Educating in the Arts: The Asian Experience, Twenty-Four Essays (Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues, Concerns and Prospects) [1 ed.] 9781402063862, 9781402063879, 1402063865

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Educating in the Arts

EDUCATION IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION: ISSUES, CONCERNS AND PROSPECTS Volume 11 Series Editors-in-Chief: Dr Rupert Maclean, UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Education, Bonn; and Ryo Watanabe, National Institute for Educational Policy Research (NIER) of Japan, Tokyo Editorial Board Robyn Baker, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, Wellington, New Zealand Dr Boediono, National Office for Research and Development, Ministry of National Education, Indonesia Professor Yin Cheong Cheng, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, China Dr Wendy Duncan, Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines Professor John Keeves, Flinders University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia Dr Zhou Mansheng, National Centre for Educational Development Research, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China Professor Colin Power, Graduate School of Education, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia Professor J. S. Rajput, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi, India Professor Konai Helu Thaman, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji

Advisory Board Professor Mark Bray, UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP), Paris, France; Dr Agnes Chang, National Institute of Education, Singapore; Dr Nguyen Huu Chau, National Institute for Educational Sciences, Vietnam; Professor John Fien, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia; Professor Leticia Ho, University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines; Dr Inoira Lilamaniu Ginige, National Institute of Education, Sri Lanka; Professor Philip Hughes, Australian National University (ANU), Canberra; Dr Inayatullah, Pakistan Association for Continuing and Adult Education, Karachi, Pakistan; Dr Rung Kaewdang, Ministry of Education, Bangkok, Thailand; Dr Chong-Jae Lee, Korean Educational Development Institute, Seoul, Korea; Dr Molly Lee, UNESCO Bangkok, Thailand; Naing Yee Mar, UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Education, Bonn, Germany; Mausooma Jaleel, Maldives College of Higher Education, Male, Maldives; Professor Geoff Masters, Australian Council for Educational Research, Melbourne, Australia; Dr Victor Ordonez, Adjunct Senior Education Fellow, East-West Center, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, USA; Dr Khamphay Sisavanh, National Research Institute of Educational Sciences, Ministry of Education, Lao PDR; Dr Max Walsh, Secondary Education Project, Manila, Philippines

For other titles published in this series, go to www.springer.com/series/5888

Educating in the Arts The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays

Edited by

Lindy Joubert University of Melbourne Australia

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 978-1-4020-6386-2 (HB) ISBN 978-1-4020-6387-9 (e-book)

Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. www.springer.com

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All Rights Reserved © 2008 Springer Science + Business Media B.V. No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

SERIES SCOPE The purpose of this Series is to meet the needs of those interested in an in-depth analysis of current developments in education and schooling in the vast and diverse Asia-Pacific Region. The Series will be invaluable for educational researchers, policy makers and practitioners, who want to better understand the major issues, concerns and prospects regarding educational developments in the Asia-Pacific region. The Series complements the Handbook of Educational Research in the Asia-Pacific Region, with the elaboration of specific topics, themes and case studies in greater breadth and depth than is possible in the Handbook. Topics to be covered in the Series include: secondary education reform; reorientation of primary education to achieve education for all; re-engineering education for change; the arts in education; evaluation and assessment; the moral curriculum and values education; technical and vocational education for the world of work; teachers and teaching in society; organisation and management of education; education in rural and remote areas; and, education of the disadvantaged. Although specifically focusing on major educational innovations for development in the Asia-Pacific region, the Series is directed at an international audience. The Series Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues, Concerns and Prospects, and the Handbook of Educational Research in the Asia-Pacific Region, are both publications of the Asia-Pacific Educational Research Association. Those interested in obtaining more information about the Monograph Series, or who wish to explore the possibility of contributing a manuscript, should (in the first instance) contact the publishers. Books published to date in the series: 1. Young People and the Environment: An Asia-Pacific Perspective Editors: John Fien, David Yenken and Helen Sykes 2. Asian Migrants and Education: The Tensions of Education in Immigrant Societies and among Migrant Groups Editors: Michael W. Charney, Brenda S.A. Yeoh and Tong Chee Kiong 3. Reform of Teacher Education in the Asia-Pacific in the New Millennium: Trends and Challenges Editors: Yin C. Cheng, King W. Chow and Magdalena M. Mok 4. Rasch Measurement: A Book of Exemplars Papers in Honour of John P. Keeves Editors: Sivakumar Alagumalai, David D. Curtis, Njora Hungi 5. Reforming Learning: Issues, Concepts and Practices in the Asian-Pacific Region Editors: Chi-Hung Ng and Peter Renshaw, in press 6. New Paradigm for Re-engineering Education: Globalization, Localization and Individualization Editor: Yin Cheong Cheng 7. Towards a Global Community: Educating for Tomorrow’s World Editors: William J. Campbell, Nicholas Baikaloff and Colin Power v

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Series Scope

8. Educational Decentralization: Asian Experiences and Conceptual Contributions Editor: Christopher Bjork 9. Secondary Education at the Crossroads: International Perspectives Relevant to the Asia-Pacific Region Editor: Phillip Hughes 10. Alternative Education: Global Perspectives Relevant to the Asia-Pacific Region Editor: Yoshiyaki Nagata 11. Educating in the Arts The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays Editor: Lindy Joubert 12. Enabling Consumer and Entrepreneurial Literacy in Subsistance Marketplaces Editor: Madhu Viswanathan, Suryaprakasam Gajendiran, Renga Venkatesan

Contents

Introduction by the Series Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xi

Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xv

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix Section I 1.

2.

3.

Introduction and Overviews

The Arts – Unifying Principles in Education: Improving Educational Outcomes through the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lindy Joubert Masters and Pupils: The Rise of the Modern Art School in Asia: Some Key Issues Regarding Their Establishment, Curricula and Place in the Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alison Carroll Art for Education: The Role of Art in Promoting a Good Quality, Basic Education for Children in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vibeke Jensen and George A. Attig

3

31

47

Section II Arts Education Programmes: Iran, Hong Kong, Cambodia 4.

Arts Education in Iran: Reclaiming the Lost Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mahmoud Mehrmohammadi

5.

The Arts-in-Education Programme: Towards Effective Learning through Partnership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jane Cheung

55

65

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6.

Contents

Arts Education in Cambodia: Its Social, Moral, and Economic Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sam-Ang Sam

Section III

83

The Arts, the Gallery and the Cultural Landscape: Japan, Australia, Kyrgyzstan and Thailand

7.

Representation of Japanese Art at the Art Gallery of New South Wales (Sydney, Australia). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Chiaki Ajioka

8.

Mountains in the Evolution of Visual Arts in Kyrgyzstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Emil Nasritdinov

9.

Development of Contemporary Art in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Vichoke Mukdamanee

Section IV Creativity and Expression in the Digital Age – Singapore and Japan 10.

Information Technology, Art Education and Creativity in Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Minming Cheng

11.

The Power of Creation and Expression in Digital-Age Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Nanako Ishido and Ichiya Nakamura

Section V

The Arts, Education and the Community: Uzbekistan, Hong Kong, China, Thailand, and the Philippines

12.

Art Education in Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Akbar Khakimov

13.

To Strive, to Seek, to Find and not to Yield: Arts Education in Hong Kong: A Model of Persistence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Darwin Chen

Contents

ix

14.

Sustainable Education for Sustaining Communities: The Arts Integrated Curriculum. Two Case Studies of China and Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Lindy Joubert

15.

New and Varied Initiatives in Arts Education for Cultural Development in Philippine Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Brenda V. Fajardo

Section VI Music Programmes for Education, Multiculturalism and Human Development: Japan, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Korea 16.

Crossroads for Cultural Education Through Music: Recent Developments of School Music in Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Tatsuko Takizawa

17.

Symphony and Sa Re Ga: Preparing a Pre-Service Music Education Training Programme for Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Robert G. Smith

18.

A Paradigm Shift in Teaching Music in Schools: Traditional Music and Multiculturalism in Malaysian Education: Approaches in Music Appreciation Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Tan Sooi Beng

19.

Layers of Thought on Korean Music, Music Education and the Value of Music and Arts in the Context of Education and Human Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Ki-Beom Jang

Section VII

Theatre, Dance and the Holistic Experience: India, Hong Kong and Malaysia

20.

Rasa– A Life Skill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Sangeeta Isvaran

21.

Tertiary Dance Education in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Joseph Gonzales

22.

Theatre and Education: A Different Interpretation for India . . . . . . 301 Subodh Patnaik

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Contents

The Black Box Exercise: An Arts Education Model from Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Yuewai Wong

Section VIII 24.

Conclusion

Conclusion: A Vision for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Lindy Joubert

Author Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

Introduction by the Series Editors

One of the key aspects of the mandate of UNESCO (the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation, with its Headquarters in Paris) concerns the celebration and preservation of cultural diversity throughout the world. In 1972, UNESCO adopted the ‘International Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage’. In doing this it took on the task of protecting the cultural and natural assets of humanity that are deemed to possess ‘exceptional universal value’. To date more than 180 countries have ratified the Convention. Over 800 sites from more than 130 countries have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. However it is important to note that UNESCO is not just concerned with cultural and natural heritage in terms of buildings, monuments, rainforests and natural wilderness areas (important as these are), but also with the ‘living cultural heritage’. Living culture refers to a diversity of matters including language, values and attitudes, culinary characteristics, clothing, music, theatre, traditional story telling and other aspects of the performing arts. This concern by UNESCO with culture in the broadest sense is true for all regions of the world, including, of course, the large and diverse Asia region, which is home to 60% of the worlds population, and in which there is enormous cultural diversity with regard to all matters concerning material culture, languages, religions, crafts and the performing arts. UNESCO meets on a regular basis with government education officials and community leaders in UNESCO Member States in the Asia region. When discussing their major concerns for the future the question generally arises: ‘how can we modernize without becoming increasingly westernised.’ In essence, the leaders and citizens of developing and transition countries in the Asian region want to achieve the benefits of economic development, with rising standards of living, improved health care, longer life expectancy, improved diets and standards of housing, and with parents having enough resources to send their children to school. But at the same time they are concerned that such development and modernization often brings with it increasing westernization particularly with regard to their increasing adoption of western cultural characteristics, most importantly in the area of values. Countries are concerned that they are losing their indigenous cultural identities, and that with increasing westernization that there is a move from a concern with the xi

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Introduction by the Series Editors

group to greater individualisation, and from cooperation to competition between individuals. This is often reflected in fundamental changes in the culture of the countries involved. One of the main ways in which civilizations and countries express and preserve their cultural identity is through ‘the Arts’. The Arts refers to a broad subdivision of culture, composed of many expressive disciplines. It is a term broader than ‘art’ which usually means the visual arts, comprising both fine art, decorative art, and crafts. ‘The Arts’ includes visual arts, performing arts, language arts, culinary arts, and physical arts. Many artistic disciplines involve aspects of the various arts, so the definitions of these terms overlap to some degree. UNESCO plays a pro-active leadership role in the arts in education, by promoting international collaborations between UNESCO and various partners in the field of Arts education. One of the major initiatives has been the proposal to establish a series of sub-regional Observatories across the Asia-Pacific region, in order to contribute to a wiser and more open communication platform for the arts in education communities. The first UNESCO Observatory for Research in the Arts has been established at the University of Melbourne, Australia. In the words of the first Director of this Observatory, Lindy Joubert, who is also the editor of this important volume on Educating in the Arts: The Asian Experience, the UNESCO Observatory at the University of Melbourne ‘aims to foster a collaborative outreach between the university and multidisciplinary areas relevant to government and community networks on matters of direct importance to the public interest. Such Observatories identify new developments where the arts are the unifying principle and each one has a different scope, to address all aspects of the arts in education and the quest for maximising human potential’ Some of the key matters addressed by this book are: • Arts in education as a central part of life skills development • The important contributions of the arts to human development • Importance of the arts in enriching the cultural landscape within a community and a society • New and varied initiatives in arts education with regard to matters such as the part which arts education has to play in achieving high quality education for all, and lifelong education for all • The Arts in education as a way of promoting multi-cultural societies This book successfully addresses the following key matters: • What is the role of the arts in society, and what are the social (and even political) implications of the arts in society • What are the key contemporary issues concerning the arts? How can educational outcomes be improved through the arts? What is the impact of the digital age and ICT’s? What is the impact of globalisation? What can be done to make the arts more inclusive? How can creative capacities be built through the arts? • The Arts have a key role to play in promoting international understanding and a culture of peace, so that people realise that cultural diversity is not something to

Introduction by the Series Editors

• • • • •

xiii

be worried or threatened about, but something to be celebrated and valued for its own sake. NGO’s have a vitally important role to play when educating in the arts. It is clear that many countries are increasingly valuing the outcomes of educating in the arts. The arts in education have a major and important role to play in building educational opportunities Educating in the arts needs to pay more attention to most effectively harnessing the new information and communication technologies. What are the different types of arts education? This has implications for cultural diversity; multi-cultural societies; celebration of diversity.

It has been shown that: the Arts can have a unifying influence in education; the role of the arts in education is important in promoting an effective, good quality education; there are important contributions of the arts in education in promoting an effective education for all; and there is an important the social, moral and economic impact. This book provides a rich and comprehensive conceptual framework for analysing the arts in education (and in society). One point which the authors make is that although much has been achieved over time, and continues to be achieved, new pathways are necessary if the arts in education are going to reach their full potential in what in many cases are rapidly changing and modernizing societies. In this regard, more needs to be done to harness the new information and communication technologies in support of the Arts. There is also a need to showcase best and innovative practices, since what works in one country can, with suitable adjustment and modification, work well to meet the needs of other countries. This interesting and highly readable book examines the arts in education in a wide range of countries in the Asia region: in developed and developing countries, and in transition countries such as those in the Central Asian Republics. Rupert Maclean Director of the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Education Bonn, Germany and Ryo Watanabe Director, Department for International Research and Co-operation, National Institute for Educational Policy Research (NIER) of Japan Tokyo

Preface

When I was first asked to edit this book, the researcher in me delighted at the opportunity to provide case studies from different cultural traditions with a team of like-minded fellow artists, educators and researchers. But as the book took shape I also discovered a true passion for its fundamental messages. Educating in the Arts – the Asian Experience talks about how landscapes and histories, farms and cities, the mountains, seas and skies interact with lives and form the backdrop for stories that build and link the creative clusters of a place. This book has provided a wonderful opportunity to delve into the many worlds that incorporate the arts, particularly where the arts inform, inspire and look for answers to difficult questions. Having attracted a broad range of contributors from every corner of the Asian region, a substantial collection of detailed information has emerged. Each story has an approach that is universal yet culturally unique. Close your eyes and see the colours, smell the smells and hear the voices of the children against the background rhythms of song birds, urban traffic or whistling winds. My wish is that this book is read not only as a text providing information but as a prompt to transcend strife, to soar on wings of imaginings and build castles of hope and dreams for tomorrow. The arts in education are a powerful tool to engage different sectors of society to enrich and empower lives. The sounds of music, the rhythmic motion of dance, the call of theatrical persuasions, the poetics of prose and the lilt of the iambic pentameter draw us into the secrets and practices of little known cultures and communities. Having been an artist and an educator for most of my life, I know from my own experience that the arts in education have the power to act as indicators and shapers of our sensibilities and personal development. While shaping our imagination, they add to all creative achievements the refinement and grace that epitomises the best of human endeavour. This is where the arts have a special place: how the beauty of the artwork, the dramatic performance, the transcension of a glorious singing voice, music in all its forms and the poetic rhythm of words and memories, recall the sorrows and joys of one’s life, adding intangible elements that allow us to share experiences and bring us closer together as human beings. The many and varied themes are united in their belief in the expression of the philosophy of art and how it permeates Asian cultures from a myriad of entrance points. A life in the arts is an education in the arts; it is something that corresponds xv

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Preface

to the fundamental nature of human kind and great successes and moments of glory in every day life can be achieved in partnership with social, scientific, environmental and educational confluences. An education in the arts extends our awareness of traditional pathways while simultaneously empowering us to embark on a journey that investigates the relevance of the arts to the sciences, to medicine, healthcare, to architecture, communities and environments. There are many books yet to be written to provide evidence of how truly significant the arts are in reducing mental and emotional health problems, alienation and other social ills. The importance of deepening our understanding can add intelligence to emotion using the arts as a catalyst. Importantly, it is necessary to affirm the value of the arts by examining their long-term viability and their social benefits. This book is an attempt to gather evidence for the role of the arts in education and community arts participation, showing how it can heal communities and allow them to prosper and flourish through the nurturing of the creative potential. Lindy Joubert Director, UNESCO Observatory on Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Arts Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning The University of Melbourne Email: [email protected] www.abp.unimelb.edu.au/unesco/

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to the Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning at the University of Melbourne for providing support in using the arts across a range of multidisciplinary endeavours. The interest and commitment this Faculty and the University provides as a whole, particularly under the Vice-Chancellor, Professor Glyn Davis, the Dean Professor Tom Kvan and the former Dean Professor Ruth Fincher for multidisciplinary research and teaching and learning, has created a fertile environment for new opportunities. I wish to thank all the contributing authors who have provided such a rich and diverse range of experiences and case studies from around the Asian region. I also wish to thank UNESCO, in particular Teresa Wagner, Executive Office, Senior Programme Specialist Coordination of Patronage and Cultural Events; Richard Engelhardt, UNESCO Regional Advisor for Culture in Asia and the Pacific and the Director of UNESCO Asia Pacific, Sheldon Shaeffer who have made a substantial contribution through their energy and commitment to promote the Arts in Education agenda. Finally, I would like to thank the Series Editor Rupert Maclean and the publisher for providing this opportunity to publish a book of this nature and for their loyal commitment and patience.

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Contributors

Chaiki Ajioka studied oil painting at Musashino Art University, Tokyo. She arrived in Melbourne, Australia, in 1977, studied English for a year, and then obtained a BA in history at La Trobe University; and, after studying her MA preliminary, obtained her MA at the University of Melbourne. She then moved to Sydney and worked for SBS Television as a Japanese subtitler from 1986 to1996. She obtained her Ph.D. at the Australian National University, Canberra, in 1995 and was made Assistant Curator of Asian art from 1993 to 1996, subsequently becoming the Curator of Japanese Art at the Art Gallery of New South Wales, from 1996 to 2003. George A. Attig, an anthropologist, is a staff member of the Institute of Nutrition, Mahidol University at Salaya, Thailand. He has worked in the area of children’s learning for over a decade, focusing especially on tracking learning performance, identifying the causes of poor learning and introducing innovative activities to improve children’s learning. Tan Sooi Beng is Professor of Ethnomusicology at the School of Arts, Universiti Sains Malaysia. She is an advisor to the Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education, Malaysia. She helped to develop the music curriculum for secondary schools and has co-authored music textbooks for schools and colleges. Other of her publications include Bangsawan, A Social and Stylistic History of Popular Malay Opera (Oxford University Press, 1993) and The Music of Malaysia: The Classical, Folk and Syncretic Traditions (Ashgate Press, 2004, co-authored by Patricia Matusky). Alison Carroll has been an academic, critic, writer, curator and administrator of art exhibition and artist exchanges with Asia for over 20 years. She has a BA (Hons) degree and an MA degree in Art History from the University of Melbourne. In 1990, she established the Arts Programme at the Asialink Centre at the University of Melbourne, of which she is now the Director. This is the main programme for arts exchange between Asia and Australia for visual arts, performing arts, literature and arts management practice. Darwin Chen, SBS, Chairman of Hong Kong Arts Development Council. Dr. Chen now serves as the Chairman of the Management Board of the School of Professional and Continuing Education of the University of Hong Kong. In 2001, Dr. Chen was made an Honorary Fellow of the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts in July, xix

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Contributors

and an Honorary University Fellow of the University of Hong Kong in December, respectively. In March 2004, he was conferred with the honorary degree of Doctor of Social Sciences by the University of Hong Kong. Minming Cheng is currently working as an architect for a Melbourne-based architecture firm, and is also a tutor of architectural design with the University of Melbourne. At the time of writing of the article, she was a researching on IT and architecture in Singapore for her degree of Master of Architecture by research. She completed her secondary education in Singapore before undertaking university studies at the University of Melbourne. Jane Cheung-Yung Wai Yee, GRSM, PGCE, MA, Ph.D. (London) ARCM, is Senior Lecturer at the Creative Arts Department of the Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong, where she teaches musicianship skills and music education courses. She was the assessment team leader of the Arts-in-Education (AiE) Project. Jane has taught in secondary schools in the UK and Hong Kong and was the Head of the Creative Arts Department in the Hong Kong Institute of Education (1994–2000). Her publications include chapters in books, journal articles and conference proceedings on technology-based learning; IT policy in music and arts education; student learning through the arts; music education research in Hong Kong; artists in schools and student-centred education reform. She has been a member of the Arts Education Committee of the Education and Manpower Bureau and the Education subcommittee of the Hong Kong Arts Development Council. Joseph Gonzales was a founder member of faculty of the first arts institution in Malaysia – the National Arts Academy – and was subsequently appointed its head in 1999. He is a choreographer, educator and dance advocate of repute in Malaysia and presents papers, lectures and workshops on education, career development and choreography at international conferences. He is a consultant for www.dancemalaysia.com and the author of Choreography – A Malaysian Perspective. Nanako Ishido is a Director General of the not-for-profit organization, CANVAS. She focuses on activities with children, media and art. She received a B.Sc. in engineering from the University of Tokyo and joined the MIT Media Lab as a visiting scholar. She established CANVAS in 2002 and also serves as a Project Coordinator at the Stanford Japan Research Centre. She is a member of a research project about the Japanese pop culture, collaborating with Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry and the Ministry of Telecommunications. Sangeeta Isvaran has been studying the classical dance form, Bharatanatyam, for the past 23 years, performing across Asia, Europe and North America. With grants from various agencies, she has travelled across South East Asia studying and writing about various forms of dance. She has recently begun studies on several forms of dance from Africa. Believing firmly in the need for and the celebration of art in the childhood years, and being aware of the acute lack of interest in art by government and others, Sangeeta has worked with children both in the regular school framework and in orphanages, homes for juvenile delinquents and drug addicts,

Contributors

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non-governmental organizations working with street children, child prostitution and so on. She also works with underprivileged communities using dance for human rights education, AIDS awareness and self-empowerment. Ki-Beom Jang is a Professor of Music Education at Seoul National University of Education, Seoul, Korea. He earned a doctorate degree in music education from the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. He is a chairman of the Korean Society of Music Educational Technology (KSMET). Prof. Jang has written nine books, numerous articles and theses on music education and arts education in general. In 2000, he conducted a national project entitled ‘a comparison of music education systems between South Korea and North Korea’. This national project was sponsored by the Korean Ministry of Human Resource and Education. Recently, Prof. Jang has created the ‘Korea Music Aptitude Profile (KoMAP)’, a Web-based project sponsored by the Korea Research Foundation (KRF). Vibeke Jensen is a programme specialist at the UNESCO Regional Bureau for Education for Asia and the Pacific with responsibilities for assisting UNESCO member states in improving quality of basic education and promoting gender equality in education. Lindy Joubert is Director for the UNESCO Observatory on Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Arts. Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning at The University of Melbourne, Australia. A painter with 34 national and international exhibitions of paintings, 6 in New York City. Consultant at UNESCO Headquarters Paris, France. from 2000 to 2003. Researches in mental health through the arts and education and collaborates with major hospitals internationally examining the impact of the arts for healing environments. Director of the Asia Pacific Confederation for Arts Education, organiser of the 2003 UNESCO Pacific Regional Arts Education Expert Meeting and contributes regularly to UNESCO expert meetings. Team Leader for the Australia Council Arts Health Strategy; the Community Arts Development Scheme Evaluation for Mental Health 2020 for Vic Health and the Children’s Cancer Centres Healing Arts project for hospitals across the state of Victoria. Akbar Khakimov is the author of more than 100 articles concerning the history of the arts in Central Asia, including modern art and art education in the region. As a Vice-President of the Academy of Arts of Uzbekistan, he coordinates art education in Uzbekistan. He has been a participant and a speaker at the UNESCO Symposium in Hong Kong (‘Art Education in Uzbekistan’) dedicated to art education in Asian countries. Mahmoud Mehrmohammadi is a specialist in the field of curriculum and instruction and has always been interested in the roles arts can play in education. Arts education as a subject on the curriculum, however, is only one channel, albeit an important one, through which the arts can enter education. His sabbatical leave in Canada and the States, which took place in the year 2000–2001, was an excellent opportunity for him to concentrate in this area and to gain fresh insights. Cooperation with the relevant planning and decision-making bodies within the Ministry of Education has been a parallel line of activity, both challenging and expanding his understanding of this domain.

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Contributors

Ichiya Nakamura is Vice-President of the not-for-profit organization CANVAS and an Executive Director at the Stanford Japan Research Centre. He is also a visiting scientist at MIT and an advisor to CSK Corp. Until 1998, he was a policy maker at the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, Japan. Until 1984, he was a rock musician at Shonen Knife. Subodh Patnaik, after graduating in theatre from a local university, became a theatre activist with a social motivation, and a theatre director aiming to take modern theatre forms closer to the people and challenging the dominant imported forms of theatre. He is involved with different developmental networks and is a consultant on applying the theatre in various forms, such as community theatre by non-governmental organizations and training street theatre groups. He also advises on campaigns wishing to use cultural resources of communication, like the theatre and puppetry. In addition, he networks among amateur theatre groups who are committed for creating a specifically Indian theatre for artistic purposes. Bob Smith’s curricular expertise evolved across years served as National Music Adviser to the Fiji Ministry of Education, as a curriculum writer for the Inner London Education Authority and, more recently, as international music education consultant in Sri Lanka. In the latter post, he reviewed the national music curriculum and coordinated the development of a new pre-service music teacher-training programme for Sri Lanka’s National Colleges of Education. He is the immediate past President of the Australian Society for Music Education Inc. and the President of the Northern Territory Institute for Educational Research. Tatsuko Takizawa is a professor at the Aichi University of Education Music Department, where he is responsible for ethnomusicology and comparative music education. Other positions include being a CMA commission member (2000– 2006) of the International Society for Music Education; (an ISME member since 1982); sitting on the ISME World Music Advisory Panel chaired by Bruno Nettl (1994–1996 and editing Musics of the World’s Cultures: A Source Book for Music Educators, published by the Callaway International Resource Centre for the Music Education in 1998. In 1992, he was organizer of a seminar for Asian Music Educators (with Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, Singapore and Malaysia as participants), which was funded by the Japan Foundation. In 1997, he was project planner for the Singapore seminar for Asian Music Educators at the National Nanyang Technological University (sponsored by the Japan Foundation). Yuewai Wong was born and bred in Hong Kong. His venture into the arts, culture and education started in 1987 with his active involvement in performance arts and visual arts as director, producer, administrator, curator, critic, performer and art educator. At the time of publication of this book, more than 130,000 participants and 150 schools have been involved in these programmes under his curatorship and directorship.

Section I

Introduction and Overviews

Chapter 1

The Arts – Unifying Principles in Education Improving Educational Outcomes through the Arts Lindy Joubert

1. Introduction Developments in the arts in education in the Asian region have been moving ahead in quantum leaps in recent times. There are many aspects of how one may give or receive an education in the arts and this book of essays highlights significant examples, written by eminent people who speak from their own culture and experiences. Indeed, by identifying these arts experiences, each author is employing his or her own beliefs, memories and values concerning the arts in education. This book highlights the efforts of educators achieving outstanding results throughout the Asian region. Demonstrably, excellent work is being achieved across a number of domains relating to the arts in education. Some authors speak of their role in teaching and learning and artistic development; or how they assess the impact of the arts in educational practices and the effects of the arts in both formal and non-formal educational settings; or the role of community arts; or how the arts impact on the curriculum providing a new range of skills and personal achievements. This book has been the result of the contributing authors’ professional lifetimes of passion and commitment, all of whom have found the intrinsic value and appreciation engendered by the arts. Above all, their contributions are based on serious analysis of their experience culminating in a broad spectrum of the arts in a variety of educational experiences. Asia’s richness and diversity reflects an abundance of cultural contrasts and traditions. The numerous countries of the Asian region have histories built on centuries of cultural and artistic practices firmly imbedded in the nuances of daily living. Asian art continues to be part of life, custom and belief and an expression of identity, place and spirituality. The cultivation of Asian art forms have been symbiotically fused as vital traditions across all sectors of society in spite of the

UNESCO Observatory on Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Arts, Director, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning. The University of Melbourne; Tel: +61 3 8344 7437; Fax: +61 3 8344 5532; e-mail: [email protected], www.abp.unimelb.edu.au/unesco/ L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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impact of Westernization and colonization on Asian arts practices and education. In the classroom, the teaching of art has been segregated from the broader arts experienced in daily life within community rituals and practices, which are traditionally common practice across life in Asian communities. Educating in the Arts – the Asian Experience focuses on the work of artists, educators and researchers who have traditional roles as well as agents of change, transforming educational structures and futures. These agents of transformation are proving to be more socially valuable than mainstream art-world roles. Some articles provide information where art is taught in schools or educational institutions; or is created in a community context in ways that value its aesthetic achievement while recognizing the broader impact of the work. The book also presents the role of the arts and the impact on social responsibility. Research and a number of innovative approaches are presented that have engaged members from many different types of communities and their particular efforts for educating in the arts. These activities provide the background for how creative communities can be achieved through the fusion of cultural development and artistic practices in formal and non-formal education within regions, cities, towns, villages and neighbourhoods. The very term education may no longer be viable, and a more appropriate term may be the acquisition of character and behaviour. What is needed, is human beings who are multi-skilled, completely flexible and confident to face a world that has not yet been imagined. Half the jobs for this century have not yet been invented, and people need to be well prepared for the future. Within this framework, a good education is vital if the future generations are to function productively in this new, ever-changing world. As global borders shrink and the world becomes increasingly homogenous, values other than book learning become a priority in maximizing human potential. Political, economic, spiritual and social issues are equally important to education. Marginalized groups and the poor in developing countries stand at a great risk of being completely left behind in the rush for economic development. Good planning in education must ensure ‘education for all’. Now is the time to implement new strategies. It is critical to reform teaching and learning, to educate people differently, to be prepared with the best resources to face a new and difficult future and an era of unprecedented, unimaginable change. At the same time, respect for cultural heritage and identity is a vital component of new pedagogical paradigms. No longer is it sensible to consider arts education as a stand-alone discipline. Predictors of constant, expected outcomes of how the world is, and will be, are no longer valid. In many parts of the world, war, poverty and inequality hinder the noble intentions of educators. Change, uncertainty and often insurmountable obstacles are reliable factors that need to be built in to future education planning and development for a world where every child is literate and every human being has the right to achieve their full potential. This book presents articles that substantiate the value of an education in the arts to understand the world, ourselves, our cultural traditions and to improve teaching and learning in the core curriculum.

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2. Arts Education in Schools – the UNESCO Mandate In November 1999, Mr. Koïchiro Matsuura, the Director General of UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization) launched an international appeal for the promotion of arts education and creativity at school, as part of the construction of a Culture of Peace at the 30th session of the Organization’s General Conference. In this appeal, he affirmed that creative spirits contribute to ‘shaping the human personality, bringing out the full potential of children and adolescents and maintaining their emotional balance’. He also stated that: the school of the 21st century must be able to anticipate the new needs by according a special place to the teaching of artistic values and subjects in order to encourage creativity, which is a distinctive attribute of the human species.

In furtherance of UNESCO’s long-standing objective to mainstream arts education into formal educational systems, the Director General in 1999 issued an International Appeal for the Promotion of Arts Education and Creativity at School. A set of proposals were established to: ensure that the teaching of the arts … is compulsory throughout the school cycle, from nursery school up until the last year of secondary school.

In response to the International Appeal, the UNESCO Division of Arts and Creativity initiated and supported a series of regional meetings on arts education. The aim of these pedagogical conferences was to strengthen arts education curricula and to create the conditions for the integration of art education programmes into national education systems. The International Appeal also prompted the establishment of an international network of experts and practitioners known as LEA, Links to Education and Art International. In answer to the Director General’s appeal, The World Conference on Arts Education was held in March 2006 on ‘Building Creative Capacities for the 21st Century’, organized by UNESCO’s division of Arts and Creativity in the Culture sector and the Government of Portugal. This was the culmination of a 5-year international collaboration between UNESCO and its partners in the field of arts education and was attended by 1,200 participants from more than 97 member states. The themes discussed were issues relating to advocacy and the implementation of arts education at a policy and governmental level; the impact of arts education on social, cultural and academic areas; the quality of education relating to teachers training and pedagogical methods and the promotion of partnerships for implementing arts education programmes. This conference with the participation of NGO, non-governmental organization, partners InSEA (The International Society for Education through Art), ISME (International Society for Music Education), IDEA (International Drama/Theatre and Education Association) and MUS-E (International Yehudi Menuhin Foundation) and all UNESCO’s partnering groups supported a variety of important initiatives to implement strategies for future developments in arts education.

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According to the conference’s published outcomes on the LEA Web site these included in the first place the preparation of a road map, designed to be a work in progress proposal providing an adaptable framework to encourage UNESCO Member States to develop their own guidelines that are country and culturally specific. Secondly, the Korean Arts and Culture Services and the Korean Government announced that it will host a second World Conference on Arts Education, to be held in Korea and thirdly an alliance between the three participating NGOs, InSEA, ISME and IDEA was announced to form a stronger coalition in the promotion of arts education. Finally, a commitment was pledged to establish a stronger, future basis for the exchange of ideas, practice and knowledge and to bring together representatives from Ministries of Culture and/or Education, representatives from NGOs, researchers, artists, practitioners, and specialists in the field of arts education. Overall, the Conference provided a dynamic forum of exchange and discussion to encourage future developments in the field of arts education.

3. Valuing the Arts in Education and Research The importance of educating in the arts across the Asian region is exemplified by the book’s experts whose perspectives cross a wide variety of the arts, technology and arts education. Recognizing the book’s value needs to be viewed in the light of the International Commission on Education for the twenty-first century (the Delors Report); the Dakar Framework of Action (April, 2000); the end-of-decade Education for All Assessment for the Asia Pacific Region (Bangkok, January 2000); and the World Declaration on Education for All (1990). These policies emphasize the values, issues and strategies for a quality education. The importance of this collection of articles is reinforced by the unified voice at these meetings agreeing that primary educational goals are now to be seen from perspectives concerned with strengthening democracy, consolidating national identity, harmonizing ethnic relations and developing national economies under new conditions. Current evidence in the field of education indicates that specialized areas of knowledge are considerably enhanced in a multidisciplinary learning environment together with other, previously unrelated areas of ability. Specialized training can, in fact, lead to a depleted ability to cope in this rapidly changing world. This theory is at the cutting edge of new thinking in education, linking disparate disciplines that remain segregated in most curricula worldwide. Educational theory anchoring the argument for revising cognitive practices in education is exemplified by the theoretical work of Howard Gardner and his theory of multiple intelligences. Ellen Winner’s research found that schools with strong reputations in the arts had numerous and wide-ranging effects. This has been published in a full set of articles in the ‘The arts and academic improvement: What the evidence shows’. Journal of Aesthetic Education, by University of Illinois Press, Volumes 34, nos. 3–4, Fall/Winter, 2000. Guest Editors: Ellen Winner and Lois Hetland. This research relates the activities of pupils who were performing well in at least one

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art-form. Outcomes relating to advancements in the technical skills and knowledge associated with specific art-forms were by far the most frequently mentioned type of effect. In addition, Winner recorded vivid testimonies to many other outcomes including a greater sense of fulfilment in their own achievements; improved social skills especially when teamwork was effectively undertaken and the acquisition of greater self-confidence and expressive skills and creativity. Many of the effects of improved self-esteem, and personal and social development were highly pertinent to the task of tackling disaffection and social exclusion amongst young people. The speculations by arts educators of the variety of benefits for students involved in the arts in their overall development – academic, social, life skills and thinking inclinations; could be established if connections were documented and able to build an instrumental case, thus having a wider impact leading to reformation and implementation of policy. Other examples demonstrating the value of an arts-integrated curriculum have been achieved by the AAAE in the United States (Association for the Advancement of Arts Education), finding nearly 400 studies in dance, music, theatre and visual arts, which provided compelling evidence that the arts are necessary at all grade levels for many aspects of students’ success in school and life, as well as in their careers. Numerous studies were done at all levels and outcomes proved the arts are not only enjoyable but also have the capacity to retain the students’ interest in school and their desire for academic achievement. It was viewed that while the arts require self-discipline and commitment, each particular arts programme resulted in enhanced creativity and confidence enabling the child to succeed. These skills are retained by the young people helping them succeed in other areas of school, life and work. AAAE deduced that the arts not only represent many ways of experiencing and understanding the world but also actually develop the concept of ‘multiple intelligences’, the theory of developing the full potential of human intelligence. Furthermore, arts-based activities remove boundaries and allow students to explore aspects of the life around them in new ways. This relates directly to the connection of the arts with other disciplines like mathematics, the humanities and sciences. AAAE research outcomes provide evidence that the arts are necessary for a student’s development and success and also as part of a successful and enlightened society. The AAAE has four cornerstones of success which use the dance, music, theatre and visual arts, in mainstream education in many ways. These contribute firstly to the child’s basic abilities, particularly in earlier grades where mental and physical capacities allow students to learn more effectively and generally have an improved sense of well-being. The second cornerstone is the ways and means of participation, with the arts helping students develop methods and habits of mind that help them succeed in many areas. Thirdly, by developing knowledge and skills and connecting them with other subjects, they can make learning easier and more meaningful. The fourth cornerstone teaches students by using the arts, different ways to connect and communicate with others in our society – critical skills in our connected world.

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In addition, other evidence is available indicating how the arts have aided in the teaching of other languages, including English as a foreign language; and how the arts assist teachers in more effectively reaching students with disabilities and learning disorders. Research shows there is value in using arts subjects to improve academic achievement, to make learning more meaningful and to reach children at-risk or in a marginalized situation. However, even without research, educators in the arts are fully aware that art forms are the voice and the record of a people. What we know about past cultures, we learn chiefly from the arts that they leave behind. It is not surprising, therefore, to discover that the arts are the means to teach students many skills, which are needed to live and work in a society. Arts programmes integrated in the school curriculum or in non-formal settings, such as the work of NGO’s, do develop interpersonal skills and the ability to work in teams. Greater understanding of the world through arts programmes increase understanding, tolerance and appreciation for diversity and provide a platform for the teacher and the learner to enhance their ability to lead and communicate effectively with groups. Extensive research has also been carried out for many years by NFER (National Foundation for Educational Research) in the United Kingdom, making significant contributions in the field through projects such as Arts, Creative and Cultural Education; The Arts and Education Interface: Evidence-Based Research; National Evaluation of Creative Partnerships; Partnerships for Creativity and Creative Partnerships in Education to name a few. The extent and success of these research initiatives highlights the fact that in Asia, research and evidence supporting the benefits of incorporating the arts in formal and non-formal education is scarce, anecdotal and difficult to access. Even in cases of successful design and implementation, arts education programmes in formal education and arts programmes in communities run by NGO’s often fail to convey their theoretical assumptions or fail to document their outcomes. There are therefore few best-practice case studies in the region, which can be used to support advocacy processes. This lack of a readily accessible body of information is deemed as a major setback for improving practice, influencing policy making, and integrating the arts into Asia’s formal and non-formal educational systems across schools, institutions and communities. Importantly, there is a need for better research and knowledge sharing in the field of educating in the arts. Qualitative research methods are particularly appropriate in order to reflect the richness and complexity of Asian realities and cultures, in particular to describe the role of non-formal actors such as artists, local artisans and holders of traditional knowledge. At the same time, quantitative research is also necessary to explain the linkages between arts instruction and intellectual and social development of mainstream and at-risk children and young people in a more general and non context-specific manner. Clearly, there are real benefits when the arts are integrated into the curriculum as this research shows. Issues relating to multidisciplinary learning and teaching of the arts with the humanities and sciences; and the application of these theories, are discussed in Chapter 14, using the case studies from the two countries, China and Thailand. Research studies and classroom examples highlight the practical outcomes.

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Apart from the obvious benefits to students of holistic and versatile educational programmes, teachers are empowered as agents of change and have enhanced opportunities to provide quality education and outcomes-focused curriculum development.

4. The Social Impact of Educating in the Arts An arts-based education leads to innovative, creative and critical thinking. This education also creates the means for shaping, challenging, affirming and exploring personal and social relationships and community identity. When notions of heritage and culture are included in the arts experience of education, creative expressions of different countries provide insights into the aspirations and values of each province and country. This experience develops tolerance and provides a foundation for reconciliation of differences, as well as building a sense of pride and self-worth in each group’s cultural heritage. Contemporary issues also need to be taken into account. These include the advances in technology, science and the information age; the new trend of globalization, which affects countries politically and economically; the increased emphasis on social, cultural and personal understandings due to the diminishing borders of once alien cultures and nationalities; the exponentially expanding domain of knowledge and the new post-modern philosophy, which carefully studies, criticizes and ‘deconstructs’ scholarly texts. A quality education is also incomplete without adhering to the principles of multiculturalism. Creative mechanisms used to overcome exclusion and mental health problems in the areas of education, health care, refugees, poverty eradication, servicing disabled groups, homelessness and community enterprise exist. Indeed, it is widely acknowledged that a subtle and complex interplay between arts-driven strategies, cultural projects and cultural policies have been a driving force in improving and sustaining the arts in education across a wide range of diverse communities. Educating in the Arts – the Asian Experience introduces traditional concepts of the arts in education. However, the arts are increasingly reaching out to less traditional scopes of endeavour. For example, in some areas of health care a number of practitioners are realising that collaboration with the arts is capable of bringing about more beneficial results in regard to lessening medication and time spent recovering in hospital. These issues have been neglected in traditional medical training and at the earlier stages of upper secondary education. Artists working in health care environments are providers of creativity – a recognized source for improving a patient’s sense of well-being through the pure enjoyment of the artistic practice and its effect on alleviating painful procedures and the positive effects of these measures in the healing process. In the field of the arts and hospital design, a small number of hospital architects are working collaboratively with artists and designers, as well as landscape architects, to build harmonious healing environments with proven outcomes. These hospital

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designs include gardens and spaces for meditation. Architects are working with artists and design professionals to build new hospitals that create a new ambience with a positive outcome on the healing process. Educating in the Arts- the Asian Experience presents examples how an education including the arts can affect the wider, holistic view of what constitutes a good education, producing more well-balanced, fully developed human beings able to make worthwhile contributions to society; able to understand more clearly social mores, or simply to manage their lives in a satisfying manner. This needs to be viewed within the context that although Asia is a diverse region producing great talents and rich cultures, some countries within the region are sadly lacking in the financial support for institutions, arts practitioners, academics, researchers and teachers to train and support their culture.

5. The Arts and Community Regeneration – No Longer Just for Arts Sake The development of the arts and culture in community regeneration has been a global phenomenon for decades. Cultural authorities, local, regional and national governments and funding agencies have understood the impact of the arts in assisting communities to cope with societal pressures and the proliferation of issues that contemporary life brings. Arts programmes provide meaningful and effective ways to awaken cultural values, heighten a sense of being and place and deliver a social service that opens doors to the disadvantaged in most effective ways. The regeneration of neighbourhoods and communities have undergone a radical series of changes over the last two decades and the collaboration with arts-based projects has been closely implicated in these processes of transformation. Researchdriven projects are proving that arts practices, cultural projects and cultural policies have been a driving force in these improved sustainable communities. Economic progress and the quest for greater wealth now move hand in hand with a swelling ground-force of people preoccupied with educating through the arts for social regeneration and neighbourhood renewal. Reorienting urban policy affects the way culture and the arts have been viewed at the community and urban level. Two good examples are ‘The Renaissance City Report’ from Singapore’s Ministry of Information and the Arts, and the Korean ‘Gwangju Culture Hub City of Asia’ project. Singapore has been introducing successful strategies for cultural development working with the state, the arts community and the economic community working together for Singapore’s cultural and economic benefits. The city of Gwangju, Korea, is the site of an extraordinary and visionary state-initiated project to create a model for futuristic urban development based on national development and culture. Gwangju has a 5,000 year history and this project is the largest of its kind in scale since the foundation of Korea. The project aims to create Gwangju as a culture hub incorporating cultural exchanges, creative works, research activities and education programmes in harmony with nature and

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values devoted to democracy, human rights, peace and the arts. Construction is expected to be completed in 2010. A modern-day success story from Hong Kong: ‘To strive, to seek, to find and not to yield: Arts education in Hong Kong: A model of persistence’ is presented in Chapter 13 by Mr. Darwin Chen. The Hong Kong Arts Development Council (HKADC), of which Mr. Chen is the Chairman, began working in 1995 to improve education through the arts and to establish a greater emphasis on education in the arts. The HKADC’s mission has become the over-arching vehicle for improving the quality of life, education and the community, heralding a new era in Hong Kong to move the arts education proposals forward.

6. Research in the Arts for Pedagogy and Sustaining Communities Within the research field of educating in the arts, there is a tremendous range of approaches, styles and outcomes responding to a wide variety of conditions. For the future productivity of arts in education communities, it is important that achievement is both excellent in quality and socially responsible. Also, research can be most effective when operating in or engaging with multidisciplinary teams. This mode of thought supports the need for the holistic, symbiotic education developing all aspects of human potential. Scientists like Newton and Einstein, in their time, supported the concept of multiple intelligences by proclaiming their dependency on the vivid imagery that comes from visually creative experiences to achieve scientific outcomes. This theory of multidisciplinary learning to accentuate and fulfil the capacity of human multiple intelligences, can be applied directly to the curricula in Asian countries where the arts in all forms are a major part of each country’s cultural experience and imbedded in the psyche of each individual. These extraordinary artistic cultural differences need to be celebrated and implemented more soundly in the educational experience. When addressing the dilemma of changing, thinking about education in the arts by establishing a design-based research process, people can be asked about their personal visions for day-to-day work. This approach reveals the gap between aspiration and current reality and highlights the obstacles. If creativity is, among other things, a social process, then the qualities of a particular environment or place matter. Surroundings, both the immediate environment and the macro-environment can affect not only the creative capacity but also the likelihood of realizing the individual’s full potential. This may be applied to a number of scenarios. Further models of project-based research for creative arts communities have been established. For example, extensive research has been undertaken through the Social Impact for the Arts Project (SIAP) tracking the quantitative effects of cultural participation on other social outcomes. While this research is particular to the structure and culture of US cities, it points to ways widespread cultural

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participation effect positive community change. SIAP tracked the degree of cultural participation in communities and, using statistical models and census data correlated this participation with other community outcomes. Among other outcomes, the SIAP data found that low-income neighbourhoods with high degrees of cultural participation were five times more likely to have very low levels of delinquency and three times more likely to have very low levels of truancy. Sharon Zukin (Broeklundian Professor of Sociology in the Department of Sociology, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, New York. 2900 Bedford Avenue, Brooklyn NY 11210. [email protected] or [email protected]) comments on cultural representations, issues of racial and ethnic politics, cultural landscapes and other issues associated with the notion of creative communities. Zukin claims that if social class, power and ethnicity are constructed by interpersonal relations of intimacy in public space, there should be a very close look at how people behave. Design-based research in the academies and the profession can result in greater understanding of the needs for cultural participation in communities. Research outcomes can demonstrate the needs for community teams playing an extended role in addressing social and civic issues, such as education, youth at risk, healing therapy, neighbourhood renewal and criminal reform. Also, this cultural participation can play a critical role in building social capital in a community, and when coupled with a creative orientation it becomes a powerful tool for addressing social and civic concerns and opens the door to civic and social creativity.

