitable changes in the expatriate library staff who had been involved in this programme development, together with changes in UAE and ZU priorities, this course development was unfortunately abandoned during 2010. In 2013 the impetus to develop Master’s programmes for library and archival qualifications at ZU was again re-ignited, and the extensive nation-wide research undertaken to document the feasibility of this development forms the basis of this paper. In 2008, the American University of the Emirates (AUE) initiated the first Master of Library and Information Sciences (MLIS) programme in Dubai, to be completed within 18 months if undertaken full time. The programme has now graduated its first cohort of 7 students in spring 2013–2014, although new student enrolments remain low. A likely problem faced by this programme is lack of international accreditation, although the course is accredited within the UAE by the CAA and was prepared by professional academic scholars. The programme director, Dr Jassim Jirjees, has written recently about library science education in Iraq, Yemen and the UAE (Jirjees 2013), and in relation to the UAE, identifies difficulties in establishing MLIS courses which include the need for diverse faculty expertise in a range of library science and archival fields, the need to offer affordable programmes, and the need to continually update teaching and learning methodologies including provision of opportunity for students to undertake internships in outstanding local, regional and international libraries, information and archive centres. Students wishing to undertake the AUE MLIS programme are required to demonstrate a reasonably good level of English, and be able to commit time



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outside of their normal working week for the academic work required – issues of skill levels and commitment to the rigors of a Master’s qualification likely to influence development of any similar programme in the UAE.

Impetus for Change The circumstances of the UAE, while unique in many ways, are reflective of many countries where there has not been a strong history of library services, nor indeed a culture of reading, and where there is a paucity of understanding of the value of libraries and LIS professionals. There is a current determination to redress this situation in the UAE however, with the building of new library networks and organizations able to influence library development, and a push to establish high quality LIS educational programmes to professionally staff the range of emerging library and archival facilities being developed.

Knowledge Economy One of the factors providing impetus for change in the UAE is an increasing emphasis within the government on the building of a knowledge-based economy, requiring new skills from a highly trained workforce which includes the ability to understand, manage, utilize, and be innovative with information resources. The UAE government has directed development towards a knowledge economy in the foreseeable future, included in policy and research documents such as UAE Vision 2021 (2011), The Abu Dhabi Economic Vision 2030 (Government of Abu Dhabi 2008), and The UAE in the Global Knowledge Economy (Emirates Competitiveness Council 2011). A recent Arab Knowledge Report 2010/2011 (2010) however, concluded that approximately 92% of Emirati school students were below the level required for accessing the knowledge society (relating to cognitive skills such as problem solving, information processing, written communication, and technology use) (356), and that “the major challenge in establishing the knowledge society within the UAE is the improvement of educational conditions and raising the quality within schools and universities” (299). These conclusions relating to a historically poor quality of education available in many government schools are supported by other UAE researchers, including reports produced in recent years (Bristol-Rhys 2010; Brown, Walsh and Webb 2003; Burt 2004; Dahl 2010; Farquharson 1989; Mahrous and Ahmed 2010; Martin, Birks and Hunt 2007; Mawgood 1999; Mynard 2003; Richardson 2004; Rugh 2002; Russell 2004).

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Challenges of the new century necessitate Emiratis to apply higher-level cognitive processing and problem solving skills, flexibility and creativity, critical thinking and reasoning skills, if the aspiration of the UAE government to transform the country into an innovation-based, knowledge producing society is to be realized. If information creation, management and retrieval are recognized as pivotal to this important government direction, then concomitant support for LIS education to provide the opportunity for Emirati professional staffing of new library, archival and information management facilities within the UAE will need to be realized.

Emiratization Emiratization (prioritizing of employment for the native Arab population in preference to employment of expatriate workers) within the UAE workforce is also a high-priority direction of the federal government. In the recent Emiratisation Plan in Federal Government Sector & Mechanism for Coordination and Follow-up (2010– 2013) (Federal Authority for Government Human Resources 2011), a primary goal was to achieve Emirati recruitment within the UAE federal government of at least 60% of this workforce by 2013. As a result, many government organizations have an active Emiratization policy, such as in HCT (UAE National Applicants 2014). A government web site reports that Emiratis now make up 52% of the workforce in the public sector, but only 1.5% of jobs in the private sector, indicating that much work remains to be done (UAE Interact 2014). While there is currently a strong push within the UAE to Emiratize employment positions, this is contrasted with the lack of availability of educational opportunities for Emirati students who may wish to pursue a LIS career path within the country. As documented in the feasibility study (Martin 2013), there is a paucity of options for qualification at any level in the information management discipline in the UAE, despite recent trends providing an opportunity for employment in a range of library and archival organization types, in virtually all locations within the UAE.

New Libraries, Archives and LIS Professionalism Library and archival development in the UAE has experienced substantial growth in recent years, as a result of new government policy directions, legislation, and the work of visionary organizations. The number of libraries, information centres, and archives in the UAE is difficult to determine, but totals at least 1,050 service



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points, mainly in higher education institutions, schools, public and national library services, and archival services (Martin 2013). This recent development provides impetus for more employment opportunities within library and archival services, and increases the visibility of, and value placed upon, such information services within the UAE. This important impetus is a catalyst for the increasing recognition of the need for formal library and archival training, which is only likely to increase as this new country continues to develop quickly. Many employment opportunities in libraries and information management are likely to be available to Emiratis in higher education institutions, and in schools in particular, should the ability to undertake relevant qualifications become available within the UAE. This is likely to be a popular employment option especially for females, as they would have the opportunity to select single-gender workplaces (which is sometimes a cultural consideration), as well as places of employment in almost all locations within the UAE. A push to establish educational options in the archival discipline are already underway. The legislative imperative for the National Archives to establish an effective national archive, and to ensure that all government departments collect and preserve relevant documents, has necessitated the current development of a new Bachelor of Applied Science programme in Data Archiving and Document Management at the Higher Colleges of Technology in the UAE. To develop modern school library services, a recognized goal in all Emirates of the UAE, both ADEC and the Ministry of Education are actively pursuing training options for staff currently working in school libraries. Professional development programmes (which have been developed and offered for many years) are gaining momentum as the need for higher level skills and contribution to the educational outcome of students by school library staff becomes more evident. ADEC, for example, notes that “a certified course in school librarianship skills is under investigation” (Abu Dhabi Education Council 2013). An increasing impact of library and information management organizations within the UAE and the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region are also influencing the status and value placed upon library and archival services. Organizations such as The Special Libraries Association (SLA) (Arabian Gulf Chapter), the Information Literacy Network of the Gulf Region, and substantial international book fairs in Sharjah and Abu Dhabi are attracting large numbers of participants and media coverage to events and annual conferences. For example, in 2014 the American Library Association (ALA) established a partnership with the major Sharjah International Book Fair, and planned the first two-day Sharjah International Book Fair/ALA Library Conference in November 2014, attracting international speakers (ALA 2014). This has since become an annual event.

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Organizations such as Ankabut are now providing high-speed internet connectivity between the UAE academic institutions and other education networks around the world, and are influential in supporting libraries, research and education. eFADA, a consortium of academic and research libraries in UAE, was formed with the support of Ankabut in early 2013 with the goal of engaging academic and research libraries to play an integral role in the further development of UAE’s knowledge economy (Ankabut 2014). IFLA and De Gruyter publishers have also recently been active in highlighting LIS in the MENA region with upcoming publications in the Global Studies in Libraries and Information series, including this volume and Library and Information Science in the Middle East and North Africa (Click et al. 2016), and with inclusion of discussion about MENA libraries and LIS education in the 2014 IFLA conference in France (IFLA Section on Education and Training 2014). It is a time of changing momentum and increased exposure of the potential value of library and archival services within the UAE.

UAE Feasibility Study 2013 – Zayed University Introduction During 2013 a feasibility study was commissioned by the Office of Graduate Studies in ZU (Zayed University) to determine the viability of establishing graduate programmes in library, archive and/or information management at the university. This research was to document the number of potential students who might undertake such studies, the location and specialization of potential places of employment in this discipline in the UAE, and the level and possible structure of a new course, should recommendations from the study conclude that development of a programme would be likely to be economically feasible for the university (Martin 2013). ZU was considered as an ideal institution to develop such a programme, with campuses in both Abu Dhabi and Dubai, and established administration and international partnership arrangements within many of the graduate programmes already offered through the Office of Graduate Studies. Early into the research it became clear that terminology used in this multi-disciplinary educational field was extremely varied, and moreover, that university management outside of the library service often lacked a clear understanding and appreciation of this information-management discipline. It is suspected that the need for management commitment to an effective library service which makes



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a direct and important contribution to the education of students and support of researching faculty, is an international rather than particularly UAE challenge.

Data Collection and Analysis Data collection and analysis was undertaken between February and July 2013, resulting in a sample of 699 completed survey responses from potential students in the UAE (255 from ZU students; 202 from potential students in other UAE organizations; 242 from students within government departments surveyed by the National Archives). Information from potential employers was collected via 28 completed survey responses and 30 personal interviews. All surveys had received ethical clearance at ZU, and both survey responses and interviews were undertaken with informed consent from participants. The survey responses provided statistically significant sample groups; employer responses were likely to be representative of the library community, but student responses less representative of the broader student community as many student surveys were distributed via library services. Surveys for students were disseminated online within ZU (a convenience sample of final year baccalaureate students and alumni), and through existing institutions offering established information management services, such as in higher education libraries, school libraries, and major research and private enterprise organizations. Every effort was made to gain a cross-section of opinions over a range of geographical locations and different organizations, and all participating UAE organizations were encouraged to send the surveys out to a wide cross-section of their final year student population. Dissemination of the student survey to University of the UAE (UAEU) and Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT) (the two major alternative higher education institutions to ZU for Emirati students in the UAE) which appeared likely, unfortunately did not eventuate in the time available. The National Archives, in coordination with this feasibility study, initiated an online survey (in Arabic and English) of UAE government departments which are mandated by Federal Law No. (7) for 2008 to deposit documents with the National Archives within five years, and to safely organize and preserve these government records in the interim. As with the student surveys, surveys for potential employers in the information management field were distributed online to all major higher education libraries, research organizations, government departments (such as Education), and schools, and advertised through a range of professional library networks within the UAE. A diversity of library staff and potential employers were interviewed, with the majority being expat qualified librarians or archivists working

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within larger library or archival organizations. In this case, both HCT and UAEU library staff participated in both the employer survey and interviews.

Potential Student Responses Overall, 85% of student survey responses were from Emiratis, and 45% of respondents were “interested” or “very interested” in a career in information management. Fifty percent of these respondents were interested in a Master’s level of qualification; 66% of these respondents were interested in starting this study within the next two years. It should be noted however, that 45% of potential students in the student surveys opened the online surveys, but did not complete any or many of the questions. These large percentages of non-completed surveys could potentially be added to the percentages of students who completed the surveys, but stated that they were only “a little interested” or “not interested” in a career in information management. As detailed in the feasibility study, there are nevertheless sufficient numbers of Emirati students interested in this career option within the near future to ensure the viability of programme development (more than a minimum 50 students per year). Major areas of interest for students considering this career path were opportunities in higher education, government or company libraries, archives, and school library services. It is important for the information management industry in the UAE to acknowledge that there was a very high interest by all three potential student groups in the career area of information technology support for library databases, management systems and websites.

Potential Employer Responses Employer responses were largely from higher education, school, and archival services, and while some expressed reservations, the large majority were very supportive of the establishment of a good quality information management programme at ZU. This was viewed as a new and important opportunity for Emirati employment. Clearly there are a great range of professional library and archival positions available in schools, higher education libraries, government departments, and archival centres in the UAE, with salary and working conditions varying considerably. Employers emphasised the need for a successful programme to be internationally recognized and accredited, with a partnership established with an accredited international library school:



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The lack of an accredited MLS programme in the UAE is a real problem as we would like to recruit well-trained, well-educated Emiratis for library positions. (Employer comment X March 2013, in Martin 2013, 14) Emirati staff would currently only be qualified for paraprofessional positions, but could ideally be hired for professional positions if a viable MLS/MLIS programme were available locally. (Employer comment XXV April 2013, in Martin 2013, 14) We are expected to fill vacancies with Emiratis. However, currently it is a challenge to recruit an Emirati with an information management qualification. (Employer comment VI March 2013, in Martin 2013, 13)

There was some diversity of opinion as to the appropriate level of library qualifications needed in the UAE, but agreement that bilingual staff members who were qualified and experienced would be a great asset. Some employers involved with school library services considered that a Bachelor- or Certificate-level qualification was most appropriate, although many viewed a Master’s qualification as appropriate for all professional positions: There is a strong need for bilingual Arabic/English speakers and library professionals who can catalogue Arabic books. (Employer comment III March 2013, in Martin 2013, 14) I think a Bachelor degree in librarianship is a more realistic approach to start the process of getting Emiratis into this most important field. (Employer comment XII March 2013, in Martin 2013, 14) Professional staff with MLIS needed in the future. (Employer comment IX March 2013, in Martin 2013, 14)

A major concern of potential employers was with the work and salary expectations of Emirati staff, when compared to anecdotal evidence of much better working conditions within government departments: Emirati females were employed in this location as library assistants. However, due to perceived low pay, too long working hours, and lack of child care facilities, staff resigned in favor of better paying government jobs. (Employer comment IV March 2013, in Martin 2013, 15) We can’t find suitable people who will be committed to working the hours and do the public services requirements. (Employer comment XIX April 2013, in Martin 2013, 15)

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Emirati staff have different expectations for working conditions. (Employer comment XV April 2013, in Martin 2013, 13) Unless Emirati library assistants and technicians are paid on par with other government departments, there is no need to train librarian and library technician graduates. (Employer comment XX April 2013, in Martin 2013, 15)

In expressing support for the establishment of a new MLIS or Bachelor course in the information-management discipline in the UAE, the majority of potential employers were interested in being involved in curriculum and course development, and almost universally offered their own institutions for supervised internships and students visits. In summary, the 2013 UAE feasibility study identified a substantial growth in library and archival service development in the UAE within the last few years, as well as greatly increased activity and visibility by a range of national, regional and international LIS organizations. Impetus for these developments, at least in part, has come about as a result of policies of Emiratization of the workforce, legislation, and a drive to establish a knowledge economy in the UAE.

Current Impediments to LIS Education in the UAE While there was great enthusiasm amongst employers for the development of good quality qualifications in the information field in the UAE however, there were also many who expressed reservations. One historical impediment to LIS development has been the poor role model offered by school libraries often experienced by Emirati students, leading to perceptions of poor status and lack of understanding of the potential role of libraries and information professionals. With tertiary education now being widely undertaken by Emirati students where professionally staffed, modern libraries support research and inquiry-based learning, this perception is slowly changing. At the school level, the development of “model” and “future” schools by ADEC and the Ministry of Education is resulting in exemplary school library facilities being visited by others, sharing a new vision of the future. There is evidence of a lack of understanding regarding the information profession worldwide, and not just within the UAE, though perhaps stronger in the UAE because of lack of prior experience with widespread and effective library services. For example, it is concluded that among Australian students there is a lack of solid understanding concerning the nature of the field and professional opportunities open to them as graduates of an LIS programme (Partridge et al.



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2011), and in the United States an admission that the profession is not perceived as glamorous in comparison to other professions (Ard et al. 2006). Even within modern university management, the library and archival professions are not generally well understood, and as the study of information management is a multi-disciplinary and specialist field, it is often difficult to “position” within the academic structure. Master of Library Sciences (MLIS) courses internationally are often located in IT or Business colleges, but can also be within a Humanities or a Science college. Less often they are established as an independent institute or department, or located within a graduate studies office. In all cases, much of the curriculum necessitates teaching by specialist library/ archival/ data-management faculty. There is world-wide recognition that the traditional professions of librarianship, archivist, or teacher librarianship are undergoing transformation into broader and non-traditional roles, such as research analyst, data coordinator, web designers, and information brokers and creators. Substantial research in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and Europe documents a transition of the information professional impacted by technological and business model changes to include flexible and transferable skills, often with the need for specialist discipline knowledge, ability to collaborate, and skills in project management and technology applications which can take information resources remotely to wherever users are located (Abell et al. 2006; Abels et al. 2003; Ard et al. 2006; Choi and Rasmussen 2009; Dalton and Levinson 2001; Fisher 2004; Gerolimos 2009; Park and Lu 2009; Saw and Todd 2007; Smith, Hallam and Ghosh 2012). Information professionals can be librarians, knowledge managers, information officers, information brokers, curators, archivists, consultants, or web developers. Pathways for employment will continue to broaden, and the need for graduates to be equipped with new transferrable skills will increase. In the light of this world-wide diversification of LIS professional roles, the ability of new MLIS programmes to provide an adequate number of faculty members with a range of specializations and new skills is an acknowledged problem. This is compounded in the UAE where there are very few qualified faculty in the discipline of library/ archival/ information management with a PhD, though this is a common requirement in international library schools, especially for teaching Master’s level programmes. Even employment of adjunct teachers to cater for different specializations may be problematic, due to recent changes to public higher education policies and procedures within the UAE which, in many insttutions, would prohibit staff from undertaking any form of supplementary paid employment. Certainly in the UAE there are many experienced and Master’s qualified library/ archival staff who are likely to be suitable and experienced teachers, and

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who would be essential to the practical integration of an LIS programme within the reality of the UAE work place. This need for diversely experienced LIS programme faculty adds weight to the recommendation in the feasibility study to form a partnership with an internationally recognized library school, and to consider options of flexible and blended learning delivery of courses. As discussed above, there is widespread understanding that many LIS employment positions within the UAE currently attract lower wages and harsher conditions of service than that expected in many government department positions for Emiratis. Moreover, there are some perceived cultural barriers to LIS employment where, for some Emirati females, it is not possible to work in the presence of male employees or patrons, or to consider weekend or shift work. It is also not unusual for Emirati females to marry relatively early, and to face childcare issues when considering their career choices: There seems to be a reluctance among Emirati government employers to offer part-time employment to Emiratis. This is unfortunate, because child care issues for many Emirati women is a real concern. (Employer comment XXVI April 2013, in Martin 2013, 15)

Comment was also made in relation to the high expectations of some Emirati employees, viewed by some as a problem not isolated to LIS positions: Rather, [Emiratis] believe they should be given management level positions without any experience or training or willingness to obtain an advanced degree or training. (Employer comment XX April 2013, in Martin 2013, 15)

Together with support for the Emiratization of positions, incentives by the government to ensure that Emiratis are attracted and retained in professions which will be essential and valued for the development of the country as a knowledge economy will be vital for the success of LIS programmes in the UAE. Impediments to a successful LIS educational programme in the UAE were also identified by current and past educators in the feasibility study, such as the commitment of students to the rigors of study requirements at a Master’s level, the level of English language of students, and the ability and willingness of students to fund the relatively high cost of LIS qualifications: Time and money may be the wrench in the works! Money from the government shouldn’t be. Whether students or teachers would want to do the work when required would be the question. (Employer comment II March 2013, in Martin 2013, 15)



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It was interesting to note that of the 211 potential students surveyed by the National Archives, 70% reported that it was likely that their current employer would sponsor or provide a scholarship to be able to undertake further studies. This was a very encouraging statistic for the potential of any new LIS programme to achieve financially viable student numbers willing and able to undertake studies in the information management profession. To avoid one of the regular pitfalls of new educational programme development in the UAE (reliance on the impetus or commitment of particular individuals or employer groups, in this transient society), it was highly recommended that an executive committee of stakeholders be formed in the early stages of any LIS programme planning. Such a group should include stakeholders both within and outside the teaching institution, and include representation from library and archival services within the UAE, professional library organizations and peak bodies, the international library school which forms an academic partnership, and key individuals within the library/archival/information management profession who have an interest in the successful delivery of the programme.

Contextualizing International Experiences In the international context, it could be argued that the UAE has a far smaller base of libraries and LIS workers to support a library and archival educational programme than in many countries, although there is scope to attract LIS workers to an internationally accredited programme from other Gulf and nearby Asian countries. Table 12.1 compares an estimated number of LIS workers and libraries in the UAE (based on research in the 2013 feasibility study) with several countries in which accredited and internationally recognized LIS programmes are offered: Table 12.1: Comparative statistics of LIS workers and libraries ( Source of statistics outside UAE: OCLC 2013). Australia LIS Workers Libraries

6753 11013

United States United Kingdom 158300 103657

21286 8437

UAE estimates 1500 1050

While the UAE has historically struggled to sustain LIS educational programmes however, most countries in the MENA region have supported library and archival educational programmes for many years, including Egypt, Iran, Kuwait, Lebanon and Saudi Arabia (Daniel, Meho and Moran, forthcoming). In Oman, a close

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neighbour of the UAE, Higher Diploma, Bachelor’s and Master’s LIS programmes have been offered at the Sultan Qaboos University since 1987, and in Qatar, a Library and Information Studies MA was introduced in 2013 at the University College of London Qatar, which is fully accredited by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) in the United Kingdom. It would appear, therefore, that size of the library community and potential number of LIS workers in other MENA countries have not prevented the development of active LIS education programmes in those locations. Certainly the issue of academic and professional accreditation is likely to influence the development of LIS education in the UAE. In most MENA countries in which LIS programmes have been identified (Daniel, Meho and Moran, forthcoming), there also exists a professional library association, while this is currently very difficult to accomplish in the UAE (United Arab Emirates 2012 Human Rights Report 2012, 16). Professional library and archival associations in many countries are instrumental in accreditation of LIS educational programmes, although a report for IFLA concluded that there were “no worldwide approved standards for LIS education, and … no standard method for determining the equivalency of LIS qualifications between schools in different countries” (Dalton and Levinson 2001, 12). While there is great flexibility and interpretation involved in deciding on academic accreditation of particular courses, definitions of what makes good practice in LIS education vary greatly. It remains important however, for UAE LIS programmes to understand and follow best international practice at this time of changing focus and expectations for the role of librarians and archivists (ALA 2013; Gerolimos 2009; Partridge et al. 2011), even in the absence of a professional library association within the country. In most disciplines there is a worldwide introduction of more formal monitoring of tertiary education (e.g., Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education 2014), including within the UAE (CAA 2012), providing a minimum guideline for a professional LIS qualification framework.

Conclusions The history of LIS education in the UAE has generally followed a rocky road, although there are many positive changes in the LIS profession in recent years. The UAE is witnessing the development of many more library and archival services right across the country, including an important addressing of the inadequate school library services existing in many government schools. With tertiary education in modern facilities now available to Emiratis in all Emirates of the



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country, students are also able to utilize and appreciate the value of professional university library services. The UAE has welcomed the recent development of peak organizations such as Ankabut and eFADA, which have been able to provide high quality technology infrastructure as well as coordination roles for the LIS profession, and increased activity and visibility of international organizations such as the ALA, SLA, and IFLA. Whilst professionals involved in libraries, archives and LIS education in the UAE and the MENA region continue to coordinate, communicate, conference, debate and write about the need for supported LIS professional education, the higher the awareness of the UAE stakeholders about this issue is likely to be. Internationally, the establishment of communities of practice are increasingly important “to ensure [that] LIS educators continue to exchange innovative practices, undertake collaborative ventures and create opportunities for more open communication to support and guide the future of LIS education” (Partridge et al. 2011, 8). Certainly the development of internationally accredited LIS programmes can directly influence the ability of the UAE to develop an effective knowledge economy, and provide appropriate educational opportunities for Emirati students who, through Emiratization of the workforce, may wish to pursue this career path. Expanded library and archival services will facilitate the recording and preservation of cultural and intellectual information in the UAE, and provide the opportunity for improved education and literacy rates in all parts of the community. With a broader commitment to support LIS education in the UAE, Emiratis will have the opportunity to contribute to and drive these important changes.

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Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia. 2009. National Profile of the Information Society in the United Arab Emirates. New York: United Nations. Emirates Competitiveness Council. 2011. The UAE in the Global Knowledge Economy: Fast-forwarding the Nation. Dubai, UAE: Emirates Competitiveness Council. Farquharson, Molly. 1989. “Learning styles of Arab students in EFL classrooms.” Paper presented at the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Teachers of English to Speakers of other Languages, San Antonio, TX, 7–11 March. Federal Authority for Government Human Resources. 2011. Emiratization Plan in Federal Government Sector & Mechanism for Coordination and Follow-up (2010–2013). Abu Dhabi, UAE: The Federal Authority for Government Human Resources. Fisher, Biddy. 2004. “Workforce skills development: The professional imperative for information services in the United Kingdom.” Paper presented at the ALIA 2004 Biennial Conference: Challenging Ideas, Gold Coast, Australia, 21–24 September. Gerolimos, Michalis. 2009. “Skills Developed through Library and Information Science Education.” Library Review 58: 527–540. Government of Abu Dhabi. 2008. Abu Dhabi Economic Vision 2030. Abu Dhabi, UAE: Executive Council of the UAE. IFLA Section on Education and Training. 2014. “40th Anniversary of the Section on Education and Training Summit.” http://www.ifla.org/node/8243. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Jirjees, Jassim. 2013. “Academic Education in Library and Information Science in Universities in Iraq, UAE, and Yemen.” al-Majallah al-ʻArabīyah lil-arshīf wa-al-tawthīq wa-al-maʻlūmāt 33/34: 23–63. Mahrous, Abeer and Ahmed Ahmed. 2010. “A Cross-cultural Investigation of Students’ Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Pedagogical Tools: The Middle East, the United Kingdom, and the United States.” Journal of Studies in International Education 14: 289–306. McNally, Peter. 2003. An Evaluation of School Libraries in the United Arab Emirates. Dubai, UAE: Ministry of Education and Youth. Martin, Janet. 2013. Feasibility Study: The Development of Graduate Programs in Information Management at Zayed University, UAE. Abu Dhabi, UAE: Zayed University. https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/295778335_Feasibility_Study_The_development_ of_Graduate_Programs_in_INFORMATION_MANAGEMENT_at_Zayed_University_UAE. Accessed on 24 February 2016. Martin, Janet, Jane Birks and Fiona Hunt. 2007. “Is it Worth It? Online learning in the United Arab Emirates.” Paper presented at the Internet Librarian International Conference, London, 8–9 October. Mawgood, Ezzat.1999. “United Arab Emirates Education ‘Vision 2020’: An Overview.” In Educational reform in the United Arab Emirates: A global perspective. First International Conference on Educational reform in the UAE, 13–15 April, 1999, 5–37. Dubai, UAE: Ministry of Education and Youth. Mynard, Jo. 2003. “Synchronous Computer-mediated Communication and Learner Autonomy in Female Emirati Learners of English” (doctoral dissertation, University of Exeter). National Archives. 2015. National Archives. Retrieved from http://www.na.ae/en/ . National Bureau of Statistics. 2014. “Education 2011/2012.” http://www.uaestatistics. gov.ae/EnglishHome/ReportsByDepartmentEnglish/tabid/104/Default. aspx?MenuId=1&NDId=442. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Online Computer Library Center (OCLC). 2013. “A Regional Picture.” Incite 34(5), 32.

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Park, JungRan and Caimei Lu. 2009. “Metadata Professionals: Roles and Competencies as reflected in Job Announcements, 2003–2006.” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 47: 145–160. Partridge, Helen, Jo Hanisch, Hilary Hughes, Maureen Henninger, Mary Carroll, Barbara Combes, Paul Genoni, Sue Reynolds, Kerry Tanner, Sally Burford, Leonie Ellis, Philip Hider and Christine Yates. 2011. Re-conceptualising and Re-positioning Australian Library and Information Science Education for the 21st Century. Sydney: Australian Learning & Teaching Council. Paul Budde Communication. 2011. “United Arab Emirates – Telecoms, Mobile and Broadband.” http://www.budde.com.au/Research/United-Arab-Emirates-Telecoms-Mobile-andBroadband.html. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. 2014. QAA: Safeguarding Standards and Improving the Quality of UK Higher Education. Gloucester, UK: QAA. Richardson, Patricia. 2004. “Possible Influences of Arabic-Islamic Culture on the Reflective Practices Proposed for an Education Degree at the Higher Colleges of Technology in the United Arab Emirates.” International Journal of Education Development 24: 429–436. Rugh, William. 2002. “Arab Education: Tradition, Growth and Reform.” Middle East Journal 56: 396–414. Russell, Alan. 2004. “Zayed University Students’ Teaching and Learning Beliefs and Preferences: An Analysis Based on the Surface versus Deep Learning Approach.” Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Gulf Perspectives 1. http://www.zu.ac.ae/lthe/vol1/ lthe01_01.pdf. Accessed on 14 January 2016. Saw, Grace and Heather Todd. 2007. “Library 3.0: Where Art Our Skills?” Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 73rd IFLA General Conference and Council. Durban, South Africa, 19–23 August. Smith, Kerry, Gillian Hallam, and S.B. Ghosh on behalf of the Education and Training Section of the International Federation of Library Associations. 2012. “Guidelines for Professional Library Educational Programs.” http://www.ifla.org/publications/guidelines-forprofessional-libraryinformation-educational-programs-2012. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Telecommunications Regulatory Authority. 2014. “ICT in the UAE: Business Survey 2013.” https://www.tra.gov.ae/assets/aPL6Z9JH.pdf. Accessed on 24 February 2016. UAE Interact. 2011. “Education.” http://www.uaeinteract.com/society/education.asp. Accessed on 14 January 2016. UAE Interact. 2014. “Labour.” http://www.uaeinteract.com/government/labour.asp. Accessed on 14 January 2016. UAE National Applicants. 2014. “Higher Colleges of Technology.” http://recruit.hct.ac.ae/ WebForms/uae_national_applicants.aspx. Accessed on 14 January 2016. UAE Vision. 2021. 2011. http://www.vision2021.ae/en/our-vision. Accessed on 14 January 2016. UAE Yearbook 2013. 2014. London: Trident Press. United Arab Emirates 2012 Human Rights Report. 2012. Washington, DC: United States Department of State.

S.B. Ghosh

13 Looking back through More than One Hundred Years of LIS Education in India and Looking ahead Preamble The efforts in competency building for running libraries have a long history in the country. In-service trainings in librarianship used to be for their staff. One such training programme was conducted by John Macfarlane, the then Librarian of the Imperial Library, Calcutta (now the National Library of India) during the period 1901–1906, and was initially meant for the staff of the library, but was subsequently extended for others. Though such programmes were initiated as formal training for the development of skilled manpower, they provided the impetus for offering formal education for library activities. The important features of such programmes were the interests and initiatives of the intelligentsia to develop suitable mechanisms for the maintenance of libraries and accessing its resources, particularly the books acquired by them as hobbies, and to increase their academic and intellectual pursuits. Such interests led to the start of the first formal training for librarians in the beginning of the second decade of the 1900s. Though a few training programmes and schools were started before the 1940s, major initiatives were taken by the government after the independence of the country in 1947, and particularly in the 1960s, due to the realization of the need for trained manpower to maintain libraries for the various types of institutions established by the government for the socio-economic development of the country. Thus, starting with the initiation of the first formal course in 1911, at present more than 181 institutions/ universities are offering courses in librarianship at various levels with different durations and course content. The major factors responsible for such developments were the attitudes of academics/researchers towards the realization of the need for information, the growth of literature due to increased research activities, and the capability of technology for handling many of the library and information related activities. The data in this chapter come from 2014 and may have changed slightly in the intervening time.

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A Glimpse at the Developments of LIS Education in India The formal education for library science in India started with the patronage of kings/emperors and intelligentsia with the objectives of: –– equipping the people for practical library work; –– training a select class of people from the most intelligent librarians. The initiation of the first formal training course is believed to have been started at Baroda (now in the province of Gujarat) in 1911 by William Alanson Borden, an American-trained librarian (who was a student of Melvil Dewey and trained by Charles Ammi Cutter), and the librarian of the princely state of Baroda, with the patronage of Maharaja (King) Sayaji Rao III. Borden was invited by the king to establish libraries in the princely state of Baroda. The proposal sent by Borden on 19 December, 1910 for initiating such a course says (cited in Kumar and Sharma 2009, 36): … I further propose to select a class from the most intelligent of the present librarians and instruct that class in practical library work and in the theory of librarianship so that they can assist me in the classification and cataloguing of books of various libraries to be purchased by them…

On 24 December 1910, A.M. Masani, the Minister of Education, supported the proposal of Borden (cited in Kumar and Sharma 2009, 36).: The proposal to form a library school is commendable. A class may be started at Baroda College and held in the morning to enable the Baroda educated class, who are engaged during the daytime and who feel interested in the library work, to attend. Mr. Borden wants to train ten intelligent graduates in practical work of classification and wishes them to work during office hours under his general supervision and assist him in classifying and cataloguing the books.

Borden further writes (cited in Kumar and Sharma 2009, 36): …with their assistance to ultimately found a library school that can graduate experts….I began by selecting a class of ten men and women of exceptional ability and I gave them thorough training in the theory and practice of Librarianship.

This training programme is considered to be the first formal training course on librarianship started in India. It is a matter of coincidence that the first library



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school in the world was set up by Melvil Dewey at Columbia University in the same year. The subjects taught were book selection, book ordering, checking, accessioning, classifying, lending, preparing quarterly and annual reports, billing, children’s libraries, travelling libraries, and knowledge about new outlooks in librarianship. In this programme, morning was devoted to theory and the afternoon to practical work in the library. Borden also started a summer school for five months for village and town librarians for the State of Baroda which was inaugurated on 1 April 1913 and continued until 1924. It is thus evident that such training was started due to the interest of learned people and intelligentsia in the community who were interested in the development of public libraries through training workers and staff.

Lahore School in 1915 Punjab University (PU) in Lahore (now located in the Pakistan; this school does not exist now) started a Certificate in Librarianship in 1915 with the initiative of two Americans, Asa Don Dickenson and James C.R. Ewing, which continued until 1947. James C.R. Ewing, Vice Chancellor of Punjab University, suggested to the government of India that they should recruit “a trained librarian to thoroughly arrange the library and to train a class of young men for such work” (Ewing, cited in Kumar and Sharma 2009, 38). The course consisted of 25 lectures and started with subjects that included classification, cataloguing rules, list of subject headings, dictionary catalogue, and open shelves. The syllabus was revised in 1921 by Labhu Ram, Assistant Librarian, and it included courses such as Foreign Languages, Linguistic Survey of India, Book Selection, Copyright in India and England, A Survey from Tennyson and Bernard Shaw, Sources of Provincial Histories from India, Oriental Bibliography, Milestones of English Literature, Library Building, Open Access, and Technical Libraries, in addition to Cataloguing, Classification, Bibliography, and Library Administration. The sphere of librarianship started expanding after the first quarter of the twentieth century, in consequence of the realization that future librarians needed to be equipped not only with library techniques, but also with other areas, such as sources of provincial history, copyright, linguistic aspects, bibliography, etc., which would help in applying library techniques more efficiently for proper organization of libraries and provision of services. However, the syllabus designed

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by Labhu Ram seems to be biased towards the organization of libraries in the context of England.

The Courses/Schools before Independence (Pre-1947) Courses were started by the universities and professional library associations in the early period of the twentieth century. From 1920, librarianship in India started to become a distinct profession. The Andhra Desa Library Association (a provincial library association in southern India) started a library school in 1920, with a programme one month long consisting of lectures delivered by scholars. The curricula included Telugu Literature, Social Work, History of Andhra, Economics, and the Library Movement. Thus the training was intended more for social workers. In 1934, the syllabus was revised to include more areas of library work such as acquisition, book selection, cataloguing, etc. (Patel and Kumar 2001). Andhra University started a Diploma course in 1935. In the same year, K.M. Asadulla Khan, a student of Dickinson and the Librarian of the then Imperial Library (named the National Library of India after independence) at Calcutta, started a full-time Diploma Course. This programme continued until 1947. The curriculum consisted of basic subjects like decimal classification, cataloguing rules, list of subject headings, dictionary catalogue, and open shelves. The Madras Library Association (another provincial library association in the southern part of the country) started a School of Library Science in 1929 for training school and college librarians. The school offered a three-month Certificate course in librarianship that was in two parts. Part I covered theory, which included topics like library science, library organization, cataloguing, classification, and library routine; and Part II comprised practical work. In 1931, the school was taken over by the University of Madras and the course continued until 1937. In 1938, the Certificate course was converted into a one-year course and was renamed as a Diploma in Librarianship. Other courses which were initiated during this period were: –– a training programme organized at Bansberia (located now in West Bengal) in 1925 by the Bengal Library Association (BLA), a provincial library association; –– a summer school initiated by the BLA in 1937, which was later known as a Certificate Course in Librarianship; and



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–– until independence, courses started at Banaras University (1941), University of Bombay (1943) and the University of Calcutta (1945). Thus, starting with the first library school in 1911, there were six library schools initiated in more than three decades. Another six schools at the university level would be started over the next 15 years.

The Courses/ Schools after Independence (1947 onwards) The late 1940s through the early 1960s saw the development of providing new types of services in the libraries throughout the world. This development was due, on the one hand, to the application of computers in the field of librarianship and, on the other hand, to the demand for information generated in different types of documents, such as periodical literature, research reports, etc. The new services were 1) documentation services, 2) advent of keyword indexing technique, and 3) uniterm system of indexing. Obviously, the development of these new techniques for providing information services led to the development of different types of courses with different types of curricula. After independence, sufficient ground was created for the growth of library schools in India, particularly after the 1950s. Some of the factors responsible for the growth and development in the number of library schools in the country were: –– the growth in the literary output after the Second World War; –– the growth in the number of new educational and research institutions after independence; –– the planned policy undertaken by the Government for the socio-economic development of the country to be achieved through different five year plans; –– the recognition of the need to eliminate wasteful research through availability of literature/information; and –– the growth in the number of libraries to satisfy the information needs of users of various sectors of the society, necessitating the availability of qualified and trained manpower.

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Shift from Library Services to Documentation Services in the 1950s One of the important developments in the late 1940s is the coinage of the term “documentation service”. After the Second World War, special types of libraries, in the form of Special Libraries, began to grow, and the emphasis was shifted from traditional library services to new types of services, called documentation services, which were based on the collection, processing, organization, and access of information (rather than the processing of books). As a result, new ways of library services were contemplated and started developing; and new types of institutional mechanisms, documentation, and information centres were evolved to satisfy the requirements of users in this changing scenario to keep up with the worldwide trend. Universities and special libraries started providing documentation and information services. As a result, more and more library programmes/ courses developed and curricula kept changing with the new and constantly changing requirements of the users.

From Librarianship to Library and Information Science (1960 onwards) Library schools, which started awarding Diplomas in Librarianship during the 1940s, changed the nomenclature during the 1960s to Library Science or Library and Information Science (e.g., Bachelor in Library and Information Science and Master’s in Library and Information Science). In the curricula, in addition to the traditional techniques of cataloguing and classification, it appeared imperative to provide the skills of documentation techniques, new methods of indexing with the application of computers, the application of computers for the library housekeeping operations, and other methods of information studies, like bibliometrics, SDI services, etc. Curricula were also restructured to suit changing needs for new skills and capabilities among the professionals. The 1960s saw the growth of another 23 schools within a span of ten years. Another striking feature of this period was the starting of special types of training institutions, other than the traditional universities, offering special types of courses with emphasis on documentation activities to meet the challenge of the shift in information requirements. It was felt that university curricula were not able to meet the requirements of the specialized institutions, particularly the science and technology institutions in the country. Thus, courses were started by



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some governmental agencies and academic institutions to fill this need. Examples of such establishments are the Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC) (now named the National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources abbreviated as NISCAIR), started in 1952 by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of the Government of India with the assistance of the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); and the Documentation and Research and Training Centre (DRTC) created in 1962 under the aegis of the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) with the initiatives of Dr S.R. Ranganathan and Professor P.C. Mahalanobis, the Director of ISI. These courses started with the nomenclature Associateship in Documentation and Reprography (considered equivalent to the Master’s Degree in LIS), and subsequently the name was changed to Associateship in Information Science. The course offered by DRTC has been re-designated now as a Master’s of Science in Library and Information Science. The development of Library and Information Science education in India owes much to the vision and initiatives of Dr S.R. Ranganathan, considered the father of library science in India. Due to his initiatives, contributions, and research-mindedness, librarianship in India reached a new height and developed as a distinct profession in India. He initiated research activities in this field and initiated the first doctoral programme in librarianship in 1957 from Delhi University. By the early 1970s, only 7–8 institutions had Master’s programmes apart from the INSDOC and DRTC courses. (These offered programmes at the Master’s level, but they did not have a mandate to offer degrees because they are not universities.) Changing information requirements prompted a realization of the need to produce more and more professionals to fill information- handling jobs at senior levels. It should be noted that during this period the introduction of the computer for library and information activities started growing. Thus, we find the following developments: –– restructuring of curricula to include documentation, information, and reference services; –– inclusion of computer-related areas into syllabi; and –– changes in nomenclature from Library Science to Library and Information Science. The 1980s saw the inroads of microcomputers in libraries and information centres. Topics related to the application of computers in libraries (with introductions to computers and software) were included in the curricula. For example, Delhi University introduced optional papers on Computer Applications to Libraries, which included PASCAL programming language.

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The following developments during the 1990s in the library and information services had profound impacts on the syllabi of the courses: –– usage of software packages in libraries; and –– development of networks like INFLIBNET (Information and Library Network of the University Grants Commission), DELNET (Developing Library Network), CALIBNET (Calcutta Library Network) and other metropolitan library networks established under the aegis of the National Information System for Science and Technology (NISSAT), a Government of India initiative. One development in the 1960s is worth mentioning which had an impact on the curriculum of LIS courses: a software package named CDS/ISIS (Computerized Documentation Service/Integrated Set of Information System), developed by UNESCO for a generalized information storage and retrieval system and designed specifically for the computerized management of structured non-numerical databases, was distributed free by UNESCO through government outlets to libraries big and small. Because of its free availability, the same demand arose in many libraries for the creation of bibliographic databases and for professionals to handle the package. Many short-term programmes to provide training on the package were organized by UNESCO, government organizations, library associations and universities. Thus, in the curricula, many of the universities included packages like CDS/ISIS, the topics of networks and networking, and telecommunication and other library automation areas. During the period 1965 to the 1980s, commercial organizations also started developing library software packages, resulting in the employment of LIS professionals in such organizations and the need for trained manpower. After 1997, papers like systems analysis, statistical methods, bibliometrics, scientometrics, information storage and retrieval, etc., were included in the courses. Since 2000 onwards, knowledge organization, knowledge management, etc., gained importance. Many of the universities/institutions, particularly INSDOC (now NISCAIR) and DRTC included these topics in their syllabi.

Distance Education – A New Initiative by the Government for Higher Education in the Country During the 1980s The challenges to the countries of the Asian region, or for that matter of any developing nation, in the transition process towards a knowledge society are



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twofold—preparing manpower for different occupations and developing human capabilities to utilize the benefits of societal development. Putting knowledge to work requires a skilled workforce and manpower for various areas so that the benefits of development may be accessed and utilized by the society. In all these processes, information/knowledge access and availability play a crucial role. Significant challenges are triggered, however, by the problems of uneven economic conditions, the literacy rate, and an inadequate education system. The GDP growth of the country is below 5% and the literacy rate is below seventy percent, which is inadequate for thriving in the era of the knowledge society. As observed by the Nobel laureate Amartya Sen, in a country like India, the fruits of economic progress and industrialization are demonstrated by the abysmal inadequacies in the country’s education system in the same way as happened in South Korea and China. Many of the Asian countries, including India, have resorted to an Open- and Distance-learning (ODL) system to counter the inadequacies of the conventional education system to produce sufficient required manpower. The Indian government took a major initiative in establishing a distance learning university at the national level. The first Open University in India was started at Hyderabad (the capital of the province of Andhra Pradesh, located at the southern part of the country). Andhra Pradesh Open University, now B.R. Ambedkar Open University, started a Bachelor’s Degree Programme in Library and Information Science in 1982. The first Open University at the national level, established by the Government of India by an Act of Parliament, was named Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) in 1985. The opening of Open Universities paved the way for providing education to a wider section of people who otherwise did not have access to education for a variety of reasons. The degree programmes in LIS were started by IGNOU in 1989 with a Bachelor’s Degree and then a Master’s Degree in 1994. Now the university is offering a PhD degree as well. A further initiative at the government level is the decision to start open universities at the local level for each province. At present, 27 universities are offering courses on LIS at the Certificate, Bachelor’s, and Master’s level in distance mode. Some of the universities are also offering Master’s of Philosophy (M.Phil) and Doctorates of Philosophy (PhD) degrees in LIS. These programmes are delivered through a combination of modes, such as paper-based course materials supported by audio, video, teleconferencing, and face-to-face counselling. The mode of delivery in the distance-learning system has evolved through different generations of development, as mentioned earlier, culminating in virtual classrooms through the development of an e-learning-/digital-learning system. Although the technology of e-learning has been developed in the context of distance learning, it is applied in the conventional system as well. For example,

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the various Indian Institutes of Technology and some private universities offer some courses in e-learning mode. Many institutions in the developed world have developed e-learning systems, which are equally accessible to the learners of the conventional system. IGNOU is providing an online Master’s degree programme in LIS, in addition to the traditional mode of paper-based delivery of education. Many diverse initiatives, such as delivery through a combination of modes, digital learning, etc., demonstrate how the digital resources can enhance the transfer of knowledge.

Major Developments during the 2000s and the Factors Responsible The Library and Information Science field saw major developments in the late 1990s and 2000s due to the development and availability of Information Communication Technologies (ICT), which has influenced Library and Information Science education in the country significantly. Some of the factors responsible for such developments are: –– the development of the internet in the 1990s, which had a profound impact on libraries and their services. Due to the evolution of digital libraries and virtual libraries during this period, many institutions in India started developing their own digital libraries; –– the introduction of the concept of open access: many libraries/institutions started providing the facilities of open access for the literature produced by these institutions; –– the use of open source software by libraries: many libraries in India are automating their libraries through open source software, such as D-Space, Koha, etc.; –– the establishment of the National Knowledge Commission by the Government of India and the recommendations of the commission, which have put emphasis on the areas of knowledge access, management, and utilization. All these developments have profound impact on the course content of the universities. At present, we notice that many universities have introduced knowledge management, knowledge organization, and open source software both in theory and practice in their curricula.



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Level and Duration of Courses If we look at the courses offered by various institutions, associations and universities, it may be seen that courses are offered with different nomenclature (from Certificate (undergraduate) to M.Sc. in LIS), with different durations (from 6 months to two years integrated programmes), and with different minimum qualifications required for admission, etc. Table 13.1provides a summary of degree levels. Table 13.1: Showing the various levels, nomenclature, duration of the courses (Source: Kumar and Sharma 2009). Level

Nomenclature

Certificate

Certificate in Library Science CLISC

SSLC-PVC (Secondary 3–9 months School Leaving Certificate)

Diploma

Diploma in Lib. Science

DLISC

JOC in Dip. In Lib. Science

DLISC

SSLC-PVC (Secondary 6 months – School Leaving 2 years Certificate) SSLC (Secondary 2 Years School Leaving Certificate)

Bachelor of Lib. & Inf. Sc. Bachelor of Arts (Hons.) (Pass) (Optional)

BLISC BA

Bachelor

Degree

Minimum Qualifications

Degree 10+2

P.G. Diploma PG Dip. In Inf. Technology PG Dip. In Archives and Document Management Post MLISC Diploma in Lib. Automation

PGDIT BLISC PGDADM Degree

Master

MLISC MLISC

Master of Lib. & Inf. Science Master of Lib. & Inf. Science (Integrated) Master of Inf. Science Master of Science (Lib. & Inf. Sc.) Associateship in Inf. Science

MLISC BLISC Degree/Higher Secondary MISC Degree MSc (LIS) Degree AISC Degree & BLISC, MBBS

Duration

1 Year 2–3 year 1 Year 1 Year 1 Year 1 Year 2 years/5 years 2 Years 2 Years 2 Years

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LIS Research in India Research activities in India leading to the award of a PhD degree are not as old as the initiation of the educational programme in LIS. Delhi University started the first research activity component of LIS in India in 1948 and awarded the first Ph.D. degree in 1957. A study on the trends of research reveals that around 915 degrees have been awarded as of 2011. The growth of PhD degrees awarded is shown in Table 13.2. Table 13.2: Showing the decadal growth of PhD degrees awarded (Source: Jana and Mallik 2013). Decade 1950–1959 1960–1969 1970–1979 1980–1989 1990–1999 2000–2009 2010–2011 (Nov)

Number of PhDs awarded 2 2 13 104 319 373 102

The trend shows that before 1979, undertaking research activities were not as significant as compared to the1980s onwards.

Lack of Accreditation Mechanism Although a hundred years have passed since the beginning of library education in India, no accreditation mechanism in the country is in place for the LIS programmes. A study of LIS education in India reveals that there is a mushrooming of courses with non-uniformity in the programmes’ course curricula, levels, and duration (although two Curriculum Development Committees of the University Grants Commission have prescribed curricula for different levels of the programmes to achieve uniformity in the curricula).



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The Present Scenario Besides the two institutions—INSDOC and DRTC—more than 131 universities now offer LIS courses either at Bachelor’s, Master’s, or at both levels. More than 21 universities offer Master of Philosophy courses and more than 93 universities offer PhD. Programmes (Hatua 2015). Apart from these, 15 polytechnics and other types of institutions offer Diploma courses. Unlike the universities, the two institutions, INSDOC (now NISCAIR) and DRTC, have distinct objectives of providing education only in information studies, because of limited intake and inadequate infrastructural facilities. In addition to the number of intakes, the course contents, and duration of the programmes, infrastructural facilities also vary from one university to another. At the same time, different kinds of library and information professionals with varied skills are required for transition towards a knowledge society. This diversity of needs has resulted in the offering of short term training courses conducted by various universities/institutions and library associations. The present trend in curricula is to put everything in one basket instead of offering specialized courses, i.e. whatever new areas/ideas appear are included in the curricula without taking into consideration the utilities of those ideas in the present context. Thus, the courses become heavily burdened without consideration of the coverage of the concepts within the stipulated duration of the programmes.

Looking Ahead – the Vision The changing scenario of library and information services and the developments of LIS education at a global level have profound impact on LIS education in the country, particularly the course content and the globalization of the programmes. Slowly, trends have appeared in the design, development, and transformation of the courses. Such trends will continue for at least some years to come, as the following scenarios envision.

Vision I: The New Trend of Schools and India A new trend in LIS education has appeared globally since the last decade of the previous century in the form of Information Schools or iSchools. The reasons for

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this shift are that library services are going digital and the developments in communication technology have changed the accessibility of information. The iSchool movement started in the USA in the 1990s. The objective of iSchools is to provide knowledge to the professionals for an information-driven world. The 65 iSchools in 22 countries around the globe have formed a consortium. In many cases, existing LIS schools have transformed themselves to this type of school and in some cases, new institutions have been started. This trend is seen in India as well. If the curricula of different institutions/ universities are examined, it will be noted that this trend started in the country well before they were called iSchools. Some of the universities in India have re-designated their courses as M.Sc in Information Science. For example, the course structure of the Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi (Bihar), reveals little similarity with the syllabi of traditional library and information science courses. The course content includes topics like Foundation of Information Science, Fuzzy Logic, Data Structures, Data Communication and Networking, Neural Networks, Digital Library and Multimedia, etc. Some of the areas similar to LIS syllabi are Knowledge Organization and Information Processing, Management Information Systems, Research Methodology, Quantitative Techniques, DBMS, etc. The Madras University has re-designated its course as M.Sc. in Information Science. The Documentation Research and Training Centre of the Indian Statistical Institute has re-designated its course from an Associateship in Information Science to a M.Sc. in Library and Information Science. All these courses put emphasis on information rather than on traditional librarianship. The implementation of full-fledged iSchool philosophy in India is witnessed through the establishment of the International School of Information Management (ISIM) by the University of Mysore in 2005. The present trend in LIS education in India as far as syllabi are concerned is that traditional LIS courses at the Master’s level are switching over to information-related areas rather than library science. The areas of library science and its basics form the curricula at the Bachelor’s level. This trend will continue for coming years primarily to suit the market requirement.

Vision II: Course Structure According to Skill Requirements Looking at the societal development and employment market in the country, two types of institutions – traditional libraries and information / knowledge centres – will coexist to satisfy the requirement of users at different levels. For skill devel-



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opment in these two types of institutions, the course structure needs to be different, and it is not possible to do justice to both institutions by putting everything in one curriculum. Skills for library organizations and services, and information / knowledge management and access are different and the course content should reflect this difference. Some universities have already structured their courses according to the degree levels with traditional techniques of library organization and services included at the Bachelor’s level, while the Master’s level focuses on information/knowledge management and access using modern tools and techniques.

Vision III: Change in the Pattern of Programmes At present, LIS education in India is conducted on the basis of both non-semester and semester systems. The universities are slowly shifting to the semester system. It is envisaged that most of the universities will be switching over to the integrated curricula with a semester system in the near future.

Vision IV: Globalization of LIS Education vis-à-vis India Higher education of any country is dependent on the policy of the government in that realm. The government is currently advocating for a policy for international collaboration in higher education. LIS education in the country should move in that direction to take advantage of this policy of expertise available globally. The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) has taken a major initiative for the globalization of LIS education. In the context of LIS education in India, the initiative for international collaboration has already started. The coming years will witness more international collaboration between Indian LIS schools and schools of other countries. Such endeavours need a proper accreditation mechanism in place if LIS education in India is to play a global role. Accreditation is essential for equivalence and reciprocity of qualification of LIS professionals.