7. Educating in the Arts and Culture to Overcome Exclusion Arts and cultural projects addressing problems of poverty and social exclusion in communities are capable of reducing crime and the fear of crime and increasing community initiatives to enlighten and give hope. While addressing the huge array of needs, the decision relating to who will be the providers of satisfying these needs is a tall order. How might we approach such a task? By educating in the arts it is possible to forward notions of culture, belonging and heritage, thus creating the means for shaping, challenging, affirming and exploring personal and social relationships and community identity. Experiencing creative expressions of different countries and different provinces of each country can provide insights into the aspirations and values of each province and country. Zukin’s chapter, ‘Whose culture? Whose city?’ claims ‘culture’ is the antidote of the crass vision of the city. Zukin’s view is to understand culture as a powerful means to control cities: as a source of memories and images symbolizing ‘who belongs’ in specific places. Zukin claims culture is a set of architectural themes playing a leading role in urban redevelopment strategies based on local ‘heritage’ and historic preservation. (These comments can be found in Sharon Zukin, The Culture of Cities, Cambridge. USA. Published by Blackwell in 1995). The role of architecture and urban design play major roles in the building of cultural communities and educate attitudes towards the importance of an organizational

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design culture in relation to creative communities. Efforts to improve social needs and local surroundings through the revitalization of town centres, tackling degraded urban environments and ensuring harmonious interaction with neighbourhoods are happening worldwide. Areas of health care, refugees, poverty eradication, housing, servicing disabled groups, homelessness and community enterprise are, as Zukin describes, ingredients of real cities. Real cities, Zukin continues, are both material constructions, with human strengths and weaknesses. Symbolic projects are developed by social representations, including affluence and technology, ethnicity and civility, local shopping streets and television news. Zukin provides a useful description through her notion of experience in public space and the ideologies and rhetorics of public culture. The purpose of and evident positive outcomes of creativity are central to the theme of this introductory chapter. The notion of cultural cities and communities providing more harmonious, productive and sustainable environments needs to be materialized within the arts education platform. Research practically provides substance and a hard-core reality to the claims. Essays in this book provide some evidence where collaborative projects working in multidisciplinary teams to provide more inclusive practices, across regions and countries are having considerable success. Chapter 3 by Vibeke Jensen and George Attig ‘Art for education: The role of art in promoting a good quality, basic education for children in Asia’ provides a worthwhile example and Dr. Jane Cheung in Chapter 5 writes of the 3-year Artsin-Education (AiE) Programme where artists worked in collaboration with schools, successfully tackling issues of exclusion. Nanako Ishido and Ichiya Nakamura in Chapter 11, ‘The power of creation and expression in digital-age children’ also emphasises the need for collaborative, inclusive projects.

8. Interaction Between NGO’S, Community Groups, Parents and Young People The ability of individuals to form associations is a valued human right, no matter how small or seemingly insignificant the association may be. This vital aspect is a form of expression in increasingly, atomised societies. No matter how small an NGO may be, with efficient management and well laid-out objectives, it has the opportunity to participate in larger communities, whether or not there are any political implications. According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): NGOs include profit-making organisations, foundations, educational institutions, churches and other religious groups and missions, medical organisations and hospitals, unions and professional organisations, cooperatives and cultural groups as well as voluntary agencies.

When NGOs interact with community groups, parents and young people, they can develop some of the theories of Multiple Intelligences as means of educating in the arts. Multiple Intelligence Theory respects the range of aptitudes and capacities of

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every human being and complements the more flexible approach of NGOs. NGOs have the capacity to understand the needs of various groups and communities, based on the immediacy, grass root nature of their hands-on involvement. These experiences provide realistic links with communities, cultural groups, parents, young people, funding partners etc., as their operation on a smaller scale are more geared to successful outcomes than bigger, unwieldy projects, which risk failure. Knowledge and information provided by NGOs in the formal or informal education environment makes a valuable contribution in regard to social issues, enhancing life skills and increasing intellectual aptitude of students. The links help establish contacts between other groups in local societies leading to a variety of positive outcomes. These can include the development of local economies contributing to an effective functioning society, which enhances political and international relations, community building through a social approach and social welfare addressing basic needs through a psycho-cultural approach. NGOs often function as cultural mediators and can stimulate local development. They have the role of encouraging the local economy in regard to small businesses and entrepreneurship and act as a measure of what is successful and what is not. A key role of the NGOs are the links between the various schools and community groups dependent on the NGO providing quality, relevant content. Issues often neglected by governments can be skilfully monitored and corrected by NGOs. Short-term solutions are not viable, therefore, long-term planning needs to be carefully put in place within all areas of NGO involvement. Capacity building for educating in the arts is an important aspect and detailed discussion amongst all participating groups is necessary for long-term successful outcomes. NGOs also help overcome stereotyping to generate broader notions of understanding the diverse range of issues associated with different cultural groups. Some features of an NGO input helps the development of bilingual education, intercultural subjects, the broader education, gender issues and indigenous education. Overall, NGOs have the ability to influence how best to educate in the arts and how to implement successful strategies into the school curriculum. The role of NGOs to alleviate ‘antisocial’ effects on students in schools has been increasingly recognised, especially at the grassroots level. NGOs involved in the arts and education often favour a psycho-cultural approach. When the arts are integrated into the mainstream curriculum, this has the potential to contribute to ‘community building’. The NGOs involved in the arts have the capacity to contribute to social welfare, basic needs and social safety nets.

8.1. Formation and Function of NGOs In relation to educating in the arts, NGOs often achieve the impossible by doing what governments cannot or will not do. Many of these NGOs have a natural advantage because of their perceived neutrality and experience. As governments face mounting financial pressures and new challenges reach the educational

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agenda, NGOs are achieving the formerly unachievable and are being increasingly relied upon to get things done. Perhaps, one of the most vital but overlooked NGO roles is to promote the educational changes needed to improve the quality of education, to ensure that the un-reached in society are reached and to promote the societal changes for political change, needed to achieve ‘education for all’. Increasingly, NGOs operate outside existing formal, governmental frameworks and move independently to achieve their goals. Despite their demonstrated goals to do good, many are exposed to heightened criticism and some of it is deserved. As in all things, it is important to view situations from all angles and to maintain clear and unbiased perspectives. On balance, however, the work and achievements of NGOs is no worse than governments and in many cases much more effective. Given their origins as grassroots groups, NGOs tend to be wary of organisations that become too big and this should serve as a mechanism for self-regulation. NGOs present a range of knowledge and experiences that are invaluable to a wide variety of situations that are involved with educating in the arts, whether they be in the formal school system or the non-formal system. NGOs can often make a valuable contribution to school links by establishing contacts between other groups in local societies and consequently help the development of local economies. The offerings from the variety of NGOs vary considerably and provide a vast array of cultural learning, artistic skills development and education in life skills and social understanding. NGOs also have the capacity to be the conduit for improving social and cultural understanding while working with community groups, parents and students. The roles of NGOs are many and varied including helping to establish better communication between partners, training teachers, managing budgets and supporting local and national institutions. An NGO can function as a cultural mediator and stimulate local development by helping develop awareness of economic and cultural realities. Often NGOs are responsible for tasks that are neglected at a government level, such as education in life skills, social issues and health. Capacity building for NGOs in the long term is an important aspect for future development as many NGOs help deliver a clearer picture of their community, and assist in overcoming stereotypical attitudes. NGOs keep links realistic, for example, small (and successful) is beautiful in contrast to projects that are too big and risk failure. Many NGOs over a number of Asian countries have been extremely successful in influencing the core curriculum through an arts-based education on such issues as bilingual education, intercultural subjects, gender issues, indigenous education, AIDS and health education, environmental concerns, community partners, small business skills, marketing, entrepreneurship and the arts in the core curriculum. By starting ‘bottom–up’ and implementing small-scale projects in individual schools, changes in the national education systems of each country (except China) in the case studies, are stimulated. When working out the problems on a local level, this serves as a tool to provide a greater number and broader changes in the education system. NGOs work effectively opening the minds of young people to a range of problems, (for example, environmental concerns and AIDS) and of the educators to

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ensure fundamental changes within the education system. Encouragement from the NGOs give students the incentive to take a more active role in the initial phase of implementing change. Many projects fail if they are too rigid. More success is achieved through loosely framed programmes that can be adapted to many different school programmes and capturing the life of the community in more modest terms, greater success is achieved.

8.2. Growing Influence of NGOs The growing influence of NGO’s is now facing its greatest challenge, coming not from the field but from the arena of public opinion and the corridors of power. Self-seeking groups and individuals can distort the noble intentions of the greater whole in attempts to promote their own image and fundraising efforts than to advance the public interest. Yale Professor Steve Charnovitz observed that NGO involvement seems to depend on two factors: the needs of governments and the capabilities of the NGOs. The challenge facing NGOs is subtle and important. As these groups acquire the access and influence they have long sought, they must not lose the qualities that have made them a source of innovation and progress. Some analysts already fear that formerly independent NGOs may become more beholden to national governments as they come to rely more heavily on public-sector funding. Many of the options for increasing NGO involvement may simply foster predictable and bureaucratic behaviour among civil society representatives, potentially dulling the passion and richness of views that can emanate from narrowly focused groups. NGOs are also at risk in some instances from being cut off from the informal channels through which they have traditionally been most influential. NGOs, multilateral organisations and governments need to devise systems of public participation that draw on the expertise and resources of NGOs, their grassroots connections, sense of purpose, commitment and freedom from bureaucratic constraints. NGOs that have seen a rapid growth in power may have to contend with inevitable limits on their influence and access. Governments and institutions that have resisted the advance of these new players will have to permit an unprecedented level of public scrutiny and participation.

9. Economic Alliances and Human Resources Education incorporating the arts has the capacity to make an impact on the economic growth of each country. The economy, development and tourism are directly targeted through the development of cultural industries, which are organised around the production and consumption of culture and related services, and investing in an infrastructure for education incorporating the arts.

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The establishment of multi-functional, multidisciplinary community arts centres provide a multiplier and catalytic effect by creating work opportunities for artists, in generating income for local communities and in improving the quality of life at a local level by providing access to international, national and local artists in all disciplines. The development and building of local community arts centres need to be part of future planning and the allocation of resources. These centres may cater for music, dance, film, theatre, gallery, library, Internet access, or a museum. Provincial and local arts and culture forums and communities need to be active in the determination of needs, plans for development, governance and maintenance of these arts and culture infrastructures. The entrepreneurship required for setting up these centres and running them effectively and producing the artworks to display or sell in them, are skills that need to be taught initially in secondary education programmes. The example from Thanyarat School in Pathumthani Province, Thailand in Chapter 14 is an excellent model for this. It is not possible for this ambitious vision to be achieved by governments alone. Relationships need to be developed with the private sector, provincial and local authorities, the international community and various local communities. Cooperation with Departments of Trade and Tourism will help boost cultural tourism. To achieve these economic aims, it is imperative to develop the human resources. This would include educating and training arts and culture practitioners to produce works of art in various disciplines and allocating time for educators to teach children, youth and adults in the arts and culture while administrators, curators and managers are needed to run and organise the cultural institutions and projects. These education and training programmes need to be organised by Ministries of Education in respective countries and the most effective education is one commencing at the primary school level.

10. Brief Summaries of Essays This book is composed of 23 articles written by experts in the Asian region. Two of these are on the region overall, but most contributors have written about their own country’s experiences in arts education, education and the arts and technology. Increasingly, educators have started addressing the education from humanistic perspectives, which go beyond a productivist, instrumental view and define the quality of education in terms of the full flowering of each individual’s human potential to become a ‘complete or whole person’ in the physical, intellectual, affective, ethical and aesthetic dimensions of personality development. Consequently, the need for improved life skills education and a greater understanding of social issues through education is coming to the fore. By developing arts education programmes in and out of school, new pathways to achieving these skills and goals are opened up. Countries’ economic futures are dependent on

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producing a nation of free, independent and creative thinkers. The links between creativity and discipline; of social organisation and individual expression; of inventiveness and economic productivity are inextricably linked. Greater knowledge of social issues together with a skilful management of life skills will produce strong, capable nations powered by energetic, well-directed people. The truth of the matter is that the arts can, in fact, be the catalyst to unlock old attitudes and achieve much greater retention rate in other classes. Arts education can increase interest in the overall education, giving students confidence in themselves and providing new ways and means to learn. Above all, by integrating an arts curriculum into education at all levels, learning automatically becomes far more attainable and students feel stimulated to learn. This is where the arts are the vehicle for freely exchanging ideas, cultures and customs in an atmosphere of harmony, humanism and cultural appreciation. The need for mutual understanding arts has given the arts a new significance. Nations have been brought closer in the global village due to the advent of the information age, but the nearer they come the clearer becomes the great difference between them as well as the language barrier, which can result in cultural misunderstanding. A common, international, spoken language would always be incapable of expressing the deepest intuitions and feelings of humankind, so this is the where the role of the arts comes to the fore. The arts in all forms suffer none of these limitations as they can be freely exchanged and fully appreciated among all peoples. The following sections are brief overviews of the chapters presented in Educating in the Arts – the Asian Experience.

10.1. Section One: Introduction and Asia Overviews There are three chapters, including this Introduction by the book editor, Lindy Joubert, in this section. Chapter 2 by Alison Carroll, Chapter 3 by Vibeke Jensen and George Attig presents an overview of the arts and arts education across in Asia in an article entitled, ‘Art for education: the role of art in promoting a good quality, basic education for children in Asia’. Although progress has been made over national, regional and global levels of education over the past 10 years, there are still great discrepancies in the enrolment of girls compared to boys, retention rates and educating children beyond the primary level. The issues raised here are based on the authors’ extensive experience; Vibeke Jensen, as programme specialist at UNESCO’s Regional Bureau for Education, Bangkok, Thailand, and George A. Attig as consultant to the Institute of Nutrition, Mahidol University at Salaya, Thailand. Getting children into school is only half the battle. The other part of the problem is ensuring that they are given a quality education; one that fits their own lives, aspirations and interests as well as those of their families. When children are faced with a poor-quality education, the lack of qualified and motivated teachers, insufficient and unattractive teaching–learning material, and curricula that are not child friendly in content and processes, many children and their families doubt that an education

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is worthwhile at all. If a quality education does not materialize and classroom learning continues to be a dull, tiresome duty, then children (and their parents) see little reason for schooling, especially when the money spent on it may be needed badly elsewhere. Chapter 2 presents an overview of the arts and education across the Asian region, and offers a different perspective. Written by Alison Carroll, Director of Asialink Arts, Asialink, University of Melbourne, it entitled, ‘The rise of the modern art school in Asia: Some key issues on their establishment, their curricula, and their place in their communities’. This chapter explores some key issues and reasons why particular art schools were established, by whom, and the consequences and the ongoing argument about teaching local and/or foreign (Western) traditions. It also covers the importance of the infrastructure of the school to the arts community and its role in supporting artists. The success of the model has been, in part, because local cultures in many areas of Asia are comfortable with the master/student relationship, translated in the schools into an organized teaching hierarchy. Carroll claims the student group itself was important and often made links that developed into major movements in their country. This has happened in the West too, but it seems more important in Asia. Carroll suggests the positive input of the local culture was helpful in supporting the idea of education and how it was often easier to develop a school than an art museum or gallery.

10.2. Section Two: Arts Education Programmes: Iran, Hong Kong and Cambodia Chapter 4 is by Mahmoud Mehrmohammadi, Associate Professor of Education, Tarbiat Modarres University on ‘Arts education in Iran: Reclaiming the lost ground’. This insightful article addresses the enormous progress in the Iranian arts education programme, examining serious past inadequacies and presenting the process which formulated the need for reforms for a new arts programme. This is a long-term project aimed at reviving arts education from the elementary stage. Curriculum development was the first stage and field testing and validating was undertaken over a 2-year period. The old programme will gradually be replaced in a process ending in 2008. The author describes the various stages of this process. The content included in the new art programme, he writes, represents a radical departure from those of the existing programme, which cover only the areas of painting, handcraft and calligraphy. The new programme has expanded the artistic domains to incorporate areas such as music, painting, handicraft, storytelling and writing, theatre and cultural heritage. Dr Mehrmohammadi believes the new initiative is a step towards the right direction. Close to eight million elementary students will experience a programme which has the potential to transform the current situation and to improve the quality of arts education. There are many strengths associated with the new programme and any deficiencies will be adequately dealt with as the education system proceeds. The author has served as an external consultant to the new

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arts curriculum development project and believes that there is still room for improvement, guided by questions such as the ones he presents in this article. Dr. Jane Cheung in the Chapter 5 writes of a 3-year (2000–2003) Arts-inEducation (AiE) Programme organized by the Hong Kong Arts Development Council and co-organized by the Curriculum Development Institute of the Education and Manpower Bureau and the Creative Arts Department of the Hong Kong Institute of Education. It received a total of HK $4 million sponsorship donated by the Hong Kong Bank Foundation. This article provides an excellent description of a successful and far-reaching project. The initiative involved artists and arts organizations working closely with schoolteachers in the formal curriculum to enhance student learning by using an interdisciplinary approach. This was an innovative approach. The programme aimed to facilitate partnerships between professional practising artists and schools to create programmes that enhance the study of the arts and other curriculum areas through the arts. Secondly, the programme investigated the process by which working with artists could give students greater experience with the arts, explore different ways of thinking and work more creatively in the arts and other subjects. The third major aim was to investigate how arts and non-arts teachers can share and exchange ideas and experience with professional artists, and learn new ways of approaching their topics. The AiE programme made good use of community resources and built on existing strengths. The dedication and commitment of the artists provided excellent role models to staff and students, resulting in the enhanced delivery of the programme. Dr. Sam-Ang Sam of the Royal University of Fine Arts, Cambodia, offers an overview in Chapter 6 of the state of arts education in Cambodia. The significance of arts and culture in Cambodian society is discussed and the structure of arts education in the school system from primary through secondary to higher education. Insights are offered on how the arts are taught in the general school curriculum and their impact on youth investment; education of the mind; further developments of Cambodian arts and culture and economic development and growth in relation to arts education. This article provides a powerful insight of a country recovering from significant devastation due to the Khmer Rouge regime under Pol Pot and the loss of most of its traditional craftsmen, dancers, musicians, painters, sculptors, monks, and poets who died or fled the country. The Khmer social foundation was severely shaken as people were displaced and families broken apart. They lost their sense of trust, pride, and integrity and millions of lives were lost, most of which were those of intellectuals and skilled individuals. This catastrophe resulted in Cambodia’s loss of human resources and capital. The author examines the multi-faceted role that ‘culture’ plays in the social, cultural, and economic development within the global context of the new millennium. Particular emphasis is placed on the value of Khmer culture, the trend and direction, cultural programming, collaborative efforts, and state and cultural policies, all of which are responsive to the needs of and appropriate for Khmer society.

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10.3. Section Three: The Arts, the Gallery and the Cultural Landscape – Japan/Australia, Kyrgyzstan and Thailand Chapter 7 is by Dr. Ajioka Chiaki, who was the Curator of Japanese Art at the Art Gallery of New South Wales from 1996 to 2003. The State Gallery is the most active gallery in Australia in collecting and showing Asian art, and her appointment as a specialist curator of Japanese art was the first in the country. During the 7 years that followed, she was fortunate to be involved in significant changes in the representation and reception of the art of her native culture and this chapter offers her personal account of those changes and her involvement in them. The exhibition ‘Seasons’ provided an opportunity for the Gallery to make a leap forward in the presentation of Japanese art in Australia, making people ask questions while providing multilevel entries to a wide range of visitors, from experts to the uninitiated. Dr. Ajioka states that during the last few years, particularly after the ‘Buddha’ exhibition, the visitors to the Gallery have expanded from the mainly white Australians to an increased number of Asian Australians. Chapter 8 by Emil Nasritdinov looks into the differences between the state and folk arts in Kyrgyzstan. State art was often seen as the art of elite and was used by the Soviet government to suppress and transform national sentiments during the Soviet period. It now is employed by the new government to create a new national identity of the independent republic. Folk arts, practiced on a local level, survived centuries of different rulers, preserving their quality and originality. Nasritdinov presents an illuminated view of the depth and substance of Kyrgyzstan arts and culture against a backdrop of the spectacular natural beauty of the country and the cultural influences which have shaped the unique lifestyle of its people. With the break up of the Soviet Union and the unexpected Independence thrust on Kyrgyzstan, the country underwent change. A major economic downturn, resulting in unemployment and a drastic reduction of living standards impacted heavily on the arts and artistic circles. Poverty lessened the passion for producing artworks, but the quest for daily survival gave rise to a tourist trade for Kyrgyzstan arts after its borders were opened to the world. In Chapter 9, Vichoke Mukdamanee describes the rise of contemporary art practice in Thailand, drawing on the rich history and the adaptation of Western influences in a subtle interplay with Thai heritage, arts and culture. Mukdamanee explains how the work of the early pioneers laid the foundations of modern art education for Thai youth. Their rigorous training in these early times produced a cohort of renowned realist artists and the progressive anti-realist artists who focused on the fields of literature, painting, dancing, sculpture and architecture. These multidisciplinary activities inspired the first National Art Exhibition in 1949, which was Thailand’s first gathering of progressive artists to show their art and their philosophies to the public. These events originated the exhibitions of Thai art and making it more accessible to the Thai public. All these events are presided over by the Royal Family, who continue to offer their support for art to the present day.

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Worldwide trends and art movements were also experienced in Thailand, but the art preserves a distinctly Thai element.

10.4. Section Four: Creativity and Expression in the Digital Age – Singapore and Japan In Chapter 10, ‘Information technology, art education and creativity in Singapore’, Minming Chen described the state of IT in the island state of Singapore, where a new government policy emphasises building a creative, vibrant ‘Renaissance City’. Her article reports on the educational system and, in particular, the role of the arts, arts education and creativity and the emerging role of IT in the city. In its quest for development, the Singapore government formerly restricted creativity for political and economic reasons, but it now aims to become more inclusive, more creative and thus more competitive, claims Chen. This reinvigorating next phase will replace a ‘sterile cultural desert’ and involve all citizens, not just those involved with the arts, in the programmes and policies to be implemented. This highlights the significance of the arts and of arts education in building sustainable communities and nations. Economically driven arts policies such as this provide vocational opportunities for citizens. Chen describes critically the Singapore Arts Education programme in schools and discusses her visit to a school art studio, raising questions about the relationship between technology, IT and creativity. Nanako Ishido and Ichiya Nakamura are the authors of Chapter 11, ‘The power of creation and expression in digital-age children’. Led by CANVAS, a non-profit organization in Tokyo, Japan, 500 people were brought together for the first exhibition of digital workshops for children. The concept was based on the premise that Japanese children need to be prepared for effective participation in this interconnected world by learning to make creative use of both conventional and new technologies. The authors are the driving force behind CANVAS and base their workshops on supporting new education policies and promoting wide-ranging creative strategies to further educational practice in Japan. Educational aims are geared to helping schools become digitally equipped in order to provide computer skills to children. However, the authors claim this is not enough and efforts need to be made to overcome the lack of planning to sponsor creative and expressive capabilities, which is the ultimate goal after the children have acquired the appropriate information and skills. The digital environment is ready, they state, but applications to support children’s information and creation activities are scarce. This article describes the CANVAS projects and activities which are now all over Japan, networking with local schools and museums and supported by industry, academic institutions and the government. CANVAS supplies the location, the technologies, the know-how and the tools for Japanese children to create information and to share it on a global scale, claim the authors.

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10.5. Section Five: The Arts, Education and the Community: Uzbekistan, Hong Kong, China, Thailand and the Philippines There are four chapters in this section. Chapter 12, by Akbar Khakimov, is entitled ‘Art education in Uzbekistan’. The article outlines the significant phases of Uzbekistan’s arts development and methods of education. The author’s aesthetic and cultural sensibility help us to understand this Central Asian country that was opened to Western influence as late as the end of the nineteenth century. Local arts, crafts traditions and practices flourished for centuries under the influence of a wide range of non-European religious and cultural traditions. The impact of European influences during the twentieth century resulted in a unique historic–cultural phenomenon based on the development and integration of these new art forms and ideas. Khakimov outlines the stages of transition and the development of Uzbekistan art education during the twentieth century. He describes the influence of the Russian academy on Central Asia; the impact of the new Soviet power and Communist ideology after 1917 on the sphere of art; and the influence of European art movements up to the perestroika and glasnost period in the USSR. Khakimov highlights the importance of change and the rise of new thinking at the time of Independence and the respect given to education and creativity. A new-found freedom of expression went hand in hand with historic themes and sentiments, leading to the formation of a national romantic style. On achieving Independence, this idealization in art became a social requirement. The author provides a concise and vivid account of the role of ‘art through education’ and ‘education through art’ in Uzbekistan. He also explains its relationship in the development of the new education system and the establishment of ‘continuous art education’. Chapter 13 was written by Mr. Darwin Chen on a modern-day success story from Hong Kong and is entitled ‘To strive, to seek, to find and not to yield: Arts education in Hong Kong: a model of persistence’. The Hong Kong Arts Development Council (HKADC), of which Mr. Chen is the Chairman, began working in 1995 to improve education through the arts and to establish a greater emphasis on education in the arts. The HKADC’s mission has become the over-arching vehicle for improving the quality of life, education and the community. Although its role is broadly advisory, the establishment of the HKADC has heralded a new era in Hong Kong. In order to move the arts education proposals forward, a gradual incremental approach has been taken that is now producing results. This article outlines the goals and the various strategies undertaken to achieve success. The arts and arts education universally have had many hurdles to overcome in their quest for recognition: they are often marginalized and not seen as important as so-called serious areas of learning. The Council’s Five Year Strategic Plan has worked to overcome attitudinal barriers and to establish the arts as an integral part of everyday life and to elevate the value of an arts education to sustain a lifelong appreciation of the creative process. This article gives a vivid account of the philosophy, the processes and the outcomes implemented by this initiative for Hong Kong’s future development.

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The next article is written by the editor of the book, Lindy Joubert, and the field work undertaken in Thailand and China while working as a consultant to UNESCO. The title of the chapter is ‘Sustainable education for sustaining communities: The arts integrated curriculum: Two case studies of China and Thailand’. The High School affiliated to Renmin University of China, HSARUC, is one of the top municipal schools in Beijing. A holistic education is offered at this school where comprehensive education goes hand in hand with the cultivation of creativity, which is viewed as being at the core of a quality education. Life skills, social awareness, the development of a fine character and academic excellence are achieved through the school’s five key principles of self-discipline, independence, self-esteem, self-confidence and self-improvement. Many of these initiatives achieve their aims through creative programmes integrated into the core curriculum. Creative activities are a major part of the essential foundation of the school and part of the educational process, not just for educational experience but for the more wide-ranging notions of future sustainability. The second case study described projects which were established in ten schools in Thailand. These projects adhere to the premise that arts-based education assists in teaching and learning by making it more enjoyable and more accessible. Success in keeping students in school, improving opportunities for girls, working with the local community and elders, vocational opportunities and producing happier, more well-adjusted individuals are some of the outcomes of the project. The article outlines the numerous projects across various regions of Thailand and recounts their unique qualities and pathways for success. Many of the outcomes and observations written up by the project leaders are similar to the work and research outcomes from Harvard University’s Project Zero. This is a reminder how closely the world is connected, and how similar are human hopes, aspirations and needs, no matter what the cultural or economic bracket. Chapter 15, by Brenda Fajardo from the Philippines, is entitled, ‘New and varied initiatives in arts education for cultural development in Philippine society’. The author places culture in the context of one of the three spheres of life and explains its position in Philippine society. Pressures of colonization, globalization and twenty-first century-driven economics have impacted on many cultures, leading to a ‘homogenization of cultural practices’, she claims. She describes the importance of cultural identity and the situation of art and cultural education in the Philippines. The American presence in that country from the early twentieth century benefited that society by bringing it an educational system which incorporated arts subjects. Pro-American sentiments after World War II meant the continuity of the educational system was Western in orientation, claims Fajardo, with English being the language used in school and the lessons modelled on American ones. The late 1960s brought a new rise in national cultural pride, and a new era of renewed vigour for Philippine art forms. This gave rise to the Philippine Art Educators Association, aiming to give teachers the skills to become teachers of the arts. Fajardo describes the rise and development of other groups and their contribution to Philippine arts education and community cultural development.

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10.6. Section Six: Music Programmes for Education, Multiculturalism and Human Development – Japan, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Korea Chapter 16, by Tatsuko Takizawa, is called ‘Crossroads for cultural education through music: Recent developments of school music in Japan’. The article discusses the new music curriculum that has been implemented in Japan since 2002. Prior to this time, from the nineteenth century onwards, only Western music was taught in Japanese school music lessons. The new music education in Japan now includes global music through cultural perspectives, together with traditional Japanese music as well as Western music. This broad spectrum of music teaching and appreciation has provided a giant shift of focus for music education. Each student now must learn to play at least one Japanese musical instrument, as an attempt to restore an appreciation of their own heritage to students. The music curriculum has also adopted a broader focus, thematically in line with this book, by realizing the scope music education has across the society and its application to broader issues in education such as character building, life values and ethics. Music in schools has also adopted a new role of holistic learning, sensitizing students to their own culture and teaching them how to understand the world through musical experiences. Although great progress has been achieved on one hand, the impact of Western music has resulted in a diminishing number of Japanese traditional music specialists and a dwindling appreciation amongst the young of their own culture. Takizawa emphasizes the need to train young musicians in the classical methods of their musical heritage so they can teach future generations. Many issues are at stake here and Takizawa highlights a number of themes for discussion. Robert Smith’s article in Chapter 17 is entitled ‘Symphony and sa re ga: preparing a pre-service music education training programme for Sri Lanka’. Smith recounts his experiences as an international music consultant in Sri Lanka to train pre-service specialist music teachers for Sri Lankan secondary school music programmes. Smith found that parents aspired for their children to become lawyers, doctors or engineers, at the expense of obtaining a cultural education and career, and describes the problems that arise from this narrow view. To counteract this attitude, the National Education Commission set in motion a new national initiative to train more musicians and music teachers that more fully represent the culture of Sri Lanka as a nation. Smith describes his efforts to fully understand the musical status of that country, in the light of the substantial depth of Sri Lankan musical history and culture and to make a worthwhile contribution in a short time-frame. He described the historical context of Sri Lankan music production, including the mark left by colonization on the structure of education and the formation of music educational pathways. Smith argues that if Sri Lanka music were to evolve in a way that reflects its own unique cultural mix, its own indigenous music should have a significant, if not a leading, role. The article relates the process of drafting the new pre-service course and the new pre-service teacher training course.

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The contribution of Tan Sooi Beng in Chapter 18, presents an account of Malaysian music education. Malaysia experiences many of the problems and issues as Sri Lanka and Japan, presented in this section. The Ministry of Education in new initiatives in each country has been the driving force in overcoming western influence, for retaining national cultural traditions and heritage and expressing loss and grief for diminishing cultural identity. This article described particular forms of traditional Malaysian music and shows how selected genres of traditional music taught in some schools in Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines have been introduced in Malaysian secondary schools. This new cross-cultural teaching method is new in Malaysia. Tan Sooi Beng sketches the elements of a multicultural approach to music learning, and offers three lesson plans which describe how music can be taught in schools. This article presents a thorough, practical and highly informative exposition of Malaysian music in schools, together with detailed descriptions of musical instruments. Chapter 19 presents ‘Layers of thought on Korean music, music education and the value of music and arts in the context of education and human development’ by Ki-Beom Jang. He described the need to retain cultural traditions in Korea after the influence of the West and the impact of the Japanese colonial period, and in light of changes in social structure after the Korean War, resulting in Koreans rebuilding schools and institutions along American lines. Religious influences have unintentionally made an impact on systematic education systems, influencing not only the building of churches, schools and universities but the dominance of Western Christian music in Korea. This has led to a decline in Korean musical identity, up to the 1960s as in other countries described in previous articles in this book. The economic boom of the 1970s brought a new wave of national pride and a desire nationwide to restore the Korean identity in all sectors of Korean life, including the establishment of traditional music and arts departments were established at tertiary level and a National Traditional Music Junior High School curriculum at the secondary. Music lessons were made mandatory and music was included in the basic curriculum. The author explains how the contemporary Korean education system is implementing a national musical identity and describes Korean music education with the use of tables and diagrams. However, obstacles to a music education remain, most important of which are that music is not considered for college entrance exams. Ki-Beom Jang described a study he is undertaking and concludes that a music education is as fundamentally important as the so-called important subjects.

10.7. Section Seven: Theatre, Dance and the Holistic Experience Chapter 20, entitled ‘Rasa – a life skill’ is by Sangeeta Isvaran. She describes the concept of rasa, as discussed in the Natyasastra, and explains how it is used in forms of Indian performing arts, the education system and as an aid to students and teachers. She then described a number of case studies and observations arising from

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these studies. Isvaran writes that Natyasastra was a theatrical experience designed to educate the illiterate, enlighten the literate and entertain the enlightened. This ancient tradition offers practical guidelines on how to experience and invoke rasa as well as developing physical and emotional qualities and skills. Isvaran finds this holistic approach to learning offers the way to understanding the psychological benefits of accessing the peak experience and life-skill called rasa. Rasa can be applied to a wide range of tasks and encourages the students along the path of understanding and builds their confidence. It can be effectively used in education as her case studies show. Although Isvaran points to the positive outcomes of the case studies, she warns of possible negative outcomes and issues and questions that need to be addressed. This article is a reminder that as educators, we need to be forever searching for new answers to problems and, by looking back at past traditions and cultural practices, we may find some answers. Chapter 21, by Joseph Gonzales is entitled ‘Tertiary dance education in Malaysia’. This article tells the story of the role and place in society of the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan, or the National Arts Academy, as the first tertiary institution to provide full-time training that reflects the arts and traditions of Malaysia’s culture and heritage. The academy’s mission is to train skilled practitioners in these arts. The author became Head of Dance in 1999 and, in consultation with a team of experts, he oversaw a major change to emphasize traditional dance training, Western dance training and choreography, while retaining and reinforcing the multiculturality of dance. The object is to train the body to be more responsive to the various styles of dance present in Malaysia, but with a global perspective. Flexibility in the courses offered at the academy allow students to have more choice; to specialize and to excel in one or more areas of dance depending on their aptitude, talent, desire and determination. The traditional dance syllabus now reflects the diverse cultural composition of Malaysia. Gonzales describes the visual excitement of Malaysian performing arts, and acknowledges the wide range of outstanding traditional masters associated with the academy. A select number of scholars are employed at the academy to record and describe the theoretical, historical and ethnological aspects of the traditional arts. Gonzales also described the status of Western dance training in Malaysia. The influence of prominent Malaysian and overseas choreographers has made an enormous contribution to Malaysian modern dance training and the rise of a new generation of dancers. Gonzales outlines the challenges to the performing arts in Malaysia and presents a series of recommendations. Chapter 22 is entitled ‘Theatre and education: A different interpretation for India’ and is by Subodh Patnaik. Natya Chetana means, ‘theatre for awareness’; the name of an Indian theatre group formed in 1986 to experiment with applying the theatre to social education. Their emphasis is on communication, using the theatre, to improve societies and communities, and to involve all members of the community to do this. Natya Chetana is researching the role of traditional rural theatre in regard to its impact on psychosocial development and acquiring positive values and social education. It also has adopted the challenge of attracting children to school, keeping them there and assisting in making formal learning a more enjoyable and

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successful experience. The campaign against illiteracy by the Indian government has numerous hurdles to overcome, including parental resistance, as they perceive it as offering little of practical economic benefit. Traditional education often works against village children, giving them unreal expectations that can never be fulfilled. This is where the Natya Chetana has a significant role to play. The use of theatre can encourage to participants to analyse their situation and find creative ways to answer real problems. Patnaik states that those working in social development have used street theatre, process drama, role-playing, applied drama, community theatre, theatre in education, theatre therapy and children’s theatre to achieve their goals. This article outlines the strategies, outcomes and observations that have made the work of Natya Chetana a model for value education, citizenship and retaining cultural heritage. Chapter 23 is written by Yuewai Wong and entitled, ‘The black box exercise: An arts education model from Hong Kong’. This project emanated from an installation art project created in 1995 by Zuni Icosahedron, a Hong Kong art collective. The object was to communicate with young people who were not being reached by the existing education curricula to acquire creative, communication and learning skills. The project has evolved and now works with students and the model of a black box for exploring the concepts related to site-specific installation arts. The article describes the theory and philosophy behind the black box project. Since its inception, the project has been integrated into learning environments such as schools and youth centres around the world, with over 150,000 participants. The black box exercise’s developmental goal, claims Wong, is to be replicated with local partners in different parts of the world. Working with artists, the young people curate their own art installation exhibit within the black box, replicating real life arts community situations. The projects extend beyond the learning environment to include parents, family and the community. The black box exercise circumscribes and delimits ideas, contents and actions, writes the author. These concepts in turn enrich the existing education system and flow through to the society at large. The interdisciplinary nature of the project facilitates self-motivated study plans; the sharing of information, views and experiences. Inventive learning initiatives such as the black box project take a holistic view of educational development and succeed on the principle that things that are different can successfully unite us. Chapter 24 is written by Lindy Joubert. There is increasing evidence how involvement in the arts impact on social well being of young people, improve skills and develop a love of learning across a range of subjects. These factors contribute to improvements in local economies, the health of communities and overcoming the mounting problems of depression and exclusion. Also students can take school more seriously, feel more confident and find new ways to learn by applying themselves to difficult tasks and valuing the challenge of education. Using the arts in the curriculum, students feel more inclined to stay at school and to think more creatively of vocational opportunities. There is an evident need for reform calling for a fundamental re-evaluation of the ways in which schools are organised for teaching and learning. Educators are being challenged to re-examine traditional notions of what should be taught in schools and how it should be taught. This includes an emphasis on a more clearly

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articulated, rigorous and interdisciplinary curriculum, which acknowledges and values the contributions of all aspects of social, economic, cultural and educational issues relevant to the particular society. The role of the arts in educational settings is crucial, as are the outcomes from the work of NGOs, which touch on a wider set of issues relating to the role of arts education. It is vital that the important work generated in and out of school settings and by NGOs is collected as quantifiable data to provide tools for measuring learning outcomes. Research identifies ways to measure the success of the arts as a means of enhancing education, particularly for the informal education sector. The arts are an influential mechanism in reaching socially excluded young people and in developing new educational strategies that are successful. Information Communication Technologies also have an important role to play in partnership with institutional schooling. Creative opportunities for capacity building are the mandate of UNESCO and a leadership role has been established by Teresa Wagner, Executive Office, Senior Programme Specialist Coordination of Patronage and Cultural Events. e-mail: [email protected] Teresa Wagner initiated the 5 year series of regional arts education meetings culminating in the World Symposium of Arts Education in Portugal in 2006. This Symposium affirmed the Asia Pacific Action Plan’s proposal for the establishment of a series of sub-regional Observatories across the Asia-Pacific region, which will contribute to a wider and more open communication platform for Arts in Education communities. The Asia Pacific Action Plan initiative was established by the UNESCO Bangkok’s Regional Advisor for Culture in Asia and the Pacific, Richard Engelhardt. The Director of UNESCO Asia Pacific, Sheldon Shaeffer, Richard Engelhardt and Teresa Wagner have worked tirelessly through UNESCO networks to promote the Arts in Education agenda. A Web-based portal (www.unesco.org/ culture/lea) exists to facilitate networking and contact between art education specialists worldwide. (UNESCO intends to produce online and hardcopy publications focusing on the deliberations of the Conference. Updated information will be available on the LEA International Web site: http://www.unesco.org/culture/lea)

Further Reading Bernard, A. 2000 Education for All and Children who are Excluded. Education for All 2000 Assessment. Thematic Studies. on the Internet: http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/en-leadup/findings_excluded%20summary.shtm Dakar Framework for Action – Education for All, meeting our collective commitment. On the Internet: http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/ed_for_all/dakfram_eng.shtml Joubert, L. 2005 “The Arts and Healthcare for sustainable communities”. City of Port Philip. Victoria, Australia “Not Just for Arts Sake”. 22 Apr 2005. Joubert, L. 2004 Creative communities: The arts, social responsibility and sustainable planning and development chapter in The Sustainable City. WIT Press, Southampton UK 2004. pp 473–482. Joubert, L. 2004 Creative Communities. Second International Conference of the Association of Architecture Schools in Australia (AASA).

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Joubert, L. 2002 Science and art: New paradigms in education and vocational outcomes in Prospects, International Bureau of Education Journal. Geneva. December 2002, Volume 32, Issue 4. Translated into Spanish, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and French. Joubert, L. 2002 UNESCO Regional Meeting of Experts on Arts Education in the Pacific. Nadi, Fiji. “Overview: Arts Education in the Pacific Region”. Joubert, L. 2001 Document written for Division of Secondary, Technical and Vocational Education as an overview after field trips to China, Thailand and Africa. “Arts for Education – holistic learning for increased knowledge, understanding of social issues and development of life skills for secondary level students”. Joubert, L. 2001 UNESCO Invited Speaker 2nd Forum on Quality Education, Beijing China. Paper “The Arts in the Core Curriculum - Cutting Edge Research in Australia, The United States and the United Kingdom” Joubert, L. 2000 New Paradigms: The Arts in the Core Secondary Curriculum. Joubert, L. 1997 SCART Presented paper on the interaction of the arts and the sciences at the second Intenational Conference on Flow Interaction cum Exhibition/Lectures on Interaction of Science and Art at the Technische Universitat, Berlin, Germany Joubert, L. 1995 Paper Dreamtime Healing Time International Arts in Medicine Conference USA. Joubert, L. 1993 “Thawan Duchanee” in Artlink, Arts of the Region – Contemporary Art of South-East Asia, Vol.13 no 3+4 pp. 36. Joubert, L. 1992 Bridging our troubled waters – out of the mire into the multi-cultural arena in Interacta, Journal of the Craft Teachers Association, no.1, pp. 4–9. Joubert, L. 1992 “The Role of the Arts in a Technological Age” ANZAAS Journal, Australian National University. Joubert, L. 1991 “No Single Solution, a View on Design Education”, Hunter DECA Association, NSW pp. 189–197 1991. LEA A Web-based portal (www.unesco.org/culture/lea) exists to facilitate networking and contact between art education specialists worldwide.UNESCO intends to produce online and hardcopy publications focusing on the deliberations of the Conference. Updated information will be available on the Lea International Web site: http://www.unesco.org/culture/lea NFER in the United Kingdom, (National Foundation for Educational Research) http://www.nfer.ac.uk/research-areas/pims-data/summaries/research-project-to-identify-whatworks-in-stimulating-creativity-amongst-socially-excluded-young-people.cfm UNESCO 2006 World Conference on Arts Education, Building Creative Capacities for the 21st Century was held in Lisbon, 6th – 9th March 2006. Organized by UNESCO and the Government of Portugal, with the participation of NGO partners InSEA (The International Society for Education through Art), ISME (International Society for Music Education), IDEA (International Drama/Theatre and Education Association) and MUS-E (International Yehudi Menuhin Foundation). Twelve hundred participants attended from over ninety seven Member States. UNESCO intends to produce online and hardcopy publications focusing on the deliberations of the Conference. Updated information will be available on the Lea International website: http://www.unesco.org/culture/lea UNESCO 1998 Wasted Opportunities: When Schools Fail. Education for All. Status and Trends. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO 1996 Learning: The treasure within. Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO 1994 The Salamanca World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality. UNESCO and the Ministry of Education, Spain. Paris: UNESCO. United Nations 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child. New York: United Nations.

Chapter 2

Masters and Pupils The Rise of the Modern Art School in Asia: Some Key Issues Regarding Their Establishment, Curricula and Place in the Communities Alison Carroll

The modern-day art school in Asia, based on European models, is a symbol of the changes experienced in the region over the last century from feudal societies to meritocracies, where access to education by an increasingly larger group underpins the transformation to modern, open and (mostly) democratic cultures. The history of these art schools with their dominant leaders, their various focus – based on different perceptions of art practice and individual power, their responses to and role in local politics, their star students and staff and their rise and fall – have been very important throughout the region. The growth of public teaching institutions and their central role in the artistic life of most countries of the region have been collapsed into a much shorter time-frame than in Europe. The new European-derived schools started early in Japan, the Philippines, India and Australia, and in turn gave those societies strong bases from which to leverage general support of the visual arts. Other countries followed in their own unique ways. This chapter explores some key issues in this story: particularly, the reasons why a school was established, by whom, and the consequences of this, and the ongoing argument about teaching local or foreign (Western) traditions. It also covers the importance of the infrastructure of the school to the arts community, it being the only institution existing that supported artists in any way. Even when there was a revolt against the (frequent) conservatism of such a school, younger artists rebelled against the internal workings rather than more widespread sentiments. The art school was a focus of the arts establishment and a symbol of wider society control. The model has been successful, in part, because local cultures in most countries of Asia are comfortable with the master–student relationship that was translated in the schools into an organized teaching hierarchy. The student group itself was also important – often making links that developed into major movements in their country. This has happened in the West too, but it seems to have been more important in Asia. It always helped that local cultures usually supported the idea of Director, Arts Programme, Asialink, Sidney Myer Asia Centre, University of Melbourne, Victoria, 3010; Tel: 613 8344 4800; Fax: 613 9347 1768 e-mail:[email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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education itself. It was easier to suggest developing a school than, say, an art museum or gallery. It is also interesting how often the word ‘school’ is part of a major movement, as can be illustrated even by a literal translation of the revolutionary Monoha group in Japan in the 1960s as the ‘School of Things’. Teaching of art in Asia prior to the development of these European-derived schools was very varied. In East Asia, skills with the ink brush, whether for calligraphy or for the elegiac evocation of nature, were part of the accoutrements of a Confucian gentleman. He learnt from acknowledged masters with an emphasis on individual practice, a process which was assumed to continue through his life. There is a famous quotation of the Japanese artist Hokusai (1760–1849) describing his ‘progress’: From the age of 5, I have had a mania for sketching the form of things. From about the age of 50 I produced a number of designs, yet of all I drew prior to the age of 70 there is truly nothing of great note. At the age of 72 I finally apprehended something of the true quality of birds, animals, insects, fish and the vital nature of grasses and trees. Therefore, at 80 years I shall have made some progress, at the age of 90 I shall have penetrated even further the deeper meaning of things, at 100 I shall have become truly marvellous, and at 110, each dot, each line shall surely possess a life of its own. (Colophon, Hokusai, 1834).

Artists of special skill and talent were fêted, their names known and their works treasured. In contrast, artists in Mughal India, for example, learnt their skills as lesser mortals, often becoming artists through family connections or in family ateliers, and were usually regarded as artisans unless an individual of exceptional talent arose and was publicly recognized, when their names were sometimes recorded and their status elevated. While learning and scholarship were admired in Mughal times, the rulers employed others actually to undertake the practice of the arts. In South East Asia, individual courts in Java admired the theatrical over the visual arts, and Islamic courts generally opposed the depiction of figurative images (an additional factor being that climatic conditions were inimical to the survival of images on paper or cloth). In Siam, mural painting on both secular and religious buildings was widely practised; however, this was also learnt in ateliers of lowerclass – though skilled and appreciated – artisans. Pre-Hispanic societies in the Philippines focused more on wooden and three-dimensional creations for ceremonies. This was done by skilled members of each group, and learnt individually within each smaller community. The depiction of local life through textiles was valued, but individual makers rarely known, in part because textile making was the province of women.