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Need for a Separate Accreditation Body for LIS To achieve excellence in the field of education and standard norms, delivery mechanism is important and should be according to the objectives for which education is provided. Library and Information Science is no exception. Dr S.R. Ranganathan, in his time, emphasised the need for standards and norms in various forums. He developed norms for starting LIS courses in terms of teacher/student ratio, infrastructural facilities, etc. To achieve uniformity in the course structure, minimum infrastructure, duration, etc., the University Grants Commission (UGC) appointed two Curriculum Development Committees. The latest one (1990–1991) recommended a two years integrated MLISc programme with a detailed course structure, the minimum infrastructure required, such as the ratio of computers in relation to the number of students, student/teacher ratio, etc. The committee also recommended a semester system for the programmes. Although it serves as the basis for starting or developing a programme, it is not mandatory for any university to follow the recommendations, as the UGC has no authority to oversee the implementation of the recommendations except providing financial support to the universities. From the earlier discussion and Table 13.1, it is apparent that the universities and institutions, excluding the two institutions NISCAIR and DRTC, have started different programmes under different nomenclature, duration, course contents, etc. There is dearth of teaching faculties in relation to the number of programmes now operating. There are many university departments who run Bachelor’s, Master’s and PhD programmes with one full-time faculty member only, depending mostly on guest teachers who may not have commitments to the programmes/ departments. The programmes should have a clear vision of the objectives for which the programmes are offered. The present scenario of LIS education in India shows that there are: –– a mushrooming number of courses offered by the universities/institutions/ associations etc. Presently LIS education is imparted by more than 181 universities/institutions. Among them: –– 131 universities/institutions offer a Bachelor’s degree; –– 136 offer a Master’s degree; –– 21 offer a M.Phil. degree; –– 93 offer a Ph.D. degree; –– 36 out of 136 offer a two-year integrated MLISc –– 1 university offers a five-year integrated MLISc programme; –– inadequate faculty strength in relation to the number of students admitted. –– lack of adequate library facilities. The features of the modern library are changing very fast. Most of the resources are available in electronic form.



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Earlier, libraries attached to the LIS schools were used to serve as a laboratory where students could do hands-on practical work. This concept is slowly fading away; –– curricula now heavily burdened with ICT applications to library and information services. Excepting a few, most of the LIS schools lack adequate ICT infrastructure; –– no regular mechanism for curriculum revision, which is a very important component for any professional education. The government is planning to achieve the globalization of education through an exchange programme for students and faculty, credit transfer, etc.. Achieving this goal presupposes that standards, norms, and the quality of the programmes can be maintained and adhered to. There are accreditation agencies in the country for professional disciplines like engineering and technical subjects, medicine, etc. But as far as LIS education is concerned, it is still lacking. It is essential that a separate accreditation agency in line with the American Library Association or Library Association (UK), or a separate body constituted by the government, be established. In this context, international organizations like IFLA may play an important role.

References Ghosh, S.B. and Jaideep Sharma. 2009. “LIS Education and Distance Learning in Developing Countries of Asian Region with particular reference to the Initiatives Taken in India.” Paper presented at the IFLA/SET Conference, Milan, Italy. Ghosh, S.B. 2013. “Hundred Years of LIS Education in India: Present Scenario and Future Trends.” In Glorious Hundred Years of LIS Education in India, edited by Pijush Kanti Jana and Soumen Mallik, 20–26. Midnapore: Vidyasagar University. Hatua, Sudip Ranjan. 2015. “Two Years’ Integrated MLISc Program and its Curriculum Structure: A Proposal.” In Trends in LIS Education, Research & practice, edited by Sudip Ranjan Hatua, 119–146. Kolkata: Rabindra Bharati University, Department of Library and Information Science. Jana, Pijush Kanti and Soumen Mallik, eds. Glorious Hundred Years of LIS Education in India. Midnapore: Vidyasagar University. Kumar, Krishan and Jaideep Sharma. 2009. Library and Information Science Education in India. New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications. Patel, Jashu and Krishan Kumar. 2001. Libraries and Librarianship in India. Westport: Greenwood Press. Sarkar, Milan Kumar. 2013. “Trend in Doctoral Research in LIS.” In Glorious Hundred Years of LIS Education in India, edited by Pijush Kanti Jana and Soumen Mallik, 244–255. Midnapore: Vidyasagar University.

Ida F. Priyanto

14 The Development, Challenges, and Opportunities of Library and Information Science Education in Indonesia Introduction Indonesia is a country in South-east Asia with more than 17,000 islands, stretching from Sumatra in the west (southwest of Malaysia) to the western part of Papua in the east. It is also the fourth biggest country in the world in terms of population. According to Badan Pusat Statistik (2016) the population reached 237,641,326 in 2010, with Java being the most densely populated island although its size is less than one third that of Sumatra Island. Nowadays, 54.7 % of the population lives on Java (Yolanda 2014). The population density also is reflected in the distribution of library and information science (LIS) schools in Indonesia, as most of the LIS schools are on Java and a few in Sumatra, Bali, Borneo, and Sulawesi, while all the graduate schools are on the island of Java. No doctoral programme is available in the country so far. To pursue a doctoral degree in LIS, one must go overseas, which poses a challenge due to language barriers and to family or personal matters. Currently there are about 3,000 higher education institutions in Indonesia, but only 29 universities offer diploma and/or undergraduate programmes in LIS and five universities offer a Master’s degree. According to Sulistyo-Basuki (2013, para. 19), there was a plan to open a doctoral programme in LIS under the College of Computer Science, University of Indonesia in 1998. However, it did not get any students and was cancelled due to the political and economic crisis, students’ reluctance to take computer coursework, and lack of public information about the programme. There has also been another effort to open a doctoral programme in LIS at the end of 2011. Sponsored by the Goethe Institute in Jakarta and in collaboration with Cologne University of Applied Science, both Gadjah Mada University and University of Indonesia discussed a plan to open a doctoral programme, but it has not been realized due to administrative problems. For the last three years another effort has been under way to prepare for the opening of an LIS doctoral programme by sending some faculty members to take PhDs in LIS overseas. Although the number of faculty members studying overseas is quite small, it shows that Indonesia is interested in developing its LIS programme. Following this preparation of the human resources, the doctoral programme in



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LIS is expected to open before 2020 and will have a number of students eager to undertake LIS research. While facing challenges and barriers, the need to develop the LIS field still exists due to the need for professional and paraprofessional librarians to fill positions in the high number of libraries in high schools, higher education institutions, regencies, cities, and provinces. At present there are 490 public libraries, 280,000 school libraries, and about 3,000 academic libraries throughout Indonesia (Yulianingsih 2014). The new Act on librarianship (Undang Undang Perpustakaan) released in 2007 requires librarians to have formal education prior to their appointment. In general the minimum education requirement for an assistant librarian in Indonesia is a diploma in LIS, and for a librarian it is the completion of an undergraduate programme. The need for professional librarians, especially those with Master’s degrees, has increased in the last few years, and librarians are interested in continuing education. In fact, more universities require librarians to have a Master’s degree in LIS if they want to get the position of library director. In fact, an interesting study by Maesaroh and Genoni (2009) indicated that 50 out of 133 academic libraries have no library staff with formal LIS education and more than 50 % of staff are only diploma graduates. The survey shows there is a gap between the real conditions and the legal requirements. Therefore, LIS schools have the opportunity to attract more students and educate them. Indeed, the number of LIS schools is far too small compared to the number of libraries in Indonesia.

Historical Development In general, LIS education in Indonesia has been established for more than 60 years. However, the historical side of librarianship is often neglected in LIS education and among librarians in Indonesia; therefore, it is not easy to trace back the historical development of LIS in Indonesia due to limited resources. In addition, Dutch colonization for 350 years and Japanese for 3.5 years, consecutively, did not make Indonesians familiar with libraries. Education was also rare during the colonial period, and it was even harder during Japanese occupation. The unavailability of libraries for many generations in the past resulted in the lack of appreciation among policy makers for the role libraries can play in developing the nation. However, in the last few years, people have become aware of the importance of a library in the community. Some policy makers have raised the issue, for example, the governor of Yogyakarta, who established the Board of Library Development and a networked digital library, Jogja Library for All, and Surabaya’s mayor who, together with Yayasan

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Pengembangan Perpustakaan Indonesia (YPPI), an independent library development agency, initiated the “city of literacy” in 2014. The development of LIS education in Indonesia can be traced back to two periods. The first is LIS education in the early days after independence and the second is LIS education after the restructuring of higher education institutions. The early period saw Indonesia struggle to establish libraries and LIS schools, while the second is a period of development of LIS formal education and the establishment of more professional and competent librarians. Although the number of LIS schools is too small compared to the number of higher education institutions and population, it has definitely been growing in the last two decades. Indeed, public awareness of the importance of libraries has led academic institutions to offer LIS education programmes, ranging from training courses, diploma or vocational programmes, to undergraduate and Master’s degrees.

Library and Information Science (LIS) Schools in the Early Days Little was known about libraries and LIS schools in the early days after independence, and there are few resources dealing with the historical side of librarianship in Indonesia. In fact, LIS education in Indonesia has a 60-year long history. The root of LIS education was a result of the high rate of illiteracy. According to Sulistyo-Basuki (1999) the illiteracy rate reached about 90% in the early 1950s, a few years after independence. The government considered this issue critical because the rate was so high. In fact, after independence, schools were still rare and mostly available in cities in Java, and only a few people went to schools while others preferred working rather than going to school. The struggle of daily life forced people to get jobs rather than education. Apprenticeship was considered more attractive for young people because they needed it to get jobs quickly. Meanwhile the number of elementary school leavers was also high due to early marriage and work. Early marriage was common, especially for young girls. People tended to get married before they reached 20 years of age. The struggles of life were indeed the main reason people preferred working to studying. To cope with the problem of illiteracy, the government built public libraries and, to support the establishment of libraries, the Department of Education, Teaching, and Culture held a library staff training programme named Kursus Pendidikan Pegawai Perpustakaan (Training for Library Staff) in 1952 (Maesaroh and Genoni 2009; Sulistyo-Basuki 1993).The main objective of the training programme was to provide basic skills and knowledge in managing daily routines of



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library services, as the trainees had never received any training prior to working in libraries. The training, however, covered various subjects including management of academic, public, school, and special libraries, collection development, and other technical services within a library. Based on the condition of libraries at the time, however, the emphasis of training was on classification and cataloguing of printed materials. Sjahrial (1975) mentioned that this training was aimed at equipping trainees with knowledge, skills, and technical aspects of library management. Initially it was planned to run for one year, but it gradually added more coursework and practical work for the trainees and resulted in the extension of time to completion. It finally took 2.5 years to finish. In 1956, the training was renamed Pendidikan Ahli Perpustakaan (Training for Librarians) and it was considered a vocational school programme. This programme was later redesigned extensively and renamed as Library Science school in 1959: it became a three-year vocational programme and accepted high-school graduates. Beginning in 1961, however, this programme was managed by the College of Education, University of Indonesia, in Jakarta. Although the College of Education at the University of Indonesia finally became the Jakarta State Institute of Education, the LIS programme remained at the University of Indonesia; later it was under the Faculty of Letters and became an undergraduate programme in library science in 1964. However, based on various considerations including the need for students to have education prior to taking LIS, it became a Master’s programme in 1969 and only accepted those who held a bachelor’s degree in any field. Meanwhile, Bandung Institute of Education opened the department of Library Science in 1975 and also accepted only those who held bachelor’s degrees in any field (Zen 1992). The LIS school at Bandung Institute of Education was later moved to the College of Communication, Padjadjaran University. In this college, the LIS school offered some coursework related to communication studies.

LIS Schools after the Educational Restructuring in Higher Education Institutions A national higher educational restructuring was undertaken in 1982. This restructuring separated undergraduate from vocational or diploma programmes, as they have different objectives. The undergraduate programme runs for four years with less practical coursework and leads students toward graduate studies, while the diploma or vocational programme provides mainly practical coursework and may be finished in one to three years, as the programme is divided into

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Diploma 1, Diploma 2, and Diploma 3. The number indicates the year-length of study. Diploma 1 can be completed in 1 year, Diploma 2 in 2, and Diploma 3 in 3 years. Now, some vocational schools also offer Diploma 4 that is equivalent to an undergraduate degree in applied science. Those completing Diploma 4 may continue studying for a Master’s degree in any related applied science. According to Sulistyo-Basuki (2006, 173), in the diploma programme, “the ratio between theory and practice is 40:60”. LIS schools offer only Diploma 3 nowadays, which leads the graduates to become “paraprofessional” staff (Maesaroh and Genoni 2013, 231). So far, no Diploma 4 programme is offered. Previously, some universities with LIS programmes offered both Diploma 2 and Diploma 3, which meant that it took 2 and 3 years for a student to graduate, respectively. Several universities opened a special programme called an extension programme for those who held Diploma 2 to get Diploma 3. This extension programme required students to take more courses—about 20–30 credit hours. Nowadays, no LIS school offers the Diploma 2, but training in specific subjects of LIS is still offered by some academic libraries, public libraries, and the National Library. Academic libraries usually hold specific library training. Those who graduate from diploma programmes in LIS may become paraprofessionals and work as assistant librarians according to the Indonesian librarian standard, while those who hold undergraduate and graduate levels in LIS may become librarians. The training at the National Library accepts library staff who hold undergraduate degrees in different subjects but who want to become librarians. The training lasts for 3 months and the trainees may be considered as having an equal degree to those with an LIS undergraduate degree. Table 14.1: List of Universities offering Diploma Programmes. No.

Institution

Location

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

University of Indonesia University of YARSI Open University Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Padjadjaran University Sunan Kalijaga State Islamic University Sebelas Maret State University Diponegoro University Brawijaya University Malang State University Airlangga University Padang State University North Sumatra University

Jakarta, Java Jakarta, Java Jakarta, Java Jakarta, Java Bandung, Java Yogyakarta, Java Solo, Java Semarang, Java Malang, Java Malang, Java Surabaya, Java Padang, Sumatra Medan, Sumatra



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Table 14.1: continued. No.

Institution

Location

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Imam Bonjol State Islamic Institute Lampung University Ar-Raniri State Islamic University Bengkulu University Muhammadiyah University at Mataram Hasanuddin University Alauddin State Islamic University Sam Ratulangi University Antasari State Islamic Institute Udayana University

Padang, Sumatra Bandar lampung, Sumatra Banda Aceh, Sumatra Bengkulu, Sumatra Mataram, West Nusa Tenggara Makasar, Sulawesi Makassar, Sulawesi Manado, Sulawesi Banjarmasin, Borneo Denpasar, Bali

While there were only two LIS schools in the 1980s, an increasing number of universities have opened LIS programmes since the 1990s, and currently there are 23 diploma (see Table 14.1) and 19 undergraduate programmes (see Table 14.2) in 29 universities throughout Indonesia. Some universities have both diploma and undergraduate programmes while others have only one type of programme. Gadjah Mada University offered its Diploma in LIS from 1992 until 2005 but closed the programme due to administrative problems. Most Gadjah Mada University graduates have worked in libraries – mostly national, public, and academic libraries. Many of the graduates have continued their undergraduate and graduate levels. A few of them are taking a doctoral programme. Table 14.2: List of Universities offering Undergraduate Programmes in LIS. No.

Institution

Location

1 2 3 4

University of Indonesia YARSI University Open University Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Padjadjaran University Islam Nusantara Islamic University Indonesia Education University Sunan Kalijaga State Islamic University Diponegoro University Satya Wacana Christian University Brawijaya University Malang State University Airlangga University

Jakarta, Java Jakarta, Java Jakarta, Java Jakarta, Java

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Bandung, Java Bandung, Java Bandung, Java Yogyakarta, Java Semarang, Java Salatiga, Java Malang, Java Malang, Java Surabaya, Java

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Table 14.2: continued. No.

Institution

Location

14 15 16 17 18 19

Wijaya Kusuma University North Sumatra University Sultan Thaha University Putra Bangsa University Alauddin State Islamic University Sam Ratulangi University

Surabaya, Java Medan, Sumatra Jambi, Sumatra Palembang, Sumatra Makassar, Sulawesi Manado, Sulawesi

The main problem of LIS schools in Indonesia is that they are not well distributed, as most of them are located in Java and few are outside of Java. Although there is no specific data about the distribution of LIS graduates, it seems many LIS graduates prefer working in academic and public libraries in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Bali, and Sulawesi, while the number of professional librarians in the eastern part of Indonesia is still low. Sulistyo-Basuki (1999) mentioned that LIS schools were opened only in some big cities such as Jakarta and Bandung; but later some LIS schools were also opened in other cities which were mostly on Java Island, such as in the cities of Yogyakarta, Semarang, Salatiga, Surakarta, Surabaya, Malang, and Jember. Anna (2010/2011, 270) also emphasised that “LIS education [is] mainly conducted in some big cities in Indonesia”. Nowadays, it is also available on other islands of Indonesia like Bali, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Sumatra. As seen in Table 14.1, the library schools are mostly available in Java (11 institutions), while there are six institutions in Sumatra, three in Sulawesi, one in Borneo, one in West Nusa Tenggara, and one in Bali. Java is the most densely populated and, likewise, has the biggest number of LIS schools, and those graduating from LIS schools seem interested in working on Java island. Sumatra and Sulawesi show an increasing number of universities offering LIS schools at the diploma level, while Bali, West Nusa Tenggara (WNT) and Borneo have each opened an LIS school. On the other hand, other islands especially in the eastern part of Indonesia such as Maluku and West Papua still have not opened an LIS school (Figure 14.1). Earlier there was discussion on opening an LIS school in Papua but it lacked teaching staff. An interesting point to raise is the extent of awareness the Ministry of Education and Culture has about developing school libraries, as most schools in Indonesia do not have comfortable libraries for students. It may be the reason why children do not appreciate libraries, as they never see good and comfortable libraries during their education. The ministry has invited a university to open an LIS school specializing in school library management. The government shows interest in developing school libraries to build better basic education, which is also a good sign for LIS education devel-



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opment in Indonesia. It may also be a good sign for librarians in school libraries, who are currently dissatisfied with their positions as library staff, while the heads of school libraries are mostly teachers with no LIS education. Many schools offer the position of library heads to teachers instead of librarians.

Figure 14.1: Percentage and Location of Diploma Programmes in LIS.

As stated earlier, there are 13 institutions offering an undergraduate LIS education in Java, three in Sumatra, and two in Sulawesi (Figure 14.2). The distribution of LIS schools shows that Java is the best represented, followed by Sumatra and Sulawesi. No undergraduate programmes are offered on other islands. Therefore, people from regions other than those three islands, who want to take an undergraduate programme in LIS have to leave home to study. In addition, there has been no research on whether the absence of LIS education is associated with poor library services.

Figure 14.2: Percentage and Location of Undergraduate Programmes in LIS.

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It is interesting to note that most librarians who hold the Diploma 3 try to continue their education so that they will obtain an undergraduate degree. This is understandable because the Diploma 3 only permits them to become assistant librarians, while holding the undergraduate level may enable them to become librarians with better remuneration, and they may retire at the age of 65 if they can fulfil the requirement. To accommodate this need, Sunan Kalijaga University and Padjadjaran University opened a transfer programme for the Diploma graduates to study for 30–40 credit hours to attain the undergraduate level. However, this programme has been closed. According to the new library law, librarians with Diploma 3 education will work until the age of 58, while those with undergraduate degrees may retire at the age of 60 or 65 if they can reach the highest level of librarianship. While the diploma and undergraduate programmes have been established since the 1980s, the graduate programmes in LIS in Indonesia were only established in the 1990s. The establishment was not without difficulty. Due to the stakeholders’ view that LIS is not a demanding subject, most graduate LIS programme were established as an area of interest of a school instead of an independent school. It is only at the University of Indonesia that the LIS programme is an independent school, while the other LIS programmes are attached to different schools. Due to limited resources, only five LIS graduate programmes in Indonesia were established in the last 25 years.

Emergence and Development of Graduate Schools of Library and Information Science In the 1990s the government of Indonesia sent some library staff to take Master’s degrees in the United Kingdom (UK) with government and overseas scholarships. Among those taking Master’s degrees, there were also some staff who had just received undergraduate degrees in various subjects but were willing to take their LIS education overseas and work in libraries after they finished their education. When returning, some became librarians in academic libraries and the National Library, while a few others became faculty members at LIS schools in three universities, namely the University of Indonesia, Padjadjaran University, and North Sumatra University. The number of librarians and teaching staff holding a Master’s degree in LIS, however, was not large compared to the number of higher education institutions in Indonesia. It was during the 1990s that LIS education developed a little faster and better compared to the previous decade. With growth in enrolment, the 1990s may be



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viewed as the rise of librarianship and LIS education in Indonesia. Besides vocational schools and undergraduate programmes, three graduate programmes in library science were opened, and after 2000 two more were opened. All five LIS graduate schools were established with limited human and other resources. The first LIS graduate school was opened at the University of Indonesia in the early 1990s. It was the only graduate school before Padjadjaran University opened an LIS graduate programme under the College of Communication and Gadjah Mada University opened one under the School of Public Administration, College of Social and Political Science. The students taking the master’s degree at the University of Indonesia were mostly librarians, especially from academic libraries. Gadjah Mada University opened a graduate school of library management, as required by the Ministry of Education and Culture, in 1996. At that time, the students were selected through an enrolment test held by the Ministry of Education and Culture. These students were from various backgrounds and represented most provinces in Indonesia. They were expected to develop libraries in all provinces in Indonesia. In the first two years, the students were selected by the Ministry of Education and Culture and only one candidate was selected from each province. After three periods of enrolment, however, the department finally was phased out in 2000 as the Ministry of Education and Culture did not send any more students due to the political and economic crises in 1998. It also phased out because of the lack of public information about the programme. The Head of the Public Administration School also considered the LIS school irrelevant to the School of Public Administration, College of Social and Political Sciences, and was aware that it lacked faculty members with LIS expertise. Meanwhile, Padjadjaran University opened a graduate school of library and information science in the 1990s, with a focus on library management. However, as the school is under the College of Communication, the school offers coursework in communication and LIS. Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB) or Bogor Institute of Agriculture opened its Master of Information Technology for Libraries at the College of Computer Science. This department, however, emphasises information technology for libraries. At IPB the coursework mostly relates to computer science. After a year of review and discussion, Gadjah Mada University reopened its LIS Department and renamed it the Department of Library and Information Management (LIM), under the Graduate School of Sociology in 2003. The department’s name is the same as the Diploma Programme in LIS that was offered from 1992 until 2005. The reopening of the LIS Department at Gadjah Mada University was also based on the Memorandum of Understanding for collaboration in research and education between Gadjah Mada University and Boras University

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 Ida F. Priyanto

in Sweden that was signed in 2002. It took a year to prepare the reopening of the school. The collaboration between the School of Library and Information Science, Boras University and Department of Library and Information Management, Gadjah Mada University ran for a few years, including a project and staff exchange: Boras University sent the staff to teach at Gadjah Mada and vice versa, and the exchange also resulted in a research project. With the separation between “mono-disciplinary” and interdisciplinary graduate school programmes, in 2007 the department of information and library management of Gadjah Mada University was moved to the College of Media and Cultural Studies, as LIS was considered an interdisciplinary study with an emphasis on information management. Moving from the School of Sociology to the College of Media and Cultural Studies required changes in the curriculum but not in its focus on information behaviour and information management. The College of Media and Cultural Studies is considered more appropriate for an LIS school than the School of Sociology, as it concerns itself with media, culture, and behaviour. Sunan Kalijaga Islamic State University in Yogyakarta opened its Master’s degree programme in 2009. (This university already offered both the diploma and undergraduate programmes and considered that it needed to open a master’s programme.) The critical point of the LIS department at this university was its position as a department under the College of Islamic Studies—a college that has no relationship with LIS. This is reflected in the curriculum, in which students take Islamic Studies and LIS as a concentration. The university also emphasises its coursework in library management, however. Table 14.3 shows all five LIS departments offering a graduate programme. Table 14.3: Master’s Degree Programme. No

Institution

Department/school

Faculty/college

1

University of Indonesia

2

Padjadjaran University

3

Gadjah Mada University

School of Library and Information Science Department of Information and Library Science Department of Information and Library Management

4

Bogor Institute of Agriculture Sunan Kalijaga State Islamic University

Faculty of Cultural Science College of Communication Graduate School of Media and Cultural Studies Computer Science

5

Department of Information Technology for Libraries Department of Library Science

Islamic Studies



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Future Challenges and Opportunities As the profession of librarianship is developing, LIS education in Indonesia has a good opportunity to develop while facing some challenges — both in human resources and coursework and in the academic unit where the school operates. The first and critical issue of LIS education is the fact that most LIS schools lack faculty members holding doctoral degrees. Currently, the University of Indonesia only has 3 faculty members holding doctoral degrees, but their doctoral degrees are in anthropology instead of in library science. In order to support the LIS school, there are 13 faculty members holding master’s degrees in library science and one in another subject. The situation is similar at Gadjah Mada University, where there is only one LIS (emeritus) professor and six other professors of different subjects (architecture, philosophy, communication). There are four faculty members with master’s degrees in information and library science and one faculty member with a master’s degree in communication. Fortunately, however, these five faculty members are now doctoral candidates. In addition, there are two other faculty members from the LIS department of Gadjah Mada University who are currently taking their doctoral degrees in information science overseas. At Sunan Kalijaga Islamic State University, there are 11 faculty members holding doctoral degrees in different subjects, nine holding Master’s degrees in library science, and one faculty member holding a Master’s degree in a different subject. The LIS department at Bogor Institute of Agriculture is under the School of Computer Science. There are seven faculty members holding Master’s degrees in library science and eight faculty members holding Master’s degrees in computer science. Seven faculty members hold doctoral degrees in computer science, one in library science, and one in communication. No data are available from Padjadjaran Unversity concerning the levels and fields of faculty members’ degrees. Table 14.4 shows the distribution of faculty members with their degrees. Table 14.4: Degrees Held by Faculty Members. No. Institution

1 2 3

University of Indonesia Gadjah Mada University Bogor Institute of Agriculture

Number of faculty members Doctorate in Doctorate in library science different field – 1 1

3 6 8

Master’s in Master’s in library science different field 13 4 7

1 1 8

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Table 14.4: continued. No. Institution

4 5

Sunan Kalijaga State Islamic University Padjadjaran University

Number of faculty members Doctorate in Doctorate in library science different field

Master’s in Master’s in library science different field

–

11

9

1

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

The critical issue relating to faculty members with doctoral degrees in subjects other than LIS is that the philosophical and theoretical basis does not clearly make sense. Students learn LIS from different perspective and this will affect their viewpoints of LIS as science. The absence of LIS philosophy and theory will affect their understanding of LIS. From the academic perspective, there is no standard curriculum of library science in Indonesia. A survey by Sulistyo-Basuki (2013) shows that among five graduate schools, only three courses are similar, namely research methodology, seminar, and thesis. These three courses are not the LIS core. In other words, LIS education in Indonesia still lacks standardization. Another survey of LIS in Indonesia mentioned that “each university has [a] specialty to differentiate from one to another LIS course holder and each course has different output” (Anna 2011, 79). It is important to note that the LIS schools are under different colleges, and 60% of the coursework taken by students is not the LIS core: only 40% of the coursework is in LIS. This problem will affect the students’ knowledge of LIS. Students learn less than 50% of LIS core subjects, and this affects their understanding of the core profession. This lack of coursework in LIS may lead to inadequate knowledge of LIS. In addition, Kamil (2005) pointed out that some schools still emphasised technical ability and lacked coverage of management and leadership content. Based on the curricula of these five LIS schools, the coursework in each school shows that the term “information” becomes a sort of trending term and tends to relate to library resources. In addition, the college’s core business or the faculty member’s education background is also reflected in its coursework. The University of Indonesia, for example, shows that culture is part of the curriculum, as the school is under the faculty of cultural studies, while at Padjadjaran University; the coursework includes theories of communications, philosophy of communication, and communication and information resources. LIS at Bogor Institute of Agriculture is under the College of Computer Science, and the coursework includes management of library databases and management of information technology. There is also English in the curriculum. At Sunan Kalijaga



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State Islamic University, the LIS school is under the College of Islamic Studies and its coursework includes Islamic studies and Islam and librarianship, while at Gadjah Mada University, the new coursework also reflects its college (Media and Cultural Studies), for example, Media Theories, Introduction to Cultural Studies, and Semiotics. All four LIS schools have collection management as one of the requisite courses, while Gadjah Mada University does not cover it specifically and, instead, Gadjah Mada University has library information systems in its coursework. Other courses at Gadjah Mada University are mostly related to information science, including current information issues, theories in information science, and information and human resources (information behaviour). Information science is an interdisciplinary science that deals with the interpretation of information. In this case information science involves 3 important aspects, namely the basic phenomenon of information, cognitive processes, and the context of information. Information science is also viewed as interdisciplinary, as it is closely related with other areas of research and development. Information is one of the main issues in various fields such as in the management of information system (MIS), in product information for marketing, in library science, in mathematics, in sociology, in communications, and in computer science. In addition, Huang and Chang (2012, 800) mentioned that “the main source disciplines are different between LS and IS”. However, in Indonesia the term information and information science are not well understood academically. Information science and library science are two fields which are different but interrelated. While both deal with information, Information Science and Library Science have different bases of theories and methodology, as well as different solutions to problems. Information Science, for example, is concerned with information retrieval, while library science is concerned with library automation due to its practical nature. Meanwhile information science also has relations with computer science but, again, both have differences in their concerns. The LIS school at Bogor Institute of Agriculture is under the College of Computer Science. It is interesting to understand more deeply how the institute copes with differences in the nature of the two fields. Indonesian librarians often consider information as part of librarianship or library resources, while information science is often considered the same as library science, only with a different name. This has been a debate among students and librarians due to lack of knowledge about the terms and their understanding. Therefore, some LIS schools use the term information for their schools, but the curriculum reflects only library science. So far, most LIS schools consider information as part of library science, whereas in reality, information science deals with wider coverage and library science is deemed part of information science. Understanding their relationship is very important in this case. In addi-

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 Ida F. Priyanto

tion, the inclusion of courses in information science within library science programmes is a benefit, as students will have a better and broader understanding of information work. More importantly, those five schools need to consider the same core curriculum so as to establish better schools. The same core curriculum “function[s] as a planning tool for developing new courses and study degrees” (Georgy 2010, 204). The fact that only few faculty hold a doctoral degree in library and information science is the main problem facing LIS schools in Indonesia, although currently the number of librarians and faculty with master’s degrees is increasing. In fact, Maesaroh and Genoni (2009, 528) have pointed out that LIS education in Indonesia is problematic due to the inadequacy of “qualifications and training of teaching staff”. However, continuing education for LIS school lecturers is another problem because, when they need to keep up-to-date, the training courses are not always available in Indonesia. At present there is only one emeritus professor of LIS. Considering that there needs to be a solution to the problem of the lack of faculty members with doctoral degrees, some faculty members have taken a doctoral degree in Indonesia although there is no PhD programme in LIS. They seem reluctant to continue their study overseas and therefore they take doctoral programmes in different fields such as education, communication, anthropology, and cultural studies. The reasons why they prefer to study in Indonesia include discomfort at being away from their families, lack of English or other foreign-language capability, and possibly financial problems. It usually takes a longer time to study in their own institutions or nearby because, as they continue their study in their own campus or in the same city, they are usually still required to work when they are not in class. There is no part-time study option for students in Indonesia but they may take reduced credit hours in any semester with the same cost. This happens because in Indonesia, the tuition is flat for one semester. Thus, faculty members or librarians who continue their education may take full-time coursework while they still have abundant activities in their institutions. It is very common to see faculty members who take more than six years to complete a doctoral degree. The problem of not taking the same subject for their education is another current problem in Indonesia as the Ministry of Education and Culture requires faculty members to take the same subject for their master’s and doctoral degree if they want to get their professorship. This has been an issue not only in LIS education but also in all other schools, and this is also why science does not develop well in Indonesia. Interdisciplinarity has not been viewed at the same level as single disciplinarity. Taking a doctoral degree in different fields, however, will likely result in more philosophical and theoretical change for LIS education in Indonesia. Therefore,



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although currently only few faculty members are willing to take a doctoral degree in LIS overseas, it is expected that they will be able to develop LIS education in a stronger professional perspective. The MOU signed between Cologne University of Applied Science, Germany and two universities from Indonesia (University of Indonesia and Gadjah Mada University) will hopefully also help realize the opening of a doctoral programme in LIS in Indonesia in the future. There has also been a shift in students’ research. Gadjah Mada University expects students to expand their research topics on information science instead of just library science, as the university has emphasised its LIS education on information management. The result is that some students now turn to research on various subjects including information behaviour, information management, and Open Access policy. Among the five universities, Gadjah Mada University has now focused its education on information science, while the other four universities focus on library science. In addition to coursework, there are also academic activities held outside of the campus. Gadjah Mada University students, for example, have to do a comparative study on various topics held in Indonesia and overseas. Students need to visit and learn the library practice and other information-related activities such as information industry, information technology, and digital curation in Indonesia. Later they travel overseas to learn the issues from institutions in neighbouring countries. This sort of activity has given students better ideas before they start writing their thesis, especially those students who major in other fields for their undergraduate level. In addition, they also could discuss trends in library services with librarians, faculty, and people from the information industries. In terms of reading materials, there are not many LIS resources available either in print or online. Damayani (2005) stated that LIS education in Indonesia lacks library texts in both print and electronic formats. This is due to the limited number of Indonesian library and information journals published by academic libraries and LIS schools. Most online databases subscribed by academic libraries have few LIS journals, as the academic libraries are still concerned with subscriptions to databases of e-journals in other subjects in the universities. The National Library of Republic of Indonesia subscribes to some databases including databases of LIS e-journals but there has been no survey about usage. In addition, some students also have difficulties in reading materials written in foreign languages, and with the limited number of LIS journals in Indonesian, there seems to be insufficient amount of educational resources for LIS students and faculty members. There are LIS bulletins in Indonesian but they are available in a limited number of copies and are not always published online as Open Access. Discussions or sharing of LIS resources do not often happen within the LIS schools. In addition, faculty members often provide few reading resources for students.

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In addition to resources, research output of LIS schools has not contributed a lot to the development of librarianship in Indonesia and only becomes part of the library collection. The collaboration between LIS education institutions and libraries may help advance research as the basis for library development in the future. Students’ learning styles are also another factor that causes LIS education not to have a good output. Indonesian students are very quiet in the classroom because in Indonesia, the teaching method is mostly teacher-centred, while in Western countries the teaching method is student-centred. Indonesia is a country that is affected by Confucian cultural heritage. This type of classroom environment is the effect of the Chinese Heritage Culture (CHC) which has been at the heart of education in most Asian countries (Chiu 2009). Meanwhile, Ballard and Clanchy (1997) mentioned that Asian students have certain characteristics of academic work style which include attending all classes, taking notes in detail, rarely contributing to class discussions, and only asking questions for clarity on a one-to-one basis with the lecturer. This also applies for Indonesian students. The process of learning is usually conducted through rote memorization and listening to lectures. The classroom is designed so that the teacher is the centre and students should keep silent and be polite when the teacher speaks in front of the classroom (Park 2000). Students learn from their faculty members who deliver their courses in the classroom most of the time and there is not much interaction between students and the faculty members. In Asia the usual scene in the classroom is that “students usually listened to a teacher’s lecture, took notes copiously, and answered teachers’ questions” (Park 2000, 247). This also happens in Indonesia. With the use of information technology in the classrooms, nowadays students usually ask for PowerPoint materials from the faculty members at the end of lectures. In addition, while some of the faculty members have no background in LIS, the students who are learning LIS will get knowledge with less LIS-sense.

Conclusion LIS education has been in Indonesia for about 60 years, but formal education in the field has actually existed for less than 40 years. The slow development has been caused by the limited number of faculty members, especially those with doctoral degrees in LIS. As described, LIS education began from training, and then developed into professional education. Training and professional education lack LIS philosophical and theoretical content and, unfortunately, this is the case



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at both undergraduate and graduate levels. The emerging awareness and action of faculty members to continue their education in the last few years will hopefully become a starting point for new developments in LIS education in Indonesia. It is important for Indonesia to have more faculty with doctoral degrees in LIS in order to develop better education and research. The inadequate number of educators especially at the graduate level will result in producing more librarians with only a basic level of education. Without any initiative from the LIS schools to send their faculty members to continue their education, student intake will be affected. As there is no doctoral programme in LIS yet in Indonesia, the best alternative of continuing education for faculty members is studying overseas. This may be done by preparing the faculty members to have good English capability and making competitive scholarships available. Collaboration with overseas institutions can be a good starting point, as it will help fulfill the required number of faculty members in the LIS field. Staff exchange or guest lecturers from overseas will also help shape LIS education in Indonesia. Indonesian students’ learning styles may not change if the faculty do not change the classroom atmosphere and environment. The teacher-centred approach may still be relevant for Indonesian education; however, the modules, reading materials, and interactions between students and faculty should be improved. Providing reading materials early in the semester may enable students to read prior to the classroom meetings, and thus they may prepare for discussion or presentation. This may gradually also lead to the student-centred style of learning. Academic libraries can also help provide LIS resources so that faculty members and students will be able to access the latest developments of library science, research, and practice in different parts of the world. In addition, librarians and LIS students will also benefit from subscribing to online resources. Shortage of relevant materials in the national language may be alleviated by asking more faculty members to write and publish their papers in the Open-Access journals.

References Anna, Nove E. Variant. 2011. “Information Technology Units in Bachelor Degree of Library and Information Science (LIS) Curriculum in Indonesia.” Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library & Information Education & Practice, 2011, 77–83. http://ir.uitm.edu. my/3487/1/SP_ITU11_10.pdf. Accessed on 24 February 2016.

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Badan Pusat Statistik. 2016. “Penduduk Indonesia menurut Provinsi 1971, 1980, 1990, 1995, 2000 dan 2010.” Available at https://web.archive.org/web/20140606051100/http://www. bps.go.id/tab_sub/view.php?tabel=1&id_subyek=12. Accessed on 21 January 2016. Ballard, Brigid and Clanchy, John. 1997. Teaching International Students: A Brief Guide for Lecturers and Supervisors. Deakin, A.C.T.: IDP Education Australia. Chiu, Yi-Ching Jean. 2009. “Facilitating Asian students’ Critical Thinking in Online Discussions.” British Journal of Educational Technology 40(1): 42–57. Damayani, Ninis Agustini. 2005. “Pengembangan program pendidikan S1 dan S2 ilmuinformasi & perpustakaan di Indonesia: masalahdantantangan.” In Proceedings Lokakarya Pengembangan Program Pendidikandan Pelatihan Perpustakaan di Indonesia, Jakarta, July 11–13, 1–10. http://eprints.rclis.org/9242/1/indonesia-information-lisbenchmarkspeaker-ninis.pdf Accessed on 24 February 2016. Georgy, Ursula. 2010. “Curricula Development in Library Science: A Nation-wide Core Curriculum?” Education for Information 28(2/4): 203–213. Huang, Mu-Hsuan and Yu-Wei Chang. 2012. “A Comparative Study of Interdisciplinary Changes between Information Science and Library Science.” Scientometrics 91: 789–803. doi 10.1007/s11192-012-0619-7. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Kamil, Harkrisyati. 2005. “Peran Pustakawan dalam Manajemen Pengetahuan.” Pustaha: Jurnal Studi Perpustakaan dan Informasi 1(1): 19–22. Maesaroh, Imas and Paul Genoni. 2009. “Education and Continuing Professional Development for Indonesian Academic Librarians: A Survey.” Library Management 30(8/9): 524–538. Maesaroh, Imas and Paul Genoni. 2013. “Future Directions for Indonesian Academic Library Education.” New Library World 114(5/6): 228–241. Park, Clara C. 2000. “Learning Style Preferences of Southeast Asian Students.” Urban Education 35(3): 245–268. Sjahrial, R. 1975. “An Evaluation of Library Education and Training in Indonesia.” In Papers and Proceedings of the Second Conference of An evaluation of library education and training in Southeast Asia December 10–14, 1973, edited by M. Dayrit and N. Hidalgo, 84–89. Quezon City: the University of the Philippines. Sulistyo-Basuki, L. 1993. “Library Education and Training in Indonesia.” Asian Libraries 3(4): 41–48. Sulistyo-Basuki, L. 1999. “Information Technology and Library Education in Indonesia: Recent Developments in the Curriculum.” Education for Information 17: 353–361. Sulistyo-Basuki, L. 2006. “Political Reformation and its Impact on Library and Information Science Education and Practice: A Case Study of Indonesia during and post-presidentSoeharto Administration.” In Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library & Information Education & Practice 2006 (A-LIEP 2006), Singapore, 3–6 April 2006, edited by Christopher Khoo, Diljit Singh & Abdus Sattar Chaudhry, 172–179. Singapore: School of Communication & Information, Nanyang Technological University. Sulistyo-Basuki, L. 2013. “Ilmu Perpustakaan dan Informasi: Perkembangandan Tantangannya di Indonesia.” https://sulistyobasuki.wordpress.com/2013/03/25/ilmu-perpustakaandan-informasi-perkembangan-dan-tantangannya-di-indonesia/. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Yolanda, Friska. 2014. “Setengah Penduduk Indonesia Tinggal di PulauJawa.” Republika 7 February. http://www.republika.co.id/berita/nasional/umum/14/02/07/n0mec5setengah-penduduk-indonesia-tinggal-di-pulau-jawa. Accessed on 16 January 2016.



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Yulianingsih. 2014. “Lima Persendari Anggaran Sekolahuntuk Perpustakaan.” Republika 28 January. http://www.republika.co.id/berita/pendidikan/eduaction/14/01/29/n04sw6lima-persen-dari-anggaran-sekolah-untuk-perpustakaan. Accessed on 16 January 2016. Zen, Zulfikar. 1992. “Kilas Balik 40 Pendidikan Perpustakaan di Indonesia 1952–1992.” In Kepustakawanan Indonesia: Potensidan Tantangan, 3–24. Jakarta: Kesaint Blanc.

Rosalie B. Faderon, Vyva Victoria M. Aguirre, Iyra S. Buenrostro and Johann Frederick A. Cabbab Rosalie B. Faderon et al.

15 The University of the Philippines (UP) School of Library and Information Studies Legacies, Challenges and Commitment to the Profession through Excellence in LIS Education

Introduction On 18 June 1908, the country’s premier state university, the University of the Philippines (UP) was founded by Act No. 1870 of the Philippine Assembly. The University was established to give “advanced instruction in literature, philosophy, the sciences and arts, and to give professional and technical training” to qualified students (Republic of the Philippines, Philippine Legislature 1908, sec. 2). Six years later, in 1914, the first courses in library economy were offered in the College of Liberal Arts, responding to the strong call for professional education and training of librarians in the Philippines that would prepare students for professional work in libraries and for teaching courses in Library Science. The four-year degree programme soon followed, and in 1961 the Institute of Library Science (ILS) was established, which later became the School of Library and Information Studies (SLIS) in 2007. Being the first library school in the country and in the region, its commitment to continuously serve the field of Library and Information Science has impacted the profession, locally and abroad. Initiatives and provisions for adequate training and education, research, and other extension services are constantly present in the School’s vision and mission, programmes, and plans. The changes in the name, courses and activities of SLIS are not merely a reflection of the change in the nomenclature but also the transformation of the School’s thrust and its maturity as the leading academic institution that upholds excellence in LIS education in the country. The UP SLIS has always been the top performing school in the annual Licensure Examinations for Librarians administered by the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC). LIS school rankings in the Philippines are based on the overall passing percentage of graduates taking the licensure exams. The majority of the top ten slots, including the top spot, are also most of the time occupied by students from the School. Furthermore, UP SLIS is a consistent and active participant in national professional library organizations, higher education technical

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committees, accreditation organizations, research colloquia, and local, regional and international conferences.

History of Library Education and Training in the Philippines 1914–1941 University of the Philippines Library education and training in the Philippines is a legacy from the Americans, in as much as the Philippines was placed under the governance of the United States upon the cessation of Spanish rule as prescribed by the Treaty of Paris of 1898. As early as 1910, Dr James Alexander Robertson, director of the Philippine Library and Museum, called for a round table discussion for two reasons: 1) to consolidate the various collections of the government agencies; and 2) to establish a library school. The UP Board of Regents (UPBOR) approved his recommendation “to establish a special course of study for library training at UP” (Vallejo 2007; Perez 2005). The University of the Philippines (UP), the first state university established by law in 1908, was chosen to spearhead the training of librarians. In 1914–1916, the University started offering courses in library economy. Dr Robertson taught three courses (Perez 2005): –– LS 1: physical book, reference work, etc.; –– LS 2: advanced classification, cataloguing and subject headings; –– LS 3: library administration. In 1916, the Board of Regents approved the proposal of Ms Mary Polk to institute a four-year programme, the Bachelor of Science in Library Science (BSLS) degree programme, and this was offered starting in 1917. In 1917–1918, classes were conducted informally and were held at the Bureau of Science and Philippine Library. The courses offered included elementary reference work, practice at the libraries of UP, elementary classification and book numbering, library history, elementary cataloguing and subject heading, library administration, and evaluation and selection of books. All of these were handled by Mary Polk, who replaced Dr Robertson (Perez 2005). Thereafter, the classes were offered in the UP College of Liberal Arts in Manila.

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The objectives in instituting the BSLS were to prepare students for professional work in libraries and to teach library science. To achieve these objectives, the Philippine Legislature in 1918 passed the Alonso Act or Library Science Scholarship Act of 1918 which granted scholarships to graduates of library science from the UP College of Liberal Arts in order to have a continuous supply of full-time teachers. The scholars sent abroad for advanced training at the library school in the University of Wisconsin-Madison and other American universities were: Gabriel A. Bernardo, Eulogio B. Rodriguez, Jose Munda, Cirilo B. Perez, Isidoro Saniel, Isaac Lucero and Ismael V. Mallari. In 1922, the Board of Regents of the University of the Philippines recommended the designation of the UP Library as the Department of Library Science and placed it on equal footing with other departments in the University. Mary Polk was the first head of the department and Gabriel Bernardo was the assistant head. The UP President requested the two to prepare a 10-year programme of library development. The degree programmes then were: Bachelor of Science in Library Science (BSLS), Bachelor of Arts in Library Science (AB in LS), and Bachelor of Philosophy in Library Science, all offered by the Department of Library Science, College of Liberal Arts. The Bachelor of Science in Education with a major or minor in Library Science (BSE major/minor in LS) was offered at the UP College of Education. This degree programme was instituted because of the growing demand for teacher-librarians in school libraries: BSE-LS majors had 36 units of Library Science while the BSE-LS minors had 12–15 units. The offering of these degree programmes was suspended during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, 1942–1945.

Philippine Normal School In 1919, the Philippine Normal School offered one course – an elementary course in library practice which focused on library methods. Thus, from 1914 to 1931, the education and training of librarians were only provided by state educational institutions, the University of the Philippines and the Philippine Normal School (Vallejo 1990).

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Other Library Schools For the years 1932 – 1941, most of the degree programmes offered by some private schools were Bachelor of Science in Education with a major or minor in Library Science: Centro Escolar University (1932), Philippine Women’s University (1933), University of Santo Tomas (1934), University of Manila (1936), and Adamson University (1941). This was the focus for two reasons: 1) the Bureau of Education required that school librarians in public secondary schools should be library science graduates, and 2) the growing demand for teacher-librarians. Three academic institutions offered one library science course only: Silliman University (1939), Far Eastern University (1934) and the National Teachers’ College (1934). With the Japanese occupation of the Philippines in 1942, all classes in the Philippines were suspended.

1946–Present Undergraduate Programmes in Library Science Rehabilitation and reconstruction of the Philippines were the primary concern after the Second World War. In 1946, the University of the Philippines resumed offering courses for BSLS, BSE major/minor in LS and AB in LS. The Bachelor of Philosophy in LS was phased out after the war while AB in LS was abolished in 1958. With the establishment of the Institute of Library Science (ILS) as a separate and independent unit of UP in 1961, all degree programmes previously offered were replaced by the Bachelor of Library Science (BLS) and the Master of Library Science (MLS). These were approved in April 1962 by the University Council. The change of degree name of BLS to BLIS (Bachelor of Library and Information Science) was approved by the University Council in its 39th meeting on December 10, 1994 and that of MLS to MLIS (Master of Library and Information Science) was approved by the University Council in its 44th meeting on 22 July 1995. These changes were made as a result of the institution of courses on information science and the application of information and communication technologies in most library science courses. The degree programmes Bachelor of Science in Education, with a major or minor in Library Science and Bachelor of Arts in Library Science as well as Library Science courses were offered only by more academic institutions in Manila and in other parts of the Philippines such as in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao during the years 1946–1990s. These were: Manila – Adamson University, Arellano University,

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Centro Escolar University, Far Eastern University, Manuel L. Quezon University, National Teachers College, Philippine Normal University (formerly Philippine Normal School and Philippine Normal College), Philippine Women’s University, St. Rita College, University of Manila, University of Santo Tomas, University of the East, University of the Philippines; Luzon – Aquinas University of Legazpi City, De La Salle of Lipa City, Northwestern University of Laoag; Visayas – Central Philippine University, Iloilo City Colleges, Silliman University, St. Paul’s College (Tacloban), University of San Agustin (Iloilo City), University of San Carlos (Cebu City) ; Mindanao – Mindanao State University, Marawi City, St. Columban College, Pagadian City. By the mid 1970s some library schools began to offer the degree programmes of Bachelor of Science in Library Science (BSLS) and Bachelor of Library Science (BLS). A decade later, the University of the Philippines Institute of Library Science pioneered in introducing undergraduate courses in information science, starting in 1984. A change in the name of their degree programmes to Bachelor of Library and Information Science took place in many academic institutions, starting in the 1990s up to the present on account of their incorporation of computer applications in library science courses. These are the Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Philippine Women’s University, University of the East (BSLIS), University of Santo Tomas, Philippine Normal University, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Centro Escolar University, Arellano University, National Teachers College, Olivarez College (Parañaque), Holy Angel University (Pampanga), St. Mary’s University (Nueva Vizcaya), Liceo de Cagayan University (Cagayan de Oro City), Holy Cross of Davao, Silliman University, Cor Jesu College (Davao del Sur), University of Southern Mindanao (Cotabato), Aquinas University of Legazpi City, Meycauayan College (Bulacan), Misamis University (Misamis Occidental), Divine Word College of Legazpi (Albay), La Consolacion College (Negros Oriental), Notre Dame of Marbel University (South Cotabato), St. Louis College (La Union), La Salle University (Misamis Occidental), Leyte Normal University (Tacloban), Holy Name University (Bohol), University of Perpetual Help System (Cavite), Pilar College (Zamboanga del Sur), Columban College (Zambales), University of Saint Louis (Cagayan), University of Northern Philippines (Ilocos Sur), Baliuag University (Bulacan, BSLIS), Lorna Colleges (La Union), University of Nueva Caceres (Camarines Sur), Mindanao State University (Lanao del Sur), La Consolacion University (Bulacan), Benguet State University (La Trinidad, Benguet), Notre Dame of Dadiangas University (South Cotabato), Central Philippines University (Iloilo City), University of San Agustin (Iloilo City), University of Mindanao (Davao City), Lourdes College (Misamis Oriental), Adventist University

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of the Philippines (Cavite), University of Perpetual Help (Laguna), and St. Louis University (Baguio City).

Graduate Programmes in Library Science After World War II, the need for a professional library education at the graduate level was felt, with the rapid growth of libraries as a result of more educational opportunities. This was a fact noted by the late Professor Gabriel A. Bernardo, a Rockefeller grantee and the doyen of Philippine librarianship. The University of the Philippines started graduate courses in Library Science in 1952, which were offered in the Graduate School of the College of Liberal Arts. The degrees offered were: Master of Arts in Library Science (MALS), Master of Arts in Library Science (MA in LS), and Master of Education in Library Science (MEd in LS). The library science courses included paleography, archives administration, bibliographical services, bibliography of the humanities, social sciences and pure and applied sciences, seminars on Philippine bibliography and library problems, college and university libraries, advanced cataloguing, history of books and libraries, and thesis. In 1962, the curriculum of the Master of Library Science (MLS) was approved and this replaced the Master of Arts in Library Science. The MLS curriculum was restructured in 1968 to fit the needs of both the library science and the non-library science graduate students by requiring library science core courses only of the latter and allowing the former to develop a subject specialization. The establishment of the first course in library automation and information technology in 1971, LIS 260 Introduction to Documentation, along with the introduction of the Summer Institute on Information Science by Professor Rosa M. Vallejo starting in May 1975, made the Institute known for its pioneering efforts in library and information science. They paved the way for Institute to be chosen by UNESCO to host the Post-Graduate Training Course for Science Information Specialists in Southeast Asia from 1978 to 1984. Changes continued to take place at UP to reflect the shifts in the field. In 1979, seven courses were instituted in the graduate programme. This was in line with the thrust towards social and economic development and to enhance the information science programme of UPILS. Four graduate courses were instituted in 1995 to meet the demands for archives training. These were: –– LIS 214, Archives History and Theory; –– LIS 216, Archives Methodology and Research; –– LIS 218, Records Management; and –– LIS 220, Archives Conservation.

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On 22 July 1995, the University Council, in its 44th meeting, approved the change of degree name of MLS to MLIS as a result of the change in the acronym LS to LIS. Other library schools introduced graduate degree programmes in library science. These were the Master of Arts in Library Science by the University of Santo Tomas, Master of Arts in Education in Library Science by the Philippine Women’s University and the Master of Arts in Education with specialization in Library Science by the Philippine Normal College (formerly Philippine Normal School) in 1956, 1957 and 1967, respectively. During the years 1970–2000, more colleges and universities all over the Philippines offered the Master of Arts in Education with a major in Library Science and the Master of Arts in Library Science. Teacher education was prevalent in the provinces and high administrative positions were in demand in schools, colleges and universities. A few others offered the MSLS (University of San Carlos, Cebu; MLQU, Central Visayas Polytechnic College), and MLS (Mindanao State University-IIT, Ateneo de Zamboanga College) degrees. The Republic Act 6966 or the Philippine Librarianship Act of 1990 was a major factor in the gradual increase of schools offering library science degree programmes. However, this was repealed by the Republic Act 9246 in February 2004 which called for the modernization of and regulated the practice of librarianship and prescribed the qualifications of librarians. Its passage resulted in the institution of the Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS) degree in most academic institutions that previously offered the Master of Arts in Education with a major or minor in Library Science and Master of Arts in Library Science. While numerous academic institutions throughout the Philippines have adopted the new MLIS degree programme, a few continue to offer the two prior degrees. Other degrees offered in the Philippines include the Master of Science in Library Science, Master of Science in Information Science, Master in Library Administration, Master of Arts in Education emphasis in Library Administration, and those emphasising information such as the Master of Information Management, Master of Education in Library and Information Management, Master of Information Management, Master in Information and Library System with specialization in Retrieval and Representation of Information / Information Resource System /Application Areas, Master in Information and Library System, and Master in Library and Information Technology.

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Legal Status of Library and Information Science in the Philippines Professions in the Philippines are of two classes: regulated and unregulated. Regulated professions are subject to the control and supervision of the Philippine Professional Regulation Commission (PRC), an executive agency under the Office of the President of the Republic of the Philippines. Prior to the passage of the Philippine Librarianship Act (Rep. Act No. 6966), on 19 September 1990, the practice of librarianship belonged to the unregulated class. Through the efforts of the then Philippine Library Association, Inc. (now Philippine Librarians Association, Inc.), the law was passed regulating the practice of librarianship and prescribing qualifications for librarians. Even prior to Rep. Act No. 6966, academic institutions and schools already required a degree in Library Science or Library and Information Science for appointment to a librarian’s position. However, in private corporations, local government units, and some agencies of the national government, this requirement was not met. This resulted in substandard libraries and library services in these sectors. With the passage of the Philippine Librarianship Act, only persons qualified to perform the functions of a librarian may hold the position and title of a librarian. Henceforth, only bona fide holders of a certificate of registration issued by the Board for Librarians of the PRC may be appointed librarians in any organization, academic or otherwise. This ensures quality delivery of library and information services and the accompanying rise in status of librarians in the country. Thirteen years after the passage of Rep. Act No. 6966, Rep. Act No. 9246 was passed by the Philippine Congress on 19 February 2004. This came to be known as The Philippine Librarianship Act of 2003, while the complete title of the Act is An Act Modernizing the Practice of Librarianship in the Philippines Thereby Repealing Republic Act No. 6966. The rationale for this new law may be found in sec. 2 of the Act, which states: The State recognizes the essential role of librarianship as a profession in developing the intellectual capacity of the citizenry thus making library service a regular component for national development.

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Regulation of the Practice of Library and Information Science in the Philippines Sec. 2 of the Rep. Act No. 9246 (henceforth referred to as “the Act”) provides measures of regulation to ensure competence and maintenance of the following standards of practice: excellence, quality, and global competitiveness. These measures are the conduct of licensure examinations for librarians, as well as the undertaking of programmes and activities that will nurture and promote professional growth. Further, practice of the profession without the necessary certificate of registration is labeled as “illegal practice of librarianship” (sec. 26), punishable with fine or imprisonment, under the penal provisions of the Act (sec. 32).

Licensure Examination Future librarians, through the licensure examinations held once a year, are tested on their knowledge in the following areas: 1. selection and acquisition of multimedia sources of information; 2. cataloguing and classification; 3. indexing and abstracting; 4. reference, bibliography and information services; 5. organization, management and development and maintenance of multimedia based library or information service, laws, trends and practices affecting the profession; and 6. information technology. Further, the Board for Librarians (BFL) is authorized “to modify or add to the subjects listed above as the needs and demands in the library profession may require” (sec. 16). A satisfactory rating in this licensure examination entitles the candidate to be registered in the roster of librarians, and to be a holder of a Professional Identification Card issued by the Professional Regulatory Board for Librarians and by the Professional Regulation Commission (sec. 4).

Admission to the Practice of Librarianship Filipino citizenship is a requirement for admission to the licensure examinations for librarians (sec. 15). This requirement is in accordance with art. XII, sec. 14 of the 1987 Constitution which states in the 2nd paragraph that “[t]he practice

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of all professions in the Philippines shall be limited to Filipino citizens, save in cases prescribed by law.” Nevertheless, sec. 28 of the Act adopts the principle of reciprocity for citizens of a foreign country which permits Filipino librarians to be appointed in that country and grants Filipino citizens the same privileges as the citizens of that country. The other condition is that the requirements for certificate of registration in that foreign country be substantially the same as the requirements in the Philippines. Admission to the licensure examination requires either a Bachelor’s degree in Library and Information Science (BLIS) or a Master’s degree in the same field (MLIS). However, holders of the following degrees were allowed to take the examinations within a period of five years from the date of effect of Rep. Act No. 9246: 1) Bachelor of Science in Education or Elementary Education; or Bachelor of Arts with a major or specialization in Library Science; 2) Master of Arts in Library Science or Library and Information Science; or 3) Any master’s degree with a concentration in Library Science (sec. 15). [Note that this period has lapsed.] Further, sec. 19 of the Act allowed for registration without examination for practising librarians who, at the time of effect of the prior Act, Rep. Act No. 6966, possessed the following qualifications: a) a practising librarian who has completed at least a bachelor’s degree, and is an “eligible” librarian or supervising librarian; b) a practising librarian who completed at least a bachelor’s degree, 18 units in Library Science, 5 years experience in librarianship, and is first grade eligible or its equivalent; c) a practising librarian who has completed a master’s degree in Library Science or Library and Information Science, and is first grade eligible or its equivalent; or d) a practising librarian who has completed at least a bachelor’s degree, 18 units in Library Science, and 7 years experience in librarianship. “Eligibility” here refers to successfully passing civil service examinations given periodically by the Philippine Civil Service Commission. The civil service examinations for librarians and supervising librarians are no longer offered as these have given way to the licensure examinations. It should be noted that registration without examination is no longer possible because qualified applicants were given only three years from the effect of Rep. Act No. 9246 to avail themselves of this allowance.

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The Board for Librarians As a regulatory measure to ensure compliance with the standards of the profession, the Board for Librarians (BFL) was created. Among its duties and responsibilities is the duty “to look into the conditions affecting the practice of librarianship and, when necessary, adopt such measures as may be deemed proper for the enhancement and maintenance of high ethical, moral and professional standards...” (sec. 8 [e]). To this end, it is likewise tasked to adopt and prescribe a Code of Ethics and a Code of Technical Standards, as well as to prescribe guidelines in continuing professional education (sec. 8 [h]). In addition, the Board also hears and decides administrative cases involving violations of the law (sec. 8 [i]). In compliance with this mandate, the Board for Librarians of the Professional Regulation Commission adopted a Code of Ethics for Registered Librarians (Republic of the Philippines. Professional Regulation Commission. Board for Librarians 1992). This was later revised on 13 September 2006 into the Code of Ethics for Philippine Librarians (Republic of the Philippines. Professional Regulation Commission. Board for Librarians 2006).

The Code of Ethics The preamble of the 2006 Code reads: Librarians, mindful of their role in the development of knowledge and culture and the enrichment of people’s lives, seek the highest standards of ethical behaviour in their relations with their schools, their clients/employers, the librarianship profession and colleagues, agencies and associations and the public.

Under the Code, librarians have a three-fold duty: (1) to the state, society and the public, (2) to the profession, and (3) to the clients or users of their professional services. In addition, the Code also defines librarians’ conduct in their relationship with suppliers, publishers and dealers.

Librarians and the State, Society and the Public As a state partner in national development, the Code directs librarians to obey the laws, to promote literacy and education, and the right to information. It is also the librarian’s duty to partner with the community “in inculcating nationalism,

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practising Filipino values and preserving the country’s historical, cultural, and intellectual heritage (sec. 1.1 – 1.4).

Librarians and Librarianship as a Profession It is every librarian’s duty to uphold the dignity and inte­­grity of the profession (sec. 2.1). The Code’s provisions in this regard cover librarians’ conduct in their professional as well as private lives as well as their relationship with colleagues in the profession. In their private lives, librarians are instructed to “keep their reputation above reproach” (sec. 2.2). With respect to their duty to the profession, they are required to “so conduct themselves to gain public esteem and respect for the library and for the profession” (sec. 2.2). Thus, librarians should endeavour to “improve, enhance and upgrade their professional knowledge, skills and competence through formal and informal means” (sec. 2.5) and strive “to uphold the highest standards in the practice of the profession” (sec. 2.6), keeping in mind their duty to be vigilant in the protection of resources placed under their care (sec. 2.10). Librarians shall cooperate with the library associations for the enhancement of the profession’s effectiveness (sec. 2.8 & 2.9) and not assist or abet unauthorized practice of librarianship by unqualified persons (sec. 2.3). Relationship with fellow librarians shall be characterized by respect, courtesy and sincerity. Thus, maligning the reputation, competence and capability of colleagues, or using unfair means to gain professional advancement is a breach of professional ethics (sec. 2.4 & 2.7). Finally, like all professionals, librarians “shall be entitled to a just and fair fee for consultancy and other professional services” (sec. 2.11).

Librarians and the Users of Library Services Like all professions, librarianship is primarily for public service. As such, librarians are reminded by the Code of Ethics to be effective and impartial disseminators of information regardless of the user’s race, belief, age, gender or social status (sec. 4.3) and to remember that library users are entitled to “courteous, prompt, adequate, skillful and accurate responses to all requests for assistance” (sec. 4.1). Further, the right to privacy of communication and correspondence is a constitutionally guaranteed right in the Philippines (Const., art.III, sec. 3). Therefore, librarians “shall keep in confidence information acquired in the course of

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professional service” (sec. 4.2). This includes information sought or received, and materials consulted, borrowed or acquired through the library (sec. 4.2).

Librarians and Suppliers, Publishers and Dealers Utmost transparency is required of librarians’ dealings with suppliers, publishers and dealers. Librarians should avoid any suspicions of unethical conduct in this regard. Thus, the Code requires that librarians choose suppliers and publishers solely on the basis of costs and quality of goods and services (sec. 3.1), and cautions them from business transactions that might be prejudicial to the library’s interests but “unwisely favorable” to their own (sec. 3.3). In this regard, librarians “shall refuse all personal gratuities” offered by suppliers, publishers and dealers (sec. 3.2).

The UP School of Library and Information Studies (UP SLIS) Curriculum Development The UPSLIS currently offers one undergraduate degree programme, one master’s degree programme and two diploma programmes. These are: Bachelor of Library and Information Science (BLIS), Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS), Diploma in Librarianship (Law Librarianship) and Diploma in Librarianship (Health Sciences Librarianship). In differentiating these degrees, the BLIS and MLIS are entry degrees into the profession, meaning graduates of these degrees are qualified to take the Licensure Examination for Librarians (LEL) and be admitted into the practice of librarianship in the country. The Diploma in Librarianship (Law Librarianship) and Diploma in Librarianship (Health Sciences Librarianship) programmes on the other hand are specialization programmes for registered professionals or other library staff wishing to further their studies. The MLIS and Diploma programmes are post-baccalaureate programmes, and the completion of an undergraduate degree is a requirement to be able to qualify for admission. The MLIS and Diploma programmes are open to both BLIS and non-BLIS graduates. Non-BLIS graduates would be required to enroll in foundation LIS courses for familiarization with profession. Furthermore, both

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diploma programmes, being specialization programmes, involve practicum hours in the associated special libraries. This experiential approach is for the students to be familiarized with the different professional tasks involved in those types of libraries. The submission of an undergraduate thesis is the final requirement for a student to graduate with a BLIS degree. The MLIS programme, however, offers the Special Problem (4 units) or Thesis (6 units) option as a final requirement. The Thesis option is the preferred choice for those seeking to pursue higher degrees such as a PhD while the Special Problem option is for those seeking a terminal degree in the profession. Besides General Librarianship, the BLIS and MLIS programmes are offered with areas or tracks of specialization in: –– Information Systems and Technology; –– Archives and Records Management; –– Health/Medical Librarianship; and –– Law Librarianship. Below are the electives associated with each track: –– LIS electives in the Information Systems and Technology track include: –– Analysis and Design of Library and Information Systems; –– Telecommunications and Networks for Library and Information Science; and –– Programming and Database Structures in LIS. –– LIS electives in the Archives and Records Management track include: –– Introduction to Archives and Records Management; –– Archives Principles and Practices I and II; –– Introduction to Archives Conservation; –– Foundations of Audiovisual Archives; and –– Managing Heritage Institutions: Archives, Libraries and Museums. –– LIS electives in the Law Librarianship track include: –– Legal Bibliography and Legal Information; –– Introduction to Methods of Legal Information Research; and –– Organization and Dissemination of Legal Information. –– LIS electives in the Health/Medical Librarianship track include: –– Health Sciences Literature; –– Introduction to Methods in Medical Information Research; and –– Digital Health Information Management.

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The Bachelor of Library and Information Science (BLIS) Degree Programme The aim of the Bachelor of Library and Information Science (BLIS) degree programme is to prepare graduates for opportunities involving different aspects of the profession. Besides school, academic, special and public librarianship, graduates may venture into related fields such as research, academe, publishing and the book trade, consultancy, and information related endeavours. Since its inception, the BLIS degree programme has undergone numerous revisions in the form of the introduction of new courses, elimination of undersubscribed courses, merging and separation of courses, and revision of course titles and descriptions. It was, however, in 2000 that the BLIS, via the SLIS Curriculum Committee, underwent a complete revision to fully reflect and address the needs associated with the transformation of the country into an information and communications technology-driven country and economy. The revisions were approved by the University Council in 2002. It must be noted that the previous and revised BLIS programme offered at SLIS has served as the model for the terms of reference adopted by the Board for Librarians of the Professional Regulation Commission for the Librarians’ Licensure Examination in the late 1990s as well as for the LIS modules developed by the Philippine Association of Teachers of Library and Information Science (PATLS) for the different library schools in the country (Faderon 2008). The current programme has a total of 138 units and is broken down as outlined in Table 15.1. Table 15.1: BLIS Programme Units. Subjects Library and Information Science (LIS) Subjects LIS electives (choice of subjects from the Information Systems, Archives and Records Management, Health/Medical Librarianship or Law Librarianship tracks) General Education Subjects Philippine Government and Politics, General Psychology, Life and Works of Jose Rizal, and General Sociology Foreign Language Free Electives (any subject offered in the Diliman campus) TOTAL

Units 45 18 45 12 12 6 138

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The Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS) Degree Programme The Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS) is a graduate degree programme aimed at producing graduates with higher order thinking, teaching and research skills. Graduates of the MLIS are those seeking to further their place in the profession and are envisioned as administrators of their institutions, leaders of professional organizations, pioneers in research, and educators for continuing professional learning. The predecessor of the MLIS degree programme was the Master of Library Science (MLS) and was offered by the SLIS, then an Institute, beginning 1962. The name of the programme was changed to Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS) in 1995 to keep pace with the rapid growth of knowledge and the influx of technology. The MLIS programme consists of 30–33 units and 4–6 units of special problem or thesis. It requires satisfaction of 6 units of one foreign language. Just like the BLIS programme, it offers four (4) tracks of specialization: (1) Information Systems; (2) Archival Studies; (3) Health/Medical librarianship; and (4) Law librarianship. The current programme has a total of 36 or 37 units and is broken down as outlined in Table 15.2. Table 15.2: MLIS Programme Units. Subjects

Non-BLIS Graduate SP Thesis

BLIS Graduate SP Thesis

Required LIS Subjects LIS Electives Cognates (specialization subjects from another college in the Diliman campus)

21 12 –

6 15 12

Foreign Language

(6 units) no credit, taken only by Non-UP and UP graduates with no UP credited foreign language in the undergraduate degree) 4 6 4 6 37 36 37 36

Research TOTAL

21 9 –

6 15 9

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The Diploma in Librarianship Programme The Diploma in Librarianship, with an area of concentration in either law librarianship or health sciences librarianship, is a one year post-baccalaureate programme that provides formal training and skills upgrading to those seeking to work in special libraries (particularly law or medical libraries). The programme envisions producing diploma graduates with the necessary requisite competencies to provide services in these specialized libraries. The Diploma in Librarianship programme was born out of the felt need by the Philippine Group of Law Librarians (PGLL) and the Medical and Health Librarians of the Philippines (MAHLAP) for training programmes in the fields of law librarianship and health sciences librarianship in the country. The programme was approved during the 21st meeting of the University Council in December 1989 and was instituted in June 1990. Enrolment in the programme was high, but only three students graduated with the degree of Diploma in Health Librarianship while only one graduated with the degree of Diploma in Law Librarianship. The passage of Republic Act No. 6966, and Republic Act No. 9246, which called for the professionalization of librarians, caused a decline in enrolment in the diploma programmes, with students opting to pursue the MLIS. At present the courses instituted for the diploma programme are still being taken by MLIS students specializing in law or medical/ health librarianship. The Diploma programme consists of 24 units and is broken down as outlined in Table 15.3. Table 15.3: Diploma in Librarianship Units. Subjects Library and Information Science (LIS) Subjects LIS electives (Health/Medical Librarianship or Law Librarianship) Practicum (Health/Medical Library or Law Library) Free Elective (any subject offered in the Diliman or Manila campuses) TOTAL

Units 12 6 3 3 24

The 12 units in basic LIS subjects include the following: Foundations of Library and Information Science, Organization of Library and Information Resources, Introduction to Information Science and Information Systems Analysis and Design.

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The Diploma in Librarianship (Law Librarianship) has 6 units of LIS electives which include Law Library Management, Legal Bibliography and Legal Information plus 3 units in Practicum in Law Library and Information Services. The Diploma in Librarianship (Health Sciences Librarianship) has 6 units of LIS electives which include Health Sciences Library Management, Information Sources and Systems in the Health Sciences plus 3 units in Practicum in Health Sciences Library and Information Services. The 3-unit elective may be taken from any college in the Diliman or Manila campuses.

Students and Alumni At present, the UP SLIS has around 350–400 students both in the undergraduate and graduate programmes. During the last semester of the academic year 2013–14, there were 223 enrolled BLIS students, and 134 MLIS students. Table 15.4 shows the School’s enrolment statistics in the last five academic years, including summer terms. Table 15.4: Enrolment Statistics from 2009–2014. Year Sem

2009–2010 2010–2011 2011–2012 2012–2013 2013–2014 1st 2nd Sum 1st 2nd Sum 1st 2nd Sum 1st 2nd Sum 1st 2nd Sum

DipLib MLIS BLIS

0 0 137 126 199 190

UNonMaj

4

2

GNonDeg 0 0 Total 340 318

0 0 0 23 140 127 109 186 189 2

1

1

0 0 0 134 327 317

0 0 0 25 132 134 103 188 194 1 0 1 2 129 321 330

0 0 0 22 141 125 120 207 197 1

2

0 1 2 142 350 326

0 1 1 17 134 124 23 95 223 223 116 1

2

2

1

0 8 7 0 113 368 357 140

Legend: DipLib: Diploma in Librarianship. MLIS: Master of Library and Information Science. BLIS: Bachelor of Library and Information Science. UNonMajor: Undergraduate Non-Major Students. GNonDeg: Graduate Non-Degree Students.

Undergraduate non-major students and graduate non-degree students are not yet official SLIS students and are still registered in their previous colleges and the Office of the University Registrar, respectively. These students may take courses offered by the School and these will be credited toward their degree requirements

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once they apply and are accepted by the School in its BLIS or MLIS programme. It is noticeable that there is a continuous increase in the number of students both in the BLIS and MLIS programmes. The School and university consider this a positive indicator of the value of the courses and programmes offered, as well as the career opportunities perceived by the students and prospective graduates and professionals. Every year, SLIS produces an average of 54 graduates who are expected to meet the growing demand for professional library and information professionals in the country. Table 15.5 shows the graduation statistics from 2008–2014. Table 15.5: Graduation Statistics from 2008–2014. Year Sem

2008–2009 1st 2nd Sum

2009–2010 2010–2011 2011–2012 1st 2nd Sum 1st 2nd Sum 1st 2nd Sum

2012–2013 1st 2nd Sum

2013–2014 1st 2nd

BLIS MLIS

10 39 6 3 16 42

20 21 5 6 25 27

19 25 6 2 25 27

8 1 9

Total

58

6 4 10

62

8 5 13

11 20 3 2 14 22 49

8 3 11

4 3 7

23 6 29 47

8 2 10

62

3 0 3

30 4 34 46

The increase in student population also denotes diversity in the nature and interests of the students. Aside from the different activities that are regularly offered by the university for the students, there are also various student activities being sponsored by local student organizations. Local academic and socio-civic organizations were also organized under the wing of the School. In 1981, the first ILS Summer Graduate Circle, composed of graduate students, and the UP Institute of Library and Information Science Students’ Association (UPILISSA) were organized. The first chairperson of the UPILISSA was a graduate student from Indonesia. The local Student Council that would serve as the official student body representative to the University Student Council was instituted in 2002. New student organizations were founded such as the UP Future Library and Information Professionals (UP FLIPP) and UP Bibliotech (UP BLC) in 2002 and 2008, respectively. Prior to the foundation of these organizations, the first Library Club in the university was organized with the aim, dating back to 1926, to “boost library interests, to discuss practical library problems, to promote interest in reading, to promote library relations with other organized bodies in the university, and to inculcate the spirit of friendship among library science students and library workers” (Philippinensian 1930, 457). The Library Club endorsed H.B. No. 1905, or the Soliven Bill, that supported the establishment of provincial and municipal libraries in the

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Philippines, in a resolution dated 11 September 1929 signed by forty-six members representing thirteen provinces (Library Club Endorses House Bill 1929). Graduates of SLIS also have their own organization, the UP Library Science Alumni Association (UPLSAA) that was established in 1950. The UPLSAA constantly supports the activities and other initiatives of the School. In 2007, the UPLSAA started donating portions of its income from its projects to the UP SLIS Building Fund (Apolinario 2011). The School maintains close ties with its students and alumni. In a survey done by Apolinario among the alumni to identify the adequacy of the knowledge and training that they received from the School, 80.2% of them find the curricular offerings and programmes sufficient, which are attributed to the following factors (Apolinario 2011, 66): –– excellent faculty; –– opportunities for extracurricular work; –– rich hands-on experience; –– the curriculum is responsive to the changing times; –– the curriculum provided the necessary LIS fundamentals needed in their jobs. The graduates (2007–2011) also identified several attributes of the School’s programme that made them successful in their respective jobs. The programme equipped them with the following abilities (Apolinario 2011, 66): –– ability to be proactive and resourceful at work; –– ability to manage a library and/or library-related projects; –– ability to share LIS principles to others; –– ability to work under pressure; –– competency and skills made them highly sought after in the job market; –– LIS fundamentals necessary for work. SLIS has continuously produced quality graduates who serve as leaders, head or chief librarians of different types of libraries and archives, locally and abroad. Some of the graduates have joined national and international organizations, and some of them have become faculty members teaching Library and Information Science courses. Other alumni have also pursued different fields and hold the title of Information Manager, Director of Libraries or Information Centres, System Administrator, Management Analyst, Information Specialist, Audiovisual Administrator, Database Designer, System Project Planner, Cataloguer, Indexer, Abstractor, or Archivist (Faderon 2008).

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Plans for the Future SLIS has been a major influence in the LIS profession in the Philippines for the past 53 years. Plans by the institution, however, do not stop there. In order to further the practice of the profession, SLIS is concentrated on improving its products, processes, content, numbers and infrastructure.

Curricular Offerings and Programmes SLIS is dedicated to the continued offering of the Bachelor of Library and Information Science (BLIS), Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS), Diploma in Librarianship (Law Librarianship) and Diploma in Librarianship (Health Sciences Librarianship) degrees. Offering a PhD in Library and Information Science would be the next step. There is the need for the offering of the PhD in LIS since a PhD is now the requirement for those seeking top library management positions in the country. In addition, there is also interest in the MLIS via Distance Education to serve students unable to travel to the university for extended periods of time. There is also a push to propose the institution of a Master of Archives and Records Management (MARM) or Master of Archival Studies (MAS) degrees and, ultimately, Bachelor of Archives and Records Management (BARM) or Bachelor of Archival Studies (BAS). There is also an interest in the possibility of offering the Bachelor of Information Science (BIS) and Master of Information Science (MIS) degrees. These plans are far off, with implementation being at least a decade away. On the horizon, though, is a collaboration of the SLIS with the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) for the inception of a fast-track Diploma in Archives and Records Management. The course is envisioned to run daily for a couple of weeks to fulfill the requirements of a diploma programme set by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED).

Student Population and Faculty Aggressively pursuing the establishment and offering of new curricular offerings and programmes as well as increasing the graduation rate are no easy feat. In order to achieve this, SLIS is looking at increasing the student population via marketing career possibilities of the profession to incoming freshmen of the university. It is also looking at increasing the number of faculty members of the

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school in order to be able to provide course offerings. The faculty of the school, both full-time and part-time, has committed to further graduate and specialization studies here and abroad. In particular the assistant professors are pursuing their PhDs while the instructors are finishing their Master’s degrees. It must be noted that the full-time faculty at SLIS is relatively young, with no faculty member older than 45 years old. This may be explained by the void in the profession which is characterized by the absence of 50- and 60-year-old-professionals and the impending retirement of all baby boomers, which leaves 20- to 40-yearold LIS professionals in key positions in the profession. This may be traced to the low graduation rates from the 80s to mid 90s.

The SLIS Building At present SLIS occupies the south wing of the 3rd floor of Gonzalez Hall, the University of the Philippines Diliman Main Library building. The present quarters have become really inadequate for its present and growing needs of the School. There is, however, an existing proposal for SLIS to occupy its own building in the Diliman Campus of the University of the Philippines. The proposed two-storey SLIS building already has initial exterior and interior design plans; the Office of the Campus Architect of the University of the Philippines Diliman has also indicated the budget which would be necessary to implement the said designs. The earliest possible start of implementation would be in 2015. The proposed SLIS building will have its own: –– Library, Museum and Archives; –– Conservation and Preservation Laboratories; –– Records Office; –– Learning Commons, Maker Space and TechShop; –– ICT classrooms and Computer Laboratories; –– Auditorium. The construction of the above facilities will help in the research and development, and practice and showcase of skills of the students and faculty in General Librarianship, Information Systems and Technology, Archives and Records Management and other tracks.

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Toward the Next 50 Years In 2014, the Philippines celebrated 100 years of LIS Education, and SLIS has been part of that tradition for more than 50 years. Throughout the years, SLIS has been an academic institution of higher learning sustaining the legal, professional and ethical practice of librarianship. SLIS is bracing itself for the next 50 years, and the challenges it faces are geared towards providing better education for future LIS professionals, providing better continuing professional education for practising library and information professionals, and providing a better platform for research and development in LIS. If these are accomplished, the vision of ultimately a better profession will also be realized. As a vital stakeholder despite the challenges, SLIS will continue to build upon its legacy and be ready for the next century of the LIS profession in the Philippines.

References Apolinario, Rhea Rowena U. 2011. “BLIS Graduates’ Perceptions on the BLIS Program and the Alumni Support Community.” Journal of Philippine Librarianship 31: 58–76. Faderon, Rosalie B. 2008. “The School of Library and Information Studies’ Notable Achievements since its establishment in 1961.” Journal of Philippine Librarianship 28(1): 1–20. Finduniversity.ph. 2016. “Schools Offering Library and Information Science Courses in the Philippines.” http://www.finduniversity.ph/library-and-information-science-schools/. Accessed on 15 January 2016. “Library Club Endorses House Bill 1905 in resolution signed by forty-six members.” 1929. The Library Mirror 1(3): 45–46. Office of the President. 1908. “Act No. 1870.” Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. Quezon City: National Printing Office. http://www.gov.ph/1908/06/18/act-no-1870/. Accessed on 1 September 2015. Perez, R. Dante. 2005. “Philippine Libraries and Librarianship, 1900–2000: a Historical Perspective” (master’s thesis, University of the Philippines Institute of Library and Information Science). Philippinensian. 1930. Quezon City: University of the Philippines. Republic of the Philippines, Congress of the Philippines.1990. Republic Act No. 6966: An Act Regulating the Practice of Librarianship and Prescribing the Qualifications of Librarians. http://lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1990/ra_6966_1990.html. Accessed on 5 January 2016. Republic of the Philippines, Congress of the Philippines. 2004. “Republic Act No. 9246: An Act Modernizing the Practice of Librarianship in the Philippines.” http://www.lawphil.net/ statutes/repacts/ra2004/ra_9246_2004.html. Accessed on 4 December 2015.

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Republic of the Philippines, Philippine Legislature. 1908. Act No. 1870: An Act for the Purpose of Founding a University for the Philippine Islands. http://www.gov.ph/1908/06/18/ act-no-1870/. Accessed on 5 January 2016. Republic of the Philippines. Professional Regulation Commission. Board for Librarians. 1992. Code of Ethics for Registered Librarians. Resolution 02, Series of 1992. Republic of the Philippines. Professional Regulation Commission. Board for Librarians. 2006. Code of Ethics for Librarians. Resolution 06, Series of 2006. http://www.prc.gov.ph/ uploaded/documents/BoardforLibrarians-CE.pdf. Accessed on 5 January 2016. Vallejo, Rosa M. 1990. “Library and Information Science Education in the Philippines.” Journal of Philippine Librarianship 13: 64–106. Vallejo, Rosa M. 2007. “Looking back while Traveling to the Future: The Legacy of Gabriel A. Bernardo: A Man for All Time.” Journal of Philippine Librarianship 27 (1/2): 1–42.

Mary Carroll

16 The Australian LIS Education Journey From Practice to Profession “For no one successfully investigates the nature of a thing in the thing itself; the inquiry must be enlarged so as to become more general.” Francis Bacon

Formal education for librarianship in Australia is relatively new in world terms, emerging in post-secondary institutions in the last three decades of the twentieth century. Prior to this professional education had its origins in the various library training schools established in the larger Australian states from the 1930s onwards. However, the history of librarianship in Australia has its roots much earlier, emerging with the colonization of Australia by the British in the late eighteenth century. In this longer history Australian librarianship has reflected the impact of the dominant social and political influences at work internationally which have helped shape, not just the profession, but a new society. These influences include the changing aspirations of an emerging urban middle class, a reformist educational agenda, the rise of universal education, the impact of war and globalization, changing cultural and international influences within the community and the changes wrought by technology and industry. These forces are entwined with the foundational imperatives underpinning Australia’s colonization in the late eighteenth century, set as it was against a backdrop of political and social upheaval in Europe. Making up this backdrop was the rise of democratic institutions, changing attitudes towards the individual, education and crime and punishment. This context was to influence approaches to librarianship and the establishment of libraries in colonial Australia. The origin of Australian librarianship lie in the prison hulks of the United Kingdom and Ireland of the eighteenth century where ministers of religion tended to the spiritual wellbeing of those imprisoned with prayer and books. These ministrations continued on many convict transport ships to the new colonies. On board ship a ‘librarian’ was at times appointed from amongst the convicts – their role to have “charge of the books” and to “keep the books in good order” and to “supply the inspector of schools with such books as shall, from time to time be required, and receive from him such as he may wish to return” (Browning 1847, 308). In the provision of books to convicts a link was made between education, the provision of “good” reading materials, morality, economic prosperity and reform. This link underpinned contemporary reformist thinking and drove the



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establishment and support of the libraries for the convicts. Reading was seen as a means by which the convict could be “enlightened” allowing the reformers “to set before these men the Scripture of inspiration” as “the voice which they require to hear is the voice of God the Spirit speaking to their consciences and their hearts from his inspired word, convincing them of sin, of righteousness, and of judgement to come” (Browning 1847, 308). Upon arrival the convicts in the settlements of New South Wales, Van Diemen’s Land (now Tasmania) and Norfolk Island were provided with libraries, usually overseen by a minister appointed to the settlement. Later prisons in colonies such as South Australia, Western Australia and Victoria were to continue to have book rooms and libraries for use by the prisoners and a minister of religion was to remain the most likely person to undertake the duties of librarian. A newspaper description in 1863 of the cells in the Pentridge “Stockade”, a Jeremy Bentham-inspired prison in the colony of Victoria shaped around the panopticon, provides a general insight into the role of librarian, these libraries, and their function at this time. It states (Impressions of Victoria 1865, 5): The cells are light, roomy, and well ventilated. Each contains a folding wooden bedstead, abundant bedding (no mattress), washing apparatus, patent water-closet, a little table and stool, a pair of slippers, a slate, and a pile of books, selected by the prisoner from a sufficient prison library, and frequently exchanged. A Bible and Prayer book are permanently in each cell, and other theological books are accessible; and in addition to these, and at the same time, the prisoners have school books and also “light literature”, including novels, magazines, and the like. Perhaps it did not occur to Dickens, when he was writing the account of Uriah Heep in the Model Prison that it would be frequently read in the solitary cells of a gaol at the antipodes. There were books in most of the cells I went into-in some, a pile as big as if the occupant had just returned from Mudie’s library. “The clergyman issues them, although they are very interesting”, my guide said, with a delightful unconsciousness of being sarcastic.

The role of librarian as arbiter of spiritual or cultural wellbeing with no formal education in the library field was a thread which ran persistently through the establishment of early Australian libraries, with the cultural or scholarly integrity of the person defining their suitability for the role. Such librarians can be found in the many social, subscription and institute libraries which also emerged rapidly in the Australian colonies, alongside the prison libraries, during the first half of the nineteenth century. These libraries aimed to provide for the spiritual and cultural wellbeing of the free colonist and were seen also to contribute to the economic wellbeing of the new colonies through the provision of technical, cultural and scientific information essential for the colonies to prosper. The spread of libraries in the Australian colonies was, according to Gascoigne, seen as “one of the most potent agents for mental improvement” amongst the population (Gas-

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coigne and Curthoys 2002, 118) and through the transmission of a civilizing culture by reading and books it was hoped that a new and better society would emerge. These libraries for the colonist were staffed by a variety of laymen and clergy with their duties as librarian often linked to their position in the organization. The rules of the Van Diemen’s Land Mechanics’ Institution of 1842 provide us with such an example. In this institution the Secretary was to “act as Librarian” and have the care and management of, and be personally accountable for, all printed Books, Charts, Maps, Paintings, Engravings, and Furniture, and such other Property of the Institution of every description as is not by the next Rule, or may not hereafter be, confided to the Curator, and make out and keep a detailed Catalogue or List thereof, distinguishing Donations by the names of the Donors, and transmitting a Copy, dated and certified as a true Copy, to the Trustees forthwith, and afterwards quarterly, and correcting such Catalogue or List and Copy, as circumstances may require (Van Diemen’s Land Mechanics’ Institution 1843).

The Institute’s report of that year also provides us with an insight into numerous aspects of the library and its work including most importantly a reflection on the function of the library in the community (Van Diemen’s Land Mechanics’ Institution 1842): Judging from the nature and number of the Books issued from the Library and the attendance of Members in the Reading Room which is well supplied with Journals and Standard Periodicals your Committee are convinced that moral culture is the prominent object of those who patronise the Institute in these departments.

This pattern of librarianship, in which the position of librarian was an honorary one, based not on professional qualification in the discipline but on the position a person held and their ‘moral’ integrity or scholarly credentials, was commonplace for most of the nineteenth century. Such positions largely fell into two definable patterns. The first was one in which ‘the librarian’ was viewed as scholar with a gentlemanly intellectual interest in the maintenance of the library; the second was the librarian as clerk or factotum tasked with the management of everyday duties of library maintenance. An advertisement for the first librarian for the Supreme Court Victoria in 1865 (Library of the Supreme Court of Victoria 1864) describes such a position in which the librarian was; –– To have the custody of and be responsible for all books in the Library –– To see that the printed rules in reference to the use and return of books, are duly enforced –– To keep the Stock Book and other Books of the Library and to copy such correspondence and accounts as may be required –– To carry out generally the instructions of the Library Committee



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This construct for librarianship was to come under pressure in the last decades of the nineteenth century as the Australian profession increasingly looked towards the United States for inspiration and ideas as well looking to the traditions of Europe and the United Kingdom. Australian librarians increasingly aspired to raise the status and the standards of librarianship modeled on the work being done elsewhere. Such aspirations saw Australian librarians seek to construct the profession in the image of medicine and law and invariably the means to fulfilling such aspirations were seen to be professional education and association. However, differences between British and American librarianship emerge early in the path towards establishing professional status and standards and Australian librarianship was caught between these two models. These differences were a result, in part, of differing attitudes to the role of libraries, particularly public libraries, in the two countries, large difference in the educational structures and accessibility and the uptake of the profession in each country by two very different cohorts. Education for library work in the United Kingdom (UK) in the late nineteenth century was seen by the Library Association (UK) as essential to enhance the skills of the many poorly educated men entering poorly paid, low status employment in libraries. To raise standards, and ultimately status, it was hoped that these men would be given not only apprentice type education for library work but also general education, providing them with a grounding in the minimum level of education that the Library Association (LA) felt was necessary for the standing of the occupation. This included education and examinations in subjects such as history and English language at “the most basic level”; a reflection of the straits the occupation had found itself in at the end of the nineteenth century in Britain. This situation as it stood in Britain was replicated in Australia in the early twentieth century. In the United States it was a very different environment with different educational opportunities leading, in particular, to many highly educated, single women entering library work, as well as less affluent, yet well-educated males. In the United States university or college-based education was seen as the first step towards establishing the position of librarian amongst other professionals through situating training for librarianship on the same footing as professions such as law, medicine and dentistry. The increasing exposure of Australian librarians to ideas from the United States saw them increasingly seek to construct the Australian profession through education and association. Education was seen as a vehicle by which librarianship could be modernized. Firstly by providing the expertise to facilitate what were considered new and modern library practices. Secondly, education could act as a gatekeeper to the profession through limiting access to professional association to those suitably qualified and con-

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sequently, it was believed, contribute to improving professional status and community standing. In the late nineteenth century early attempts at achieving professional status were to lead to calls for the education of Australian librarians but they were also to provide an example of the divide between Australian ambitions and local conditions which was to become a recurring theme for Australian librarianship education into the twenty-first century. This meant that while Australian librarians might aspire to emulate their North American colleagues, educational conditions within Australia made such ambitions almost unachievable. At a conference of the short-lived Library Association of Australasia in 1896 this was thrown into focus in the papers of two of the attendees: H.C.L. Anderson, Principal Librarian of the Public Library of New South Wales and Edmond La Touche Armstrong, the Public Library of Victoria’s head librarian. Armstrong was in favour of an examination for entry into the profession with an “inter-colonial board of examiners” (Anderson 1896) responsible for conferring such diplomas across the colonies. According to Australian commentator Maureen Keane (1982, 115): …awareness of Australian conditions influenced Anderson to recommend that Australian librarians adopted the British model. Anderson knew there were few professionally trained librarians in well-conducted libraries in Australia at the end of the nineteenth century. He would have understood the inter-colonial rivalry, and the effect that this would have on the standards and quality of education for librarianship. If the Library Association of Australasia had recognized different courses in each colony, then the Association would probably have had to accept courses of varying length and depth.

Many of the obstacles to education for librarianship were linked, as Keane suggests, to the way in which libraries in the various former colonies of a now federated Australia had developed in the colonial period. Of particular note was the continuing strength in South Australia of the Mechanics Institutes with their often volunteer secretary/librarians who continued the traditions of a previous generation. This led to some concern about their suitability in new professional environments and was one of the major stumbling blocks to an ongoing national library association. The existence of these institutes was to hamper progress towards a national library association for the first three decades of the twentieth century. At the same conference at which Anderson made his call, Edmond La Touche Armstrong outlines the skills and attributes required of a librarian, emphasising the growth of the education of librarians elsewhere. Armstrong opens his address with a scathing description of current beliefs about the position of librarian as being “a pleasant sinecure a nice occupation for a man of some education with a taste for literature, but a disinclination for any kind of hard work” (Armstrong 1896, 33). Of the training required he notes “if a man has failed in his professional



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career, or if as a literary man he has made neither name nor money…it is considered a good thing to make him a librarian. It is taken as a matter of course that he can do the work required without any particular training” (Armstrong 1896, 33). Armstrong counterpoints this perception with a call for a highly paid workforce immersed in the skills and knowledge of their profession; a profession which requires education and training within their discipline so that the librarian “far from being a learned recluse…should be a combination of a man of letters and a man of business” (Armstrong 1896, 33). Armstrong links the profession with others such as medicine and law claiming that the position of librarian in the future will be “no insignificant sinecure, but as difficult and onerous an office as any man could desire.” (Armstrong 1896, 33). Continued calls for an apprentice/examination system or for formal education/ accreditation as the preferred options for the future professionalization of librarianship in Australia were to shape debate into the next century and to critically define its ultimate structure. Despite the frequent call for a graduate profession, realistically it was not until the 1930s and 1940s that conditions were suitable for serious consideration of formal education for librarianship in Australia and the establishment of a truly national professional association. In the periods immediately before and after World War II Australian librarians continued to be focused on the raising of standards for the profession and its status in the wider community. The wider climate for education was changing in Australia during this period under the guidance of a number of influential and reformist educational administrators. The changes were to provide greater access to both primary and secondary education for the community, and this opened up the possibilities for the education of librarians. There was increasing focus on public libraries as part of the general educational infrastructure of communities and as conduits through which pedagogical reforms in schools could be implemented by these same educators. These changes in Australian educational conditions were in part driven by the input and example of a number of United States initiatives into Australia, including the injection of funds by the Carnegie Corporation of New York (CCNY). The Corporation began a programme of book selection for Australian teachers’ colleges and education departments in the 1920s and later travel grants to enable Australian educators, university administrators and cultural leaders, including librarians, to travel to the United States, and also on occasion to the United Kingdom, to expand their horizons and to gain knowledge of new and ‘modern’ practices. In 1927 the Corporation donated $25,000 for the establishment of the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) to be led by prominent Victorian educator Frank Tate with the assistance of Kenneth Cunningham and Percival Cole. Both Tate and Cunningham were perceived to be well-disposed to

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American ideas and therefore were targeted by the Corporation as key contacts in Australia. The agenda being pursued by the Corporation and Australian educators such as Tate was clearly a reformist one in which cultural institutions such as libraries were viewed as integral. It was Frank Tate, at the request of leading librarians, who in 1933 wrote to the CCNY requesting the provision of funds for a report into Australia’s libraries. The request was successful and the subsequent report, commonly known as the Munn-Pitt Report (1935) after its authors Ralph Munn from the United States and Ernest Pitt from the Melbourne Public Library, was published in 1935. Prefaced by educator Tate, the report was largely uncomplimentary in its findings for both libraries and education for librarians. On education, as it stood at the time, the report stated that “There are no library schools in Australia, nor is there any general scheme of examination, certification, or grading of library personnel” (Munn and Pitt 1935, 112), consequently “There is no uniformity concerning educational qualification for appointment or promotion” (Munn and Pitt 1935, 112). Recognizing, much as Anderson had in the previous century, that conditions were not yet right for full scale university education, the report recommended that “efforts should be directed toward securing better and more uniform methods of training under the current apprentice or cadet system” (Munn and Pitt 1935, 112). Some discussion was given to the entry age to such a system, which stood at sixteen years of age, an age which, according to the report, “may account for some of the misfits now observed in libraries” (Munn and Pitt 1935, 113). These concerns mirrored the earlier concerns of the Library Association (UK) and the recommendation of the Munn-Pitt Report, which argued that the way both to “misfit proof” the profession and to secure “proper recognition for librarianship” was to raise entry to the profession to those who had completed their “university work at twenty or later” (Munn and Pitt 1935, 113). To supplement the system of apprenticeship, examinations were recommended nationally. There is some debate about the impact the Munn-Pitt report was to have on the Australian library environment, but there appears little doubt that its publication and the involvement and interest of educational leaders such as Frank Tate were to trigger the establishment of the Free Library Movement in Australia, an increased community interest in libraries and their services and the eventual growth in demand for appropriately skilled staff. Another factor which was to contribute to the eventual shape and form of Library and Information Studies (LIS) education in Australia during this period was that increasing numbers of women were joining the profession, taking a leading role in association and education. However, concerns were raised amongst some of their male colleagues that their presence would hinder professionalization. Attempts at stratifying librarianship into “professional for men”



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and an “non-professional work for women” (McColvin 1939, 114) were unsuccessful but the legacy of these attempts was to be long lasting and ultimately have an impact on the structures which developed for education in Australia. The intervention of World War II was to somewhat impede further development in LIS education during the 1930s and 1940s although some progress was made. Frank Tate’s influence and the injection of CCNY money was to lead in 1937 to the establishment of the Australian Institute of Librarians (AIL) at the New Education Fellowship conference in Canberra. The aim of the new association was to work towards professional unity and to raise standards for the profession, a long-held ambition which had previously foundered. The focus of the new association’s first conference held in 1938 was standards of librarianship and library training, and the outcome was the establishment of a Committee on Standards and Training to develop policies on education and training, later to become the Board of Examination and Certification (1941). Summer schools were offered by the Public Libraries of New South Wales and Victoria and the Commonwealth National Library, and ultimately in 1944 the AIL introduced a qualifying examination. The professional association’s role as an examining body was to continue from 1944 until 1980. While the CCNY is well recognized for its contribution to Australian librarianship, less well recognized, yet possibly equally as important, is the establishment of Unites States Information Libraries (USIL) in both Melbourne and Sydney during World War II. In 1943 the Australian library fraternity welcomed a number of high-profile librarians intended to staff these new American libraries. The women sent to staff them included Helen Wessels for the Melbourne office and formerly of the New York Public Library; Harriet Root, former librarian of the US Information Service in Washington, for Sydney; and respected educator Mary Parsons en route to Wellington, New Zealand who was ultimately to play a significant role in the development of post-graduate LIS education in that country. The arrival and subsequent activities of these US librarians in the Australian community was to bring to life US library practice, and their influence was to be far-reaching. Their presence was felt in many ways including their support and promotion of the concept of graduate librarianship education, libraries for children and free public libraries. The US librarians worked tirelessly, modeling US library practices, assisting in training Australian librarians and in promoting LIS education. Their activities in Australia, closely following on from the CCNY funding for a local professional association and the provision of travel grants to influential Australian librarians and educators, was undoubtedly one significant factor in the construction of Australian LIS education. In the following decades Australia was to continue to play host to a range of eminent international library experts, including influential British librarian Lionel McColvin in 1946 and in

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1969 US educator Lester Asheim, who offered advice on the future possibilities for LIS education. Australian education changed rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s, and this was to have an impact upon the way in which the Library Association of Australia (LAA, formally the AIL) pursued its quest for education for the profession. The qualifications and professional standing of librarians in Australia at this time were mixed. Australian commentator Roe described this as a period in which “The term “librarian” still has to cover the highly qualified head of a large institution and the young, and not so young lady whose professional expertise consists of a kindly smile and a deft hand with a date stamp” (Roe 1964, 111). It became evident that in the 1960s the executive of the LAA increasingly favoured a move away from being an examining body to becoming an accrediting body, continuing its long held preference for a US-style graduate professional entry point. The LAA turned its attention in this period wholeheartedly to the establishment of schools of librarianship in higher education institutions. The model for library education that the LAA adopted during this period was based on the premise of a highly qualified post-graduate group, with an undergraduate degree in another discipline, who would carry out the professional tasks required in libraries. Greatly influenced by a variety of international visitors, the LAA began to work towards a three-tiered structure for a workplace which included qualified librarians with master’s degrees, a class of sub-professionals with technical training and non-qualified support staff. Reflecting this, the Library Association of Australia approved the policy statement Graduate Qualifications for Librarianship (Library Association of Australia. Board of Examination 1962, 65–66) in 1961, in 1964 Minimum Standards for Recognition of Courses in Librarianship (Library Association of Australia 1964, 153–154), and in 1966 adopted the Graduate Qualifications for Professional Membership statement (Keane 1982, 19–20). In 1965, under the direction and insistence of leading librarian John Metcalfe, the University of New South Wales (UNSW) introduced the first pre-employment, university-based, graduate programme of librarianship in Australia. This seemed to herald some success in regard to the LAA’s aspiration; but in a rapidly changing environment the path to this US style post-graduate education model was not yet clear, and there were other opportunities for LIS education outside these original aspirational pathways. The outcome in these decades was that three models of education were to be promoted and variously adopted by the profession, each reflecting a different response to the local educational climate. These models were: 1. a graduate profession based on a US model of generalist study followed by a graduate year or Masters in librarianship conducted in a university;



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2. an undergraduate degree course somewhat similar to those established in the UK after the World War II and delivered in second-tier colleges of advanced education; 3. a continuation of the largely apprenticeship and examination model which involved the Library Association of Australia in conducting examinations and certification to control standards, with education and training institutions in large libraries teaching to these examinations rather than controlling the content of curriculum, also mirroring the British experience. The fate of Australian librarianship education was ultimately to lie with changes in education generally, in Australia and internationally, and the future of Australian LIS education was shaped by a number of watershed government reports. These reports included the Report of the Committee on the Future of Tertiary Education in Australia (1964–65), also known as the Martin Report (Committee on the Future of Tertiary Education in Australia, 1964–1965) and, Colleges of Advanced Education: A First Report of the Commonwealth Advisory Committee on Advanced Education (1968), commonly known as the ‘Wark Report’ (Commonwealth Advisory Committee on Advanced Education 1966). The release of the Martin Report resulted in the establishment of second-tier tertiary education in the form of the colleges of advanced education (CAEs) arising from former senior technical colleges. At this point the university system seemed closed to the library profession, yet options were opening for it in the new CAEs, hungry for disciplines but vocational in history, motivation and focus. These institutions presented librarianship with an opportunity but also meant that the US educational model pursued by many for so long needed change. 1969 saw a reversal of the post-graduate requirement for professional entry with the LAA replacing its 1964 Minimum Standards with the Statement on Recognition of Courses in Librarianship (Library Association of Australia 1964) and accepting both undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications as satisfying professional membership requirements. By 1970 the first three year undergraduate programme was established at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) in Melbourne. Library educator Jean Whyte describes the climate surrounding the Australian reports in LIS circles thus (Whyte 1985, 18): The Colleges had arrived, and librarianship which had seemed to be settled as a post-graduate diploma course in universities (I know it was only UNSW and RMIT but some of us regarded RMIT as more of a university), suddenly became, after reports from educators, an undergraduate college course.

The new CAEs provided a foothold for LIS education in tertiary education and over the next two decades this foothold was to provide a place for librarianship at

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the professional level in the university sector. By 1970 every state in Australia but Queensland had established some form of tertiary education for librarianship, with new courses emerging rapidly (see Table 16.1). The eventual outcome of both broader educational pressures and the pragmatic reality of Australian conditions was also that all three previously contested educational models were adopted, and at the same time with the important addition of a vocational or technician level training programme. Table 16.1: Courses in Librarianship established in Australia by May 1971 (Carroll 2007, 66). State Institution

Qualification

ACT NSW

Canberra CAE University of NSW

Diploma in Librarianship Diploma of Librarianship Master of Librarianship

1970 1960 1964

Sydney Technical College

Certificate in Librarianship

1965

QLD

–

–

SA

South Australian Institute of Technology

Diploma in Technology in Library Studies

1971

VIC

Melbourne Teachers College

Trained Teacher-Librarians Certificate

1955

Secondary Teachers College

Higher Diploma of Teaching (Teacher librarian Secondary)

1965

Associateship Diploma in Librarianship Course A

1970

Associateship Diploma in Librarianship Course B

1968

RMIT

Box Hill Girls’ Technical School WA

Library Technician Certificate

Established

1970

Secondary Teachers College, Nedlands

Teachers Certificate /Diploma in School Librarianship

1968

Western Australian Institute of Technology

Associateship in Library Studies

1971

Library technician courses also emerged in every state, with three being established in Victoria in the 1970s, particularly in response to the seminal TAFE in Australia: Report on Needs in Technical and Further Education (Australian Committee



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on Technical and Further Education 1974) or the “Kangan report” published in 1974. This was a critical period in the development of Australian LIS education. At this time the LIS profession was still divided about minimum entry requirements for the profession and, despite many setbacks, had a vision of university schools of librarianship with post-graduate education still the favoured model. In developing Australia’s first technician-level LIS course, Wesley Young and the Victorian Branch of the LAA followed “Lester Asheim’s recommendations on emphasising the vocational aspects in technician courses” (Wesley Young, pers. comm.) which were based on the concept of post-graduate professionals, with a well trained “sub-professional” group to provide support in the performance of non-professional tasks. The Australian library profession by default established a model for education reflecting a broader contemporary educational agenda which itself drew from many international influences at work in education at the time. In this model tasks and roles were defined in terms of the levels of intellectual capacity and competence believed to be required to undertake the role. Re-emerging at this time was also the issue of women in the workforce and how best to structure the LIS workplace to accommodate the large number of women entering it. The response to these issues, in part, seems to have been the establishment of the vocational programmes. In the 1964 Report of the Board of Inquiry Appointed by His Excellency the Governor to Inquire into and Report Upon the Library Services of Victoria (Victoria 1964) (or the “Jungwirth Report”), the need for “sub-professional” training was considered to arise from the fact that Library staff is predominantly female and this contributes to the high turnover of staff. Many recruits to library service do not make a career of librarianship and consequently are not interested in studying for the Registration Certificate of the Library Association of Australia … This sub-professional staff requires basic library training (Victoria 1964, 75–76).

This layering, or stratifying, of education was to be adopted by the Australian LIS profession; however, the concurrent adoption of both an undergraduate and post-graduate model for Australian LIS education made drawing distinctions between roles in Australia quite complex. This in turn led to various other means of corralling appropriate professional and technician roles such as work level guidelines (ALIA 2013). In the contemporary workplace the ongoing presence of the three tiered education model which emerged in the 1970s is illustrated through these work-level guidelines. Entry level at these three levels is outlined by the Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA formally LAA) as follows (ALIA 2015):

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–– Librarians and information managers have a strong focus on assisting people and organizations and possess unique technical skills to manage and retrieve information; –– Technicians usually work under the supervision of a librarian and have a strong focus and vital role in customer service; –– Library assistants work as part of a service team assisting librarians and library technicians with library and office tasks and procedures. Interestingly, work function rather than qualifications are used in these guidelines to define these roles. Wide-scale articulation and pathways between vocational and higher education in Australia have also resulted in a more porous educational structure than perhaps originally intended, making clear distinction between educational entry points difficult to define. One of the key issues that emerged from the binary system of education during these decades was the inability of the two types of institutions (university and CAE) to clearly differentiate their roles (Roche 2003, 12): Thus, institutional ambition and systematic differentiation worked against each other, so that in both Australia and the UK, the binary system collapsed mostly under the weight of the campaign by non-university institutions to gain funding parity and equal status with universities.