1. The Establishment of the Schools By their nature, the new art schools were revolutionary, just by their intention to open up avenues to study art. The founders – usually new governments or colonial rulers – decided to hire professional teachers, housed in purpose-built institutions with curricula written down, for a nominated period of study, usually for a group of students in a classroom, and with the idea of a qualification at the end, and the

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whole being open, in principle at least, to ‘everyone’. The founding fathers (indeed, no ‘mothers’ appear and the term ‘everyone’ excludes female students) were also inspired by the idea that these schools were being established for the general benefit of society overall. This was ‘progress’. It was believed at the time that education was the answer to so much. The students quickly formed the idea of being alumni of these institutions, and responded with varying degrees of pride, ownership and obligation, perhaps even more than has been the case in similar institutions in the West. Alumni status often helped establish younger artists. Even today in Korea, alumni of various schools are expected to help (even unknown) fellow alumni. The curriculum was for the most part based on European models, with the idea of learning a range of skills alongside some theoretical and aesthetic rules or ideals. These were usually based on current ideas of European art, but, as we will see, local modifications to this were made. They then encouraged the study of Western art through the books and magazines they collected, an important factor in supporting the central influence of the knowledge of Western art even today. A key distinction, however, between the art schools of the region is the reason why these were established and by whom. Art schools in Japan were established by the Japanese as part of their own technologically focused, modernization process. They established schools in their colonies in Korea and Taiwan. The Chinese belatedly followed the idea of the Japanese and used Japanese knowledge to develop the teaching of art in China. In contrast, South Asian art schools, notably in India, were developed by colonial, Western rulers with a distinct ‘craft’ bias towards a non-technological, handmade, anti-intellectual agenda. Certainly, these art schools were not seen as tools for increasing India’s capacity to compete with the best and the newest of the West. South East Asian schools were established for reasons unique to each country’s history and experience. The new Meiji Government in Japan wanted to introduce the utilitarian skills of the West. This included the drawing skills needed to interpret the engineering and technological innovations coming into the country. A scholar at the Institute of Western Studies, Kawakamai Togai, began to teach these skills from the early 1860s (Conant, 1995, p. 22). Studies at the Institute included understanding Western oilpainting techniques. A technical art school was established in Tokyo in 1876 with European teachers hired for this purpose. Antonio Fontanesi, the Italian painting master, taught sketching from plaster casts in charcoal and crayon, pencil sketching from nature, landscape and figure painting in oil. This early group of students was the first in Japanese history to undertake the systematic study of oil painting, and, of these, certain names stand out as important leaders. (Harada, 1968, p. 32). A key issue was understanding the capacity of oil paint to create an illusion of light and space through atmospheric perspective, with examples centred on landscapes in the thick dark paint of the European mid-ninetenth century, especially Fontanesi’s admired Barbizon School. Of course, not many examples of European painting existed in Japan, and those that were brought in were often of only average technique and inspiration. Gradually, however, information, travel and the quality of examples improved. In 1889, the Tokyo School of Fine Arts was established by the

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Ministry of Education to train teachers, technicians and also artists. Since this time, the Japanese have always looked to France in particular as the centre of Western art and, because they in turn were so influential in the rest of North Asia, Paris remained the beacon for young Japanese, Chinese, Korean and Taiwanese artists seeking knowledge, until New York took over after World War II. By the turn of the twentieth century, Chinese artists, like their compatriots, were aware that the world was changing and knew they had to respond. This was reinforced by ‘little’ Japan, which had so obviously responded to new Western ways, militarily defeating the Chinese in 1895. The European powers’ subsequent defeat of Chinese imperial forces in 1900 only cemented this realization. The teaching techniques of Western art were part of the reforms brought in very quickly to China and included drafting, map making and illustrating, often taught by Japanese instructors. New ideas were entrenched by the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911.The first Western-based art curriculum in China was established in Nanjing in 1906, followed by Shanghai, and focused on what had been learnt of Parisian practice from Japanese sources. The first national art school opened in Beijing in 1918, and by 1919 included guohua (traditional Chinese brush painting), design and xihua (Western-style or oil painting). Young Chinese artists themselves turned to Western art as a way to invigorate a stagnating establishment and founded private schools, and pushed for change from within official institutions. As Joan Lebold Cohen writes (1987, p. 12): The new methods of Western art education introduced drawing with pencils and charcoal, painting in oil on canvas, and using watercolour and gouache on non-absorbent paper instead of ink and colour washes on absorbent paper or silk. Other innovations included drawing from life (using draped and nude models) and from plaster casts and painting from arranged still lifes and landscapes. The use of nude models was considered scandalous, and progressive art educators such as Liu Haisu and Lin Fengmian were subjected to extreme hostility for introducing nude models into the Chinese art curriculum. This reached a climax in 1927 when a warlord who was incensed by what he deemed to be an affront to public morality attacked Liu Haisu for such a practice – and for exhibiting paintings of nudes. He threatened to close down the school [the Shanghai Fine Art Institute], but as good fortune would have it, the army of Chiang Kai-shek’s Northern Expedition arrived to impose Nationalist party control, and the disapproving warlord was deposed.

In both Korea and Taiwan in the early years of the twentieth century, the colonial ruler, Japan, decided to influence cultural life throughout local infrastructure, and supported arts organizations and formal exhibition processes. Even more important, they spread their influence through education, sending Japanese art teachers to work in schools and then encouraging local artists to study in Japan. It is an important distinction, as students in tertiary institutions are older, more independent, often from more influential families that can afford such extended education, and they are also at an age to challenge authority. This is the time to control this group, especially if they come from states that are ruled with a tight colonial hand. Rather than establish schools where ferment can be less well controlled, it is more sensible to encourage young men of this age to come to the centre of cultural power. This, of course, is still part of cultural diplomacy, even in its more benign forms, today. Then, too, it was an effective strategy. Not only were any revolutionary tendencies

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of these students controlled: even now, as then, although intrinsically Chinese, Taiwanese artists, remain beguiled by Japanese cultural life, and Koreans continue their love/hate relationship with their former colonial rulers. This also meant that the main art schools today in Korea and Taiwan grew after the Japanese had left. Seoul National University was established in 1946 and HongIk University in 1950, while in Taiwan it took until the 1980s for the now dominant National Institute for the Arts to consolidate. In the early years of the century, Tokyo was the centre of avant-garde activity in North Asia. The influence of their artists was the dominating force on the surrounding countries until World War II. What was happening in avant-garde Europe was reinterpreted through the imagery of the Japanese and passed on to those eager to hear about what was new in Korea, Taiwan and China. The attitudes that had established the art schools for their own purpose also stimulated travel, exploration, the growth of other institutions and a general, curious energy palpable in Japan during this period. The history of the art school in India is in clear contrast to what happened in Japan. At the turn of the twentieth century, three elements were present in the art of the subcontinent, which continue to be influential. The first is the long and proud tradition of Buddhist, Hindu and Islamic visual culture (notable in the sculpture, particularly of the first two and the painting of the third). The second is the British overlay, especially in the infrastructure of art schools and museums, but also in providing a market for some artists’ work and, increasingly, in providing knowledge of European art practices technically, stylistically and conceptually. The third is the strong and continuous local folk or tribal visual culture that feeds the wide arena of popular culture and crafts practice, and which has nourished the other two at various important times throughout the century. As in other parts of Asia and the colonial world, the establishment of art schools in the European manner was a key point of change in local arts practice. However, in the subcontinent there was a local twist of difference. The Japanese (and therefore the rest of the East Asians) had focused their learning of Western ways in Paris, in the salons and academies of ‘high art’. For the Indians, England was the Western teacher, and England, unlike France, was in the grip of the ‘Arts and Crafts’ movement – when decoration, the love of the handmade and the general exoticism about countries such as India prevailed in the face of increasing industrialization. In contrast Japan and her East Asian colonies the motivation for introducing art schools was to increase local understanding of Western conceptual and elite models, in the subcontinent it was, in part, to encourage the preservation and development of handmade goods. The paternalist decision was made in British interest, not Indian, and had an ongoing effect on art training. The schools set up in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and Lahore were modelled on the Department of Arts and Sciences in South Kensington, rather than on the Royal Academy, with a corresponding focus on promoting local crafts. That these models of British art education in India provided centres of learning for young people interested in art, places to exhibit their work, and jobs for local artists returning from study from Europe – and remain pivotal institutions for art and artists – heightens the importance of the credo on which they were established.

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Fig. 2.1 National College of Art, Lahore, photo by A. Carroll, 1998

Ernest Binfield Havell came to Bengal in 1896 to head the Calcutta School of Art. Like many other British teachers, his own training promoted the romance of the Arts and Crafts movement and he saw the elevation of handmade crafts as central to the vitality of Indian creative life. The force of the ideologues for a Bengal school – the Bengal Renaissance – with the structure of the art school, and the support and talents of the wealthy and culturally dominant Tagore family, encouraged others to come to Calcutta and provided a focus for artistic activity. In turn, the energy of this centre spread outwards to the disparate and often fragmented art worlds in other cities. Abanindranath Tagore (1871–1951), a key figure who took over the leadership of the art school after Havell returned to England in 1906, was important in introducing the study of both the content and technique of Mughal miniatures to the artists of Calcutta – an overt refocusing on ‘local’ traditions. This is a good example of the fluidity of influences even within what others might see as homogeneous cultures, as of course Calcutta had never been a centre of Mughal culture and examples had to be brought in. He was followed by others like Nandalal Bose (1882–1966) and Jamini Roy (1887–1974) who turned to local folk practices for models. Ironically, the idea of a Pan-Asian aesthetic was developed in Calcutta during these years, fed by visitors from Japan who practised traditional

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Fig. 2.2 National College of Art, Lahore, student painting traditional Mughal technique, photo by P. Aitken, 2002

Japanese painting techniques. The Japanese were seen as conservatives in their own world and their Pan-Asian desires never flowered, but the essence of the art developed in Calcutta has been at the basis of Indian art throughout the last 100 years. The artists who had flocked to Calcutta, like Asit Halder, Kshitindranath Majumdar, Samarendra Gupta, Suren Kar and K. Venkatappa, were among those who evolved their own ‘Indian’ style of painting and carried it to centres such as Lucknow, Benares, Lahore, Allahabad and Mysore. Through the 1920s and 1930s they spread the ideas of Tagore generally and into the art schools. They became known as ‘Abanpathis’: the ‘followers of Abanindranath’s path’. Throughout the century, Japanese artists kept pushing for the new, and looking outwards, while at the other end of the scale Indian artists kept looking backwards and inwards to local traditions. Until Indian art, has been very focused on painted narratives and Indian affairs, recently out of pace with the rest of the region.

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The lack of any arts establishment in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) led to locally based individual practice, flaring suddenly in the 1940s and 1950s, and then diminishing, leaving little for others to build on. This brief flame of the so-called’ 43 Group were artists mostly from wealthy families who saw the Slade in London as their natural teaching institution – or the JJ School in Bombay as a second – rather than any local school. Today, this lack of a strong art school infrastructure in Sri Lanka is still a major reason for the lack of a vibrant arts community there. The schools in South East Asia had various reasons for their development, which were again predicated on local contexts and cultural positioning, and again with important consequences. The Philippines had been colonized from the seventeenth century. It was wealthy country and there was much intermarriage of Spanish and locals. Universities had been established early in the colonial years and an Academy of Drawing (tied formally to the Royal Academy in Madrid in 1850) had been founded in 1821. The wealthy classes often lived in large, airy and elegant houses full of locally made artworks. Portraits of great power and poignancy remain, as well as sculptures and drawings of townscapes and daily life, including those of Damian Domingo (1800–1834), early mestizo Director of the drawing academy. The art schools of the archipelago, run by Filipinos, are typical of schools that are the centre of arts power and authority in their country. Another important school, now based at Silpakorn University, developed in Thailand, the only independent state in South East Asia. The nineteenth century kings of what was then called Siam had taken the ‘Japanese way’ of wanting to modernize and bring new technologies into the country on their own terms. The art and artists of Europe were invited to Siam to develop a practice parallel to traditional painting and sculpture, with the two strands remaining the basis of Thai art. The main person in the development of modern Thai art was Italian academic sculptor Corrado Feroci (1892–1962), who arrived in 1923 and worked at first under the aegis of the monarchy, and then led the move to develop the School of Fine Arts, established in 1933. The school was the first real attempt to encourage young Thai people as a group to aspire to the life of an artist. It became the focus for art teaching and activity for the next 50 years. It is only in recent times that other institutions and organizations have diffused this school’s role and influence. Vietnam was finally brought under French control in 1884, and 2 years later the new rulers opened a painting class in Hanoi. The key change of artistic pace was the establishment of the Gia Dinh College of Fine Arts in Saigon in 1913 and, more importantly, the École Supérieure des Beaux-Arts de l’Indochine in Hanoi in 1925, both based on purely French lines. Thus the ‘School of Paris’ was established in Vietnam conceptually and in practice, and has come back today as a dominant force. The Hanoi École (the School of Fine Arts) was founded and directed by Frenchman Victor Tardieu (1870–1937) until the year he died. It remains the main art school in Indochina (together with Hue, Ho Chi Minh City, Phnom Penh and Vientiane), and all are the key centres for art activity in each city, though Hanoi remains pre-eminent in both position and influence on artists of the region. In Malaya/Singapore, the pressure for an art school came from local artist groups, refugees and settlers from China, bringing in their ideas of schools from Shanghai

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Fig. 2.3 École des Beaux Arts, Hanoi, photo by A. Carroll, 1990

and other centres, including those in Europe after periods of study there. It started from small beginnings of artists meeting together in Kuala Lumpur, leading to the first art school, the Nanyang Academy, which was established in Singapore in 1937, just before the Japanese invasion. The leading art school in the peninsula for many years, it can be seen as an extension of the academies set up in China in the 1920s but with an increasing interest in developing local subject matter. In Indonesia, the first schools were for the small Dutch colonial population and only after independence were larger art schools established for local students. This period after liberation was important for the development of the institutional base of art in Indonesia. The Academy of Art (Akademi Seni Rupa Indonesia: ASRI) in Yogyakarta was established in 1950, following that of the Bandung School of Art (Institut Teknologi Bandung: ITB) in 1947. The Bandung School, its teachers, students and followers developed a very different, internationalist, pro-Western aesthetic, much more interested in abstraction than the figurative, narrative school in Yogyakarta where stories of local central Javanese life predominated. The marked difference between the integration into Filipino life of the Spaniards, with the early establishment there of art schools run by and for locals, and their late establishment in Indonesia only after the Dutch had left, is symptomatic of the difference of attitude of the two colonial powers. The Dutch had been content to live outside local communities, focusing, because of trade, on the coast and not interfering with local religious beliefs or local customs, unlike the Spaniards who were intent on winning hearts and minds. In Australia, art schools were established on the British model, very similar to those in India along the ‘South Kensington’ model of promoting the ‘twin objectives of cultural and economic development’. Henry Cole, head of the first school of art in Hobart, which was established in 1884, said the aim was that by educating the general public in art, they would ‘demand good design in manufactures and be willing to pay for them’ (see Tasmanian School of Art, History, n.d. I am indebted

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to Professor David Williams, ANU School of Art, for guidance on this material). The vocational role for art in Sydney saw a school develop in 1859 as part of the Sydney Mechanics School of Arts. In contrast, the schools attached to the new ‘national’ galleries (all Australian states prior to Federation in 1901 were given this autonomous nomenclature) had a more refined nature and were focused more on the fine arts than on design or industry. They were also established relatively early in these colonies’ histories, so that, for example, the National Gallery School (now the Victorian College of the Arts) in Melbourne was established in 1867, just 32 years after the first European settlers came to the site of the city.

2. The Rivalry of the Local and the Foreign The advent of the public art school, whether initially based on technical training or the higher arts, meant the arrival of the European model. The control of the curricula, as we have seen, was dependent on the wider aspirations and power situation of each place. However, the matter of the local tradition and whether to teach it in parallel with Western styles was an issue from the beginning and continues to be so today. In the early days it was a wider political issue – centring on the importance or otherwise of local traditions per se and whether they were acknowledged and promoted at all. In recent years, there has been a more pragmatic response, namely, how to include specific traditional techniques within the curricula offered. The development of curricula in Japanese art schools at the end of the nineteenth century is an overt example of the political. American Ernest Fenollosa (1853– 1908) arrived in Japan in 1878 and became influential in his passionate advocacy

Fig. 2.4 Central School of Art, Beijing, photo by A. Carroll, 1994

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of the superiority of Japanese traditional forms over Western-style art in Japan. He founded the New Japanese-Style Painting Movement with Tenshin Okakura (1862–1913) and helped to found the Tokyo Art School in 1889, specifically excluding yoga or Western-style art from the curriculum. This school promoted traditional painting, wood sculpture and lacquer work. The force of the West was, however, unstoppable. A greater and greater number of young artists were travelling to Europe to study and paint, and by the 1890s, this work was being seen increasingly in Tokyo. The Tokyo Art School subsequently reversed its policy against teaching Western-style art in 1896. In China, the establishment of the main schools in the main cities was dominated to a strong degree by the interests of their directors. They were variously interested in Western-style art or traditional Chinese painting, and this flowed through to curricula and student work. One example is the head of the new art academy in Beijing in 1926, Lin Fengmian (1900–1991), who had studied in Europe but had been influenced by not only European art but also classical Chinese works seen in collections there. Recognizing the complexity of the issue, in 1927 he went on to found an academy in Hangzhou, the aims of which were, boldly: ‘To introduce Western art; to reform traditional art; to reconcile Chinese and Western art; to create contemporary art’. (Sullivan, 1996, p. 49) Other schools in North Asia, like HongIk University in Seoul, teach traditional brush painting today alongside Western techniques. As we have seen, Thailand, like the Japanese, had kept control of its institutions, and from the beginning its School of Fine Arts developed as a European academy, but with due deference for traditional Thai forms, which were included as separate areas of study. Despite this, Corrado Feroci’s Italian training – classical, Academic and figurative – dominated the works during his period of control, with only sometimes a particular Thai detail included in the works of art made. Feroci changed his name to Silpa Bhirasri and wrote about different types of art in Thailand, but in formalist and personal terms: Thai artists express themselves in different ways corresponding to their natural temperament. Some, as we have said, are inspired and represent the daily life of the Thai, as the old painters did. Others attempt to modernize traditional painting by changing the miniature-like character into an ampler vision of the subject. There are painters whose ambition is to float in philosophical spheres, while others, on the contrary, are realistic or impressionistic. (Bhirasri, 1989, p. 23)

The impetus for the introduction of Western models of art education was totally different in Vietnam, but the results had similarities with Thailand because the key director of the art school was so influential. Like Feroci, Victor Tardieu was also personally interested in local traditions. The French-based methods of teaching laid down in the 1920s remain alive in Hanoi: drawing from the model, composition and theory, but while Tardieu was himself a painter in the European Academic tradition, as seen in his murals for the University of Hanoi showing the history of Vietnam, he also encouraged work in the traditional media of lacquer and silk painting. He collected reproductions of Tang and Sung dynasty silk paintings, silk and brushes from China and special local paper and lacquer materials. This was crucial in helping the two techniques to become an important part of Vietnamese art, especially in the middle decades of the century.

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In Singapore, after World War II, the Nanyang Academy reformed in 1946, again following the precepts of the Chinese art academies – teaching both Chinese traditional brush painting and Western-style art – and achieved its glory days in the 1950s under the leadership of Lim Hak Tai (1893–1963). In the subcontinent, where control, as said before, was in the hands of the Europeans, the issues were much less sensitively handled. Critic Salima Hashmi writes of the official dismissal of local traditions in current day Pakistan (then India), specifically of the Mayo School of Arts (now the National College of Arts), established in Lahore in 1875, with Lockwood Kipling (1837–1911) as its first director: [T]he content of The Mayo School curriculum reflected the contradictions between the local art tradition and the dominant British aesthetic. The continuity and richness of the varied local painting tradition was taken over by the Victorian predilection for the academic and sentimental in art. (Hashmi, 1997, p. 10.)

As previously noted, the Bengal Renaissance had been important for its insistence on looking to Asian and local sources in the face of this pressure, an understandable result of the situation in India at the turn of the century. Abanindranath Tagore wrote how Indians needed to discuss: Asian art. In other words, it is essential to conduct a comparative study of the traditions stretching from Turkey to Japan, from the northern limits of the Tartar kingdoms of China at one end to the southern ocean at the other. Then we must turn our attention to the manner in which Buddhist art had left its mark in a glorious unity of Asiatic art. If we visit China, or Japan, or the Turkish desert, we will find traces of inspiration from Indian relief sculpture … (Mitter, 1994, p. 266).

Ironically, it has been the Lahore art school which, in recent years, has been a model of introducing a specific local tradition and enabling it to develop into an acknowledged part of global practice: the courtly art of miniature painting. This was taught in a very traditional way at the NCR until the early 1990s, when artists started to transform the devices of fine brushwork, specially prepared wasli paper, jewel-like water-based colours and the tradition of showing local scenes from the secular to courtly life, into contemporary ways. They developed both iconography and technique. Paintings made in this traditional way from the early 1990s include the modern buildings and chaotic traffic of modern life in Lahore. Artists working in this technique are included in some of the most important events on the global/Western arts calendar, and, interestingly, are exhibited without reference to any specific cultural background. Mughal miniature painting is finally a ‘global’ technique. This ‘success’ of the Mughal miniature painting technique was achieved by individuals living outside their original culture. In the twentieth century, when other Asian art techniques were influential outside Asia- in the 1960s (as a result both of the counterculture reactions to the academy), leading to interests in ‘other’ belief systems like Buddhism and Zen, or views of the world like Tantric arts, or the interest in calligraphy of Abstract Expressionist artists in America such as Mark Tobeythis development occurred because individuals were interested, not through the Asian art schools. The conduit for this interest has been expatriates from Asia living in the West, or Westerners who had come individually to learn under certain

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masters, as was the case in Japan. With minor exceptions, the art schools in Asia have not attracted outsiders to learn their specialist techniques.

3. Art Schools as Centres of Artistic Life – and Ferment Because they were often the only focus for artists, and younger artists in particular, the intellectual attitude, energy and activities of the art schools and their leading staff members became even more important in the artistic development of each society. Often senior positions in the schools were the only institutional roles offered for artists – with accompanying salaries and usually high status. Certainly the influence of teachers in the schools was extremely important. A brief study of the staff and alumni of schools from Baroda to Manila, and Bandung to Beijing are testament for the importance of the schools to the history of art in their communities. It can also be said that the collective activity of the art school was in accord with the collective sympathies existing in many Asian societies and this helped their success. That they were part of the education system certainly helped their establishment and support. The art schools in China and Vietnam during the long years of war mid-century were so important to their constituents that teachers and students were physically relocated around the country avoiding the areas of major conflict, setting up centres for art in safer places until they were forced to move on. The control of the artistic life of a city through the schools and the individuals who led them is demonstrated by what happened in Manila in the decades before World War II. The School of Fine Arts at the University of the Philippines (UP) had been directed by leading academically minded painters of idealized genre painting: Fabian de la Rosa (1869–1937) from 1925 to 1937, followed by his cousin Fernando Amorsolo (1892–1972), who was director there until the 1950s. This control was too long and too conservative. Almost in protest, a new school at the University of Santo Tomas (UST) was established in 1935 by leading the modernist artist Victorio Edades (1895–1985). Edades introduced an American curriculum, including art history, languages and optional scientific studies for the students, and UST ‘became the spearhead of modern art’ in the country (Kalaw-Ledesma, 1979, p. 93). The Asian hierarchy of teacher and follower made the system both accepted and potentially conservative. In the West questioning a teacher is usual; in Asia it is often culturally impossible. This makes protest against such teachers even more noteworthy. A rare example was in Vietnam in 1937, when sculptor Evariste Jonchère (1892–1956) came from France and took over the Directorship of the École until 1945. While his own work was more modernist than that of Tardieu, the previous director, he retained a more conservative belief that the Vietnamese could be trained only as artisans, a point of view certain to make already politicized students further question colonial authority, and take action. In 1938, students including Tran Van Can (1910–94) and Nguyen Do Cung (1912–77), challenged Jonchère to compare his own sculpture to that of the local pagodas and communal houses for ‘vigour, meaning and originality’ (Hantover, 1991 p. 21).

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What happened in Thailand is in contrast with the Vietnamese situation and again reflects a broader political reality. Because European art had been encouraged in Bangkok within a Thai system controlled by the highly respected monarchy, there was neither a rise of nationalist feeling against the European colonist, and the accompanying visual repertoire of images (as happened in the Philippines) nor were there groups of artists and students, in schools set up by the colonists, ready to talk and ferment (as happened in Vietnam). Ironically, it can be said that this has hindered Thai art, making it a much more conventional and controlled art environment, especially before the 1990s when things started to change. In the smaller countries of Asia, the art schools are often still the only centres for support for artists, despite their struggles to sustain themselves financially. An example of this is the Laotian National School of Fine Arts set up in Vientiane in 1958. Another is in Bangladesh, which is not a small country, although it has a volatile recent history. The Dhaka Art School was established in the new capital of what was then East Bengal in 1948, and has continued on despite the economic situation there.

4. And in More Recent Times Arts schools in Asia have been either very stable, like UP and Silpakorn, or have changed due to political pressure, as occurred most obviously in China. Certainly, the realities of the schools throughout the period changed as the economies and political infrastructures have changed. Korea was one of the poorest countries of the world in the 1950s, but the new schools helped gradually to develop and consolidate a now flourishing arts scene. Similarly, in India, a new school at the Maharaja Sayajiro University (MS University) in Baroda, a medium-sized city in Gujarat between Bombay and Delhi, was established in 1950, following Independence. This became a central teaching institution for art and remains a centre for artists. The ‘Baroda’ style has become a noticeable facet of Indian art. Other schools, such as LaSalle-SIA in Singapore, have developed out of community enthusiasm – growing exponentially over the last few years from its roots as a Catholic boys’ school. The focus for artists in Asia today is a global dialogue. The challenge for the schools is both to maintain pace and to provide the background and capacity for their students to move successfully both locally and internationally.

References Bhirasri, S. 1989. Contemporary Art in Thailand. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department. Cohen, J.L. 1987. The New Chinese Painting 1949–1986. New York: Harry N Abrams. Conant, E.P. 1995. Tradition in transition 1868–1890. In Ellen P. Conant Nihonga, Transcending the Past: Japanese-Style Painting 1868–1968. St Louis, MO: Saint Louis Museum of Art.

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Hantover, J. 1991. Contemporary Vietnamese painting. In Uncorked Soul; Contemporary Art from Vietnam. Hong Kong: Plum Blossoms. Hashmi, S. 1997. Framing the present. In 50 Years of Visual Arts in Pakistan. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications. Hokusai, K. 1834. One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji (Fugaku hyakkei). Illustrated book in three volumes, vol. 1. Kalaw-Ledesma, P. and Guerrero, A. Ma. 1979. Edades: National Artist. Manila: Filipinas Foundation. Harada, M. 1968. Meiji Western Painting. New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill and Shibundo. Mitter, P. 1994. Art and Nationalism in Colonial India 1850–1922: Occidental Orientations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sullivan, M. 1996. Art and Artists of Twentieth Century China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Tasmanian School of Art, n.d. Available online at http://www.artschool.utas.edu.au

Chapter 3

Art for Education The Role of Art in Promoting a Good Quality, Basic Education for Children in Asia Vibeke Jensen1 and George A. Attig2

1. Introduction In the year 2000 in Dakar, Senegal, countries undertook an assessment of what had been achieved in basic education since the First World Conference on Education for All (EFA) held in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990. The EFA 2000 Assessment conducted at national, regional and global levels showed that progress had been made over the previous decade towards achieving the vision reflected in the Jomtien Declaration. Investments had been made primarily in improving school infrastructure as well as addressing access-related issues in order to increase enrolment. Consequently, many more children, and especially many more boys, had entered primary school. However, retention rates remained low and dropping out before reaching grade 5 remained high. This situation highlights the fact that getting children into school is only half of the battle. The other half is ensuring that they are given a quality education, one that fits their own lives, aspirations and interests as well as those of their families. Yet when faced with a poor quality educational system, the lack of qualified and motivated teachers, insufficient and unattractive teaching and learning materials and curricula that are not child-friendly in content and process, many children and their families doubt that an education is worthwhile. If this quality of education does not materialize, and classroom learning continues to be a dull, tiresome duty, then children and their parents see little reason for schooling, especially when the money spent on it may be needed very badly for meeting other basic needs. It is a well-established fact that arts education has a positive impact on children’s learning achievement, their ability to work in teams, their self-esteem, their creativity and problem-solving skills and the like. Most of the research and experimental studies supporting this fact have been carried out in the United States, Europe and well-developed Asian cities such as Hong Kong, where the availability of trained artists, art museums, theatres and other fine art institutions are readily available. But the situation for less-developed countries and the realities of their rural schools, particularly in Asia, remains quite different, as does the role of art in learning. 1

UNESCO Bangkok, 920 Sukhumvit Road, 10110 Bangkok; e-mail: [email protected]

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Consultant, Institute of Nutrition, Mahidol University, Salaya, Phutthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand; e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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2. A Snapshot of the Realities for Many Schools in Rural Asia A typical primary school in large parts of rural Asia consists of a dilapidated building (made of concrete, wood or thatch) containing a small number of classrooms with paint peeling off of the bare walls. Schools may have only one classroom where all grades are taught together; or they may have three classes taught on a shift system (grades 1–3 learning in the morning and grades 4–6 learning in the afternoon); or several classrooms containing one grade. Furthermore, school compounds are rarely protected. They usually do not have a playground, and thus there are no leisure activities for either boys or girls at school. In addition, classrooms are often overcrowded, too hot or too cold and badly protected from the noise emanating from the classroom next door. They lack effective teaching and learning materials, often having only a worn-out blackboard and possibly a few tattered books. It is not surprising that under these conditions teacher motivation is low. Teachers are poorly and irregularly paid and thus absenteeism among teachers is high. In many places, teachers come from other parts of the country and do not speak the local language of the community, nor do they understand or, even worse, respect, local traditions and culture. Depending on the context, teachers tend to be either predominantly male or female. Hence, where male teachers are in short supply, boys do not have role models to follow. The same situation exists for female teachers and girls. The teachers, themselves, are not always at fault. Teacher training – both inservice and pre-service – is either lacking or is too theoretical and contains no practical application. Teachers are not taught how to deal with conflicts and diversity in the classroom. Rote learning, corporal punishment and other forms of humiliation are not uncommon in many schools and, in many cases, they contribute significantly to the children dropping out. School–community relations are also weak or almost nonexistent. Schools may be situated amongst several villages, and therefore they are not part and parcel of a single, cohesive community life. Parental participation in school life is too often limited to financial or in-kind contributions at the beginning or end of the school year. They are rarely invited to participate in school activities and thus they rarely set foot in the classroom or consult teachers about the academic performance and progress of their children. Often, parents who cannot read feel that once they have sent their children to school, they have handed them over to a foreign institution with which they have nothing to do and often feel too inferior to approach. This high social distance between the school and community carries over into the curriculum, which often is extremely theoretical. What is taught and the way it is taught usually does not take into consideration the local community and cultural context. Thus, school subjects have no meaning for the daily lives of the children and their families. Schools also fail to consider the need for children to acquire life skills that may be of immediate use to them and their families in improving their overall quality of life.

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But this snapshot is a generalization. It is not a true representation of all schools, though it does point out the main limitations in basic education faced by teachers working in rural Asian schools, especially in terms of the limited resources at school and large class sizes, limited teacher interest, limited teaching and learning processes and limited community participation. Since the late 1990s, however, and especially as part of the child-friendly school movement, small-scale projects and interventions in the region and in Africa have emerged to begin changing this snapshot. They have been initiated by creative and committed teachers, often working alone or in small groups and are supported by non-governmental organizations or other innovative small-scale funding bodies. In many cases, these projects are showing how art can facilitate children’s learning and remove some of the major limitations to their receiving a quality basic education.

3. Art and Education: Two Perspectives and Case Studies The role of art within education can be seen in two ways, namely, ‘Art in Education’ and ‘Art for Education’. The Art in Education position is the time-honoured one, where art is taught as part of the curriculum. Children have individual ‘art’ classes, and the teaching–learning process focuses on developing their artistic skills and an appreciation for the ‘arts’, usually as a valued part of the prevailing culture. The Art for Education position, however, is newer and can serve an important role in improving basic education, not only in rural Asian schools but elsewhere. In this perspective, art is a means for holistic and integrated teaching and learning, and it can go a long way in resolving the limitations in teacher motivation, teaching– learning processes and community participation. Firstly, art involves different skills, and these often parallel the multiple pathways by which children learn, namely: Visual or spatial, where some children like doing art, such as drawing, painting or sculpture. They can easily read maps, charts and diagrams. Verbal or linguistic, where some children think and learn through written and spoken words, memory and recall. Body or kinaesthetic, where some children learn through body movement, games and drama. Musical or rhythmic, where some children learn best through sounds, rhyme, rhythm and repetition. Logical or mathematical, where some children think and learn though reasoning and calculation. They can easily use numbers, recognize abstract patterns such as in drawings or paintings and take precise measurements. Interpersonal, where some children learn easily in groups through co-operative work. They enjoy group activities, they easily understand social situations and they can develop relationships with others easily.

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Intrapersonal, where some children learn best through personal concentration and self-reflection. They can easily work alone, are aware of their own feelings and know their own strengths and weaknesses. When children learn they may use several of these pathways to help them to understand and remember. It is therefore important for teachers to use teaching strategies – such as in art – that provide a mix of these pathways for learning. Art thus serves as a means or process to assist children to learn what is being taught. Take, for example, the case of Shika. In Bangladesh, Shikha understands that different children learn in different ways, so she varies her teaching: We don’t just use the chalk and board method. Teaching through song, dance, recitation and acting is much more fun and it is very easy because the children really concentrate and feel they are learning through joyful activities.

Before she began changing her approach to teaching, attendance in Shika’s class was low, yet now it has increased and more children attend school regularly: Now my students are eager to come to school. Before … the teachers would come into the class and tell the children to just get on with their reading and our aim was to keep everyone quiet and studious. Now most of the teaching is through participatory techniques and activity based learning (UNESCO, 2004b).

Art also serves as a valuable means to help teachers communicate the content of what is being taught in a more interesting and enjoyable way (for both teachers and students). For example, art is used creatively to help children to learn about science, mathematics and social studies: Shikha has tried to apply her understanding of multiple pathways to learning: From the lesson topic and knowing what the children need to learn, I think through the seven pathways to learning and try to build activities around them that are relevant to the topic. For example, a topic in one of my social studies classes dealt with the seasons and seasonal fruits. The children and I wrote a poem on fruit, while some designed and produced colourful fruit masks. Each child chose a favourite fruit, put on a mask and played a fruit role. The children worked in groups and did some reading and writing as well. A similar approach was used for the topic ‘Occupations in our community’. The children named the different occupations, imagined and role-played what they would like to be, discussed them in groups, read stories about them, and played a game matching pictures with tools. I always combine language skills in social studies lessons. Sangeeta Isvaran, an Indian dancer, has worked on how to use the body in teaching biology through dancing (Isvaran, 2004). By using a classical dance form from Tamil Nadu as part of the biology class, she is able to explain how the heart works. By physically taking on the roles of arteries, veins, auricles, ventricles, valves, blood and muscles, the children understand physically the working of the heart and the various problems that arise when the aorta is blocked, when the left ventricle has a hole and so on. That was one subject on the exam that all her children answered correctly.

The Art for Education position also goes beyond simply teaching the child. It also entails bringing in their families and communities as well. This is particularly the case when teaching social or cultural studies, where the local culture and its arts are used as important examples or as the sole basis for learning. The best teachers are those from the community who can teach the children things like songs or skills in weaving. This is especially important for schools that embrace many cultures (and include

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minority groups) and are seeking to become inclusive and to retain as many children in school as possible. Take, for example, the case of Thailand below. In Thailand, child-friendly schools throughout the country are using information about children’s learning achievements and their family backgrounds to identify those children who are learning poorly and are most likely to drop out, often because their families have little money and value their children’s labour over their education. These children are given priority for livelihood skills training, particularly in the arts. Such skills include the traditional dying and weaving of silk and cotton cloth, woodworking, basket weaving, cloth painting and music (singing, dancing and playing traditional instruments). This training in the arts increases the family income while the children are in school and provides the children with skills that they can use throughout their lives. Some of these children have even received national and regional awards for their work. In some schools, family members of these children serve as teachers in teaching the children time-honoured skills, such as how to dye silk or cotton thread and weave it into traditional patterns, or how to play traditional instruments and sing local songs. Such participation increases the value of the school in the eyes of parents through improving their livelihood and stressing the value of maintaining important local arts and cultural traditions. It also increases communication between parents and children about what the future – and the children’s education – may bring to the family (UNESCO, 2004a).

Moreover, these local art skills can even improve the school’s resources and facilities. Some classrooms are not large enough to have a free corner-space for art activities. In East Timor, parents weave baskets that are stacked on the classroom floor, full of shells, stones, seeds and anything else that can be used in science and mathematics lessons. The important thing with all these learning materials is that they are used by the children (UNESCO, 2004c). But a precondition for using Art for Education is a certain amount of selfconfidence and belief on the part of teachers and their students that anyone can learn. The teachers in the project described below used this as a point of departure for their intervention with youth living in areas of poor housing. Don Yung is a poor inner-city area located on the edge of Ubol municipality in northeast Thailand. The major occupation of community members is garbage collection. While all children are registered at school, some are taken out of class to help their parents earn a living by collecting garbage or begging, which in turn promotes dropping out, reduces (if not totally blocks) their transition to secondary level of educational and commonly leads to cases of abused or neglected children. Drug dealing and addiction by the youth has been another major problem, largely because they have little to do in their spare time. A teacher in the community, however, has sought to change this situation. One of the favorite pastimes of the youth was listening to music, so he and some of his friends encouraged them to form a band to play local folk songs as well as popular tunes. Their first reaction was, ‘We can’t. We don’t have any instruments’. Working together, however, they made functional instruments out of discarded bottles, cans, wire and other materials. They practised every day and soon became very good. They started holding concerts, one of which was held at the provincial secondary school. Students at the school were, at first, amused, because their own instruments were well made; unlike those made from ‘garbage’ of the slum youth. But when the latter began to play, everyone was startled. Their music was better even than that played with professional instruments. After the concert, the students immediately went over and started to look more closely at the ‘instruments made of garbage’ and asked the youth to teach them how to make them. This youth band has grown in fame and is asked to perform at many local, provincial and national events.

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4. Ways Forward The common factor in all the success stories described above is committed, creative teachers who have at heart improving the learning of their students. Through their dedication and the use of Art for Education, many of the limitations facing their work in rural schools can be overcome. They can improve the resources available in their schools, improve their teaching abilities and teaching–learning methods and involve communities in school life and in their children’s learning. The issue now is that such accomplishments are still small scale, largely because such success stories have not been widely publicized. Moreover, there is an urgent need for a bank of ideas, such as a toolkit with realistic practical suggestions on how teachers can use art, through using inexpensive materials and resources from the local environment to make teaching and learning relevant to the local context, as well as interesting and enjoyable. There is also a need for closer collaboration with the community as a means and an end in itself. Art can be used to show the community that the school values important community traditions and beliefs, as well as traditional knowledge and skills. Elders and craftspeople are a human bank of ideas and they should be invited into schools to share their skills and knowledge. Almost all villages have elders who can tell and perform stories and folktales, which serve the triple function of valuing what the older generation knows, keeping ancient stories or craft skills alive and making teaching lively for the students. Some of these tales can also serve as points of departure for discussing gender roles in past and present times. Finally, teaching teachers how to use Art for Education through pre- and in-service teacher training and putting at their disposal simple tools and practical guidelines and advice may be another valuable way of helping them to improve the lives of children together with their own professional pride and self-confidence.

References Isvaran, S. 2004. Creative attempts at justifying creativity in the regular school curriculum. Unpublished case study presented at the Art and Education Symposium in Hong Kong in January. Available online at www.unescobkk.org/culture. UNESCO 2004a. Booklet 3. Getting all children in school and learning. In: Toolkit for Creating Inclusive, Learning-Friendly Environments. Bangkok: Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education. UNESCO 2004b. Booklet 4. Creating inclusive, learning-friendly classrooms. In: Toolkit for Creating Inclusive, Learning-Friendly Environments. Bangkok: Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education. UNESCO 2004c. Booklet 5. Managing inclusive, learning-friendly classrooms. In: Toolkit for Creating Inclusive, Learning-Friendly Environments. Bangkok: Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education.

Section II

Arts Education Programmes: Iran, Hong Kong, Cambodia

Chapter 4

Arts Education in Iran Reclaiming the Lost Ground Mahmoud Mehrmohammadi

1. Art Education: a Luxury or a Necessity? Harry Broudy (1979) posed this serious and thought-provoking question to policymakers throughout the world about 25 years ago. In the light of the inadequate attention paid to the arts in education systems, the question has preserved its validity to the current day, even though Broudy, along with many other education specialists, have provided rather persuasive answers to it. Their answers, although resting on different grounds, all point to the fact that art education should be part and parcel of any defensible basic education scheme, or the fourth R. Elliot Eisner, for example, has taken up a position along these lines rooted in a different definition or conception of literacy (1983, 1998). He contends that the term ‘literacy’ should no longer be limited to reading, writing and arithmetic. A broader and a more comprehensive account of literacy should encompass all the symbolic systems and languages that have been created to perform a unique epistemic function (Eisner, 1998, p. 11). He further insists that these different languages have been created out of absolute necessity, since redundancy and repetition would have resulted in a less pluralistic situation than we are witnessing today (Eisner, 1983, p. 50). The ability to decode and encode meaning within each of the extant symbolic systems, therefore, is an essential power and skill that a fully literate (in contrast to ‘semiliterate’) individual should possess. The arts, representing the prime example of non-conventional symbolic systems, can effectively complement the range of languages or cultural tools available to the next generations for the purpose of communication and mutual understanding. If this reason can be characterized as a cognitive rationale (also known as the ‘cognitive pluralism’ argument) for acknowledging the status of arts as the fourth R of the basic education system, non-cognitive rationales have also been proposed. This line of argument can be linked to the discourse holding educational systems responsible for the phenomenon known as globalization. The educational systems’ response to globalization, it has been argued, should be reflected in consciously

Associate Professor of Education, Tarbiat Modarres University (T.M.U.); e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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pursuing the goal of ‘global literary’. Although pursuing such a goal is not the only reaction possible when dealing with the issue of globalization, many educational systems have opted for this route. One example of this is the educational system in Iran, which is currently experimenting with an international education programme focusing on imparting the knowledge, skills and attitudes deemed to be necessary for global citizenship (Pike and Selby, 1995). The arts, understood correctly, should be regarded both as an end and a means to achieving global literacy or educating children to become global citizens. It is an end, since the arts and artistic traditions embody a significant portion of the differences in lifestyles and ways of understanding the world that constitute the substance or the subject matter of global study initiatives. One is reminded of the stimulating observation and characterization of Dissayanake (1991) who regards aesthetic or artistic dispositions as a discriminating element of human identity by coining the term ‘homoaestheticus’. The arts, however, can also be an effective means to achieve the goal of global citizenship in education systems as they can greatly enhance and enrich the quality of relevant experiences and improve the efficacy of such educative processes. Broudy’s contention that aesthetic experience denotes a unique type of experience, which is cognitive and emotive at the same time, is most illuminating in discussing this point. Broudy has coined the term ‘cognitive feeling’ or ‘feelingful cognition’ to show the dual qualities of aesthetic experience (Broudy, 1999, p. 11). More clearly, he maintains that to appreciate insightfully what other humans cherish and why, educators would do better to resort to the aesthetic images produced in different cultures, images that represent ‘portrayals of feelings and emotions’ bearing the fruit of ‘enlightened cherishing’ (Broudy, 1972). Still another powerful argument is put forth by Ohler (2000), who considers the most fundamental implications of the digital age and suggests that arts must become the fourth R. By way of elaboration, he refers to the fact that the multimedia environment of the Web, as well as much of what we experience through our computers, requires students to think and communicate as designers and artists. The language of art, he maintains, has thus become the next literacy. In the digital age therefore, artistic skills are not just good for the soul but they ultimately provide access to employment. Rudolf Arnheim is another well-known proponent of arts in education who puts forth a convincing argument in favour of the arts becoming an indispensable component of any basic education curriculum. He reaches this conclusion through yet another line of reasoning. The arts, he contends, should operate as one of three cultural areas of learning needed to cope successfully with every branch of curriculum (1989). The other two areas are perceived to be philosophy and language training. In light of the foregoing discussion one could conclude that enough theoretical justification exists to support the position that art is not just a luxury but a necessary and basic component of any education system. These arguments vividly indicate that placing the arts out of the reach of next generation is both unwarranted and unwise. Wise, responsible and timely curriculum decision making, in other words, cannot afford to make the arts subordinate to other subjects. Such a decision is

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founded on anachronistic conceptions of the arts or education in general. The absence of the arts from the curriculum, I suggest, is an indication that the curriculum has been hit by the destructive blow of what has been referred to as ‘null’ curriculum.

2. The Art Curriculum in the Education System of Iran: Elementary Level Art teaching has existed in the Iranian elementary school timetable for nearly 100 years, coinciding with the beginning of modern education in Iran. Tables 4.1 and 4.2 place arts education at this stage of schooling in a historical perspective: The average hours of instruction in the arts at each juncture is presented in the Figure 4.1. It is interesting to note that the pattern of fluctuations resembles a bell shape: this requires historical investigation to come up with a reasonable explanation. As far as the author of this chapter is aware no such investigation has been carried out. Table 4.1 Total hours of instruction per week Grade Year

1st

a

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th

1967 24 30 30 30 30 30 1937 22 28 28 28 28 28 1940 22 28 28 28 28 28 1949 18 26 28 28 28 28 1963 28 28 28 28 28 28 1966 28 28 28 28 28 –b 1979 24 24 28 28 28 –b 1994 24 24 24 24 24 –b Source: J.H. Rooholamini (2001). a Junctures where curriculum change has taken place. b The education system was restructured and elementary education was reduced to 5 years. Table 4.2 Hours of instruction allocated to arts Grade Year

3rd

4th

5th

6th

1927 – – – 1937 1 1 3 1940 1 4 4 1949 1 2 5 1963 5 5 5 1966 5 5 4 1979 2 3 1994 2 2 1.5 Source: J.H. Rooholamini (2001).