This lack of clarity, with other factors, ultimately led to the introduction in 1988 by the Federal Minister of Education, John Dawkins, of the Unified National System (UNS) of education. This ended the binary system in Australia, resulting in many forced institutional mergers out of which emerged new universities. The implications for LIS education of these reforms were both positive and negative. With the former CAEs and institutes of technology acquiring university status, the profession finally found its way into the university and research sector it had aspired to. This proved a double-edged sword as economic and labour pressures and societal change meant that small discipline schools within the university system had to fight increasingly for survival or merge with larger schools. Willard, Wilson and Pawley (2001, 297) take the view that: LIS schools being in the main small schools by university standards (i.e. the number of student and staff) may have felt the pressures and been more frequently involved in amalgamations and mergers than schools of some other disciplines.

Clearly identifiable LIS schools in Australia began to disappear under the generic umbrella of knowledge or information management education, and business and



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information technology schools. This reflects what has in the 1990s been called a “gentle disappearance” (Muddiman 1996, 21) of the stand-alone LIS School. Contemporary Australian LIS schools in Australian universities are found in faculties of Arts, Business, Education, Information Technology, Science and Humanities. LIS programmes on the whole (with one exception) tend to be small and therefore vulnerable in the contemporary fiscal climate. The vocational level of education is also struggling with reforms in Australian vocational education; these reforms have taken a toll on staffing in the LIS departments which, like their higher education counterparts, are vulnerable due to their small size and specialized nature. Changes in employment arrangements in both sectors due to changing industrial climates have also led to a much increased casualization of the LIS workforce and what appears to be an ever increasing workload. This “gentle disappearance” is best illustrated by the declining number of academic and teaching staff in the discipline, with a number of studies illustrating this decline. Hallam noted that “from 1996 to 2005 Australia‘s information educators within the university context had declined by half (from 130 to 64 full time equivalent or FTE) and that “there was a loss of 43 per cent of educators in the VET sector (from 79.2 to 45 FTE)” (Hallam 2007, 11). Willard, Wilson and Pawley (Willard, Wilson and Pawley 2001, 299) in their study of Australian librarianship education between 1990 and 1999 noted that the number of Higher Education LIS schools had dropped from sixteen to twelve. In the VET sector the closure of programmes appears less pronounced; however, the number of staff operating such programmes has, as indicated by Hallam, declined. In 2014 there are ten universities offering Australian Library and Information Association accredited degree courses, sixteen locations for accredited Library Technician programmes and a fluctuating number of non-accredited technician and degree programmes (ALIA 2014). Library programmes continue to provide entry to the sector at Master, Bachelor, Diploma and Certificate level, retaining the stratified model established in the 1970s. The quest for survival is ongoing in the twenty-first century and the contractions, mergers and generalization of education programmes continue despite many attempts by Australian LIS education to reinvent itself, primarily by diversification into the galleries, archives and museums space and by targeting new and emerging areas of expertise. It is difficult to know what the future will bring given the contemporary pressures both on libraries and Australian education generally, and if new forms of employment and/or education structures will emerge to sustain LIS education into the future. It does appear that the close relationship between education and association which has sustained the profession for many years may be under threat as education content, governance and curriculum is increasingly moved into the hands of government. What this means for the future is difficult to tell.

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References Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA). 2014. “Accredited Course.” https://www. alia.org.au/employment-and-careers/courses-eligible-alia-membership. Accessed on 14 June 2014. Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA). 2015. “Careers in Library and Information Management.” https://www.alia.org.au/employment-and-careers/careers-libraries-andinformation-management. Accessed on 25 November 2015. Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA). 2013. “Work-Level Guidelines.” Version 16052013. http://www.alia.org.au/sites/default/files/documents/LIS%20Work%20 Level%20Guidelines%2016052013.pdf. Accessed on 26 July 2014. Anderson, Henry Charles Lennox. 1896. “Cataloguing.” In Account of the Proceedings of the Australasian Library Conference: Together with the Papers Read, List of Delegates, Etc., and the Constitution and Office Bearers of The Library Association Of Australasia, 15–17. Melbourne: Government Printer. Armstrong, Edmond La Touche. 1896. “The Librarian and His Work.” In Account of the Proceedings of the Australasian Library Conference: Together With the Papers Read, List of Delegates, Etc., and the Constitution and Office Bearers of The Library Association Of Australasia, 28–32. Melbourne: Government Printer. Australian Committee on Technical and Further Education. 1974. TAFE in Australia: Report on Needs in Technical and Further Education. Canberra: AGPS. Browning, Colin Arrott. 1847. England’s Exiles: The Convict Ship and England’s Exiles; In Two Parts. London: Hamilton, Adams & Co. Carroll, Mary B. 2007. “Role Perception and the Library Worker in Australia: the Role of Library Education in Defining Roles and Tasks of Librarians and Library Technicians” (doctoral dissertation, Charles Sturt University). Committee on the Future of Tertiary Education in Australia. 1964–65. Report of the Committee on the Future of Tertiary Education in Australia. 3 vols. Canberra: Government Printer. Commonwealth Advisory Committee on Advanced Education. 1966. Colleges of Advanced Education 1967–1969: First Report of the Commonwealth Advisory Committee on Advanced Education. [Canberra]: Commonwealth Government Printer. Gascoigne, John and Patricia Curthoys. 2002. The Enlightenment and the Origins of European Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hallam, Gillian C. 2007. “Education for Library and Information Service.” In Libraries in the Twenty-First Century: Charting New Directions in Information Services, edited by Stuart Ferguson, 311–336. Wagga Wagga: Centre for Information Studies, Charles Sturt University. http://eprints.qut.edu.au/11674/1/11674.pdf. Accessed on 15 January 2016. “Impressions of Victoria: No. VIII.” 1865. The Argus 18 October: 5. http://nla.gov.au/nla. news-article5768963. Accessed on 9 June 2014. Keane, M. V. 1982. “Chronology of Education for Librarianship in Australia 1896–1976.” Australian Library Journal 31(3): 16–24, 115. Library Association of Australia. 1964. “Minimum Standards for Recognition of Courses in Librarianship.” Australian Library Journal 3(3): 153–154. Library Association of Australia. Board of Examination. 1962. “Graduate Qualifications for Librarianship” Australian Library Journal 11(2): 65–66. Library of the Supreme Court of Victoria. 1864. “Minute Book.” 17 December.



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McColvin, Lionel Roy. 1939. Library Staffs. London: George Allen and Unwin. Muddiman, David. 1996. “Information and Library Education: A Manifesto for the Millennium.” Library Career Development 4(1): 22–25. Munn, Ralph and Ernest R. Pitt. 1935. “Australian Libraries: A Survey of Conditions and Suggestions for Their Improvement.” Melbourne: ACER. Roche, V. 2003. “Razor Gang to Hawkins: History of Victoria College, an Australian College of Advanced Education, Faculty of Education. (doctoral dissertation, University of Melbourne). Roe, E. 1964. “Librarian Social Class and Masculinity.” Australian Library Journal 13(3): 111–118. Van Diemen’s Land Mechanics’ Institution. 1842. “Report of the Hobart Town Mechanics’ Institute for 1842.” http://books.google.com.au/books?id=BcBbAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1PA56&lpg=RA1-PA56&dq=Report+of+the+Hobart+Town+Mechanics%27&source=b l&ots=K2p1rti8y2&sig=61FDVW2o492epEoJBdbNXVvUn1I&hl=en&sa=X&ei=fE3QU_ HhBYfHuAS9-4CYCg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Report%20of%20the%20Hobart%20 Town%20Mechanics’&f=false. Accessed on 11 June 2015. Van Diemen’s Land Mechanics’ Institution. 1843. Rules of the Van Diemen’s Land Mechanics Institution (Founded in 1827): For Instruction in the Principles of the Arts, and In All Branches of Science and Useful Knowledge: Passed at a Special General Meeting Held, by Adjournment from the General Annual Meeting of 14th February, at the Hall of the Institute, in Melville-street, Hobart Town, on the 14th day of March, 1843. Hobart: Printed by William Pratt. Victoria. 1964. Board of Inquiry to Inquire Into and Report Upon the Library Services of Victoria. Melbourne: Government Printer. Whyte, Jean P. 1985. “Control and Diversity: A Short History of Course Recognition in Australia.” Education for Librarianship: Australia 2(1): 5–25. Willard, Patricia; Wilson, Conceptión S. and Pawley, Christine. 2001. “Australian Professional Library and Information Education: Structural Changes in the 1990s.” Australian Academic and Research Libraries 32(4): 295–307.

Section 5: S  pecial Perspective on Library and Information Science Education and Training

Michael Seadle

Introduction This section includes three key aspects of library and information science education: one is quality assurance in library education, another is professional training, and the third is a history of library science libraries in North American collections. In her chapter Searing explains that library school libraries were seen at one time as a factor in quality assurance, but the number of physical library school libraries has declined substantially. Searing speaks (p. 369) about the “gradual elimination of separate LIS libraries” and about “fewer physical sites”. There is no consensus on the importance of separate library school libraries (p. 366): “Major library science schools without separate libraries included the University of Washington and, for most of its history, the University of Chicago, which was the first American school to offer the PhD degree in library science.” One of the remaining LIS libraries belongs to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. It “is a full-service departmental library housing 100,000 volumes, including an extensive juvenile collection” (p. 368). The University of Toronto also still has a separate LIS library. In both cases these are schools with a strong library focus in their programmes. As Searing notes, the tendency toward distance education courses has helped to change the perception of a need for a physical LIS library. Hamir Shady explains how the Bibliotheca Alexandrina offers a range of training options for practising librarians in Egypt and in the Arab world broadly. The BA puts special emphasis on new technologies and trends. A summer programme gives students experience with cataloguing as well as integrated library systems. Egypt is rich in ancient and medieval manuscripts and the BA has a programme to train in restoration and preservation. It “aims at developing advanced museographic and museological techniques and training to staff and users on the preservation of written heritage” (p. 380). In her chapter Moran describes quality assurance as a complicated mix of local standards, social conventions, and laws. She focuses primarily on accreditation using the UNESCO definition that emphasises a formal recognition that a school has met “predetermined minimal criteria or standards” (p. 323). As she notes, within accreditation standards internationally: “[t]oo often, the same words are used but with different meanings depending on who is involved in the conversation” (p. 336). This makes comparison difficult. Regional accreditation is an option that has been suggested and regional accreditation has been explored in a few places, such as the Gulf states, but finding common accreditation mechanisms is difficult even there where there is “a homogenous region in linguistic,

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cultural and socio-economic terms” (p. 340). In Europe the Bologna Process has harmonized the academic degrees within the European Union, but the cultural diversity and heterogeneity of programmes have made a common accreditation process impossible so far. The accreditation process in North America is distinct from other “countries because of its voluntary, non-governmental nature” (Moran, 325). One of its goals is “to create within institutions themselves a culture where indicators of performance are regularly developed and data are used to inform institutional decision-making, planning, and improvement” (p. 326). The current mechanism is a self-study, combined with site-visits and peer-review. One of the differences between the accreditation process for LIS programmes in North America and the accreditation of other professional schools is how strongly the profession itself controls the process. The president of the American Library Association appoints the twelve members of the Committee on Accreditation, which gives the president considerable influence on the process.

Barbara B. Moran

17 International Quality Assurance in LIS Education Over the past few decades, there has been a growing interest worldwide in all types of quality assurance (QA), including quality assurance of educational institutions and programmes. In education, quality assurance refers to the process by which an institution or a programme is evaluated using a planned and systematic method of review to determine that acceptable standards of instruction, scholarship and infrastructure are being maintained and enhanced. To date, most educational QA efforts have been confined to national initiatives designed to ensure the quality of institutions or programmes offered within in a specific country. The methods employed to assess quality vary greatly from country to country. However, as the globalization of higher education intensifies there is an acknowledged need for educational quality assurance that transcends national boundaries both to provide international recognition of the academic and professional qualifications of graduates and to help those graduates seeking positions in the global job market. Therefore it is very appropriate to have a chapter relating to international educational QA in a volume published to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the establishment of the International Federation of Library Associations’ (IFLA) Section on Education and Training (SET) since that group has done more than any other to advance the issues of international QA and reciprocal recognition of academic qualifications in library and information science (LIS) education. Indeed SET has had an interest in these topics since its founding (Tammaro 2005). This chapter will provide an overview of the current state of QA in LIS education, will make recommendations for the future, and will discuss possible roles for IFLA and SET in that future. Globally, educational QA efforts go by many names including accreditation, audits, quality evaluations, benchmarking and others. This chapter will focus primarily on one commonly used QA method, accreditation, and here the term will be used as defined by the United National Educational Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): [Accreditation is] “the process by which a (non-)governmental or private body evaluates the quality of a higher education institution as a whole or of a specific educational programme in order to formally recognize it as having met certain predetermined minimal criteria or standards. The result of this process is usually the awarding of a status (a yes/no decision) of recognition, and sometimes of a licence to operate within a time-limited validity” (Vlăsceanu, Grünberg and Pârlea 2007, 25).

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The chapter will examine the QA efforts in just one sector of higher education, education for library and information science (LIS), and will focus first on the QA method employed in one specific geographic area: the accreditation awarded by the American Library Association (ALA), the system used to evaluate the quality of LIS programmes in the United States and Canada. Because ALA accreditation is one of the oldest and best-known methods of QA in LIS education and because ALA accredits more programmes (63) than any other single LIS accrediting agency, this process of QA will be described in detail to provide a model of a system that has historically functioned well to guarantee the quality of LIS education in the US and Canada. Because the imprimatur of the ALA accredited degree is well known, this model is sometime suggested as one that might be extended to other geographic areas. But is it wise or even possible to take a method used in one geographic region and transfer it to another? To answer the question, that one specific method must be compared to other possible models. Those other possible models would be the LIS QA methods currently being employed in other regions of the world. Thus the second part of this chapter will provide an overview of those other methods of assessment of LIS education including a look at other national and regional attempts to construct QA systems. The similarities and differences between those methods and the ALA model of accreditation will be described keeping in mind that precise comparisons between systems is difficult because of all the permutations of QA methods and nomenclature worldwide. After the current state of LIS QA has been examined, recommendations for the future will be made. If none of the existing QA models can be recommended for use internationally, might it at least be possible for members of the LIS profession to agree upon common standards or upon a common method of QA that might be adopted by programmes throughout the world to ensure that graduates from these programmes are well prepared to enter a global profession? The chapter will end with a discussion of the appropriate role of international organizations such as IFLA in establishing and maintaining global LIS quality assurance.

ALA Accreditation Each existing QA system has been shaped by the national context in which it has developed, and as a result a model that on the surface might seem to be transferable from one country to another, might in reality not be easily applicable to other settings. Because context is so important, first a history of the development of accreditation, including LIS accreditation, in the United States will be provided.



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Development of Accreditation in the United States The process of accreditation of educational institutions originated in the United States (US) and accreditation is the most commonly used method of educational QA used there. Accreditation began in the United States near the end of the 19th century as an outgrowth of the uncoordinated manner in which the nation’s system of higher education had developed. The United States has never had a single national authority or ministry for higher education; as a result its institutions of higher education developed under a laissez faire policy that provided no centralized control or oversight. Some institutions of higher education were begun by and loosely regulated by individual states. However, far more institutions were private, established by various religious denominations or individual benefactors. Throughout the 19th century, the number of colleges and universities proliferated and spread from the nation’s east coast to the newly established states and territories. As a result there developed an uncoordinated and chaotic pattern of various types of educational institutions each setting its own standards for admission, curriculum and requirements for graduation. It was often difficult to distinguish between secondary schools and colleges, and there was no standardized way to judge the quality of any of them or their graduates (El-Khawas 2001). In an attempt to bring order out of chaos, these colleges and universities created voluntary, non-governmental organizations to provide standards that would distinguish institutions of higher education from secondary schools and provide comparability among these institutions. The first regional accrediting association, the New England Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, was established in 1885. Over time, other regional accreditation associations were begun. With the establishment of the Western Association in 1923, the United States was fully covered by six regional accrediting agencies, each one responsible for accrediting the colleges and universities in its respective geographic area. These regional accrediting agencies set standards for admission and graduation, imposed curricular structure and regulated other aspects of the administration of colleges and universities (Carnovsky 1967). Soon after regional accreditation was established, it was realized that there was also a need to evaluate the quality of specialized programmes offered in the regionally accredited institutions; thus specialized accreditation efforts began in certain professions. Specialized accreditation grew out a concern by members of professions who were concerned about the quality of the educational programmes preparing their practitioners. The medical profession was the first to begin to accredit programmes; the American Medical Association (AMA) issued its first list of acceptable medical schools in 1907. The law profession was next;

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the American Bar Association (ABA) instituted accreditation in 1921 (El-Khawas 2001, 33–34). As education for more and more professions moved from apprenticeship training to formal education within a university setting, the need for this specialized accreditation expanded. Specialized accreditation differed from regional accreditation in that it was granted to a specific educational programme at a specific degree level and not to an institution as a whole. Today 60 programmatic and professional accrediting agencies are recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), the oversight body for accreditation of higher (tertiary) education in the United States. Among the agencies recognized by CHEA is the Committee on Accreditation (COA) of ALA which is recognized for the accreditation of “master’s programs in library and information studies offered under the degree-granting authority of institutions located in the United States, its territories, possessions, and protectorates and, by agreement with the Canadian Library Association, Canada” (Council for Higher Education Accreditation 2014). Almost all of the specialized accrediting agencies, including COA, require that the school or programme seeking specialized accreditation be located in a parent institution that is itself regionally accredited. In the United States there are no free-standing LIS programmes; all are located within colleges or universities. Thus accreditation as practised in the United States from its beginning has differed from QA efforts in most other countries because of its voluntary, non-governmental nature. One of the key tenets of accreditation in the US is that the institutions of higher education themselves and not the government have the primary responsibility for ensuring the quality of their academic programmes. Accreditation in the US serves a dual purpose. First it provides protection to the public by certifying that an institution or programme meets standards of quality established by an accrediting agency. Thus accreditation of professional education provides assurance both to students and employers that the graduates of accredited institutions have had appropriate educational preparation and also protects the public from unprepared and ineffective practitioners. The second purpose of accreditation is to create within institutions themselves a culture where indicators of performance are regularly developed and data are used to inform institutional decision-making, planning, and improvement. So accreditation addresses both quality assurance and quality improvement (Eaton 2013). The American system of accreditation is privately organized and does not receive any government support. Each accrediting agency is financially self-supporting. The US system is a “bottom-up” one that reflects a distinctively American culture system where “accreditation has not been shaped by government but instead by collective decisions among college and university leaders as to how they might fulfill their responsibilities to demonstrate accountability to the public” (El-Khawas 2001, 18).



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The structure of accreditation that has developed in the United States is decentralized and complex reflecting the decentralization and the complexity of the country’s institutions of higher education. In 2011 there were over 4,500 degree granting post-secondary institutions of many types and varieties in the United States (US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics 2013). US accreditation of all types rests upon the foundation of standards developed and established collaboratively by the accrediting agency and its member institutions. To be accredited, an institution voluntarily agrees to submit to the standards of its accrediting agency. The exact evaluation process differs slightly among the various types of accreditors, but typically the process has the following components: 1. A self-study in which the institution being considered for accreditation looks at its performance based upon the standards; 2. A peer-review where the institution is evaluated by a team of peers usually a mix of practitioners and academics. Typically, volunteer peers review both the self-study and serve as members of the onsite team; 3. A site visit where the team of peers visits the institution to meet with various constituencies to ensure in person that the institution meets the standards; 4. An accrediting decision by the accrediting agency. After the self-study and site visit, the site visit team makes a recommendation to the accreditation agency which then determines the status of the institution being evaluated. Although usually the status is either “accredited” or “not accredited” there may be other possibilities such as conditionally accredited, which means that the institution will retain accreditation for a designated time period but must produce a plan for remediation and subsequently undergo another selfstudy and site visit within a set date; 5. Periodic monitoring which allows the accrediting agency to keep watch over the activities of the accredited programmes between self-studies and site visits, to verify that they continue to maintain adherence to the standards (Eaton 2013). The same processes and attributes associated with regional accreditation are also found in specialized accreditation, including accreditation for LIS. The standards and procedures used in the ALA process of accreditation will now be discussed in depth because it is not until after a thorough examination of one system of QA that it is possible to begin to make comparisons of this system with others and to consider whether it is a model that could be exported and used elsewhere.

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Development of ALA Accreditation Library education, like much professional education, did not begin in universities. In the past, aspiring librarians learned in an apprenticeship-like fashion working with experienced librarians within the setting of a library. In the United States, education for librarians began its move to a higher education setting in 1887 with the opening of the programme headed by Melvil Dewey at Columbia University. Because of the success of this programme and the growing need for librarians, between 1887 and 1920 fifteen new schools were founded across the United States. The degree awarded by these programmes was a fifth-year baccalaureate degree. Students would complete a regular four-year bachelor’s degree in a subject field and then take a fifth year of study, still at the undergraduate level, which provided instruction in librarianship. Accreditation of LIS education in the United States began as a consequence of two reports written by Charles C. Williamson for the Carnegie Corporation in 1921 and 1923. These reports were extremely critical of the existing professional preparation for librarians. Williamson found that library education at that time was marked by a lack of consistency in curricula, few textbooks, unprepared faculty, rudimentary courses, and no standards to ensure quality (Carnovsky 1967). In the wake of his devastating analysis of the state of library education, Williamson proposed a National Certification Board to serve as a standardizing agency for the nation’s library schools. He stated “Men and women of education and ability have no desire to train for a pseudo-profession without standards, or for work in which a newcomer without education, training, or experience is often accorded the same standing and recognition as the person with the best training obtainable and long and successful experience” (Williamson 1923, 123–124). Both the library profession and ALA took the Williamson reports seriously. As a result in 1924 ALA established the Board of Education for Librarianship (BEL) and assigned this group responsibility for the organization’s accrediting efforts. In 1925 BEL adopted the first set of standards for ALA accreditation and established the processes needed for accreditation. In 1926 BEL, after visiting all the schools, produced its first list of all the accredited library schools (Fitzgibbons 2003). In the late 1940s, the Master’s degree in library science was established as the appropriate degree for professional librarians and since that time has been the standard accredited degree in the United States (Estabrook and Montague 2004). In 1956 ALA replaced BEL with a new standing committee, the Committee on Accreditation (COA), and that committee has been charged with the accreditation activities of the association since that time. ALA accreditation was the earliest effort to assess the quality of educational programmes for librarianship.



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By placing the responsibility of the accreditation of the education of new practitioners on the professional association and not on the educators, LIS accreditation mirrors the practice used by most other professions in the United States. However, the practice of placing accreditation within a professional association has also led to what El-Khawas (2001, 34) points out is the basic tension in many professional accrediting efforts – the tension between practitioners already launched in the profession and the educators designing and administering the programmes preparing new professionals. To some degree, that tension between practitioners and educators is still present in most current systems of specialized accreditation that use professional associations as the accrediting body. As will be discussed later, although professional associations also have the responsibility for LIS accreditation in several other countries, including the United Kingdom (UK) and Australia, accreditation by a professional organization, although common in the United States, is not a widespread practice in other parts of the world.

Standards, Processes and Procedures of ALA Accreditation The specific charge to COA is set out in the ALA Handbook of Organization: “To be responsible for the execution of the accreditation program of ALA, and to develop and formulate standards of education for library and information studies for the approval of Council” (American Library Assocation 2014a). Although COA as a standing committee is a part of ALA’s administrative structure and its activities are partially funded by ALA, there is recognition on the part of ALA that COA must have autonomy from its parent organization in performing its accrediting functions. Independence from a parent entity or sponsoring agency is also a requirement for an accrediting agency to be recognized by CHEA (Council for Higher Education Accreditation 2010). A memorandum of understanding between COA and ALA delineates the responsibilities and the rights of each body in regard to the accreditation process (American Library Association 2010). ALA accreditation relies heavily on the efforts of volunteers, but those efforts are supported and coordinated by a small staff at the ALA Office of Accreditation. The Office of Accreditation maintains the schedule of evaluation reviews, coordinates with all programmes in the process of review or interested in accreditation, trains all individuals involved in LIS accreditation, and provides programmes and publications to enhance knowledge of accreditation within the library profession.1 ALA’s accrediting efforts are funded in three ways: 1) annual dues from 1 Additional information about all the activities of the Office can be seen at http://www.ala.org/ offices/accreditation. Accessed on 6 January 2016.

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each of the accredited programmes; 2) fees paid by programmes that are seeking accreditation or reaccreditation; and 3) financial support from ALA. Despite these three sources of financial support, the Office of Accreditation and COA operate on a very lean budget. Without the hundreds of hours of volunteer work devoted to accreditation, the process as presently carried out would be impossible. All the members of COA and all the members of the site visit committees perform their accrediting duties without any compensation. It is often said that accreditation in the United States is a voluntary activity, and that is true because no institution is compelled to undergo an accreditation assessment. However, it is also voluntary in that it depends on the volunteer efforts of so many people who are willing to contribute time and energy to this process of peer evaluation. According to CHEA statistics in 2010–2011 the accrediting agencies in the United States in total employed only 850 staff members but worked with more than 20,261 volunteers (Eaton 2013, 2). COA consists of 12 members appointed by the ALA president-elect. Ten must be personal members of ALA appointed to represent educators and practitioners. One of the ten must be Canadian; the Canadian Library Association chooses that member. The remaining two COA members must be appointed from the public-at-large to represent the public interest. Most new appointees have already had extensive experience with accreditation. To ensure diversity, the members are chosen to provide educator-practitioner, gender, and geographic balance; in addition efforts are made to include members from groups underrepresented in the profession. New members of COA are trained in the process of ALA accreditation at an orientation at their first meeting. Because appointments to COA are made on staggered basis, a large number of experienced members are available to provide guidance to the newly selected ones. Although fully accredited programmes come up for accreditation review only once every seven years, the process of evaluating the quality of LIS programme is an ongoing one. COA uses three means to evaluate programmes: 1. Programme Presentations, in which the school measures itself against the Standards in a self-study; 2. External Review Panel reports, in which a visiting review team measures the school and its programme presentation against the Standards; and 3. Programme annual statistical and biennial narrative reports. The first two of these measures are used when a programme is being considered for accreditation or reaccreditation. The third is the way COA maintains continuous oversight over the quality of LIS programmes and is able to act, if it seems necessary, in the years between the regularly scheduled full accreditation reviews.



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Any LIS programme seeking either initial accreditation or reaccreditation undergoes a lengthy and thorough process of self-study in the period before the site visit. In preparation for a site visit, a programme gathers evidence relating to each of the standards and writes the Programme Presentation, which is a key part of the evidence used in determining whether or not a programme meets the standards for accreditation. In the current version of the standards, there are six major areas: 1. Mission, Goals, and Objectives; 2. Curriculum; 3. Faculty; 4. Students; 5. Administration and Finance and 6. Physical Resources and Facilities. After a programme completes its Programme Presentation, that document (which with its appendices will be hundreds of pages long) is forwarded to COA and to the members of the External Review Panel (ERP) who study the Programme Presentation prior to the site visit. ERP teams typically comprise six individuals chosen because of their expertise in important elements or specializations in the master’s degree curriculum being taught by the programme being evaluated. The Office of Accreditation trains all members of the ERP before they go on a site visit; the Chair of the ERP receives additional training. The ERP site visits usually last two to three days. (The expenses of the ERP members are paid by the institution being visited, but team members receive no honoraria.) During the time the ERP is on campus, members examine documents and speak with students, faculty, alumni, employers, programme administrators, university administrators and members of other constituencies. The ERPs are often referred to as the “eyes and ears” of COA. These panels assess, through a robust peer review process, how well the Programme Presentation represents the reality of the programme in relation to the standards. After the site visit is complete, the ERP members return home and within three weeks complete a report, which is sent to COA and to the programme being evaluated. The ERP does not make any recommendation to COA about whether or not a programme should be accredited. It only reports on the evidence it discovered. COA makes all actual accreditation decisions. It should be reiterated that both the Programme Presentation and the site visit are focused on the LIS master’s degree programme. Although many of the US LIS Master’s degree programmes are found in larger units with undergraduate, doctoral and even other Master’s degrees, COA does not assess the quality of any of these other programmes.

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COA meets in person four times a year with each meeting lasting two to three days. Although the routine sometimes varies, there is an overall pattern to these meetings. The meetings in the spring and the fall are primarily informational review meetings when the members of COA examine a variety of reports: statistical and narrative biennial reports, annual progress reports for programmes on conditional status, and special reports. At the two meetings held in conjunction with the Midwinter and Annual ALA Conferences, however, the focus shifts. These meetings are the time when most accreditation decisions are made. To prepare for the meetings with programmes facing accreditation decisions, COA members read all the documents including the Programme Presentations, the ERP Reports, and the programmes’ responses to the ERP Reports. At this time, COA also meets in person with the programme director and with the ERP chair from each programme being considered for accreditation. These face-to-face meetings allow COA members to ask questions in case there are still areas that need fuller exploration after the review of the written documents. After a thorough review of all the documentation and information gathered in the in-person meetings, the Committee deliberates and then makes a decision about whether or not to accredit or reaccredit a programme. The meetings of COA are closed in order to maintain an open and candid reporting relationship with the programmes being reviewed. During the course of the accrediting process, COA often requests and examines sensitive information on many topics including budgets, salaries, and parent institution support that are often not made public. In return for an institution being willing to openly and fully disclose information to any accrediting agency, accrediting bodies have traditionally kept that material confidential based on the principle that accreditation is a process of peer review intended primarily for the improvement of the programme being reviewed. Thus COA reviews material and makes decisions in closed meetings, and ultimately releases to the public only the decisions made about accreditation. The release of any additional information is left to the discretion of the programme itself. Some programmes are very open about the entire process, posting the self-study and the ERP report on their websites, while others disclose only the decision itself. Like all accreditation agencies, COA has a number of checks and balances built into its procedures to make accreditation a fair and equitable process. First, in any accrediting decision, careful attention is paid to any potential conflict of interest on the part of a COA member that might impede that member’s ability to carry out his or her responsibilities fairly and objectively. Any COA member with any conflict of interest with a programme being considered is recused from all discussions and decisions about that programme. Programmes that are up for accreditation have some input into the composition of the ERP team with veto



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power over the inclusion of any ERP member whom they do not think is appropriate. Programmes also have a chance to correct any factual errors found in the ERP report and to present additional evidence at the face-to-face meeting with COA. In addition, there is a well-developed appeal system that can be utilized by any programme that disagrees with a decision made by COA. The work of COA members between the meetings is extensive with much time devoted to reviews of self-studies, reports, and other materials submitted by programmes considered for accreditation or reaccreditation. COA has three subcommittees: Planning, Programming and Standards Review, and members of those subcommittees stay in touch via conference calls or email to work on projects between meetings. Some of this work relates to the non-accrediting responsibilities of COA because in addition to making accreditation decisions, COA is also responsible for formulating the standards and establishing the processes related to accreditation. Both the current standards and the processes are available on the ALA website (American Library Association 2016). Just as LIS education has evolved to meet the needs of a changing profession, so have the standards used to assess its quality. There have been six sets of standards for ALA accreditation: the standards of 1926, 1933, 1951, 1972, 1992, and 2008. At present a new set of standards is being prepared and drafts are being sent to constituent groups for feedback. The preparation of these new standards provides a good illustration of the collegial nature of LIS accreditation in the United States. In all cases the drafts of proposed changes are written by a subcommittee of COA and approved within the committee, but then are put out for public review with input invited from all constituencies affected by accreditation. COA wrote a first draft of the new standards and publicized it, soliciting feedback from as many stakeholders as possible. COA members also presented the proposed changes in discussion forums at the ALA and the Association for Library and Information Science (ALISE) conferences. In addition, with this revision COA took advantage of new technology and presented webinars on the proposed changes and used a blog to solicit comments. As a result of the comments received, the initial draft was revised; a second draft was distributed in January 2014. After feedback on the second draft, the subcommittee prepared and promulgated a third draft, which was distributed in July 2014. The comment period on this last draft extends through October 2014; in November COA will prepare a final draft, which will then go to the ALA Council for approval early in 2015.2 Once the new standards have been approved, COA will begin revising the processes 2 It was learned just as this manuscript went to press that the Council of ALA approved for adoption the 2015 Standards for Accreditation of Master’s Programmes in Library and Information Studies on 2 February at the ALA Midwinter Meeting in Chicago.

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and procedures of accreditation and that process will also be open to input from all stakeholders. The earliest sets of ALA standards were quantitative and prescriptive mandating minimum standards for all programmes; over the years the standards have become less prescriptive and more qualitative as a result of the increasing diversity of LIS programmes and their missions. Although the standards have changed their purpose has remained the same: the standards establish the criteria used to evaluate all programmes being considered for initial or continuing accreditation. The more recent ALA standards reflect the approach found in all US accreditation since the 1980s: a move away from measuring inputs (size of faculty, programme budget, etc.) to an increased emphasis on outputs, especially student learning outcomes defined in terms of the knowledge, skills and abilities that the student has attained by the end of his/her programme of study. ALA accreditation requires programmes to set goals and objectives and to use appropriate measures to ensure that the objectives and goals are actually being met. Programmes must have clearly defined procedures that take the information gained from the various assessment metrics and then use that information to continuously improve the educational experience they provide. As can be seen from the discussion above, ALA accreditation is a slow and complex process. Like all accreditation in the United States, it is time consuming and built upon the labour of many volunteers who have an interest in maintaining the quality of LIS education offered by the programmes. There is no support or participation of the government in the process. ALA accreditation is also limited in scope accrediting only Master’s level programmes in LIS and only programmes in a specific geographic area. Thus far, the only ALA-accredited programmes are in the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico. ALA accreditation is a fairly costly and time-consuming process. Although the standards used by COA to evaluate programmes have many elements that are common to most lists of standards used to evaluate LIS education worldwide, they inevitably reflect the culture in which they were developed. However, ALA accreditation is a widely respected imprimatur of quality in LIS education, and there has been some interest in expanding its geographical boundaries. The Office of Accreditation at ALA regularly receives requests for information about accreditation from international LIS programmes, both from programmes just being planned and those already in existence. According to Karen O’Brien, Director of ALA’s Office for Accreditation, there are no official barriers to ALA accrediting outside of the United States and Canada. This change in scope would only require that COA notify CHEA and follow the CHEA policies that pertain to international accreditation (Karen O’Brien, pers. comm., 30 September 2014). A few international programmes have explored with the Office the steps



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that would be needed to begin the accreditation process, but to date no international institution has formally begun the self-study process that would be a precursor to pre-candidacy status for ALA accreditation. As interest grows in global accreditation it is interesting to speculate whether an accreditation process similar to ALA’s might be scalable to other countries and regions. Is it possible that a model based on the ALA approach to accreditation might be adopted as a method in other parts of the world? Or, if the model itself would not be easily transferrable, could it offer any guidance to other countries currently seeking the best method of QA for LIS education? On one hand, the system of accreditation used in the United States is a unique one that has been shaped by a past history of decentralized development and oversight of higher education institutions and lack of centralized federal government control. On the other hand, US accreditation is well respected worldwide, has a long history and provides an accumulation of practical experience and operational wisdom in addition to its longevity (El-Khawas 2001). Although at first glance this system of QA would not appear to be a workable model for other countries, there are certainly elements that might be useful components as the search for a global system of QA continues. Within COA, there is also a realization that the current process of accreditation needs to re-examined, and in the near future, COA will also be looking at other models as it works to update its own practices. As mentioned above COA plans to revise the processes and procedures used in ALA accreditation after the new Standards are adopted; this will provide an ideal opportunity for COA with input from the US and Canadian LIS professional communities to consider whether the methods currently used should be modified to meet the needs of the changing LIS educational world.

LIS Quality Assurance in Other Parts of the World ALA accreditation may be the oldest system for QA for of LIS education but that does not mean that other parts of the world have neglected QA of their LIS programmes. In the same way that ALA accreditation reflects the norms of educational QA in the US, other countries have also developed methods for QA that are grounded in the context of their own national practices and history. This section of the chapter will provide a look at how LIS education is now being evaluated across the globe. There are a number of alternatives methods used, and they will be described briefly. There have also been a few efforts to move beyond national quality control to some sort of regional assessment and those efforts will also be discussed. Once more, the question is posed. Do any of these approaches possess

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the characteristics that would allow it to transcend national boundaries and provide a model for international QA for LIS education? Although the forces of globalization and the increased international focus of all aspects of higher education have led to an increasing number of attempts to compare the varying types of quality assessment systems (Hartley and Virkus 2003), it is impossible to compare the different methods with just a superficial knowledge of the elements that constitute any one of them. It is easy to assume that most methods of QA share common characteristics; it is not until after a thorough examination of the specifics of each, that the differences become apparent. Too often, the same words are used but with different meanings depending on who is involved in the conversation. Hartley and Virkus (2003, 33) recount their difficulties in trying to compare the QA processes used in two European countries: Estonia and the United Kingdom. “The difficulties were of two types. Firstly the processes are different and secondly the use of language is very different. We do not mean that English and Estonian are very different, rather we mean that even within English we use terminology differently.” With that caveat, a brief overview of LIS assessment worldwide begins. Although there have been numerous articles written about the methods of QA used in individual countries (for example, Ameen 2007; Enser 2002; Miwa, Kasai and Miyahara 2010 and Sarkhel 2006) there is at present no comprehensive list of the different quality control measures used for LIS education internationally. Perhaps this is not surprising since there are not even any up-to-date, comprehensive lists of all the institutions providing LIS education worldwide. A complete list of the methods of QA used by LIS programmes internationally would be very difficult to compile considering the large number of programmes, the many variations among them in curricula and levels of degrees awarded and the inconsistent ways that terms relating to QA are used in different parts of the world. There is a need however for such a compilation and perhaps one may be possible in the future. As mentioned before, the group that has done the most to advance the topic of international LIS QA has been IFLA’s Section on Education and Training, and SET has made several attempts to compile just such a list. Dalton and Levinson (2001, 12) report on research sponsored by SET designed to investigate “the accreditation and approval mechanisms for Library and Information Science (LIS) qualifications throughout the world and to begin to provide information to help in determining the equivalency of LIS qualifications between different countries world-wide”. The original objective of the research was to create a database of LIS qualifications and the responsible sanctioning/accrediting/ approving body/agency. This ambitious aim proved unattainable, both because of the many variations among the LIS programmes and the absence of systematic regulation on both a global and often national scale. Dalton and Levinson point



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out (2001, 22) that the very complexity of LIS education and assessment make the construction of an international database very difficult. The responses to their survey were limited but on the basis of the data collected, they described three primary methods of QA, which were not mutually exclusive. The most widespread method was governmental or parliamentary monitoring which did not assess LIS education exclusively but focused on the higher education institution as a whole. Of the 19 countries that they were able to study in any detail, 9 used this method of “whole-institution” monitoring: Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cuba, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany and Mexico. A second method described by Dalton and Levinson was accreditation, a method found in some countries where LIS education is evaluated by an impartial professional body. In some cases (the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and Australia) the accrediting body was the national professional library association. However, Croatia, the Czech Republic, New Zealand and Poland also had their LIS programmes inspected by an independent body that was not the professional association. The third method they described was quality-control measures operated at the departmental level with departments instituting their own assessments “to ensure that the standard of their education is as high as possible and that their courses remain attractive to potential students and to employers in the field” (Dalton and Levinson 2001, 16). In many cases this type of QA was supplemented by outside assessments but in a few cases, the departmental assessment was the only QA measure. In 2003 SET approved additional research on QA methods being used in LIS education. Tammaro (2005, 4) reports the result of that research that had two overarching priorities: 1) to explore how quality is currently measured by LIS schools worldwide, and 2) to provide recommendations for promoting quality in LIS education and training. This survey also had a disappointingly low response rate (31%), however the results did show that most countries employ some method of QA; only 10% reported that there was no QA being done in their country. The most commonly used method was assessment by a government or a government-funded agency; almost two thirds of the respondents reported that method was used in their country. In many cases the governmental oversight was supplemented by internal quality audits. Twenty percent of the respondents had external accreditors such as employee representatives or international panels. Accreditation by a professional association was reported by 14% of the respondents. Because the response rate was low, it was difficult to generalize from the results. The most helpful information was that pertaining to regional differences. Programmes in North America and Europe are assessed using both internal and external QA systems with assessment being done by multiple stake holders. The system used in North American is accreditation by professional organizations, while in Europe the government agency model predominates. The schools in Asia

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are all organized for QA with governmental bodies being the agency of assessment. Most Latin American programmes (85.7%) have QA systems in place, usually administered by the government. The area where QA is least likely to be found is Africa (Tammaro 2005, 14–15). Ocholla, Dorner, and Britz (2013) agree that most LIS programmes are subject to some type of QA with the most common method being government assessment. They report three dominant methods of quality control: 1) professional (LIS) associations and government regulating QA, in countries where LIS professional associations are well established, 2) government and universities playing the dominant role, and 3) LIS quality assessment largely controlled by a professional association, a model they report occurring in developing countries where LIS education is often provided only by professional organizations. The authors recommend that variations in types of QA “be recognized as a requirement for robust quality assurance in LIS education due to differences in the processes that have evolved to meet regional and national circumstances” (Ocholla, Dorner, and Britz 2013, 147). Although the method used should be influenced by national practice, they also recommend QA methods based upon international practice to ensure that students are being prepared to enter a global profession. On the basis of these three studies and others that have examined QA in individual countries, it can be said that at present the vast majority of LIS programmes are subject to some form of QA. The most common method is assessment by some entity in the government, which sets standards and judges whether the programme meets those standards. The exact processes and the standards used by governmental entities vary greatly from nation to nation, and as will be discussed later, typically governmental assessment does not permit a great deal of external input into the method or standards used for assessment. QA by a professional association has already been discussed in relation to ALA accreditation. Assessment and accreditation by a professional association is found in at least two other countries: the UK and Australia. In the UK, the accreditation is done by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP). The CILIP accreditation process in some aspects is similar to the ALA process. However, unlike ALA, CILIP accredits programmes at all levels, not just at the Master’s degree level; it also accredits learning modules in addition to accrediting entire programmes. CILIP does not have a set of standards like ALA; instead it uses a Professional Knowledge and Skills Base that enumerates areas of professional and technical expertise, generic skills and capabilities, ethics and values. To gain CILIP accreditation a learning provider must present evidence showing that the programme has met five assessment criteria (CILIP 2014, 20):



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1. The relevance of the programme to the Professional Knowledge and Skills Base; 2. The learning provider is providing a high quality learning experience for students; 3. The programme works with employers to ensure programmes are relevant to students; 4. Staff are up to date with current professional practice; 5. Students are encouraged to engage with CILIP. The CILIP accreditation process is more streamlined than the US model. In place of a self-study, it requires the programme being accredited to submit an application and appropriate documentation, relating to the five key assessment criteria. Since 2013 CILIP has moved to using external experts to assess the accreditation applications and to visit learning providers, instead of using a team of volunteers. CILIP uses a single assessor who works with the programme as it is preparing for accreditation and then visits the programme. At present there are 17 programmes accredited by CILIP. Interestingly one of these 17 is not in the UK, but in Germany, at the Cologne University of Applied Sciences. The accreditation process in Australia is the responsibility of the Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA). Programmes wishing to be accredited are measured against ALIA’s criteria for course accreditation. The accreditation process in Australia has been recently revised. Beginning with the accreditations done in 2014 the administration and evidence-gathering components of accreditation have been put online. In addition, there are now two levels of accreditation ­– the Red and the Gold. The Red level does not require a full site visit to the institution (only one person from a virtual panel) while Gold level does require this additional scrutiny. The Red level of accreditation is free, but a fee is charged for the Gold. Programmes seeking either type are measured again the Library and Information Sector: Core Knowledge, Skills and Attributes (Australian Library and Information Association 2014). At present ALIA accredits 16 Diploma, 22 LIS and 3 Teacher Librarianship courses at 26 institutions. Like the UK, accreditation is Australia is provided for all levels and not just those at the Master’s degree level. All programmes accredited by ALIA are in Australia. Some other countries have explored accreditation but for various reasons have not yet implemented it. For example, India has established a National Assessment and Accreditation Council, an autonomous body created to establish quality in higher education in India, but Singh (2003) reports that Council has accomplished little. He states that a national level accreditation body is the most urgent need of Indian LIS education. Sarkhel (2006) also reports the continued need for internal QA and accreditation by an external agency in India. In other

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countries, for example, New Zealand, the LIS professional organization, Library and Information Association of New Zealand Aotearoa (LIANZA) is active in promoting the maintenance of standards in the profession, and this group provides a guide to relevant undergraduate and postgraduate courses throughout New Zealand but does not run a formal accrediting programme. Perhaps since there are only two institutions offering LIS education in New Zealand this is not surprising. The three countries, United States, United Kingdom, and Australia which provide accreditation through their professional associations have some level of reciprocity with one another, and degrees accredited by the three organizations are recognized by the other countries; however, only accredited Master’s degrees are recognized in the United States. The role that reciprocal agreements might play in international QA will be discussed later in this chapter.

Regional Attempts at Quality Assurance Many people have suggested that a logical first step on the way to a global system of accreditation would be the establishment of regional accreditation. It would seem logical that programmes within a region would likely share many characteristics, and as a result a common system for quality assessment for all programmes within a specific geographic area might work well. A regional system would have advantages because it would draw upon the resources of more than one country and should promote regional job mobility for graduates. There have been several efforts reported of LIS programmes in adjoining nations developing or planning to develop regional systems. Rehman (2012) investigated the possibility of a regional accreditation unit for the LIS programmes located in the six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) nations: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. According to Rehman, these nations form a homogenous region in linguistic, cultural and socio-economic terms; they are also similar in being petroleum-rich affluent societies. He reported that in general all of the programmes in that region are engaged in some sort of evaluation process through self-assessment and reviews by outside consultants. Rehman proposed a method of regional accreditation but also pointed out the obstacles that would need to be overcome before implementation including dealing with varying levels of degrees, taking the proposal through the administrative hierarchies of the universities involved, and developing the wholehearted support of the professional community in a region where the culture of professional participation is weak. A final challenge was finding an appropriate agency that might



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serve as the accrediting body. This proposal has not yet been implemented in the programmes in the GCC. A decade ago, Khoo, Majid, and Chaudhry (2003) discussed a proposed common QA and accreditation model for LIS programmes in South-east Asia. The authors surveyed all the LIS schools in Thailand, Philippines, Singapore and Malaysia and found that 12 of the 14 schools agreed that there was a need to develop an accreditation process for the area. The main advantages of a regional accreditation scheme were identified (Khoo, Majid, and Chaudhry 2003, 145–146) as: –– assuring the quality of the programme to students and employers; –– encouraging commitment to continual improvement; –– improving the mobility of graduates; –– encouraging collaboration and cooperation among the LIS school in the area; –– encouraging dialogue between LIS schools and their constituencies; –– providing greater transparency and more documentation of the LIS programmes’ policies and procedures; –– helping the region negotiate reciprocal recognition of professional qualifications with the library associations of other countries. The majority of respondents agreed that a joint committee of representatives from the professional organization, Congress of Southeast Asian Librarians (CONSAL) and the LIS schools should be responsible for developing the process and for coordinating the regional accrediting effort. The proposed model for accreditation seems well thought out; however, there is no evidence that it has ever been implemented. Because of the Bologna Process, the European Union (EU) initiative designed to create a “European Higher Education Area” which now has 49 members (European Higher Education Area 2014), it would appear that Europe is the area of the world which has perhaps the most potential for instituting some sort of regional QA process. The purpose of the Bologna process was to create a system of comparable and understandable degrees throughout the EU to serve as a mechanism to permit students to transfer credit and establish degree equivalency between one university and national higher education system and another with attention to QA and comparable student assessment schemes (Johnson 2013). As part of the implementation of the Bologna Process, the European Commission encouraged universities to develop systems of comparable criteria and methodologies for assuring comparable quality throughout European educational systems. The Bologna Process requires universities to set up procedures for quality assessment of programmes, using data such as enrollment statistics, results achieved by students, student surveys, and trend summaries. An additional requirement is provi-

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sion of standardized information about the aims and content of courses and what a student is expected to learn. Johnson points out the difficulties in establishing comparability among the systems. Conventions vary greatly among the countries. For example, Johnson reports that among seven institutions in seven countries teaching engineering, there were 7 different national conventions of assessment being applied (Johnson 2013, 71). The same diversity is to be found in LIS education. As already mentioned, Hartley and Virkus (2003) found many differences in the assessment practices of Estonia and the United Kingdom. Pérez-Montoro and Tammaro (2012, 241) also found significant differences between the practices in Italy and Spain, two very culturally similar Southern European countries. Because of the size of the region, if the LIS programmes in the EU were able to produce a workable regional QA scheme, it would be a giant step forward in moving towards a regional approach to QA. In total, the number of the higher education institutions and number of students enrolled in the EU institutions are roughly comparable to those found in the US (Times Higher Educational Supplement leader “Premium Brand at Risk”, 2 October 2008).3 However, establishing a regional system will not be an easy process because the EU programmes are much more heterogeneous than those in the United States. Kajberg (2007, 69) points out the differences between the North American and the European LIS scene: The North American LIS education community enjoys the benefit of a single language and an overarching consensus on the basic academic level and framework for LIS education programmes. This is not the case in Europe where almost all LIS programmes are structured and delivered within the context of a single nation state…. Add to this confusion and disparity that accreditation of LIS programmes as done by the American Library Association (ALA) in the United States, if undertaken at all, follows a different pattern in Europe. If done at all, the process normally relies on national-level accreditation bodies and mechanisms. There are, as the situation looks now, no institutionalized and recognized European-level accreditation and quality assurance procedures for LIS educational programmes.

Although there has been progress made since 2007, there are still challenges to be confronted before the LIS programmes in the Bologna Process share a common process of QA. As Johnson (2013) points out, the Bologna Process to date has largely ignored professional education. European LIS education has many differences yet to resolve including the appropriate degree level and the appropriate location for LIS programmes, which are located in some countries such as the United Kingdom, Finland, and Spain within universities and within other countries such as Germany within vocational colleges. As a region, Europe does seem 3 http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/comment/leader/leader-premium-brand-at-risk/ 403770.article. Accessed on 24 February 2016.



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to have the most potential for instituting a regional QA programme but it is still a work in progress as the institutions within the region seek to harmonize their requirements and come to agreement about what constitutes “quality” within many diverse systems of higher education.

Moving Towards a System of International Quality Assurance This overview of the QA scene in LIS education has made it clear that at present there are still more differences in how programmes are evaluated than there are similarities. Unfortunately, “quality assurance”, like “beauty”, still seems to be in the eye of the beholder, and nations and regions have very different viewpoints. The most hopeful news is that there now appears to be almost universal acceptance of the fact that QA is necessary. That being said, there is little agreement on the type and method of evaluation that should be employed. The differences that exist now are so great; it is not likely that a system of international accreditation will come into existence any time soon. Indeed the plethora of methods now used highlights the need for continued flexibility in quality assessment standards at least in the near term. But LIS like other professions must look beyond the local scene and be concerned with the quality of education provided in countries worldwide. There need to be standards of quality associated with LIS education that allow it to transcend national boundaries. As LIS education becomes increasingly more global with increasing numbers of programmes having international partnerships and student exchange programmes, it becomes more essential to be able to identify quality, not just nationally but internationally. In addition, there is a great need in today’s world to have mechanisms in place that will allow LIS degree holders to seek jobs in the global marketplace and move and work freely among the nations of the world. It appears that at present there is no one existing method of quality control that could be chosen as a model to be adopted worldwide to assess LIS education. ALA method of accreditation is likely too deeply rooted in US culture to make it transferable, and an examination of the other QA methods has not uncovered any viable alternative. Not unexpectedly, each system being used now is itself grounded in local custom, historical context, and systems already in place. The world, as Friedman (2005) asserts may be getting “flatter”, but it is not yet flat enough to permit a system or method being used in one place to be easily adopted in another. It does seem likely, however, some already existing systems might

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be extended to other nearby countries and regions. Already, ALA accredits in both the US and Canada, and COA is willing to explore ALA accreditation with any institution offering a US-style LIS master’s degree. CILIP accredits one programme in Germany. These are small beginnings, but perhaps the first steps on the road to regional accreditation. But even now, there are many things that can be undertaken to promote more consistency in QA of LIS education. Advances might be made on many fronts, but in particular two seem to be the most critical: 1. In the absence of a uniform method of quality assessment, LIS professionals need to explore if there is a set of common guidelines and standards that could be used as a means of evaluating programmes from different regions; 2. There is a need to develop more processes that might be used to reciprocally recognize the credentials of LIS practitioners thus permitting job seekers to work internationally. Advances in these two areas would promote international QA and fortunately progress is more likely to be achieved in both because these are areas where SET and IFLA have already made significant efforts.

Guidelines and Standards Since 1976 SET has provided LIS programmes with a set of international standards or guidelines to provide guidance to LIS programmes (Rovelstad 1977). The latest version of these standards, Guidelines for Professional Library/Information Educational Programs, was issued in 2012 (Smith, Hallam and Ghosh 2012). IFLA has been a pioneer in establishing international standards for LIS education. Many other groups are now beginning to consider the utility of international standards as a result of the expansion in the number of programmes, faculty and students engaged in global activities. Standards allow already-existing programmes to see how well they measure up to the performance benchmarks in the standards, while the standards provide a road map for development for the more fledging programmes. The CHEA International Quality Group recently summarized the benefits of a single set of international standards that could: –– support further expansion of international higher education and student mobility through mutual understanding of degree requirements, and define what counts as academic excellence and student success; –– build cooperation, confidence and trust among higher education institutions across borders; –– promote agreement about what constitutes quality higher education and assist both developing and developed countries in benchmarking quality;



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–– assist with international comparisons and, if desired, rankings; and –– help build an effective international marketplace for quality higher education (Council for Higher Education Accreditation 2013). However, despite the perceived benefits, CHEA realizes that the adoption of such standards is not an easy process since one set of international standards “may conflict with longstanding country-based approaches to quality higher education that reflect unique and important cultural and social conditions” (Council for Higher Education Accreditation 2014, 2). CHEA also warns against the watering down of standards in an attempt to make them more generalizable and the danger that a “top-down” approach might discourage more local efforts to come up with indigenous standards. It is recognized that these standards would have to co-exist with country-based QA efforts and that a case needs to be made “for the added value of a common set of consensus-driven, aspirational, flexible international expectations of quality operating alongside robust national quality assurance systems” (Council on Higher Education Accreditation 2014, 2). The CHEA document suggests various international or supra-national bodies such as UNESCO or the World Bank that might spearhead the development of such standards. Although UNESCO has issued some standards in the past relating to library education (Neelameghan 1978), IFLA would seem to be the most appropriate organization in the LIS field to continue to lead such an effort. The organization has had an interest in LIS education since its founding; as mentioned earlier, the first set of “Standards for Library Schools” was produced in 1976. Those standards have gone through several revisions and the latest, Guidelines for Professional Library/Information Educational Programs, is designed to provide standards for the essential elements in LIS educational programmes such as curriculum, faculty, students and funding (Smith, Hallam and Ghosh 2012). The IFLA guidelines have already been used to help countries without accreditation develop procedures for assessing LIS education, for example in Singapore (Khoo 2004). The IFLA guidelines have given the LIS profession a good start in producing a set of globally recognized and trusted standards for LIS education. The standards should continue to be monitored and updated on the basis of feedback about their utility in helping LIS programmes in QA efforts. SET should continue to work to be able to answer such difficult questions as: How should quality is described? How are we achieving enough consensus to be sure that the standards will be implemented worldwide? How will the effectiveness of the standards be measured over time? (Council for Higher Education Accreditation 2014). In addition, in light of the still continuing confusion over terminology, there is a need to create a tool that would provide standard meanings of the terms used in the

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Guidelines. Dalton and Levinson (2001) suggested that SET produce a glossary of terms, which would be a useful adjunct to the guidelines and should promote greater consistency in applying these guidelines to specific programmes in different countries.