1st

2nd

– 4 4 5 5 4 2 1.5

– 3 6 6 8 4 2 1.5

– 3 6 6 8 – – –

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4.15

4.4

4.15

4 3

2.4

2.5

1.7

2 1 0 1937

1940

1944

1963

1966

1979

1994

Fig. 4.1 Average hours of art instruction across elementary grades Table 4.3 Fluctuations of time for each grade Grade h Week 1st 2nd 3rd Maximum Minimum Average

4th

5th

6th

5(1963,1966) 5(1963,1966) 5(1949,1963) 5(1949,1963) 8(1963) 8(1963) 1(1967) 1(1967) 1.5(1994) 1.5(1994) 1.5(1994) 3(1927) 2.4 3.1 4.2 4.2 4.3 4.6

It is unfortunate to witness a drop of close to 70% in terms of the time allocated to arts instruction within the three decades 1963–1994. Compared to the first three decades of 1937–1963, where a gradual increase in the amount of time spent on the arts in the school timetable testifies to an increasing concern with the significance of art, the last three decades show the opposite trend. A different analysis of the numbers and figures presented in Table 4.2 is also illuminating. Whereas Figure 4.1 shows the average amount of time spent on art instruction across the elementary grades, Table 4.3 juxtaposes the different grade levels in terms of the amount of time allocated to the arts within the same span of time. In light of the fact that arts education still operates under the same instructional time mandate of one decade ago, that is, in 1994, one could conclude that the arts programme is not receiving sufficient time and resources in the education system today. As a symptom this signals the necessity of formulating new polices and directions in this area of study. Obviously, the required policy mediation neither starts nor ends with a reconsideration of the allocation of time to the topic. It is worth considering another important curriculum commonplace; that is, the content of the arts curricula between 1937 and 2004. The analysis of pertinent documents reveals the following domains of artistic activity were included in the formal programme of schooling at elementary level: 1937: choral activities, painting, drawing, calligraphy 1940: choral activities, painting, handcraft, drawing, calligraphy

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1949: choral activities, painting, handcraft, calligraphy 1963: choral activities, handcraft 1966: art and handcraft 1979: art and calligraphy 1994 to the present: painting, handicraft, calligraphy The responsibility for devising the arts curriculum during most of these periods was delegated to schools and teachers. The educational authorities, in other words, did not deem it necessary to produce textbooks or other educational materials for arts education, especially for primary grades. Thus, although arts education in schools was a potentially positive approach, when it is interpreted within the context of a highly centralized and prescriptive educational system such as Iran, different conclusions might be reached. It is possible that art has been delegated to schools because so little priority is attached to it. Generally speaking, it could be argued that art curriculum in the education system of Iran has been suffering from two serious inadequacies. The problems, however, have intensified in the past couple of decades, stimulating the recent encompassing reform movement starting with elementary education. Before discussing the recent reform and the new arts curricula developed to help offsetting the predicaments in arts education, however, a brief account of these misfortunes is in order. To discuss the two major inadequacies, I will draw on an expanded interpretation of the concept of a null curriculum. The term ‘null curriculum’ calls the attention of curriculum developers and policymakers to what is left out of the curriculum, or the curriculum’s errors of omission (Eisner, 1994). This entails examining whether the subject matter and the thinking processes that are retained in the school curriculum are based on deliberations that take into account all the options and alternatives, or, on the contrary, whether they are included as a result of the habitual and traditional way of thinking about the curriculum. The idea of a null curriculum is a potent concept that prompts a recurring dialogue between those elements and entities that are included and excluded from the curriculum. A deliberation on the curriculum informed by the implications of this concept thus yields a more justified and defensible outcome. I have argued elsewhere (Mehrmohammadi, 2002) that the nuances and the subtleties of this concept have not been taken fully into account by curriculum theorists and practitioners. To resolve this issue, I have proposed that the contributions of this concept are not limited to the formal curriculum or programmes of schooling. A cursory examination of the timetable or guides and frameworks setting the agenda for schooling may disguise other manifestations of a null curriculum, although in the case of arts education in Iran, our aspirations did not, most of the time and for most of the elementary grades, culminate in the production of either curriculum guides or appropriate teaching–learning materials. What we need is to move beyond what we see and entertain the possibility that, while a subject matter may appear in the formal curriculum, it may in reality be an endangered species when the curriculum is implemented (Mehrmohammadi, 2002). Attention to what happens in the actual teaching–learning process could reveal neglect or indifference of an area of study, which may then be judged as having shifted into the realm of

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the null curriculum. The argument is straightforward. If the null curriculum represents deprivations and deficiencies in terms of the learning experiences of the students, circumstances like this will obviously qualify as examples of the null curriculum. I have labelled this phenomenon the ‘hidden null’ ( (Mehrmohammadi, 2002), and argue that arts education in Iran can be considered a candidate for it. In other words, research, as well as experiences of the author, indicates that the arts have usually been conceived as an area of experience that can be eliminated without loss at times when schools are under pressure of accountability and when resources are lacking. More specifically, the arts have usually suffered from a status problem, which manifests itself particularly at the level of practice. In general, the lack of status of the arts, which is the first major problem in arts education in Iran, radiates into the policy-making realm. The attention of policy makers naturally focuses on subject matters that enjoy a high status in the perceived hierarchy of learning areas and is withdrawn from the arts. As a result, reform initiatives did not address the arts as a priority area and the arts continued either as a subject without a supporting curriculum guide or as a subject that had to cope with curriculum materials that were no longer relevant or responsive to the educational needs of the time (Jacobs, 2003–2004). An untimely curriculum is yet another manifestation of a null curriculum, suggesting the second major problem afflicting arts education in Iran. This is another aspect of a ‘hidden null’ where an area of learning can be both ‘present’ and ‘absent’ at the same time. Goals, content, teaching–learning strategies and so on, that defy the changes demanded by new circumstances and exigencies should be understood as an instant of a null, or a ‘hidden null’, curriculum. Over time, arts education in Iran has reached a stage where it could be fairly characterized as such.

3. The New Arts Programme Year 2000 marked the beginning of a long-term project aimed at reviving arts education, starting with the elementary stage. The first and the most important step was thought to be curriculum development. The new curriculum, through a challenging and time-consuming process of deliberation that took more than 2 years (ORCD, 2003) was produced and then subjected to numerous rounds of validation and field-testing (Navvab Safavi, 2002). The new programme will gradually replace the old curriculum, starting from the first grade and incorporating an additional grade each school year. Overall implementation covering all elementary grades, therefore, will take until 2008, providing a realistic time frame for effectively managing the complex and multifaceted process of change. Subsequently, developing a new arts curriculum for middle schools (grades 6–8) has recently been defined as the next development project in devising a comprehensive reform initiative.

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The new art curriculum is guided by the following principles (Navvab Safavi, 2002):

– The arts should be recognized as an independent subject of study. – The arts curriculum should give due attention to different content areas and activities.

– The programme should incorporate multiple art domains while attending to the

– –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

individual differences and preferences of students and the differences of local cultures and artistic traditions. It should refrain from adopting a prescriptive approach and allow local initiatives in the process of operationalization and implementation. It should encourage active learning, experimenting and problem solving on the part of the students. Through such learning processes, qualities such as curiosity, imagination and creativity in the student are better nurtured. Teachers should play a facilitating role and supervise students’ activities. The arts curriculum should provide exemplary opportunities where special human potentials such as initiative, self-confidence and the tolerance of ambiguity are exercised and nourished. It should encourage, promote and facilitate interconnectedness between different domains of art. Activities and projects composed of different parts (such as painting, drawing, storytelling, role playing and object building) are the proper means to achieve this end. It should also promote collaborative planning at the classroom level and students’ input should be actively sought in making curricular decisions. The arts curriculum should encourage collaborative learning. Both group and individual activities should permeate the learning process in the arts. Arts education should thus facilitate social development as well. The goals and objectives set for this programme recognize development and growth in three distinct areas, namely knowledge, skills and attitudes. The knowledge goals are as follows: Familiarity with nature as the inspiration for artistic creation. Familiarity with different areas of artistic activity. Knowledge of the material and instruments used within each domain of artistic activity. Familiarity with the students’ cultural and artistic heritage and traditions. As far as skills are concerned, the following goals are being sought through the programme: The cultivation of sensory skills, verbal and motor skills. Developing students’ capabilities in using different art forms to express thoughts and feelings. Developing their social skills. With regards to attitudinal goals, students are encouraged to: Appreciate beauty through the cultivation of an aesthetic sense. Enjoy the expression of thoughts and feelings using artistic forms. Develop a self-reliant and self-confident character. Enjoy inquirying and experimenting with different art forms. Care for cultural products and their cultural heritage. Show an inclination to communicate and participate in group activities.

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The content areas included in the new art programme represent a radical departure from the areas included in the existing programme that covered only the three areas: painting, handcraft and calligraphy. The new programme has expanded artistic domains and incorporates areas such as music (rhythm and melody), painting and handicraft (collage, print and pottery), storytelling and writing, the theatre and our cultural heritage.

4. Critique, Evaluation, Final Words The new initiative should be judged as a step towards the right direction. Under it, close to eight million elementary students will experience a programme, which has the potential to transform the current situation and to improve the quality of arts education with a depth and breath unprecedented in the history of modern education in Iran. There are many strengths associated with the new programme and any deficiencies will be dealt with as the education system proceeds with its calculated and gradual implementation strategy. However, some fundamental questions can still be raised. These include questions like how would this programme fare with respect to the broad criteria of being suitable to the times? To what degree is the new curriculum responsive to the accumulated knowledge and experiences available in the area of arts education? To what degree does the programme draw upon, or rely on the knowledge available in the field of curriculum development? The author, who has, incidentally, served as an external consultant to the new arts curriculum development project believes that there is still room for improvement. Further scrutiny, guided by questions like those posed earlier, can make such improvement possible. In the concluding section of this chapter, I voice some of my personal observations and reservations that rooted my conception of the ideal arts curriculum (Amini, 2001).1 A timely arts curriculum is necessarily a curriculum with a multicultural orientation. If global literacy is one of the exigencies of the present times, education systems should capitalize on the power and potential of all curriculum areas so as to achieve this goal. The arts curriculum can play a special role here. A balanced treatment of the aspects of art as they have been practiced in other societies is a useful criterion for evaluating any initiative in this area. The new art curriculum for elementary schools in Iran does not live up to this expectation and requires further attention. The last two decades have witnessed many debates and controversies revolving around the question of what image of art education should guide the practical development process. As a result, art education discourse has experienced a dynamism and vitality unprecedented in this field.

1

I served as the supervisor of Dr. Amini’s doctoral dissertation and have drawn most of the ideas discussed in this section from this research.

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Discipline-based art education (Greer, 1984), has evolved as a viable alternative, which could inform the curriculum deliberation process. The author regards discipline-based art education as an approach to art education, which incorporates other rival alternatives and, as such, represents not a single framework but a synthesis of other models. It is, therefore, reasonable to use the distinguishing elements of this approach to judge the new curriculum initiative. Close examination of this programme reveals, for example, that systematic and balanced attention to four aspects of art education advocated by discipline-based art education (production, criticism, history and aesthetics) is missing. Insightful curriculum decision making, especially in the area of arts, should consciously provide for qualities of ‘emergence’ and ‘expressiveness’ in the process of education (Eisner, 1994). This can take place in many ways. One important way, however, is purposefully to leave a portion of the curriculum undefined or unprescribed. Mechanisms of localised or school-based decision making could then be applied to make context-specific decisions. In short, I agree with Walling (2000) that an art programme is more defensible if is composed of two complementary parts, the structured (the universal) and unstructured (the individual). The unstructured part invites the exercise of freedom, imagination and creativity on the part of teachers and students and can, therefore, compound the relevant learning outcomes. The new arts curriculum, although not completely negligent, does not show enough sensitivity on this fundamental point. A model arts curriculum should try to take advantage of the natural opportunities associated with the teaching–learning process of other subject areas. In other words, the development of students’ artistic capabilities can become the ‘secondary function’ of nearly all other subject areas, transforming arts into the meta-curriculum of educational system (Jacobs, 1989). Curriculum developers in the arts should demonstrate a comprehensive approach and try to establish what Arnheim refers to as the ‘network of relations’ (1989, p. 56). The new curriculum discussed in this chapter has not dealt systematically with the issue of how the whole curriculum of the elementary school can be aligned with or linked to the new arts curriculum through carefully defined ‘secondary function’ links. Creating an arts-friendly education environment, I suspect, did not enter the deliberation process.

References Amini, M. 2001. An ideal art curriculum for the elementary level in Iran, 2001. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation in the Department of Education of T.M.U., Teheran, Iran. Arnheim, R. 1989. Thoughts on Art Education. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Centre for Education in the Arts. Broudy, H.S. 1972. The Enlightened Cherishing: An Essay on Aesthetic Education. Kappa Delta Pi, Urbana, IL: Illinois Press. Broudy, H.S. 1979. Art Education: Necessary or Just Nice? Phi Delta Kappan, 60, 347–350. Broudy, H.S. 1999. The Role of Imagery in Learning. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Centre for Education in the Arts. Dissayanake, E. 1991. Art for life’s sake. In Caroll, K.L. (ed.) What Is Art For? pp. 15–25. National Art Education Association, 1991 National Convention Keynote Addresses.

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Eisner, E. 1983. The kind of schools we need. Educational Leadership, October, 48–55. Eisner, E. 1994. The Educational Imagination: On the Design and Evaluation of School Programs. New York: Macmillan. Eisner, E. 1998. The Kind of Schools We Need: Personal Essays. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Greer, W.D. 1984. A discipline-based art education. Studies in Art Education, 25, 4, 212–218. Jacobs, H.H. (ed.) 1989. Interdisciplinary Curriculum Design and Implementation. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Jacobs, H.H. 2003–2004. Creating a timely curriculum: a conversation with Heidi Hayes Jacobs. Educational Leadership, 61, 4, 12–17. Mehrmohammadi, M. 2002. Curriculum: Orientations, Theories and Perspectives. Teheran: Behnashr Publishing House. Navvab Safavi, M. 2002. Report on the Validation Study of the Curriculum Guide for Arts at the Elementary Level. Teheran: ORCD. Ohler, J. 2000. Art becomes the fourth R. Educational Leadership, 58, 2, 16–19. Organisation for Research and Curriculum Development (ORCD) 2003. Curriculum Guide for Arts at the Elementary Level. Tehran: Ministry of Education. Pike, G. and Selby, D. 1995. Reconnecting: From National to Global Curriculum. Godalming: World Wide Fund for Nature. Rooholamini, J.H. (ed.) 2001. The Evolution of Curriculum at Elementary and Middle School Level in Iran (1922–2001). Teheran: Headquarters of the Higher Council of Education. Walling, D.R. 2000. Rethinking How Art Is Taught: A Critical Convergence. New York: Crowin Press.

Chapter 5

The Arts-in-Education Programme Towards Effective Learning through Partnership Jane Cheung

1. Background The Arts-in-Education (AiE) Programme was an initiative that involved artists and arts organizations working closely with school teachers in the formal curriculum to enhance student learning by using an interdisciplinary approach. This three-year programme (2000–2003) was organized by the Hong Kong Arts Development Council and co-organized by the Curriculum Development Institute of the Education and Manpower Bureau and the Creative Arts Department of the Hong Kong Institute of Education. It received a total of HK$4 million sponsorship donated by the Hong Kong Bank Foundation. The programme had three main aims: – To facilitate partnerships between professional practicing artists and schools to create programmes that enhance the study of the arts and other curriculum areas through the arts; – To provide students, through working with the artists, with greater experience with the arts, encouraging them to explore different ways of thinking and work more creatively in the arts and other subjects; – To facilitate the sharing and exchanging of ideas between arts and non-arts teachers and professional artists, so they could learn new ways of approaching their topic (Hong Kong Arts Development Council, 2000). The notion of including collaborating artists in the formal curriculum and integrating arts and non-arts subjects in an interdisciplinary approach was an innovative one. Hence, the first year was mainly devoted to seminars conducted by the international arts educators Meredith Eppel (USA), David Forrest (Australia) and Keith Swanwick (UK), who brought with them their countries’ experiences and practices with arts educators and artists. Workshops were organized to familiarize teachers and artists with the interdisciplinary and across-the-arts approaches. In each of the following 2 years, the programme was implemented through eight projects, each comprising a proactive and a partner school. For monitoring and assessment purposes, the organizer and co-organizers visited the schools; the Hong Kong Institute

Associate Professor, Creative Arts and Physical Education Department, Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10, Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, NT; e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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of Education team interviewed relevant people and facilitated focus group meetings, the better to understand the problems and concerns of the different parties. An outstanding project was recommended each year at the exhibition and presentation ceremony to share the outcome of all the projects and the schools’ achievements with the public. Over the 2 years of implementation, a total of 14 primary schools, 14 secondary schools and 4 special education schools were involved; 15 different artists and arts organizations worked with the over 3,800 students and 262 teachers who participated in the event. Seven art forms other than the visual arts and music were utilized, integrating no less than 15 arts and non-arts subjects in the primary and secondary school curriculum. An evaluation report, with recommendations, sample lessons, videos and CD-ROMs, was published for the dissemination of good practices to schools.

2. Programme Implementation The majority of the schools formed partners with drama specialists or theatre companies to enhance student learning. Other schools invited dance companies, arts associations and multimedia companies to collaborate. Among the 16 projects, the following were some typical examples that highlighted the range of art forms, the diversity of subjects and the variety of experiences that the students had engaged in.

2.1. The Arts and Language After watching a shadow puppet show, the primary school students tried to analyse the characters and plot of the stories in depth. They studied the subject and learned the art of making shadow puppets and how to stage a play. Their abilities in using images, colours and lighting were enhanced while a lively environment was sustained, which inspired them to learn art and language creatively.

2.2. Media Arts and Traditional Culture In one project, some lower secondary school students first researched the local customs and culture, learned the techniques of digital recording, recorded interviews with local people, practised filming around the local area and presented their final product after having edited it. By integrating digital recording with art and design and civic education, the artist managed to collaborate with the teachers to arouse students’ interest in, and respect for, their own local culture, and developed their team spirit and critical judgment through working in groups. The students also learned to express themselves creatively through the media arts.

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In another project, the primary students learned mask making with the artist. They listened to Chinese myths and histories and were given the opportunity to choose which characters they wanted for creating their own masks, and recite the stories aloud using Putonghua. The teachers and artist collaborated to help the children to gain a basic knowledge of Beijing opera and colour matching and painting, and to give them a deeper understanding of Chinese idioms through reading, listening and writing Chinese and stage acting.

2.3. Integrating the Arts This project integrated several art forms such as music, the visual arts, the media arts, dance and drama in addition to some non-arts subjects such as home economics and physical education, to produce a musical. This emphasized the students’ ability to manipulate digital technology in making three-dimensional digital models, arranging music scores and producing graphic arts to help produce a musical. The students were then divided into seven work groups: dancers, choir, main cast, stage workers, the costumes and props team, the music editing team and the web gallery team, where each group worked, at first separately then gradually coming together, towards achieving the final musical performance. The students understood the moral behind the story and could be flexible in applying the knowledge and techniques they had learned in different classes towards producing a musical whole.

2.4. Concept Assimilation with the Arts In another project, secondary school students demonstrated their understanding of translation, reflection and rotation in designing a tessellation. Through observing the characteristics of different animals, students created irregular tessellation using the computer. They transferred similar techniques to writing poems, composing melodies and choreographing dances. The activities tried to assimilate what students had learned in class to create and express their thoughts.

2.5. The Arts and Learning Diversities In one project, the artist collaborated with the teachers in helping children with learning difficulties to understand concepts such as weather changes, and relate this knowledge to their daily life through drama, rhythmic and melodic games, movement and making artwork. The aims were to enhance their verbal and nonverbal communication skills, their concentration and self-confidence, and to develop their imagination, their musical creativity and their powers of expression and observation.

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2.6. The Arts and Creativity Primary school children in one project were asked to rewrite the Snow White story. They transformed the fairy tale into a creative play with an open ending. They made graphic animations, which could be viewed by other students through the school’s Intranet. The students were encouraged to express their ideal endings through drawings, songs they had themselves composed, comics, clay models, mimes, essays or punch lines, and the most suitable ending was selected for the performance. The students also expressed their impression of the whole project by writing their feelings down on cards, which were hung up on the Arts Tree, so that their parents were able to learn about their children’s achievements and feelings after watching the performance.

3. Project Evaluation These projects were evaluated through multiple methods, which included lesson observations and semi-structured interviews with the proactive schools’ principals, teachers, artists and a random sample of students; focus group meetings with stakeholders such as the school administrators, artists and teachers; a review of relevant documents such as the proposals, final reports and self-assessment results and a student attitude inventory for students of the 2002–2003 proactive schools at the beginning and final stages of the projects, to obtain data specifically related to the students’ attitudes and their perceptions of their own learning. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from diverse sources for the purpose of triangulation.

3.1. Lesson Observations Each project was observed six times, four times in the proactive school and twice in the partner school. These visits were conducted by members of the Hong Kong Institute of Education, the Curriculum Development Institute and the Hong Kong Arts Development Council, where they used a common evaluation form for the assessment. Sixteen items were ranked, using a six-point scale. These included statements on curriculum planning and integration, learning motivation, creativity, the development of artistic skills and subject understanding, teaching strategies and partnership. Eight open-ended questions were also set to obtain specific data on teaching innovation, the teachers and artist’s partnerships, the process of student learning, subject integration through the arts and the problems encountered.

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3.2. Semi-Structured Interviews The Hong Kong Institute of Education team interviewed the school principals about the impact of the programme on the school ethos; school management support; the impact of using the arts to integrate subjects on student learning and teachers’ professional development. The teachers and artists were interviewed separately on issues concerning cooperation and collaboration; the lessons that they learned from each other, the ways they had enhanced the project through working together and strategies to improve student learning. Some randomly chosen students were also interviewed to gather data on what they had learned from the artist; their views on the integrative approach, as compared to the traditional approach; their perception of teacher and artist collaboration; their understanding of the arts and other subjects; their learning motivation and their willingness to continue with the programme. The data were transcribed and categorized for analysis.

3.3. Focus Group Meetings All the principals, teachers and artists of the eight projects met each year to share their experiences towards the end of the projects. They were divided into three separate groups to discuss specific topics with the Hong Kong Institute of Education team, so that more in-depth information could be drawn out regarding specific problems and issues. These data were again transcribed and categorized for interpretation.

3.4. Student Attitude Inventory This was designed for students participating in the 2002–2003 projects when the evaluation team decided that more data should be solicited from the students to assess their learning. Questions were set to measure their intrinsic interest in what they had learned and its extrinsic value to them. They also measured whether the students felt capable of completing the activity and what its perceived cost to them was. Students attempted the same questionnaire twice; once at the beginning and once near the final stage, to measure their changes of attitude using a t-test. A total of 721 and 755 questionnaires from the beginning and final stages were collected, respectively. The analysis showed that significant student learning of several types had occurred in most of the projects, which will be discussed in the findings.

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3.5. Schools’ Final Reports Each school submitted a final report upon completion. The content included the process of implementation, how the aims were achieved, the problems encountered together with ways of solving them, the final outcome, the school’s selfevaluation of student learning and ways of improving the project. Having examined all the above data, an outstanding project was selected each year with a presentation and an exhibition of the projects from all the participating schools for the dissemination of good practices and the promotion of successful collaboration and an integrative approach.

4. Findings 4.1. Motivation and Interest Perhaps the most striking outcome in many of the projects was a noticeable change in student motivation and interest in learning. From the overall analysis of the student attitude inventory, they found the activity easy ( p < 0.03) and fun ( p < 0.04) to complete. To quote a few examples: The school report of the project on Chinese art and craft showed that the stories chosen were interesting, and through role-play, making face masks and the artists’ performance, motivation to learn Putonghua and proverbs was stimulated. The lesson evaluators wrote at the beginning and the end of the project: This is the first day that the artist has come to the school, and the students have shown great interest in participating. Students found performing the opera on stage very exciting. Other classes enjoyed watching the artists’ presentation of Jing-Kun Chinese opera very much. The lesson evaluators of the shadow puppet theatre, The Humongous Cats, also recorded a high level of interest: Students have shown an interest in and understanding of the art form. Most students have shown an interest in using shadow puppets to enhance their learning. The student attitude inventory results of the innovative English drama New Edition of Fairy Tale– a self-designed ending project – showed statistical significance in terms of the statement “the students did the activity because they wanted to” (p < 0.01), implying that they had a growing desire to engage in the activity, and in terms of the statement they would like to do other activities like this because they were interesting (p < 0.05), indicating that the activities had increased their interest throughout the project. The school reported: Compared to traditional methods of teaching and learning, the students took more initiative and were more positive in searching for materials, and gave suggestions …. Participation

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Table 5.1 Students’ attitude towards the Dreamcoat of Mount On Shan project Classes (Total number: 180) 2B 2A 2S 2L 2G Average mean The project is inspiring 4.7 4.5 4.5 4.8 4.4 4.6 The project is interesting 5.0 4.8 4.6 4.9 4.5 4.8 6 most agreeable, 1 least agreeable Source: Table 5.1 is from the ‘Dreamcoat of Mountain On Shan’ project’s school report (2001–2002) as a whole was more active. The learning atmosphere was much livelier and classroom management was more difficult.

A student also responded eagerly in the interview: It (the project) is not so strict. We don’t only sit and listen to the teachers, which is boring if they speak for a long time. I like learning through this activity approach.

Students involved in the Integration of Chinese and Drama project made these remarks in the interview: Before, I felt that Chinese was boring, but now we use games and other activities which give us great pleasure. Before, the teacher cared too much about examinations and it was rather worrying. However, the artist has a lot of interesting topics. I feel very happy taking part in the AiE Project because I can learn new and interesting knowledge which is very meaningful. The artist is very humourous and he is also very friendly. He has aroused my interest in studying Chinese a lot.

On a six-point scale, where six means most agreeable, most of the lower secondary Form Two students involved in the Dreamcoat of Mount On Shan project indicated that the learning process was inspiring and interesting (Table 5.1).

4.2. Arts-Specific Knowledge and Skills While some arts teachers worried that the interdisciplinary approach would dilute artistic knowledge and skills to make way for other subject knowledge and skills, findings from the AiE programme showed that the students’ knowledge and skills in visual, media and performing arts were enhanced. The students involved in the ‘Dreamcoat of Mount On Shan’ first attempted to create a three-dimensional props design, using computer software, before starting to make the props for the musical. The students’ journals reflected their pride at having made the moon and stars for the musical and they realized that technology could relate closely to the arts, culture and their daily lives. The school’s student questionnaire showed favourable results in terms of understanding the production of a musical and how various types of software could help in the production of a musical (Table 5.2). During the interview, a student said We have learned a great deal in these few lessons, which we could not learn before, such as how to speed up the tempo with the software and to sing solo; we’ve learned many new things .… We normally sing in unison, which is simple. But there are many songs in the musical which are in two parts, and they are more complicated. Later we got used to it and now we manage to learn them.

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Table 5.2 Students’ understanding of the Dreamcoat of Mount On Shan project Classes (Total number: 180) 2B 2A 2S 2L 2G Average mean Understood how a 4.7 4.9 4.7 4.5 4.5 4.7 musical was produced Understood how different software could 4.5 4.3 4.4 4.3 4.3 4.4 help with the musical production 6 most agreeable, 1 least agreeable Source: Table 5.2 is from the ‘Dreamcoat of Mountain On Shan’ project’s school report (2001–2002)

In the students’ first questionnaire about the project, Local Customs and Culture, 54% indicated their unfamiliarity with using a handy cam, but in their second questionnaire, 85% of the students indicated that they were familiar with its use. Some students also indicated that the most useful activity in the project was computer editing. In the project on using Cantonese opera as a medium to develop primary students’ multiple intelligence, the students learned to appreciate the aesthetics of Cantonese opera and the Chinese language. After the lesson observation, an assessor wrote, ‘The artist gave sufficient demonstration and knowledge to develop students’ skills. It has … increased their knowledge of music and Chinese in particular.’ The school’s student questionnaire indicated that the majority (83%) had gained a basic knowledge of Cantonese opera. The AiE programme also helped to expand students’ other artistic experience and skills in, for instance, drama, musicals and dance. They learned how to express themselves in drama, how to construct a play and how to choreograph a dance. The students in the integration of Chinese and drama project commented at the interview that they knew more about the technique and structure of drama after the project; ‘When acting, we have to exaggerate the movements of our mouths, and we have to make the audience understand our actions.’ One evaluator wrote after the lesson observation of the Rhythm of Nature: The students have demonstrated an understanding of the dance steps, with the artist providing ample opportunity for performing and improvizing. She has given progressive coaching and the teaching has been systematic.

The student attitude inventory also showed statistically significant results in terms of the statement I was pretty skilled at this activity (p < 0.05).

4.3. Improvement in Other Subjects and Local Culture Earlier research shows that learning skills in the arts can promote learning that is useful in other subjects, such as mathematics, and encourage a more positive attitude towards education in general (Department of National Heritage, 1996). The AiE Programme has found that drama could enhance the learning of languages like Chinese, Putonghua and English by giving more opportunities for students to speak, write and listen, in order to develop their proficiency and confidence.

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In the shadow puppet theatre, The Humongous Cats, students attempted to improve their sentence construction and to create stories through problem-solving games. When asked how they felt about using shadow puppets to learn English, one student said: The shadow puppet show is more time-consuming, because we need to prepare the screen and draw the characters. But, unlike the traditional way, this is livelier and more fun, and we learn more. After the puppet show, we have to make sentences with the vocabulary, so we can remember better and for longer.

A student involved in the innovative English drama, New Edition of Fairy Tales – a self-designed ending project, commented in the interview: We can play games, whereas, in traditional lessons, we cannot. But we play and learn as well. It enhances our knowledge of English and art and craft. For example, in English, we use it in our daily lives and it improves our confidence and fluency in speaking it.

With classes that have similar academic standards and backgrounds one teacher reflected on the students’ Chinese language results after the integration of Chinese and drama project: The students in all the classes are of a similar standard. When comparing the Chinese results in P3 and P4 with those of the students who participated in the AiE project, the 4B and 4D, the latter have generally made better progress than their peers.

The results are shown in Figure 5.1. The AiE Programme also helped students to learn in other subject areas, such as Chinese customs and culture, in addition to languages. In local customs and culture, students were taken outside the school to take videos and to deepen their understanding of the local culture. The student questionnaire revealed an increased knowledge about the North-West New Territories’ customs and culture, acquired through personal investigation and the shooting of video footage. The students were positive in the interview: ‘We can understand many things in our society, the technique of interviewing, and we learn a lot of different things.’ In the project, ‘Using Cantonese Opera as a Medium to Develop Primary Students Multiple Intelligence’, the Principal pointed out in the interview that Cantonese opera has a close relationship with Chinese culture and Cantonese people. 80.00

70.00 4A 4B 4C 60.00 00-01

01-02(I)

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Fig. 5.1 Primary 3 (00–01) and Primary 4 (01–02) Chinese examination results. Source: Figure 5.1 is from the ‘Integration of Chinese Subject and Drama’ project’s school report (2001-2002)

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4.4. General Intellectual Skills 4.4.1. Cooperation, Communication and Self-Confidence Many of the projects required the students to find out information, work in groups, collaborate and present their findings in front of the class, or to perform for the whole school. Consequently, their ability to cooperate, their communication skills and their self-confidence have increased. The final report on the Local Customs and Culture project indicated that, through exploration, critical thinking and the collaboration and distribution of work, the programme had developed the students’ emotional intelligence, organizational abilities and their communication and problem-solving skills. At the focus group meeting, the teacher commented: The students have improved in terms of their ability to communicate with each other, and to collaborate, and in terms of the distribution of work and understanding each other better. Some naughty boys behaved better in the process. This improvement is more valuable than knowing about the local culture … I regard this approach as a success.

The students involved in The Great Historical Figures project admitted that initially they had been rather shy and quarrelsome, but had learned to be more cooperative and to help each other. The interviews of both the students and the principal reflected the fact that the students had developed cooperation skills, the ability to express themselves, self-confidence and an improved self-image. The drama lesson can train us to express ourselves, to co-operate and to speak up bravely. (Student) Even those who are weaker can perform well.… The project can enhance their confidence and improved their self-image. (Principal)

4.4.2. Initiative and Creative Thoughts Some projects promoted initiative and creative thoughts by allowing space for the students to participate actively and give them room for subject integration. In the Walking with Drama – Interdisciplinary Arts Education Programme, a student at the interview tried to compare the different teaching methods: Before, we usually used a textbook and followed what the teacher said, or we stood up to recite. Everything was very book-bound. The AiE project is different: it uses a different approach, so we have more freedom to learn. We can write scripts, design through group work and act it out afterwards. In this way, we have freedom and space for creative thoughts.

The journals of the students involved in the Rhythm of Nature project stated that the creative activities could help them in future experiences. This interdisciplinary approach attempted to help students link similar knowledge and experiences cohesively and laterally, offering more space for creativity and critical thinking. As the Principal commented at the interview: ‘The students explored together, did project

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work in small groups, developed co-operative skills, punctuality in after-school activities and discipline.’

4.4.3. Critical Judgment, Meta-Cognition, Self-Guidance and Consideration During the creative process, the students began to make critical judgments of their own performances; developing meta-cognitive skills, self-guidance and a consideration for others. The ‘New Wizard of Oz’ provided children with an insight into the creative process involved in working with the arts and a wider appreciation of the arts and artists. They created their own script and lyrics, choreography and costumes, using their newly found critical judgment. Students learned to appreciate the amount of commitment and hard work required during the creative process in order to achieve excellence. The musical not only provided an opportunity for artistic learning; it also presented an effective stimulus for critical reflection and discussions on moral issues such as ‘love thy neighbour’. From the teachers’ observation and the school’s student questionnaire findings, it was apparent that some of the students had become more considerate, thought before talking to others, showed more sensitivity to the feelings of others and had gained self-confidence, developing leadership and communication skills, an ability to cooperate, and respect for others through the learning process. The AiE programme gave children and young people an insight into the creative processes involved in working with an artist and the arts. It developed personal and social skills, such as by improving their creative, imaginative, critical and reflective thought, their divergent thinking and their ability to collaborate and communicate. These results reflect similar findings in other parts of the world: that the arts help to improve general attitudes towards learning and school (Department of National Heritage, 1996; Oddie and Allen, 1998; Abeles et al., 2002). The students also learned not to give up easily and they gained self-confidence and other social skills. Many of them had also made new friends after participating in the project.

4.5. Artist’s Behaviour and Collaboration Between Artists and Teachers Professionally trained to communicate effectively with an audience, the artists had the charisma necessary to arouse and sustain student interest with some skills. Although some had discipline problems confronting a large class, or needed some time to adapt to teaching very young children, many of them had a good sense of humour and a lively personality, and were sensitive to the students’ responses and flexible in conducting activities. This facilitated the class response, aroused the students’ positive interest and maintained a cheerful learning atmosphere in the classroom. They worked to a high standard of professionalism and some even

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offered to dedicate their own time to implementing the new curriculum and to supervising the students’ rehearsals. The students were aware of their dedication and the commitment required to reach a high level of achievement in the arts. They treated the artists like role models in order to develop their own skills (Oddie and Allen, 1998). The artists’ interactive and student-centred approach enhanced the students’ active learning and developed general intellectual skills to enable them to express themselves in front of their peers. It also gave them a memorable artistic experience and transformed their attitude towards the arts. Most of the artists collaborated well with the class teachers in planning the projects, delivering the lessons and reflecting on the lessons with the teachers afterwards. The teachers had the experience and knowledge related to issues to do with the subject, child psychology and time management and were experts in class discipline. The combination of their abundant working experience with an artist’s unique charisma worked wonders with the children.

5. Implications 5.1. Further Implementation and Study of an Integrated Curriculum in and Through the Arts Integrating the curriculum in and through the arts deserves longer-term studies to substantiate its holistic claims and to change the school culture. Out of the 16 projects, five types of curriculum integration were identified in which the arts could be utilized to facilitate a more coherent curriculum. These models, where the boundaries between the subjects are blurred, allow the subject content to be more integrated, so that students can explore topics of interest to themselves and have more room for making decisions about what to learn (Swanwick, 1988). It was found that the arts were effective tools to motivate active involvement and joyful learning while integrating various subjects. The integrated models found in the AiE projects were by no means exhaustive: they were samples that were being explored to suit their schools’ own settings. These approaches offered valuable opportunities for students to use their knowledge and skills constructively in the learning process. Most of the projects emphasized creativity, active participation, real-world situations and the sharing of experience. Furthermore, the students were often divided into groups to accomplish their tasks, such as creating and acting out a story; producing a musical, a dance, a play or an opera or making a video production. This promoted social interaction related to the purposeful manipulation of objects. This student-centred interdisciplinary approach commonly found in the AiE Programme, which helps students to construct knowledge and skills in real contexts, seems to coincide with some education theorists’ philosophies. Wood (1997), for instance, believes that children’s real problems in life need to be

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investigated and solved by more than one discipline. The learner-centred approach of progressive education was advocated by Dewey (1990 [1956]) and education reform in Hong Kong also promoted a balanced curriculum emphasizing interactive and integrative learning (Curriculum Development Council, 2002). Integrative learning was advocated to enable the lateral coherence of concepts in different art forms, and through using different multimedia, students learned to develop an artistic sense in incorporating audio and visual images in their interactive creations.

5.2. Finding a Place for Drama in the Curriculum It is highly recommended that schools work out a system to place drama in their formal curriculum and to employ artists to collaborate with teachers in the classroom to enhance students’ whole person development while creating a joyful and lively learning atmosphere in school. Most of the AiE projects employed dramatists to integrate arts in the curriculum. Our findings have revealed that this has had positive effects on students’ verbal and listening language skills, and the developing of their general intellectual skills such as self-confidence, cooperation, expression, collaboration, creativity and communication. Through this approach, they have also explored historical figures and cultural aspects. The students enjoyed participating in drama and they learned with great interest. The effects of drama and theatre on students have been discussed in recent literature. Harland et al. (2000) did a case study in five UK schools and found that drama produced more positive effects than other forms of arts on the transfer of knowledge and skills; the fostering of self-esteem; the development of expressive skills, self-expression and technical skills; the building of self-confidence and developing the whole person and the capacities for empathy. There was an emphasis on effects related to the development of pupils as individuals and their relationships with others. Podlozny (2000) also found a strong causal link between working with theatre and improving students’ verbal and other language-related skills. Kear and Callaway (2000) regard drama and narrative as an important element that children use to describe historical events in stories, which has helped them to imagine themselves in the temporal series and make sense of their past.

5.3. Provide Opportunities for Artists and Teachers Through the interviews and the schools’ final reports, it was revealed that a number of teachers were eager to acquire professional development training in designing an integrated curriculum, acquiring specific artistic skills, and assessing project and student learning, in order to implement the projects successfully. Teachers are equipped with educational theories and current trends in education, child psychology and classroom management techniques. However, many of them lack in-depth

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knowledge and skills about the range of art forms that can be used in class. Moreover, they need to be equipped with multimedia and computer technology, in which the students had shown particular interest and ability, in order to enhance communication with them. Artists, on the other hand, have little prior teacher training experience and, although they usually have the charisma that facilitates their communication with an audience, some of them found dealing with different age groups rather challenging. Through concerted efforts to negotiate common goals, define partners’ roles and acknowledge each other’s contributions, their partnership with teachers can become a major step towards successful, rewarding and effective student learning. The teachers acquired important professional development skills through collaboration with staff of other subject specializations across the curriculum and with artists, sharing common goals and instructional strategies during the lessons and in the subsequent joint reflection process. As evaluation is an integral part of the learning process, it is also essential that teachers should prepare for it at an early stage, together with their project aims and teaching strategies. Both the process and outcome need to be evaluated. Seidel et al. (2001) identified four common principles underlying successful partnerships between teachers and artists:

– Students are at the core of the partnership as the principal beneficiaries; – The needs of schools are also of primary concern to all partners; – Teachers should gain professional development and benefits from the involvement and

– Children can produce high quality, authentic art and art materials. The arts teacher should take up a leadership role to coordinate with other arts and non-arts teachers, in order to build a safe place for the arts in school (Eisner, 2001).

5.4. The Importance of the School Support Soliciting support from the school administration is another important factor. This includes the staff and artists reaching common goals, making special timetable arrangement for the students and staff, including discussion time for the staff and artists to meet before and after the lessons for planning and appraisal, and giving the project priority of venue usage. A long-term residency for the artists would allow them to adjust to the school culture and for teachers to collaborate with them better, as well as for students to experience deeper learning under an integrative curriculum. Making a financial commitment will help the school to cultivate ownership of and commitment to the partnership, which in turn will make artists feel welcome, facilitate the launching of professional development projects in the field and encouraged the staff to contribute fully to achieve success (Seidel et al., 2001; Cheung, 2003).

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5.5. Collaborating with Community Resources It is important that the community shares the responsibility with schools to fulfil their mission and vision by offering financial and resource support wherever possible. School resources are typically not sufficient for experiments of this kind. This project would not have been possible, for example, if not for the generous support given by the Hong Kong Bank Foundation, which donated HK$4 million over a period of 3 years. It was also fortunate that the project could secure another HK$200,000 from the Hong Kong Institute of Education’s Internal Research Grant over 2 years (2001–2003) to undertake the study of this AiE programme. It is necessary for large commercial firms and private trusts to understand the significance of such a long-term investment, and to be generous and supportive to a holistic and balanced education through the arts. It is through pooling together resources from the community, the arts companies, freelance artists and school educators that our children can experience joyful, lively learning experiences, which are relevant to their daily lives and promote creativity, critical thinking and collaboration.

5.6. The Importance of the Government Support The Curriculum Development Institute of the Education and Manpower Bureau, in collaboration with tertiary institutions such as the Hong Kong Institute of Education, should offer professional training courses for both primary and secondary arts and non-arts teachers in utilizing the arts to enhance students’ creativity and in-depth learning. At the initial stage of implementation, problems should be tackled through joint efforts, and the knowledge of good practices should be disseminated to schools to help teachers, artists, and policy makers to build a strong and balanced curriculum in Hong Kong. Followed many successful studies that provide evidence of the benefits of strong arts programmes, such as the increase in students academic achievement and their self-esteem, and improved teacher skills (Arts Education Partnership, 1999), the AiE Programme has demonstrated that there are successful models of partnership that can be used to integrate the arts in the school curriculum. It is proposed that a resource bank showcasing successful school–artist partnership projects that use an interdisciplinary approach be set up by the government for practicing teachers to draw on as a reference. Thus, for example, the National School Boards Association in America urged local school boards to set up and maintain multi-faceted education programmes in their school districts as a means to develop in students an appreciation for the arts as an expressive record of humankind’s development. It was found that this expanded students’ ability to think creatively, and encouraged cross-cultural understanding (National School Boards Association, 2000). Richard Florida, best-seller author as well as a university professor, has commented that Hong Kong could be

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Asia’s greatest city if its people could alter their mind-set. Instead of focusing only on big, hi-tech firms and artificial lifestyle amenities, they should highlight tolerance, diversity and creativity. His advice for Hong Kong was to focus on people rather than business or institutions, and to increase investment in education (South China Morning Post, 2004). It is, therefore, important for the government to be aware of the impact of the arts in school and to be supportive of effective student learning in and through the arts.

6. Conclusion The AiE Programme has made good use of community resources to develop students’ creativity and their appreciation of the arts. Building on existing strengths of art and music, the AiE Programme gave schools the autonomy to develop fully their school-based arts curriculum to include other arts, such as the media arts, drama, Beijing opera, shadow puppet shows, Cantonese opera and dance, as well as integrating other disciplines. Specially designed timetables facilitated students’ more in-depth acquisition of artistic skills and knowledge and broadened their exposure to new art forms. The commitment and dedication of the artists provided good role models for staff and students, to encourage them to strive for excellence. Strong teacher–artist partnerships, with common goals and distribution of work among staff, have enhanced project implementation. Sufficient funding and the support of the school management and the parents were all crucial to the success of these projects. The teachers saw the advantages this gave to their students’ artistic, social and whole-person development, besides their production of various innovative artworks and performances, but they also felt the need for professional development in order to become more confident in employing an across-the-arts or interdisciplinary approach.

References Abeles, H., Hafeli, M., Horowitz R. and Burton, J. 2002. The evaluation of arts partnerships and learning in and through the arts. In Colwell, R. and Richardson, C. (eds.) The New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Arts Education Partnership. 1999. Champions of Change: The Impact of the Arts on Learning. Washington, DC: Arts Education Partnership. Cheung, J. 2003. The Arts-in-Education projects: implication for arts education reform in Hong Kong. In Yip, R., Leung, C. and Lau, W. (eds.) Curriculum Innovation in Music. Hong Kong: Creative Arts Department, Hong Kong Institute of Education. Curriculum Development Council, 2002. Arts Education Key Learning Area: Curriculum Guide (Primary 1–Secondary 3). Hong Kong: CDC. Department of National Heritage, 1996. Setting the Scene. The Arts and Young People. London: Department of National Heritage.

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Dewey, J. 1990 [1956]. School and Society, The Child and the Curriculum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Eisner, E. 2001. Music education six months after the turn of the century, Arts Education Policy Review, 102, 3, 20–24. Harland, J., Kinder, K., Haynes and J., Schagen, I. 2000. The Effects and Effectiveness of Arts Education in Schools. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research. Hong Kong Arts Development Council 2000. Partnership in Arts Education, a Sponsorship Proposal on Arts-in-Education. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Arts Development Council. Kear, M. and Callaway, G. (eds.) 2000. Improving Teaching and Learning in the Arts. London: Farmer Press. NSBA (National School Boards Association) 2000. Resolutions, Beliefs and Policies, Constitution and Bylaws. Alexandria, VA: NSBA. Oddie, D. and Allen, G. 1998. Artists in Schools: A Review. London: The Stationery Office. Podlozny, A. 2000. Strengthening verbal skills through the use of classroom drama: a clear link. The Journal of Aesthetic Education, 34, special issue, 3–4. South China Morning Post 2004. Behind the news, creative thinking – meet the master of reinvention. Hong Kong, 31 January 2004. Seidel, S., Eppel, M. and Martiniello, M. 2001. Arts Survive: A Study of Sustainability in Arts Education Partnerships, Executive Summary. Project Zero. Harvard: Harvard University Graduate School of Education. Swanwick, K. 1988. Music, Mind and Education. London: Routledge. Wood, K. 1997. Interdisciplinary Instruction. A Practical Guide for Elementary and Middle Schoolteachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, an imprint of Prentice Hall.

Chapter 6

Arts Education in Cambodia Its Social, Moral, and Economic Impact Sam-Ang Sam

1. Introduction Cambodia has gone through several chapters of history. Some of these have been happy, while others have been very bitter and painful, particularly those of the past three decades or so. The painful years started with the genocidal regime of the communist Khmer Rouge, which moved the history of Cambodia back to the year Zero. On the one hand, Cambodia has suffered a loss of culture, and on the other, some of the elite, fascinated by Western models, are losing their Khmer (Cambodian) way of life as they consider themselves to be totally different from the majority who are still traditionally conservative. Today, Cambodia is one of the poorest countries in the world. Cambodia has been given a chance for recovery, but economic factors play a crucial part in this and have had the greatest effect on the life of the Khmer people. This economic power play has been mainly controlled by foreign groups who have no connection with the political and cultural decision-making processes and interests. They favour the development of a wild capitalism, which makes quick returns and paralyses the cultural foundation, development and continuity of Khmer culture. Foreign popular videos and television programmes also make it very difficult to preserve Khmer culture. Political conflicts and their consequences, economic difficulties, the lack of external assistance and the massive deluge of Western civilization that is swamping Cambodia have broken down fundamental socio-cultural balances. They have profoundly impeded and crippled the entire society in every way. Most of the traditional proponents of culture and the arts – the craftsmen, the dancers, the musicians, the painters, the sculptors, the monks and the poets – have died or fled the country. The social foundations of the Khmer have been shaken as people have been displaced and families broken apart. They have lost their sense of trust, pride and integrity. As millions of lives have also been lost, including most of the intellectuals and skilled individuals, Cambodia also suffers from a loss of human resources and capital. As the society is already weak, the acculturation

Royal University of Fine Arts; e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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process even further weakens the Khmer cultural foundation. The Khmer, particularly the young, discredit their own values and embrace foreign ones. There is an erosion of Khmer cultural values, a lack of role models, a lack of references and a lack of means to confront modernization and new things, such as the massive influx of foreign popular culture. The principal theme of this article is a general overview of the state of arts education in Cambodia. The significance of arts and culture in Khmer society and the structure of arts education in the school system from primary to secondary and higher education is here examined and discussed. Insights are offered on how the arts are taught in the general school curriculum and their impact on investment in the youth, the education of the mind, the further development of Khmer arts and culture and economic development and growth in relation to arts education. I propose to examine the multi-faceted role that culture plays in social and economic development within the global context of the new millennium, focusing particularly on the value of Khmer culture, trends and possible future directions and cultural policies which are responsive to the needs of Khmer society and appropriate to it.