Reciprocity of Qualifications The second area where progress is still needed is in establishing equivalency and reciprocity of LIS professional qualifications. Once again SET has provided a lead in helping the LIS profession achieve this goal. Beginning in the 1980s SET formed a working group to determine the equivalency of library degrees earned in various countries. Recommendations were made for reciprocal recognition of LIS education in terms of academic level, programme length and content, and model forms for determining equivalency were produced. Interest in the topic continued into the 1990s and 2000s. In the most recent activity in this area, Weech and Tammaro (2009) have produced a guidance document on equivalency and reciprocity of qualifications for LIS professionals that updates an earlier 1987 version. Both versions have been efforts to achieve greater transparency of professional qualifications and to aid employers and LIS education programmes in assessing the equivalence of LIS degrees internationally. Establishing reciprocity is easier between those countries that already have a formal accrediting system in place. For instance, there are already existing agreements among the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States and Canada that permit degrees accredited by ALIA, ALA, and CILIP to be recognized as equivalent by the other countries. ALA has gone further and in Policy 54.2 states: “The master’s degree from a programme accredited by the American Library Association or from a master’s level programme in library and information studies accredited or recognized by the appropriate national body of another country is the appropriate professional degree for librarians”. The new policy is far less restrictive than the former which stated only an ALA accredited degree, was appropriate for a professional librarian in the US (Dowling 2007). ALA provides a list of the countries that it considers having “formal” accreditation processes on a webpage.4 Interestingly, the list contains more countries than the four that are currently using national professional associations to accredit but does not provide information about how the others accredit their programmes.

4 http://www.ala.org/educationcareers/employment/foreigncredentialing/foremployers. Accessed on 6 January 2016.



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However, before reciprocity can be granted, all parties involved must have mutual trust in the QA processes of the others. In general, this trust is more easily achieved if each of the prospective partners instead of relying solely upon a governmental or internal method of QA system has an independent process of external accreditation that vouches for its educational quality. It is not envisioned that governments will give up their oversight of institutions of higher education, and most institutions and programmes will continue to be subject to quality assessment by their governments. However, governmental assessment in one country is often not trusted or easily accepted by institutions in other countries. Often governmental quality assessment looks at an institution as a whole and may provide insufficient information about the quality of specific programmes within the institution. In addition, governmental QA usually does not provide an easy means for input for those affected by the assessment or an opportunity for them to shape the process and methods used. Especially for professional programmes such as LIS, accreditation by an independent agency (which would likely co-exist with both government and university QA efforts) would be an important step in establishing comparability between programmes in different nations. The accreditation does not need to be done by the professional organization, there are other alternatives, but it is important that the accrediting agency is seen as independent and impartial. The standards used for accreditation must be based upon generally accepted professional guidelines for measuring academic excellence and the expectations for student learning outcomes need to be congruent with those used by the accrediting bodies in other nations. It is also important that members of the profession, both practitioners and academics, be involved in the evaluation process. Accreditation by an impartial, independent agency with clearly defined methods for peer review and peer input into shaping the process in one country is more likely to be recognized by professionals in another country and would appear to be a model that IFLA might promote as a way to achieve greater standardization in LIS educational QA. As more countries do move towards instituting methods of accreditation, one can envision a growing number of reciprocal recognition agreements among LIS programmes. Other professions already have these. For instance, the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), the US specialized accrediting body that accredits computing, engineering and technology related programmes has an extensive global engagement presence. ABET, itself, accredits programmes outside the US using the same accreditation standards as for US programmes. However, it also is a partner in a number of mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) or international “accords” with other accrediting agencies. The accords have been set up to recognize the substantial equivalency of the organizations’ accreditation processes. ABET defines substantial equivalency as

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meaning that “the accreditation systems have comparable standards, outcomes, and processes, though they may not be identical” (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology 2016). ABET is a signatory to five MRAs relating to the specific sub-specialties that fall under the umbrella of ABET accreditation. For instance since 1989 it has been part of the Washington Accord which consists of organizations responsible for accrediting engineering programmes in Australia, Canada, Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Ireland, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore, South Africa, Turkey, the UK and the US. In the computer science and IT area, it is a signatory to the Seoul Accord established in 2008 comprised of organizations responsible for accrediting computing and IT-related programmes in Australia, Canada, Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, the UK and the US. ABET accredits programmes at multiple levels and is also a signatory to other MRAs that cover bachelor’s level engineering technology programmes and 2 year engineering technician programmes (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology 2014). To date the LIS field has no official MRAs but establishing one or more would be a substantive step in providing a path for graduates of accredited programmes in participating countries that are members of these accords to have their degrees recognized as comparable. The use of a variety of MRAs could also provide a means to ensure comparability of degrees at different levels, addressing one of the major differences among LIS education in different countries. Accreditation is not the only method that can be successfully used to assess quality, but it is one that is increasingly advocated as an effective and trustworthy method that can be adapted to fit the needs of individual countries or regions. IFLA and the rest of the LIS profession should work to ensure that accreditation becomes more commonly accepted to promote a more unified approach to recognizing quality in LIS education. There is not just one method of accreditation. The accreditation agency used would vary from country to country depending on local circumstances. The standards used would also vary depending on local needs but should reflect key elements of a widely accepted set of standards such as the IFLA guidelines. Accreditation by an impartial, independent agency with clearly defined methods and standards of review and with provision for both LIS practitioners and academics to be involved in the process would seem to be the optimal approach for LIS quality assurance today. IFLA and SET need to consider exactly what role they should play in promoting accreditation. One of IFLA SET’s priorities is to “Ascertain IFLA SET’s role in providing assistance to accrediting LIS programmes in countries without their own accrediting system” and that role needs to be clarified. To date, IFLA has largely played an advisory role. It is possible that in time the organization might consider a more active role, perhaps serving as the international accrediting coordinator or agency for LIS education, but that does not seem likely in the near future.



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Concurrently, IFLA and SET should promote the use of MRAs as a means of increasing reciprocal recognition of LIS degrees. Over the last 40 years, IFLA and SET have made a good start in helping the LIS profession come to grips with how to measure equivalency and comparability of LIS credentials. It should continue to work to provide the profession with best practices in how to address these difficult problems. This survey of the landscape of international QA methods clearly demonstrates how diverse the evaluation of the LIS programmes still remains. The time has not come when a single universal system of QA for LIS education is possible. Perhaps that may occur in the future, however, it is more likely that a single method of QA will never be the right approach, and that a better one would be a variety of robust national and regional accrediting efforts which employ comparable standards, outcomes, and processes. This approach would allow QA to be tailored to the needs and customs of specific areas but at the same time would result in equivalency among the programmes in different parts of the world. The task ahead will be arduous but the challenge must be faced. Kajberg (2002, 170) in writing about the need for greater standardization among the EU LIS schools stated, “Fiery souls are needed”. Now as the focus has broadened from just one region to the entire world, LIS will need even more of those fiery souls as it works to establish better systems of QA and degree equivalency for its educational programmes. It will not be easy to develop a widely shared set of underlying values, expectations and best practices for measuring quality in LIS education. IFLA and SET provide a unique forum where LIS professionals from across the world can come together to forge a solution that will both improve the quality of LIS programmes worldwide and increase the globalization of the profession.

References Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology. 2014. “ABET’s International Activities.” http://www.abet.org/international-activities/. Accessed on 22 July 2014. Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology. 2016. “Glossary.” http://www.abet.org/ network-of-experts/for-current-abet-experts/training/glossary/. Accessed on 6 January 2016. Ameen, Kanwal. 2007. “Issues of Quality Assurance (QA) in LIS Higher Education in Pakistan.” Paper presented at the 73rd IFLA General Conference and Council. Durban, South Africa. http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla73/papers/114-Ameen-en.pdf. Accessed on 11 July 2014. American Library Association. 2010. “Memorandum of Understanding.” http://www.ala.org/ offices/sites/ala.org.offices/files/content/accreditation/Memo%20of%20Understandin. pdf. Accessed on 22 July 2014.

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American Library Association. 2014a. “Handbook of Organizations.” http://www.ala.org/ groups/committees/ala/ala-coa. Accessed on 14 July 2014. American Library Association. 2016. “Standards, process, policies, and procedures (AP3).” http://www.ala.org/accreditedprograms/standards. Accessed on 24 February 2016. Australian Library and Information Association. 2014. “FAQ-New ALIA LIS Course Accreditation Processes.” https://www.alia.org.au/sites/default/files/documents/FAQ%20%20 New%20ALIA%20LIS%20course%20accreditation%20processes%20June%202014.pdf. Accessed on 14 July 2014. Carnovsky, Leon. 1967. “Evaluation and Accreditation of Library Schools.” Library Quarterly 37: 333–347. Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP). 2014. “Accreditation for Learning Providers.” Accessed July 22, 2014 http://www.cilip.org.uk/sites/default/files/ documents/Accreditation%20for%20Learning%20Providers.pdf. Council for Higher Education Accreditation. 2010. “Recognition of Accrediiting Organizations: Policy and Procedures.” Washington DC: CHEA. http://www.chea.org/recognition/ CHEA_Recognition_Policy_and_Procedures.pdf#search=%22Recognition%20of%20 Accrediiting%20Organizatons%20Policy%20and%20Procedures%20%22. Accessed on 22 July 2014. Council for Higher Education Accreditation. 2013. “Summary of Recognition Status of American Library Association Committee on Accreditation.” http://www.chea.org/pdf/Recognition/ Summaries_2013/ALA-COA%20March%202013.pdf. Accessed on 10 July 2014. Dalton, Peter and Kate Levinson. 2001. “An Investigation of LIS Qualifications Throughout the World.” SET Bulletin 2(1): 12–24. Dowling, Michael. 2007. “International Credentialing, Certification and Recognition in the United States.” New Library World 108(1/2): 79–82. Eaton, Judith S. 2013. “An Overview of U.S. Accreditation.” http://www.chea.org/pdf/ Overview%20of%20US%20Accreditation%2003.2011.pdf. Accessed on 17 July 2014. El-Khawas, Elaine. 2001. Accreditation in the USA: Origins, Developments and Future Prospects. Paris: UNESCO. Enser, Peter. 2002. “The Role Of Professional Body Accreditation in Library & Information Science Education in the UK.” Libri 52(4): 214–219. Estabrook, Leigh, and Rae-Ann Montague. 2004. “Library and Information Science Education.” In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, edited by Miriam Drake, 2nd edition, 1646–1652. New York: Marcel Dekker. European Higher Education Area. 2014. http://www.ehea.info/members.aspx. Accessed on 21 July 2014. Fitzgibbons, Shirley. 2003. “Association for Library and Information Science Education.” In Encylopedia of Library and Information Science, 2nd edition, Vol. 1, edited by Miriam Drake, 192–205. New York: Dekker. Friedman, Thomas. 2005. The World is Flat. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Hartley, R.J., and Sirge Virkus. 2003. “Approaches to and Accreditation of LIS Programmes: Experiences from Estonia and United Kingdom.” Education for Information 21(1): 31–48. Johnson, Ian. 2013. “The Impact of Education for LIS of the Bolgona Process and Related European Commission Programmes ­– and Some Outstanding Issues in Europe and Beyond.” Education for Information 30(1): 63–92. Kajberg, Leif. 2002. “Cross-country Partnerships in European Library and Information Science: Education at the Crossroads.” Library Review 51(3/4): 164–170.



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Kajberg, Leif. 2007. “The European LIS Curriculum Project: An Overview.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 48(2): 68–81. Khoo, Christopher. 2004. “Trends in LIS Education in Singapore.” http://www.jslis.jp/liper/ record/singapore-e.pdf. Accessed on 10 July 2014. Khoo, Christopher, Shaheen Majid and Abdus Sattar Chaudhry. 2003. “Developing An Accreditation System for LIS Professional Education Programmes in South Asia.” Malaysian Journal of Library and Information Science 8(2): 131–149. Miwa, Makiko, Yumiko Kasai and Shizuko Miyahara. 2010. “GlobaLIS: Efforts in Japanese LIS Education for Global Collaboration.” Education for Information 28(2–4): 125–136. Neelameghan, A. 1978. Guidelines for Formulating Policy on Education, Training and Development of Library and Information Personnel. Paris: UNESCO. Ocholla, Dennis, Dan Dorner and Johannes Britz. 2013. “Assessment and Evaluation of LIS Education: Global Commonalities and Regional Differences-South Africa, New Zealand, and U.S.A.” Libri 63(2): 135–148. Pérez-Montoro, Mario and Anna Maria Tammaro. 2012. “Outcomes of the Bologna Process in LIS Higher Education: Comparing Two Programs in Europe.” The International Information and Library Review 44(4): 233–242. Rehman, Sajjad. 2012. “Accreditation of Library and Information Science Programmes in the Gulf Cooperation Council Nations.” Journal of Library and Information Science 44(1): 65–72. Rovelstad, Mathilde B. 1977. “Half a Century of IFLA Concern for Library Education.” IFLA Journal 3(4): 327–331. Sarkhel, J. K. 2006. “Quality Assurance and Accreditation of LIS Education in Indian Universities: Issues and Perspectives.” In Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library and Information Science Education & Practice, 427–431. Singapore: Singapore School of Communcation & Information and Nayang Technological University. Singh, S.P. 2003. “Library and Information Science Education in India: Issues and Trends.” Malaysian Journal of Library and Information Science 8(2): 1–17. Smith, Kerry, Gillian Hallam, and S.B. Ghosh on behalf of the Education and Training Section of the International Federation of Library Associations. 2012. “Guidelines for Professional Library Educational Programs.” http://www.ifla.org/publications/guidelines-forprofessional-libraryinformation-educational-programs-2012. Accessed on 11 January 2016. Tammaro, Anna Maria. 2005. “Report on Quality Assurance Models in LIS programs.” http:// www.ifla.org/files/assets/set/s23_Report-QA-2005.pdf. Accessed on 27 July 2014. US Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics. 2013. Digest of Education Statistics, 2012. Washington: U.S. Department of Education. Vlăsceanu, Lazăr, Laura Grünberg and Dan Pârlea. 2007. Quality Assurance and Accreditation: A Glossary of Basic Terms and Definitions. Bucharest: UNESCO-CEPES. Weech, Terry, and Anna Maria Tammaro on behalf of IFLA’s Education and Training Section. 2009. “International Guidelines for Equivalence and Reciprocity of Qualifications for LIS Professionals.” http://www.ifla.org/publications/international-guidelines-forequivalency-and-reciprocity-of-qualifications-for-lis-prof. Accessed on 22 July 2014. Williamson, Charles C. 1923. Training for Library Service: A Report Prepared for the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Boston: Merrymount Press.

Susan E. Searing

18 The Rise and Fall of the Library Science Library A History of Library Support for North American LIS Education

Introduction Library science students and working professionals in North America throughout the 20th century benefited from special libraries devoted to librarianship. Such libraries were attached to library schools, professional associations, and governmental agencies such as state libraries. Although a few still survive and thrive, most have been closed or merged into general collections. This chapter will explore the role of the dedicated library science library in the development of LIS graduate education in the United States and Canada. Drawing on primary sources, including surveys, directories, and archival collections, as well as an analysis of the scant literature on the topic, it will consider library science library facilities, collections, staffing, and services. The history of specialized library support for LIS education is a sub-narrative in the much larger story of academic and professional libraries. It goes without saying that the evolution of formal training for librarians strongly influenced the direction of librarianship by establishing a scholarly basis for the creation and application of new professional knowledge. It is less commonly noticed that the direction of influence went the other way as well. That is, the quality and type of library support for library science programmes affected how those programmes developed as sites for learning and knowledge discovery. The availability of information (in printed form as books, journals, and grey literature, in artifacts and tools of practice, and more recently in online resources) and the presence of knowledgeable librarians to help students access and use information surely made a difference in the educational outcomes of library science programmes. But because library science libraries were established, flourished, and began their decline before the present era of evidence-based librarianship, their effectiveness can only be surmised, not proven. There has been little research into the historical role of specialized LIS libraries (Searing 2012). Fifty years ago, David Kaser (who was at the time both an academic library director and a professor of library science) wrote (Kaser 1964, 17):



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A search of the literature reveals very little information concerning the libraries of the library schools. Apparently the considerable body of research that has been conducted under the direction of the schools has not yet comprehended this somewhat homely, although fruitful area of investigation.

A half century later, the historical analysis of library support for LIS education remains incomplete. No single source provides a comprehensive, comparative picture of LIS libraries over time, nor even a complete snapshot of a single point in time. Retrospective accounts of LIS libraries are rare, although those at Columbia University (Wilcox 1951), Louisiana State University (Chalaron and Dawson 2001), and the University of Illinois (Stenstrom 1992; Searing 2009) have been chronicled by their librarians. Stenstrom’s essay on the LIS Library at Illinois appeared in a book that celebrated the library school’s centennial, and some attention has been paid to LIS libraries in other published institutional histories and anniversary volumes. For example, facts about the LIS library at the University of Alberta are included in a history of the School of Library and Information Studies’ first twenty-five years (Brundin 1995), and the founding of the LIS library at the University of Maryland is recounted in a memoir by the library school’s first dean (Wasserman 2000). Unfortunately, the discovery of such sources relies on serendipity. Although school catalogues can confirm the existence of a separate library, the description of the library was rarely longer than a sentence or two. Numerical data are available in published and unpublished reports of surveys conducted between 1961 and 1990. Because different researchers seldom asked the same questions in the same way, however, comparing data over the three-decade period presents a challenge for anyone trying to understand what the typical library science library was like (Bunn 1961; Kaser 1964; Kennedy 1970; Gwyn, Bord and LaBorie 1974; Nielsen 1977; Galloway 1986; Dawson 1990). No quantitative studies have been found for the years before 1961 or after 1990. For the years 1976 to 1993, the Library Science Librarians National Newsletter reported on issues and projects that engaged the network of library science librarians within the American Library Association (ALA). The newsletters add context to the statistical data from surveys and directories. In addition, the author has uncovered illustrative background information in the official archives of Indiana University and the University of Michigan. Archival research into the history of LIS libraries presents its own set of challenges, because relevant materials are buried within record series of university libraries, library schools, and the manuscripts and correspondence of individual librarians and faculty members. Programme self-study reports and ALA accreditation team reports are other sources for descriptive and evaluative information. The following picture of library science libraries is drawn from multiple primary and secondary sources.

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Early Library Science Libraries The origins of library science libraries in North America are somewhat obscure. The richest source for founding dates is an unpublished survey (Kennedy 1970), supplemented by information gleaned from school catalogues. It appears that many LIS libraries were established when the programmes they support were founded, while others were added as the academic programmes matured. At the renowned school at Columbia University, the library collection came first (Wilcox 1951, 1): The Library of the School of Library Service at Columbia is older than the School itself. Melvil Dewey, knowing for several years that formal classes for the training of librarians would begin in 1887, began collecting materials to be used in instruction.

The school also boasted of its “Bibliothecal Museum” of “library catalogues, reports, appliances, blanks, and models, illustrating library methods, fittings, and supplies” which was donated by the fledgling American Library Association (Columbia College [1886] 1937, 103–104). Dewey’s school was transferred from Columbia to the New York State Library in Albany in 1889, where the library collection grew to nearly 10,000 volumes before it was destroyed by fire in 1911. The library school was transferred back to Columbia in 1926, but most of the rebuilt collection stayed behind in Albany. In the meantime, the New York Public Library in New York City opened a training school and created its own special library to support the students; this too merged with Columbia in 1926. From these beginnings grew what was, until the closing of the library school at Columbia in 1992, the largest and best LIS library in North America. Other library science schools that established their libraries early on include Simmons College (1902), Case Western Reserve University (1903), Emory University (1905), and the University of Wisconsin-Madison (1906). By 1937, when Louis Round Wilson, then dean of the library school at the University of Chicago, surveyed the state of library education at the twenty-six schools that had been accredited by the ALA, he observed “extensive departmental libraries” with “special book collections for practice purposes” and “in several instances fairly extensive collections of reports and research materials…” (Wilson 1937, 215). Subsequent directories and surveys revealed that some library science libraries were under the control of the school but most were branches of the university library (Bunn 1961; Gwyn, Boyd and LaBorie 1974; Galloway 1986; Dawson 1990).



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The Departmental Library Model The creation of separate library science libraries was unremarkable. The establishment of discipline-focused “departmental” or branch libraries at American research universities followed naturally on the heels of two crucial developments in American higher education in the last quarter of the 19th century: the switch from a mandated curriculum to one that emphasised elective courses; and the emulation of the German model of the research university. Increasingly large collections of library materials became necessary to support both teaching and research. As Stephen E. Atkins (1991, 149) has noted: Libraries became decentralized into branch libraries for two historical reasons: collections grew faster than space could be provided and faculties demanded that collections in their specialties be housed near them.

A debate over centralized versus de-centralized university libraries is a leitmotif in the literature about academic librarianship throughout the 20th century, and the changing fortune of the library science library echoes themes found in the larger body of professional literature. In one of the earliest articles on the topic, Louis T. Ibbotson explained how departmental and laboratory libraries came into existence as American colleges transformed themselves into universities. Falling outside the control of the central university library, departmental libraries gave rise to costly duplication of resources and fragmentation of knowledge. Ibbotson wrote, “Today, we find that library after library, having reached the point where the departmental system from mere point of size becomes impracticable, is centralizing its book resources” (Ibbotson 1925, 854). Two decades later, in an historical article, Lawrence Thompson complained that “in spite of the great volume of material dealing with departmental and collegiate libraries that has appeared in library periodicals and books on university and college library administration, there has been relatively little original thought on the subject” (Thompson 1942, 49). He too discerned an emerging trend away from departmental libraries and toward centralization. However, in the mid 1970s, Connie R. Dunlap observed that “[t]he question of centralization or decentralization and the problems attendant to it have probably created as much controversy as any other organizational problem in libraries. The question has been debated from all sides, but the problem seems no closer to the solution than it ever was” (Dunlap 1976, 106). Robert A. Seal (1986) provided a thorough review of writings about the characteristics of academic branch libraries and the arguments for and against them. It is clear from Seal’s chapter that space issues were only one dimension of the debate. Costs, user needs and preferences, and interdisciplinary scholarship were

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also common themes. Seal also discerned a theme of “accessibility” – the proximity of materials to users. Seal referenced earlier writers who perceived a trend toward centralization, but his own conclusion was cautious: “it could be that the predicted trend is more wishful thinking by librarians than actual fact. An in-depth study of this ‘trend’ is in order” (Seal 1986, 205). Indeed, a survey undertaken by the Association of Research Libraries three years earlier discovered that even as some libraries were closing and consolidating departmental branches, other institutions were founding new branches (Association of Research Libraries 1983). The same fluidity was evident when a similar survey was conducted in 1999 (Croneis and Short 1999). Nearly all American writers on the subject admit that campus politics drove both the creation and the abolition of departmental libraries, more so than any general philosophy of library service or principles of efficient management. Leon Shkolnik ably summarized the arguments for and against decentralized collections and services, and then concluded, as did so many before him, that “local conditions more than anything else will dictate the nature and organizational scheme of the library” (Shkolnik 1991, 350). Around the same time, after remarking that “a large amount of writing has been done on whether departmental libraries should even exist”, Patricia A. Suozzi and Sandra S. Kerbel made the provocative claim that departmental libraries should not be viewed as “organizational misfits” to be eliminated but instead should be promoted as the best model for service-oriented libraries in the digital age (Suozzi and Kerbel 1992, 520). Nonetheless, as the 21st century dawned, large North American universities were widely engaged in closing and consolidating their small, special libraries, citing, among other reasons, advances in digital information provision, the growth in interdisciplinary scholarship, the efficiencies gained from managing fewer service points, and the need to reallocate resources for new services.

The Value of a Separate Library When the departmental library model reigned, the general arguments advanced in favour of departmental libraries were applied to LIS libraries. In addition, the promoters of LIS libraries identified benefits unique to the field of library science. Robert Lee summarized the “reasons for the establishment of a separate library school library” in 1968, echoing sentiments found elsewhere in the literature throughout the 20th century. First, gathering library science materials in one location allows students to make more efficient use of their time. Second, a full-time library science librarian “who is familiar with the curriculum, attends



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faculty meetings, works closely with the faculty, and has the major responsibility for the development of the collection” will shape a broader, deeper, and better balanced collection. Third, without a separate library housing selection aids and cataloguing tools, library science students will disrupt the work of the campus library’s technical services department. Fourth, a library school library provides a “home base” for students and faculty, thus boosting the “morale and unity of the student body”. And finally, in a separate library, high-demand materials can be identified and duplicated, resulting in less theft. To achieve these varied benefits, Lee outlined a set of objectives for library science libraries which included supporting the curriculum with a collection covering all aspects of librarianship, providing space and facilities for “laboratory analysis of library materials”, modeling “effective, modern library practice”, and providing an environment conducive to reading and studying (Lee 1968, 1–3). Surveys of LIS library users and evaluations of LIS library services reinforce these points. For example, a thorough review at Indiana University in 1992 concluded that “SLIS Library is valuable as the professional library for the state and campus, as a location for the professional socialization of new librarians, as a focal point for the School, and as a convenient service location.” The review committee recommended that the library serve as a model branch library, incorporate cutting-edge technologies, offer innovative services, and involve students in the research and design of services and facilities. A segregated monograph collection was no longer necessary, the report stated, but access to journals, databases, and the expertise of a specialist librarian were still valued (SLIS 1992). A survey of users of the LIS Library at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, was conducted in 2008 to aid in deciding whether to close the library. While most respondents reported higher usage of virtual resources, including the library’s information-rich website, they also identified the components of the physical library that they valued. The three most salient themes were: the collocation of physical materials (books, journals, reference works, course readings, vertical files, and cataloguing tools) which facilitated browsing; the easy availability of comfortable space for individual and group study; and access to knowledgeable and helpful staff. A fourth theme reflected affective responses to the physical library. In the eyes of its users, the LIS Library fostered a sense of community, conveyed the legitimacy of LIS as an academic discipline, and symbolized the stature of the Illinois LIS programme (LIS Library Service Survey 2008, 6–8). Despite users’ positive feelings, actual usage of the physical library continued to decline. When the closing of the library was announced and a student created an online petition to protest the decision, many of the comments on the petition’s site touched on emotional and symbolic issues, in addition to dismay

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over the impending loss of convenient access to print-format information (Petition Online 2009). Illinois’s case is unusual. In most instances of LIS library closures or reorganizations, evidence of user reactions, positive and/or negative, has not survived. Official records may document the reasons for a particular library’s demise or merger, but anecdotal evidence gleaned through conversation may point to additional factors, such as competition between the school and the university’s library for space or personnel.

The Peak Years of LIS Libraries By the 1970s LIS libraries were flourishing. They merited a 22-page entry in the Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science (Kindlin and Engle 1975); their librarians had established a formal professional network within the ALA; and an Institute on the Role of the Library School Library in Education for Librarianship took place in Atlanta (Butzin 1973). The students and faculty of nearly every ALA-accredited library school had access to a separate facility housing a collection and offering services to support the curriculum. A few academic LIS libraries were intentionally set up and managed as laboratory-libraries, where students learned to catalogue, develop programmes, mount displays, and participate in daily operations. It should be noted that LIS collections were not limited to library schools. In 1980 Joel M. Lee, the Headquarters Librarian of ALA, attempted a comprehensive inventory of LIS collections in the U.S. and Canada. Consulting published directories, he discovered LIS collections at 14 public libraries and 24 state and provincial libraries, although he suspected there were more. These collections served as resources for working professionals. Lee also identified four LIS collections maintained by associations, 16 in for-profit special libraries, three in nonprofit special libraries, and three in government agencies. Lee judged LIS libraries on the whole to be isolated and poorly documented, and he called for greater cooperation among LIS librarians to identify, manage, and preserve the field’s information (Lee 1980). This chapter focuses on LIS libraries in the context of graduate LIS education. An interesting aspect of such libraries during their peak years in the second half of the 20th century is the wide variance in collection size, staffing, budgets, and organizational and physical placement within the institution.



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Location and facilities The opposing arguments for centralization or decentralization of subject collections in university libraries were summarized above. With regard to LIS collections, decentralization did not necessarily mean that materials were housed outside the main campus library. Indeed, Kennedy’s 1970 study found that, among 24 accredited library schools, 12 housed their library science collection in a “special section” of the “regular” library, while 8 had separate facilities, presumably in the buildings where the schools were headquartered. Four collections were completely integrated with the regular library collection; one was split between the regular collection and a special section of the regular library; and another reported that the “reference laboratory” was in a separate location, while the circulating collection was integrated (Kennedy 1970, 32–33). At universities where other subject collections were distributed around the campus, such as the University of Michigan and the University of Illinois, the library science library was often located within the main library building. This was because the school itself — its administrative and faculty offices, classrooms, and laboratory spaces — was headquartered in the library. As Margaret Rufsvold, director of the library science programme at Indiana University, wrote in 1964, “Traditionally, library schools have occupied quarters within main university libraries, sometimes successfully isolated, and other times so integrated as to be an irritation to one and often to both agencies. Historically the combination of library and library school quarters was justified by the dual function of the administrator who served both as dean and library director” (Rufsvold 1964, 11). Another justification for locating library schools within libraries was, of course, the proximity to reference books, cataloguing tools, and other resources for study and practice, thereby avoiding the costly duplication of materials. However, duplication was evident even when separate library science libraries were located within or adjacent to the general library, because students clamored for more copies of high-use books. At Indiana University, the library school and its departmental collections were initially housed during the 1940s in the university library building, but the space was inadequate. In one of her early annual reports, Rufsvold stated that the collection originally consisted only of “literature and informational books suitable for children and young people” but soon grew to include materials for professional librarians (Rufsvold Papers 1941). A move to the newly constructed School of Education building in 1951 provided some relief but still not enough space, especially for the library science library. In 1969, the Graduate Library School relocated again, to a wing of the new central university library, where a separate space was provided for the library science library. In 1993, the circu-

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lating collection of the LIS library was transferred into the University’s research collection and the vertical file was weeded from twenty cabinets to seven, freeing space for networked computer workstations. Today there is little trace of the special library. At the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, by contrast, the library school and its library did not travel together over the decades. The school, founded in 1893, was housed in the central campus library and from the beginning had a collection of professional literature for the use of its students and faculty. In the 1920s the school moved into the new Main Library building and the professional collection was kept in the school’s study room. Only in 1944 was an autonomous Library Science Library created on the third floor of the Main Library. After the school and the library were separated administratively, each with its own dean, the school moved in 1979 to a building across the street from the library. The floors of that building could not support the weight of the library’s books, so the Library Science Library, whose users also included the university’s practising librarians, remained in the Main Library. In 1994, the school moved again, to a former fraternity house a few blocks further away, but once again, the new building could not accommodate the library, which continued to be housed in the Main Library until its closure in 2009 (Stenstrom 1992). The LIS collection at Louisiana State University followed a slightly different path. As at Illinois, the LSU collection was initially housed in a study room affiliated with the school within the central campus library. Due to the growth of the collection, it moved several times within the library over a 14-year period and was shelved in three separate areas, until a newly constructed library opened in 1957 with a single adequate space set aside for the collection, adjacent to the school’s quarters. In 1981, when the school moved to a different building, the library accompanied it and became a branch of the university library. In 1998, the branch was closed and the collection was merged into the central library (Chalaron and Dawson 2001). While the model of a library collocated with the school’s facilities is the most common model, the historical connection of library science libraries to the central university library is also strong. Each LIS library has a unique history.

Collections All of these libraries held books and serials devoted to the expanding field of library science. Many collected other formats as well – filmstrips, microfilm, CD-ROMs, DVDs, building plans, children’s books, pamphlets, demonstration



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equipment, audio recordings, student term papers, posters, and more. In some cases, the library science libraries pioneered the acquisition of non-print formats. Margaret Rufsvold, director of the library science programme at Indiana University for many years, stated in her 1953/54 annual report that “students preparing for librarianship must become proficient in the critical evaluation, selection, organization, and use of documentary and informational films; recorded folklore, poetry, and music; filmstrips; slides, and prints”, and she complained that the university library only acquired books and manuscripts. By the 1970s, the breadth of LIS collections was noted in the Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science (Kindlin and Engle 1975, 3): In response to the changing curricula of the schools, the collections have changed accordingly, although in many library science libraries there are still practice cataloguing collections, collections of basic reference sources, and the “professional books”, those concerned with library science. In addition, however, these libraries often include collections of children’s and young adults’ literature and materials on publishing, the history of books and printing, communication, education, indexing and abstracting, information retrieval, computer programming, research methodology, management, statistics, and the behavioral and social science.

However, as surveys and directories starkly reveal, the size and scope of library science collections varied greatly. The largest library was at the Columbia University School of Library Service. The Columbia collection was held in such high regard that its card catalogue was photographed and published as a definitive bibliography for the field in 1962. At the time it held some 75,000 volumes; another 25,000 were added by 1975 when a supplement appeared (Logsdon 1962; Wilkinson 1976). In addition to American and European publications on all aspects of librarianship and related subjects, the Columbia library included several special collections: thousands of reference and bibliographical works; examples of fine printing; a substantial collection of juvenile books; and an equally large Children’s Historical Collection. The library also maintained a large vertical file. In its topical spread, multiplicity of formats, and depth of foreign acquisitions, the Columbia collection outshone all other library science libraries. The larger library science libraries maintained extensive collections of library annual reports and newsletters, in addition to academic journals and library association magazines. Vertical files held equipment catalogues, bulletins of other library schools, library-produced reading lists, library staff manuals, public relations materials, newspaper clippings, state laws and standards, statistical reports, conference papers, and photographs and floor plans of libraries, as well as pamphlets and brochures produced by the ALA and other library organizations (Wilcox 1951; Lee 1968; Stenstrom 1992). The University of Michigan’s library

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science library preserved student term papers. At the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, the SILS Library has collected and digitized over 1,800 masters’ theses. Discussing the policy and process for developing library science collections in the 1960s, Robert Lee noted several “controlling factors”, including the demand for library resources generated by the curriculum, the relationship between the school and the university library (a key factor determining the extent of duplication), the existence elsewhere on campus of special collections (e.g. of children’s books or audiovisual materials), and budget and space limitations (Lee 1968, 5). While much of the scant literature on library science libraries is understandably concerned with collection development, there is little evidence of systematic evaluation of collections beyond a single study of the reference collections attached to library science libraries (Kiewitt 1978; Tjoumas 1992).

Staffing and Services The earliest known survey of library science libraries found that “the number and type of employees working in the library school libraries vary considerably from library to library” (Bunn 1961, 6). Seventy percent (n=14) of the responding libraries employed one to three full-time professional librarians; 25% were staffed by a part-time professional; and only one had no professional librarian at all. Student assistants were frequently on duty, particularly during evening and weekend hours of operation; clerical workers were less common. The extent to which library science libraries relied on student staffing varied a great deal, according to David Kaser’s brief survey in 1964, which reported that the number of hours of student help ranged from 10 to 180 per week. The most recent survey of LIS libraries, conducted in 1989, reported an average staff of 4.7 FTE, inclusive of student hourly employees. The average number of professional librarians was 1.6 FTE, and of paraprofessionals, 1.2 FTE. However, the average obscured the wide variation in staffing levels, from 15.5 total FTE to just 0.1 FTE (Dawson 1990, 5). The 1989 numbers were higher than in prior surveys (e.g., Margaret Galloway reported a mean of 2.89 FTE in her 1986 study, and a range of 8 FTE to 0.5 FTE), but this discrepancy could have been caused by different respondent pools or different understandings of who qualifies as “staff”. Although Kaser found even lower staffing levels in his 1964 survey, he also noted extreme disparities in the budgets of the libraries, concluding that “local circumstances – e.g., the extent of the curriculum; the age or youth of the programme; varying teaching methods; the vagaries of budget-making; the strength, management, and relative prox-



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imity of an institution’s general collections; the availability of space; and other less readily ponderable factors” combined with “little, if any, consensus among library educators as to what they feel a library school collection must do for their students” to create the discrepancies (Kaser 1964, 19). As a subsequent study revealed, the number and type of staff was linked to the degree of the library’s independence from the university’s library system. Library science libraries that performed their own technical services, including acquisitions and cataloguing, had the largest professional staffs. Those that were merely responsible for their own circulation desks and collection maintenance had staffs as large as the more autonomous libraries, but with a smaller proportion of professional librarians. Libraries with the smallest staffs relied on central library units for technical processing and even, if they were located in the main library building, circulation and other core user services functions (Gwyn, Boyd and LaBorie 1974). Unsurprisingly, larger staffs resulted in more service to users. Bunn (1961) inventoried the services offered to patrons of library science libraries. Weekly hours of operation ranged from 40 to 99 during the regular school term. A significant portion of the libraries were closed on Sundays (35% during the school year; 50% during the summer) and some had no or reduced access on Saturdays. In the University of Michigan archives are two petitions signed by students, from the spring of 1951 and summer of 1953, pleading for longer library hours on Saturdays, a day on which classes met. The services offered by library science libraries were typical of departmental libraries regardless of subject. Most published acquisitions lists, led orientation tours for new students, instructed students in procedures for using the library, answered reference questions, and participated in interlibrary loan programmes. Other reported services included designing exhibits and routing periodicals to faculty and staff (Bunn 1961, 29–30). An important role for some, but not all, library science libraries was to serve as a “laboratory for observation, experimentation, and demonstration in course work” and “to provide actual work experiences for students in the schools at levels ranging from clerical to professional, thus providing in a closely supervised situation the opportunity for students to relate theory to practice as the theory is acquired” (Kindlin and Engle 1975, 3). This role is perhaps most salient today at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where the mission statement for the School of Library and Information Studies (2016) reads: The mission of the Laboratory Library is twofold. The Laboratory Library will be a teaching library, providing an environment in which the students of the School of Library and Information Studies will have opportunities to practice the theory learned through coursework.

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At the same time, the Laboratory Library will maintain the traditional library functions of collecting, preserving and providing access to information in the field of library and information studies.

The most recent survey of library science libraries, conducted in 1989, asked direct questions about services and documented a strong involvement in library user education as well as support for online database searching. Other specialized services offered by some libraries included current awareness bulletins and SDI (selective dissemination of information, or regularly scheduled online searches) for faculty (Dawson 1990).

Forces of Change The Changing Character of Academic Libraries In the last quarter of the 20th century, economic and technological forces dramatically affected North American academic libraries’ mission and methods. Rising journal subscription costs – due both to the proliferation of new specialized journals and to the aggressive pricing strategies of commercial publishers – interacted with fluctuating foreign exchange rates, the need to invest in new technologies, high inflation, and declining governmental funding to put enormous pressure on library budgets. Duplicative collections and services began to be scrutinized and eliminated as cost-saving measures. Economies were realized as bibliographic utilities such as OCLC enabled the sharing and re-use of catalogue records, and customizing records for local collections became cost-prohibitive. Rising user expectations for easier access to library resources, among other factors, pushed decentralized university libraries toward greater standardization and consolidation. Library science collections were fundamentally transformed by the transition from print to digital information. Although specialized library science book and journal publishers were not pioneers in the transition to electronic content, early databases in allied fields, such as ERIC in education, were beneficial to library science students and researchers and generated demand for new information products. As the growing convenience of online resources reduced the need for nearby physical libraries, on-site library usage, as measured by gate counts and circulation data, dropped. At the same time, new uses for library facilities emerged, and competing needs for the spaces occupied by LIS libraries arose. Writing of departmental



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libraries generally, Croneis and Short (1999) noted that when a library within an academic building closed, the vacated space typically reverted to the department. Noting the “complexity” of the relationship between a departmental library and the department that hosts it, the researchers suggested that the closure of specialized libraries often results from a struggle for control of space. An academic unit’s pride in its designated library might be outstripped by its desire for more offices, computer labs, or classrooms. Such pressures seem to have played a role in the closing of the LIS library at Indiana University, for instance, where books gave way to computers and study space for doctoral students, and more recently at the University of Pittsburgh. In other instances, a department’s need for space may have dovetailed with a library’s desire to simplify its organization and streamline its workflows. Central campus libraries likewise sought to maximize the utility of their spaces. At the University of Illinois, for example, the LIS Library was located in the Main Library near another highly visible service point, the Rare Book and Manuscript Library. When the LIS Library closed, several proposals were made for new uses of the former LIS Library space. Today it houses the Scholarly Commons, which provides research support for faculty and graduate students across a spectrum of disciplines and methodologies.

The Changing Discipline of Library and Information Science Leigh Estabrook succinctly described the contemporary field of LIS as “the intersection of library science, information science (originally called documentation), and communications”, which developed as a distinctive interdisciplinary area with a research focus in the late 1960s and early 1970s (Estabrook 2010, 3287). Embracing the totality of information storage, organization, and use, LIS schools now prepare students for a wide range of careers both in and outside libraries. It has become much harder to delineate the literature of LIS and thus harder to define an appropriate scope for a separate LIS collection. In addition, in the early 1990s, leading LIS schools began to question the relevance of traditional print collections to support curricula that were evolving toward a greater focus on automated information retrieval and digital content. At Indiana and Michigan, for instance, task forces were appointed to review the LIS libraries and plan their transformation. The resulting reports at both schools recommended merging the circulating LIS collection with the university’s general library collection and repurposing LIS library space for computer-based instruction and practice. At times the conversations were difficult, as new modes of library service inevitably forced behavioural changes that some users resisted. At

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the same time, the new research and teaching interests of LIS faculty put pressure on the libraries to provide support with new materials and expanded expertise. The rise of online distance education, which many North American LIS programmes have embraced, accelerated the demand for online materials and services such as virtual chat reference, access to digitized course readings, and web-based research guides. While some LIS programmes envisioned their departmental libraries as models for innovative high-tech services, small libraries lacked sufficient resources to satisfy users’ desires for both traditional services and newer technology-enabled services. The relationship of distance students to their campus libraries, including specialized LIS libraries, is complicated. On one hand, some distance students feel unconnected to their university’s library and therefore turn to public libraries or academic libraries nearer them to meet their needs for research materials and study spaces. On the other hand, some distance students view their university’s library and its LIS subject librarian as a lifeline. For example, students in the LEEP programme at the University of Illinois, which for many years required students to spend a day or more on campus every semester, gravitated to the LIS Library as a comfortable, confidence-building “home base” on a large and unfamiliar campus (LIS Library Service Survey 2008). In general, however, the rise of online education in LIS further reduced the need for dedicated physical libraries.

The Impact of Accreditation Standards In the United States and Canada, the American Library Association bestows its approval on LIS Master’s programmes that adhere to a set of published standards. Many libraries will hire only librarians with degrees from ALA-accredited institutions. The ALA accreditation standards require schools to demonstrate that their students have access to adequate library resources, but the standards have never mandated separate library science libraries. Some highly regarded schools have continually met the standard solely by reference to the LIS materials in their university library’s central collection. Major library science schools without separate libraries included the University of Washington and, for most of its history, the University of Chicago, which was the first American school to offer the PhD degree in library science. Despite these examples, there appears to have been a widespread assumption that a departmental library was important to accreditation decision-makers. The 1951 accreditation standards included a “Statement of Interpretation” that referred specifically to the evaluation of the library school library (American Library Association Board of Education for Librarianship 1952). The belief that a



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separate library was a sign of a programme’s quality persisted for some time. A survey of library school libraries in 1970 found that 22 of 24 responding accredited schools (92%) reported having a separate library, whereas only 13 of 29 unaccredited schools (45%) had one (Kennedy 1970). A clearer understanding of the actual requirements for ALA accreditation may have been a factor in the decline of the LIS library. Today academic programmes seeking ALA accreditation merely need to demonstrate that “instructional and research facilities and services” are sufficient for meeting the needs of students and faculty, a benchmark that can be met by central libraries and media services (American Library Association 2008, 12). The standards do not mandate an objective method for evaluating LIS collections or library services. As Renee Tjoumas observed of earlier versions of the ALA standards, they remain “qualitative and extremely vague on the need to evaluate collections” (Tjoumas 1992, 189). Visiting accreditation teams examine data provided by the schools, and team members may observe the library facilities, interview librarians, or discuss the library’s adequacy with faculty and students. The majority of North American LIS programmes and iSchools no longer feel that a separate library is essential to sustaining their reputation, to meeting educational objectives, nor to attracting the best faculty and students. Nonetheless, university libraries continue to designate LIS subject specialists with responsibility for collection development, reference, and library instruction in the discipline. Most liaison librarians balance LIS-related duties with other subject or functional duties. In terms of facilities, collections, and services, library support for LIS education and training has been mainstreamed into academic librarianship.

LIS Libraries Today While most LIS libraries in North America have been closed or merged into general university collections, a few continue to flourish. Among those worthy of note are: –– American Library Association:1 Established in the 1930s, the mission of the library at ALA’s headquarters in Chicago is “to help the staff of the American Library Association serve ALA members, and thereafter, the needs of the members of ALA, other libraries, and members of the public seeking information on librarianship”. To achieve this mission, it has assembled numerous resource lists and other information 1 http://www.ala.org/library. Accessed on 6 January 2016.

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sources on its website, and the librarian reviews the latest professional books in ALA’s magazine for members, American Libraries. Florida State University:2 The Goldstein Library serves the College of Communication and Information and is located within the college. It offers a full range of academic library services and 82,000 print and audiovisual items, including a sizeable juvenile collection. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill:3 The School of Library and Information Science Library is located within the school and is a full-service departmental library housing 100,000 volumes, including an extensive juvenile collection. Its website also connects to digital copies of masters theses. University of Toronto:4 The Inforum combines library and technology services for the iSchool, including circulating and special print collections, loanable technology, instructional workshops, computers, and study space. In early 2015, the future of the Inforum services and collections and the space it occupies were being discussed within the school. University of Wisconsin-Madison:5 The School of Library and Information Studies Laboratory-Library is designed as a full-service teaching library, where students “have opportunities to practice the theory learned through coursework”. It houses a computer lab, a collection of some 65,000 print volumes, and a unique collection of library worker zines. Others Specialized, separate LIS collections also exist within academic facilities at the North Carolina Central University,6 and at the University of California, Los Angeles, as part of the Department of Information Studies’ Multimedia and Information Technology Lab.7 Simmons College placed its Z section prominently on the first floor of its general library and maintains a separate shelving area for “bibliomysteries”. LIS collections and services at Pratt and the University of North Texas are housed in branch libraries that are not devoted solely to LIS, but rather combine several associated disciplines. In Canada,

2 http://goldstein.cci.fsu.edu/. Accessed on 6 January 2016. 3 http://library.unc.edu/sils/. Accessed on 6 January 2016. 4 http://current.ischool.utoronto.ca/services/inforum-is. Accessed on 6 January 2016. 5 http://slislib.library.wisc.edu/. Accessed on 6 January 2016. 6 http://www.nccuslis.org/slislib/lib_int.php. Accessed on 6 January 2016. 7 http://is-intranet.gseis.ucla.edu/resources/MIT_lab/. Accessed on 6 January 2016.



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Western University houses a non-circulating collection of required readings and foundational materials in its Faculty of Information and Media Studies.

The Future of LIS Libraries In North America, the trend toward the consolidation of academic library resources in fewer physical sites, coupled with the expansion of the field of LIS to encompass an increasing variety of research methods, literatures, and occupations, portends an uncertain future for the remaining separate LIS libraries. If the trend persists, some or all of them may close or merge with other collections on campus. As this chapter was being written in early 2015, the iSchool at the University of Toronto was considering the future of its library and technology centre, the Inforum, in light of a proposal to merge collections and some services with the central university library and to convert the space into research labs for faculty and collaborative study space for students (University of Toronto Faculty of Information 2014).8 It is extremely unlikely that any new LIS libraries will be created. There will continue to be a need for subject experts in LIS on the professional staffs of academic libraries at institutions with graduate LIS programmes, especially those with doctoral curricula and robust research programmes. In addition to collection development responsibilities (Searing 2013), these subject specialist librarians will increasingly juggle a number of distinct subject and functional responsibilities, such as data curation, support for open access publishing and digital archiving, and membership on research teams. Especially where LIS programmes offer distance education courses, LIS specialists will be increasingly embedded in virtual classrooms and other online learning and collaboration spaces. New frontiers in online learning, such as MOOCs (massive open online courses) and certification programmes in specialty areas, may also alter the nature of the LIS librarian’s work. The gradual elimination of separate LIS libraries diminished the inter-institutional cooperation that flourished among library science librarians in the 1970s, but today’s digital environment, which facilitates the sharing of ideas, expertise, and content, may enable renewed collaboration. If LIS library services have a distinctive future—an identity and purpose not served by complete integration into central academic libraries—then the future must lie in collaborative, inter-institutional, and even trans-national development of user services and librarian-cre8 Additional documents related to this issue are linked at http://current.ischool.utoronto.ca/ services/inforum-is/future-of-inforum-background, accessed on 15 January 2016.

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ated content. Although the professional network of LIS specialist-librarians is relatively weak at present, a new era of collaboration to support learning and research in our field may be just around the corner.

References American Library Association. 2008. “Standards for Accreditation of Master’s Programs in Library & Information Studies.” http://www.ala.org/accreditedprograms/sites/ala.org. accreditedprograms/files/content/standards/standards_2008.pdf. Accessed on 15 February 2016. American Library Association, Board of Education for Librarianship. 1952. Statement of Interpretation, to Accomplish Standards for Accreditation Adopted by the ALA Council, July 13, 1951. Chicago: American Library Association. Association of Research Libraries. 1983. Branch Libraries in ARL Institutions. (SPEC Kit 99.) Washington, DC: Association of Research Libraries. Atkins, Stephen A. 1991. The Academic Library in the American University. Chicago: American Library Association. Brundin, Robert E. 1995. From the Codex to the Computer: Twenty-Five Years of the School of Library and Information Studies. Edmonton, Alberta: School of Library & Information Studies, University of Alberta. http://www.slis.ualberta.ca/AboutSLIS/~/media/slis/ Documents/AboutSLIS/HistoryoftheSchool/25_years_history.ashx. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Bunn, Dumont C. 1961. A Survey of the Libraries of ALA Accredited Library Schools. Atlanta: Division of Librarianship, Emory University. Butzin, Diane, ed. 1973. Institute on the Role of the Library School Library in Education for Librarianship, May 2–4, 1971. Atlanta: Division of Librarianship, Emory University. Chalaron, Peggy and Alma Dawson. 2001. “The Library and Information Science Collection at Louisiana State University.” Louisiana Libraries 63(4): 10–13. Columbia College. Library. School of Library Economy. (1886) 1937. “Circular of Information, 1886–87.” In School of Library Economy of Columbia College – 1887–1889: Documents for a History, 61–105. [New York]: School of Library Service, Columbia University. Croneis, Karen S. and Bradley H. Short. 1999. Branch Libraries and Discrete Collections. (SPEC Kit 255.) Washington, DC: Association of Research Libraries. Dawson, Alma and ACRL Discussion Group of Library Science Librarians. 1990. “Report on the Survey of Library Science Collections.” Unpublished manuscript. Dunlap, Connie R. 1976. “Organizational Patterns in Academic Libraries, 1876 – 1976.” In Libraries for Teaching, Libraries for Research: Essays for a Century, edited by Richard D. Johnson, 102–114. (ACRL Publications in Librarianship 39.) Chicago: American Library Association. Estabrook, Leigh S. 2010. “Library and Information Science.” In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, edited by Marcia J. Bates and Mary Niles Maack, 3rd ed., 3287–3292. New York: Taylor & Francis.