2. The Significance of Arts and Culture in Khmer Society For the Khmer – an art-loving people – culture is not just for celebrations; it is a vehicle of human expression and cultural identity. The importance of culture for the Khmer is indicated by slogans such as ‘Culture is the soul of a nation’. Angkor Vatt (twelfth century AD) symbolizes the culmination of the most magnificent period of Khmer history and has been used for hundreds of years as the Khmer national icon and edifice, as attested to by its appearance on all the flags of every Cambodian regime, past and present, including the Khmer Rouge, regardless of their political ideologies and flavour. Culture must be preserved and protected, as it embodies the nation’s spirit, identity and pride. It is thus essential that the Khmer of all ages be educated, the better to understand and appreciate the value of Cambodia’s ancient arts.

2.1. Cultural Value and Preservation Culture plays a multi-faceted role in political stability and social and economic development. Functioning within both religious and secular contexts, art is a universal phenomenon in a complex global culture. In the Khmer context, it has been perceived as mere entertainment and an enhancement of public events. However, it possesses healing power for many Khmer. It can be used as a means for soothing and empowerment, as the arts and culture reflect Khmer roots and national identity. In addition to their entertainment value, the arts are didactic; providing people with an education of the mind and the spirit. They even play a

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significant role in the political arena and in tourist ventures. Yet they have suffered a double blow, first by the Khmer Rouge and then by the economic pressure of the present. The Khmer Rouge attempted to wipe out Khmer culture, while under today’s economic pressure, several aspects of traditional culture have been curtailed, as can be observed in wedding ceremonies and religious activities at Buddhist temples. In the past, a Khmer traditional wedding lasted 7 days and nights. As time went by, it was shortened to 3 days and nights. Today, it is performed in a mere single day and night. While music used to be played almost continuously throughout wedding ceremonies, today it is heard for only a matter of a few hours. In some instances, sad to relate, live music is even substituted by prerecorded tapes or compact discs. One seldom hears any traditional music in Khmer temples these days. This loss of traditional values is due in part to the change of civic and moral education, which is the foundation of traditional Khmer family and society. Currently, traditional ceremonies and beliefs are still practiced among the country folk and, although to a lesser extent, among city dwellers. Time and financial resources need to be considered, but the continuity of traditions that have been carried out for centuries also deserves a great deal of serious attention.

3. Educational Systems in Cambodia 3.1. Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports is the state agency responsible for education at all levels. It oversees and sanctions the country’s educational goals and policies. It provides technical and financial assistance to educational institutions under its auspices. The Ministry must design and implement a suitable curriculum in order to have a positive impact on education. At the same time, a professional training programme must be designed for teachers so that they have an adequate grasp of methodology and pedagogy, as well as an understanding of the national educational goals and objectives, so as to be responsive to educational policies. These two areas work together to assure effective teaching and thus positive results.

3.2. The General School Cambodia has a 6-year primary education scheme, starting from the 12th grade and going on to the 7th grade, a 6-year secondary education, from the 6th grade to the 1st grade, and a 5-year higher education system, from Propédeutique to Licence I, Licence II, Licence III and finally, Licence IV.

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4. Cultural Institutions Responsible for Khmer Culture 4.1. The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts is primarily responsible for the health of the entire cultural community and the fate of Khmer culture. It must thus have clear mission and policies. It scrutinizes state and cultural policies, the programmes that are designed to respond to the needs of Khmer society and cultural reforms and programmes that emphasize applied culture, while strengthening and promoting native scholarship and rebuilding, reviving and preserving culture. It also must oversee development, privatization, vocational training, market orientations, curricula geared towards economic development, art in the public school, the arts in a controlled tourist environment, cultural exchanges and research and documentation. It sets political and cultural policies and directions, and it supervises the institutions under its auspices, namely the Royal University of Fine Arts, the Department of Arts and Performing Arts and city and provincial cultural groups. It is essential for Cambodia at this juncture to have a policy of renationalization to bring back the spirit of nationalism. Cambodia must study and re-examine the educational system so it gives importance to economic growth and development, self-sufficiency, maintaining traditional values and the preservation of culture. With this in mind, the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts has developed cultural programmes for the rehabilitation of Cambodia (Nouth, 1997). The cultural objectives of the Ministry include programmes to stop the erosion of culture, to protect and safeguard the Khmer cultural heritage, to restore Khmer cultural values and norms, to favour and promote artistic creations and to promote cultural exchanges. The Ministry organizes international and national festivals and cultural day events on a yearly basis. For instance, it hosted the Third Angkor International Festival of Ramayana in Siem Reap from 29 November to 4 December 1997 and television and the radio also broadcast cultural programmes. The Ministry’s programme aims at creating a new institution – Sala Vappathor (the School of Culture) – because the traditional schools and monasteries are no longer in tune with the present reality and are thus not an effective vehicle for social rehabilitation. Thus, a new institution based on new guidelines and functioning principles is now necessary to generate community life. The Sala Vappathor will be established throughout the country – at village, district, and provincial levels – and activities will be developed and designed specifically to suit the situations and needs of each region and locale. They will take charge of developing and energizing community life and cultural activities at each level and of teaching traditional culture according to local characteristics. As the communities grow larger and larger, moving from the village to the city, the structure of the programme will be geared towards urban reality. These plans, for instance, include the development of libraries, arts schools, museums and galleries.

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The problems in the Khmer society today have deep roots. It is essential to change the attitude of our people to value traditional culture more. The process of rehabilitation and renationalization must be taken seriously and begun immediately. Cambodia must build up human resources and capital. But most importantly, Cambodia must first secure its political stability, creating a safe environment in which people can get on with their lives. We must adopt the kind of economic development that preserves our traditional culture, while slowing down the influx of foreign popular culture. Both the public and private sectors must be stimulated to build more venues and, encouraged to put on more public performances, workshops, festivals and conferences. Research, publications and recordings must be increased. The government should support and encourage semi-professional troupes to become established. During pre-war times, there were troupes of lkhaon basakk, and lkhaon yike theatre, such as Lkhaon Basakk Tuol Ta Poung, Lkhaon Basakk Phsar Silepp, Yike Ta Khy and other provincial troupes. In the small town of Bamnak (Pursat) where I grew up, there was a basakk troupe theatre whose performances I frequently attended. I was glad to hear His Excellency, Pich Tum Kravel, claim that at one time there were 200 theatre companies in Cambodia (Heywood, 1994a, p. 14). An ayang troupe in Vatt Khmaoch (Siem Reap) gave some 20 performances per year. There were 5,700 popular culture troupes (Kromm Silapakk Moha Chun) of all forms, including 20 professional groups (Ouk Socheat, personal communication, 1990). Do they still exist today? Other avenues are the creation of festivals and ceremonies that provide opportunities and environments in which the traditional arts are encouraged. We must reverse the practice of reducing the scale of ceremonies only to spend money on clubbing and drinking.

4.2. Royal University of Fine Arts The Royal University of Fine Arts has done impressive work and produced many achievements, working with bare hands from zero – a state that was created and bequeathed to us by the extremist, radical and utopian Khmer Rouge. The task of my fellow artists in Cambodia has been the preservation of traditional Khmer art and they have done amazingly well. The present Royal University of Fine Arts was reopened in October 1980 as School of Fine Arts (Tuy, 1996, p. 5). The university has produced 65 Diplôme és Arts graduates and 77 Baccalauréat és Arts graduates in court dance. The current university curriculum must now be critically re-examined and reassessed and a new one developed that responds to the needs of the country and our artists – perhaps opening out a whole new approach to local cultures. In other words, it should not be modelled on the West, but should reflect the situation and needs of our country. Courses should include – for example, at the Faculty of Music and

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Faculty of Choreographic Arts – musical history, theory, composition, aural training, musicianship, ethnomusicology, anthropology, folklore, dance, dance ethnology and theatre. We may decide to model ourselves on China, which, while acquiring Western vocal techniques, use base materials that are purely Chinese. In this way, they achieve both the goals of developing their technique and the appreciation of their traditional culture. In ethnomusicology, courses should include the history of the field, methodology, fieldwork, organology and area studies. A resurgence in Khmer arts is occurring at the Royal University of Fine Arts. The university has five faculties: the Faculty of Choreographic Arts, the Faculty of Music, the Faculty of Plastic Arts, the Faculty of Archaeology and the Faculty of Architecture, situated on two campuses, known as the Northern Campus (located behind the old stadium) and the Southern Campus (located behind the National Museum). The university offers regular courses leading to the professional degrees of the Diploma of Arts, the Baccalaureate of Arts and the Bachelor of Arts. It enrols over 1,500 students, of whom approximately 400 are dance students and 200 music students, who are delighted to learn the arts of their heritage. Its biggest strength lies in the enthusiasm of the students, who, despite their poverty and hardships, come to class with a keen desire to learn about rebuilding their country. The university also sends its members out to participate in international festivals and conferences as well as on tours, and provides local performances for the public.

4.3. Faculty of Music The Faculty of Music is the only formal state-run institution providing courses in music studies. It has two departments: the Department of Traditional Khmer Music and the Department of Classical Western Music. There are 54 staff and faculty members and 248 students (Hor, 2001). While the Department of Traditional Music offers courses in traditional Khmer music, the Department of Classical Western Music offers courses in Western music, instrumental studies, history, theory, solfege and chorus work. It should be noted that there is no course in musical composition, let alone any contemporary aspect or form of music. The curriculum covers only classical music. Consequently, for Cambodia, ‘contemporary’ is a farther step away. The Faculty of Music offers degree programmes leading towards the Diplôme és Arts, the Baccalauréat és Arts and the Licence és Arts (which is equivalent to a Bachelor of Arts). From 1981 to 1999, the Faculty of Music has bestowed the following awards: 199 Diplôme awards in Instruments and 33 in Chorus, 145 Baccalauréat awards in Instruments and 13 in Chorus and 2 Licence awards in Music (Ethnomusicology). The university curricula allow and provide for the direct involvement of tradition bearers in the education process and emphasize the importance of students themselves becoming cultural researchers, in order to understand their own communities and the world around them.

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4.4. Department of Arts and Performing Arts The Department of Arts and Performing Arts is a department within the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts. It receives all graduates of the Royal University of Fine Arts who have passed the department’s entrance examination. This department is sometimes referred to as the National Troupe. Its activities are similar to those of the University, except for the regular university curricula.

4.5. City and Provincial Cultural Groups Besides the major cultural institutions mentioned above, there are smaller cultural groups, which are the city and provincial cultural groups. These groups principally hold performances of music, dance and theatre.

4.6. Non-Governmental Organizations Public support is crucial to the success of cultural programming. All events depend upon the participation of the community members and their children. Thus, only through the participation and encouragement of parents do children come to cultural events. Community members also serve effectively as coordinators and public relations support for the culture organizers and presenters. As a successful cultural programme involves multi-faceted expertise, collaborative work is necessary. In other words, while artists and community members provide the product, folklorists, anthropologists or ethnomusicologists are the ones who package and sell it. They write comprehensive programme notes, do the advertisements and publicity and seek suitable venues. Needless to say, this funding is crucial to the maintenance of the entire production from start to finish, and it can be secured only with the help of experts in the field.

5. Arts Education in the General School Curriculum Arts programmes should be included in the public school curricula. Courses in arts appreciation and some applied courses on the arts should be seriously considered. Short-term and long-term residencies should be designed to bring artists to schools, so that children are introduced to their culture early on. This should be the national policy of early childhood education, one of the priorities of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports. In the United States, not only are national arts taught to students, but also the arts of other nationalities are introduced as well. In this way, students are given the opportunity early on to have a broad understanding of

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cultures other than their own. The arts curriculum of the Maori in New Zealand was designed with a clear focus and the goal of exploring, making, understanding and appreciating their culture (Hindle, 2002, p. 15). This helps them to define the scope and parameters for effective teaching and learning, while the curriculum provides them with a solid base and framework for it. A good arts education also should benefit artists. This is the link in the equation of needs, demands and supply. Arts education in the general school, for instance, helps to create jobs for artists. When schools require art teachers to teach arts classes, artists will have jobs. This will give an incentive to institutions such as the Royal University of Fine Arts to produce more artists to supply these needs and demands. Efforts undertaken by the Royal University of Fine Arts have been made to reach independent artists and audiences beyond the professional academic institution through sponsorships, collaborations, symposia and lectures. In Cambodia, no professional training is available to equip teachers to teach arts subjects as an area of specialization. Expertise for arts subjects has been drawn largely from artists of the Royal University of Fine Arts and the Department of Arts and Performing Arts. General teachers who may teach arts subjects must do research on their own, tapping into the scarce resources Cambodia currently offers them. During my primary school years in the late 1950s and early 1960s, there were courses in storytelling and poetry (reading and reciting). By the 1970s, these classes were no longer offered. Since 1994, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports has included arts programmes in the curricula of the primary schools. Children now have a 30 min lesson per week on Khmer music (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, 1997). It is worth comparing this with Japan, where more than 1.1 million Japanese students take music lessons (TV Headline News, 1996).

5.1. Traditional Forms of Cultural Transmission In Cambodia, one finds two main practices in regard to arts education: one informal and the other formal. Informal education, often referred to as traditional transmission, normally takes place within the family environment in which knowledge is passed on from parent to child or from master to pupil. This is an oral tradition in which the child or pupil goes through an informal apprenticeship by imitating or following the master’s ways. I address the issues of transmission in the light of economic development and self-sufficiency. Economic self-sufficiency is an important consideration in the practice and choice of a career for everyone. In the case of Cambodia, this is even more true. However, new and, perhaps, more relevant situations and demands have caused us to address ‘transmission’ differently. While some still adhere to the traditional way of transmitting knowledge via the ‘oral’ tradition, others are adopting a new approach by taking advantage of printed, audio and visual materials.

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As the older generation of musician and artist dies, traditional music and the performing arts decline because the young lack an understanding and appreciation of their traditional culture and thus do not see the need to carry on their precious legacy. Even the notion of what should be continued is now also challenged. Despite social, economic and cultural factors, however, Khmer musicians, for instance, do attempt to preserve their musical tradition and maintain their identity. Their style of playing remains faithful to their traditions. They hold on to them, desiring to impart them to the younger generation and working fervently to do so. We ought to pass on to our young something of quality, something meaningful, something that they can identify with and be proud of. Yet, we ought also to be realistic and as relevant as we can to the actual needs and demands of our people. I even venture further to say that we should practice our arts with joy and dignity in the active process of globalization, economic growth and prosperity and not in a pathetic, struggling way. The transmission of the traditional Khmer performing arts is reflected by the socio-economic situation of Cambodia and beyond. It is a direct response to the equation of needs, demand and supply. It is also reflected by its status and recognition of the arts that are to be transmitted. Do those arts attract high or low esteem? Transmission itself has many challenges. For instance, if we were to compare popular culture and traditional culture, we find that popular artists do much better in terms of status, recognition and finance. Popular artists are often synonymous with glamour and fun. Look at the sound systems they have when playing in concerts. How much more modern, how much more sophisticated could they be? Look at the types of microphones used in concerts. This enables performers to stand up, walk freely and interact with the audience, who respond to them with excitement and joy. Now look at traditional artists. What kinds of sound system do they have in concerts? They are likely to have sound equipment that is old and out of date, with cords running all over the stage and microphones that are stuck right in the face of the artists. How do traditional artists perform? Sitting on the floor on a carpet, or, worse still, without a platform at all. In fact, the overall scene of traditional Khmer performing arts is dwindling. Some already died out; others are declining and on the verge of disappearing.

5.2. Efforts in Transmission and Documentation Mentorship–apprenticeship programme. This programme has been up and running for 6 years now at the Royal University of Fine Arts (Faculty of Music and Faculty of Choreographic Arts) in Phnom Penh. It creates and provides an opportunity and environment for the transmission of traditional knowledge of the performing arts from senior to junior teachers. One of the ultimate goals is that, eventually the junior teachers, in their turn, will be equipped with good and solid knowledge, which they will pass on to their students.

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6. The Impact of Arts Education in Cambodia The movement of peoples has been accelerating globally and domestically, resulting in large numbers of people who reside outside the cultural context that they used to belong to, especially in big cities. The thrust of the mass media and the Internet, reaching into even the most remote part of the region, is creating the homogenization of cultures and replacing traditional values and customs. What are the consequences of such globalization and urbanization upon the identity-formation of an individual, community or country and what is the role of education and cultural programmes in this process? An education that helps develop the morality, mentality, and spirituality of the citizens is the best. An arts education or learning traditional performing arts enhances ethnic harmony and forms an image of a multicultural nation. It widens students’ views of cultures other than their own. It increases their appreciation of other cultures through teaching and learning and their tolerance of other cultures fosters multicultural health and diversity.

6.1. Investment in the Youth An arts education helps open up the mind and broaden the views of the youth. It is an invaluable tool for them to function and integrate harmoniously in the real world in which they will play a significant role and part. While in many developed countries, arts education and training are strong and active, in Cambodia, arts education in the general school, for instance, is virtually nonexistent. There are no specialized arts instructors to be found here. Regular instructors assume the tasks of teaching the minimal arts subjects offered. Attempts at including arts subjects in the general school curricula and placing arts instructors in the general school have been planned and discussed, but they have not been realized.

6.2. Education of the Mind An arts education helps human beings develop their potential of becoming complete and whole, balances physical and mental attributes and leads to the development of humane and moral citizens. The truth of the matter is that the knowledge learned from arts education can be the catalyst for broader view and understanding, thus leading to an appreciation of others This helps people to have a positive attitude.

6.3. Economic Development and Growth In formulating strategies within the framework of Khmer cultural and economic development, we need to aim at strengthening the economic base, by looking at

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Cambodia’s development through a cultural filter, not as an isolated case but a cohesive regional and global phenomenon. There are tremendous resources and success stories out there that we can apply to our own situation. In the underdeveloped world, particularly in extremely poor countries like Cambodia, ‘development’ is at the top of the priority list, eclipsing everything else. However, developed countries like the United States tend to turn back to the basics, because they have already tasted development. While realistically adhering to the local situations and conditions, Cambodia must strategically follow regional and global trends and directions. By trends and directions, I mean economic development to strengthen the economic base, favouring new technologies and competitiveness. This development paradigm must be weighed and balanced carefully. A few questions should be raised and addressed. Is Cambodia unique compared with the rest of the region and the world? Will Cambodia be inside or outside the regional and global economy? Where does Cambodia stand in regard to regional and global standards? By being in the game and being aware of what happens in the region and the world, we can take advantage of it by choosing relevant and successful models, which can be replicated in Cambodia. We can thus save a lot of time and avoid making mistakes, producing bad programmes and failure, and trying out the best models and best practices. As Prince Norodom Sihamoni once commented, ‘Look at the Royal University of Fine Arts. They need so much there. They are working in terrible conditions, no light, no facilities. We have to improve all that’ (Heywood, 1995, p. 20). Economic reform is necessary at this juncture, and we need to consider numerous measures such as educational reform; new orientations; steady programmes towards employment; an employment-focused curriculum and developing a computer and technology-oriented system. In addition, we need small classes in schools, job clubs, a job bank, job placement schemes, plans for self-sufficiency and training in specific skills. In the dimension of work, we need work studies, aggressive job development, supplementary benefits, employment services; on-the-job training; vocational training and assisted job searches. People must be given an incentive to get ahead economically, and policies, curricula and programmes must be designed to achieve a sustainable social, cultural and economic development by providing cultural programmes that respond to the needs of Khmer society. All this appears to be government policy, as reflected by the first Prime Minister’s speech at a fundraising event to help Khmer orphans, the poor and schools at the Olympic Stadium in Phnom Penh: ‘The Royal Government was trying to attract foreign investment into the country to create jobs and opportunities’ (Heng, 1994, p. 7). Similarly, King Norodom Sihanouk, in his letter of sympathy over the fire at the Theatre of the Basakk Front to the then co-prime ministers, said: It is true that our arts and classical dance are part of the grandeur of Kampuchea … but if noble Japan and other wealthy powers, friends of the Cambodian people, would like to help our people, of whom 90 per cent are poverty stricken peasants, dramatically short of rice to feed themselves, these friends from wealthy countries could give absolute priority to the rehabilitation of our agriculture. (Heywood, 1994b, p. 7)

The United States and Japan, for instance, are powerful because of their mighty economic base. Art and culture cannot prosper amidst poverty and starvation.

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Artists need ‘development’. Development can be a very powerful force for incentive and change. But we need a careful, controlled and well-planned development. When you see your children starve and cry for food in front of you, your cultural appetite is completely turned off. When your stomach is empty, you are not in the mood to sing and dance. Even religious leaders and practitioners are turning to development and other worldly projects, from community development training to pre-school programmes, from rice banks to tree nurseries, while continuing the practice of Buddhism. The Venerable Heng Monychenda, for example, created an organization called Buddhism for Development in 1992 to involve monks in community development (Chaumeau, 1996, p. 7). Development and preservation may very well be in conflict with each another. One must carefully weigh them up. Art is an essential resource for community development. It can be used as a magnet for attracting large corporations to Cambodia and as an economic catalyst for urban revitalization. The tourism industry uses art as a marketing strategy when it sells cultural destinations. In countries like the United States, the arts are big business, way beyond the consideration of tourism and community renewal. In California, for instance, arts and entertainment are the third-ranked economic segment, generating $3.5 billion in taxable wages alone.

6.4. Tourism From the United States and Europe to Asia, from China to India and Malaysia to Japan, the word and notion of ‘development’ is one which is heard all the time. But development is also against what is ‘traditional’: something that is so dear to us; something that we, in the East, want to hold on to. This ambiguity creates problems for us as policies in tourism advocate development at the same time as creating a mechanism to try to stop the destruction of the traditional culture. In the People’s Republic of China, while the government advocates tourism, it has also created the Institute of Nationalities to undertake the conservation and preservation of traditional culture. The Yunnan Ethnic Culture Institute was created for that same purpose. Industrial development, tourism and the migration of rural residents into urban areas are eroding traditional cultural practices among ethnic minorities. Professor Chou Wen-chung of the Centre for US–China Arts Exchange, noting the Chinese cultural trend, said ‘Cultural traditions that have been sustained for centuries are in danger of being damaged or lost’ (1993, p. 4). Economic development is a global and a national issue and corruption in the system is blocking the economic growth of the country. As rapid economic growth occurs throughout the Asia Pacific region, there are often negative outcomes as well as positive results. Economic growth affects, and is affected by, many parts of a socio-cultural system. Culture may be especially affected. Culture is an ever-changing system. Healthy cultures are both adaptive and integrated. They keep changing so as to be appropriate to new conditions in their social and natural environments, and at the same time the various components of the cultural system undergo a process

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of mutual influence by which they maintain themselves as an integrated whole. Rapid economic growth makes those systemic properties difficult to maintain. When change is very rapid, cultural systems experience some degree of stress. Sometimes, cultural elements that once were adaptive cease to be so in a changed environment. Sometimes, there is pressure to change at a rate that exceeds the capacity of social and cultural systems to adjust to new conditions while still maintaining their coherence. Policymakers must seriously and carefully consider what are the key issues pertaining to research, policies and development approaches that most affect the level and distribution of costs and benefits in the coming decades of development. Tourism appears to be an outstanding opportunity for the rapid development of foreign exchange earnings. Foreign participation is essential to provide the necessary capital and expertise and to bring Cambodia into the regional tourism circuit. The prospect of tapping into the existing flow of international tourists is probably the biggest and most hopeful single change in Cambodia’s economic potentialities since the pre-war period. Cambodia could also draw a separate incremental flow from Thai tourists alone, which may be as important a component for Cambodia as cross-border tourism from Malaysia is for Thailand. Thus, in 1988, Thailand had 4.2 million tourists. They stayed an average length of 7.4 days and spent an average of US $100 a day. In that same year only 1,500 tourists visited Cambodia (Muscat, 1989, p. 55). In my view, tourism should not be seen as ‘cultural exploitation’. However, budgeting for other national needs such as defense and security, which eat up 38% of the national budget, should not be made at the expense of culture. The Stone Tree village in Yunnan province, China is a perfect example of tourist exploitation. It will soon be gone. The land has been sold for new development projects. Hotels have been built. The original traditional context has already been lost. We hope to preserve our living traditions while reinvigorating them to allow for growth and change. We do not want development that destroys traditional culture; yet, do not want traditional culture without development. What we want is the kind of development that still allows us to preserve our precious traditional culture. Increasing tourist traffic is one of many possible routes in planning a secure future but the financial gains from tourism must be weighed against possible cultural pollution. Tourism could have a harmful effect if proper controls are not exerted. A national development strategy should thus be devised for the tourist sector. Institutions of higher learning should prepare programmes that respond to Cambodia’s budding tourist industries and tourism should generally be geared to helping provide jobs for artists.

6.5. Privatization Privatization is a process by which one creates an environment for challenge, competition and therefore, further improvement. Placing all the onus on the

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government’s shoulders will not work. I have spoken to officials and teachers in the People’s Republic of China, who have told me that, by making the civil service almost the sole employer and because work in the civil service guarantees a job for life, as virtually everything is handled by the government, people do not have the incentive to work. In Thailand, on the other hand, graduates go out to the real world – the world of competition and incentives – seeking jobs in the private sector, while universities retain a few good postgraduates as teachers or lecturers. In the United States, graduates seek jobs in government institutions or in other public or private sectors. The government is not responsible for providing them with employment after they graduate. What is needed for the government is to provide opportunities for people to find work. Policies are needed to encourage and create outlets for artists to expose, distribute and sell their products, be they weaving, handicrafts or performances. In Thailand, centres such as Tamnak Thai, the Rose Garden, Silom Village, the Ambassador Hotel and other theme parks serve as venues and outlets for artists. This must all be carefully planned and designed so as not to diminish the quality of culture and life, create pollution and make the city overcrowded.

6.6. Artist Village In the late 1960s (right before the instigation of the coup to overthrow the monarchy led by Lon Nol on 18 March 1970), Mr Chheng Phon, then Director of the National Conservatory of Performing Arts, tossed around the excellent idea of starting an Artists Village. The village was intended to showcase all the ethnic groups in Cambodia, presenting and demonstrating their customs and traditions through handicrafts, dance and music. Unfortunately, the idea has not been followed through, as soon afterwards the war broke out.

7. Conclusion A sound curriculum arts must embrace all; a child left behind is one too many. The curriculum can and should be designed to serve as the foundation for early childhood education. The Ministry should develop and enforce arts curricula and train teachers professionally. In addition to the design of an arts curriculum and professional training, the Ministry should also develop resource materials, such as tapes, videos, books and online access to help teachers. Cultural diversity encourages cultural pluralism and dialogue between Asian countries, thus promoting mutual understanding. In some countries, such as the United States, arts education is a major part of the overall national education goals, and the integration of arts education into elementary and secondary school curricula

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is encouraged. The arts are one of the seven essential subjects that form the core of the national education goals. Efforts to establish content standards in the theatre, dance, music and the visual arts have involved teachers in virtually every state (Committee for Education Funding 2001, p. 47). The arts can make a significant contribution to educational reform and the transformation of teaching and learning. We want to ensure that the arts are a part of children’s school experience in every community. The arts shape and form positive attitudes towards being a peaceful, respected and responsible people. They make the community and society a better place for us to live in and enjoy. Let us promote the slogan: ‘Culture is the soul of a nation. Khmer culture is the soul of Cambodia and the Khmer people’. There are deep-rooted problems in Khmer society today. It is essential to change the attitudes of our people so they attach more value to traditional culture. The process of rehabilitation and renationalization must be taken seriously and begun immediately. Cambodia must build up her human resources and capital. But most importantly, Cambodia must first secure her political stability, creating a safe and sound environment for the people to get on with their lives. We must adopt the kind of economic development that also preserves our traditional culture, while slowing down the influx of foreign popular cultures. Both the public and private sectors must be stimulated to build more venues and encouraged to put on more public performances, workshops, festivals and conferences. Research, publications and recordings must be increased. Cambodia cannot afford to lose any more of her art forms. All the suggestions outlined above signify nothing short of a new cultural life for a nation. There have no doubt been small triumphs for the arts in some of the villages and institutions mentioned above, but the revival of a tradition and the rebirth of the native arts is a part of a larger plan and success for Cambodia. Arts, culture and heritage education must entail an integrated developmental approach leading to innovative, creative and critical thinking. The whole learning experience creates, within a safe learning environment, the means for shaping, challenging, affirming and exploring personal and social relationships and community identity. Experiencing the creative expression of the different communities of Cambodia provides an insight into the aspirations and values of our nation. This experience develops tolerance and provides a foundation for national reconciliation, as well as building a sense of pride in our diverse cultural heritage. The Ministry is committed to making an impact on economic growth, development and tourism through targeting the development of cultural industries, which are organized around the production and consumption of culture and related services and investing in an infrastructure for education in the arts, culture and heritage. Such an education will redress past cultural biases and stereotypes, as well as the imbalance in the provision of resources. To this end, the Ministry will be represented in all appropriate national arts, culture and heritage education policy, and curriculum and accreditation structures. Where relevant, the Ministry will also establish inter-ministerial arts educational advisory bodies to ensure communication in line with this policy.

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Consistent with the state policies, the Ministry will seek to ensure that the expertise and skills of arts and culture practitioners that have developed in and through informal processes are appropriately acknowledged and accredited. The Ministry acknowledges the importance of arts, culture and heritage education in both formal and community-based structures. Both sectors contribute to arts education in different and mutually complementary ways. Arts educators and planners should be encouraged to build on the different opportunities offered by the two sectors, as well as to develop strategies that offer learners mobility between them. This is a contemporary global trend to make arts education a national and international priority in bridging diverse groups. Cultural and arts materials and programmes are produced and designed for school curricula. The Khmer must recognize that we have problems and we need the political and cultural will to confront these problems directly. Development is a long process, which needs persistence and patience. There are many consequences of this process that no one can perceive in advance, but we cannot abandon our commitment. The programmes and implementation we seek should not merely look good and be impressive. They must give our artists, particularly the younger generations, a better world than the one we inherited. Although there are positive aspects to economic development, there are also negative ones. Thus on the path to development, we must often balance the relationship between economic growth and socio-cultural development. We must find a balance for this extremely complicated, interactive relationship that will permit a high level of economic growth and the achievement of social progress and equity, as well as the preservation and revitalization of the national culture. We want to pave the way for Cambodia for development and prosperity, while continuing to preserve our culture. And it is in this very spirit that we must plan development within cultural preservation. We must educate ourselves and our children to have healthy minds, behave well and have a civilized mentality. Cambodia may choose to live in the past or move forward into the broader world, yet remain generically Khmer. The future of our artists and the shape of our culture depend on the success of our efforts today. The Khmer people are strongly attached to the arts as a symbol of their own soul and identity. Among the refugees and immigrants communities in the United States, for example, the Hmong from Laos are known for their needlework, the Vietnamese for their popular music and the Khmer for their performing arts. Reflecting this image, Khmer immigrants have undertaken the process of rebuilding their culture since they arrived in the United States in 1975. Looking back, we see that this campaign was led by a handful of devoted artists. In their new environment and setting, where there were no monasteries, temples, palaces and universities in which the knowledge of traditional art would have been passed on and fostered, Khmer artists have had to try other ways, at their own expense, to see that the arts, which are so dear to them, survive. On the more sophisticated and scholarly level, occasional conferences and seminars, publications, documentary films and videos and now, digital compact discs of handsome quality have been organized and produced. Workshops and residencies have been launched to teach and create new works to expand the existing repertoire. Humanity and the arts is one coherent unit,

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but above all, the arts are the most powerful tool in transforming life into an art of living, whereby harmony, love and peace can be found in this ever-changing world. Khmer arts, which are considered by many to be one of the treasures of the Earth, will continue to bloom in Cambodia, the United States and beyond. The transmission of Khmer traditional knowledge in general, however, is dwindling in the present atmosphere. New and, perhaps, more relevant situations and demands have caused our people to respond differently to the transmission of culture. As the older generation of musicians dies, traditional music declines because the young do not understand and appreciate their traditional culture and thus do not see the need to carry on their precious legacy. As our world moves from the spiritual to the economic and from the sacred and religious to the secular, our needs and priorities change. We experience a decline in the quality of teaching and learning the arts, as well as in the products, as students now learn, from less-reliable and less-competent teachers and sources, what was once a genuine body of knowledge and tradition. We ought to pass on to our young something of quality and meaningfulness, something of an identity and pride.

References Chaumeau, C. 1996. A venerable plea for changes to the western way. Phnom Penh Post, 28 June–11 July 1996, p. 7. Committee for Education Funding 2001. Education Budget Alert for the Fiscal Year 2002. Washington, DC. Heng, S.C. 1994. Stars shine to brighten lives. Phnom Penh Post, 18 November–1 December 1994, p. 7. Heywood, D. 1994a. King urges $12m theater cash to farms. Phnom Penh Post, 11–24 March 1994, p. 7. Heywood, D. 1994b. Teacher sees dance dream come true. Phnom Penh Post, 11–24 February 1994, p. 7. Heywood, D. 1995. The artist, the ambassador, the prince. Phnom Penh Post, 21 April–4 May 1995, p. 20. Hindle, R. 2002. The Maori arts in education. Paper presented at the UNESCO Regional Meeting of Experts on Art Education in the Pacific, Nadi, Fiji, 25–29 November 2002. Hor, L. 2001. Le Résumé de l’Université Royale des Beaux Arts. Phnom Penh: Université Royale des Beaux Arts. Ministry of Education, Youths and Sports 1997. Curriculum: Social Studies in Primary Education. Phnom Penh. Muscat, R. 1989. Cambodia. New York: Columbia University. Nouth, N. 1997. Cultural programme for social rehabilitation in Cambodia. Paper presented at the Inroads/Asia Conference, University of California at Los Angeles, 20–23 August 1997. Sam, S. 1998. Role of Khmer culture in economic development in the context of the new millennium. Khmer Studies. Phnom Penh: Royal Academy of Cambodia, pp. 83–99. Tuy, K. 1996. Danse classique Khmère. Paper presented at the Indonesian Dance Festival, Jakarta, Indonesia, 25 July.

Section III The Arts, the Gallery and the Cultural Landscape: Japan, Australia, Kyrgyzstan and Thailand

Chapter 7

Representation of Japanese Art at the Art Gallery of New South Wales (Sydney, Australia) Chiaki Ajioka

1. Introduction I worked at the Art Gallery of New South Wales as the Curator of Japanese Art from 1996 to 2003. The State Gallery is the most active in Australia in collecting and presenting Asian art and my appointment as a specialist curator of Japanese art was the first in the country. During the 7 years that followed, I was extremely fortunate to be involved in significant changes in the representation and reception of the art of my native culture. The following is my personal account of those changes and my involvement in it. In terms of Japanese art exhibitions, the period covered the 1998 exhibition, ‘Modern Boy, Modern Girl: Modernity in Japanese Art 1910–1935’, followed by ‘Light Pictures: the Photographs of Nakayama Iwata and Nojima Yasuzō’ (1999), ‘Hanga: Japanese Creative Prints’ (2000), ‘Heroes and Villains from Japan’s Floating World’ (2001), ‘100 Views of Mount Fuji’ (2002) and ‘Seasons: the Beauty of Transience in Japanese Art’ (2003). In addition, ‘Treasures of Asian Art: Selections from the Mr & Mrs John D Rockefeller 3rd Collection of the Asia Society’ (1999) and ‘Buddha: the Radiant Awakening’ (2001/02) also included Japanese works of art. Apart from exhibitions, the presentation of Japanese art at the Gallery includes the permanent display in the Japan Gallery, a lunchtime lecture series and other activities organized by the Public Programmes Department of the Gallery. To present an analysis of overall activities is beyond the scope of this chapter; however, I will restrict the following discussion to my personal involvement.

2. Personal Background I should begin with the aspects of my own background that I consider relevant to the present discussion. I grew up in Tokyo in the 1960s and 1970s – at the time of a so-called era of high growth when the memory of World War II (and the hardships experienced in its wake) was still vivid among the adults around me. My parents’ generation, in particular, experienced a complete change of values during their

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early adulthood, from one in which Japan was a divine nation and the Emperor a living god, to one in which Japan was backward and inferior to the West. The nation changed from being under a virtual military dictatorship to a parliamentary democracy, and the education system changed accordingly. Western culture and history were taught with enthusiasm. This was particularly true about art and, like many other children, I was more attracted to Western art than to Japanese art. Of course, the general emphasis on Western art at school was not the only reason why I was not enthusiastic about Japanese art: my art teachers happened to be practitioners of Western style art and my own uncle was an oil painter. But, perhaps most importantly, my early reading was not Japanese literature but Greek, Egyptian and Scandinavian mythology, Bible stories and the works of Andersen and the Grimm brothers. As a result, I could relate to Renaissance paintings much more readily than to ukiyo-e woodblock prints of the Edo period. It was my interest in the English Arts & Crafts Movement that brought me to Australia in 1977 to study English so that I could read books about it from original sources. After completing my language studies, I enrolled at La Trobe University, Melbourne, to study art history (Western) and British social history. After finishing my degree, I was fortunate to receive personal advice from Max Richards, in the Department of English. Max shared my enthusiasm for William Morris, the founder of the Arts & Crafts Movement and a poet, and guided my reading in British poetry and literature, which expanded my appreciation of the culture of the period. So, it was not until my MA thesis at the University of Melbourne that I chose a topic in Japanese art. My supervisor, Dr Ann Galbally, suggested that I should take advantage of my knowledge of the Japanese language and I wrote the thesis on Munakata Shik¯o,1 a modern Japanese printmaker well known in the West. I then moved to Sydney where I soon began working at SBS Television as a Japanese subtitler. The SBS started its operation in 1980 as a national multicultural broadcaster with its Sydney-based Subtitling Unit as an integral component. The unit has been producing in-house English subtitles for foreign language programmes. At the unit, teams of one subtitler and a subeditor create subtitles. The subtitler is a native or near-native speaker of the original language, and the subeditor is a native or nearnative English speaker. They work together to produce subtitles that closely convey the original meaning and are easy to read. In fact, the subtitles produced at SBS are recognized worldwide for their quality. From the start, I enjoyed the challenge, the teamwork and the peer support within the unit. The constant search for an appropriate English expression for a given Japanese dialogue helped me increase my understanding of the depth and subtlety of the English language and its logic. It is said that ‘poetry is what gets lost in translation’, which is a valid statement. But it seemed to me that some people say ‘you can’t express the subtlety [of the original language] in English’ too often and too easily. Working closely with various editors, I was often amazed at the extent of ‘subtlety’ one can achieve in English

1

Japanese names in the text are in Japanese order: Surname followed by given name.

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translation. Subtitling at SBS fostered in me a belief that good communication between cultures is possible and that bad communication is also possible. It was another stroke of luck that, when I began looking for an opportunity for a Ph.D. research, Dr John Clark (now professor at the Department of Art History and Theory, University of Sydney) had arrived in Australia 2 years earlier to teach Japanese art history at the Australian National University and supported my application. Under his supervision, I wrote a thesis on modern Japanese craft movements. My previous study on the English Arts & Crafts Movement provided me with a good foundation for my interpretation of the Japanese movements.

3. Work as the Curator of Japanese Art at the Art Gallery of New South Wales I joined the Gallery as a part-time curatorial assistant in 1993 while writing my Ph.D., which I completed in 1995, and became the full-time curator of Japanese art in 1996. Unlike some European countries and America, until recently Australia did not have a large number of high-quality examples of Japanese art in public collections. Needless to say, access to inspiring artworks is fundamental in fostering interest in an otherwise alien culture among the local population, and the lack of such artworks has been the major hindrance in an appreciation of Japanese art. Since 1979 when the Asian Art Department was first set up, the Art Gallery of New South Wales has been very active in collecting Japanese art under the initiative of the director, Edmund Capon, and the curator, Jackie Menzies (now Head Curator of Asian Art). Their enthusiasm was supported by some individuals, particularly the late Kenneth and Yasuko Myer. With their assistance the Gallery purchased some major works from the Edo period, around which the present collection has been built. My core duties at the Gallery were to document, care for, display and communicate the Japanese collection. The strength of the Gallery’s Japanese collection was the art of the Edo period, particularly the ukiyo-e school of the commoners’ art and the nanga school of the dilettante’s art. As I did not have substantial knowledge on those objects at the time, to communicate the objects through talks, texts and labels was a challenge, to say the least. I often asked myself, ‘Am I supposed to know everything?’ and ‘If it is impossible to be an expert in everything, what could I do to provide a bridge between the objects and the Australian public, to whom the Gallery belongs?’ The group of people I initially identified as my audience were white Australian gallery goers. As it was easier to put faces to the target audience, I focused on the members of the Art Gallery Society, who were educated and generally had experience of visiting overseas museums, but were largely unfamiliar with Japanese art. On the basis of my own study and experience of Western art, I tried to relate aspects of Japanese art to this target audience. Now and then, I was caught off guard when I found myself speaking on wrong presuppositions to students from an Asian cultural

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background or to a group of Chinese people. These experiences were reminders that one needed to know the audience before speaking to them. I set myself the task of making my audience, feel that Japanese art was worth looking at, and that viewing it might be an enchanting personal experience. I could not find a ready reference that would help me in this direction, so I had to come up with a method of my own. For my part, I sympathized with my audience because, as I mentioned earlier, classical Japanese art was, to a certain extent, alien to me also. So first I had to convince myself that Japanese art was worth looking at, and that viewing of it is an enchanting personal experience – through a little soulsearching, cold observation and the analysis of my own experience. Since I had arrived in Australia, I came across manners, customs and behaviour of people around me that seemed at first incomprehensible. But once I understood the logic behind them they made sense to me. It also occurred to me that the reason I always felt comfortable with Western art was that the underlying ideas – the mythology, the history and the literature – were familiar to me through my early reading. As for Japanese literature, on the other hand, I had read little in comparison. My training in history taught me the importance of knowing the literature in an understanding of the period. So I set out to read Japanese classics, as well as historical novels set in pre-modern Japan. One of the reasons for the difficulties I had in grasping Japanese art history when I was writing my MA thesis was that the fundamental ideas – or philosophy – behind the material culture seemed lacking. This was due to the fact that the prehistoric Japanese culture had not been written up properly until after World War II. In pre-war Japan, imperial mythology was taught as history and vigorous historical enquiries stopped short of presenting answers, lest they were seen to be undermining the imperial authority. For this reason, it seemed to me that Japanese history, let alone art history, lacked the sense of clarity that is the strong tradition of its Western counterpart. During my MA research I came across Tanikawa Tetsuz¯o (1895–1989), a philosopher who used aesthetics to link prehistoric Japan directly to the present in his theory of Jōmon and Yayoi prototypes. Taniakwa claims that Japanese art has its aesthetic roots in two prototypes: the one observed in the typical clay vessel from the J¯omon period (10,000–300 bce) – which is decorative, organic and lively to the extent of being grotesque, while the other – the Yayoi prototype – manifest in the typical clay vessel from the Yayoi period (300 bce–300 ce) – simple, geometric and serene. He argues that, while both prototypes are native to Japan, over the centuries Japanese art has developed by shedding the J¯ōmon influence and thus sharpening the native sensitivity for simplicity and serenity of the Yayoi prototype. However, the J¯ōmon aesthetic, which has a strong root in the northeast region where the prehistoric culture flourished, breaks through the surface in times of political and social uncertainty such as the Momoyama period (late sixteenth century). It also finds expression in non-mainstream cultures. Tanikawa gives examples of the two contrasting aesthetics in the heavily decorated Tokugawa mausoleum, Tōshōg¯ū, Nikkō, as against the extremely simple and elegant Katsura, the Detached Imperial Palace outside Kyoto. Another, more subtle contrast, is between the organic and lively images of Hokusai (1760–1849) and the serene and poetic images of

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Hiroshige (1797–1858). In fact, three pairs of images – typical Jōmmon and Yayoi clay pots, the Yōmeimon Gate of Tōshōgū alongside a tearoom in Katsura and Hokusai’s Great Wave next to Hiroshige’s The Sea at Setta in Suruga Province eloquently speak the point, as do the juxtaposition of a Greek sculpture and Renaissance painting. I have seen scholars – both Japanese and non-Japanese – begin an introduction of Japanese art with an explanation why the Japanese paintings lack the linear perspective and chiaroscuro, which are the fundamental concepts of Western painting. I feel that it is more important to take viewers beyond the formal expression and ask what they actually see in the painting. I have found Tanikawa’s theory useful for this purpose, as it provides the audience with a tool to grasp the fundamental concept in Japanese art, which, I believe, is aesthetic taste. The Tuesday lunchtime lecture series on Asian art started in 1997. It was yet another initiative by the Gallery to provide learning opportunities for the public and art students. The project was supported by the Gordon Darling Foundation and the late Goldie Sternberg, an important patron of Chinese art for the Gallery. The series provided me with opportunities to learn about, as well as present, the wider aspects of Japanese art – from the prehistoric ceramics to twentieth century paintings, crafts and prints. In those talks, I tried to explain the cultural background and the particular aesthetic that underlies the images, rather than explain the styles. Concurrently with the lecture series, regular educational activities for schools and the general public have been run by Ann MacArthur, a Japanese-speaking coordinator of Asian programmes. The tearoom within the Japan Gallery is used to demonstrate the tea ceremony for school groups. Ink painting, origami and other activities relating to seasonal festivals are held with increasing frequency. I remember in 2000, when volunteer guides were taken around the exhibition, ‘Fragrant Space: Chinese Flower-and-Bird Paintings from the Ming and Qing Dynasties’, one volunteer guide commented: ‘Ten years ago, we couldn’t tell if a painting was Chinese or Japanese. Now we can.’ Sometime around 2000, a small incident woke me up to the importance of the Gallery’s volunteer guides. I routinely changed the displays in the Japan Gallery, as works on paper and silk are sensitive to light and cannot be displayed for an extended period at any one time. Such changes also gave us the opportunity to show different works in the collection. Rehanging works would involve planning new themes, organizing the installation crew and conservators as well as writing labels. One day, I was in the Japan Gallery, having finished hanging and happy with the result, when I saw a distressed volunteer guide walking through the display. She said, ‘I’m guiding in a half an hour and you’ve changed the display!’ Obviously, I had taken down some works she was planning to talk about. I felt responsible for the poor guide’s predicament. After this incident, I approached a coordinating guide and offered to inform her of forthcoming changes to the display. But it was my experience of being on guided tours through some of the major exhibitions that I organize for a group of people a few times each year, that made me realize the role of the volunteer guides as a direct link between the display and the public. Exhibition tour guides, be it a curator or a volunteer guide, usually select

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several works from each room to focus on, and the selection is often personal. I have been on a few tours of the same exhibition, and the selection of works was almost entirely different on each tour. Even when the same work was explained, the angle was not the same. Inevitably, each group is informed of the exhibition slightly differently. This is not a bad thing, of course, and the enthusiasm of the guides is infectious. I have seen most visitors leave satisfied with the experience, or go through the exhibition again after the guided tour. Thus the visitor’s experience of an exhibition often depends on the volunteer guides and the more information the guides have the more scope there is for the depth of understanding and personal interpretation that makes the tour lively and informative. As I thought about the relationship between the guide and visitors, it dawned on me that, as the volunteer guides put a lot of work into learning and interpreting the works, if they were not convinced that viewing Japanese art could be a life-enhancing experience, there was little chance that the public could be convinced of it. I thus began working with the guides as much as I could, and it seems this contributed to the success of the ‘Seasons’ exhibition: all the guides involved in the exhibition found that the people who joined the tour at the start would not leave it until the very end, while at other exhibitions they usually see at least some people wander off. At the same time, many visitors to the exhibition I know told me that they were very impressed with the guides’ knowledge of the works. More than a few Japanese people commented that they were amazed that the guides knew so much more about Japanese art than they did.

4. Exhibitions 1998–2002 A good exhibition attracts both specialists and the public. From the time I started at the Gallery, however, Jackie Menzies told me about her experience of disappointments in mounting important exhibitions of Asian art, yet visitors not coming in. She often said, ‘People come to see what they know’, implying that people do not know Asian art, therefore they do not want to see it, let alone pay to see it. An exception was the ukiyo-e woodblock print from the Edo period, which many people ‘know’. Uikyo-e prints are familiar images to the West, and many people are aware of their influence on the Impressionists and Post-Impressionists. It is therefore not surprising that people ‘know’ them, and that they remain popular today. In order to compensate for this unfamiliarity, an easy entry point, a strong story, needs to be created to encourage more people to engage with Japanese art. Each of the successful exhibitions such as ‘Modern Boy, Modern Girl’ and ‘Seasons: The Beauty of Transience in Japanese Art’ had such an entry point, which was also clear from the title. In fact, I often wonder if ‘Seasons’ would have been as successful as it was, had it had a different title such as ‘Masterpieces of Japanese Art’. In many ways, ‘Seasons’ became a milestone in the representation of Japanese art in Australia: it was a highly successful exhibition in terms of both the visitor numbers and its public reception. I would like to discuss the exhibition in more detail later, but first I would like to give a brief survey of the earlier exhibitions of Japanese art.

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According to the Gallery record, there have been 48 temporary Japanese art exhibitions since the establishment of the Gallery. Of these, in the 1940s there was 1; in the 1950s 5; in the 1960s 7; in the 1970s 1; in the 1980s 16; in the 1990s 13 and in the 2000s 5.2 I have omitted two Ikebana displays from the list of exhibitions, as the works were created by local practitioners and were shown only for short periods. There may have been other shows left out of the list. Also, one needs to take into account that a permanent display space for Japanese art has been created within the Gallery from around 1980, according to Jackie Menzies. The purpose of the list is not to analyse the historical development of Japanese art exhibitions at the Art Gallery, but to make a few points: before the establishment of the Asian Art Department in 1979, the only form of Japanese art that enjoyed regular public exposure was the ukiyo-e woodblock print. Exhibitions of ukiyo-e prints from private collections and the Gallery’s own collections comprise half of those held between 1946 and 1979.

Titles of exhibitions of Japanese art that have been held in the New South Wales Gallery (the titles displayed in brackets are exhibitions including Japanese art. I thank Ann MacArthur for drawing my attention to this material): 2

1940s Loan collection of Japanese Woodcuts and Colour Progressives (1946) 1950s Japanese Colour Prints: a loan exhibition from the collection of Dr. Eugen Milch (1952), Japanese Woodcuts (1955), The Hiroshima Panels: Iri Maruki and Toshiko Akamatsu (1958), Contemporary Japanese Art (1958), Japanese Colour Woodcuts (1959) 1960s Japanese Prints from the Permanent Collection (1962), Modern Japanese Prints (1962), Pottery by Shoji Hamada and Bernard Leach (1965), Japanese Woodcuts: from the Permanent Collection (1965), Japanese Colour Woodcuts (1966), Dolls from Japan (1967), Sōfū in Australia (1968) 1970s The Art of Surface: A Survey of Contemporary Japanese Art (1973) 1980s Sōdeisha: Avant-Garde Japanese Ceramics (1980), Japanese Paintings of the Edo Period: A Selection from the Collection (1981), (The Uses of Asian Art) (1982), Japan: Masterpieces from the Idemitsu Collection (1982), Project 42: Contemporary Japanese Potters in Australia (1983), (Asian Art from the Collection) (1984), Landscape, Chromosome and Magic: Installation and Performance by Goji Hamada (1984), Hiroshige: the 53 Stages of the Tōkaidō (1985), Japanese Arms and Armour (1985), Sengai: the Zen Master: Painting from the Idemitsu Museum of Arts, Tokyo (1985), Japanese Art from the Collection (1986), (Asian Works from the Collection) (1987), Munakata: the Woodcut Genius of Japan (1987/88), Japanese Art from the Collection (1988), The Ceramic Traditions of Japan: Master Works from the Idemitsu Museum of Arts, Tokyo (1988/89), (The Four Seasons: an Introduction to the Art of China and Japan) (1989) 1990s Twentieth Century Japanese Prints (1990), Japanese Contemporary Clay Works (1990), Asahi Ceramic Art Exhibition – Sydney (1991), Print Works by Contemporary Japanese Artists (1992), The Urban Bonsai [Contemporary Japanese Prints] (1993), The Floating World: Japan’s World of Transient Pleasures (1994), (Buddhist Art from the Collection) (1995), (The Art of the Brush) (1995), Texture and Touch: Contemporary Japanese Photography (1995), Shiga the Potter (1997), Modern Boy, Modern Girl: Modernity in Japanese Art 1910–1935 (1998), Light Pictures: the Photographs of Nakayama Iwata and Nojima Yasuzō (1999), (Treasures of Asian Art [from the Rockefeller Collection]) (1999) 2000s Hanga: Japanese Creative Prints (2000/01), Heroes and Villains from Japan’s Floating World (2001), (Buddha – Radiant Awakening) (2001/2002), 100 Views of Mount Fuji (2002), Seasons: the Beauty of Transience in Japanese Art (2003).

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One can also note from the list that since 1980 the scope of Japanese art exhibitions has significantly expanded. Apart from ‘Modern Boy, Modern Girl’ and ‘Seasons’, the two exhibitions co-organized with Japanese government agencies, these also included some epoch-making works from different genres and periods in Japanese art history: major works of modern and contemporary photography were shown; as for ukiyo-e, Hokusai and Hiroshige were represented by their most important series; the ceramics tradition was represented by the renowned Idemitsu Collection and the Rockefeller collection included stunning examples of Japanese sculpture, painting and ceramics. The first major exhibition of Japanese art was ‘Japan: Masterpieces from the Idemitsu Collection’ held in 1982. The works in the exhibition – screen paintings, scrolls and ceramics – represented a selection from one of the most highly respected private Japanese museums. While some people recognized the quality of these works and still remember the exhibition clearly, people in general did not know the works, so they could not relate to them. It is no wonder, then, that the exhibition failed to attract wider attention from members of the public. It required 20 years of groundwork in education and the promotion of Asian art before the success of the 2003 exhibition, ‘Seasons’. ‘Modern Boy, Modern Girl: Modernity in Japanese Art 1910–1935’ was the first major exhibition I was involved in. Drawing from various Japanese and Sydney collections, it showed the paintings (in both Western and Japanese styles), sculpture, craft and graphics of modern Japan. The exhibition was conceived by Dr John Clark, then at the School of Asian Studies at the University of Sydney. He suggested the idea to Jackie Menzies, who agreed to hold the show at the Art Gallery of New South Wales. John Clark then took the idea to Sakai Tadayasu, Director of the Museum of Modern Art, Kamakura, who agreed to co-organize the exhibition and also secured the Japan Foundation’s involvement. The University of Sydney organized a symposium on modern Japanese culture and art to coincide with the exhibition. ‘Modern Boy, Modern Girl’ did not show things the public knew yet the exhibition turned out to be a success. It provided an easy entry: modernity in visual art was something the Australian audiences could easily relate to. Furthermore, it showed for the first time in Australia what had been happening in Japan between the period that produced the images of ukiyo-e prints and contemporary Japanese art. People were intrigued and taken by surprise when they saw what they least expected to see, and one critic welcomed the exhibition as it ‘not only challenges many impressions (of Japanese art), it also gives a clue to where Japanese contemporary art draws much of its influence’ (Hawkins, 1998, p. 32). At the planning stage of the exhibition, the Australian curators were concerned that many of the works that were considered masterpieces in Japan, particularly the oil paintings, would be seen only as being derivative of modern Western styles. Jackie Menzies, who knew her audience well, argued for the inclusion of more nihonga, the modern paintings in traditional media and styles, because one could see the Western influence on them more clearly. This strategy obviously worked, as Anthony Clarke observed:

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The Western influences … can be clearly traced in the works on show. But it would be wrong to see these fascinating works as simply derived from Western culture. The Japanese heritage underlies the assimilation in often startling ways. The painting Inoculation by Ōta Cho¯u has the grace and charm of a traditional pillow book, but with Western medical technology, not eroticism, the focus. (Clarke, 1998, p. 31)

The need to adjust the exhibition to cater for the Japanese and Australian audiences eventually created two separate exhibitions for Kamakura and Sydney, each with its own catalogue, rather than one travelling exhibition with a bilingual catalogue. The Museum of Modern Art, Kamakura, is the oldest modern art museum in Japan and has done pioneering work on Japanese avant-garde artists. Mizusawa Tsutomu, its senior curator and the co-curator of the exhibition, decided to take this opportunity to show a large amount of research material on the culture of the modern Japan. In the end, the exhibition at Kamakura consisted of some 500 objects, many of which would have had little relevance for an Australian audience. The Sydney exhibition, on the other hand, featured a number of nihonga that were not shown in Kamakura. For the performing arts, the Takarazuka, the ‘girls only’ theatre in Osaka that began in 1914, was featured in Sydney, while Kamakura chose a Tokyo-based theatre, the objects for which were deemed too fragile to travel overseas. By and large, however, the core works remained the same. In terms of curatorial cooperation, John Clark and Mizusawa Tsutomu provided the theoretical framework, which Jackie Menzies modified to make it work for the Australian audience. Menzies edited the English catalogue, which in effect put Sydney on the international map of innovative Japanese art exhibitions. One critic commented: The exhibition’s catalogue will become a collector’s item – its essays and illustrations make up the first English-language exploration of a fascinating era in art as culture interacted with culture to produce a dynamic hybrid of unique lineage. (Anthony Clarke, 1998, pp. 31–35).

The success of the exhibition, I believe, came from the strong contextual structure as well as the quality of the works displayed. With some 250 objects, ranging from paintings, sculpture, crafts, prints, graphics, photographs and magazines, it was difficult to ignore the fact that the infatuation with things Western had seized every facet of Japanese society, which was the point of the exhibition. For most visitors, perhaps the least expected group of works was the last section ‘When the workers’ song stopped’, showing the art of the proletarian movement. Yanase Masamu’s Hold Hands with 50,000 Readers: Read the Proletarian Newspaper, Friend of the People; an illustration of a large red hand emerging from a newspaper page, seemed to surprise many who had never imagined that socialist movement had existed in pre-war Japan. The period shown in the exhibition ended in 1935, by which time the government had crushed all socialist and liberal movements and organized artists under its supervision in preparation for the all-out war efforts to follow. In the following year, Judy Annear, Senior Curator of Photography, organized ‘Light Pictures’, an exhibition of photographs by two of the most prominent modern Japanese photographers whose works were also featured in ‘Modern Boy,

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Modern Girl’. The title (Kōga in Japanese) was taken from the magazine issued by a group of photographers and the exhibition was drawn from two major Japanese collections. It featured many stunning photographs rarely displayed even in Japan. In 2000, I obtained funds from Japan and was able to mount ‘Hanga: Japanese Creative Prints’, an exhibition featuring modernist movements in printmaking, which followed ‘Light Pictures’ in focusing another aspects of modernism shown in the 1998 exhibition. Hanga is a generic term meaning ‘block/plate pictures’ while the ‘Creative Prints’, or sōsaku hanga, refers to a group of prints which emerged in the first decades of the twentieth century in response to works by modern European print artists – ironically, particularly those who had themselves been influenced by Japanese ukiyo-e prints, such as William Nicholson (1872–1949) and Henri Rivière (1864–1951). The Japanese artists positioned themselves against the contemporary practice of making prints as faithful reproductions of the original design by artisans, and claimed that the artist should control the whole process of the production – the design, the blockcutting and the printing – to maintain the artistic integrity of the work. Since the 1980s a lot of research work on ‘Creative Prints’ had been carried out in Japan, which provided me with a ready reference. In 1999, when I made a 3-month research trip to Japan, courtesy of an Art Gallery Society scholarship, I did much of the groundwork for the exhibition, visiting museums and meeting and discussing with scholars and curators, who were most generous in assisting me. Although there had been a number of publications and exhibitions which have focused on ‘Creative Prints’ in Japan, one thing always puzzled me: they all end with the war (1931–1945) without any clear explanation why. The war was, after all, an outside factor that physically stopped artists from producing prints, but did it influence the shift in the artists’ consciousness and their attitude towards the medium? From my point of view, the gap between the pre-war sōsaku hanga and those from the 1950s had not been properly addressed. I wanted to redefine sōsaku hanga and hanga in a way that made sense to me, so I focused on the artist’s intentions – their urge for self-expression and an identity as artist, and came to believe that sōsaku hanga had ended around 1930, to be absorbed in the generic term hanga. The war, on the other hand, did have an enormous impact on Japanese artists, so I decided to include Hamada Chimei’s war images from the 1950s for two reasons. Firstly, because his expressive style had much in common with the three artists I selected for the last section, ‘Consolidation of Hanga and the individualists: 1930s–1950s’. Secondly, I considered it important to include the images of war, the images that a soldier would have seen, thus making the historical context clear to a non-Japanese audience. Two Japanese specialists agreed to contribute essays for the catalogue, which have made the publication an in-depth reference on the subject in the English language. ‘Heroes and Villains: from Japan’s Floating World’ was a collection based of male images in ukiyo-e, which I curated in 2001. It had been on the agenda since Menzies curated her 1994 ukiyo-e exhibition, ‘The Floating World’, which focused on the images of women. There were two things I wanted to achieve in this exhibition. During my research trip in 1999 I was fortunate to have the support of the Tokugawa Art Museum, Nagoya, which kindly accepted me for 2 weeks as an intern. This private museum

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had been established by the descendants of a branch of the Tokugawa shogunate family and is known for its rich and prestigious collection. Furthermore, the museum has a strong focus, unique among Japanese museums: its collection represents the culture of daimyō, the feudal lord. It is also the only museum in which objects are displayed in context: a formal zashiki, or the reception room, a tearoom and a nō stage are built into the respective display rooms in which the objects are placed as they would have been in the past. Spending time with these objects made me aware that the culture and art of the samurai class was not properly represented in the Gallery. After all, this class had ruled Japan for 700 years and its influence cannot be ignored. The Gallery has some good examples of the art of the samurai class, and I felt they should be articulated as such. When I interviewed Mr Tokugawa, the director of the museum, he told me that his aesthetic priorities were reflected in the display at the Tokugawa Museum: the swords, the most important object for the class, are displayed with the utmost reverence, the display enhancing their beauty as art objects. It was a revelation to me. With the ‘Heroes and Villains’ exhibition, I planned to present the male image in three categories: the samurai, the aristocrat and the commoner, representing chivalry, elegant refinement and iki or stylish wit, respectively. It was during the preparation of this exhibition that the idea of clearly articulating the distinct aesthetics behind a group of works began to take shape in my mind. To a certain extent, this had always been done in presenting selections in the Gallery’s permanent display, but I felt I had not put enough effort into clearly identifying each aesthetic in social and cultural contexts. There was a major difficulty, however, in trying to do this with the ‘Heroes and Villains’ exhibition. It was rather a contradiction in terms to try to present different aesthetics mostly through ukiyo-e, which is the commoners’ art. I made this point clear when speaking to the volunteer guides. At the same time, I wanted to include objects that would correct this aesthetic imbalance as well as enhance the viewing experience. Through Lesley Kehoe, a friend and dealer in Melbourne, I was able to borrow some beautiful objects from private collectors: swords, sword furniture and inrō for the ‘samurai’ display, and some lacquerware, including a magnificent incense game set and a writing box inscribed with a poem in maki-e (sprinkled gold) for the ‘aristocrat’ display. The Melbourne sword collector, Colin McDonald, Lesley informed me, was the foremost expert of Japanese swords in the country. He was also very particular about how the sword should be displayed, and with his help the swords were shown as superb works of art. The presence of the swords and sword furniture (including some spectacular mounts) went some way towards articulating the samurai aesthetic. It was also the first display of Japanese armour at the Gallery since 1985, when an exhibition was organized by Menzies, Kehoe and Major Ian Brookes, a specialist in Japanese swords. The Asian Gallery had been closed for construction work earlier that year, and discussion on the new display to open in October 2003 was under way. I was keen to include a display of swords and armour, and was pleased to secure an agreement between the Gallery and Colin McDonald for an ongoing loan from his own and his friends’ collections.

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After the major summer exhibition, ‘Buddha: the Radiant Awakening’ from November 2001 to February 2002, ‘100 Views of Mount Fuji’ from June to August was the only Asian art exhibition in 2002 It was an exhibition from the British Museum collection that had been shown in the UK in the previous year, curated by Timothy Clark, assistant keeper of Japanese antiquities. A renowned specialist in pre-modern Japanese paintings and ukiyo-e prints, Clark brought the works to Sydney and went out of his way to promote the show in the media and share his knowledge of the works with the volunteer guides. The exhibition featured a complete set of Hokusai’s ‘Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji’, including the Great Wave off Kanagawa, one of the most famous images in the world. His 100 Views of Mount Fuji, a three-volume printed book from which Clark had taken the title of the exhibition, was also on display, although due to the nature of the format only three images could be shown. The exhibition also included a large number of Hiroshige’s prints, vividly making the contrast between the styles of the two great artists of the medium. Thus, the show had all the ingredients needed for success: a theme that anyone could understand – Mount Fuji as Japan’s symbol; the ever-popular ukiyo-e prints, the famous names and the quality associated with it and the authority of the British Museum. The Gallery also held a study day, which was well attended.

5. Exhibition ‘Seasons: the Beauty of Transience in Japanese Art’ ‘Seasons: The Beauty of Transience in Japanese art’ was a landmark exhibition both for the presentation and the reception of Japanese art in Australia. It was coorganized by the Agency for Cultural Affairs of the Japanese Government (Bunkachō), the Japan Foundation and the Art Gallery of New South Wales, in association with the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo. As an agency within the Ministry of Education and Science, the Bunkachō has two functions: to protect culturally significant Japanese artworks and to promote Japanese art overseas. Its exhibitions are recognized worldwide as virtually the only opportunities for overseas institutions to bring a number of significant works of art out of Japan. In 1999, it sent delegates to Australia with the idea of holding its exhibition in the continent for the first time, and selected the Art Gallery of New South Wales for the venue. The preparations for the exhibition began in 2000 with a meeting in Tokyo to discuss the theme of the exhibition. The theme of ‘seasons’ was proposed by the Gallery as a basic concept that has continued through the centuries in Japanese visual arts. The Bunkachō and the Gallery began working on the list of works to be shown in the exhibition. The reason that the concept of seasons is fundamental to Japanese art is twofold: it reflects the people’s perception of nature and life, and traditional Japanese art was primarily devoted to making objects for use. Folding screens, hanging scrolls, ceramics, lacquer and textiles were adorned with the varying (and often multi-layered)

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symbolism of seasonal motifs. With those objects around them, the Japanese people took the seasons into their life and their life into the seasons. It is often said that the Japanese people are uniquely sensitive to nature. Our obsession with cherry blossoms and autumn leaves is a well-known example. Having lived in Australia for many years, however, it has always been clear to me that not every Japanese person is necessarily sensitive to nature of his or her own accord. Yet, there is something that urges the Japanese people, when spring comes, to go and view the cherry blossoms. What I wanted to achieve with the exhibition was demystify the so-called unique Japanese sensitivity to nature by presenting to the Australian audience a logical explanation as to why the Japanese people perceive seasons the way they do. Such an understanding, rather than stylistic explanation, would remove psychological barriers to the art and enhance the viewer’s experience. It was decided that the theme of the Arts of Asia lecture series for 2002 was to be ‘nature’, to prepare the course participants for the ‘Seasons’ exhibition in the following year. I was scheduled to give a lecture entitled ‘Seasons: a Japanese Passion’ in April, which set a deadline for me to work on the topic. When considering the Japanese concept of seasons, poetry immediately comes to the mind.3 From the start, I wanted to use poems as vehicles for communication in the exhibition. A short poem, rather than a long text, can convey deep human sentiments and provoke an instant understanding of an image in the viewer. But there is another reason that makes poems a suitable guide to Japanese art: from the earliest times, poetry and images have been bonded in Japanese art. This was due to the fact that poetry was part of basic education. It was taught from an early age and those who could read and write would learn to express their feelings in the form of a poem. At the ancient imperial court, emperors and courtiers composed poems at various occasions from religious observances and formal celebrations to love exchanges and amusements, and many of the poems were recorded. In these poems, the participants competed in describing their feelings through their observation of nature. For example, Princess Nukata (seventh century) wrote a tanka (short poem of 31 syllables): While I wait for you, My lord, lost in this longing, Suddenly there comes A stirring of my window blind: The autumn wind is blowing. (Cranson, p. 177)

The aristocracy trained themselves in expressing their feelings by way of reference to aspects of nature as in this Princess Nukata’s poem. Here, the cool autumn wind, impregnated with the impending desolation of winter, is used to convey the author’s melancholy mood. This sentiment is decidedly aristocratic: for the general population engaged in agricultural production, autumn was the harvest time, a time for

On this subject, Professor Shimizu Yoshiaki at Princeton University provided me with some of the most inspiring references, suggesting that I read, among others, Wheelwright (1989). 3

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celebration. Through these exchanges of poetry, this perception of nature was further polished by the courtiers of the tenth century. The learned class – the aristocrats and Buddhist priests – would read in the changing faces of nature the transient nature of life itself, and they competed against each other to express their feelings in a refined manner, as expressed by Dōgen, a thirteenth century priest: Spring is the cherry blossom Summer is the cuckoo Autumn is the moon And in winter, the shimmering snow is fresh to the eye.

This four-line poem so directly and succinctly conveys the Japanese preoccupation with seasons that I thought it a perfect vehicle to spread the message of the exhibition. While the poem provides an easy entry point by way of the naming of seasonal icons, the more one understands the Japanese frame of mind, the deeper and broader its meaning becomes. Naturally, not everyone is a good poet. But if one’s career or success in love depended on it, one would strive to learn it. A level of competence could be achieved through systematic study of earlier, celebrated poems and thus, imperial anthologies became such canonical texts. Dr Kihara Toshie, the principal curator of this exhibition, pointed out that the Anthology of Ancient and Contemporary Poems (Kokin waka shū), the first imperial anthology compiled under the Imperial Decree of 905, was particularly important in this context. The selectors of this anthology placed the poems of seasons first before all other subjects – love, felicitations, parting, mourning and so on. Some 20 imperial anthologies that followed adopted this format. In other words, the public nature of Japanese poetry ensured that observation of nature and reference to it was a basic and essential part of formal learning. As a result of this practice, certain seasonal objects – such as flowers, birds and the weather – entered the poetic vocabulary that was shared by all. But how, did this aesthetic established by tenth-century aristocrats become relevant to all Japanese culture and art? The answer is because the samurai warriors who replaced the aristocracy and became the rulers from the late twelfth century revered their predecessors as the guardians of the Japanese classical tradition. While creating their own culture in the form of performance art, music and visual art, the warriors patronized the aristocrats and sought their advice on literary studies of poetry and classic literature such as the tenth century Tales of Ise and the eleventh century Tale of Genji. Canons of poetry such as the Anthology of Ancient and Contemporary Poems were an essential part of reading. Needless to say, the poetic images depicted by the warriors and later by commoners were quite different from those of aristocracy, as their inspiration was based on their own experience. Yet, the classical canons were respected, in the spirit described by Fujiwara Teika, a thirteenth century courtier poet: ‘Let the words be old and the sentiment new’. With the spread of education, the sensitivity to seasonal changes thus was disseminated among the wider population. Another factor which I believe has helped disseminate the poetry tradition is the existence of wide categories of poetry that are created for amusement rather than artistic expression. They include kyōka, senryū, and dodoitsu that take a witty, and often sarcastic or even crude, view of society and human nature in the same or similar

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format as tanka or haiku. However, together with artistic poems they accept and find expressions of all feelings and emotions in the human being. For centuries, the Japanese people have kept the tradition of setting a moment aside from the hustle and bustle of everyday life to observe nature and compose a poem – either in public or in private. Seasonal observances have provided such occasions – the cherry-blossom viewing, the star festival and the moon viewing and so on. The falling cherry blossom, for example, would stop Japanese viewers and remind them of these ancient poems that are embedded in the Japanese mind: On a balmy, sunny spring day A restless mind they must have The falling cherry blossoms. [Ki no Tomonori, ? –905?]

Or: The colour of the blossoms is gone now With the long spring rain Like my looks, gone, while I pondered on life. [Ono no Komachi, 9th century]

And the bright autumn moon may remind one of another familiar poem: Gazing at the moon brings myriad of sad thoughts Although autumn is not here just for myself. [(Ōe no Chisato [9th–10th century)]

So my explanation for the Japanese preoccupation with nature is: what is often seen as an instinctive Japanese sensitivity to the seasons is in fact a conditioned response triggered by a whole range of seasonal ‘icons’. The conditioning factor, or the collective memory, has been accumulated since the ancient aristocratic sensitivity began to identify human sentiments with aspects of the changing seasons. The uniqueness, then, is not in the sensitivity itself but the culture and society that have embraced it for a 1,000 years. When the myth of the ‘innate sensitivity to nature’ is cleared away, I believe, the weight of cultural tradition becomes visible, yet nonthreatening to those outside the culture, because they feel they can understand it. Once I was clear about the message I wanted to convey through the exhibition, I structured my talks and briefing of the volunteer guides’ around it. I wanted the guides to feel confident that they understood the culture behind the artworks. The Japan side curating the exhibition provided the Gallery with information on all the objects, which, together with a catalogue essay by Kihara Toshie, provided us with a wealth of material in terms of the connections between poetry and image from the earliest times. The stories relating to the works were most useful for the guides to describe the objects to their audience. For my part, I tried to include as many poems as possible in the wall texts. Erica Drew, the exhibition manager, suggested that we selected a text for the exit wall, for the visitors to ponder on before leaving the show. I picked the first passage from The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, an eleventh century court lady, describing the best time of the day for each season. She gives vivid images – such as crows returning to their nests in an autumn evening, seen against the evening sky behind the silhouette of the mountains. It was satisfying to see large numbers of people eagerly reading the text.

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Japanese art objects are very fragile, and all the Bunkachō exhibition works on paper, textile and lacquer had to be changed halfway through the exhibition. Usually, each work is replaced by a similar one. For the ‘Seasons’, the Gallery suggested structuring the exhibition around the changeover and creating two exhibitions: the one on the theme of ‘spring to summer’ being followed by ‘autumn to winter’. There was a suggestion that, because the show would start in winter and end in spring, ‘autumn to winter’ should come first. It was argued, however, that the show should open with the cherry blossoms that are so important to the heart of the Japanese. This was the first experience for the Gallery of changing almost all the objects halfway through the exhibition. It was also the first time for Bunkachō to split an exhibition into two different themes. Another new feature for the Agency was the inclusion of twentieth century works, selected by the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo. This worked well, too, firstly because the modern works reiterated the continuity of the seasonal theme to the modern age, and secondly, because they were painted primarily as exhibition pieces, they looked particularly appealing in this setting. The works in the exhibition were exquisite. When they were being taken out of their boxes, I had to keep telling myself that I was not dreaming. True, each exhibition is always a surprise when the curator, having worked for years with slides and photocopies of the works, actually sees them physically unwrapped. But for me to see so many important works that I had either never actually seen before, or seen only briefly at special exhibitions in Japan was a truly moving experience. And this quality was the primary reason for the show’s success: one journalist commented on the exhibition in a radio programme: ‘You’ve seen Japanese art here and there, but these are the real things!’ The design of the space, in which Erica Drew included a wooden arc bridge and small ‘Zen gardens’, also enhanced the atmosphere. The exhibition proved to be an unprecedented success and the number of visitors exceeded projections by almost 70%. Many people came twice to see both displays. The volunteer guide who gave the first tour of the second display said that everyone in her group had said they had seen the first display and came back to see the second. But more important than the number of visitors was the fact that many who had had little previous knowledge of Japanese art went away with an understanding – to varied degrees – of how the Japanese feel about the seasons and were satisfied with what they had seen, which I gathered from my own observation and from reports from the volunteer guides as well as the security attendants. The success of the exhibition also owes much to the various public programmes for teachers, schools and the public, as well as the thoughtful selection of the free film programme. To discuss these, however, is outside the scope of this article.

6. The New Japan Gallery Display As I mentioned earlier, refurbishing of the existing Asian Gallery after the completion of a new Asian gallery above it prompted a new display. It was decided that the works be shown in groups according to historically and socially

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defined aesthetic criteria. At the reopening in October 2003 objects were grouped in ‘the art of the samurai’, ‘the floating world’, ‘the tea aesthetic’, ‘nanga’, ‘sensitivities to the seasons’, ‘the ceramic tradition’ and ‘goblins and supernatural beings’. I feel that the grouping of works according to different aesthetics and clearly defining them is fundamental to an effective display of Japanese art. In response to public demand for more information on the objects, more texts were to accompany the display. Although the Gallery needs more objects that are representative of various aspects of the art, given the collection and the supportive individuals who are willing to lend their collection has enabled this. The permanent display of Japanese art at the Art Gallery of New South Wales will serve as the focal point in Australia for the increasing number of students studying it as well as the general public.

7. Conclusion A friend, a curator in Taiwan, once said that one should not judge the success of an exhibition by the number of visitors to it: a good exhibition is one that makes people ask questions and provides entry points for different people at different levels. ‘In the case of Japanese art exhibitions’, she said to me, ‘ask yourself if the visitor has walked out of the exhibition with an increased knowledge of Japanese art’. I have taken her advice to heart. ‘Seasons’ provided a wonderful opportunity for the Gallery to make a leap forward in the presentation of Japanese art in Australia. It made people ask questions while providing multilevel entries to a wide range of visitors, from experts to the uninitiated. An exhibition of this calibre is rare. But more than anything, it was the many years of groundwork by the Gallery through collecting, displaying, educating the public and promoting Japanese art that contributed to its success. For me, this has been an eye-opening experience. But a great deal of continuous work will be required to maintain and develop these achievements. During the last a few years, particularly after the ‘Buddha’ exhibition, for example, the Gallery has seen its visitors expanding from mainly white Australians to an increased number of Asian Australians. I have not considered a strategy for presenting Japanese art to the new audience from different cultural backgrounds. Although I have now left the Gallery and my communication method will change, this will be my next challenge.

References Hawkins, S. 1998. The Daily Telegraph. July, p. 18. Clarke, A. 1998. The Qantas Club. July, p. 31.

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Further Reading Ajioka, C. (ed.) 2000. Hanga: Japanese Creative Prints. Art Gallery of New South Wales. Art Gallery of New South Wales 2001. Heroes and Villains from Japan’s Floating World. Sydney, Australia. Art Gallery of New South Wales 2003. Seasons: The Beauty of Transience in Japanese Art. Sydney, Australia. Clark, T. 2001. 100 Views of Mount Fuji, London: British Museum. International Cultural Corporation of Australia Limited 1982. Japan: Masterpieces from the Idemitsu Collection. Melbourne, Australia. Menzies, J. (ed.) 1998. Modern Boy, Modern Girl: Modernity in Japanese Art 1910–1935. Sydney, Australia: Art Gallery of New South Wales. Wheelwright, C. (ed.) 1989. Word in Flower: The Visualization of Classical Literature in Seventeenth-Century Japan. New Haven, CT: Yale University Art Gallery.

Chapter 8

Mountains in the Evolution of Visual Arts in Kyrgyzstan Emil Nasritdinov

Kyrgyzstan is a small, mountainous country in the heart and, perhaps, the most beautiful part of Central Asia. The folds of the Tyan-Shan Mountains that occupy almost 90% of Kyrgyzstan’s land create a wide variety of climatic zones and spectacular scenery; from never-melting snow and glaciers on the top, to lavish green pastures and bright blue lakes in the middle, and the valleys at the bottom rich in fruit and vegetables. For many centuries, since Kyrgyz people migrated to this area from the banks of Enisei River in Southern Siberia (Mokrynin and Ploskih, 1995) their life was indissolubly connected to these beautiful mountains. Kyrgyz people always were, and to some degree still remain, pastoral nomads. They moved from pasture to pasture in the mountains with the herds of their horses and sheep. Here, in the wild – far away from the noisy cities of Central Asia – the life of Kyrgyz nomads was completely dependent on nature and the mountains. Their lifestyle, culture and arts were shaped by the powerful natural forces of Tyan-Shan. The natural forms, such as skies, mountains, pastures, rivers, trees and animals, became the main motifs in the ornamental decoration of Kyrgyz dwellings, their clothes, arms, jewelry and objects of everyday use. The mountainous scenery played a major role in the formation of the composition and colour schemes of their ornamental patterns. A simple, yet beautiful, life in this amazing habitat found its reflection in the creation of a unique Kyrgyz style of decoration, defined by their plain, yet picturesque ornaments in vivid natural colours. In the course of their history, Kyrgyz people experienced a variety of cultural influences from the ancient Skythians and Saks, the Karakhanids and Uighurs, the Mongols and Timurids, the Uzbek Khanates and Tsarist Russia, the Soviets and now, contemporary Western culture (Mokrynin and Ploskih, 1995; Chotonov and Dosbol Nur uulu, 1998). But perhaps, the most serious change in Kyrgyz culture took place during the Soviet rule, which lasted for 70 years from the 1920s to the 1990s, leaving a prominent imprint on the lifestyle and culture of Kyrgyzstan. From the very first years of their rule, the Soviets aimed at the transformation of Kyrgyz cultural traditions. They introduced new arts, such as painting, sculpture, the opera, ballet and the theatre (Chotonov and Dosbol Nur uulu, 1998). This could be seen as positive because it gave the creative Kyrgyz minds new media for their own artistic expression. However, the new arts were strongly affected by Communist ideology

e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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and were highly politicized. Soviet leaders – through very brutal methods, by repressing, jailing and killing thousands and thousands of the Kyrgyz intelligentsia (Chotonov and Dosbol Nur uulu, 1998) – turned artistic practice into an ideological weapon. It was simply impossible for Kyrgyz artists to create outside the frame of the dominant doctrine. They could direct their creative energy only into neutral themes, such as the depiction of nature and spectacular mountainous scenery. The result was the creation of the most wonderful landscapes and the development of the unique Kyrgyz painting tradition characterized by a bright yet very harmonious colour palette. Great changes were wrought in Central Asia in 1991. Kyrgyzstan became an independent republic after the break up of the Soviet Union. The changes came on all fronts: the economy, the social structure, culture and the arts. In the context of increasing poverty, the arts changed from being politicized to being commercialized. Kyrgyzstan opened its borders to tourists who travel to see the beauty of the Tyan-Shan Mountains. Not surprisingly, interest has grown in the traditional decorative arts that can be sold as souvenirs and in the painting of mountainous scenery which distinguish the Kyrgyz painting tradition from that of other central Asian artists. We can see that nature and the mountains of Kyrgyzstan always were and still remain the major inspiration for Kyrgyz artists of all generations. In the following sections we examine how natural forms and sceneries were reflected in the traditional decorative arts of pre-Soviet Kyrgyzstan, in the paintings of the Soviet Kyrgyz artists and in the works of contemporary artists after Independence.

1. Traditional Decorative Arts of Kyrgyzstan For centuries, the Kyrgyz people were nomads. They migrated to the mountains of Tyan-Shan approximately 1,000 years ago (Mokrynin and Ploskih, 1995). Since then, their life and culture has been inseparable from their mountainous habitat. Being on the move from pasture to pasture, they were not able to develop strong architectural, monumental or painting traditions. The visual arts were limited to the decorative arts applied to the decoration of their yurts (nomadic dwellings), their clothes and their weapons, jewelry and objects of everyday use (Bacon, 1980; Mokrynin and Ploskih, 1995). However, the beauty of this artistic practice that has evolved through the centuries sets Kyrgyz nomads among the world’s most talented artists. The yurt of the Kyrgyz nomads was their small universe, consisting of one room that was circular in shape with sunlight coming through the opening on the top of its dome. The yurt served all functions of a traditional home: a place for working, cooking, eating, sleeping and playing. It protected nomads from the heat and cold and from the rain and snow, as well as from wild animals. It was made of a wooden framework (with elastic wooden ribs flexibly connected by leather rivets to form a circular wall and curved wooden sticks to form the dome), which was covered with a layer of reed matting around the walls and finally, a layer of felt covering both the

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walls and the dome (Traditional culture and folklore of Central Asia, n.d.) The yurt could be dismantled in an hour, put on horses and easily reassembled at the new location. The shape of the yurt and of all of its interior elements was perfected through centuries of nomadic life. The need to be highly mobile limited the number and weight of household items to the minimum. However, much attention and care was given to the design of the few objects that were carried along. All elements of the yurts’ exterior and interior and all household items were richly decorated in very picturesque ornamental patterns. The yurts were pieces of art both from inside and out. From the distance they were seen as natural forms belonging to the landscape: white as mountain tops or brown as the earth and with domes resembling the shape of hills. When they were approached, the strips of ornamental ribbons running along the perimeter of walls and ornamented strips across the dome fastening the felt could be seen. Inside the yurt, the wooden framework (kerege) of the walls and of the dome was bright red. Behind the kerege, there was an ornamented reed matting. On the floor lay alakiizes and shirdaks decorated with bold curvilinear forms. Across the entrance was a pile of brightly decorated sleeping mats. Strips of woollen cloth woven in linear patterns were fastened to the kerege walls and dome sticks ran along the walls behind the kerege, decorating the inside of the dome and hanging down from tuunduk – the rim of the yurt and its opening to the sky. On the walls were woven or appliquéd bags and leather sacks decorated with embroidery or embossed with prints. All items inside the yurt – the kitchenware, utensils and weapons – were made of wood, metal and leather and decorated with ornamental carving and printing. All these elements decorated the simple structure of the yurt with colours and shapes rich enough to satisfy the hungriest eye and to brighten up the life of nomads surviving in a very harsh but beautiful environment (Bukhara carpets, n.d.). Yurts of a similar structure can be found among the nomads of Kazakhstan and Mongolia (Bacon, 1980). However, the Kyrgyz yurt stands out among them because of the brightness of its colours and the abundance of its ornamentation. It was the influence of the natural habitat – the mountains and their beauty – that inspired the Kyrgyz nomads to decorate their yurts more lavishly than the Kazakhs or Mongols who lived in the plain steppes. By analysing the ornamental patterns and colour pallet of the Kyrgyz craftspeople we can find in their organizational schemes a reflection of the mountainous landscapes and scenery of Kyrgyzstan’s land. Perhaps, the most unique of all Kyrgyz handicrafts and the one that reflects the influence of Kyrgyzstan’s landscape most deeply are the designs on felt. Felt is made of pressed sheep wool and used for covering the yurt and making felt carpets, rugs, clothes and bags. To make the felt, wool is washed, dried and beaten; laid out in layers; sprinkled with boiled water and then rolled up. This roll is then rolled over again: first, with the use of two ropes and then with the feet or forearms. Sometimes, people, horses or donkeys drag it on the ground. The procedure can be repeated many times until the wool fibres are well intertwined and felt is thick enough (Bukhara carpets, n.d.). There are two major types of ornamented felt. They differ through the technology used in their production. The first – ala-kiiz – is made by laying out wool of different colours, forming an ornamental pattern on the

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Fig. 8.1 Inside the Kyrgyz yurt (photo by E. Nasritdinov, 2003)

background wool before the felt is rolled up and dragged or beaten, producing very interesting patterns with blurred edges. The second type – the shirdak – is made as a mosaic. The same ornament is cut out of two pieces of felt of contrasting colours. The ornament on the first felt is sewn together with the leftover background shape of the second and vice versa. Woollen braid in a third colour is sewn between the pattern and the background to brighten it up and define the lines of the ornament better (Bukhara carpets, n.d.). The major features distinguishing Kyrgyz felt designs are their large size and the absence of small details; their limited colour palette and the use of the principle of positive and negative shapes and natural curvilinear forms. If we analyse these features closely we can find some analogies with the mountainous landscapes of Kyrgyzstan. First, let us have a look at the large size of the felt ornaments and the absence of small details. This is perhaps, the result of a specific felt-making technology that does not allow for the creation of elaborate detail. But it can also be seen as the portrayal of mountainous scenery. In the steppes and valleys, where there are no large objects on the background, observers focus on objects that are close to them, which are seen in a greater detail. In contrast, in the mountains there are many objects that form the middle ground and the background. Because the distances to these objects are large, their details disappear and the observer can see only large shapes. Nearer objects and their details are less significant in the overall perspective. This might be one reason why felt ornaments have few small details but rather portray large patterns.

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Fig. 8.2 Mountains near Issyk-Kol and decorated bag on the wall of the yurt (photo by E. Nasritdinov, 2003)

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Fig. 8.3 Grigorievskoe Gorge ( photo by E. Nasritdinov, 2003) and ornaments of shirdak (drawn by E. Nasritdinov, motifs from ‘Kyrgyz Style’, n.d.)

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The second feature of the Kyrgyz felts is the use of a bright, but limited colour palette and the principle of positive and negative shapes. When we analyse Kyrgyz mountainous landscapes, we see that mountains at a distance are often seen as combinations of two colours and contrasting tones: those in the sun and those in the shadow, those under snow and those not, the large shapes of dark forests on the background of green pastures and the picturesque profile of mountains against the background of the blue sky. These large contrast shapes complement each other and create interesting imagery. The reflection of such duality and contrast of colours and tones can be seen in the felt patterns. For centuries, Kyrgyz craftswomen have used natural dyes to colour the wool and often used uncoloured wool for the felt designs. The felt is often made with just two, or at most, with three to four colours. The most typical colour combinations are blue and red, brown and orange, red and yellow and brown and blue. The colour scheme can be vibrant and contrasting, just like the colours shining on a bright sunny day in the mountains; or it can be quite moderate with very similar colours and tones to portray the atmosphere of rainy or foggy days when all colours and tones are close to each other. In organizing the pattern, the principle of positive and negative forms and shapes is very important in the Kyrgyz felts. Brilliant combinations of the two shapes make it hard to distinguish where the pattern turns into the background and background into the pattern. This interplay of positive and negative reminds us of the picturesque fractures of mountains intertwining in a complex play of the light and shadow. Finally, an important feature of the Kyrgyz felts is the curvilinear forms of their ornaments. Very few straight geometric shapes or lines are used. This was found in the arts of the cities, where ornamental patterns were strongly affected by the straight geometry of building forms. Here, in the mountains, even the architecture – the yurt – was very organic in form. The ornamental patterns of decorations are organized in a flexible and fluid manner and all lines follow the organic and rounded movements of the artist’s hand. In this, there is a strong resemblance to a natural habitat, where the contours of mountains, pastures, forests, rivers and lakes show the most amazing complexity and harmony of curvilinear shapes. So, by looking even briefly at the Kyrgyz ornaments, we can see in the organization of their form, composition and colour the reflection of mountainous forms and colours. For more than a millennium, the mountains of Tyan-Shan served as a refuge for Kyrgyz nomads and as inspiration for Kyrgyz craftspeople.

2. Kyrgyz Painting Tradition of the Soviet Period From 1860, Kyrgyzstan was ruled by Tsarist Russia. However, there was little fusion of the two cultures; they simply coexisted side by side. After the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and the establishment of Soviets, the new Communist leadership set its hand at ‘modernizing’ and Russianizing the republics of Central Asia, including Kyrgyzstan (Bacon, 1980). New arts, such as painting, sculpture, the opera, the theatre and the ballet, which were imported to Russia from Europe in the seventeenth

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Fig. 8.4 Jety Oguz – Seven Bulls (photo by the author, 2003) and ornaments of ala-kiiz (drawn by E. Nasritdinov, motifs from ‘Kyrgyz Style’, n.d.)

century and which by then had evolved into a strong Russian tradition, started to be introduced in Central Asia. Many Russian artists and performers were sent to Kyrgyzstan to teach the new generation. In addition, many Kyrgyz artists were sent to Moscow or Leningrad to study (Chotonov and Dosbol Nur uulu, 1998). For these reasons, the new Kyrgyz artistic practices were strongly affected by Russian traditions, which found a fruitful soil in Kyrgyz land and in the creativity of Kyrgyz people. The new arts only served to enrich their palette. At the initiative of Kyrgyzstan-born Russian artist, Semen Chuikov, the League of Kyrgyzstan’s Artists was created in 1934 and more than 200 works of art were shown at the first Republican exhibition in the same year. The opening of the first Kyrgyz State Picture Gallery took place in January 1935. In 1944, it was renamed the Kyrgyz State Art Museum (Chotonov and Dosbol Nur uulu, 1998). The Kyrgyz artistic intelligentsia created a unique style and vision and many wonderful masterpieces were produced in this period. Unfortunately, this period of artistic blossoming also coincided with the severe repression of the 1930s. Following the directions of Stalin from Moscow to suppress any signs of nationalism in the periphery of the Soviet Union, local governments started jailing and exterminating thousands and thousands of Kyrgyz artists, scientists

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and writers (Chotonov and Dosbol Nur uulu, 1998) and almost all the new Kyrgyz intelligentsia was destroyed. Those who survived the dark years of the 1930s learned to ‘think’ and ‘create’ as directed, and in line with the dominant Communist doctrine. The visual arts had to be based on the principles of social realism, to depict the positive changes in society and to praise the new Communist regime. Some examples of common motifs in the paintings of that period include the happiness on the faces of collective farmers harvesting cotton, a book in the hands of a Kyrgyz girl looking into her bright future, and a celebration in the village on the occasion of a Kyrgyz soldier coming home from serving in the Red Soviet Army (Usubalieva et al., 1985). There are hardly any paintings of that period that examined the thousands of years of Kyrgyz history before the Soviet Union. That history was erased from the school textbooks and from the works of creative people, who had to write and praise a new history – one that had started with the Revolution of 1917. The years after World War II witnessed similar, though less, brutally repressive practices. One war was over, but the new Cold War – the war of ideologies – had started and the arts were to play the important role of bringing Communist ideas and principles ‘to the masses’. After a short period of warming up during Khruschev’s leadership in 1950s, there came a period of ‘zastoi’ (stagnation), which brought stagnation and stigmatization. The media in Kyrgyzstan were expected to caricature the capitalist world and its aggression; public artists were asked to decorate streets with communist slogans and the portraits of Marx, Engels and Lenin and sculptors were set to creating statues of Lenin and monuments to those who fought for the Revolution. Painting motifs included the heroism of Soviet people in World War II, the happiness of a peaceful life, a love of hard work and the joys of simple living. Other genres of painting, such as portraits of famous Kyrgyz people, were developed. Thematic painting was still limited to what was considered appropriate by the authorities. The paintings were still based on the principles of social realism typical for artists throughout the Soviet Union. However, what really distinguished the new Kyrgyz painting was the colour palette used and the genre of the mountainous landscape. Painting landscapes was a way for Kyrgyz artists to escape the ideology and politics of the Communist regime and the beauty of Kyrgyz mountains provided endless motifs and motivation. Just as these had done centuries before, nature and the mountains served as an inspiration for the creativity of the Kyrgyz people. Very often, there were other ‘politically safe’ themes dealt with in these paintings, but the main focus was the background – the pastures, the snowy tops and the clouds. The mountain scenery provided a ground for painters to learn and perfect their skills of capturing atmosphere and perspective and to develop a strong understanding of and sensitivity to the harmony of natural colours. The colour schemes of Kyrgyz painting school were unique: just as they had been in traditional decorative arts. They could be either quite bright or subtle, but were always very harmonious. During the 70 years of the tradition of Soviet painting in Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyz artists produced an amazing collection of mountain paintings and linocuts, which today is preserved in the Kyrgyz State Museum of Fine Arts.