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Galloway, Margaret E. 1986. “Library and Information Science Collections: A Survey on Financing, Housing, and Staffing of Collections for Schools of Library and Information Sciences.” College & Research Libraries News 47: 654–655. Gwyn, Jacquelyn, Carol Boyd and Tim LaBorie. 1974. Library Science Libraries: A Quantitative Survey. (Drexel library publication 101.) Philadelphia: Drexel University Libraries. Ibbotson, Louis T. 1925. “Departmental Libraries.” Library Journal 50: 854. Kaser, David. 1964. “Library School Libraries.” Journal of Education for Librarianship 5: 17–19. Kennedy, Susan H. 1970. “Library School Libraries: A Survey and Analysis.” (thesis, University of Toledo). Kiewitt, Eva L. 1978. “Reference Collections of Accredited Library School Programs.” Journal of Education for Librarianship 19: 55–59. Kindlin, Jean and June Engle. 1975. “Library School Libraries.” In Encyclopedia of library and information science, 1st edition, edited by Allen Kent, Harold Lancour, and Jay E. Daily, vol. 16, 1–2. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker. Lee, Joel M. 1980. “Collections in Librarianship and Information Science.” Drexel Library Quarterly 15: 78–94. Lee, Robert. 1968. “The Special Collection in Librarianship.” In Conference on the Bibliographic Control of Library Science Literature, State University of New York at Albany, April 19–20, 1968, edited by David Mitchell and Beverly Choate, 1–14. Albany: SUNY. http://eric. ed.gov/?id=ED050744. Accessed on 24 April 2016. “LIS Library Service Survey – Fall 2008: Report of Results.” 2008. http://www.library.uiuc.edu/ nsm/comm_lis/LIS_Library_Survey_Report.pdf. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Logsdon, Richard H. 1962. Preface to Dictionary Catalog of the Library of the School of Library Service, Columbia University. Boston: G.K. Hall. Nielsen, Carol S., comp. 1977. Directory of Library Science Collections: 1977, 2nd edition. Chicago: American Library Association, Library Education Division. Petition Online. 2009. “Save the LIS Library!” https://web.archive.org/web/20140912063309/ http://www.petitiononline.com/petitions/katsharp/signatures. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Rufsvold, Margaret I. Papers, 1929–1979. Indiana University Archives. Rufsvold, Margaret I. 1964. “Designing Facilities for Library Education.” Journal of Education for Librarianship 5: 10–16. Seal, Robert A. 1986. “Academic Branch Libraries.” In Advances in Librarianship, edited by Wesley Simonton, vol. 14, 175–209. Orlando: Academic Press. Searing, Susan E. 2009. “The Library and Information Science Library, 1990s to 2009.” http:// www.library.illinois.edu/lis/about/LIS_Library_history_update.pdf. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Searing, Susan E. 2012. “‘The Special Collection in Librarianship’: Researching the History of Library Science Libraries.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 53: 225–238. Searing, Susan E. 2013. “Shaping the Librarian’s Library: Collecting to Support LIS Education and Practice.” In Library Collection Development for Professional Programs: Trends and Best Practices, edited by Sara Holder, 88–111. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Shkolnik, Leon. 1991. “The Continuing Debate Over Academic Branch Libraries.” College & Research Libraries 52: 350. SLIS Library Review Committee Report, December 21, 1992. Unprocessed Collection. Indiana University Archives.

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Stenstrom, Patricia. 1992. “The Library and Information Science Library.” In Ideals and Standards: The History of the University of Illinois Graduate School of Library and Information Science, 1893–1993, edited by Walter C. Allen and Robert F. Delzell, 68–80. Urbana, IL: Graduate School of Library and Information Science. Suozzi, Patricia A., and Sandra S. Kerbel. 1992. “The Organizational Misfits.” College & Research Libraries 53: 513–522. Thompson, Lawrence. 1942. “The Historical Background of Departmental and Collegiate Libraries.” Library Quarterly 12: 49–74. Tjoumas, Renee. 1992. “Evaluation of Library Science Collections in the Accreditation Process.” In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, edited by Allen Kent, vol. 50, suppl. 13, 185–198. New York: Marcel Dekker. University of Michigan. Library. Records, 1837–2005. Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan. University of Toronto. Faculty of Information. 2014. “Discussion Draft for Constituency Comment: Inforum Renewal.” http://current.ischool.utoronto.ca/system/files/user/1150/ ischoolutlnewpartnerships_theinforum_0.pdf. Accessed on 15 January 2016. University of Wisconsin-Madison. SLIS Laboratory Library. 2016. “Mission Statement.” http:// www.library.wisc.edu/slis/about/mission-statement/. Accessed on 6 January 2016. Wasserman, Paul. 2000. The Best of Times: A Personal and Occupational Odyssey. Detroit: Omnigraphics. Wilcox, Darthula. 1951. The Library of the School of Library Services, Columbia University, New York City. (University of Illinois Library School Occasional Papers, 20.) Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Library School. http://hdl.handle.net/2142/3969. Accessed on 21 April 2016. Wilkinson, Ann M. 1976. Preface to Dictionary catalogue of the Library of the School of Library Service, Columbia University: First Supplement. Boston: G.K. Hall. Wilson, Louis R. 1937. “The American Library School Today.” Library Quarterly 7: 211–245.

Hadir A. Shady

19 The Bibliotheca Alexandrina’s Role in Library and Information Science Education and Training Introduction Egypt was one of the earliest countries in the Arab world that introduced and commenced LIS education and training: it officially started in 1944, and gradually developed thereafter. Since then, there has been a significant growth of LIS education and training in Egypt, and many studies have shown a high demand for graduate programmes in library departments every year. Currently, the library curricula in the Egyptian universities show an increasing focus on machine-readable cataloguing, and a fast-growing trend towards the automated environment, while enhancing the practical part. Although Egypt has played a leadership role in establishing LIS education and training in the Arab World, lack of funding still represents a great obstacle and a challenge, as well as the need for trained human resources. This chapter will focus on the Bibliotheca Alexandria’s (BA’s) contributions in the field of LIS education and training. These contributions include: developing the International Librarianship Training Programme (ILTP), providing training programmes for students of library and information science faculties, providing e-learning programmes and developing the Library Technical Assistant Certification Programme (LTA) for paraprofessionals/technical assistants at the BA. This is in addition to specialized training programmes in the area of manuscripts, restoration, and preservation of cultural heritage provided by the Manuscript Museum at the BA.

The International Librarianship Training Programme (ILTP) Training is defined in the Concise Oxford Dictionary as “bringing a person to a desired state of efficiency by instruction and practice”. Each library must determine what desired state of efficiency means for itself, because requirements, then, would vary in each library, as well as in each country. However, there are

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some common core skills that should be acquired by any library staff. It is, therefore, evident that training is of a great importance in the library field. The Library Sector is one of the main sectors at the BA that has a long and successful track record of working at the heart of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina. The Library Sector has developed the International Librarianship Training Programme (ILTP): it is a training programme for librarians at the national and international levels (particularly in the Arab world and Africa) on the latest techniques in the field of LIS. The ILTP offers the right skills to prepare librarians for a successful and challenging career in the LIS field. This programme is mainly based on a combination of academic and practical perspectives. It aims at reinforcing the importance of learning and knowledge-sharing by providing training programmes for library professionals to enhance their knowledge and professional experience in various areas of LIS specializations. The ILTP focuses on the core skills of the LIS profession, including technical areas, through different modules that help librarians to combine the theoretical concept with the practical application. Cataloguing and authority control modules provide trainees with concepts, principles and practices that enable them to optimally use the Arabic subject headings. This is in addition to other modules that are crucial for the librarian’s profession, such as collection development, bibliographic citation, cataloguing and indexing of periodicals, information and reference services. The Programme offers two basic types of training: (1) an integrated programme, (2) separate courses, workshops and sessions. Trainees can choose either to attend an integrated programme with all its components, or choose and register for any separate training that suits their needs. Trainees can also combine certain components of an integrated training programme with other choices from separate training according to their needs and/or the needs of the library, or information institution, to which they belong.

1: The Integrated Programme The main area in the integrated programme is cataloguing and classification. Cataloguing and classification programme aims at providing the trainee with information on the rules of cataloguing and classification used in libraries, in accordance with the specialized international standards in this field. Through this training programme, trainees are introduced to the rules, concepts, practices, and methods to organize resources, in both print and electronic formats.

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Trainees are trained on practising the tools used in the bibliographic description and control, as well as in subject headings. Trainees are also able to get acquainted with the rules of establishing bibliographic records according to international standards, and other information necessary for cataloguing and classification of information resources (especially books) through both descriptive cataloguing and subject cataloguing.

2: Specialized Training Courses and Workshops The specialized training courses and workshops tackle other areas in the LIS profession. They include courses on periodicals cataloguing, collection development, bibliographic citation – both citation rules of the widely used international manuals and the BA Manual of Style (Bader, Noureldin, Fathallah and Wastawy 2010). It is worth mentioning that the BA Manual of Style is the first manual that provides rules for citing resources in the three main languages used by researchers in the Arabic Region, which are Arabic, English, and French. This group of specialized trainings also includes workshops and sessions on references resources, collection development of electronic resources and data bases, in addition to other library profession areas.

Future of ILTP Since information changes every day and knowledge is dynamic, it is necessary for LIS advocates and educators get both training and retraining. The skills and knowledge acquired in the past may become obsolete. On that account, the ILTP at the BA is an ongoing programme in a continuous development and upgrading process. The Programme plans to embrace more library science professional areas, and to target a broader range of both beginners and professional librarians. The BA has seen that in order to reach a larger number of LIS learners and trainees, the training has to be provided online. A website for the ILTP has been developed and will be launched in the near future. Additionally, various parts and components of the ILTP will be offered as online courses through the BA e-learning platform.

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LIS E-Learning Programmes LIS education and training have faced major changes in the first decade of the twenty-first century. Progress in information and communication technologies and Internet has been rapid, and accordingly the use of information and knowledge has changed. These far-reaching tools have enabled e-learning activities to be accessible in many higher education institutions and universities. E-learning is a computer-based, electronic means, and network-enabled transfer of skills and knowledge for the purpose of learning. It refers to courses that are offered fully online. Some of these courses mix face-to-face and online access to instruction and materials. E-learning has been widely used and is rapidly growing and becoming an integral part of education. Webinars tools, webcasting, and web conferencing technologies are, day after day, offering new wide horizons for building vital remotely interactive learning environments, narrowing the spaces between tutors and learners around the globe. The BA, as a leading institution in the Arab world and Africa, is always ready to embrace new technologies and trends in LIS education and training. The Library Sector at the BA is now in the process of launching its platform for LIS e-leaning programmes. These will include ILTP courses, as well as all other public educational services, on top of which are the BA information literacy courses given to the general public. These e-learning programmes will enable the BA to expand its unique educational services worldwide, and will offer an outlet for the BA educational library services to reach out to international users of library professionals, as well as a general public audience. Therefore, the BA will be the first library in the Arab world to implement e-learning services for both LIS professionals and library patrons. The Library Sector has also been providing webcast activities since 2012. They have greatly contributed to promoting the BA services and facilities.

Training Programmes for Undergraduate Students of Library and Information Science Departments of Egyptian Universities LIS education is facing some challenges. The training may not be appropriate for the current needs of the twenty-first century and the current practices in the new libraries. LIS education and training has to be revisualized as a tool to supply

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graduates with the relevant attributes to develop and maintain high quality of professional practices in the rapidly changing age. It is notably important for LIS education and training providers to balance between core academic education and skills of LIS and the practical skills, as well as those skills that apply to specific work environments. It is necessary for libraries to support LIS education through developing specialized training programmes that can provide LIS students with the practical aspect of their education during their university studies. The BA clearly identifies the knowledge and skills components that are appropriate for the core library and information science curriculum. The Library Sector at the BA provides a practical training and educational programme during summer vacation for undergraduate students of library and information science departments at different universities all over Egypt – at no cost – aiming at the integration of theoretical and practical applications in this specialty. This summer training programme gives students the opportunity to learn and gain skills in reference services, resource sharing, indexing and cataloguing, and other library services. The summer training programme is carried out in two weeks, during which various important topics in LIS are covered through workshops and open discussions, concluding with a practical part. The Programme starts with an orientation session, where students are introduced to the BA, its facilities, and its different services. Students also take a specialized librarians’ tour, a session on the book lifecycle, and a brief discussion on the collection development policy. Furthermore, students take some technical sessions on cataloguing, classification and subject headings, as well as discussions on the integrated library system and periodicals. Other parts of the Programme include discussions on the acquisition system, a session on search tools in the electronic catalogue, and a session on the Library electronic resources. It is also very essential that students take a session on rules of bibliographic citation, and a discussion on library educational and reference services. Many recent studies have emphasised the importance of providing training programmes for LIS students before graduation. This indicates that the issue of LIS education should not be taken lightly. The BA recognizes the importance of LIS education, and the crucial role of libraries and information institutions in supporting LIS students during their years of university studies. Thus, the BA is always developing such programmes for LIS students and updating them according to new advancements and demands. Therefore, students will not only be provided with a competitive edge in the labour market of libraries and information centres, but will also be competent in the work situation.

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Library Technical Assistant Certification Programme (LTA) Establishing a library should be followed by a solid, effective, and efficient management system that aims at the best utilization of resources. Ologbosaiye (2002) emphasised that the human resources of any library constitute an important component of its organization. To him, “a well-trained and competent staff is an asset to any organization.” If the library is inadequately staffed, relevant materials may not be well organized or stocked. The absence or inadequacy of qualified staff according to Aguolu and Aguolu (2002) could create problems of bibliographic and physical accessibility to information resources. Among the most paramount missions libraries have is to offer a high quality service to their users. The efficiency and performance of libraries’ staff, including paraprofessionals/technical assistants, determine, to a great extent, services quality and users’ satisfaction, which, in turn, has a significant impact on libraries’ image and contribution to their communities. Library technical assistants are important members of the library team. They are persons with certain specifically library-related technical skills. They carry out operations and services essential to effective functioning of the library. They operate, maintain and control established systems within the library. Library technical assistants engage in the application of known techniques and principles of systems designed by professionals in libraries. They assist librarians and acquire, prepare, and organize materials in a variety of areas including circulation, reference, technical processing and audiovisual services. They usually work under the supervision of librarians, although they work independently in certain situations. They also arrange and maintain books and periodicals, and they may direct library users within the library. As libraries increasingly use new technologies, and LIS is in continuous advancement, duties of library technical assistants will evolve accordingly. Therefore, library technical assistants need to be competent in certain skills such as comprehension, application and communication. LIS education and training for technical assistants focuses largely on the competencies they require. They are trained to carry out much of the day-to-day operations of libraries. This LIS training is mostly skill-based with some knowledge-based dimensions. The BA gives great attention to the professional development of its staff including Library technical assistants. Thus, the Library Sector at the BA has developed a specialized training programme entitled Library Technical Assistant Certification Programme (LTA) for the Library technical assistants.

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The LTA Programme gives an overview of many professional areas, including reference assistance, verifying information on order requests, and organizing and maintaining periodicals. The LTA Programme at the BA combines both classroom sessions and hands-on exercises. The Programme provides sessions on various topics, including the role of technical assistants specifically at the BA. This important Programme is an ongoing professional development programme that is frequently updated to accommodate any newly acquired technologies and systems at the BA. The Programme is also regularly given to newly-hired technical assistants.

The Manuscript Museum Training for Restoration and Preservation of Cultural Heritage Cultural heritage restoration and preservation is a global profession that has gained new momentum throughout the world, and is in great demand. Various studies and surveys carried out by Alegbeleye in 1999 and 2007 and by Bankole and Abioye in 2005 revealed that cultural heritage restoration and preservation has become one of the truly national concerns around the world (Zaid, Abioye and Olatise 2012). Protecting cultural heritage could be considered to have a dual benefit, both economical and historical. There is a great need to improve the quality of restoration and preservation practices, as well as raising public awareness about the importance of preserving cultural heritage in any country. Absence or shortage of skilled manpower in restoration and preservation of heritage materials is a critical challenge confronting heritage preservation. The restoration and preservation of cultural heritage is an interdisciplinary field requiring close cooperation between restorers/conservators, historians, archaeologists, museums curators, and collection managers, in addition to conservation scientists. Restoration and preservation deal with different materials and objects, such as papers, books, paintings, antiquities and other items and materials. Restoration and preservation processes require the knowledge and skills of various types of expertise. Therefore, experts in restoration and preservation are seriously needed to preserve the nation’s valuable cultural heritage. This need could be filled through appropriate training on skills in all aspects of restoration and preservation, including achieving a stable environment for the preserved collections and ensuring the stability of materials.

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The Manuscript Museum (MsM) at the BA provides and preserves rare manuscripts, books and documents. It particularly aims at developing advanced museographic and museological techniques and training to staff and users on the preservation of written heritage. In 2007, the restoration lab and chemistry and environmental monitoring lab were renovated in cooperation with the UNESCO and the Italian government. Technical presentation and restoration works at the BA are carried out in these two labs. To improve the skills of existing restorers at the BA, restorers have received intensive courses in-house as well as abroad in leading specialized Italian and French institutions. With the update of the Restoration Section’s equipment and tools, and the improvement of the restorers’ skills, the BA competes as one of the top restoration labs in the region. The BA and the MsM recognize the necessity of dissemination of knowledge and preservation of cultural heritage for a number of reasons: the shortage of local and regional restorers, the insufficient practical training in Egyptian educational establishments specialized in heritage preservation, and the turbulent events occurring in the Arab world and Middle East and their threatening consequences for human heritage. Hence, improving the skills of existing restorers, as well as educating and training users in this area, have become one of the BA’s major objectives. The BA provides continuing educational and professional training for those involved in the management, preservation, and stewardship of cultural heritage. Specifically, the MsM provides training programmes on restoration and environmental monitoring on a regular basis due to the increasing interest and demand of users, students, and institutions concerned with heritage preservation. These programmes aim at the following: –– disseminating preservation knowledge and providing new restorers with practical experience; –– creating a network of skillful restorers on the national and international levels; –– making up the shortage in practical trainings in educational establishments; –– increasing social awareness on the importance of heritage preservation and conservation; –– supporting other libraries and establishments concerned with heritage via providing them with technical consultation services or training for their staff; and –– assisting researchers and post-graduate students in implementing their theses.

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The Restoration Section offers training programmes for undergraduates in specialized institutions and universities with the aim of providing the practical part of their studies, and to compensate for what their curricula have not provided. The Section also provides support for students on implementing their graduation projects related to preservation processes and techniques. The Restoration Section also provides support to post-graduate researchers, both on the local and international levels. The Restoration Section assists them in their thesis plans, and provides them with opportunities for completing the practical and applied parts of their projects inside the lab. The Section also furnishes them with necessary data and statistics for their thesis. These services are provided free of charge as part of the BA role in supporting researchers in this important scholarly field, and to encourage studies and research in the field of heritage preservation. To date, the Restoration Section has provided the above mentioned services to 385 students from different local and international universities, such as, Alexandria University, (Egypt), the Arab Academy for Science and Technology (Arab League/Egypt), Lincoln University (UK), University College London UCL (UK), and others. Moreover, the MsM provides outstanding trainees with the opportunity to join volunteer work at the Restoration Section and take part in its current projects according to standards. Volunteering periods vary; sometimes they are relatively long, based on the nature of the project. Thus far the Section has accepted 20 volunteers who have participated in ongoing restoration activities. This helped to enrich their knowledge and to acquire first-hand experience that would have a very positive impact on their institutions and on their professional skills. As for cooperating with other libraries and institutions in the region, the Restoration Section provides specially designed training programmes according to the institution’s needs and requirements. Among the institutions that have joined these programmes are: the Libyan National Archive, Centre for Research and Studies in Kuwait, University of Um al-Qura and King Abdul-Aziz Library in Saudi Arabia, Nizwa University in Oman, and Ibb University in Yemen. Other training programmes and introductory workshops on the significance of cultural heritage and its preservation are specially tailored and provided for children of the age group 8–12 years. These programmes and workshops use simplified presentations, training methods, and examples that would attract their attention in this early age, and, therefore, raise their awareness about the cultural heritage. Given the great transformation in access and exchange of information taking place at present, the Restoration Section depends to a great extent on social media networks to disseminate preservation knowledge to interested parties.

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As a follow-up to these successful activities, the MsM is planning to transform restoration-related educational and training activities into a specialized academic centre by carrying out academic research and studies to be published in peer-reviewed periodicals. In addition, it aims at increasing cooperation with world-leading peer academic institutions to exchange expertise as well as scientific output in related fields.

Conclusion This age of knowledge, continuous technological changes, and fast developments creates an increasing challenge for the LIS discipline. As the economy grows, the demand for information grows as well; this will stimulate the demand for LIS professionals to deal with different types of information. It has become essential for any training institution or profession to move along with the modern trend in order to be relevant. Thus, LIS education and training are increasingly gaining the attention of LIS professionals and decision-makers. The LIS profession requires multidisciplinary education, with a greater emphasis on core knowledge and skills, and well developed programmes. It is, therefore, recommended that libraries carry out a constructive role in LIS education and training, and pursue a wider existence in the society through preparing students, librarians, and professionals for careers in this rapidly changing world. There is also a great need to create good local and international partnerships that can promote teaching, research, exchange of experiences, and innovation in the field of LIS education and training by embracing the e-learning tools of the twenty-first century. The BA strives to achieve its objectives and unique role in disseminating knowledge through participating in LIS education and training, and developing different types of training in the field of LIS. The BA has also established its position in the Arab world and has expanded its unique LIS education and training programmes through its current activities and its future ones using e-learning and webcast tools. The BA has acknowledged the importance and need for continuing education in the field of LIS and has developed various successful programmes; such as the International Librarianship Training Programme (ILTP), which is an integrated programme for the LIS profession on the national and international levels, and E-learning Programmes. The BA strongly considers the future of LIS students, who will become successful librarians. Thus it provides special training programmes for students of library and information science departments at the Egyptian Universities.

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It is strongly believed that all staff should contribute to the success of any organization under a concrete management system, inspiring leadership and guidance. Paraprofessionals/technical assistants working under the supervision of professional librarians equally contribute to the success of any library. The BA ensures the continuous professional development of its staff, including technical assistants who play a very important role at the BA. In this regard, the BA has developed a training programme entitled Library Technical Assistant Certification Programme (LTA) for technical assistants at the BA. The BA is considered a continuation to the great Ancient Library of Alexandria; thus it strives to revive all that is related to the glory of ancient times. The BA has a leading role in the area of cultural heritage through restoration and preservation activities. The Manuscript Museum at the BA frequently provides training programmes on restoration and preservation of cultural heritage in different contexts and for different age groups. The BA will continue to achieve its goals and go forward to improve not only its services and activities for users and the community, but also its important educational and training role in the field of LIS.

Acknowledgements The author is eager to acknowledge all those who contributed in various ways to this chapter, including Suzanne Samir and Mohamed Soliman for providing consultation and information during the writing process, Mrs Nevine Noureldin for her assistance in the preparation of citations in the list of references at the end of the chapter according to the format of the BA Manual of Style. The author also thanks Ms Lamia Abdel Fattah, the Chief Librarian/Head of the Library Sector, and Mrs Omnia Fathallah, Director of Information Services, for their valuable contributions in various parts of the chapter, and for giving overall guidance throughout the process of authorship, as well as reviewing and editing its final version.

References Aguolu, C. C. and I. E. Aguolu. 2002. Libraries and Information Management in Nigeria. Maiduguri: ED-LINFORM Services. Ahmed, Abdulganiy Okanla. 2012. “Modern Trends in Library and Information Science Education in Nigeria: Challenges and the Way Forward.” Library Philosophy and Practice

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(e-journal) 12-12-2012. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2106& context=libphilprac. Accessed on 20 May 2014. Bader, M., N. Noureldin, O.M Fathallah and S. Wastawy. 2010. The Bibliotheca Alexandrina Manual of Style: Bibliographies & Reference Lists. Alexandria: Bibliotheca Alexandrina. Castelyn, Mary. 1987. “5.7 Training and Developing Staff: The Training Function in Libraries.” In International Reader in the Management of Library, Information and Archive Services, compiled by Anthony Vaughan. Paris: UNESCO. http://www.unesco.org/webworld/ramp/ html/r8722e/r8722e0y.htm. Accessed on 25 February 2016. Chu, Heting. 2010. “Library and Information Science Education in the Digital Age.” Advances in Librarianship 32: 77–111. Conservation OnLine (CoOL) “Educational Opportunities in Museum, Library, and Archives Conservation/Preservation.” 2016. http://cool.conservation-us.org/bytopic/education/. Accessed on 25 February 2016. Feather, John and Paul Sturges, eds. 2003. International Encyclopedia of Information and Library Science, 2nd edition. London: Routledge. Davidson-Arnott, Francis and Deborah Kay. 1998. “Library Technician Programs: Skills-Oriented Paraprofessional Education.” Library Trends 46(3): 540–563. www.ideals.illinois.edu/ bitstream/handle/2142/8169/librarytrendsv46i3h_opt.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed on 6 May 2014. Gojeh, Lawrence Abraham and Getachew Bayissa. 2008. “Library and Information Science Education in Ethiopia.” Ethiopian Journal of Education and Sciences 4(1): 121–128. Md. Shiful Islam, Susumu Kunifuji, Tessai Hayama and Motoki Miura. 2011. “E‐learning in LIS Education: An Analysis and Prediction.” Library Review 60(7): 544–559. www. emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?issn=00242535&volume=60&issue=7&articleid=1944 312&show=html. Accessed on 17 June 2014. Jimma University. 2013. “Guidelines and Procedures for Community Based Education.” [Jimma]: Jimma University. https://www.ju.edu.et/sites/default/files/Procedures%20and%20 Guidelines%20for%20CBE.pdf. Accessed on 25 February 2016. Johnson, Ian M. 1994. “Education and Training in the Arab States.” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 35(1): 59–61. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/40323155?seq=1. Accessed on 17 June 2014. Malekabadizadeh, Fatemeh, Farhad Shokraneh and Akram Hosseini. 2009. “The Role of Library and Information Science Education in National Development.” Library Philosophy and Practice. Accessed on 28 April 2014 www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~mbolin/malekabadizadeh-shokraneh-hosseini.htm. Magdy, Ghadeer. 2011. “Alexandria University Librarianship and Information Science Department Efforts to Face Challenges: A Report.” Library Worklife 8(3). http://ala-apa. org/newsletter/2011/03/01/alexandria-university-librarianship-information-sciencedepartment-efforts-to-face-challenges-a-report/. Accessed on 25 February 2016. Pujar, S. M. and R. K. Kamat. 2009. “Libraries – a Key to Harness E-Learning: Issues and Perspective.” DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology 29(1): 23–30. http:// www.publications.drdo.gov.in/ojs/index.php/djlit/article/viewFile/226/135. Accessed on 17 June 2014 Reitz, Joan M. 2004. Dictionary for Library and Information Science. Westport: Libraries Unlimited. Okello-Obura, Constant and I. M. N. Kigongo-Bukenya. 2011. “Library and Information Science Education and Training in Uganda: Trends, Challenges, and the Way Forward.” Education

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Research International Art. ID 705372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/705372. Accessed on 14 May 2014. Ologbonsaiye, R.I. 2002. Resources Management for Librarians. Lagos: Concept Publication. Tadesse, Neguissie, and Abiyot Bayou. 2000. “Interview with Professor Girma Mullisa.” In Addis Ababa University Libraries in Perspective: 50th years Golden Jubilee Aniversary, 15–19. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Libraries Press. Tumuhairwe, Goretti Kabatangare. 2013. “Analysis of Library and Information Science/Studies (LIS) Education Today: The Inclusion of Indigenous Knowledge and Multicultural Issues in LIS Curriculum.” Paper presented at the IFLA World Library and Information Congress, Singapore. http://library.ifla.org/276/1/125-tumhuwaire-en.pdf. Accessed on 20 May 2014. Wheeler, Maurice B. 2005. “Faculty Development and Cultural Diversity in teaching: LIS Educations’s Last Frontier.” In Unfinished Business: Race, Equity, and Diversity in Library and Information Science Education, edited by Maurice B. Wheeler, 181–194. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. Zaid, Yetunde, Abiola Abioye and Olubukola Olatise. 2012. “Training in Cultural Heritage Preservation: The Experience of Heritage Institutions in Nigeria.” Paper presented at the IFLA World Library and Information Congress, Lyonhttp://conference.ifla.org/ past-wlic/2012/200-zaid-en.pdf. Accessed on 14 May 2014.

Section 6: P  ossible Future Educational Approaches for LIS and its Development

Michael Seadle

Introduction This section looks at new horizons for library education and training. The authors come from a wide range of countries, including Germany, the UK, Spain, and Pakistan. Distance education is one of the leitmotivs, as are certificate programmes and forms of ongoing training that allow current professionals to keep up with changes without taking time out to engage in formal degree programmes. These chapters look in particular at how university-based programmes can help expand the broad base of library education in their countries. As Georgy writes: “[t]he necessity of learning throughout life is now undisputed” (p. 392). Continuing education is well established in Germany, as Georgy notes, and a number of such programmes exist, including the 20-year-old-programme at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, as well as newer programmes at the Free University of Berlin, Potsdam and Cologne. Associations also offer certificate programmes, as do vendors. Georgy concludes: “libraries in Germany are well advised to recruit staff exactly meeting their needs or send their staff to a university offering continuing education and training and courses of study that emphasise the goods and services the libraries concerned offer” (p. 402). Pickard, McLeod and Chowdhury describe the experience of Northumbria University, which has a long history of offering training for the profession that adapts to changing technological needs. Northumbria itself “started as a provider of vocational training in librarianship and has evolved through different stages to an iSchool” (p. 434). Already in the 1980s Northumbria developed a distance learning programme to train librarians in statistics. More distance programmes followed, but Northumbria did not remain primarily a distance programme for librarian training. Research grew along with the teaching mission. As the authors conclude: “[t]he challenge is the digital paradigm which is fundamentally changing the way in which we harvest and use information” (p. 444). Recognizing this fact led them to become a member of the iSchools The growth of the library profession in Spain has been significant in recent decades, and that led to challenges in providing training. As Cobarsí-Morales et al. write: “Until 1999, many of these professionals did not have a university degree specifically in the Library and Information Science (LIS) area…” (p. 405). Several Spanish universities, especially the University of Catelonia, focused on distance learning models. Distance education generates large amounts of data, which provide an opportunity: “… to contextualize this data in order to get a better understanding of behaviour patterns, preferences, interests and social practices in place” (p. 416).

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The situation in Pakistan is different, in part because it does not belong to the European Union, which has forced a number of changes in how universities work, but also because library education at the country’s leading universities has its own old and well established traditions. One of the problems is that library education is not among the preferred professions. Students “are commonly from humanities and social sciences backgrounds and lack technical and business skills” (Warraich, Malik and Ameen, 422). The conclusion emphasises the need for “knowledge, social, managerial, technological, communication, and political skills” and not just “vocational training” (p. 431).

Ursula Georgy

20 Trends in Librarianship Training in Germany Introduction Human beings are able, and obliged, to give their lives their own characters and specific meanings. Education meeting this concept must hence make special allowance for self education (Nida-Rümelin 2006, 26).

If one draws the consequences of this then the borders between work, learning and recreation will (have to) become increasingly vague. Library and Information Science were and are characterized by constant change. This trend will undoubtedly continue and may even accelerate in the future. It is apparent in changed and changing roles, constant challenges and varying perspectives. As career cycles get shorter and the tendency to assume several new roles and tasks over a professional lifetime increases, it will be the task of German vendors of library science courses and of professional relevant associations to support librarians, information specialists and employers in planning skills portfolios not only for courses of study but also for formal and recognized certificates of qualification (Herget and Mader 2010, 220) as the HRK – Hochschulrektorenkonferenz (German Conference of University Rectors) demands (HRK – Hochschulrektorenkonferenz 2012, 17). The necessity of learning throughout life is now undisputed. According to a Eurostat poll in 2007 about 45% of respondents intended to continue their training or education to improve their employment chances and career prospects (Eurostat 2009). This percentage has probably increased significantly since. Briefer obligatory schooling and courses of study plus longer working lives suffice to make continuous training essential. More and more disjointed careers contribute to this modern phenomenon; these are not least made possible by permitting people to study at university without the otherwise prescribed university entrance exams. Many universities these days allow people to study for master’s degrees without prior university education or university entrance qualifications. Most do, however, require the prospective student to have a profession or trade related to the subject/s to be studied. These developments are centred around the European Qualification Framework – EQF (European Commission 2011) and the European Credit Transfer System in Vocational Education and Training – ECVET (European Commission & Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency [EACEA] 2014), which are analogous to university education and training equiv-

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alents. Skills and qualifications will in future probably be attested to by a great variety of documents such as school leaving certificates, trade and vocational qualification certificates, academic titles, certificates of participation in training courses and employment testimonials. That means that both input certificates (successful attendance of, e.g., a training course) and output certificates (acquisition of expertise) will (have to) be included. Current training and study structure is hence not monolithic and universities will in coming years become open institutions with entirely new requirements and courses. The remarks that follow refer to the scientific training sector.

Scientific Education and Training What all the training and continuing education courses offered have in common is that they are of university standard didactically and in their content and the methods employed. “Scientific continuing education and training offers [...] valid information, innovative knowledge and new tools based on profound learning” (Leuphana Universität Lüneburg 2012, 13). Scientific continuing education and training has various aims in addition to meeting current requirements, including (ZBIW 2012): –– maintaining the competitiveness of libraries and information facilities; –– furthering individual careers; –– making continuing education and training available that is tailored to meet current needs and future requirements; –– using modern teaching; –– expanding skills and expertise; –– transferring knowledge in practice, and –– being future proof and of strategic import. Continuing education and training in librarianship has a long tradition in Germany. For universities offering library science courses continuing education and training have been central tasks together with research and teaching degree courses for many years now. A lot of universities nowadays offer, for example, continuing education and training courses, certificate courses, single modules, and single seminars / workshops. Courses of study for a degree, the central type of formal teaching at universities, will be taken as an example here in presenting the wide variety of options combining careers and learning (Figure 20.1). Career and study are often no longer rigidly separate. Courses of study are more and



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more likely to be taken while working these days. The proportion of those deciding in favour of this option will increase.

Figure 20.1: Formal learning – types of study (Georgy 2013, 33; author’s graphical representation based on Fachhochschule Münster 2013, 7).

Increasing incidences of combining career and study mean that the average age of students will continue to rise. For example, the average age of 36.9 for Master of Library and Information Science (MALIS) students at the Institut für Informationswissenschaft (Institute of Information Science) of the Cologne University of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschule Köln – Institut für Informationswissenschaft 2014, 24) demonstrates that universities can no longer aim at 18- to 28-year-olds, and ought no longer to do so, but must cater for older students combining work and study, who possibly have not studied in the way required by a degree course for many years. Such figures also show that formal learning may be relevant regardless of age, due among other things to briefer career cycles and non-linear employment histories (Herget and Mader 2010, 220). “As much as students need knowledge in core subjects, they also need to know how to keep learning continually throughout their lives” (Crane et al. 2002, 4). This may result in consecutive training and study courses losing their dominance in Germany in the long term while continuing education and training becomes more important in later career phases, as can be seen in countries such as Switzerland, for example. Professional training thus increasingly becomes just-in-time learning rather than remaining the accumulation of knowledge for the future. The intention to specialize may then first

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arise in the course of professional practice and not be foreseeable in consecutive courses of university study or continuing education and training. It cannot be included in basic undergraduate and consecutive courses of study for degrees, as these have to be oriented to a wide range of careers. Continuing education and training measures thus increasingly need to be planned strategically to promote the individual’s career and expertise. Lifelong learning demands at the same time the assumption of responsibility for one’s own professional qualifications to maintain employability and make a career at all possible (Herget and Mader 2010, 220). Moving continuing education and training to a later phase of one’s career may mean that the continuing education and training courses selected suit one’s chosen career much better than they otherwise would. Those offering continuing education and training in Germany are reacting to these changes and requirements with new continuing education and training. Employers’ responsibilities include the professional continuing education and training of their employees to meet operational needs and personnel policy dictates on the one hand and furthering the ambitions of individual employees on the other. This means that libraries also assume major social responsibilities as employers. In addition, professional associations as employee representatives are called upon to work out means of promoting a high level of flexibility and career individuality together with employers, trade unions, etc. The emphasis here is primarily on not neglecting formal and chronological integration but rather on actively supporting these as well as promoting content cohesion. Industry has long recognized this. Nine out of ten personnel development officers in Germany would authorize continuing education and training to heighten the loyalty to the employer of important staff members (Stiftung Warentest 2014). If employers support the continuing education and training of staff either financially or by giving them the necessary time off then they usually require a quid pro quo. As a rule they expect the staff concerned to commit themselves to the employer for a specified period. If any employee concerned changes employer during this specified period then that employee must recompense the costs thus incurred. An agreement is often made featuring gradual reduction of the amount to be repaid, e.g., if the period of commitment to the employer is twelve months then the amount falls by a twelfth every month as long as the employment relationship is maintained. These schemes are applied far too seldom by German libraries. The market for continuing education and training in library science in Germany is constantly growing and will continue to do so in future. Hence it is becoming ever more important both for facilities such as libraries and for industry that the relevant continuing education and training offered remains comparable and that the certificates awarded have positive career and life path effects. Certificates of completion are awarded for courses of study as a matter of course.



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This does not necessarily apply to all forms of formal study. Courses ending in certificates for those passing them will in future increase in importance as they exactly meet this requirement.

Continuing Education and Training Courses A consecutive course of university study is usually based on the Bachelor’s degree course in the relevant subject/s and constitutes a continuation and deepening thereof. It primarily offers graduates of the same university the option of acquiring a Master’s degree, but an increase in students changing universities after the Bachelor’s degree – including those changing to foreign universities – is expected in the future. Many of those graduating with Bachelor’s degrees initially prefer entering a career as the Bachelor’s degree is considered equal in Germany to the old degree diploma granted by a university of applied sciences. Many jobs in German libraries are occupied by people with this qualification (intermediate service); this differentiates Germany from many other countries. Continuing education and training courses are virtually indispensable given today’s career lengths of forty years and more. For librarians and information specialists in Germany continuing education and training opens many doors, including advanced qualification in their specialization, and qualifying in related professions or entirely new and unrelated ones. In Germany there are career structure regulation restrictions where this form of cross-qualification is concerned. A Bachelor’s degree in library science combined with an unrelated Master’s degree may qualify a civil servant for a higher division in the civil service but not automatically for the (academic) higher library service. This means that graduates can rarely if ever be employed as library subject specialists. One can only hope that the shortage of trained staff will lead to a change in thinking, since natural sciences and law, for example, are among the subjects in which there is a shortage of specialists. Graduates ought to have good chances of employment in facilities that no longer (rigidly) separate the library, IT facility / department and media centre. Offering specialization within library and information science via continuing education and training courses should be of particular interest in the future. Subjects here could include data management, research data or long-term archiving, library pedagogy, etc. Graduates would then be qualified for innovative and future-proof tasks in libraries and information facilities. Close cooperation with the vendors of continuing education and training seems a good idea, for example,

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to create the option of taking individual subjects as certificate courses that might be credited toward a (later) course of university study. Where managerial vacancies are concerned an MBA course accompanying one’s career is eminently sensible as it covers aspects of managerial expertise, project management, intercultural communication and matters such as crisis management and other modern management techniques. This is, however, an idea that is rarely realized in Germany as managerial posts, particularly in larger scientific libraries, are usually filled by staff trained as library subject specialists. This is why there are few applicants for library management positions. Many library subject specialists want to work in their field and remain in it instead of assuming managerial responsibility in any library. An MBA degree could be exactly the qualification needed by today’s librarians wishing to be promoted to posts comparable to that of a manager.

Certificate Courses A certificate course qualifies librarians to master the challenges posed in a specific professional area better and on a more long-term basis. More comprehensive and more in-depth than continuing training courses that are often in the form of a seminar or workshop lasting one day or two (which naturally still have their justification), such courses are meant to enable those who pass them to apply and to develop new action strategies and solution approaches to real challenges and problems in their everyday work: that is, the teaching concepts are oriented to the “learning outcomes” required. Certificate courses have a number of benefits for both participants and libraries, i.e., employers (TH Koeln Technology Arts Sciences 2016).

Benefits for Participants –– Certificate courses summarize basic and current knowledge in a clearly defined and delimited subject area in a brief time frame; –– certificate courses supplement participants’ training and professional experience background in specialized fields with a theoretical and practical foundation that meets university standards (i.e., the concepts have a scientific basis and are simultaneously of practical relevance);



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–– certificate courses cover integrative consecutive training, whereby the content can immediately be used in everyday practice and constitute added value even during training; –– these courses teach important key expertise in (for example) communications, rhetoric, scientific organization and the like as well as professionally directly relevant skills; –– in the course of case studies and project work, often in pairs or groups, participants draft new strategies and solution approaches at a scientific level to meet actual challenges and problems in their everyday work; –– teach-yourself courses and modules for preparing and reviewing phases of personal attendance usually round off the learning options offered; –– participants expand what they have learned in practice with colleagues between phases of personal attendance; –– certificates attesting to successfully passing a university course are recognized nationally and internationally. The credit system (ECTS1) permits the awarding of credits in any subsequent university degree course of study; –– participants qualify by being granted a certificate for studying alongside their job/s in specific subject areas, for studying to be eligible for a specific vacant situation or for relevant situations generally (i.e., they improve their career prospects and expand their horizons consistent with the philosophy of lifelong learning); –– certificate courses can be flexibly integrated in an overall lifelong learning concept as continuing education and training courses.

Benefits for employers –– Employee loyalty; –– continuing education and training measures in which the employer is involved can prevent good staff educating and training themselves and then moving on to a new job; –– personnel development and motivation; –– expert knowledge and behavioural competence are improved. Employees also feel more appreciated and will display greater motivation in their future work; –– recruiting; 1 European Credit Transfer System. http://ec.europa.eu/education/tools/ects_en.htm. Accessed on 6 January 2016.

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–– offering applicants support in studying for certificates while working can be beneficial to recruiting; –– stimulating library development; –– participants bring fresh ideas into a library and thus act as innovators in their field or department; –– linkage to a university; –– students act as links between library and university. The library thus has access to the latest developments and research results. Certificate courses last for from a few months up to about a year and are usually designed as blended learning courses with several attendance and online phases. The work involved includes the days on which attendance is required on the one hand and the preparation and review periods between those days or phases on the other. The online phases and phases during which students have to teach themselves are usually organized using e-learning platforms such as Moodle that feature interactive learning and submission of exercises for marking as well as students’ teaching themselves. Attendance days/phases are often in the form of workshops. In addition to expert teachers in individual modules the ideal is to have a team of presenters guaranteeing content coordination and constant assistance from the didactic and librarianship perspectives to participants as permanent contact personnel throughout the entire course. Practical modules need not necessarily be part of a certificate course but are nevertheless very welcome and sensible. In a practical module, participants could, for example, apply theory directly to practice. This could be done in the form of project work for one’s own library: a new method or process could thus be tested in practice. If these projects are carried out in tandem then the participants can obtain direct feedback from their colleagues. Such a practical module oriented to one’s own library also has the benefit that the continuing education and training workload can be integrated in normal working hours, at least in part, which considerably reduces study time during the student’s time off and simultaneously gives the library as employer and possibly supporter of continuing education and training direct benefit and use.

Continuing Education and Training Vendors Integrating a library science continuing education and training facility in a university with modern infrastructure and experts in theory and practice guarantees



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the use of modern teaching methods and know-how transfer for practical use. These facilities as impulse generators create forums for the expansion of expertise and exchange of knowledge via networking within a profession and a variety of cooperative relationships. There are continuing education and training establishments for information specialists linked to library and information science departments at German institutions of higher education: the IID2 at the Potsdam University of Applied Sciences and the ZBIW3 at the TH Koeln – Technology Arts Sciences. Library science continuing education and training at the Free University of Berlin (FU Berlin)4 shows great affinity with the library science degree programmes offered by the Humboldt University of Berlin (HU Berlin) and the Potsdam University of Applied Sciences but is not directly linked to any university offering library and information science degree courses. Many universities in Germany now have central continuing education and training facilities offering library science courses among other things. Germany has only just started in this respect. A major advantage of such university facilities is the choice of teachers. These are remarkable for their depth of knowledge and use of current subjects and learning in the fields of science and relevant research. They have didactical methodological knowledge of adult education and apply it in these courses. They also use practical examples and problems involving professionally relevant subjects as well as being active in teaching and research and/or having experience in the field and being experts in their specific fields (Heuchemer 2014). Last but not least, quality is ensured by constant evaluation that tests teaching content and conditions. Quality assurance and development in continuing education and training courses is supplemented by regular accreditation and audits by accreditation agencies. Two examples demonstrating the bandwidth and the possibilities of certificate courses follow.

2 Institut für Information und Dokumentation (Institute of Information and Documentation) http://www.fh-potsdam.de/studieren/informationswissenschaften/fachbereich/institut-fuer-information-und-dokumentation/ueber-das-institut/ Accessed on 15 April 2016. 3 Zentrum für Bibliotheks- und Informationswissenschaftliche Weiterbildung (Library and Infor­ mation Science Further Education and Training Centre). https://www.th-koeln.de/weiterbildung/ zbiw_5865.php. Accessed on 15 April 2016. 4 Freie Universität Berlin – Weiterbildungszentrum: Berufsbezogene Weiterbildung Bibliotheken und Archive. Retrieved 15 April 2016 from http://www.fu-berlin.de/sites/weiterbildung/ weiterbildungsprogramm/bib/index.html

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ZBIW The new “Teaching Librarian” certificate course (ZBIW 2014b) is briefly described below. To professionally support library target groups, especially students, postgraduate students and researchers, in acquiring information expertise librarians must become teachers and advisors under conditions that greatly differ from other teaching environments. Library-science training courses often struggle with small time and personnel budgets, changing technical and spatial conditions and unpredictable sizes and compositions of student groups. Rapid changes in information technology, the information environment, user behaviour, courses of study, and research conditions must all be taken into account in the training and education offered and its content and performance from a didactical practice standpoint. The “Teaching Librarian” certificate course is intended to qualify library staff to meet the challenges posed by their profession and to plan and carry out courses communicating and teaching information skills.

Content Structure The aims of the course are taught in seven modules that are closely interlinked. Module 1: Principles of information expertise; Module 2: Basic didactic skills; Module 3: Planning teaching methods; Module 4: Use of media and the design of teaching documents / materials; Module 5: Performance evaluation; Module 6: Blended learning; Module 7: Practical module with final presentation.

Course Results (Learning Outcomes) On completing the course students will be able to: –– include information expertise standards in their planning of courses; –– orientate courses to specific target groups; –– plan their courses making all due allowance for internal and external teaching and learning factors in an proactive manner oriented to the participants; –– meet curricular conditions and harmonies course modules in courses consisting of more than one module;



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–– utilize both standard and state-of-the-art media in their presentations; –– evaluate their own courses and reflect the results thereof in future courses, and –– draft blended learning courses that are specifically tailored to target groups and plan the didactical methods used therein.

Freie Universität Berlin – Weiterbildungszentrum The “Library Management” certificate course of the continuing education and training centre of the Free University of Berlin; libraries / archives is detailed below (Freie Universität Berlin – Weiterbildungszentrum, Berufsbezogene Weiter­ bildung 2014). The scientific continuing education and training course accompanying employment is aimed at staff in public and scholarly libraries who have, or seek, managerial responsibilities. The nine programme modules teach an overview of the major tasks and tools used in modern management and management methods. The two to three day seminars combine theory with practice reports and exercises. They also offer a platform for exchanging experience and ideas with teachers and other students in addition to communicating purely specialized learning. Excursions to relevant libraries in Berlin including discussions with experts round off the programme. A certificate issued on completion of the course testifies to the additional expertise gained. Module 1: Strategic management and innovation; Module 2: Managerial skills; Module 3: Market and user research for practitioners; Module 4: Personnel development and change management; Module 5: Process management; Module 6: Budget economics and accessing finance sources; Module 7: Quality management and controlling; Module 8: Public relations in a strategic context; Module 9: Legal questions affecting libraries.

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Other Vendors and Formats of Continuing Education and Training Seminars and workshops will retain their importance alongside courses of lengthier duration. They deal with specific content in a brief time frame and can well be in the form of in-house seminars that impart a specific skill to several employees of a library. Examples of practical use, scientific lectures and intensive exchange of knowledge and experience between teachers and students are features of this form of teaching. It is mainly regional vendors and various library associations (BIB [Berufsverband Information und Bibliothek, Association of Information and Library Professionals], VDB [Verein Deutscher Bibliothekare, Association of German Librarians] and DBV [DeutscherBibliotheksverband, German Library Association]) in Germany that offer continuing education and training in a variety of formats in addition to the vendors aforementioned.

Summary In an era of more individual and disjointed careers libraries in Germany are well advised to recruit staff exactly meeting their needs or send their staff to a university offering continuing education and training and courses of study that emphasise the goods and services the libraries concerned offer. The question of whether continuing education and training is always to be paid for by the employer can quite clearly be answered in the negative. Many participants/students receive (financial) support but as a rule very few of them receive 100% financing of their continuing education and training or courses of study. In the case of lengthy continuing education and training or courses of study it may often be necessary to reduce weekly working hours to make it possible to meet the conflicting demands of profession, family and continuing education and training / courses of study. Reductions in working hours for a set period are nothing like as usual in Germany as in other countries. There are many part-time jobs, but models permitting working hours to be reduced to 75% or 80% are still the exception. More such flexible working-hours models will be needed in the future to make scientific continuing education and training even more attractive than it now is. A “one size fits all” career path will be a rarity in Germany in the future, and both career and scientific continuing education and training options will become ever more popular.



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References Crane, T., Wilson, J., Maurizio, A., Bealkowski, S., Bruett, K., Couch, J., Jeannero, S., and O’Brien, P. 2002. “Learning for the 21st Century.” http://www.p21.org/storage/ documents/P21_Report.pdf. Accessed on 15 April 2016. European Commission & Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA). 2014. “ECVET projects.” http://www.ecvet-projects.eu/ToolBox/ToolBoxList.aspx?id=12&type=1, 2012. Accessed on 15 April 2016. European Commission. 2011. “European Qualifications Framework.” http://www.cedefop. europa.eu/en/events-and-projects/projects/european-qualifications-framework. Accessed on 15 April 2016. Eurostat. 2009. “Statistics in focus: Significant country differences in adult learning.” http:// ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3433488/5281333/KS-SF-09-044-EN.PDF. Accessed on 15 April 2016. Fachhochschule Köln – Institut für Informationswissenschaft. 2014. “Selbstdokumentation zur Reakkreditierung des Masterstudiengangs Bibliotheks- und Informationswissenschaft.” (Master in Library and Information Science / MALIS. Final Report, internal document: Updated handout 17 June 2014.) Fachhochschule Münster. 2013. “Auf Kurs gehen – Broschüre zu den Studiengängen an der Fachhochschule Münster.” Archived at http://web.archive.org/web/20140914014912/ https://www.fh-muenster.de/studium/downloads/broschuere-auf-kurs-gehensept13-online.pdf. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Freie Universität Berlin – Weiterbildungszentrum, Berufsbezogene Weiterbildung. 2016. “Bibliotheken und Archive – Bibliotheksmanagement.” http://www.fu-berlin.de/sites/ weiterbildung/weiterbildungsprogramm/bib/bibman/index.html. Accessed on 15 April 2016. Georgy, Ursula. 2013. “Professionalisierung in der Informationsarbeit.” In Grundlagen der praktischen Information und Dokumentation, edited by Rainer Kuhlen, Wolfgang Semar and Dietmar Strauch, 25–38. Berlin: De Gruyter Saur. Herget, Josef and Isabella Mader. 2010. “Weiterbildungsstudiengänge für die Karriereplanung aus Hochschul- und Studierendensicht. Herausforderungen und Trends.” Information, Wissenschaft & Praxis 3(61): 219–223. Heuchemer, Sylvia. 2014. “Weiterbildung – Vorteile und Nutzen.” https://www.th-koeln.de/ weiterbildung/weiterbildungsprofil_1642.php. Accessed on 15 April 2016. HRK – Hochschulrektorenkonferenz. 2012. “Hochschule im digitalen Zeitalter: Informationskompetenz neu begreifen – Prozesse anders steuern. Entschließung der 13. Mitgliederversammlung der HRK am 20. November 2012 in Göttingen.” http://www.hrk. de/uploads/tx_szconvention/Entschliessung_Informationskompetenz_20112012_01.pdf. Accessed on 15 April 2016. Leuphana Universität Lüneburg. 2012. “Hochschulen als Weiterbildungsanbieter – Formate wissenschaftlicher Weiterbildung stellen sich der Praxis.” http://www.leuphana. de/fileadmin/user_upload/Forschungseinrichtungen/ipm/files/hochschulen_als_ weiterbildungsanbieter.pdf. Accessed on 15 April 2016. Nida-Rümelin, Julian. 2006. “Zur kulturellen Dimension der Bildung.” In Humanismus als Leitkultur – Ein Perspektivenwechsel, edited by Julian Nida-Rümelin, 23–37. Munich, Germany: Beck.

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Stiftung Warentest. 2014. “Weiterbildung finanzieren: Geld und Zeit für die Weiterbildung.” http://www.test.de/Weiterbildung-finanzieren-Geld-und-Zeit-fuer-dieBildung-4313560-4313568/. Accessed on 12 July 2014. No longer available online. TH Koeln Technology Arts Sciences. 2016. “Weiterbildungsformate – Zertifikatslehrgänge.” https://www.th-koeln.de/weiterbildung/zertifikatslehrgaenge_2095.php. Accessed on 15 April 2016. ZBIW. 2012. “Mission Statement.” https://www.th-koeln.de/weiterbildung/wir-ueber-uns_ 5869.php.php. Accessed on 15 April 2016. ZBIW. 2014a. “Weiterbildungsangebote – Zertifikatskurse.” https://www.th-koeln.de/ weiterbildung/zertifikatskurse_5882.php. Accessed on 15 April 2016. ZBIW. 2014b. “Zertifikatskurs Teaching Librarian.” https://www.th-koeln.de/weiterbildung/ zertifikatskurs-teaching-librarian_9840.php. Accessed on 15 April 2016.

Josep Cobarsí-Morales, Alexandre López-Borrull, Eva Ortoll, Sandra Sanz Martos and Antoni Roig Telo Josep Cobarsí-Morales et al.

21 Undergraduate Distance Education in LIS in Spain 1999–2014 An Historical Perspective

Introduction During the last decade of the 20th century and most of the first decade of the 21st century, there has been a huge growth of library and information professional practitioners in Spain. This expansion had two main drivers in a general context of political stability and economic welfare: first, the consolidation and growth of public services and infrastructures, such as public and university libraries; second, the disruptive introduction of digital information systems and services in organizations, as well as in sectors such as health and tourism. This expansion was particularly relevant in Catalonia. Catalonia holds a long-standing library tradition; moreover, it is an important business region, which has been shifting from traditional industry, based on intensive use of energy and other material resources, to services and industries based on the intensive use of information. Until 1999, many of these professionals did not have a university degree specifically in the Library and Information Science (LIS) area, but rather had academic backgrounds in fields such as Art and Humanities, Information Technology, Management, Health, etc., or they just had technical university diplomas in Librarianship. Consequently, there is a need for a university degree which includes general management and strategic management topics related to LIS. For a better understanding of the Spanish university, it has to be taken into account that prior to the transition to the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) there were three different degrees: 1. Diplomatura: a three-year technical degree related to librarianship; 2. Llicenciatura: a five-year degree, similar to an undergraduate degree (in the EHEA, this sort of degree remains but as a four-year degree); 3. Llicenciatura de Segon Cicle: a two-year degree that allowed students with a Diplomatura to get a full Llicenciatura. So, students coming from a Diplomatura in librarianship were able to get an undergraduate degree. Nevertheless, students with a Llicenciatura in other disciplines (like History, for instance) were able as well to get the Llicenciatura de Segon Cicle through doing some complementary subjects.