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Fig. 8.5 Semen Chuikov, ‘The Autumn Jailoo’, 1945 (Usubalieva et al., 1995)

Let us have a look at three landscape paintings from different times of the Soviet period. The first, called ‘The Autumn Jailoo’, was painted in 1945 by one of the originators of the Kyrgyz painting tradition, Semen Chuikov. Jailoo in Kyrgyz means the pasture and the place where Kyrgyz shepherds set their yurts and look after their grazing herds. In the foreground, we see two yurts, the herd of sheep and a Kyrgyz woman cooking outside the yurt. In the middle ground are the autumn hills, covered with grass that has been burned in the summer. In the background is a snowy mountaintop connecting the hills with the sky. The sky itself occupies the largest area of the painting with the large cloud hanging over the jailoo. The colour scheme of the painting is very simple: yellowish brown for the ground and hills and blue for the sky. Yet, the painting is rich in the nuances of these two colours and the one morphs smoothly into the other so that the shadow on the hills changes from dark brown in the foreground to almost light blue at a distance. The yurts covered by the felt of a natural wool colour appear almost as natural mountain forms, completely belonging to this landscape. There are very few elements and details in this painting, but they create a strong sense of perspective and perfectly reflect the mood and peace of a warm autumn afternoon at the jailoo. Kyrgyz artist K. Amankozhoev painted ‘The Akyn’s Song’ in 1964. Kyrgyz culture is famous for its oral tradition. Generations of akyns – wandering bards – have told the story of Kyrgyz heroes for more than a millennium and these stories survive to this day as colourful epics, rich in events and characters. Akyns accompanied their songs on the komuz – a three-string traditional Kyrgyz music instrument. They

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Fig. 8.6 K. Amankozhoev, ‘The Akyn’s Song’, 1964 (Usubalieva et al., 1995)

were greatly respected by people and large audiences always gathered to hear them. In this painting, Amankozhoev has placed the small figure of the akyn in the centre of composition, where he sits inside the yurt, singing his song. The yurt is full of listeners and the felt is rolled up to give those who cannot fit inside a chance to participate from outside. It is a late evening and the sun has almost gone. The artist captures the moment where two sources of light create interesting contrasts: the setting sun gently lighting the dome of the yurt from the sky, but the yurt is also glowing from the fire inside. This contrast and the magnificent background scene – snowy mountains in the cool tones of blue and purple – make the whole scene look surreal and almost magical. These ancient mountains set the context for the song – they bring the feeling of eternity and connect listeners and viewers with the legendary Kyrgyz heroes protecting their land from numerous invaders. Finally, there is a painting from a later Soviet period – ‘Mountainous Landscape’ by Kyrgyz artist N. Turpanov in 1978. Turpanov uses a different painting technique: the brush strokes are smaller and the layers of paint are more translucent. The painting depicts either late autumn or very early spring when mountains are still bare and not covered by grass and there is some snow on the ground. In this painting, we are looking from the mountain into the valley. The colour palette is subtle and there are not many objects in the picture. Three major contrasts: the snow on the ground, the shadows on the hill, and the profile of the mountains on

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Fig. 8.7 N. Turpanov, ‘Mountainous Landscape’, 1978 (Usubalieva et al., 1995)

the background of the sky describe the landscape with a few powerful shapes. The artist emphasizes the grand scale of this landscape and conveys the feeling of emptiness and great solitude. It is the moment when one forgets about the vanity of a worldly life and freezes, stunned by the beauty and power of the world’s creation. In this article we have examined three paintings from the large collection of mountainous sceneries depicted by Kyrgyz artists. During the period when creativity was under the strict control of the authorities, the genre of landscape was safe to paint. But that was not the only reason why the mountains played an important role in the evolution of the Kyrgyz painting tradition. It was the beauty and uniqueness of these scenes that attracted and inspired Kyrgyz artists to create one of the world’s best landscape collections.

3. Conclusion: The Fine Arts of Independent Kyrgyzstan With the break up of the Soviet Union bringing rather unexpected Independence to Krygyzstan, great changes started to take place. The old idols were thrown off their pedestals and the newly born country started building a new identity. Independence also brought a significant economic downfall: industrial links with other republics were broken and factories in Kyrgyzstan had to reduce production. This led to large-scale unemployment and a dramatic reduction of living standards. The economic crisis also had a strong affect on the life of artists. The government no longer

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supported artists and they could not feed their families on their scanty salaries. With Independence came freedom from censorship and artists were free to draw and paint what they wanted, but this freedom was curtailed by the reduced demand for works of art: with the majority of population reduced to poverty and searching for the means of survival, very few were passionate about paintings. Only the tourists who started coming to Kyrgyzstan after its borders were opened to the world, were interested in purchasing art. And because tourists have always wanted to take home something unique from the places they have travelled to, it was the unique Kyrgyz tradition that they were after. Their main interest was in the traditional decorative arts and in the genre of mountain landscapes developed during the Soviet time that together distinguished Kyrgyz artists from other talented Central Asian artists. Several commercial galleries were opened in Kyrgyzstan that now exhibit and sell traditional crafts and paintings. Crafts subjects were introduced in many art schools and faculties of decorative and applied arts were opened in many art colleges. The year of 2002 was named ‘The Year of Mountains’ in Kyrgyzstan and the summer summit of mountainous countries was organized in the capital, Bishkek. This was a tribute to the land that has hosted Kyrgyz people for more than a millennium and has always had an enormous impact on their lifestyle, economy, culture and arts.

References Bacon, E. 1980. Central Asians under Russian Rule: A Study in Culture Change. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Bukhara carpets: Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyz culture and carpet making (n.d.). Available online at http://www.bukhara-carpets.com/carpets/kazakh.html. Chotonov, U. and Dosbol, N. (eds.) 1998. History of Kyrgyzstan – 20th Century. Bishkek: Kyrgyzstan. Kyrgyz Style. The centre for development of traditional and contemporary culture (n.d.). Mokrynin, B. and Ploskih, V. 1995. History of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek: Kyrgyzstan. Traditional culture and folklore of Central Asia: Kyrgyzstan, Dwellings of nomads (n.d.). Usubalieva, K.N., Asanbekov, S.A., Melniker, A.S., Popova, O.P. and Shabazova, S.S. 1995. Kyrgyz State Art Museum. Frunze: Kyrgyzstan.

Chapter 9

Development of Contemporary Art in Thailand Vichoke Mukdamanee

In the early Ratanakosin period, starting in 1782 CE, Thai artisans were inspired by Buddhist beliefs and literature to create their art. This is evident in mural paintings in Buddhist ordination halls, ancient scriptures, images and statues of Buddha and fine-art items in temples, as well as in Thai architecture. Thai art from the reign of King Rama I until King Rama III (1782–1851) of the Chakri dynasty did not change much from the previous Ayudhya period. The modification and evolution of Thai art came later. Traditional Thai art was carried on from generation to generation, mostly through apprenticeships; each master passing on his knowledge and artistic skills to his apprentices. There was no art school in Thailand in the past. Those who wished to study art had to seek an apprenticeship with famous masters who passed on their skills only to their most promising students. After Thailand became Siam, and started to have more contact with foreigners, new ideas and knowledge in various fields pervaded the kingdom. In the reign of King Rama III (1824–1851), Siam started trading with China. This trade expanded to European countries during the reigns of King Rama IV to Rama VI (1851–1925). From this contact with the West many new beliefs and ideas originated, as well as national developments and changes in art and culture. It is fortunate for Thailand that the kings during these transitional periods wisely chose to adapt Western ideas and beliefs selectively and carefully, including only those that could be integrated into Thai heritage without overshadowing the Thai roots of our art and culture.

1. Art Institutes in the Early Days Despite his education abroad, King Rama VI realized the importance of protecting the Thai cultural heritage from Westernization. In 1911, he founded as a government agency the Fine Arts Department, to safeguard Thai art and culture. The department, then part of the Royal Household Ministry, was divided into seven divisions; sculpture, painting, music, dancing, rhetoric, architecture and the liberal arts. After many changes, the department eventually became affiliated to the

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Ministry of Education. In 1913, King Rama VI founded the first art school in Thailand. This is the Poh Chang School and teaches various crafts. The king then organized a crafts exhibition in Suan Kularb School, which since then has became an annual event. In 1917, he had a painting competition held at Bhumisathien Palace to raise funds for the purchase of a Phra Ruang combat ship. There were two other painting competitions held in 1920. In 1923, the king started a project to build monuments to commemorate Thai kings. To this end he employed an Italian art master, Corrado Feroci (1892–1962) as a sculptor at the Fine Arts Department. Feroci was later naturalized and changed his name to Silpa Bhirasri.

1.1. Modern Art Institutes and Realism Professor Silpa Bhirasri taught the artisans in the Fine Arts Department, and ran a monument construction project. He also laid the foundations of modern art education for Thai youth. He played a pivotal role in art development in Thailand until his death at Siriraj hospital in 1962. During his service in the Fine Arts Department, Prof. Silpa, together with the former director-general of the Department, Phraya Anumanrajadhon, and architect, Phra Saroj Ratananiman (Saroj Sukhayang), founded the Praneet Silpakum School (the Fine Arts School) in 1934. The school offered academic courses in art for civil servants and other Thais with Prof. Silpa himself as instructor. In these early days, the Fine Arts Department’s officials were instructors. After the first class graduated, many of them became teaching assistants. In 1937, the name of the school was changed to Silapkorn Panaek Chang School (the Silpakom School of Fine Arts, artisan division) to produce craftspeople to serve the government. The then government under the premiership of Field Marshal Plaek Pibulsongkram recognized the importance of the school and the Field Marshal himself sometimes paid visits to the school. The works of both the instructors and students of Silpakorn attested to their talents and skills. They were exhibited at the Constitution Fair in 1937. Many fine-art works from the school are among the monuments and architectural structures constructed at that time, such as the monuments to King Rama VI, Tao Suranaree, the Democracy Monument and the Victory Monument. With the full support of the Field Marshal Plaek Pibulsongkram, Silpakorn University was established on 5 October 1943. The university then had only one faculty, the Faculty of Painting and Sculpture, where classes in painting and sculpture were offered. Prof. Silpa was the first dean and academic principal. The degree was awarded after 5 years but those who passed the third year were entitled to a diploma. During Prof. Silpa’s leadership between 1943 and 1962, the university emphasized the importance of a foundation in art. Students had to learn to understand nature and how to express their art in a realistic style. In the early years, Silpakorn students were highly skilful in creating realistic paintings and sculptures focusing on nature. Because of Prof. Silpa’s high standards and tough discipline, there were not many graduates from the university. However, those who did

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graduate from Silpakorn University and the Fine Arts School all become renowned realistic Thai artists, such as Piman Munpramuk, Sitthidej Saenghiran, Sanan Silakorn, Paitun Muangsomboon, Chamras Khietkong and Tawee Nuntakwang. There were also a few progressive artists who wished to avoid realism. In 1944, the Chakrawat Sinlapin Group (Chakrawat Artists’ Group) was formed to provide an independent venue for the artists’ creative works. The group worked in five areas – literature, painting, dancing, sculpture and architecture. The group’s symbol, which was designed by Prince Narisaranuwattiwongse, was a hand with five fingers, representing the five fields. The group held two exhibitions and dispersed in 1947. However, its activities inspired the first National Art Exhibition in 1949. Displaying their works to the public and letting viewers judge their works was an important new development in the Thai art movement. The Chakrawat Sinlapin Group was thus Thailand’s first gathering of progressive artists. In 1953, another art group arose called the Painters and Sculptors Association. It organized an art exhibition at the Grand Theatre in the Wangburapa area of Bangkok, and a committee selected the art works for display, just as in the National Art Exhibition. However, this group later disappeared.

2. The National Art Exhibition In 1937, the Fine Arts School under Prof. Silpa Bhirasri’s leadership, exhibited students’ art works at the annual Constitution Fair for the first time. During this period, former Prime Minister Field Marshal Pibulsongkram’s main policy was to instill nationalism in the public mind. Prof. Silpa Bhirasri suggested that the Fine Arts Department hold the national exhibition of art for the first time in 1949. The purpose then was to encourage artists to progress and to make contemporary art more accessible to the Thai public. That was the start of a national event in which many artists participated, and of contemporary Thai art exhibitions. During the first few years, award winners got a medal as a trophy. Later the cash award was added, and the trophy medals were classified. The first prize included a gold medal, second prize a silver medal and a bronze medal was given for third prize. Any artist who has won at least three gold medals, or two gold medals and two silver medals in the same category was awarded the category of ‘outstanding artist’. This was to encourage artists and at the same time upgrade contemporary Thai art to meet international standards. The National Exhibition of Art has continued right up to the present. Participating artists include not only graduates from art schools but also self-taught and independent artists. The judging panel is composed of professional artists, art academics and experts in the field. In 1962, King Bhumibol graciously presided over the 13th National Exhibition of Art. In the following year, His Majesty the King displayed some of his own paintings in the exhibition, and has continued to display some in every exhibition since. Since the 22nd National Exhibition of Art his representative has presided over the event.

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3. From Realism to Diversity A few years after the Chakrawat Sinlapin Group was founded, many Thai artists received scholarships provided by both the Thai and European governments to study modern art in Europe. Most of these artists studied in Italy, with only a few going to Britain, the Netherlands, Germany and the United States. Upon returning, they brought with them new art genres such as impressionism, post-impressionism and cubism to Thailand. Many became art instructors, and helped spread the new art genres to Thai art circles. Impressionism then pervaded both America and Asia, and Thailand was no exception. Many progressive artists struggled to advocate the new genre. This development in Thai art works could be seen in art shows and the works of artists of the period. European impressionism influenced Thai artists educated in Italy. The fact that they were primarily trained in realism and developed their art from nature helped them develop their work by using natural light, combined with the available scientific theories about colour. Thai art works during this period are impressionistic and relaxed, using simple forms and an avoidance of detail. Their work is straightforward, just as they perceived their subject matter to be, but full of emotional intensity. For many artists, it was boring to stick to the rules of nature and to depict everything exactly the way it is. The new European perspective was a challenge for Thai artists, representing a totally new way of perceiving nature. Thai artists began to look about for more new theories, to keep themselves abreast of new fields of study and new information. They were in search of a new presentation for their art. As Thai artists became more open and creative, they become more inspired to create something new, and no longer desired to imitate nature. They developed imaginatively from nature, which was then a new trend in Thai art circles. Thai artists learned new ways of using colours and light and new philosophical ideas. However, this enthusiasm was kept within a small circle of artist groups and art lovers. The switch from realism to other art genres was evident in works displayed in the National Exhibition of Art during the period. Many works departed from the old rules and turned more to an impressionistic presentation. Cubism also had a great influence on Thai artists. The structure and geometric forms, which are the foundations of natural objects, dominates this group’s philosophy. Artists using this genre represented objects, people and landscapes as many-faceted solids, emphasizing volume. Forms and lines are reconstructed and simplified into cubic forms, which are detached from emotions and nature. Points of view and attitude are spelt out in the genre. In the first decade of King Bhumibol’s reign (1946–1956), modern art in Thailand progressed substantially. This decade in Thai society was not only ‘modern’ but also international, as can be seen in works of many Thai artists of the period who modified traditional Thai art to adopt a more modern and international perspective, while at the same time preserving their Thai roots.

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4. Semi-Abstract Art The influence of cubism in Thailand continued until the year 1957. This can be seen in Sawasdi Tantisuk’s ‘Old Milan’ and ‘Bracciano’, where the artist has employed muted pigments whose intensity has been decreased to create depth and dimension. Other Thai artists, such as Amnaj Puangseri, Chalood Nimsamer, Sompote Upa-in and Panom Suwanboon employed analytical cubism, in which objects were analyzed into planes, revealing their volumetric and geometric structure – linear, circular, rectangular and triangular, for example. The cubist simplification of naturally complicated forms greatly influenced the Thai art circle of this period, both philosophically and methodologically. However, Thai artists tried to be creatively different in their artistic presentation. The cubist influence shows Thai artists’ struggle to find new way of presentation – a search for a more meaningful execution of their art. This search developed in both their paintings and sculptures towards expressionism, which later led towards semi-abstraction and finally abstraction. Despite its heavy Western influence, Thai contemporary art does not follow every step of the Western art movement. Some developments in the Thai art movement show an individual path. This includes the period of semi-abstraction when Thai artists clung to the same inspiration as that of Thai realistic artists in an earlier period. However, this genre diversified into many new presentations and there were many Thai artists who started with realism, but later developed into semi-abstraction and finally into abstraction. Artistic inspiration in abstract art stems from many different things. Many artists begin with objects in nature, although some start with their innermost feelings and focus on these to reflect their tactile sense of the outside world. Synthesis and presentation of the essence remain the conceptual motivation of many Thai artists who want to represent their innermost feelings. Abstract art works are not realistic, but a glimpse into the artist’s world.

5. From Contemporary Art to Internationalism Since these times, contemporary art made progress and became more acceptable to Thai society. The annual National Exhibition of Art reached out to the public and educated Thai people about contemporary art. From art appreciation in only traditional Thai art in temples and old palaces, Thai people now gained a deeper understanding of contemporary art through these art exhibitions. Many Thais collected art works to decorate their offices and their homes. Thai art developed dramatically from being an idealistic traditional art to mingling more with Western art, which emphasizes individualism in themes, concepts, techniques and presentation. In 1960, Prof. Silpa Bhirasri headed a Thai delegation to the 3rd International Artist Convention in Vienna, Austria. In addition to the convention’s agenda, there were small group meetings between Western and Eastern countries about art and

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artistic techniques. At these meetings, Prof. Silpa and the Thai delegation prepared a proposal for cooperation between Thai and international artists for an artist exchange project. Another proposal from the Thai delegation was to set up an Asian artists’ centre to promote the art and culture of oriental countries. Private galleries in Thailand sprang up in this period. Among the pioneers was Tinnakorn Gallery, which was opposite the Central Post Office. The Thai art movement became more lively when private galleries came into existence, since this allowed more venues for the artists to display their work. The Young Artist Group was formed and held exhibitions at a new gallery in the Makasan area in Bangkok at a gallery called the Bangkok Art Centre. Since then, many galleries joined the art scene, including one opened by M.R. Pantip Boripatr at the Suan Pakkard Palace, which made art even more accessible to the Thai public. Other well-known galleries include the Pathumwan Gallery, which was launched in 1966, and Sumej Jumxai’s Gallery 20, launched the following year.

6. Art for Social Criticism and Art for Life From 1968, artists developed their individual styles. The notion of ‘art for art’s sake’ defines artists’ attitudes during this time and Thai society generally opened the door to artists and their works. Art criticism became more prevalent. It was also during this time that abstract art reached its heights, during this golden era of human rights and democracy. On 14 October 1973, Thai students staged a popular demonstration, asking the military government under Field Marshal Thanom Kittikachorn to quit. The demonstration was successful and the then Prime Minister, as well as other senior officials, had to leave the country. After this event, the student movement in Thailand became very strong and college students came to the forefront to comment on political and social issues. However, the events of 6 October, 1976 broke down the student movement and there was a crackdown on student activists. Once again, social criticism was suppressed under the ruling political regime. Artists, like other elite groups, were greatly affected by both events because art deals with life and is inspired by what happens in real life. The impact of the political situation in this period was twofold. On one hand, it propelled many artists to represent these events in their works, particularly those who were emotionally involved in this political turbulence. On the other hand, there were those who created art works as propaganda to promote certain political ideas in Thai society. This kind of work brought in question the demarcation between art and propaganda. If a painting depicts someone’s suffering, is this a call for a people’s movement to free the oppressed? It may be worth concluding with the thought that artists create their works to reflect truth and to satisfy themselves, not just to fulfil commissions. Freedom of thought would be totally crushed if artists display bias, or worked solely under the instructions of the authorities.

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7. Presentation of New Materials and Methods After many political conflicts unfolded and subsided, the economy progressed after 1980. Thai people began to have a better life. Along with this social and economic improvement, Thai artists continued to explore creative means of expression. The young generation of artists in this period explored new artistic techniques to differentiate themselves from their predecessors, but at the same time tried to be responsive to an ever-changing society. They employed new materials, particularly mixed media techniques, new ways of presenting their work and a subject matter that was more relevant to the present. The social issues that sprang from the evolving economy and society became the main themes in the art of this period. It is, however, worth noting that mixed-media techniques are not completely new to the Thai art scene. Pichai Nirand used sand and coloured glass and Prawat Laocharoen painted on sackcloth. However, the category of mixed media was added in the 27th National Art Exhibition in 1981, only to be cancelled 3 years later and included once again in the 37th National Art Exhibition. The existence and development of different methods and materials actually offer a way to create art.

8. The Expansion in the Study of Art and Contemporary Art for the Young Generation Art education in Thailand gradually expanded since the Poh Chang Art School was founded in 1913 and the first art education offered at college level at Silpakorn University’s Faculty of Painting and Faculty of Sculpture in 1943. In 1983, Chulalongkom University opened its Faculty of Fine and Applied Arts to teach both fine art and design. Chiang Mai University, in the north, was opened in 1983, and Khon Khaen University and Sinakarinwirot University both offered art courses. There are many other state and private universities that plan to offer art courses and degrees. This increase in the number and type of art courses offered at various institutes creates even more diversity in the Thai art scene, as each institute has its own philosophy and way of teaching art. Younger artists of the new generation can work in the confidence that one day their art will affect their society, and in some way contribute to solving social problems. Their works are more reflective and responsive to rising social issues. Young artists incorporate in their works the issues of their time – environmental issues, modern lifestyles, pressure from work and life, and Thailand’s transition to a new technology-dominated nation. In 1984, Silpakorn University unveiled a new art venue for these young artists and a new art competition, the Contemporary Art Exhibition for Young Artists. The contest was open to all categories of visual arts painting, sculpture, prints and others. Contestants must be between 16 and 25 years old. The contest, which is still held today, has served as a stepping stone for many promising artists.

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9. Multiculturalism in the Borderless World The economic boom in Thailand began in 1988 under the premiership of General Chatchai Choonhavan, whose economic policy focused on industrializing the country, rather than supporting the agricultural sector. With industrialization came scientific and technological development. The sweeping trend towards globalization forced Thailand into embracing the world of information technology. There were many important political events during this period. During the Chatchai government, the army’s National Peace-Keeping Commission staged a coup d’état, and General Suchinada Kraprayoon assumed the premiership. But a popular uprising denounced the army and staged a mass demonstration, which led to the bloody crackdown of May 1992. General Suchinda stepped down eventually and ex-diplomat and businessman, Anand Panyarachun, then became the next Prime Minister. After the general election, Chuan Leekpai, who led the majority in the Parliament, became Prime Minister. He later had to dissolve Parliament because of a land scandal, which badly tarnished his Democrat Party. General Chaovalit Yongchaiyudh of the New Aspiration Party took the post of premier. During his time a committee was founded to draft the new Constitution. This is believed to be the country’s most democratic Constitution to date. Along with political and economic growth, there has come an influx of international culture and ideas to Thailand as communication technology makes the world smaller and quicker-moving. The Thai art scene is no exception to this. There has been exceptional progress in Thai contemporary art in terms of both concepts and presentation. While a number of artists search the world for inspiration, many go back to their Thai roots – their national heritage – to find stimulation. Doubts and uncertainty always pose questions for artists. Some artists become successful in their new means of expression, while many are challenged about the quality and originality of their work and questioned as to whether they are too greatly influenced by the outside world.

10. The Economic Crisis and Contemporary Art in the Thai Way of Living Thai people came to the realization that they had been living in a bubble economy in 1996 when Thailand faced one of its biggest economic crises. Everyone from the government, businesses, down to ordinary people in the streets had their share of the suffering in one way or another. General Chavalit Youngchaiyudh had to step down to make way for Chuan Leekpai to resume the premiership. The art scene was as badly affected by the economic crisis as all the rest. Art institutions had to tighten their art education budget, their museum work and other art-related activities. Private supporters of art also had to cut down on their spending. Many businesses folded and their assets were confiscated by state agencies to be auctioned

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off as part of the financial reform. From then to now, Thailand has faced economic difficulties. Artists have had their share of the general downturn as collectors can no longer afford to buy their works. Many art activities have been delayed and some have even been cancelled. Many young artists may be discouraged as their works now lack financial support. Looking at the bright side, however, artists may now have more time to concentrate on their art and consider a wealth of new issues. One obvious trend is that many have returned to a simple and serene lifestyle – the Thai way of living. They have started to appreciate the Thai heritage that has shaped our nation and recognize the virtues of the Thai belief system, which they seek to present in their art. They continue to develop their techniques and to reach out to a more international level. In sum, Thai contemporary art has continued from the reign of King Rama IV, when Western culture was brought in an attempt to save the country from colonization, until the reigns of King Rama V and VI when the importance of the Thai cultural heritage was more generally acknowledged. At times, Thai art has brought new perspectives to the Thai society, but sometimes it becomes one with the Thai people, a reflection what they think and see. It also plays a monitoring role every time there is political or social change.

Section IV

Creativity and Expression in the Digital Age – Singapore and Japan

Chapter 10

Information Technology, Art Education and Creativity in Singapore Minming Cheng

Every child is an artist, the problem is how to remain an artist once he grows up. (Pablo Picasso)

In recent years, the study of art had slowly gained in importance with many countries in the world actively seeking to integrate art into the everyday life of their countries. Art, for many people, has in the past been neither accessible nor pervasive. It was to be found only in museums and galleries and was just another subject in school. It is an interesting coincidence that many governments now promote art extensively now that it has been associated with the new economy, which leverages on the knowledge, creativity and cultural capital of its citizens. Creativity has in recent times become part of everyday discourse and has gained much attention from scholars and governments, and at the same time, organizations like UNESCO are promoting the more integrated role of art and creativity within the primary and secondary school educational system in the face of the challenges that will confront today’s children in an uncertain world (UNESCO [b], n.d.). This article looks at the island nation of Singapore, a country currently committed to the pursuit of arts and culture, as well as new technologies and creativity. Art, creativity, technology and prosperity, previously separate entities, are now linked in the concepts of the new knowledge economy, the creative city, the creative cluster and the like, and Singapore, like many cities in the world, acknowledges and embraces these new concepts. The pursuit of more creativity, more information technology (IT) and more art manifest themselves in various part of life on the island and the essay will focus the discussion on the educational system, and especially on art education in the country, as it looks at Singapore’s quest to become a creative and vibrant Renaissance City.

Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning,University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria; e-mail: [email protected]

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1. Singapore and the Renaissance City The island that straddles the cultural boundary between the East and the West was formerly a British colony founded in 1824 when the British acquired control of the whole island. Because of its excellent geographical location at the tip of the Malayan Peninsula, it became an important port for shipping between Europe and East Asia. The island nation gained full independence in 1965 and has since developed into a thriving metropolis with an efficiently run government at its helm. The years following independence saw a rise in literacy levels as well as in standards of living of Singaporeans embarked on compulsory education for all as well as an investmentled economic strategy based in the traditional manufacturing and service sectors. Censorship laws were previously strict and the media were tightly controlled. Hence, when the Internet was first introduced into the country, many people speculated as to the extent to which the government would allow free media of this kind to permeate and affect the mindset of its people. However, the Internet has since introduced much change, as interconnectivity has become an essential element of the new global economy based on networks, information and knowledge. The take up of information technology in Singapore has been swift and this has been instrumental in sustaining Singapore’s relevance to global markets. As the nation develops and moves towards the status of a developed country, its leaders have seen the need to reinvent its image. This phase was heralded by the Singapore 21 vision (Facilitation Committee, n.d.) that called for its citizens to participate more actively in nation building, and promises more consultative processes between government and citizens. A Speakers Corner, loosely modelled on London’s Hyde Park, has been established, and the country has ‘lightened up’, according to Macarthy and Ellis in Time magazine (1999). The article goes on to say that the city–state is being transformed from a country infamous for its firm political hold, to one that is becoming more creative, more competitive and more funky. Singapore now wants to become the Asian Renaissance City. (MICA [d] n.d.). Launched on 9 March 2000, the Renaissance City Report aims to replace a ‘sterile cultural desert’ with a flourishing arts scene. The country is now actively reinvigorating the local arts scene with new policies, tax breaks, funds and the newly built Esplanade Theatres by the Bay project. All these attest to its determination to create a vibrant, cultural and creative city. Recognizing that cultural vibrancy is to do with every citizen in the country and not just arts practitioners, programmes and policies are being implemented to encourage the active participation of the general population in cultural activities. The Renaissance City is also technologically advanced and has gradually computerized since 1980. Today, Singapore is linked up into one broadband network and every public organization is fully computerized. Singapore is a city–state, and can be said to be a nation–corporation. Together with a supportive network of regulatory bodies, private corporations and the general population, the city’s leaders are assured of a concerted and vigorous pursuit of any ends deemed to advance the city’s development. The development of the use of information technology (IT) is

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such an objective, and it has been observed that Singapore is ‘a recognised leader in leveraging and sustaining its competitive edge through far-sighted investments in information and communication technologies’ (Cronin and Davenport, 1993, pp. 3–44). As the IT island vision has now been achieved, it is now time to pursue the knowledge economy. In this context, far-sighted investment now includes the pursuit of aesthetics, technology and creativity. Creative economies, the creative classes and the creative cluster are current catch phrases. These terms encompass both ingenious problem-solving skills and to a large extent, technological expertise. Successful creative economies of today in cities like New York and London are what Singapore looks to. Creative cities are those that churn out lifestyle, gadgets, flashy Web sites, brands and solutions. They draw talent to themselves and create a geography where regions of prosperity correlate to the concentrations of creative professionals. This, in short, is what Singapore, the ‘Renaissance City’, wants to be.

2. The Hardware and Software of the Renaissance City An infrastructural network is needed to facilitate and sustain a creative, aesthetic and technologically saturated society. The ‘hardware’ of the Renaissance City is hence the enabling of physical, economical and political infrastructure. The Renaissance City vision came out of the Renaissance City Report by the Ministry of Information Art and Communications and is the main political infrastructure aimed at creating a culturally vibrant city. The aim is to make Singapore more appealing, so that GDP grows through creative and artistic endeavours and talented knowledge workers are attracted and nurtured for their contribution to the dynamism and growth of Singapore’s economy and society. The Ministry of Information Arts and Communication (MICA) spearheads Singapore’s Renaissance City vision and represents the political will of its leaders in reaching this goal. Aiming to develop both the creative and technological sectors of Singapore, MICA’s mission statement is to develop Singapore as a global city for information, communications and the arts, so as to build a creative economy and a connected society with a Singaporean identity rooted in our multicultural heritage. (Ministry of Information Arts and Communication [b], n.d.)

Singapore’s main economic strategy in the 40 years or so since independence has been an investment-based market driven by secondary and tertiary industries, namely manufacturing and the service sector. However, as the main centres of manufacturing begins to shift to more economically competitive countries like China and India, and as the service sectors face stiff competition from players in the region as well as other parts of the world, Singapore finds it necessary to move into an innovative economy led by creative industries. (Ministry of Information Arts and Communication [a], n.d.).

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This connected and perhaps innovative society had experienced a series of nationwide IT policies that have been generated on average once every 5 years in Singapore’s quest to become an ‘intelligent island’, and then a ‘knowledge nation’. The 1980–1985 National Computerization Plan computerized major functions in every Ministry and facilitated the development and growth of the local IT industry by developing IT manpower and forming the National Computer Board. The National IT Plan (1986–1991) introduced networking technologies and provided the initial funds for the first government-to-business electronic communications. IT 2000, the IT master plan for the ‘intelligent island’, was launched in 1992. It provided the Singapore One network, which connected the whole island into one broadband network. Infocomm 21 is the latest blueprint harnessing information communication technologies for national competitiveness and improving the quality of life. This blueprint articulates the vision, goals and strategies that are expected to facilitate the development of Singapore’s infocomm industry over the next 5 years and make Singapore into a ‘global infocomm capital’ based on a knowledge economy. In the educational sector, ambitious master plans for IT in education have been in place since 1997. The first Masterplan (1997–2002) was a blueprint developed for the use of IT in schools, aimed at providing every child with access to an ITenriched school environment (Ministry of Education [b], n.d.). This Masterplan was seen as integral to innovation in the education system to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century, in which IT was to be used to help equip our young with skills in learning, creative thinking and communication. This was to be a key strategy for producing a workforce of excellence for the future. The goals of the Masterplan were to: enhance linkages between the school and the world around it to enable students and teachers to communicate and collaborate with other institutions; generate innovative processes in education to give schools freedom in IT resource deployment; enhance creative thinking, lifelong learning and social responsibility and promote administrative and management excellence in the education system. The Masterplan aimed at encouraging independent and active learning in pupils with assessment modes aimed at measuring their abilities in applying information, thinking and communicating. The software was to be developed and made easily available and all teachers were to be trained in IT. The plan aimed for a pupil– computer ratio of 2:1 supported by a school-wide network that is now linked by the island-wide Singapore-One network. The second Masterplan for IT (2003–2007) in education will build on the achievements of the first. The new plan aims to create a seamless, integrated and holistic school environment whereby IT is an integral part of the curriculum and of instruction and assessment (Ministry of Education [c], n.d.). The assertion that information technology assists in creativity or lifelong learning and innovative processes in teaching, however, remains to be demonstrated

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as it is the second Masterplan that is expected to integrate IT holistically into school life. Up till now, the achievement of the Masterplans has primarily been in setting up an IT infrastructure in schools. Along with the provision of comprehensive technological infrastructure across the country, Singapore now ranks second in the world, according to the global information technology report by the World Economic Forum, in its network readiness. The ‘networked readiness index’ measures ‘the degree of preparation of a nation or community to participate in and benefit from ICT [information and communication technologies] developments’ (World Economic Forum, n.d.). Creating an infrastructure for the arts has taken the form of increased funding and introducing programmes that encourage engagement in the arts, as well as the building of new arts spaces, the most notable being the Esplanade Theatres by the Bay Project. Local groups and companies have received a $50 million funding boost to help them to develop artistic excellence and professionalism and eight major arts companies now also enjoy an additional $5 million in funding. The Arts Education Programme was established by the National Arts Council as an arts in education programme that reaches out to schools aiming to ‘promote the appreciation of the arts among young Singaporeans’ and ‘stimulate student’s creativity and develop their interest in the arts’, as well as building an audience base for arts events (National Arts Council [b], n.d.). Started in 1993, the main themes that the programme focuses on include music, theatre, the visual arts, literature and multimedia (National Arts Council [a], n.d.). The programme encourages local arts groups to create and develop workshops and performances for schoolchildren. As this is a government initiative, all proposals have to be assessed by a panel consisting of practitioners, educators and government officials. There are three categories through which students can participate: arts exposure, arts experience and arts excursions. The arts exposure programmes are based on a series of performances with talks and demonstrations, where students are introduced to a particular art form through semi-formal instruction from practitioners. The arts experience programmes give students the opportunity to become actively involved in particular art forms and are designed for interaction as well as confidence and creativity-building. Arts excursion programmes usually involve student excursions to performing and exhibiting venues or artists’ studios where they have the opportunity to learn about art outside a classroom setting. In 1998, the programme reached out to about 200,000 students, which is 40% of the student population (MICA [a], n.d.). This means the programme has been quite successful, but it would not be fair to say that schoolchildren enjoyed no extra curricular artistic activities before the Arts Education Programme was put in place. Many schools and their art teachers have always taken the initiative to organize such kinds of activities. The Art Education Programme is, however, a useful initiative for encouraging more activity and can be seen as a useful adjunct to the main art curriculum in Singaporean schools.

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According to statistics from the National Arts Council, the arts in Singapore have developed tremendously over the last 10 years. There has also been an increase in public appreciation and participation in the arts, accompanied by increased numbers of art events. Government support for international exhibitions and shows have brought world-class cultural activities to the Renaissance City as it seeks to develop its own identity in the league of the creative, the artistic and the innovative. Artistic creativity, business entrepreneurship and technological innovation are being held up as the new currency of success and hence the trail-blazers in this new economy are expected to be active, creative and imaginative and to be able to create value from entrepreneurial activities. Singapore is ready to embrace the ‘creative clusters’ that are seen to be among the fastest growing sectors of developed economies such as the UK and the United States. By taking on arts, culture, design and the media, it is envisioned that the island will reap economic as well as cultural benefits. MICA’s Renaissance City concept thus sees the creative cluster benefiting the nation in terms of: directly contributing to the GDP contribution, exports and job creation; differentiating products and services across all economic sectors; enhancing Singapore’s creative buzz and international profile and, augmenting the creative capacity of the people. As stated in the Renaissance City Report, Singapore has the necessary physical infrastructure for the development of the arts and now needs a concerted effort to develop the ‘software’. (MICA [c], n.d.). Unlike infrastructure, ‘software’ is a tricky concept to define and develop. In essence, Singapore’s new vision is to create a vibrant city where talented knowledge workers gravitate and where ideas and innovations flourish. The densification of creativity is known as a creative cluster. The relationship between creativity and the economy has been studied at Carnegie Mellon University by Richard Florida, the Heinz Professor of Economic Development. His highly acclaimed book, The Rise of the Creative Class, expounds the concept that regional prosperity is related to a concentration of creative people. As the world starts to move beyond the economics of the car factory, cities look towards new strategies of competing in the global market. Florida finds that creative clusters prosper in societies that support the three ‘T’s of economical development: technological infrastructure, diversity of talent and tolerance (Florida, 2003, p. 249). Diversity refers not only to diversity in firms and companies but also diversity in lifestyles, attitudes and occupations. Florida states that members of the creative class prefer to live in places with low barriers to entry and that are open and diverse. Several indexes were developed by Florida and his team at Carnegie Mellon University, including the Bohemian Index, where the concentration of ‘bohemian’ types (like designers, writers, directors, actors and sculptors) can be used as a predictor of a region’s high technology base and its employment growth (Florida, 2003, p. 260).

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In the climate of the Renaissance City’s and the drive for creativity, let us now examine art education in Singapore.

3. A Broad Overview of Art Education Within the Renaissance City framework, the arts are seen as a ‘dynamic facilitator of creativity’. Artistic endeavours are not the only avenues through which creativity can emerge; however, within the context of educational curriculum, art does provide an easily accessible outlet for the flow of creative juices. Art education is an important carrier of creative talent. By art education I mean the formal instruction of art, but it can also include informal exposure to art outside school. Before examining art education in schools, a brief introduction of the school system is needed. Singaporean secondary schools are centrally examined towards the end of the curriculum. Although there are independent and autonomous schools in Singapore, they all use the school curriculum set up by the Ministry of Education. The most distinct aspect of the school system is the tradition of streaming. It might be argued that education in Singapore follows a somewhat Fordist paradigm with students being streamed every few years from the time that they are 10 years old. Proponents of the streaming system argue that organizing students into schools and classes on the basis of their academic ability allows the system to function at full efficiency, so that the pace of overall academic development is not targeted at the middle, instead of the top, range of academic abilities. Secondary schools in Singapore are generally split into ‘normal’, ‘express’, and ‘special’ streams. Secondary school education in Singapore is 4 years long for students in the ‘express’ and ‘special’ stream, and 5 years long for those in the ‘normal’ stream. At the end of the day, everyone takes the Singapore Cambridge GCE ‘O’ level examinations. Secondary one and two (or Year 7 and 8) are usually referred to as lower secondary, while the remaining levels (usually Year 9 and 10) are referred to as upper secondary. Lower secondary classes are general in nature. It is in upper secondary school that students choose subjects for their GCE examinations. Art is a non-examinable subject at lower secondary and an optional subject for upper secondary. The Ministry of Education sets the syllabus for all subjects in school, including art. With the new role of arts in society has come a new art syllabus in the school system. In the past, attending art class in primary and lower secondary school meant making lanterns, drawing, children participating in festivals or making sculptures out of ice-cream sticks. There was not an adequate supply of full-time art teachers and many art classes in the primary and lower secondary levels were taken by teachers who were specialized in subjects like Geography or Chinese, for example. As art gained significance in the Ministry, the new art syllabuses have begun to reflect a more integrated approach to the learning of art. Apart from acquiring artistic skills in a variety of media (including the electronic media), students are expected to have an appreciation of art in its historical, cultural, social and

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environments, as well as being able to solve problems creatively both in visual and tactile forms (Ministry of Education [d], n.d.). The emphasis is also on integrating art into the student’s thinking skills and life skills. Such a holistic approach is fast becoming popular in many countries as people start to see the link between art, creativity and innovation. Thus, UNESCO and countries like the UK, Ghana, Canada, Saudi Arabia and the United States are all actively engaging with these issues at conferences and through their own policies (UNESCO [a], n.d.). Compared with the old syllabus, the new syllabus requires more abstract modes of thinking. Students are now expected to interpret themes creatively and create artwork, as opposed to the past, when artwork was assessed primarily on the skill of execution. The GCE ‘O’ level art paper is divided into two parts: coursework (60%) and drawing (40%) or visual and cultural studies (40%). The coursework component is a year-long project that can include 2D fine art or design, 3D fine art or design, textiles and electronic art (Ministry of Education[a], n.d.). In purely technical terms, there are two distinct ways through which art can be learnt in Singaporean secondary schools. One of them is through the art elective programme or AEP, and the other, the general art programme. As suggested by its title, the art elective programme is an elite programme. Started in 1984, it offers academically able students with talents in art an opportunity to develop this talent. The stated aim is to build a rich pool of artists and patrons for the promotion of arts education in Singapore. Other aims include creating designers with a sound knowledge of the application of IT in art and also the future creative class of architects, engineers, designers and so on (Ministry of Education [a], n.d.). The focus of art education in Singaporean secondary schools had until a few years ago, been predominantly craft and skill based, and the main difference between the AEP curriculum and the general art curriculum has been the fact that general art students needed only deal with project, design and drawing work, while AEP students dealt with art history and critical analysis on top of the general art curriculum. The AEP is offered to students in only the ‘express’ and ‘special’ streams, and is available in only four secondary schools in Singapore. Its students enjoy the use of specially designed art studios, special facilities and equipment that allow them to work in a wide variety of media and processes. All the schools with the AEP are premier secondary schools, and 12-year-old children need firstly to have enough academic ability to gain admission into a school that provides the programme and also to be artistically developed enough to pass the internal selection tests that each school independently administers in order to qualify. Students who do not do the AEP can opt for the general art programme, which is where most art students in Singapore are enrolled. In line with new national agendas towards IT, all AEP schools now actively pursue the digital media as a means of artistic expression. For example, the AEP school, Nanyang Girls’ High, has a digital design club and an aesthetics department (Nanyang Girls’ High School, n.d.), In fact, all these AEP schools have an aesthetics department and also emphasize the use of IT in both the general curriculum as well as in art. AEP students have exhibitions regularly organized for them and the works that have been created by these students go well beyond conventional tools,

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materials and media and include installation work and sculptures as well as digitally created poster designs.

4. A Visit to an Art Studio in a Secondary School Since art (and IT) is to be an integrated part of life the Renaissance City, it is important to get the more general perspective. To this end a visit was made to an art studio in a non-AEP secondary school. The school visited has both ‘express’ and ‘normal’ stream students. Security at the school seemed tight and identification had to be showed before getting a security tag from two security guards. The school campus is pleasant and artwork adorns the area surrounding the art studios. Mr Cheng, the senior art teacher of the school, had kindly agreed to act as guide. The school features four computer labs with 40 workstations each and the software available in the workstations includes PowerPoint, Freehand, Photoshop and Microsoft Word. Every classroom in the school is equipped with a projector and a teacher’s station, allowing the teacher easily to give PowerPoint presentations to the class. Students also make use of the projector to present their work as well. Online information is available for the students, and this was especially useful during the SARS episode where classes were stopped. Almost every student has a computer at home. When asked whether poorer students in the school lose out in this computerized environment, Mr Cheng replied that these students usually go to their classmate’s house to gain access to a computer. All computers are allocated from Ministry of Education funds. The hardware and software are updated frequently and old computers are sold at a very cheap price to staff members because of certain issues pertaining to selling them to students. Computer workshops are carried out about twice a year in the school for all the staff members. Mr Cheng started utilizing computers in art lessons about 5 years ago. The art studio now has workstations and both large- and small-format printers. When he was asked if digital photography or digital art can be could be an ‘O’ level art project piece for students in the school, Mr Cheng replied that although this was theoretically possible, (in fact, electronic art is included as an option in the general upper secondary art syllabus) this is not usually done because the art teachers in the school did not have the experience of instructing in the new media. Even though there could be other media through which such a project may be delivered, the school limits this choice due to its lack of resources. Teachers need to have the skill and expertise to teach a particular medium and this is important, as everything that happens in the classroom is geared towards the final GCE examinations. For schools in Singapore, the focus on examinations is especially important because all public secondary schools are ranked yearly based on their GCE ‘O’ level results and hence, it is the responsibility of schools to ensure that students do the best they can in the subjects that they are examined on. Even though a new art syllabus was introduced in the year 2000, it seemed that this school is still playing safe and understandably prefers to instruct in media that teachers are confident in.

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Now that students are expected to do critical analysis and development in their own work, Mr Cheng feels that the role of teachers is especially important. This is because some students have difficulty with interpreting themes creatively as this requirement is relatively new in the education system. Even art teachers who have many years of experience can have difficulty adapting to it because prior to 2000, their responsibility was mainly to advise on techniques and composition. The overall agenda for art teaching at the school was to increase awareness of art and artistic media. These include the pen, pencil, charcoal, watercolour and computers. The school has tried to introduce as many of the available media as possible to students throughout their time at school. The use of digital tools was seen as just one of the media through which creative expression could take place. As with the instruction of most art subjects at this level, the media taught to the students depends greatly on the expertise of the individual art teachers, although students were generally given a chance to experiment with different media. The school also actively organizes art awareness programmes via short postexamination courses. Local artists are invited to run the courses, which include candle craft, pop art and paper craft. The school also organizes trips to art galleries and exhibitions. Apart from this, both past and present students have adorned the area of the art room with artwork. This gives students the opportunity to personalize a space that belongs to them. The attitude to computers has changed during the last 5 years. Five years ago, there was only one computer in the school. At the time, the Ministry of Education wanted to encourage more innovative ways of teaching through the use of IT. This means that students are now encouraged to learn and teachers teach in different ways. In the art curriculum, this means changing the processes through which instruction takes place, and hence the shifts from pen and paper to the use of computer software, like Photoshop. As far as Mr Cheng was concerned, computers are part of a process of exploration and it depends on the individual students how far they take digital tools. The purpose of art education was to encourage students to ‘think outside the box’. Regardless of the tool used, Mr Cheng feels that artistic designs are about problem solving in a creative way. If students are creative they will solve the design problem posed, whether or not software was used. The final judgment of a piece of work is the developmental process and execution involved in its production. Some works may benefit from the use of computers while others may not have to use the computer at all. For the students in the school, computers are more of a development tool than an end in themselves. The only exception was when they needed to create posters of their work. This was where computers were extensively used. Lower secondary school students have less curriculum time for art lessons than upper secondary students who take art as an elective subject for the GCE ‘O’ level examinations. Unlike their counterparts in the AEP, art is not an examinable subject. AEP students choose to study art from secondary one, while other students make this decision only in secondary three. Curriculum time allocated to art at the lower secondary level, like all the other non-examinable subjects, can be slashed to make time for other, examinable subjects. Upper secondary students who choose to do art spend a lot more time on the subject as at this level art is an examination subject.