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The Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC) was created in 1994, with its headquarters in Barcelona, as an initiative of the Catalan Government. It was set up from the very beginning as a fully internet-based, distance, e-learning university with a very specific model to deliver distance education (Duart and Sandrà 2000; Cobarsí 2008). Thus, the UOC became a key actor in LIS distance education and setting up a new undergraduate degree in LIS (Llicenciatura en Documentació). This degree meant a turning point in the whole LIS Spanish higher education landscape due to four main reasons: –– UOC was the first university to offer the new degree Llicenciatura de Segon Cicle en Documentació (Second-cycle Degree in Documentation) in distance education mode (which included management topics to enforce LIS education) when this undergraduate title was still new to the whole Spanish higher education system. The e-learning model allowed people inside the labour market to attend higher-education courses to increase their knowledge and professional expertise; –– quantitatively, because of the large number of students who attended this kind of teaching at the very beginning, the UOC became the main actor in the whole LIS university education Spanish system during this period (De la Moneda Corrochano 2014). UOC’s nearly 1700 alumni are the largest community in Spain with this undergraduate title. It can be said that the UOC was a main contributor to fulfilling the needs in Spain to help overcome a lack of LIS education for a large number of professional, non-traditional students. –– it introduced a very specific model of instruction in distance education, which was fully based on an e-learning environment via the internet. The instructional methodology of the degree was an asynchronous model, intensive in the use of e-mail and forum communication and in the individual and collaborative use of digital content and learning resources in a virtual campus environment. In this context, close student guidance and supervision by instructors took a central role. In such a learning environment, planning and instructional design acquired a key importance; –– new specific subjects were introduced into LIS education in Spain at that time, such as competitive intelligence, digital libraries, human computer interaction, information audit, and knowledge management. In fact, this brought, for the first time in Spanish universities, the introduction of a programme inspired by iSchool ideas such as those pointed out by Seadle and Greifeneder (2007). Several years after UOC started with its distance education activity in 1999, other universities with face-to-face programmes began their own distance education initiatives: León (2006–2007), Carlos III de Madrid (2007–2008), Barcelona (2011–



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2012), and Extremadura (2011–2012). To date, none of them has acquired the size of the UOC in their distance campuses. As for their distance learning models, they have some resemblances and also some differences from the UOC model. Among the differences, they use some forms of face-to-face classroom interaction; hence they could be considered as hybrid models falling somewhere in between distance and face-to-face education. These programmes have resulted in an increase and a diversification of LIS higher education models in Spain. In the 1999–2014 period, another major shift in Spain universities took place with the implementation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). This implementation started with the Bologna Declaration of 1999, where 29–30 countries expressed their willingness to commit to enhancing the competitiveness of the European Higher Education Area. Thus, the EHEA Process was meant “to strengthen the competitiveness and attractiveness of the European higher education and to foster student mobility and employability through the introduction of a system based on undergraduate and postgraduate studies with easily readable programmes and degrees” (The European Higher Education Area 1999). In the LIS field, as well as in others, it brought changes in the structure and methodology of undergraduate education. Then, a new undergraduate title, Grau d’Informació i Documentació (the title Grau in the Spanish transition to the EHEA refers to a degree of 240 credits ECTS), was set up. Each university took different strategic decisions about the degree’s new design, which was based on a wider range of knowledge, including more management, communication and information technology topics (López-Borrull et al. 2011). Competitive intelligence techniques were used in some cases to enhance the design of degree programmes (Ortoll et al. 2008; Garcia-Alsina, Ortoll and Lopez-Borrull 2011; Garcia-Alsina, Ortoll and Cobarsí-Morales 2013). But there was not only competition, but also collaboration between universities. In this sense, a key reference for the new four-year degree, which was started in Spanish universities in the period 2008–2010, was the so-called Libro Blanco de Información y Documentación (“White Paper”) (ANECA 2004). The White Paper was written in 2004 in a collaborative way by the network of Spanish universities in the LIS area with the Universitat de Barcelona as coordinator, and it set up general guidelines for the four-year undergraduate title. Due to this cooperation, most degrees in the Spanish higher education system had the White Paper as a reference for each knowledge area. The previous experience of UOC, introducing new contents and skills, was a relevant source for establishing these guidelines.

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Distance Learning Models In 1999, at the beginning of our historical period, two distance education models were in place in the Spanish higher education system: –– Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED) had begun its academic activities in the early 70s, at the same time the UK’s Open University began. In 1999, its model was based on the delivery of documents and learning materials to students by traditional mail, including the option of synchronous face-to-face consulting with an instructor every two weeks or so in the UNED dependencies (there were dozens of UNED dependencies all over Spain). UNED had, at that time, a long experience with degrees such as Law, but they have not been an academic actor regarding LIS; –– UOC’s academic activity in the LIS area began in 1999 with the start of the Documentation undergraduate title (Llicenciatura en Documentació). UOC began its academic activities in 1994 with a model that had the following characteristics: asynchronous communication (between instructors and students, and between students and peers); ongoing interaction and feedback enhanced by the intensive use of an intranet environment, including advanced e-mail and forum capabilities (a virtual campus); student empowerment and engagement through ongoing educational activities and intensive use of digital educational resources and content; and traceability of educational activity and processes through virtual campus logs and mail communication. UOC-like models involve some key organizational features: –– technology thoroughly embedded into the organization. The administrative and educational processes are highly coupled so that there is a need to make processes more explicit and specific (Cornford 2000); –– a new need for instructional design, especially concerning activity design, planning, and student orientation and feedback (Neidorf 2006). In this sense, a close guidance of the students in such an environment is very important with ongoing communication and feedback with instructors, information focused on enhancing students’ self-organization, and suitable interactions with peers and instructors; –– an increasing importance of the students’ sense of community and networking capabilities, which are important facets in this sort of education environment (Canals, Cobarsí and Ortoll 2007); –– an e-learning environment that enhances traceability of processes and behaviours, and facilitates quality management practices and tracking of students’ activity (Sangrà 2002).



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UOC was created from the beginning with specific organizational features to enhance this kind of e-learning model (Cobarsí 2008): flexibility, start-up culture, an instructional design unit focused on e-learning, and its own technological environment also focused on e-learning (the “virtual campus”). In contrast, most current universities still show a structure tied to a mix of agriculture-era and industrial-era organizations (Bates 2000); hence they struggle to foster organizational changes in order to adapt to this new university organizational environment (Bates and Sangrà 2011). Other LIS universities began their own distance initiatives a few years later: León (2006–2007), Carlos III de Madrid (2007–2008), Barcelona (2011–2012), and Extremadura (2011–2012). In fact, they used hybrid models, somewhere between distance and face-to-face education. In this sort of environment, periodic faceto-face sessions were used on a volunteer basis oriented towards lessons, supervision and guidance on activities, and so on. In some cases, these sessions were recorded and published in an e-learning digital environment. Such initiatives in this period are to be viewed in the context of a general trend in the Spanish higher education system (not just in the LIS area), with non-distance universities trying to get the attention of non-traditional students (Argudo et al. 2012; Martín and Rodríguez 2012; Pacio and Bueno 2013).

Building the LIS Trajectory and a New Degree in the Spanish University System Different authors have previously reported the evolution of LIS in Spain (Abadal and Miralpeix 1999; Abadal 2013; Ortiz-Repiso et al. 2013). As Abadal (2013, 213) states, “everyone agrees on the relevance that it has acquired information but at the same time, this importance is not related to the discipline, LIS, and with professionals dealing with its organization and dissemination”. This fact could be considered a paradox related to the extension of the importance of being able to properly manage information of all disciplines. At the beginning of this period, in 1998, there was a short tradition of LIS university education in Spain. The main predecessor of the current faculties and schools is the one in Barcelona. This Librarians’ School was created as a professional school in 1915 by the Mancomunitat of Catalonia, a sort of Commonwealth of district public administrators in the Catalonia region, for training librarians. It is the oldest library school in Europe, now part of the Universitat de Barcelona faculty. As a part of the Universitat de Barcelona faculty, it is the oldest library school in Europe. Being part of the University System, the three-year degree, the

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Diplomatura, began to be offered in 1983. But there was need for more in-depth knowledge and teaching, including skills related to management. Thus, the Llicenciatura de 2on Cicle en Documentació had to fill this gap in education. Fifteen years of e-learning in LIS in the UOC have supported two main conclusions. First, LIS, having a strong dependence on Information and Communication Technologies, can be learnt in a distance model. Secondly, it meant a step forward from a technical knowledge to a scientific orientation. Therefore, the development of the full degree and some PhD programmes allowed LIS to keep in step with the rest of the Social Sciences. Before the transition to EHEA, the UOC e-learning methodology and the approach of the curricula for the Degree in LIS was already very close to the requirements of the EHEA. Hence, it was relatively easy fort he UOC to make the transition to EHEA taking into account both specific and cross-curriculum skills (Sanz and López-Borrull 2008). As a result, the UOC was able to increase the skills and content that LIS shared with other disciplines. As it has been previously stated, the EHEA became the opportunity to design a new four-year degree reconsidering the whole curriculum. In the White Paper written in 2004 (ANECA), a list of skills and four professional profiles were agreed to by the universities with LIS degrees. These profiles (Library, Special Library, Archive, and Content Manager) were the traditional LIS profile in Spain and they could be considered as an extension of the three-year degree (Diplomatura). Considering the decrees made by the Spanish Government, which allowed a percentage of optional subjects, some Universities designed new subjects related to the new kind of professional that society and the labour market were beginning to describe. For instance, in the UOC, five different groups of optional subjects were created considering five profiles: Library and Documentation, Information Management: Information Analyst, Information Management: Record Management, Information Management: Information Architecture, and Information Systems Management. All these new profiles, with their respective subjects were, in fact, designed by the UOC to expand the discipline to overlap with other disciplines, like Communication and Computer Science (Myburgh 2005; Lawson, Kroll and Kowatch 2010).



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The LIS Distance Education in the LIS Undergraduate University Programmes: a Quantitative Approach In this section we provide a quantitative overview of LIS university education in Spain in this period. Table 21.1 shows the total number of students of all academic years (1999–2013) for all universities (18 institutions) and all titles (diplomatura, llicenciatura, and grau). These numbers include distance students as well as non-distance students. Based on these numbers, the top five universities are: Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Universitat de Barcelona, Universidad de Granada, and Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. The UOC is the top Spanish university in this period, which is more remarkable when we take into account that it is the only one among the top five that offers only two of the three titles (llicenciatura and grau). The UOC concentrates mostly on distance students in this period, as we see further on in more detail. Table 21.1: Total number of students by university in 1998–2013 period (diplomatura, llicenciatura, and grau, distance and non distance). Source: De la Moneda Corrochano (2014) and Servicio de Información Interuniversitaria. University

Total

%

Universitat Oberta de Catalunya Universidad Complutense de Madrid Universidad de Barcelona Universidad de Granada Universidad Carlos III de Madrid Universidad de Murcia Universidad de Salamanca Universitat de València Universidad de Extremadura Universidad de Zaragoza Other (8 universities)

13,851 10,520 9,834 8,634 7,310 5,389 4,755 4,354 3,703 2,380 10,173

17.12 13.00 12.15 10.67 9.03 6.66 5.87 5.38 4.57 2.94 12.61

Table 21.2 shows the total number of alumni in the period 1999–2013 for all universities and titles in a similar way as in Table 21.1. The five universities with the most alumni in this period are: Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Universidad de Granada, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Universitat de Barcelona, and Universitat Oberta de Catalunya. It must be taken into account that the UOC had begun its academic activity in 1999.Moreover, non-traditional students attending distance education tend to be part-time students, while non-distance students

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tend to be full time ones. So, the overall time it takes to obtain their degree is usually longer for distance students. In broad terms, a non-distance student may need one year to complete an academic year, while a distance student may need one and a half years to complete an academic year. In this sense, as shown in more detail later, UOC’s significant contribution to the number of alumni in this period is not as noticeable from the beginning, because it is a new university in the area and has students who need more time to complete their degree. Table 21.2: Total number of alumni by university in 1998–2013 period (diplomatura, llicenciatura, and grau, distance and not distance). Source: De la Moneda Corrochano (2014) and Servicio de Información Interuniversitaria. University Universidad Complutense de Madrid Universidad de Granada Universidad Carlos III de Madrid Universitat de Barcelona Universitat Oberta de Catalunya Universidad de Salamanca Universidad de Murcia Universidad de Extremadura Universitat de València Universidade da Corunha Other (8 universities)

Total 2,358 2,157 1,969 1,868 1,629 1,149 963 932 692 468 1,010

% 15.51 14.19 12.95 12.29 10.72 7.56 6.33 6.13 4.55 3.07 6.64

In Figure 21.1, we summarize the total distribution of students between different learning models. All Spanish LIS universities are included as well as all titles (diplomatura, llicenciatura, and grau). Three models are in place in this period: e-learning-based virtual distance model (Universitat Oberta de Catalunya), faceto-face models (with 17 universities in place), and hybrid distance models mainly based in virtual distance initiatives with some face-to-face communication included. These hybrid models start in different years during the analysed period: León (2006–2007), Carlos III de Madrid (2007–2008), Barcelona (2011–2012), and Extremadura (2011–2012). These universities also maintain their face-to-face campus, which means that there is no university with only a hybrid model. The proportion of LIS students that study through the virtual distance model at UOC rises consistently from 10% at the beginning of the period to 20% or more since 2007–2008, with a slow trend of decrease in the two last years of the period. In contrast, face-to-face decreases consistently from almost 90% at the beginning of the period to a bit more than 70% at the end. Hybrid distance/face-to-face models



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began with less than 1% (one university) in 2006–2007 and increased to 7% (four universities) at the end of the period.

Figure 21.1: Evolution and distribution of students for the different learning models. Source: De la Moneda Corrochano (2014) and Servicio de Información Interuniversitaria.

The proportion of LIS alumni who studied under the virtual distance model (UOC) rose consistently from zero at the beginning of the period to more than 18% in 2005–2006, then decreases to 14% or so in the period 2007–2011, but ends with an increase in the last two years of the period. This late increase may be due to students trying to obtain the Llicenciatura, as the EHEA would mean the extinction of older degrees, both Llicenciatura and Diplomatura. Numbers of face-to-face alumni follow almost exactly the opposite pattern because of the small significance of hybrid models in this period. Figure 21.2 shows the number of students in the llicenciatura title (the first undergraduate degree in Spain with distance learning) of the three models in this period. In broad terms, UOC’s virtual distance model includes more than 35% of students across the analysed period, with a sharp increase during the last two years to 58% and 71% respectively. Thus the UOC distance model holds a very strong position in llicenciatura teaching in Spain. The numbers of the two last years of the period are exceptional because the UOC was one of the Spanish universities already closing llicenciatura teaching when the grau EHEA title was put in place. This choice was consistent with the UOC mission to teach non-traditional students with a part-time study profile. Face-to-face teaching during this period has been close to 65% except in the last years. Hybrid distance models have little significance.

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Figure 21.2: Evolution and distribution of students for the different learning models in the Llicenciatura degree. Source: De la Moneda Corrochano (2014) and Servicio de Información Interuniversitaria.

In Figure 21.3, the number of alumni for the llicenciatura is summarized. It shows a continuous increase in the number of students that obtained their degree with models different from face-to-face: these models include nearly 40% of total alumni by the end of the period.

Figure 21.3: Evolution and distribution of alumni for the different learning models in the Llicenciatura degree. Source: De la Moneda Corrochano (2014) and Servicio de Información Interuniversitaria.

Finally, in Table 21.3, we summarize the proportion of new students for the new EHEA title (grau Informació i Documentació). The data available for the first years of EHEA (2008–2013), combined with the data available for all undergraduate



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degrees in the whole period 1999–2013, means that 30% of the students use both virtual and hybrid model in Spain in obtaining their titles. Table 21.3: New students in the EHEA undergraduate degree grau (2008–2013). Source: De la Moneda Corrochano (2014) and Servicio de Información Interuniversitaria. Mode Virtual distance (UOC) Hybrid distance Face to face

Total new students 606 351 2,498

% 19.52 10.15 70.33

Conclusions From a quantitative point of view, distance models in LIS university education have attracted a high proportion of students in the period 1999–2014 in Spain. In broad terms, of the total number of students working for the three existing university degrees (diplomatura, llicenciatura, grau), almost 20% attended distance courses. The proportion grows to 35% if we focus on the llicenciatura degree only (diplomatura had no distance initiatives for most of the analysed period and grau begun as a degree in the last years of this period). Concerning the alumni numbers, nearly 12% came from distance initiatives, a figure that grows to 20% when we focus only on the llicenciatura degree. The impact of distance initiatives on the number of alumni is more moderate than the impact on the number of students: a key reason for that is the greater amount of time needed by non-traditional, distance students in order to achieve their academic degrees. Another important reason is that the proportion of students giving up distance courses is higher than in conventional courses. According to Rodriguez Fernández (2014), 70% of students in Spain give up in virtual studies, while in non-virtual studies it is only 10%. The main LIS distance initiative in this period is UOC’s e-learning based model. The distance students who attended UOC in this period comprised a significant proportion of the total students. UOC’s experience was not just introducing distance education to LIS programmes; it was also a methodological approach to the later introduction of EHEA standards and it was the first time iSchool movement ideas were introduced in LIS undergraduate teaching in Spain (UOC entered the iSchool network later on, in 2013). EHEA’s new undergraduate title, grau, started in Spain in 2007–2008, having as a key reference the White Paper from 2004, which was a collaborative initiative of Spanish LIS universi-

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ties coordinated by the Universitat de Barcelona. Other distance initiatives were started during the second half of this period by universities with the face-to-face traditional method (León, Carlos III de Madrid, Barcelona, Extremadura) with less quantitative impact. From a qualitative point of view, these initiatives are set up as hybrid models, with a mix of distance and face-to-face, and show a trend towards becoming fully distance initiatives. Digitalization of the educational environment for distance initiatives matches with trends of digitalization of the LIS environment, as well as general labour and lifestyle trends. Keeping into account the experience in this period in Spain, especially UOC’s e-learning degrees, and current trends, there are some insights about the future of LIS distance education initiatives that might be useful for distance education in other disciplines. Considering future trends and challenges, and being able to rethink the role of the LIS discipline’s contribution to developing future e-learning initiatives in close collaboration with other social science and technology disciplines, the following points should be taken into account: –– the challenge for distance learning environments is to assure not just proper information and guidance for students, but also a high level of engagement for them. In this connection, experiences in the UOC, such as virtual classrooms structured around students’ activity instead of course content, are worth considering, as well as new formats of educational resources with a focus on narrative or serious game strategies; –– the convenience of facilitating and optimizing student networking in these new environments is at least as critical as in face to face environments, as peer collaboration and mutual help are powerful resources for students’ success. For LIS professionals, many of whom work on interdisciplinary teams or networked environments, distance education experience may be especially useful. Universities will have to cope with other challenges as well. For instance, the tracking of students’ activity in e-learning environments generates huge amounts of data. Thus, opportunities are open to contextualize this data in order to get a better understanding of behaviour patterns, preferences, interests and social practices in place. Last but not least, we could point to a fundamental challenge in current distance education. There is a need to shift from the use of technology to achieve an “automatization” of educational processes toward trying to achieve an “augmentation” and strengthen educational capabilities based on innovative thinking about educational resources and environments. All in all, Spanish undergraduate distance education experience in LIS encourages innovative thinking about the future of LIS higher education. Thus it



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may be a source for future prospective thinking as reported by Marchionini and Moran (2012).

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Ernest Abadal (Universitat de Barcelona), Josefina Gallego (Universidad de Leon), and Virginia Ortiz-Repiso (Universidad Carlos III de Madrid and coordinator of the RUID, Red de centros y departamentos Universitarios españoles de Información y Documentación) for the information and data related to the degrees given in their universities and in Spain. We also want to thank Maria Taulats (Universitat Oberta de Catalunya) for contributing with information concerning alumni and students.

References Abadal, Ernest and Concepció Miralpeix. 1999. “La enseñanza de la biblioteconomía y la documentación en la universidad española a finales de los noventa.” BiD: textos universitaris de biblioteconomia i documentació 2. http://bid.ub.edu/02abamir.htm. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Abadal, Ernest. 2013. “La biblioteconomía y la documentación en la universidad española a principios del siglo XXI.” Nuovi annali della Scuola speciale per archivisti e bibliotecari 27: 211–228. Agencia Nacional de Evaluación de la Calidad y Acreditación (ANECA). 2004. “Libro Blanco del título de grado de Información y Documentación.” http://www.aneca.es/var/ media/150424/libroblanco_jun05_documentacion.pdf. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Argudo, Sílvia, Andreu Sulé, Jorge Franganillo, Teresa Mañà and Anna Rubió. 2012. “Introducción de la semipresencialidad en el Grado de Información y Documentación.” Paper presented in the Congrés Internacional de Docència Universitària i Innovació CIDUI 2012, Barcelona, 4–6 July. Bates, A. W. 2000. Managing Technological Change: Strategies for College and University Leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bates, A. W. and Albert Sangrà. 2011. Managing Technology in Higher Education: Strategies for Transforming Teaching and Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Canals, Agustí, Josep Cobarsí and Eva Ortoll. 2007. “Students Social Networks and Academic Performance in Online University.” Paper presented at the 23rd EGOS Conference, Vienna, 5–7 July. Cobarsí, Josep. 2008. “The Open University of Catalonia as a Virtual University.” In Encyclopedia of Networked and Virtual Organizations, edited by Goran D. Putnik and Maria Manuela Cunha, 1145–1150. London: Information Science Reference. Cornford, James. 2000. “The Virtual University is ... the University Made Concrete?” Information, Communication & Society 3(4): 508–525.

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De la Moneda Corrochano, Mercedes. 2014. “Las cifras de la enseñanza universitaria de Documentación en España 2012.” Anuario ThinkEPI 6: 24–38. Duart, Josep Maria and Albert Sangrà. 2000. Aprender en la virtualidad. Barcelona: Gedisa, Edicions de la UOC. European Higher Education Area (EHEA). 1999. “Bologna Declaration.” http://www.ehea.info/ Uploads/Declarations/BOLOGNA_DECLARATION1.pdf. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Garcia-Alsina, Montserrat, Eva Ortoll and Alexandre Lopez-Borrull. 2011. “Aplicaciones emergentes de la Inteligencia Competitiva en las universidades.” El Profesional de la Informacion 5: 503–509. http://hdl.handle.net/10760/16149. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Garcia-Alsina, Montserrat, Eva Ortoll and Josep Cobarsí-Morales. 2013. “Enabler an inhibitor factors influencing competitive intelligence practices.” Aslib Proceedings: New Information Perspectives 65(3): 262–288. Lawson, Judy, Joana Kroll and Kelly Kowatch. 2010. The New Information Professional: Your Guide to Careers in the Digital Age. New York: Neal-Schumann. López-Borrull, Alexandre, Eva Ortoll, Sandra Sanz-Martos and Josep Cobarsí-Morales. 2011. “Reflexiones de disciplina. Menciones de grado como estrategia de expansión de la Información y la Documentación.” Paper presented in the XII Jornadas Españolas de Información y Documentación, Malaga, 25–27 May. http://hdl.handle.net/10760/18759. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Marchionini, Gary and Barbara Moran, ed. 2012. Information Professionals 2050: Educational Possibilities and Pathways. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. http://sils.unc.edu/sites/default/files/publications/Information-Professionals-2050.pdf. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Martín Galán, Bonifacio and David Rodríguez. 2012. “La evaluación de la formación universitaria semipresencial y en línea en el contexto del EEES mediante el uso de informes de actividad de la plataforma Moodle.” RIED: Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia 15(1): 159–178. Myburgh, Sue. 2005. The New Information Professional: How to Thrive in the Information Age Doing what you Love. Oxford: Chandos Publishing. Neidorf, Robin. 2006. Teach Beyond Your Reach: An Instructor’s Guide to Developing and Running Successful Distance Learning Classes, Workshops, Training Sessions and More. London: Information Today. Ortiz-Repiso, Virginia; Calzada-Prado, Javier; Aportela Rodríguez, Ivette M. 2013. “¿Qué está pasando con los estudios universitarios de Biblioteconomía y Documentación en España?. El Profesional de la Información 22 (6): 505–514. Ortoll-Espinet, Eva, Alexandre López-Borrull, Josep Cobarsí-Morales, Montserrat Garcia-Alsina and Agustí Canals. 2008. “Social Capital as the Source of Competitive Intelligence in Universities.” UOC Papers 7: 1–8. http://www.uoc.edu/uocpapers/7/dt/eng/ortoll_lopez_ cobarsi_garcia_canals.pdf. Accessed on 15 January 2016. Pacio, Ana R and Gema Bueno. 2013. “Trabajo en equipo y liderazgo en un entorno de aprendizaje virtual.” Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento (RUSC) 10(2): 112–129. Rodríguez Fernández, Noemi. 2014. “Evaluación de las necesidades formativas del tutor de la UNED y de la UOC.” Edutec. Revista Electrónica de Tecnología Educativa 50: 1–21. http:// www.edutec.es/revista/index.php/edutec-e/article/view/142/11. Accessed on 15 January 2016.



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Sangrà, Albert. 2002. “A new learning model for the Information and Knowledge Society: the Case of the UOC.” International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning 2(2): 1–19. Sanz Martos, Sandra and Alexandre López-Borrull. 2008. “El proceso de adaptación al EEES: la titulación de Documentación de la UOC, un camino más corto por recorrer.” Paper presented in III Encuentro Ibérico de Docentes e Investigadores en Información y Documentación. Salamanca, 5–7 May. Seadle, Michael and Elke Greifeneder. 2007. “Envisioning an iSchool Curriculum.” Information Research 12(4). http://InformationR.net/ir/12-4/colis/colise02. Accessed on 15 January 2016.

Nosheen Fatima Warraich, Amara Malik and Kanwal Ameen

22 In Search of New Horizons Agenda of LIS Schools in Pakistan

Introduction: A Hundred Years of LIS education in Pakistan (1915–2015) The history of LIS education in the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent dates back to 1915 when an American librarian, Asa Don Dickinson, came to Lahore and started the first LIS education programme at the University of the Punjab (PU). Dickinson designed a postgraduate course, but undergraduate, working librarians were also admitted into it in the beginning. He specifically designed a series of lectures on modern library methods to train PU librarians. At that time, the faculty of the PU Library Science School consisted of Mr and Mrs Dickinson. He compiled the lectures and wrote the first textbook on library science, The Punjab Library Primer (Anwar 1990a). The University of the Punjab also has the honour of offering the first library education programme as a university in Asia, and it has been recognized worldwide (Kanwal and Warraich 2014, 188). Kaser (1982) wrote in the Journal of Academic Librarianship: Many other countries on earth where librarianship has experienced vastly greater languor would like to know the secret of Pakistan’s comparative success” (p.163). In Kaser’s opinion, the selection of Asa Don Dickinson may be part of that secret (1992, p.9).

During 1916, “he helped his students to form the Punjab Library Association, the first professional library association in Indo-Pakistan” (Anwar 1990, 4). After his departure in 1916, this course remained suspended, but it was revived in 1918 and converted into a postgraduate course in 1928 (Khurshid 1992). Additionally during this time, the first journal of Library Science, Modern Librarian, was published in 1930 in Lahore. Modern Librarian was the first journal to be published by the Punjab Library Association (Anwar 1990). Due to the partition of India in 1947, the migration of people on both sides of the border, and political unrest on large scale, the certificate course was suspended from 1946 to 1950. This certificate course had a deep-rooted impact on librarianship in the region. The alumni of PU started LIS programmes and formed other library associations in India and Pakistan, such as Bombay (1921), Baroda



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(1924), Bengal (1925), and Madras (1928). The Indian Library Association was formed in 1933.

Research Objectives Traditional planning views the future passively, meaning that the future will arrive no matter what planning takes place. On the other hand, some organizations plan actively to create the future instead of waiting passively for one to arrive. The aims of this paper are: –– to describe the status of different LIS programmes in Pakistan; –– to discuss the future direction of LIS schools for meeting the impending challenges.

Research Design This study used the qualitative approach to get a vivid picture and an in-depth understanding of the current and future challenges faced by LIS schools in Pakistan. A qualitative approach is used due to its strength in understanding complex organizational and social phenomena more clearly. Its “bottom-up” approach to local problems and issues allows complexities to be elucidated by those who are directly involved rather than studied from a distance by remote researchers (Gorman et al. 2005). This study used different methods to gather relevant data. A focus group with the Department of Information Management faculty members was conducted in April 2014 to unfold their perceptions regarding the future of LIS education in the country. Faculty members were invited to this focus group; they provided their consent to participate in this study as volunteers but were served with refreshment at the end of the session. Seven faculty members participated in the focus group: three have doctorate degree and four are pursuing it. All the participants’ ages ranged from 30 to 40 years old. The principal author herself moderated the focus group and took notes during this process. This study is also based on a literature review, discussions with peers, and the authors’ personal experiences to predict a plausible future. To meet the first objective of the study regarding the current status of different LIS programmes in Pakistan, data was collected through literature review, discussions with peers, and the authors’ personal experiences. The second objec-

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tive pertaining to the future direction of LIS schools was met through the focus group data supported by the literature.

Status of Different LIS Programmes in Pakistan The growth of library education in Pakistan can be divided into four gradual stages: from certificate course to diploma course, and from Master in Library and Information Science (MLIS) to research programmes (MPhil and PhD). During recent years, four-year BS programmes have also been introduced in some universities. Despite the progress in LIS education from the certificate to the PhD level, its degree structure is also perplexing, straying in the zigzag of diploma, four-year BS, two-year master’s, MPhil with course work or thesis, and PhD. Some LIS schools have started four-year BS programmes without proper planning. This state of affairs is creating confusion on the part of students, employers and educators equally. In Pakistan, ten LIS schools offer MLIS programmes regularly and three offer four-year BS programmes. Five schools offer MPhil programmes and five offer a PhD programme. All these programmes have different admission criteria, faculty status, specializations, implementation of curriculum, infrastructure, and student evaluation criteria. Even the nomenclature of schools varies, for example, Library Science, Library and Information Science, Library and Archival Studies, Information Management. At present, LIS education is in a transitional phase in Pakistan. The Higher Education Commission of Pakistan took many initiatives to design a standard curriculum for LIS schools. However, it is not properly implemented in all LIS schools due to different factors. LIS is not a desired career among professionals. They join LIS schools and the profession on referral usually from family members and seniors rather than by choice. They consider librarianship as job-oriented instead of a service-oriented profession (Warraich and Ameen 2011). LIS schools have a weak intake at the entry level. These students are commonly from humanities and social sciences background. The principal author conducted a survey of the sixty students who got admission in 2014–2016 for the Master’s and MPhil tracks. Most of the students have graduated with majors in languages and religion, as these subjects are considered high-marks securers. After that, they are able to get admission in LIS. Only a few students have strong academic backgrounds with science and business subjects. Now the Department of Information Management, PU has changed the admission criteria for science graduates to encourage them. It gives



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them an extra ten marks to facilitate an admission process that will hopefully, improve the intake of the department. Overall, in the LIS discipline, students are passive learners with low motivation levels in capturing new learning opportunities, with the exception of 10–15% of students in each class. There is also an imbalance between the demand and supply of LIS graduates at the entry level. The surplus supply of LIS graduates has caused a low equilibrium price (wage) in the job market. Following are the details of different programmes offered by LIS schools in the country:

LIS Diploma Programmes After independence, Karachi University started a one-year postgraduate diploma in Library Science in 1956. In 1959, the University of the Punjab’s certificate course was raised to be a one-year diploma. The University of Peshawar started a diploma course in 1962, followed by the University of Sindh in 1970 and Islamia University Bahawalpur in 1981.

LIS Master’s Programmes A Master in Library Science (MLIS) programme was started by Karachi University in 1962 and then by PU in 1974. Other LIS schools in the country followed suit and started their programmes in the 70s and 80s. At that time, the MLIS had two independent programmes. Part one was called “diploma” and part two was called “Master”. Now all LIS schools offer a two-year composite Master’s programme based on a semester or annual system. The year a Master’s programme was started at different universities is as follows: –– University of Karachi: 1962; –– University of the Punjab, Lahore: 1974; –– University of Sindh, Jamshoro: 1974; –– University of Peshawar: 1983; –– Islamia University, Bahawalpur: 1983; –– University of Baloshistan, Quetta: 1985; –– Allama Iqbal Open University: 2001; –– Mohi-ud-din University, Islamabad: 2003; –– Sarhad University of Sciences and Technology: 2006; –– University of Sargodha: 2008; –– Minhaj University (As a 3-day weekend, evening programme): 2013.

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LIS Research Programmes The University of Karachi was the first one to start a traditional, thesis-only based, 5 year PhD programme in 1967. Currently, there are two research tracks offered by LIS schools according to the instructions of the Higher Education Commission (HEC). These tracks are as follows: –– MPhil programme: This programme is offered after the Master in LIS (16 years of education). There is 24-credit hours of coursework with a research thesis. The MPhil is equivalent to 18 years of education; –– PhD programme: After two years of a MPhil programme, the PhD programme is offered. It has 18-credit hours of coursework with a research thesis. There is extensive research work on this level that is evaluated by two foreign and one local referee; –– MPhil leading to PhD programme: This research programme/scheme of study was introduced by the Higher Education of Commission (HEC) in 2003 and was offered in different disciplines. In this track, a candidate had to complete 24 credit hours of coursework with a minimum ¾ CGPA. After that s/he had to pass comprehensive exams to be converted into a PhD programme and complete 18-credit hours of coursework of PhD work. In fact, it consisted of 42-credit hour coursework with a PhD thesis. Now this track is not being offered by HEC in any university. In 2005, the track “MPhil leading to PhD programme” was started by PU followed by other LIS schools. The principal author is a graduate of this first cohort of “MPhil leading to PhD programme”. This leading research programme has a positive impact on overall research productivity nationally and internationally. PU awarded five PhD degrees from 2011–2013 and ten students are currently working on their dissertations. Three other LIS schools have started PhD programmes, but they have yet to produce any PhD graduates (except Sindh University, which has awarded one PhD degree) due to not having a PhD faculty.

Results and Discussion In future planning, multiple variables are studied to understand and predict the future that is not simple or certain, but rather is multiple, complex and uncertain. This study is an attempt to explore the future trends of LIS schools in Paki-



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stan. The following is a list of key topics we discovered from the focus group with faculty members, supported by literature:

1 Intake of LIS Schools In Pakistan, LIS is not a chosen profession and is popular among the in-service employees whose sole motto is to get better grades with the least amount of effort. LIS departments have to embrace a weak intake of leftovers, mostly having educational background in humanities and social sciences. During the focus group, four faculty members opined that the lack of lavish job facilities, and a poor social image and status in society are big hindrances in enticing brilliant students apply for the programmes. One said “it is hard to find the best and brightest in the job market due to weak intake on entry level”. Two suggested that LIS schools must chalk out strategies to enhance their social image and visibility to become a preferred profession. They should take steps to reform entry requirements to attract fresh students with diverse educational background in business, science and technology. One respondent mentioned the admission criteria of the Department of Information Management, PU that has been specifically changed to get students with good academic backgrounds. Two PhD faculty members advocated that students with specific subject backgrounds bring specific skill sets, perspectives, knowledge, and attitudes. Singh and Wijetunge (2006) emphasised that fresh students are more curious and mentally alert as compared to their elder counterparts.

2 Job Market Due to the transformation of society from an agriculture economy to an information economy, new job avenues are emerging in electronic media, business and industry. LIS “is not limited to librarians but includes archivists, documentalists, records managers (information managers), web editors, and (possibly) publishers and museologists” (Tedd 2008). Focus group participants, LIS faculty members, extensively discussed the changing job market of their graduates. They emphasised that LIS schools need to explore and cultivate new job markets to shift their focus from traditional librarianship to cultivate modern information professionals. Three respondents suggested that restructuring and redesigning the LIS curriculum is imperative to capture a diverse job market. One said “there is a cosmetic treatment of IT-oriented courses”, while another said “course contents are out of date, and a piecemeal approach is prevailing in

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the delivery of contents”. One suggested that offering specialization is necessary to train the graduates according to job market needs. On the implementation of curriculum, all participants showed serious concern. It direly needs to focus on information management aspects in the curriculum and assure its true implementation. The Higher Education Commission of Pakistan has designed a curriculum for all LIS schools in the country. However, schools vary in its implementation due to differences in physical infrastructure and the expertise of the faculty. One PhD faculty member said “LIS is a multidisciplinary subject in its nature that enhances its liaison with different academic disciplines and industry to develop specialized courses.” Two opined that LIS schools should conduct periodic alumni and employee surveys to know their needs and expectations, and change the course contents accordingly. This exercise will be helpful to create more employment avenues for their graduates and understanding the changing dynamics of the job market. The principal author conducted two surveys of LIS alumni and their employers in 2008 and 2011, and changes were incorporated in the curriculum on the basis of findings. Furthermore, it is essential to market and promote the capabilities of their graduates to potential employers in the information and knowledge management sector (Miwa 2006). LIS education is in a transitional phase and there is a high supply of LIS graduates at the entry level with low salaries and poor working environments. However, all participants agreed that graduates with good IT and communication skills are getting better salaries and are in demand. In Pakistan, for LIS graduates working on getting a professional position, academic libraries are the traditional job market in both public and private sectors. As Stephens and Russell (2004, 239) explain, “Every person working in a library has a unique contribution to make towards the success of the organization, provided that person is committed to the mission of the library and his/her values are consistent with organizational values. Many of the skills employees bring to the job are never utilized. More and more employees today (but not all) seek to be fully engaged in the organization and its mission and to use their skills and knowledge in the workplace. At the same time, organizations are beginning to recognize the tremendous untapped potential within their employees.”

3 Needed competencies in LIS graduates LIS graduates must be equipped with sound professional, educational and technological knowledge. Additionally, the emerging electronic environment of the country demands less traditional library professionals and more information professionals with ICT and leadership skills (Mahmood 2002; Warraich 2011).



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LIS programmes are facing competition from IT, management, and other related disciplines due to their multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approaches. The respondents expressed their apprehension that management professionals may occupy librarians’ job market. Since the LIS profession shares boundaries with management and information technology, they expressed the fear that the LIS leadership crisis would become an opportunity for Management and IT experts. Therefore, the LIS professionals need to be able to cope with possible threats from other experts. The library leaders in Pakistan identified communication skills, knowledge of the subject, and IT orientation as the most needed competencies for library professionals (Warraich 2011). So, LIS schools have to instill managerial, technological and interpersonal skills into their graduates for their survival in the job market (Warraich 2008). The evolving status of LIS demands tech-savvy students with leadership skills. Now the challenge is preparing graduates with the mix of managerial, political, social, communication skills, leadership, and cutting-edge technological skills to better serve the sophisticated, information society.

4 Change in Nomenclature LIS schools’ course content reveals that the information science element is not truly embedded into their curriculum despite having this word in their nomenclature. One respondent said “avoiding the word ‘library’ in course names expands their horizon”. Due to emerging social, professional and technological trends, LIS schools in developed countries are converting into iSchools while also offering traditional MLIS degrees. However, the nature and pace of this trend is comparatively slow in third world countries like Pakistan, where a blend of traditional and modern skills is still required. But according to bright indicators for the information society in Pakistan, as discussed by Shafique and Mahmood (2008), it will be pertinent to re-orient core subject areas and change the nomenclature through eliminating “library” from titles in order to attract more applicants and capture new market avenues, as is done by Far East Asian countries like Japan, Thailand, China and Singapore (Miwa 2006). The LIS School in PU is a leading school in the country, and recently its nomenclature was changed to be the “Department of Information Management”.

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5 Programmes Advanced countries witnessed a growth in the number and types of academic offerings through collaboration and resource sharing with other programmes and institutions under the slogan of globalization (Jank, Chu and Koenig. 2013). New modules/courses are being offered to attract international students. New master’s degrees in specialized areas, like information studies, information systems management, health informatics, information management, knowledge management, etc., are being offered. In some countries, under the umbrella term of “information”, two parallel programmes are offered: traditional MLIS and MSc in Information Studies/Science. This trend will likely happen in our country as well. Currently, LIS education in Pakistan offers degrees at the Bachelor’s, Honours, Master’s, MPhil and PhD level. Now the Department of Information Management, PU offers the opportunity to working professionals to audit courses based on current trends. During recent years, a research culture has prevailed, enhancing research productivity and visibility. But still more quality research and research programmes are desirable to fill vacant higher positions (Shafique and Mahmood 2008). Furthermore, LIS schools have to look for distance learning and electronic learning (DL & EL) options for delivering courses contents as well.

6 Role of Faculty in LIS Education The faculty plays a vital role in the accomplishment of organizational goals by delivering course content in true spirit, mentoring pupils and producing good quality research. The University of Punjab (PU) is lucky in acquiring highly qualified teachers. All the participants in the focus group are faculty members in the Department of Information Management (PU), Lahore, Pakistan. This school has nine permanent faculty members besides the visiting faculty. Among the nine faculty members, six have PhDs and the remaining three are pursuing their PhDs and will complete their degrees soon. The research of the entire faculty gets published in good research journals. On the other hand, there is a shortage of PhD faculty in the other twelve LIS schools in the country. Only four schools have up to two PhD faculty members. Half of the LIS schools (6 out of 13) are working without PhD faculty members. It is a challenging task to implement curriculum in the true sense and offer specialization with a faculty who lack expertise in the emerging areas. One senior faculty member emphasised the diversity in the educational background among faculty in developing different specializations. One participant suggested developing interactive teaching methods for students’ better understanding. However,



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it is hard to get a competent and motivated faculty, and retaining them is even tougher.

7 Collaboration and resource sharing For visibility and to explore the prospective job market of their graduates, LIS schools have to collaborate with the corporate sector, research institutes, museums and archives, and the publishing industry. Furthermore, liaison resource sharing among LIS schools and LIS faculty at the national level will aid in delivering good quality education (Kanwal 2006). Gaps between LIS academicians and practitioners exist everywhere on the globe. Both the parties have their own areas of expertise that can be employed to achieve the common goals. Collaboration and resource sharing with other departments also enhance campus visibility.

8 Quality of LIS Programmes The issue of quality education has become a global phenomenon. The KALIPER project in North America, the LIPER project in Far East Asia, and the Bologna Declaration in Europe are evidence that LIS education all over the world is undergoing a transition period and facing the challenge of needing a globally, acceptable quality assurance system in higher education to promote mobility and employability of their graduates in a global market (Gorman 2004; Miwa 2006; Chu 2006). The issue of quality LIS education in Pakistan, regarding curriculum development, faculty, research produced, and infrastructure has been discussed in various studies (e.g., Khurshid 1992; Kanwal 2006; Haider and Mahmood 2007; Kanwal 2007; Kanwal 2013). The HEC has taken dynamic steps for creating a research culture and improving the quality of higher education in Pakistan by establishing Quality Assurance (QA) Cell and Quality Enhancement Cell (QEC) at all universities, the HEC Digital Library, and the Pakistan Research Repository, providing grants and scholarships for research, faculty development programmes, collaboration and training. Undoubtedly, in recent years, LIS has witnessed a proliferation in research programmes, research productivity and visibility (Mahmood and Shafique 2010). However, the issue of quality research productivity is still at the infancy stage. A mushroom growth of LIS programmes, without having regular qualified faculty, updated curriculum, and the proper physical and technological resources, is prevailing in the public and private sectors (Kanwal 2013; Ahmad and Mahmood 2011). “During the past 30 decades LIS education in Pakistan has developed in a

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hotchpotch manner…without considering the logical structure of the profession” (Anwar 2010). There is no accreditation body at the national level to regularize and standardize the LIS programmes. The HEC has taken the initiative in this respect but they are more recommendatory than mandatory (Kanwal 2007). The HEC and PLA will have to play their vital role in improving the quality of LIS education through accreditation of LIS programmes, standardized curricula, uniform admission criteria and programme duration, training programmes to produce paraprofessionals, and continuing education programmes for professionals and supportive staff.

Department of Information Management, University of the Punjab (PU) The Department of Information Management, PU is the leading pioneer of LIS education in the country. It changed its nomenclature from the Department of Library and Information Science (DLIS) to the Department of Information Management (DIM) in June 2014. It also has research-oriented and motivated faculty members that contribute nationally and internationally, and are visible due to their contributions. This school also started the formal coursework-based Mphil leading to a PhD programme in 2005 that led the foundation of research culture in the country and led to work in co-authorship. These LIS quality research programmes enhanced the research productivity of research students in joint work with faculty. Following are the strengths of this school that distinguish it from other schools in the country: –– regularly publishing in the HEC recognized research journal; –– updated curriculum with periodic evaluation; –– graduates with better employability skills; –– active alumni association. Other LIS schools in the country need to follow this model.

Recommendations LIS educators should: –– re-envision LIS education; –– focus on market oriented skills;



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–– implement curriculum focused on innovation and learning; –– ensure quality of teaching and research; –– develop the corporate image of LIS.

Conclusion Traditional LIS schools seem to be outdated. IT and Management professionals will occupy their job market if LIS professionals passively wait for the future instead of planning the future actively. LIS is not limited to traditional libraries. It includes archives, museums, records management, publishing industry, information centres, web editors and knowledge management. LIS schools are in a transitional phase, and new avenues are emerging and need to be explored. To occupy new job markets, the following competencies are needed: knowledge, social, managerial, technological, communication, and political skills. There is also a dire need for training in specific skills instead of vocational training. Multidisciplinary programmes are emerging in LIS schools in the developed world. However, this practice is also required in Pakistani LIS schools. Possible disciplines that can collaborate with LIS schools include business, education, and ICT development and management. To survive, LIS Schools have to plan the future actively to tap available opportunities and redefine current jobs. There is also a need to hire faculty with diverse skills and expertise to facilitate a long-term, sustainable future. Otherwise, other disciplines will avail themselves of these opportunities.

References Anwar, Mumtaz. 1990. “Asa Don Dickinson: the Founding Father of Modern Librarianship in British India.” In The Punjab Library Primer by Asa Don Dickinson, 1–18. Lahore: Asia Book Centre. Anwar, Mumtaz A. 2010. “Looming crisis for LIS professionals in Pakistan.” Info@PULISAA 1(3): 5–7. Ahmad, Shehzad, and Khalid Mahmood. 2011. “Library and Information Science Education in Pakistan – A Decade of Development – 2000–2009.” Pakistan Library and Information Science Journal 42(3): 3–12. Chu, Heting. 2006. “Curricula of LIS Programmes in the USA: A Content Analysis.” Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library and Information Education& Practice (A-LIEP), Singapore 3–6 April. Gorman, G. E., Peter Robert Clayton, Sydney J. Shep and Adela Clayton. 2005. Qualitative Research for the Information Professional: A Practical Handbook. London: Facet. Gorman, Michael. 2004. “Whither library education?” New Library World 105(9/10): 376–380.

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Haider, Syed Jalaluddin and Khalid Mahmood. 2007. “MPhil and PhD Library and Information Science Research in Pakistan: An Evaluation.” Library Review 56(5): 407–417. Jank, David A., Heting Chu and Michael E.D. Koenig. 2013. “Mergers, Collaborations, Alliances and Partnership in LIS Education.” In Mergers and Alliances: The Wider View, edited by Anne Woodsworth and W. David Penniman, 139–184. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing. Kanwal, Ameen. 2006. “Challenges of Preparing LIS Professionals for Leadership Roles in Pakistan: An Analysis of the Status.” Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library and Information Education & Practice (A-LIEP), Singapore. Kanwal, Ameen. 2007. “Issues of Quality Assurance (QA) in LIS Higher Education in Pakistan.” Paper presented at the 73rd IFLA General Conference and Council, Durban, South Africa. Kanwal, Ameen. 2013. “The Barriers in Producing High Quality Library and Information Science Research in Developing Countries: The Case of Pakistan.” Journal of Scholarly Publishing 44(3): 256–273. Kanwal, Ameen and Nosheen Fatima Warraich. 2014. “Trends in LIS Educcation Research in Pakistan.” In Library and Information Science Research in Asia-Oceania: Theory and Practice, edited by Jia Tina Du, Qinghua Zhu and Andy Koronios, 187–199. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Khurshid, Anis. 1992. “Library Education in Pakistan: Concerns, Issues and Practices.” In Library Education in Pakistan: Past, Present and Future, edited by Sajjad ur Rehman, Abdus Sattar Chaudhry & Afzal Haq Qarshi, 11–28. Lahore: PULSAA. Mahmood, Khalid. 2002. “Competencies Needed for Future Academic Librarians in Pakistan.” Education for Information 20(1): 27–43. Mahmood, Khalid and Farzana Shafique. 2010. “Changing Research Scenario in Pkaistan and demand for research qualified LIS professionals.” Library Review 59(4): 291–303. Miwa, Makiko. 2006. “Trends and Issues of LIS Education in Asia.” Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library and Information Education & Practice (A-LIEP), Singapore, 3–6 April. Shafique, Farzana and Khalid Mahmood. 2008. “Indicators of the Emerging Information Society in Pakistan.” Information Development 24(1): 66–78. Singh, Jagtar and Pradeepa Wijetunge. 2006. “Library and Information Science Education in South Asia: Challenges and Opportunities.” Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Conference on Library and Information Education& Practice (A-LIEP), Singapore, 3–6 April. Stephens, Denise and Keith W. Russell. 2004. “Organizational Development, Leadership, Change, and the Future of Libraries.” Library Trends 53(1): 238–257. Tedd, Lucy A. 2008. “Future Pathways for LIS Education at the 2010 University: Some Views from Wales.” Special lecture delivered at Departament de Biblioteconomia i Documentacio, Barcelona, Spain. Warraich, Nosheen Fatima. 2008. “LIS Graduates Employability Needs and Expectations of the Library and Information Science (LIS) Curriculum at the University of the Punjab (PU): An Appraisal of Pakistani LIS Professionals.” Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 74th IFLA General Conference and Council. Warraich, Nosheen Fatima and Kanwal Ameen. 2011. “Employability Skills of LIS Graduates in Pakistan: Needs and Expectations.” Library Management 32(3): 209–224. Warraich, Nosheen Fatima. 2011. “Human Resource Management in University Libraries of the Punjab” (doctoral dissertation, Department of Information Management University of the Punjab, Lahore).

Alison J. Pickard, Julie McLeod and Gobinda Chowdhury

23 From Professional Qualifications to iSchool@northumbria A 65-year Journey

Introduction Since H.P. Luhn’s use of computers in the creation of automatic keyword indexing in 1958, the information landscape has changed dramatically. Consequently, library and information management activities, and the corresponding professional education, training and research skills, have continuously developed and adapted, reflecting the dynamic digital landscape. In today’s world, access to, and management of, information is an absolute necessity for almost everyone – individuals, governments, businesses, industries, memory institutions and society as a whole. Together information and communication technologies (ICT), web and mobile technologies have brought opportunities and challenges to the information profession in general and information management activities in particular. The past 65 years have seen a significant change in the nature of activities and functions within the information profession. These include: 1. Provision for access to relevant information that is available through a multitude of services and platforms; 2. Creation and management of specific content and data services in the form of institutional repositories and open access digital libraries; 3. Preservation of content to ensure future access; 4. Providing user training; and 5. Managing user-generated content. These bring major responsibilities and challenges for information science (IS) education which needs to be broad as well as robust enough to support all stakeholders in their activities throughout the lifecycle of information – from creation to distribution, access, use, preservation, sharing and re-use. IS education that evolved from library and information science (LIS) education has been constantly adapting to embrace the latest technological developments and trends to produce more knowledgeable and expert information professionals equipped to handle the growing challenges of this rapidly evolving field. Yet, there are some significant differences among various LIS and IS education programmes. Spink and Heinstrom (2012) comment that LIS education and research is scattered

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with a great variety in focus and academic identity across various departments in Europe. This reflects the trend in the profession as there is now a shift from generic to specific information services where information professionals work as part of a team identifying and providing value-added information and data; and in some cases information researchers work as part of a project team, just as finance people work as part of a core project team or statisticians provide value-added services to industries, businesses and research. While the ICTs have been a major driving force behind the evolution of the information industry and the information services sector over the past six decades, these fields have also been influenced by a number of other economic, political, legal and ethical issues on the one hand, and by the cognitive, social and cultural behaviour of people on the other. Parallel to the technological drive, the job market for information scientists also continues to change and grow in diversity. The aim of this chapter is to present a reflection of the development of information education at Northumbria University that mirrors this major transformation in the information profession. It provides the historical context of Northumbria’s 65-year journey of library, information and records management education which started as a provider of vocational training in librarianship and has evolved through different stages to an iSchool.

The Journey Northumbria University is situated in the city of Newcastle upon Tyne in North East England. Its origins date back to the opening of Rutherford College in 1894. By the 1950s Rutherford College of Technology offered a broad syllabus of science, art, technical and commercial subjects to around 3,500 students and introduced the idea of ‘sandwich’ courses, mixing education with industrial placements. In 1969 Newcastle upon Tyne Polytechnic was formed by amalgamating Rutherford College of Technology, the College of Art and Industrial Design and the Municipal College of Commerce. Throughout the 1970s the Polytechnic expanded its teaching programmes and by the late 1980s its student population had grown to around 12,000. It gained University status in September 1992. With around 32,000 students, Northumbria University is now one of the largest universities in the United Kingdom. Developments in library and information science education and training at Northumbria reflect the University’s development, albeit with not quite as long a history. In 1996 the LIS Department at Northumbria celebrated its 50th anni-



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versary; in an essay to celebrate that event Caldwell and Day wrote (1997, 1) “The transformation over the last fifty years is almost beyond credibility – but the dynamism is there to effect an even greater change in the next half a century”.

The Beginning In 1945 the UK Government established a programme of Educational and Vocational Training Grants which were intended to assist the newly demobilized military personnel in rebuilding their careers after World War II. In rapid response to this Northumbria (then the Municipal College of Commerce) established an Employers Advisory Committee to design the original LIS courses. The original syllabus was designed based on the UK Library Association (LA) work-based learning syllabus available to all members and leading to the award of sectional certificates of Associateship and Fellowship which had been available since the confirmation of the LA Royal Charter of 1898. The first cohort on the newly developed syllabus at Northumbria was made up almost entirely of ex-service personnel; subsequent cohorts were predominately composed of non-graduates who had worked in a library gaining vocational experience prior to starting full or part time programmes (Caldwell and Day 1997).

1950–1969 The 1950s saw the introduction of the new UK LA syllabus for a two-year programme for non-graduates and a one-year programme for those with a university degree, both leading to the “First Professional Qualification”. During its first ten years this programme attracted an enrolment of around 18 full-time students and 60 part-time students. This increased to around 60 students per year on the one-year programme and 100 per year on the two-year programme. A national analysis of those librarians who had gained Chartership status over the period 1947–57 revealed that 67% had attended full time programmes at a UK Library School (Caldwell and Day 1997, 3). During this time all students were expected to have practical experience of working in a library prior to being admitted to the programmes. A change in social trends occurred, with the raising of aspirations among young people after leaving school. Gaining a degree or an equivalent qualification emerged during the 1960s, and Northumbria’s response to this was to begin enrolling students directly from secondary education without any prior experience of working in a library environment. Although this was not a development

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that had universal agreement within the profession, the team at Northumbria was committed to widening access to the profession. To facilitate this, the team used its links with regional practitioners and developed an ‘induction’ period which provided a term of heavily supervised placement to bring authenticity to the student experience. Subsequent results demonstrated that students without prior work experience performed as well as their fellow students with work experience. This was followed in 1968 by one of the two first undergraduate LIS programmes in the United Kingdom to be approved by the newly formed Council for National Academic Awards. The BSc Information Science at Northumbria was the first degree to be approved. Social change was not the only shift during these decades; advances in information retrieval systems and the start of online databases began to impact on both education and research in IS. In response a programme that included modules with science based options in physics, mathematics and chemistry, delivered by staff at the neighbouring Rutherford College of Technology and offering students a much broader science background, was designed in 1968. This “Information Science” programme embraced the new, emerging technologies and their potential to impact on the wider LIS profession. Two years later in 1970 the portfolio was extended to include the BA (Honours) Librarianship programme, increasing cross-institutional collaboration to bring in experts in education from another city college. This decade came to a climax when the then Minister of Education, Anthony Crosland, announced plans for the opening of 30 Polytechnics. In the city of Newcastle we had a technical college, colleges of commerce, art, and industrial design sitting so closely together it could already be defined as a “site”. Plans were approved for a joint library and student union which meant that by 1968 Northumbria (then Newcastle upon Tyne Polytechnic) was up and running and was formally incorporated as a polytechnic in 1969.

1970–1989 As the trend in direct entry into full degree programmes persisted, by the early 1970s, previously qualified practitioners who had taken the First Professional Qualification route began to consider the benefits of the “new’” subject areas being taught in degree programmes and sought to “top-up” their own knowledge base. In response to the needs of practitioners a part-time modular degree that could be studied over three years for those already holding Chartership was introduced. It was also recognized that these practitioners were likely to move around the country as they pursued their careers. The response to this need was to create an agreement with five other higher education institutions across the country



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to offer a joint degree, thereby enabling students to carry their credits from one institution to another. Online databases and information retrieval systems caused a major shift in education and research in IS. These decades saw two crucial developments in LIS education. The first came in the early 1970s with the increased relevance of computers within LIS (Our first computer was housed in a large cupboard adjacent to staff offices). It was recognized that this could shift the emphasis of LIS courses. These programmes were taken out of the “book-based” humanities and into a more technical context (Caldwell and Day 1997). The 1980s brought another new revolution in the information industry and services sector where personal computers (PCs) and CD-ROM databases became a common part of a library’s collection and services. The second major development was in the early 1980s when a British Library-funded project on curriculum development questioned the focus on “technical” aspects of the profession such as indexing, management and bibliographic tools. Consequently, information education focused more on user education and information literacy with a view to preparing users as better searchers. It was here that the decision was made to introduce the fundamental concept of “user needs” that was to become a major part of education and research in LIS. The 1980s was also the time when Government policy on expanding access to higher education meant that mature students could be offered places in our programmes. As a department, we applied a policy of accredited prior learning (APEL) and work-based learning (AWBL). In 1982, the Department of Education and Science launched its Professional, Industrial, and Commercial Updating (PICKUP) scheme. This was designed to encourage institutions of higher education to provide “vocational courses, particularly short courses, that meet real needs. Employers are being encouraged to pay the full cost of the training provided for their staff, putting the emphasis on cost-effectiveness” (Johnson 1990, 234). We also responded to employers who were unable to send staff to attend on-site and developed the first distance-learning programme at Northumbria. This was in Statistics for Librarians (Blackie 1985). Northumbria followed this by another “first”; until the late 1980s polytechnics were unable to offer conversion Master’s degree programmes. In 1987 postgraduate revisions meant that by 1989 Northumbria was able to offer its postgraduates the opportunity to top up their diploma to an MSc or MA, being the first polytechnic in the UK to do this. By the end of the 1980s the Department offered undergraduate part- and full-time programmes leading to BA (Hons) Information and Library Management, part- and full-time Postgraduate Diploma / MA-MSc in Information and Library Management and a Postgraduate Diploma / MA-MSc in Learning Resource Centre Management. The programme portfolio at Northumbria represented the growing breadth and depth

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of the discipline, covering the more traditional bibliographic and indexing skills as well as the emerging areas of user behaviour and “computers in libraries”. There was a strong focus on the relationships between information, people, and technology, which were later to characterize the iSchool community.

The 1990s The 1990s, the era of the internet, was a “game changer” for information professionals, providers, creators and users alike. Every institution – international, national, and global – and every business began to have a presence on the web. Consequently, access to, and use of, digital information that was so far limited to scholarly activities and information-intensive businesses became part of our daily life and activities. This was yet another decade of major development, not only in terms of education and training but also research into the relationship between information, technology and people. In 1992 Northumbria was granted University status and became The University of Northumbria at Newcastle. As a result of several funded projects Northumbria was developing a strong reputation in qualitative user studies. By 1995 the close working relationship between the Department and the University Library led to the first Northumbria International Conference on Performance Measurement in Library and Information Services, a unique conference established to provide an international forum for academics and practitioners to share their experiences. A major development in this decade was designing educational programmes that moved beyond the traditional, well-established librarianship focus in recognition of the changing information landscape. These developments were driven by Northumbria’s vision and horizon-scanning and not in response to market demands. There had been a period of rapid expansion during the 1980s which led to a 30% increase in undergraduate recruitment at Northumbria. Rather than increase the intake of the existing undergraduate programme, the Department diversified its offerings and expand into an area that offered a new route into the information profession for those not wanting to enter the library domain. The BSc (Hons) Information and Communication Management offered students a combination of information technology and design skills, with the emphasis on computer use not only for producing information resources but also as a platform for communication and information sharing. Although terms such as ‘social media’ had yet to appear in our vocabulary, this programme introduced the concept of computer mediated communication and the significance it could have for the information management discipline. When the LA merged with the



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Institute of Information Scientists (IIS) and the Chartered Institute of Information Professionals (CILIP) was formed in 2002, it was clear that this programme had a natural fit with the changing direction of the Professional Body and was successfully put forward for professional accreditation. At the postgraduate level, and also building on the successful information and library management programme, a new Postgraduate Diploma/Masters in Information and Records Management was launched (1993) and was the first Rights Management programme to be offered nationally outside of London. It fulfilled the needs identified in the Report of the Records Management Society and Society of Archivists Working Party on Records Management Training and responded to evidence from two small-scale surveys in a range of organizations conducted at Northumbria which confirmed the growing and crucial importance of records and the need for its recognition as a high-level management activity. As a campus-based course offered on a full-time or part-time basis, it included a four week period of work experience. This marked the beginning of almost two decades of innovative educational developments in records management. In 1996 an MSc in Records Management part-time distance-learning programme was validated. Not only was this the first distance-learning Master’s programme in the University, it was also the first of its kind in Europe devoted exclusively to records management. It sought to enable people working in a wide variety of records management posts in any sector and to gain a Master’s qualification that would support them in consolidating and/or developing their career. In the UK, records managers, unlike librarians and archivists, had no specific accredited educational programmes to study or chartership/registration status for their professional association.1 The open-learning pedagogic model of “wanting–doing– feedback–digestion” (Race 1994) informed its structure, the way students were engaged in activities and provided with feedback, and the focus on becoming a reflective practitioner. In 1997 a second part-time distance-learning programme, the MA Information Studies, was designed. Two years later a re-validation was approved incorporating the MA International Information Studies (Master internazionale in biblioteconomia e scienze dell’informazione). This programme was unique in that it offered both a national and an international pathway; the international pathway was offered in partnership with the Università degli Studi di Parma, Italy. This decade ended with the launch of another unique partnership, the rm3 partnership between Northumbria, the University of Liverpool and The National Archives (TNA), then the Public Record Office, to deliver education and training 1 The UK Information and Records Management Society only introduced a Certification Scheme in 2012.

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in records management to government staff. TNA had a direct interest in maintaining and developing the skills, standards and professionalism of records management staff across government and already provided introductory and specialized training. However, prompted by changes, a range of education and training modules could be developed to complement their existing in-house training. In 1999 a programme was launched with the aim of providing theoretical underpinning and specialist skills for managing records and information in government. The programme offered flexible learning pathways: introductory short courses in the form of one-day workshops; the latter combined with follow-on study via distance learning materials to gain university credit for standalone modules; or the completion of sufficient modules to gain a Certificate/Diploma in Professional Studies in Information and Records Management. In a true partnership between academia and practitioners, mentoring was provided by line managers and/or colleagues and academic and advising support provided by university tutors. The learning and student support models, and assignments designed to be highly relevant to the workplace, were built on Northumbria’s distance learning experience.

The 21st century The new millennium was marked by the launch of an Advanced Diploma in Lifelong Learning: Records Management,2 the first award in another innovative framework to support lifelong learning and widening participation by “linking work-related education at the higher levels into a national credit framework, attracting academic and/or vocational credit” (University of Northumbria at Newcastle 1998). Aimed at meeting the needs of industry, by providing a flexible means of study that allowed individuals to gain a university qualification while remaining in the workplace, these “mini” awards (60 credits) focused on the individual or a group of individuals and their specific education and development needs (Hare and McLeod 2001). The initial student cohort comprised Senior Document Analysts and Document Analysts at the BBC who were very experienced records practitioners but did not have the theoretical knowledge gained through formal higher education. This was not only hindering their personal development but also the development of records management at a strategic level within the BBC (Hare and McLeod 2001). 2 The Lifelong Learning Awards Scheme is an innovative framework developed by the six universities in the North East of England via a HERD (Higher Education Regional Development). In contrast to traditional University programmes the lifelong learning awards focus on the specific education and development needs of either an individual or a group of individuals.



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The new framework enabled them to complete a tailored education programme, designed in partnership between senior records staff at the BBC, and gain a university award. The pedagogic principles of explicitly linking directed learning and independent study to support reflection, consolidation and preparation, together with assignments that were directly relevant to the workplace, all contributed to participant engagement and employer benefit. On completing the award the staff were able to move into new, more strategic roles, facilitating records management rather than administering it (Hare and McLeod 2001). The success of the programme led to it being delivered to further groups of BBC staff as well as records and archives staff from Channel 4 Television, which provided an opportunity for professionals working in the same sector (news and media) to share views from the different organizational perspective. The programme was also delivered to staff at Deutsche Bank. Following the success of the earlier distance-learning programmes, it was clear that this delivery mode responded to the needs of both students and employers. In 2003 we introduced the MSc / MA Information & Library Management Distance Learning. This built on the experience of the MSc Records Management distance learning programme which had been restructured from a threeyear programme delivered during the normal academic calendar (Sept–June) into a two-calendar year programme in response to student feedback and market demands. A study pattern which included long summer breaks did not meet the needs of part-time students normally in full-time employment. The programmes had a common structure with shared core information management modules and specialist modules enabling library and records students to share experiences from their different perspectives. Partnerships, whether between different academic institutions or between academics and the profession, have been a major theme since the turn of the century. Regionally, Northumbria signed a memorandum of agreement with five local Public Library Authorities to share expertise in research and teaching – PEARL: Partnership in Education and Academic Research (2002). Internationally, Northumbria was a member of the SOCRATES E-Term project (2000–2001) which brought together various European partners to develop a pan-European programme in electronic records management for archivists, records managers and administrators (Shepherd 2000). In early autumn 2004 Northumbria was invited to tender for providing a training programme for the European Central Bank (ECB). The bank was planning to internally appoint six staff members to a new role of Records Management Specialist. With expertise in other disciplines and experience working in different functions within the ECB, the staff needed training to provide them with the knowledge and skills to undertake their new role. The ECB wanted the pro-

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gramme to lead to a university accredited award equivalent to an undergraduate degree. A flexible, part-time distance learning, work-based option offering a pathway to a full Bachelor’s degree (BSc Honours) was developed. Students gained direct entry into the equivalent of the second year of full-time study based on their work-related and/or professional experience, via the accreditation of prior experiential learning evidenced through a portfolio of work. The same underpinning pedagogic theory (Race 1994) was used as for the successful Master’s distance learning programmes, supported by tailored face-to-face workshops at the ECB’s Frankfurt headquarters throughout the programme. Learning materials and remote discussions were facilitated through the university’s virtual learning environment. The structure developed for this programme was used to develop the BSc (Hons) Work Based Learning: Librarianship programme which, in 2006, was the first undergraduate work-based learning programme in the UK developed to fit within the then new CILIP Framework for Education and the new level of recognition for paraprofessionals. ‘Certification’ provides recognition from the association for library and information work by paraprofessionals and allows them to work towards Chartership (Chapman 2006). Designing custom programmes has been a feature of Northumbria’s portfolio; the close involvement of employers, from the original Advisory Board in 1946 to the current Liaison Committee, has ensured that our perspective on education provision has remained very close to the “coal face”, and this includes the design and delivery of non-degree Continuing Professional Development (CPD) courses. Public Library training initiatives include tailored short courses such as “The Public Library Service: New Ways of Working”, a 12-week CPD programme for Newcastle Libraries and Information Services in preparation for the opening of the new City Library. More recently a short training programme of four classroom-based sessions on “Integrated Service Delivery at Newcastle Council” was designed and delivered to a cohort of staff from across the Council Services, providing an overview of the role of the UK public library service. There are also examples of this custom work on a larger scale such as the delivery of records management modules to staff at the international logistics company TNT, in a programme developed by the commercial arm of Coventry University. Short training courses have also been developed for a major UK high street bank, with the option of follow-up study to gain a small amount of university credit, developed and delivered in collaboration with a private sector company.



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Reflection Many of our graduates have gone on to become leaders in the discipline either as academics or professional body activists. Our journey also reflects a degree of development and evolution that is similar to the technological environment in which we operate. This similarity contributed to the Department of Information Sciences being recognized as an iSchool in 2013 for the quality and depth of its teaching, its funded and doctoral research and professional engagement in library and information management. The journey has taken us –– from a first professional qualification to an established field of professional education at all levels: undergraduate, postgraduate, PhD and professional doctorates; –– from a campus-based to a flexible learning environment including distance and work-based learning and continuing professional development (CPD); –– from a library school to an iSchool, in the international iSchool network of leading information sciences departments, that is research-rich, global and multidimensional. In addition the professional reach, in terms of community engagement and employment, has broadened significantly from libraries to archives and information and records management functions in businesses and industries, the public sector, health and communications. Library and information sciences education at Northumbria has remained professionally focused, sensitive to the changing environmental and market demands, research-rich and globally prepared. This has made for a natural progression into the iSchools domain which focuses on information education, research and engagement activities linking people with information and technologies. Throughout this journey our education and training initiatives have been informed by our research, which is characterized by its range of increasingly interconnected specialisms across the Information Management/information Systems discipline. Similarly our teaching informs our research and consultancy/ enterprise, e.g. in information literacy, user behaviour, records management standards, tools and strategies, research data management and research methods. Research, teaching and learning has made a critical impact on sectors as diverse as finance, media and entertainment, the public sector, and our communities, through research and applied practice.

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Past is Prologue What’s past is prologue; what to come, In yours and my discharge. Antonio, The Tempest Act II, scene 1, 245–254 (William Shakespeare)

As an iSchool Northumbria’s future education and training strategy is underpinned by the three facets of information science which unite members of the iSchool organization and are at the core of addressing the global challenges our discipline faces – information, systems/technology and people (Figure 23.1).

People

Society, Culture, User, Behaviour, Skills, Government, Business, Industry, Policies, Law, Ethics, Memory Institutions, Industries …

Information

iSchools

Content, Data, Objects, Records, Online Databases, Digital Libraries, Research Data, Linked Data …

Technology

ICT and Infrastructure, IM, KM, RM, KO, IR, Metadata, Standards, Tools, Data Mining Intelligence …

Figure 23.1: The concept of iSchools.

The teaching and research activities at iSchool@northumbria, which have evolved over the past 65 years, focus on different aspects of people, information and technology. Our teaching is informed by our research: research that improves our understanding of information behaviour and processes in the digital environment, increases efficiency and effectiveness of processes and systems, generates key performance indicators for the virtual environment, and uses the results to develop models and methodologies for the digital “knowledge economy”. We view education and research as two sides of the same coin and enterprise as the rim that joins them. The challenge is the digital paradigm which is fun-



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damentally changing the way in which we harvest and use information. It has broken down and blurred boundaries, is radically reconfiguring the relationships between creators, providers and consumers, continues to change their behaviour and expectations, and is transforming the delivery of learning, services and processes. This context informs our future strategy since it demands that today’s and tomorrow’s information professionals have a different combination and range of knowledge and skills. Educators need to continue to respond to the rapid pace of change and reinvent themselves. We cannot possibly be experts in all aspects of our discipline but we must be expert in the fundamental principles of our discipline. We need to be experts in particular areas of knowledge and practice informed by our research activities. If focus is necessary and inevitable then partnership between educational institutions and with other organizations is increasingly important. Information Science education at Northumbria University that has evolved over the past 65 years from a professional training course to a globally recognized iSchool has always been profession- and business-focused, and yet firmly based on the theories and cutting-edge research in information.

References Blackie, Edna. 1985. Statistics for Librarians: A Distance Learning Package: A Summary. London: Further Education Unit. Caldwell, W. and J. M. Day. 1997. “Librarianship to ILM: Fifty Years at Newcastle.” In Information and Library Management 2000+: A Celebration of Fifty Years of the Department of Information and Library Management, University of Northumbria at Newcastle, edited by M. Watson, 1–20. Newcastle upon Tyne: Department of Information and Library Management. Chapman, Margaret. 2006. “CILIP Qualifications and You.” Legal Information Management 6: 264–265. Hare, Catherine E. and Julie McLeod. 2001. “Lifelong Learning and Empowerment: A Model in Practice.” New Library World 102(10): 389–396. Johnson, Ian. M., 1990. “Schools of Librarianship and Continuing Education in Britain (part 2).” Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 30(3): 232–237. Race, Phil. 1994. The Open Learning Handbook: Promoting Quality in Designing and Delivering Flexible Learning, 2nd edition. London: Kegan Page. Shepherd, E. 2000. “Report on the Proposal for a European Training Project for Administrators, Archivists and Information Managers: for E-term.” In Proceedings of the DLM Forum on electronic records. 18–19 Oct 1999, Brussels, 244–249. Brussels: INSÅR. Presentation available at: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/e-term/files/es-dlm99.pps. Accessed on 15 January 2016.

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Spink, Amanda and Jannica Heinström. 2012. Introduction to Library and Information Science Trends and Research: Europe, edited by Amanda Spink and Jannica Heinström, 3–9. Bingley: Emerald. University of Northumbria at Newcastle. 1998. “The Awards for Lifelong Learning Scheme Document.” (Internal document.)

Contributors

Contributors

Vyva Victoria M. Aguirre (BS Foreign Service, 1966; Master of Library Science, 1966) is a Senior Lecturer and former Dean of the School of Library and Information Studies, University of the Philippines Diliman. On top of being a professional librarian, she is also a lawyer (LLB, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1992; LLM in European Community Law, Leiden University, 1997) and was the former commissioner of the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG) from 2003–2005. Currently, she is an Associate Professorial Lecturer at De la Salle University College of Law. Dr (Mrs) Rachael Folashade Aina is a lecturer in the Department of Information Resources Management (IRM), Babcock University, Nigeria. She is a first-class-degree holder of Bachelor of Information Resources Management (BIRM, 2005) and an alumna of the University of Ibadan (Nigeria’s premier university), where she obtained a Master’s degree in Library and Information Studies (MLIS, 2007). A member of Librarians’ Registration Council of Nigeria, Aina is widely travelled having featured in conferences and academic engagements in Nigeria, Ghana, South Africa and the United States. She has published articles in numerous local and international journals as well as contributed to chapters in edited books. Her PhD research is titled “Awareness and Socio-Economic Factors as Determinants of Information Use on Safe Motherhood Among Rural Women in Ogun State, Nigeria”. A Certified Librarian, she is an active member of the Nigerian Library Association (NLA), Association of Seventh-Day Adventist Librarians (ASDAL-International) and ASDAL-Africa. She is married to Professor Ayandiji Daniel Aina, who is currently President/Vice-Chancellor, Caleb University and immediate past President/Vice-Chancellor, Adeleke University, Ede, Nigeria. Dr Kanwal Ameen is Chairperson, Dept. of Information Management, University of the Punjab, Lahore Pakistan. She has a number of international and national awards/scholarships such as Research Fellowship as Professor, University of Tsukuba, Japan (2013), Fulbright Post-Doc, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA (2009–2010), Fulbright Pre-Doc, University of Texas, Austin, USA (2000–2001) Higher Education Commission of Pakistan’s Best Teacher Award. She has produced more than 80 publications for international refereed journals, conference proceedings, as books and book chapters. She is the Chief-Editor of Pakistan Journal of Information Management & Libraries. Prof. Ameen is country representative for Special Library Association, USA, member of American Library Association; American Society of Information Science & Technology (ASIS&T); and Charted Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP, UK). Dr Tatjana Aparac-Jelušić, Distinguished Professor and Head of the Department of Information Sciences at the University of Zadar till 2012 and Head of the Department of Information Sciences at the University of Osijek till 2007. Since 2008 she is the Dean of the New PhD programme at the University of Zadar. She received her PhD in Information Sciences (1991) and MA in Library Science (1982), from the University of Zagreb. She is author of one book, six chapters in books, over 100 research and professional papers (in Croatian and English), over 30 reviews, opinion papers; has edited 24 books. Supervisor for over 200 diploma papers, 12 Master of Science and 8 PhD theses of Croatian and Slovenian LIS students. Her students regularly participate at international conferences such as BOBCATSSS, IFLA and LIDA. She

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was the member of the Editorial Board of Information Processing Management (from 2003 till 2008). She is currently the member of Advisory Board of the journal Alexandria, and member of editorial boards of the Journal of Documentation, JELISE and Bibliotekarstvo, Serbia. She is also Chair, ASIST /European Chapter, 2003–2009; Chair, Euclid, 2008–2014, Chair, Croatian Council on Libraries, from 2013, Co-director of LIDA Conferences; member of PCs for CoLIS, ECDL, QQML2009, and reviewer for ASIST, ALA, ECDL and some other international conferences. She was PI of several research projects and projects for library buildings in Croatia. She received Kukuljević’s Award (Croatian highest award in LIS field) and Thompson/ISI Outstanding Teacher of Information Science 2006 – Award given by ASIST. Iyra S. Buenrostro obtained both her Bachelor of Library and Information Science (cum laude) and Master of Library and Information Science (LIS) (with specialization in Archival Studies) from the University of the Philippines Diliman in 2005 and 2010, respectively. She is a full-time faculty member at the School of Library and Information Studies, University of the Philippines Diliman since 2006 and has taught courses on LIS and Archival Studies. At present, she is pursuing her PhD in Information Studies at Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University (NTU) in Singapore, where she is a recipient of an NTU Research Scholarship. Peter Burnett is Programme Manager responsible for Library Curricula and Network Management at INASP. In this capacity he manages a dual programme of work that: (a) supports the development of postgraduate curricula in schools/departments of Library and Information Science in developing countries to meet the emerging challenges of the digital environment; (b) leads INASP work with National Research and Educational Networks (NRENs) to help them strengthen national connectivity and campus networks. A graduate in Russian and East European Studies, his early career was spent working in the university libraries of Birmingham, Lancaster, and Washington. More recently, before joining INASP in January 2008, he served as the Head of Technical Services at the Bodleian Library, Oxford. From 1994–1999 he served as Chair of George Soros’s Open Society Institute Network Library Program, and has worked as a library consultant in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Johann Frederick A. Cabbab (BLS 1994; MLS 1999, specialization in Information Systems, and Literature for Children and Young Adults) is a full-time faculty member and former Dean of the UP School of Library and Information Studies. He was managing editor, writer and graphic artist for several children and young adult publications prior to rejoining academia in 2007. He is currently the Deputy Director of the Human Resources Development Office of the University of the Philippines Diliman Campus. He is also pursuing his Doctor of Literature and Philosophy in Information Science (DLitt et Phil) via distance mode at the University of South Africa (Universiteit van Suid-Afrika). Dr Mary Carroll is the Course Director in the School of Information Studies at Charles Sturt University, Australia. Her research focuses on the provision of information and its relationship to access and equity both in contemporary society and historically. Particular research interests include libraries and their role in the community and as social and cultural institutions both in contemporary society and historically, the relationship between library development and educational reform, the history of education for LIS and the support of new graduates in the information professions.



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 449

Dr Gobinda Chowdhury is a Professor of Information Science, Head of the iSchool@ northumbria, and Head of the Department of Mathematics and Information Sciences at Northumbria University in Newcastle, England. Prior to joining Northumbria University, he was a Professor and Director of the Centre for Information & Knowledge Management at the University of Technology Sydney in Australia. Professor Chowdhury is a member of the iSchool Executive Committee, and iSchool Membership Committee. Over the past 25 or so years, Professor Chowdhury has actively researched in different areas of information organization and retrieval, digital libraries and information users and usability. His current research interests include sustainability of information focusing particularly on the social and environmental sustainability of digital information systems and services that cut across a number of core information science research areas like information interactions, usability and user-centred design, information and environmental literacy, and so on. Professor Chowdhury has written or edited 15 books and over 150 research papers. He is also actively involved in editorial activities and on the board of several leading information science journals and conferences. He has chaired, and given keynote addresses and invited talks at several international conferences. Dr Clara M. Chu is Director of the Mortenson Center for International Library Programmes, and Mortenson Distinguished Professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She specializes in the sociocultural study of information use, practices and systems that impact access and representation in multicultural communities. Having published, presented and consulted internationally in English and Spanish, she is a leading voice on multicultural library and information issues. Active in professional associations, she has served as the 2014/15 President of the Association for Library and Information Science Education and on the 2013–2015 Governing Board of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. Dr Josep Cobarsí-Morales is a Senior Lecturer in the Information and Communication Sciences Faculty at the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC), where he is director of Information and Documentation Degree. He is an engineer in Telecommunications from the Polytechnic University of Catalonia and PhD in Organizational Management from the University of Girona. He completed postgraduate studies at the School of Library and Information Systems from Syracuse University. Currently involved in a case study on the exchange of knowledge in the ATLAS experiment at CERN. Main research interests are information systems use and impact, information management related to crisis, social network analysis, information professional sector, information concept and theory. Author of the books Pequeños y grandes desastres de la información (2006) and Sistemas de información en la Empresa (2011). He is member of the UOC reserach group Knowledge and Information Management in Organizations. Dr Prudence Dalrymple is Research and Teaching Professor at the College of Computing & Informatics and Director of Drexel’s Institute for Health Informatics at Drexel University in Philadelphia. She holds a PhD in Library and Information Studies from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, an MS in Library Science from Simmons College and received an MS in Health Sciences Informatics from Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in 2007. She has been at Drexel since 2008. She has over 35 years’ experience as a librarian, faculty member and dean and directed the ALA Office for Accreditation from 1992–1997. Her scholarly activities encompass three major areas: health informatics, information needs and uses, and evaluation. She has conducted research on health literacy and information seeking behaviour, the use

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of evidence-based guidelines by health professionals, and the potential for text messages to improve health literacy of the urban poor. As director of the Drexel’s graduate programme in health informatics, Dr Dalrymple continues her interest and involvement in professional education and accreditation. In 2014, Dr Dalrymple was elected a Fellow of the Medical Library Association (MLA) for her sustained and outstanding contributions to health sciences librarianship. She recently was appointed to the Board of the Commission on Accreditation of Health Informatics and Health Information Management. She is the author of over 60 articles and book chapters and is a frequent presenter at national and international conferences, including the Association for Information Science & Technology, the American Library Association and the International Federation of Library Associations. Aurora de la Vega is a Professor of Library and Information Science at the Pontifical Catholic University of Perú in Lima, Peru. She has a Master degree in Library Science for the University of Wales (UK) and a Diploma in Information Systems at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru. She has a Bachelor of Education degree from the University of Manitoba, Canada, a Licenciatura in Education, major in Language and Literature (PUCP) and Doctorate studies in Education (PUCP). She worked from 1974 to 1982 at the Documentation Centre of the National Institute of Research and Development of Education in Lima. In 1983 she was a member of the team that established the Library and Information Science career at the PUCP. She has been coordinator of the Library and Information Section, Department of Humanities at PUCP. She is a Member of the Advisory Council of the Department of Humanities. Her research interests centre on LIS education, LIS job market; information literacy, reading, and the relations between information, citizenship and society. Dr Archie Dick has qualifications in Library and Information Science from the University of the Western Cape, the University of Washington in Seattle, USA, and the University of Cape Town, where he obtained a PhD in 1991. He has worked in libraries in the Western Cape Province, and he taught at the University of the Western Cape from 1982 to 1992, and the University of South Africa (Unisa) from 1993 to 2003. He is currently Professor in the Department of Information Science at the University of Pretoria. Dr Bernard Dione is currently Professor and Associate Dean of the School of Librarians, Archivists and Information officers (Ecole de Bibliothécaires, Archivistes et Documentalistes, EBAD) at Cheikh Anta Diop University, Dakar, Senegal. He received a PhD in information science from the Université de Montréal, Québec, Canada. He also has a PhD in philosophy from Cheikh Anta Diop University. Before choosing to pursue a career in teaching LIS, Bernard Dione worked as a collection development librarian at Cheikh Anta Diop University Central Library for more than ten years. He is a former Secretary General of the Senegalese Library Association (Association Senegalaise des bibliothécaires, Archivistes et Documentalistes). Rosalie B. Faderon (BS Foreign Service, 1966; Master of Library Science, 1974) is a Professorial Lecturer and former Dean of the School of Library and Information Studies (SLIS), University of the Philippines (UP). Prior to her joining academia as an instructor in 1976, she worked in the university library of UP Diliman as a cataloguer, Filipiniana librarian, and indexer/indexing supervisor. She was also a UNESCO Fellow and Visiting Professor in the United Kingdom and Paris, France in 1980, and in Graz and Velm, Austria in 1983. In 2013, she received the Eulogio



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 451

B. Rodriguez Award, the Philippine Librarians Association, Inc.’s Professional Award for the Year. Dr Ursula Georgy (Prof.), chemist. 1977–1983 study of chemistry at the University of Cologne, 1983–1986 study of business as minor subject, 1986 dissertation in inorganic chemistry. From 1987 till 2000 managing director of the Wissenschaftlicher Informationsdienst – WIND GmbH in Cologne – an information management and research company. Specialist for scientifictechnical and patent information, business intelligence and knowledge management. 1996–2000 teaching position at the Cologne University of Applied Sciences in Intellectual Property. Since April 2000 professor for information marketing at the Cologne University of Applied Sciences – since 1 September 2015 TH Köln Technology Arts Sciences, faculty of information studies and communication sciences, institute of information science. Main topics in teaching and research are customer relationship management, online marketing, quality management, and innovation management. Board and committee work (selection): 2001–2006 dean of the faculty of information studies and communication sciences. 2006–2009 vice president of the university in academic studies and teaching. President of KIBA conference of the German universities in information and library science 2004–2013. Since 2011 head of the ZBIW – Library and Information Science Further Education and Training Centre. Since 2014 member of the Commission “Customer-oriented Concepts and Services” of the dbv – German Library Association. Seminars and publications in the topics: competitive intelligence, strategic intellectual property management, complaint management, online marketing, quality management, and innovation management. Invited lectures and speeches about studies and further education in Library and Information Science in Germany and foreign countries, the Bologna-process, etc. (e.g., in Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, GB, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Portugal, Singapore, South Korea, Switzerland, Syria, USA). Dr S.B. Ghosh (Prof.) was a US Fulbright Scholar and British Council Fellowship recipient. He obtained his Associateship in Information Science from INSDOC and his PhD in Library and Information Science from Jadavpur University, Kolkata. He served as the Librarian of the Geological Survey of India Libraries for 18 years and as a teacher in LIS for about 35 years. He was Professor and Chairman of Faculty of Library and Information Science for 10 years at with the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU). At present, he is UGC Visiting Professor in Library and Information Science teaching at various universities including Calcutta, Jadavpur, Burdwan, Kalyani, Vidyasagar and Rabindra Bharati universities. Prof. Ghosh was President of the Indian Association of Special Libraries and Information Centres (IASLIC), Vice President of Indian Association of Teachers in Library Science and a Council Member of the Indian Library Association. In recognition of his many contributions to LIS education, he was honoured with a Felicitation Volume, that was released at a special session at the IFLA/SET 40 year’s celebration Conference held at Lyon, France during IFLA Congress in 2014. Dr Aleksandar Jerkov was born in Belgrade in 1960 and accomplished his BA, MA and PhD at the Faculty of Philology, University of Belgrade. He spent a year as a Fulbright Scholar in the USA in 1986, and continued a research career encompassing rich international experience. Research fields of particular interest include Theory of Literature, Serbian Literature in the 20th Century, Academic Librarianship, Comparative Studies. Recepient of noted academic awards and author of numerous academic publications, monographs and editor in renowned publishing houses such as “Prosveta” and “Mono and Manjana”. He is member of the Selection

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Board for the prestigious Nin Award. Associate Professor of the Faculty of Philology, University of Belgrade and Director of The University Library Svetozar Marković, University of Belgrade. Alexandre López-Borrull is a senior Lecturer in the Information and Communication Sciences Faculty at the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC), where he is member of the academic Comission of the Information and Documentation Degree and holds academic responsability for the final degree project and subjects about information policy and about digital preservation. He got his BSc in Information Science at UOC (2003). His thesis in Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (2004) had two main scopes, Chemistry and Information Science. His interests are based on information sources and their evolution due to the ICTs and the internet, including electronic journals, open access and legal aspects of digital information. He is member of the UOC research group Knowledge and Information Management in Organizations. Amara Malik is lecturer and PhD scholar at Department of Information Management, University of the Punjab. She has six years of working experience as librarian and teacher of LIS education. Her articles have been published in well reputed international journals. Her areas of interest are LIS education and training, information/Knowledge management, reference services, marketing and use of ICTs in libraries. Dr Ljiljana Marković, born on 5 June 1953 in Belgrade. Full Professor and Vice Dean, Faculty of Philology, University of Belgrade, Head of Department of Oriental Studies, Chairperson of the Doctoral Studies Programme. Educated at Cambridge University (graduated from Faculty of Economics and Political Science and Faculty of Oriental Studies, where she obtained her Master’s Degree), and Chuo University, Tokyo, where she did her Doctorate. Awarded the Minister of Foreign Affairs Prize in 2010 by the Government of Japan (Gaimu Daijin Sho), for a special contribution to development of Japanese Studies as an academic discipline and furthering of cultural ties between Japan and Serbia. In the course of thirty-four years of work at the Faculty of Philology, University of Belgrade ( since 1976), Professor Marković has educated over 500 Japanese Studies Major students, tens of Magisters and Masters in Japanese Studies and in the field of Language, Literature and Culture, as well as 10 PhD candidates. She is author of a large number of academic publications in the field of different aspects of Japan’s civilization testifying to its unique vitality. Dr Janet Martin completed her PhD through the University of Queensland in Australia on the topic of technology use by Emirati youth in higher education. Dr Martin was educated in Australia, and began her career in public, state, school and government department libraries. She has lived in the UAE for 15 years, and worked as both university librarian and within faculty research support. She has been a strong advocate for the development of professional library qualification education in the UAE for many years, and remains involved in professional library organizations such as IFLA, ALIA, and the Information Literacy Network (Gulf region). Dr Martin has published both journal articles and book chapters, and presented at many regional and international conferences on topics related to librarianship, information literacy, technology use by students, online learning, and professional development. Dr Filiberto Felipe Martínez Arellano holds the rank of Full Researcher-Professor at the Institute of Research in Library and Information Science, National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). He also served as Director of this Institute and Coordinator of the Library and



Contributors 

 453

Information Science (LIS) Undergraduate Programme at UNAM. He teaches in the UNAM LIS Graduate programme at the present time. He conducts research on information organization, information systems, metadata, cataloguing, and LIS education, and is author or co-author of over 50 books and 45 refereed journal articles, some of them in international journals. He received a Fulbright Scholarship to study his PhD in Higher Education and Library Science, at SUNY at Buffalo. He is Convener of the IFLA LIS Education in Developing Countries Special Interest Group. Also, he is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences. Dr Julie McLeod is Professor in Records Management in the iSchool at Northumbria University, having joined after a career in industry as an information and records manager. She has worked on innovative work-based and distance-learning education initiatives with The National Archives, BBC, Deutsche Bank, the European Central Bank and other organizations, and is Programme Leader for the MSc Information & Records Management. A member of the BSI and ISO committees on records management, her research is in this field. She has led JISC and AHRC funded research on electronic records management (e.g., Accelerating positive change in electronic records management (AC+erm) www.northumbria.ac.uk/acerm and research data management DATUM www.northumbria.ac.uk/datum). She has published widely, including co-authoring and editing several text books, is Editor of the Records Management Journal (www.emeraldinsight.com/rmj.htm) and a member of the editorial boards of other esteemed journals, and has served as a member of Arts & Humanities Research Council Panels and its Peer Review College. In 2007 she was awarded a Personal Chair in Research at Northumbria University. She received the 2014 Emmett Leahy Award for outstanding contribution to the information and records management profession (www.emmettleahyaward.org/2014---juliemcleod.html) and was appointed as the first Dodson Visiting Professor in Archival Studies (2014–15) at the School of Library, Archival and Information Studies (SLAIS), University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Dr Barbara B. Moran is Louis Round Wilson Distinguished Professor and Director of International Programmes at the School of Information and Library Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill where she served as Dean from 1990 to 1998. Her teaching and research interests focus on many aspects of management including leadership, organization development and career progression although she has other academic interests ranging from academic librarianship to readers’ advisory services. Dr Moran is co-author of the widely used textbook, Management of Libraries and Information Agencies; the eighth edition of that text was published in 2013. She is also the author of numerous articles, book chapters and three other books on various aspects of management and leadership. She has had extensive international experience including serving as a Fulbright Senior Specialist in the Czech Republic, as an ALISE/H.W. Wilson Scholar in Russia, and teaching and lecturing in many locations in Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. She has been very active in accreditation in the United States including serving on accreditation panels for both regional and specialized accreditation teams. She previously was a member of the American Library Association’s Committee on Accreditation and served as chair of that committee from 2013–2014. Dr Uloma Doris Onuoha is an Associate Professor in the Department of Information Resources Management, Babcock University, Nigeria. She is an experienced librarian having worked in the university library of Babcock University for nine years (1998–2007) before moving to Information Resources Department as a full-time lecturer. She is a certified librarian (CLN) and

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 Contributors

an active member of the Nigerian Library Association and the Association of Seventh–Day Adventist Librarians. A prolific writer, Dr Onuoha has publications in local and international peer review journals, she has co-authored a textbook on Cataloguing and Classification and has contributed four chapters in edited books. Her research interests are in the areas of library management, information literacy and social media. Dr Eva Ortoll is a Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Information Science and Communication of UOC. PhD in Information Systems and Information Studies, University of Zaragoza and Bachelor of Literature from the University Carlos III of Madrid. She has been director of the degree of documentation of the UOC for six years and also Associate Director of the Internet Interdisciplinary Institute (IN3-UOC). Visiting Professor at Loughborough University (UK) in the Department of Information Sciences. He is currently working on the project which aims to explore knowledge flows in “big science” experiments, as ATLAS at CERN. It explores how to draw and explore the map of knowledge assets of ATLAS using scientometrics and sociometric techniques. Furthermore it analyses how scientific collaboration takes place in these organizations, through network structures, organizational culture and epistemic limits. Researcher member of UOC Knowledge and Information Management in Organizations. Collaborating with other research groups: Information and Knowledge Management (University of Loughborough, England) trying to identify information and knowledge sharing practices in different sectors (voluntary sector, public sector, and Lemi: metric studies of Information (Universidad Carlos III de Madrid). Dr Alison Jane Pickard is Reader in Information Science in the iSchool at Northumbria University, where she is also Programme Leader for the Professional Doctorate in Information Sciences. She has completed a number of research projects funded by the JISC, AHRC and HEA and is currently working on two projects funded by EU Tempus and BA/Leverhulme. Projects include a number of studies on how individuals, particularly young people, interact with Web based resources. The JISC-funded report: “Users’ trust in information resources in the Web environment: a status report” led to the development of an evaluation framework which has been included in the British Computer Society’s Digital Literacy for Life programme. The UK Literacy Association has also produced a mini-book on the evaluation framework, suggesting practical approaches to its use in the classroom. She is currently Work Package Leader on the EU Tempus project “Impress” with partners in Spain, the Czech Republic and the Ukraine which seeks to incorporate elements of this tool kit into a new “soft skills” teaching framework for the Ukraine. This work is running alongside the BA/Leverhulme Trust project “Proactive and passive skepticism; extending digital literacy to survive misinformation, myth and conspiracy theory and support empowered citizenship”. She teaches Information Literacy, Learner Support and Research Methods. Her main research interests are Information Literacy and Learning; User Information Seeking Behaviour, particularly in children and young people; Research Methods in LIS, in particular qualitative measures of value and impact; behavioural studies; Information Trust. She is author of a research methods textbook now a core text on LIS programmes internationally and a member of a number of journal and conference editorial boards. Dr Ida Fajar Priyanto obtained his PhD from the University of North Texas and his MA in Information Studies from Loughborough University of Technology. He was the Director of Gadjah Mada University Library from 2002 to 2012 and Chair of the Library Council of the State of Yogyakarta from January 2011 to December 2015. He is also faculty at the Graduate School of



Contributors 

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Information and Library Management, Gadjah Mada University. He has published book chapters and presented papers at international, regional, and national conferences. Dr Antoni Roig Telo is a senior lecturer at the Information and Communication Studies Department, Open University of Catalonia (UOC). He holds a PhD in Information and Knowledge Society, with a PhD thesis on participatory cultural practices and collaboration in digital cinema. He is currently the director of the Audiovisual Communication undergraduate programme. His main research interests are related to new media practices, from collaborative storytelling to transmedia strategies, open media creation tools, crowdsourcing, fan media production and emergent models of participatory production. He has participated in different R+D funded projects: Art, aesthetics and new media, New Media Creative Practices, D-Futures, Social Engagement, Selfie Stories and Plugin Narratives. He is also a member of the interdisciplinary research group Mediaccions. He has contributed to different international peer-reviewed publications, both as an author and a reviewer (e.g., Convergence, The International Journal of Communication, The International Journal of Game-based Learning, Berghahn’s Theorizing Media Practice, Anàlisi, Icono 14 or L’Atalante). He has contributed to different books such as Comunicación audiovisual digital (Digital audiovisual Communication, co-author and also co-editor, 2005), Las industrias de la comunicación audiovisual (Audiovisual communication Industries, co-author, 2008), Cine en conexión (Networked Cinema, 2009), Exploraciones Creativas (Creative Explorations, co-author, 2010) or Crowdfunding the future (co-author, 2015). Dr Sandra Sanz Martos holds a PhD in Information Society and Knowledge from the University Oberta of Catalunya (UOC) and a degree in Documentation from the University of Granada and in Hispanic Studies from the University of Barcelona. He is currently a senior lecturer at the Communication and Information Studies at the UOC and Co-Director of Graduate Studies in Social Media Content: Content Curator and Community Manager at the same university. He is member of the academic Commission of the Information and Documentation Degree and holds academic responsibility for subjects about communication, about communities and about information sources. As a researcher, he is a member of GAME (Research Group in Learning, Media and Entertainment) group. Their interests are in collaborative learning and the exchange of information, experience and knowledge across the network. Dr Michael Seadle currently serves as a professor, the Director of the Berlin School of Library and Information Science, the Dean of the Faculty of Arts I and chair of the Commission on Research Misconduct at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. He is chair of the international iSchool Caucus. He is also editor-in-chief of World Digital Libraries: An International Journal, co-editor of Library Hi Tech and a member of the editorial boards of Bibliothek: Forschung und Praxis, and Reference Services Review. His current research areas are research integrity and long-term digital archiving. Susan E. Searing Susan E. Searing is professor emerita at the University of Illinois, UrbanaChampaign, where she served as the Interim Associate University Librarian for User Services and Associate Dean of the Library. She was also affiliated with the Graduate School of Library and Information Science. Before her appointment to the library’s administration, she was the Library & Information Science Librarian at Illinois. Earlier in her career, Sue worked as a reference librarian at Yale University, as the women’s studies librarian for the 26 campuses of the University of Wisconsin System, and as the deputy director of libraries at the University of

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Wisconsin-Madison. She has published and presented research on library service for interdisciplinary fields, information literacy education, the impact of field experience on LIS students, the history of LIS libraries, and reference sources for both women’s studies and LIS. Her most recent publication, co-authored with Jo Bell Whitlatch, is Guide to Reference: Essential General Reference and Library Science Sources. Hadir Shady is a Projects Specialist at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina (BA), Alexandria, Egypt. She has Master’s of Business Administration (MBA – Major: International Business), the Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime Transport, Alexandria, Egypt. Hadir has worked in different fields within the private sector, multinational companies and organizations. She has extensive experience in different areas, including project management, capacitybuilding and empowerment, advocacy, communication, writing, research, translation, editing and publication management. Hadir has several papers published in the proceedings materials of various conferences. Hadir joined the BA in 2007 as a researcher where she carried out numerous duties related to research, translation, authorship and quality control. She has also developed capacity building programmes and training courses for the staff and the public in different areas. Currently, she is responsible for several programmes and projects in the areas of librarianship capacity building, strengthening collaborations of the Library Sector through the production of newsletters, webpages, enhancing research and scientific writing, as well as the development of the Library Sector website. She is also responsible for the publications quality control of the Information Services Department. Paul Sturges, Professor Emeritus, Loughborough University and Professor Extraordinary, University of Pretoria. He has travelled widely throughout the world, giving lectures and conference presentations, leading workshops on Intellectual Freedom topics, providing consultancy, and researching. His more than 200 articles, reviews, reports and books deal with a variety of issues in information science, with an emphasis on the developing world, a strong specialization in ethics of information, and a recent focus on curriculum development. Chair of the International Federation of Library Associations’ (IFLA) Freedom of Access to Information and Freedom of Expression (FAIFE) Committee 2003–2009. Currently consultant to INASP Curriculum Development Project (since 2012, with workshops in Malawi, Vietnam, Tanzania, Kenya and Ethiopia ). Made Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 2010 for services to libraries in the UK and overseas, and awarded the IFLA Medal in 2011. Ana María Talavera Ibarra is a Professor of Library and Information Science at the Pontifical Catholic University in Lima Perú, since 1987 to present. She has obtained her Master degree on Library Science at the University of Sheffield England, has also finished the PhD programme being a Candidate at the Library and Information Science programme of the University of Texas at Austin. Graduated as librarian by the National University of San Marcos and previously obtained her Bachelor degree at the National School of Librarians, both in Lima. She has been coordinator of the PUCP LIS Specialty from 2002 to 2011, and is the current coordinator of the Diploma programme. She was a former lecturer at the School of Library and Information Sciences of San Marcos University, and the National School of Archivists. Past President of the Peruvian Library Association during the period 2011–2012 and Vice president for the period 2015–2016. Has participated in IFLA-ALP projects particularly in the BSLA programme as core trainer for Peru and Latin America. Has participated as a speaker at numerous national and international seminars and has published conferences papers, articles, papers and book



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chapter on the areas of teaching of librarianship, distance education, information reference resources information, library automation, virtual and digital libraries, cataloguing and integrated systems among others. Dr Anna Maria Tammaro, Professor at the University of Parma in the International Master DILL Digital Library Learning, joint course together with Tallinn University. Her main research interests focus on the international dimension of LIS education and Digital Libraries. She is Chair of IFLA Section Library Theory and Research and past Chair of the IFLA Division IV (2011–2013) and Education and Training Section (2007–2011), member of IFLA Governing Board (2007–2009; 2011–2013). More information here: http://works.bepress.com/annamaria_ tammaro/. Ngozi Blessing Ukachi works with University of Lagos Library. She is professionally interested in the area of electronic resources use and Information Technology application to library services. She has published widely in national and international peer review Journals on ICT related areas in the library. She has also published a book on “Application of ICT and Effective Reference Services”. Ngozi is a recipient of several international awards like the IFLA/OCLC Early Career Development Fellowship Award, IFLA Essay Competition Award winner, Carnegie CPD Award, etc. She is presently the Chairperson, Information Technology (I.T.) Section, Nigerian Library Association and the Immediate Past General Secretary of Nigerian Library Association, Lagos State Chapter. She is passionate about acquiring skills and disseminating information on trends and current ICT skills necessary for effective information service delivery. Dr Aleksandra Vranes (Prof.), born on 21 September 1960 in Belgrade, Serbia. Graduated and obtained her Master’s and PhD degree from the Faculty of Philology, University of Belgrade, where she is employed in teaching since 1985. Full Professor (since 2004) and Dean of the Faculty of Philology, University of Belgrade (since 2010). Head of the Department of Library Science and Information Technology of the Faculty of Philology in Belgrade (2001–2006), Assistant of the Head of Department (2006–). From 2000 until 2002, Chair of Department of the National Library of Serbia for the Development and improvement of library services in Serbia. Head of the Department of Literature at the Andrić Institute (Višegrad, since 2013) and Manuscript Department of Matica Srpska (Novi Sad, since 2013). Since 2006, she initiated at the Faculty of Philology studies of museology, archival science, information and media literacy, publishing and booktrade, statistics in libraries as well as communication and cultural studies. Lecturer in the scientific fields of Librarianship, Techniques of Scientific Research, Bibliography, Contemporary Cultural Studies and Publishing. Editor in Chief of Meetings of bibliographers in memory of Dr Georgije Mihailović, Public Libraries and Librarian (2004–2009). Editor of journals Literature and Culture (LIK) published by the Andrić Institute and INK, Language and Literature, Bibliographies and Catalogues published by the Faculty of Philology. Author of several scientific books in the field of librarianship, editor of numerous publications in the field of literature and librarianship, including the proceedings of international and domestic conferences and seminars accredited by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development. Dr Nosheen Fatima Warraich has been working as Assistant Professor Tenure Track in Department of Information Management University of the Punjab, Lahore-Pakistan since 2008. She has more than 20 international publications and 10 international conference

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papers at her credit. She has presented her research in prestigious conferences of her field, held in USA, Canada, Sweden, Malaysia, Italy, France and Pakistan. Her research has been published in popular journals like The Electronic Library, Education for Information and Library Management. She works on areas such as web usability, linked data application in libraries, e-sources usage in universities, LIS education and the job market. She is the Editor of Pakistan Journal of Information Management & Libraries. She has the honour of winning the Info-share award twice, for the years of 2010 and 2011, from American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIST). Dr Terry Weech is an Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois. He has been listed frequently among the list of Excellent Teachers in the Graduate School of Library and Information Science at the University of Illinois. Dr Weech has taught at Mississippi University for Women, the University of Iowa, the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, and at Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas. He has served as Chair of the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) Division of Education and Research, the Chair of the IFLA Education and Training Section and the Chair of IFLA Library Theory and Research Section. He has been active in the American Library Association and is currently a member of the American Library Association Committee on Accreditation which oversees the American Library Association’s accreditation programme of LIS education in the United States and Canada. His research interests include collection development, library systems and networks, library administration, economics of information, government information resources, and library education with a special focus on education for digital librarianship. Internationally he has lectured in more than twenty countries. He currently teaches courses dealing with Library Administration, Library Cooperation, International Librarianship, the Economics of Information and Librarianship and Society. A list of his international activities can be found at:  http://people.lis.uiuc.edu/~weech/TLWHOME1.htm. Anne Welsh is Lecturer in Library and Information Studies at University College London, where she teaches mainly on the MA Library and Information Studies, although one of the modules she leads, Historical Bibliography, is also available to students on the MA Digital Humanities, MA Early Modern Studies and MA Early Lives and Letters. Her co-authored text, Practical Cataloguing (London: Facet 2012; Chicago: Neal Schuman, 2012) was the first to cover the international cataloguing code Resource Description and Access in any depth, and is a set text in library schools internationally. Her research home is UCL Centre for Digital Humanities. Recently completed projects include the Linked Open Bibliographic Data project, which created a tool for modelling new format Bibframe in teaching, and The World of UCL, 1826-1946, which focused on the BAME (Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic) presence at the university in its early years. Outside UCL, she is an Associate editor of Library Review and a committee member of Cilip‘s Cataloguing and Indexing Group, for which she sits on the BIC Library Metadata Group and Cilip Rare Books and Special Collections Group‘s Bibliographic Standards Committee. Full details on her institutional webpage, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dis/people/annewelsh.