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The upper secondary art students take the compulsory coursework component of the ‘O’ level art paper, as well as the drawing component. The coursework is basically almost the same as before, involving a year-long piece of work that may involve, among other materials, copper tooling, batik painting, screen printing, pryrography or paper cutting. For the drawing part of the examination, the benchmark for grading used to be based mainly on aesthetics and execution. Now the new syllabus asks that students produce artistic interpretations of themes that are given to them before the exams. Students are expected to take these themes on board and critically reflect on them in terms of ideas, composition and interpretation. They then need show how they arrived at the final painting, including the process work, the ideas, the explanations and so on. The current batch of students preparing for the ‘O’ levels have never had formal instruction in multimedia software in the school. For them, computers are mainly development tools. The main media used for project work are still the same ones that were used before the new syllabus or computers set in. The computer’s role in the studio is mainly as a compositional aid or a quick tool for manual tasks like repeating motifs. For example, the elements for a piece of batik painting can be scanned into the computer, digitally composed and then printed out and traced onto the canvas that the student is working on. The younger students are a lot more confident with IT, and the new art syllabus does encourage more exploration of the computer as a design tool. The new syllabus has actually increased the use of computers in art, as students want to upgrade their IT abilities. However, before the new syllabus can be properly taught, the teachers have to be properly trained first. Computers have definite advantages over manual tools. Photoshop features, like filters, allow special effects to be achieved much quicker and some effects are impossible to achieve without the computer. An example of this exercise is to scan a black and white line drawing and colour it using Photoshop, as well as playing with the filters and other effects. Lower secondary students now get to learn to use computers in the laboratory. Students are encouraged to explore and experiment on their own. Mr Cheng feels that this is a better arrangement than regimented instruction on a piece of software that can offer a wide range of creative outputs. The emphasis at the secondary one and two levels is on the student’s individual initiative in exploring the possibilities of software like Photoshop. Computer-based design is not the only medium taught at this level, and rightly so, even on an IT island. It would, however, still be interesting to see how the current batch of lower secondary students who have gone through the process of making digital artwork approach upper secondary art. The computer, a medium frowned upon at a time when all lettering had to be done by hand (with construction lines carefully erased before handing the work in), is definitely more acceptable as a legitimate means of generating artwork. Computers in the art studio were unthinkable a decade ago and the potential effect that this will have, as multimedia software and possibly java become part of school experience for teenagers, can only be imagined. However, a modern art studio can contains PCs, Macs and a large-format printer without creating the feeling that such technology is inappropriate.

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5. Reflections on the Visit I took art in a Singaporean secondary school 10 years ago, and my immediate impression was that, apart from the introduction of theme-based drawing, general art education in Singapore did not seem to have changed very much. Theoretically, the difference between then and now would most probably be the development of conceptual and analytical skills. The new syllabus requires the student to think differently about drawing and while competence in technique, colours and composition is still important, the student needs to employ a more abstract level of thinking. However, although the syllabus had changed, the artwork in process and that exhibited on the walls of the art studio still looked very familiar. Admittedly, one art studio does not represent the whole country and work from some AEP schools is starting to show interesting explorations of the digital media both by itself and with other media types (Chinese High School, n.d.). However, given the fact that the new art syllabus came in only in the year 2000, it is likely that more turnaround time is needed. The new art syllabus for primary and lower secondary levels provides the preliminary skills and training for upper secondary school art and the current batch of ‘O’ level students has not been learning art according to the new syllabus for very long. Traditional crafts like batik painting, wood carving and screen-printing still have a very strong foothold within the secondary school art education system, and this will be the case with or without policy or technology change. Teaching expertise currently lies mainly in these areas and this is also a compelling factor for arguing for the retention of the traditional arts. The choice that students have on the project work that they do for the ‘O’ level examinations depends greatly on the teachers’ knowledge of the media they may use. The fact that art students are still learning traditional crafts is quite heartening; especially as such crafts are part of the cultural heritage of South East Asia. It is important not to lose sight of traditional local culture. The vernacular art of the region is traditionally part of life, unlike the kind of ‘high art’ viewed in galleries. Local art traditions are also recognized in the Renaissance City vision as an integral part of creating a local cultural identity. Given the context of the schooling system, teachers are understandably more relaxed about using the new media in art at lower secondary levels than at upper secondary. The relaxed nature of digital art instruction in the school at the lower levels can actually help the students’ creative exploration and independence when teachers just let go. It seems that lower secondary students in general have more opportunity to experiment than their upper secondary counterparts. The examination system where ‘O’ level artwork is centrally assessed (outside the control of the teachers instructing the students) creates constrains where teachers are justifiably unwilling to risk their students’ marks by allowing them to do project work that they themselves cannot adequately advise on. The open attitude that Mr Cheng has towards the digital media is a breath of fresh air in an environment created by a virtual tide of policies and national technological interventions in the schooling system. The association between IT and creativity is one that local educators and bureaucrats frequently make, especially as

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the Masterplan for IT in Education envisions that IT will ‘enhance creative thinking, lifelong learning and social responsibility’. School principals assert that IT has made students more independent and interested in educational content and Ministers visiting events talk about the creative and interesting work of students who used the computer. Even though IT use in art is optional, AEP schools that theoretically take in the artistic crème de la crème are unanimous in making a direct connection between IT and art. The link between IT and art traces back to the Ministry of Education statement that its art elective programme would impart a ‘sound knowledge of the application of IT in art’. However, the take-up of technology should be rooted in the critical understanding of its role in a system and its culture. While art can be produced electronically, the use of this medium by schoolchildren may perhaps be advanced by a slightly more critical approach to new technology. No doubt Photoshop filters can give quick and interesting results; however, can we value electronic composition as something that is truly creative and artistic? Would it be useful for the creative and thinking minds to ask questions like ‘Is the value of the artwork in its concept or its aesthetics?’ ‘Is the aesthetics more to do with the artist or the programmer?’ ‘How is the computer relevant to the artwork?’ ‘Can digital art be done without the computer?’ For an example, we can consider works by artists such as Stelarc. His ‘Suspension’ involves only the human body and rocks, cables and hooks inserted into the body. The work explores the concept of the body and its relationship to technology (Stelarc, n.d.). We may even ask ‘Is the relationship between information technology and creativity and art causal or not?’ If art students are to be the most creative of their peers, then perhaps there needs to be a conscious undertaking to explore critically the role of IT in art, because surely, the take-up of IT in art studios should be pedagogical instead of technological. Non-AEP students might be lucky in this respect, as they do not have as much encouragement from the Ministry of Education and their schools to apply IT in art. The need for a critical assessment of IT in art education does not arise merely from the use of IT in art studios. Media like screen-printing have not been subjected to critical inquiry so there is no valid reason why IT should. However, the critique here is the associations often made routinely between creativity or innovativeness and IT in the education sector today, and it is an issue that should be scrutinized, whether in the art class or in any other.

6. Conclusion This article has provided a very broad overview of the new directions that Singapore is taking to develop a creative, industry-led economy. The associations between creativity, art and innovation have been drawn in Singapore as well as in many other countries in the world and I have focused on art education in Singapore in an environment where creativity is now programmed into the school curriculum, together with the rapid take-up of information technology into schools.

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The goal of all this is to a develop creative cluster in the country, and to repeat Florida, creative classes thrive within inclusive, tolerant and diverse low-barrier environments, meaning in societies that are egalitarian, open and nonrestrictive. From what has been observed here, Singapore has progressed in recognizing the need for creativity and artistic expression. Reports like the Renaissance City Report and Singapore 21 indicate that the country is willing and able to move towards a more open and consultative society. However, these proposals are still relatively new and there are old systems in place that still sit uncomfortably with the Renaissance City’s visionary goals. Art companies, for example, are financially directly dependent on one major funding source – the National Arts Council, which at the moment focuses support on the large arts groups in the country. Large companies do add life to a city’s cultural landscape, but smaller companies are equally important in giving the city its buzz. Singapore uses cities like Melbourne and Glasgow as a short-term benchmark for culturally vibrant cities, (MICA [b], n.d.) and the fact is that these cities have a large number of small arts groups that continually experiment, are not funded by state governments and attract much fewer censorship restrictions than their counterparts in Singapore. An example is the La Mama theatre in Melbourne, where experimental work by artists is presented and developed. Some of the work eventually makes it into large companies like the Melbourne Theatre Company. However, shows by large established companies form only a portion of the cultural landscape in the city. Melbourne in general is alight with small performances in nooks and corners that manifest themselves in the windows and walls of cafes covered with posters of their performances, some of which attest to the fact that a good number of these artists do not use the computer very well. In education, even though strides had been made on the road towards becoming a creative nation, the new technologies and policies still operate within the Fordist framework that has existed in the Singaporean education system for decades. Students are still streamed according to their academic abilities and the onus of defining ‘excellence’ still rests squarely on the Ministry of Education. The paradigm that artistic excellence can be systematically separated and developed from the general raw material that is the student population is clear and present in the arts elective programme. However, artists are not produced from systems; art teachers are. Likewise, the creative class is not likely to result from an organized procurement procedure, but from the relative lack of it. Hence, the question put forward here really, is whether creative clusters can be engineered, designed and implemented in the same way as technological infrastructures. There is no doubt that IT is the basic infrastructure of today, and the government’s efforts at getting this technology into schools are both necessary and vital. It is, however, a seemingly non-critical acceptance of the belief that IT can lead to more creative society that seems incompatible within a vision that seeks out the inspired minds of tomorrow. IT does not create creativity, and IT for the sake of it sits uncomfortably with the notion of fostering independent and creative minds. Furthermore, a technological environment is not necessarily a creative environment. In the hurry to create the ‘software’ for the Renaissance City, there seems to be a

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hint of technological determinism in the way that IT has been taken up and talked about. While the new art syllabus is a major step towards the integration of art into life, encouraging experimentation in schools and nurturing thinking, creative, problemsolving minds in the system is something that is going to take time. Resources and expertise have to adapt and mature before the holistic nature of the new syllabuses can take full effect. This is especially so at the upper secondary level where the final art examinations are centrally assessed outside the school. In an educational system, where teachers are accountable for their students’ performance and when performance criteria are narrowly confined to ‘O’ level examination results, inertia is unavoidable. The Renaissance City vision is only 3 years old and whether it will be successful is still a subject of much speculation and discussion. Up to this point, the infrastructural implementation of IT into the Renaissance City has been (in true blue Singaporean style) swiftly and efficiently done. Now, it is the ‘software’ component that needs development. Creativity is intangible and cannot be directly correlated to any form of technology, tool or policy. It thrives in environments that do not try to control it, and while it might become economic capital for the countries that are looking for it, it can never be quantifiable. If Picasso is right, then creativity (and the artist) is already in every individual, no matter which class or which stream, for the matter. Valuing art for its humanity, rather than its economic possibilities, is probably the best way to keep that artist in every individual. Acknowledgements Thanks to all who provided valued assistance in the writing of the essay.

References Chinese High School n.d. has an online exhibition at http://roswell.fortunecity.com/jekyll/96/. Cronin, B., and Davenport, E. 1993. Social intelligence. In Williams, M.E. (ed.) Annual Review of Information Sciences and Technology Learned Information, Medford, NJ: Information Today, pp. 3–44. Facilitation Committee n.d. Singapore 21 Report. Available online at http://www.singapore21.org.sg/menu_art.html. Last accessed 12 March 2004. Florida R. 2003. The Rise of the Creative Class, Australia: Pluto Press. Macarthy, T and Ellis, E. 1999. Singapore lights up. Time magazine, 19 July. Ministry of Education (a) n.d. Art Elective Programme. Available online at http://www.moe.gov.sg/elective/. Last accessed December 2003. Ministry of Education (b) n.d. IT in education – summary. Ministry of Education (c) n.d. Masterplan II for IT in education (mp2). Available online at http://www.moe.gov.sg/edumall/mpite/overview/index.html. Last accessed December 2003. Ministry of Education (d) n.d. Why visual arts. Ministry of Information Arts and Communication (a) n.d. Creative industries. Available online at http://www.mica.gov.sg/mica_business/b_creative.html. Last accessed December 2003. Ministry of Information Arts and Communication (b) n.d. Vision mission values and goals. Available online at http://www.mica.gov.sg/aboutus/abtus_logo.html. Last accessed December 2003. MICA (a) n.d. Renaissance City Report: Annex A. Available online at http://www.mica.gov.sg/renaissance/FinalRen.pdf.

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MICA (b) n.d. Renaissance City Report: Chapter Three – Benchmarking cities. Available online at http://www.mica.gov.sg/mica_business/attachment/ERC_SVS_CRE_Chapter2.pdf?sid=131 &cid=1299. MICA (c) n.d. Renaissance City Report: Executive Summary. MICA (d) n.d. The Renaissance City Report: Executive Summary. Nanyang Girls’ High School n.d. Programmes: Art Elective Programme. Available online at http://www.nygh.moe.edu.sg/programmes/programmes_index.htm. National Arts Council (a) n.d. Arts Education Programmes Online. Available online at http://www.nac.gov.sg/aep/. National Arts Council (b) n.d. Arts Education Programmes. Available online at http://www.nac.gov.sg/aep/. Stelarc, n.d. Available online at http://www.stelarc.va.com.au. UNESCO (a) n.d. UNESCO (b) n.d. World Economic Forum n.d. Global Information Technology Report 2003–2004. Available online at www.infodev.org/files/1065_file_GITR2003.pdf.

Chapter 11

The Power of Creation and Expression in Digital-Age Children Nanako Ishido1 and Ichiya Nakamura2

It is said that the world has become smaller. This is due mainly to the technologies of transport and communication. People, goods, and information come and go at dazzling speeds. The twentieth century consisted of a hundred years of scientific evolution. However, the twenty-first century has opened up with terrorism, as if disapproving of this evolution. On the 11 September 2001, the skyscrapers that had been built by the power of science were smashed down by aeroplanes, another symbol of science. This incident shook us into realizing that our world is in fact truly multidimensional. There are many different people on the Earth. We all have different styles of life, and the beliefs that each of us holds are different, too. The world emerging right now is distinctly different from the past. The difference is that today we are digitally connected. When we are connected via networks, we can deepen our understanding of each other. Vast amounts of information are being exchanged in styles and methods never dreamt of before. This has an impact on the way we raise the next generation and the way in which they learn to express themselves. What follows in this article is a description of workshops held for children in Japan to prepare them for participating in this interconnected world by learning to make creative use of both conventional and new technologies. The article is divided into two parts. The first describes the project and the rationale for it. The second describes some of the visual and sound workshops that have been held to encourage children to express their creativity in new and old ways and to understand the importance of cooperating and communicating.

1. Workshop Collection 2004 At the end of January 2004, the ‘Workshop Collection 2004’ was held in a restaurant in Tokyo. This was an exhibition of brand new digital workshops for children. The event was lead by CANVAS, a nonprofit organization, to offer an

1 Founder and Vice President of CANVAS, CANVAS 4-14-1 Ikenohata Taito-ku, Japan 110-0008 Tel: + 81-3-5534-8088; Fax: + 81-3-5534-8081; e-mail: [email protected]; Web: http://www. canvas.ws/ 2

Professor of Keio University, Founder and Vice President of CANVAS, Web: http://www.ichiya.org/

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opportunity to children to find their own ways of expressing themselves through conventional and cutting-edge technologies. It was here that Japan’s IT-oriented children’s workshops got together for the first time. In this exhibition, 14 different workshops were introduced by people with different specialties, but who all shared the same wish to bring up a future generation with creative and expressive capabilities. Examples of the workshops, described below, included the string telephone workshop by LOCO, the paper cup artist, and the drum circle led by Pecker, the percussionist. Apart from workshops like these, which use conventional modes of communication, there were others that utilized a variety of modern-day technologies. These included relay pictures using PCs, being a radio DJ, creating a robot and creating a clay animation. This exhibition was supported by the Ministry of Communications; the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Technology; the Committee of Education and other organizations. The excitement of the children was recorded by a variety of media, including TV, newspapers and magazines. In total, 500 people participated in these entertainment workshops, which fused conventional ways of expression and digital technologies. The participants included children, parents, artists, teachers and curators, as well as people from sponsoring companies and governmental organizations. The use of PCs and the Internet have now spread over Japan and the public is becoming aware of the importance of cultivating the creativity and expressive capabilities of children.

1.1. Policy to Raise the Standards of Creativity and Expressive Capabilities The e-Japan strategy being offered by the Japanese government states: We aim at a creative-knowledge-oriented society, where stimulation from exchanging the diverse knowledge of individuals encourages people’s free creativity. The primary purpose in this strategy is the realization of equal opportunities for every citizen to acquire information technology literacy and obtain full access to abundant knowledge and information freely and safely, regardless of their geographical, physical, or economic situation.

The strategy also emphasizes the improvement of information technology literacy and the education of those who create on and for the Internet. As the Internet comes into wider and wider use, everybody can become a content creator, producing and broadcasting their own ideas. An effective policy to support this is now required. At the same time, a new challenge in education has begun. This is Comprehensive Studies, introduced in elementary and junior high schools in 2002 and in high schools in 2003. The e-Japan strategy is helping schools to become digitally equipped in order to provide computer skills to children. However, this is not enough. What is lacking is a plan to foster their creativity and expressive capabilities, which is the ultimate resource needed after they have acquired

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appropriate information and skills. The digital environment is now ready, but applications to support children’s information and creative activities are scarce. This is a difficult task for people who are used to a conventional passive style of education and it cannot be achieved just by promoting and publicizing it. It is also unrealistic to leave this task to schools and educators. One practical method is to immerse children in real art, providing them with the opportunities to see and work with real artists. This is why it is so important to promote IT-oriented children’s workshops like ours.

1.2. CANVAS Some projects have already been launched to promote such workshops. One of these is CANVAS, a nonprofit organization. CANVAS was established in November 2002 with the support of the government and an incorporated foundation, the Foundation for Multimedia Communications, as a nonprofit organization promoting creative and expressive activities for children and international communication through such activities. CANVAS aims at establishing an environment for stimulating wide-ranging ideas and to create material for the broadband-age by providing creative and expressive workshops for children. They support a variety of workshops all over Japan through a network of local museums and schools. CANVAS supplies the location, the technologies, the know-how and the tools for children to create information and to share it on a global scale. These activities are supported by the triangular cooperation of industry, academic institutions and the government. CANVAS functions as a platform to link workshop leaders in communities, playschools, science museums, children’s museums (inside and outside Japan), schools, academic researchers, artists, IT companies, educational material companies and design companies. This network involves the Cabinet, the Ministry of Communication, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry and local governments. Its future plan is to extend this network on a worldwide scale to include universities, museums and companies in the United States, Europe, Asia and South America. The principles underlying CANVAS are research, development and dissemination. The plan covers the investigation of pioneering workshops in and out of Japan, study evaluations and the development of new workshops based on these evaluations. Such workshops are further systematized into an educational package that include the necessary materials and can be introduced as educational programmes in schools or promoted as local activities via local governments and companies. CANVAS is now preparing a network environment where people can create and express themselves, developing workshop programmes centring on animation, music and robot creation (some of which are described below), making contacts with overseas groups and conducting related research.

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1.3. Studying the Cultural Background CANVAS launched a pop-culture policy project (PPP) with the cooperation of the Stanford Japan Center. Academic experts and those from the arts, the entertainment industry and government all got together and discussed the issues that emerge from promoting creativity workshops for children. This is because it is important to have a thorough understanding of the industries and culture connected with children. Pop culture plays a particularly important role in children’s creative and expressive capabilities in Japan. It is therefore necessary to study the structure of industry, our cultural and social background and institutions and the expressive techniques of pop culture, including comics, animation and games and the new digital forms of expression such as mobile and Web communications and robotic interactions. Thus, we all know that Japan’s national image used to be militaristic until it was transformed into an industrial one, represented by Toyota, Honda and Sony. Today, the symbols of Japan are imaginary characters such as Pocket Monsters (Pokémon), Dragon Ball Z, Sailor Moon, Super Mario Brothers and AIBO. We need to know the kinds of factors that are at work here and what this means to us. What kind of image of itself does Japan wish to promote through the Internet? Likewise, what kinds of cultures would other countries send out to the world and what kinds of communication would be created from this? Similarly, we need to know what kind of information children in this age of peer-to-peer communication want to create and how they would like to broadcast it. How will they lead an age when people think and express themselves graphically? What is the best way to invent WWW-oriented or mobile-oriented material? What are the trends within culture and society, and in industry and technology that underlie the movement described above? It is hoped to develop this research project into an international one in the future.

2. Workshop Examples (Visual Workshops) Workshops supported by CANVAS must aim at creating work to be displayed to an audience. A variety of workshops are planned in which the development of unconventional children’s works will be the central focus. This includes international Internet communication through digital photography, broadcasting, videos taken using mobile phones with cameras, robot competitions via broadband links, digital music creation, video chat and making books, games and stand-up comedy. Within this promotional activity, we are trying to work out ways of creating a balance between creation and expression of the one hand and cutting-edge technology on the other. Our main focus is the merger of art and technology, the coupling of analogue and digital technology and the crossover from the realm of the virtual to that of reality. Here are some examples of the workshops focusing on visual expression:

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2.1. Summer Camp at the University of Tokyo (Films and Animation) In the summer of 2003, CANVAS hosted a summer camp for children at the University of Tokyo Research Centre for Advanced Science and Technology, where children could create films and clay animations over a period of a month. This camp on a university campus was the first trial of its kind in Japan. The films and animations made were shown at the end of the camp and also introduced to the world on the Internet. One hundred children aged from 9 to 16 from private schools in Tokyo participated.

2.2. Clay Animation In the ‘Claymation’ workshop, children made a clay animation, completing the whole project from beginning to end in a period of 3 days. Starting from writing a script, they designed the characters, drew the continuity, gave the characters a body using clay, created the set, took pictures frame-by-frame, added narration and sounds and edited the film into a 30-s animation, using a computer. This is an activity with a nice balance of the analogue and digital, art and technology and virtuality and reality. On the first day, children formed four groups and started making their story. They were given an outline for the story – a character finds a box on his way from A to B and opens it. The situations and the ending of the

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story were then decided by the children. On the second day, the children created clay dolls and filmed them frame by frame, using a digital video, reshaping the dolls to make them appear to be moving. This was the climax of the project. It was a time-consuming work because they had to shoot three to six frames to make a 1-s image. However, the children quickly became enthusiastically occupied with their tasks, helping each other by exchanging ideas such as ‘How can we move the doll to make it look like as if it is flying?’ The third day was used for editing. They created a background for the doll pictures they had taken and added sounds and subtitles. All the children seemed to be very interested in the process whereby the pieces they had created so far could form a sequential story by editing and adding sounds and subtitles.

2.3. Film-Making In the film-making group, four children worked together in a team and created a 5- min. film over 3 days. They wrote the story, acted, filmed and directed it by themselves. They created everything from nothing. Four children of different ages and sexes who had never met before created a script working together. The filmed scenes were then edited, brought alive with sounds and subtitles and made into a complete work. Each work … a horror story, a detective story … was original and interesting.

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2.4. Creative Photography A photographic workshop was held at the National Multimedia Festival in Okayama in November 2002. This was a course for children to take photographs in their own way using digital cameras. The children walked all around the event site with digital cameras in their hands. This was the first time they had pressed a shutter button and framed their own scenes through the view-

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finder. It was also the first time for them to present their work to others. One was interested in red maple leaves in the blue sky and another tried to catch the movement of the water fountain, while yet another was engrossed in shooting close-ups of the Formula 1 car displayed at the site. They captured a series of dynamic and beautiful scenes and then presented their images. They could see their work as printouts and show them to each other, listening to the other children’s opinions. After this, these works were then broadcast to the world via the Internet. This attractive course was held by @NetHome Co. Ltd., with sponsorship from Canon Inc.

2.5. Video Clip This was a workshop in which children created a video clip by filming animals in a zoo. The workshop was organized by ‘Medical Bridge,’ a nonprofit organization for parents with sick children. One of CANVAS’s main aims is to support groups for children like Medical Bridge. Another important role for CANVAS is to provide the systems and support for amateurs to hold creative activities, not just workshops instructed by professionals.

2.6. Digi-Camp This was a collaboration between Denmark, Mexico, India, Singapore, Cambodia, Ireland, the United Kingdom, the United States and Japan. On a single day, children using digital cameras in each country took pictures every hour of whatever was in front of them. The pictures were then shown on a Web site. Who is it that the Danish child is greeting? What kind of lunch is the Mexican child eating? Why is the Indian child praying in morning? What about in Cambodia? The children noticed such differences and talked about them online in the workshop.

2.7. Mirror of the Brain One of the groups in the Workshop Collection was called ‘Mirror of the Brain’. This was a drawing workshop that uses ‘Mirror of the Brain’, which is software that records and plays what children draw on a computer. A nonprofit organization called the Studio for Heuristic Learning Environments lead this workshop. The children enjoyed watching themselves draw their masterpieces and finding the points where they had worked hard or paid most attention.

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2.8. Dragri NTT Advanced Technology Corporation sponsored a workshop where the children could play with parts of images by dragging and dropping them on to a computer screen. The company has developed software that enables users to drag and drop pictures of animals and robots as if the users are actually holding them. This software can also be used as an educational tool. In this workshop, children edited the pictures they took with digital cameras and video cameras into a ‘drag motion movie’ as their original material. They then utilize the museum materials to make a simple movie to show a variety of animals or the evolution of dinosaurs.

2.9. CG Character Creation This was a workshop where children could create a computer graphics (CG) character. Using software that creates a three-dimensional image from flat computer graphics, children created CG characters, calculating each dimension from the top, front and side. They enjoyed making CG characters they are familiar with on games and TV, using this professional CG software. The software is simple enough for even a 5-year-old child to use. This workshop was supported by Zou Studio, Inc.

2.10. Relay Pictures The D-project developed a system with the support of Adobe Systems in which children can fully enjoy collaborating with each other to make a piece of art. This system is called ‘Relay Pictures’ and provides a series of operations. This is a new style of expression in which people link their images to those of others, thus creating a new image from mutual stimulation. Individual pictures expand with their friends’ pictures. The children choose a part of a picture from a large birds-eye-view collaboration picture; add an image they themselves have made and complete the piece; then upload the piece back to the collaborated picture. The system is carefully devised with tools for children so that they can easily operate the whole series of tasks. The workshop using this system was called ‘Network Cambrian Game – An Explosive Experiment of Ideas’. Using a computer and simple paint software, children can develop a tree of relay pictures by painting onto pictures drawn by others and putting them back onto the tree as a new picture. Through this process, one child’s picture can be the seed of another child’s imagination. A seed of a new picture grows into a variety of flowers over the generations. The pictures produced through this collaborative process look like a field of flowers. This activity allows each participant to ‘explode’ their ideas in a picture, yet it also provides them with opportunities to work jointly on a largescale piece of art. This workshop made the participants feel that they were

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connected with the views and images of others. They could understand visually their own connectedness and sensitivity and that of other children. The bottleneck of international communications via e-mail or video conference systems is the language and the time difference. However, if the medium being worked on is a picture, then the language or time difference does not matter. It would be interesting to observe whether collaboration among the children of the world could develop through such a joint painting. D-project offers an educational programme specifically designed to suit and reward children’s abilities and interests. The working team comprises educational experts from primary schools, junior high schools and high schools and academic researchers nationwide. They study and promote a variety of educational programmes on various themes.

3. Workshop Examples (Music and Performance) CANVAS also produces other types of workshops such as creating music, audio communication, and the performing arts. Here are some examples.

3.1. DJ This workshop introduces the DJ remix as a new form of musical expression. It was first held in 2003 and was the first music workshop of its kind in Japan. In this workshop, participants express themselves using the most advanced technological

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tools. They can choose the sounds they like, extract the essence of the sounds and mix them into their own new sounds. The result is a patchwork musical workshop. One of the abilities required today is being able to pick out the information one needs from the bursts of available information and to edit it into something that can be used. This applies to sound as well. DJs, who edit and create sound, are admired and emulated by the young peer-to-peer generation. DJs can also edit graphics. Children around the world can broadcast, exchange and share images. These frames can be edited on the Internet and made into new expressions.

3.2. Drum Circle A drum circle is a percussion ensemble in which children improvise together. Children enjoy rhythmic activities using percussion, which is one of the most simple and easy-to-play musical instruments. Everybody can join the circle of rhythm and share the feeling of musical togetherness, expressing themselves through sound and rhythm – a session of free communication. A drum circle provides a place where everybody can say something and create the harmony, which we call music. This workshop was lead by Pecker, the percussionist leading Orquestra Del Sol, whose work is described later on. It enabled people to share an activity regardless of their age, sex, physical mobility, culture or language.

3.3. Sword Fighting The sword fighting workshop was held to place one of Japan’s original arts in a new light and introduce it to the world. A pair of children attempted to make their own style of sword fight. It would be interesting to see whether children from different countries may start forming new styles of art and self-expression based on their traditional culture. CANVAS is planning to develop more workshops based on the culture of Japan, such as animations, games, mobile-terminal technology, the tea ceremony, flower arranging and stand-up comedy.

3.4. String Telephones This workshop was led by LOCO, the paper cup artist. Children set up the string telephones they made all over the event site and built up networks by communicating through these telephones. The children decorated the cups with characters and pictures. They also put an instant photo of their face at the bottom of the cup. Each string telephone represented its creator and the site was covered with a network of string telephones. Talking to each other through a string telephone network! This

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simple activity makes people realize how they are interwoven into a network and feel the joy of connectedness. The network allows ten people, or even hundreds or thousands, to talk together as it is not limited to one-to-one communication. Participants are surprised to experience such a densely spread network. This space is the epitome of the Internet – it could even be said that it is the epitome of the world. The vibrations from one cup are transmitted to all the other cups in the network. All the cups are connected by strings and if one string is cut, communication to it is also cut. People are connected to the world and the world is the connection of people. This workshop teaches the basic principle of communication.

3.5. Creating a Radio Programme PROMENADE provided a workshop in which children could experience what it is like to be a radio DJ and a radio programme producer. They produce their own programmes by using an actual FM radio station studio. The programme the children made using professional tools caught the liveliness of the studio and had a handmade warmth.

3.6. Making a Robot with a Cricket A cricket workshop was also held during the Multimedia Festival. The ‘cricket’ is a small battery-operated computer-robot developed by the MIT Media

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Laboratory. The children made a robot using the cricket by writing a programme with a language called Logo Blocks, which is visual and easy to understand. They could use any materials found around the house, including pine cones, pieces of wood, cardboard, clothes, or sponges to create a robot combined with the cricket. The children made these into their own little robots, which could be programmed though a personal computer to behave in ways the children designed. The children wrote programmes to command the robots to move, make sounds and light up. They made a variety of unusual robot insects, by combining the cricket with more than 250 kinds of materials, using all their own ideas and imagination. One was an insect that turns its head around. Another was an insect that rattles along the ground. There was an insect that makes funny noises and one that glimmers in the dark. The children learned to use the computer as a tool of self-expression, using it to enhance their means of expression and creation. The square box of the computer itself metamorphosed into a creature! They changed their creations into robots, pets, toys and friendly insects. This type of creature merges into our life space, creating a digitalized environment in a real-life one, and they are now beginning to create threedimensional interfaces from the two-dimensional interfaces of the past. Such a form itself is a content of the age of ubiquitous computing. This workshop was held at CAMP, which is Japan’s first child workshop centre, in Keihanna university town, Kyoto. CAMP is run by CSK Corporation.

4. Conclusion The world of the future will be one in which people become increasingly interconnected. Of course, such connection does not promise us peace on the basis of mutual understanding. Knowing, but not understanding, may also cause conflict. Wars and disputes are still going on and there are concerns about new battles. But, it is certain that this network will open up people’s perspectives and bring a new way of thinking and understanding. After experiencing the twentieth century full of wars and competition, human beings have opened up the frontier of a world of virtual reality. It must be our decision to direct the power of conflict into the drive for cooperation. We are living in the transition of the analogue century into a digital millennium. It is essential to enforce new manners and rules, rights and duties in this new digital world. New arts using images and three-dimensional representations will develop naturally. This world will redraw the history of expression and recognition although this may take generations in which to do it. It is the future generations who will build a multidimensional society and pioneer new modes of expression. They will be born into an environment that is aligned with virtual digital space via dense networks, and this environment must nurture their skills to live in both the real and virtual worlds. The task of today’s generation is to prepare the frameworks for the young. We must establish the platform and the technologies to pass on our trust to future generations.

Section V

The Arts, Education and the Community: Uzbekistan, Hong Kong, China, Thailand, and the Philippines

Chapter 12

Art Education in Uzbekistan Akbar Khakimov

1. Main Stages of Art Development in Uzbekistan and Methods of Education The art of Uzbekistan has established itself over many centuries, developing a tradition whereby masters of the arts passed on their crafts skills and knowledge to students from generation to generation. The history of art in Uzbekistan goes back 18 centuries and can be divided into three main periods: Ancient and Antique (second to eighth century) Mid-century and Islamic (eighth to twentieth century) Modern (twentieth century onwards) pre- and post-Soviet since 1990 The art of the pre-Islamic period is represented by wall sculpture, painting and different kinds of crafts. The brightest samples of these were created during the Ancient and Antique periods (second to eighth century). There were beautiful pieces of wall painting and sculpture as well as other crafts. The art of that period reflects the influence of ancient-Iranian, Hindu Buddhist, Hellenistic and local Central-Asian cultural and religious traditions. The mythological and religious characters of ancient Greece and Zoroastrian and Buddhist deities interacted with local cult images and all of these added a special originality to the art of Antique Central Asia. This susceptibility and tolerance of local art to external influences was combined with its ability to retain its individuality and uniqueness during the whole period of development. The art of Central Asia did not lose this ability during the Islamic period, when the interdiction on images of living subjects led to the development of new ornamental art throughout the entire Muslim world. In spite of the commonality of art in the Islamic world, the style of Central Asian ornamental art maintained its uniqueness. Although wall painting and sculpture gradually disappeared during the Muslim period, architecture, crafts and miniatures became very popular. A well-developed educational system led to the blossoming of miniature painting in the East. It is known that at the courtyard of Temurid’s governors in Samarqand

Vice-President of Academy of Arts of Uzbekistan, Director of Research Art Institute. 2, Mustakilliq Square, Tashkent 700 029, Uzbekistan; e-mail: [email protected]

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and then Herat there were libraries, called ‘Kitabhana’ with special schools of ‘Nakkash-hana’, where famous miniaturist painters would decorate manuscripts and teach students their skills. Treatises have been found of mid-century authors– painters and calligraphists of the East, such as Sultan-Ali-Meshhedi, Dost Mohammad, Kazi Ahmad and Sadyk Afshar who, in spite of the Islamic bans, still expressed their opinions on how to paint birds, people and nature. They taught the basic techniques of painting and the skills of using the ‘kalam’ (paint brush). Moreover, Eastern artists were aware of the achievements of European artists of the brush. Kazi Ahmad said: ‘By means of a profound knowledge the European wizards have sat on a throne of the country of talent ….’ The majority of these treatises were created as practical guidance for calligraphers and miniaturists and were in effect instruction manuals. The ‘Risolya’ school of crafts has strong and deep traditions that were described in a special craft charter. Similarly, in the Muslim mid-centuries, masters of the arts who wished to pass on their crafts skills and knowledge to students from one generation to the next established the tradition of ‘Usto-Shogird’ that is still alive in today’s Uzbek crafts. Cardinal changes happened to the culture of the Muslim people of Central Asia at the end of nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, when European art penetrated the region. European art such as theatre, cinematography, painting, sculpture, ballet and opera were developing and became very popular alongside traditional forms of Uzbek culture in the twentieth century. The evolution and development of new forms of culture in Uzbekistan over the twentieth century therefore represent a unique historic–cultural phenomenon. The aesthetic traditions that had been strongly influenced by Islam for many centuries have carried out the sweeping cultural transformation in the region. The mentality of the Uzbek people and their general perception of art have also undergone major changes with the arrival of new European forms of art in the beginning of the twentieth century. Up until the end of the nineteenth century, art was mostly represented by the ornamental style of crafts and architectural decor that had been formed here over many centuries on the background of the resistance to the fine and figurative arts. The applied arts retained some elements of fine art but this was more likely to be the exception rather than the rule. One of the few exceptions was the painting of miniatures that died out at the end of the nineteenth century, giving way to lithographic books. European forms of art were fully functioning in this region during the twentieth century. The adaptation of new forms of art in Uzbekistan happened relatively quickly, due to the atheism disseminated under the Iron Curtain and the region’s subsequent isolation from external Islamic influences. Sociopolitical and ideological factors led to the development of the applied arts. Some freedom of artistic creativity and variety of styles was observed in the art of Uzbekistan in the beginning of the 1920s. However, in the 1930s, such pluralism was ended after the coming of the Soviets. The development of art as such was built on the atheistic and communistic

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philosophy of life in the framework of a totalitarian state from the 1930s until the 1990s and was enshrined in government politics. The system of art education was formed according to these requirements where the principle was to reproduce natural and realistic images. A new page in the development of national art was opened with the gaining of Independence by Uzbekistan at the beginning of the 1990s. A period of artistic freedom took hold in the applied arts. Finally, artists were free of state censorship and the necessity to work within the strictly limited borders of social realism. Art once again became pluralistic in style and developed in different avant-garde directions, reminiscent of the development of national culture that flourished for a short while in the 1920s. The process of art education and the character of the development of art had been always formed by passing on traditions and knowledge from one generation to the next. Towards the end of the twentieth century, we can observe both traditional and European types of art in Uzbekistan. Each had its own principles of education. Thus, the main principle of education in miniatures and crafts is based on strictly following previous traditions and established rules. Continuity is the key here. Traditional art is generally anonymous and the individuality of a master is subordinated by the canons within which he can show his skills. Following traditions in European forms of art is encouraged during the early stages of learning; however, as the value of the work is defined by its originality and the ability of the artist to create something new and usually different from the previous tradition this later gives way to more individualistic and spontaneous styles.

2. Development of Art and Formation of Art Education in Uzbekistan in the Twentieth Century The Russian artists who graduated from the St. Petersburg’s Academy of Art taught the basics of fine art to the local population of Central Asia in the studios and schools that had been newly established. Painting and drawing was taught in the state secondary schools in Tashkent that were established in the 1890s. The city of Skobelev (known as Fergana today) became one of the significant cultural centres of Turkistan in the first decade of the twentieth century. At the same time, fine art was taught in the secondary schools of Samarkand. However, artistic life in the first decades of the twentieth century had a provincial character. There was no contact between artists and the mass population and no exhibitions were held. Two culturally different ways of life coexisted alongside each other: the indigenous one, and the European one that was brought by the Russians. The teaching of basic art skills in pre-revolutionary Turkistan was mainly a privilege for rich and wealthy people. Art was taught to the future military or businessmen whilst the local population was in practice cut off from the process of art education.

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One of the goals of the new Soviet power after 1917 was public education, including in the sphere of art. As a result, art education in Uzbekistan was provided on a huge scale, compared to what had happened in the past. New art schools were established, not only in big cities like Tashkent and Samarakand but also in smaller ones like Andijan. The tasks of art education changed according to the new requirements. Authorities in a Samarkand school renewed an educational programme that encouraged students to study nature rather than copy museum samples and also required that the local youth were educated in the spirit of revolutionary ideas. Communistic ideology penetrated the art education of Uzbekistan down to its foundations. The Samarkand school was transferred to a big beautiful garden that had been confiscated from a local warlord in the spring of 1919. There was no formal limitation to the development of the individual skills of the students in painting and in fact these were encouraged. The Samarkand school later grew into Samarkand Art College. Students in all classes, besides working from nature, were also conceiving sketches to both free and set topics and painting from memory. This freedom of expression was, however, to be short-lived. In the next few decades, the encouragement of free art was very rare. Whilst masters like Matisse, Picasso and later Kandinsky and Malevich were shocking Europe with their experiments and research into the new language of painting, representatives of a mainly strict academism were working in the Central Asian region. Realism was the leading principle of art education in Uzbekistan during the entire twentieth century, due to the dictum that ‘social realism’ was the main and the only method in art. The Communist Party had started its struggle against ‘bourgeois art’ in the beginning of 1920s but the method of social realism completely took over only in the mid-1930s. A variety of different art styles and directions was therefore observed at the beginning of 1920s. Russian artists such as A. Isupov, A. Volkov, A. Nikolayev (known as Usto Mumin), O. Tetevosyan, M. Kurzin, V. Ufimtsev and the famous Uzbek painter U. Tansykbayev were working during that period in Uzbekistan. Their works were characterized by a degree of avantgardism. They all tried to find original forms to express their vision of the East and the transformation of Eastern motifs. These artists tried to synthesize the traditions of Italian painting of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries through the use of Russian icons and Eastern miniature. They interpreted the cubism of Picasso and abstract paintings of Malevich in their own way. However, all these attempts were subject to heavy criticism and referred to as the ‘bourgeois-nationalistic ideology in art’. As a result, all of those artists under the pressure of circumstances were forced to work in the traditions of realistic painting in the beginning of the1930s. In the early1950s, national artists such as R. Akhmedov, H. Kuzybayev, M. Saidov and others who had been educated in Leningrad arrived in Uzbekistan. The formal planning for art education in Uzbekistan began at this time. It became part of a common Soviet system and the only differences were in the individual specialities of teachers. The Communist Party, and by extension, the state, more or less controlled the entire art education system and its influence continued into the development of national painting up until the 1990s. The communist criterion was the requirement to create works that were ‘socialistic in content and national in form’.

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The place of the artist in this society was totally dependent on conforming to this requirement; which was therefore taken to be law and was zealously followed. The totalitarian political system discovered its reflection in art and profoundly affected the system of art education. After completing the compulsory academic programmes, graduates of the Art College had to work in the same traditions of realistic art in which they had been taught.

3. Problems of Art Education During the Period of Independence. Education as a Fundamental Requirement of Creativity, and Not an Obstacle to it The situation with art has changed during the period of perestroika and glasnost in the USSR at the end of the 1980s. Suddenly, many artists created works that were very far from representing social realism in both content and style. Social criticism in art was reflected in the forms of various modernist styles. The different directions adopted by Western art that had been criticized not long before, such as cubism, abstractionism, post-expressionism, installations and performances all turned up in Soviet art as a form of protest. Examples of freedom of expression in the art of Uzbekistan became much more evident, although this was not as obvious as in the Baltic region or in Moscow. The historic theme expressed in nostalgic reminiscences dominated Uzbek art and led to the formation of a national romantic style. Earlier this idealization of the past would have been severely criticized. The gaining of Independence by the former soviet republics of the USSR in the early 1990s made this direction in art, a social requirement. However, the basics of art education were not affected by the metamorphosis in the artworks themselves. The structure of the educational process in all the art colleges and institutions remained unchanged by the new reforms that were introduced with Independence. Following academic principles, working with nature, studying pictures of the Masters and producing exercises of composition and colour were the foundations of the system of art education. But what was now significantly different was that the artist, after learning fundamental academic skills, could choose his own way in art and pursue his own style and expression. A good example of this is an interview that one Uzbek artist, Mr. Firdevsi Feyzulla gave to Turkish TV in November, 2000, saying Any artistic individual protests against strict rules during his education. Each student possesses their own world vision and their own way of seeing colours. Therefore, we tried to resist these strict rules during our study. Significantly though, things that we learned during our education started to show up in our works much later. Today I can say for sure that being taught in the strictly academic ways did us some good. Nowadays we can create works in different styles. I think we should be grateful that life showed us the necessity of a fundamental education. There is no Soviet any more and art has got different directions. The creative individual has obtained his freedom of choice and the Iron Curtain is gone now. Artists can create cubistic and constructive works but perhaps the strict academic education is what we have to be thankful for, in teaching us the necessary disciplines.

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It seemed necessary, however, for young, newly independent states to reform their educational systems to make sure they kept up with international standards and norms. The modern system of art education in Uzbekistan is based on the National Programme for the preparation of human resources and education that was carried out at the initiative of President Karimov and accepted as law during the Independence period in 1997. The National Programme of worker education allows for individuals to reach their full potential through a system of consistent education. Educational experts studied domestic and foreign experiences of the development of an educational system and educating workers before carrying out the National Programme. Compulsory elementary education was initially for 7 years and then increased to 7 years for secondary school education. There was also a system of specialized secondary institutions such as professional technical colleges. Students could enter higher education institutions like university after completing their secondary education. There was no provision for undergraduate or master’s degree qualifications, in contrast with world standards. Students would proceed straight to Ph.D. level and then to postdoctoral studies, without intermediate stages. The education system in Uzbekistan starting from 1998 has 11 grades but after 8 years the student can leave for a specialized secondary institution. There are two types of institutions: academic lyceums and professional colleges that are established on the same basis as universities and where students can obtain a 3-year full-time education. To improve higher education and to ensure that the graduates are qualified to work, a 4-year undergraduate and a 2-year master’s degree were introduced. When the President of Uzbekistan, Islam Karimov, was asked what this new national programme would achieve, he answered that, firstly ‘the measures provided will positively effect the socio-political climate and radically change the environment in the country’, and secondly ‘the new model of education will speed up the process of individuals identifying their place in society’. The art education system was also affected by all these changes. There are two directions in the sphere of art education in Uzbekistan. One is the notion of ‘education through art’, which is to say, teaching art in secondary schools. The other is ‘art through the education’, which is teaching art in specialized art institutions such as colleges and lyceums where professional artists, fine- and applied-art teachers and art specialists are trained. The modern system of learning was established in the twentieth century even though the traditions of art teaching already had deep roots here. During the Soviet period there were schools of fine art painting and sculpture at educational institutes and colleges that were established in Uzbekistan. However, this higher level of education in Uzbekistan was available only in the capital city of Tashkent and in Moscow, Leningrad and other USSR cities. This meant that culturally rich cities such as Samarkand and Bukhara did not benefit from the new centres. In addition, the Communist ideology strongly affected the methods of teaching and often only one method or style of art was recognized and followed. These methods were determined centrally in Moscow and all centres of art throughout the USSR had to adhere to the same principles. The use of any other methods was not permitted.

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Art education in Uzbekistan was established as a part of the Soviet system in the twentieth century. Many art studios of fine art, secondary art schools and art faculties were opened in Tashkent, Bukhara, Ferghana and Kokand. However, there was no independent art institute at tertiary level. The Academy of Art of Uzbekistan was founded in 1997 by the decree of President Islam Karimov and it is considered to be a government ministry in its own right. One of the Academy’s priorities was establishing the system of ‘continuous art education’. As a result, educational secondary schools of applied and fine arts were opened in 12 regions of the republic. Three colleges were founded in Tashkent and one in Kokand. The First National Institute of Arts and Design was established on the base of the art faculty of the Institute of Arts in Tashkent. The name of this Institute reflects the desire to develop what has been a weak industry – national design. In this way, the full cycle of art education is complete: the primary one (secondary school from 5th to 8th years), middle one (from 8 to 11th years and colleges from 1st to 3rd year) and the highest (undergraduate degree courses from 1st till 4th year in an Institute and an MA from 5th till 6th year). The Academy has noticeably widened the geographical spread of the teaching of art and the numbers of art students embraced. The results of this process for the past 5–6 years have been very encouraging. One indication of this is the fact that students of these educational institutes from different regions of Uzbekistan have started to win major prizes and achieve other awards in prestigious international competitions of picture and painting. Whilst the structure of education in Uzbekistan has therefore changed significantly, the reforms have not taken into account the specific means of art teaching. For example, the previous curriculum in art colleges took place over 4 years but now, according to law, should take 3 years. However, in exceptional cases in a few disciplines such as painting and sculpture the 4-year length of study has remained the same by a special government dispensation.

4. How to Stimulate the Creativity of the Student Unfortunately, developing the individual creative skills of the students is not easy in the framework of existing educational programmes. Students are too busy doing compulsory homework and their teachers do not pay much attention to developing their imagination. Different projects outside the compulsory education and extra curriculum activities are the only factors for stimulating students’ imaginative development. The ‘Border’ project organized by the Swiss Bureau for Co-operation in 2003 for educational institutes and colleges at the Academy of Art was very interesting in this respect, since it acknowledged this very fact. The concept of the project was to stimulate students to think differently, to overstep the framework of compulsory programmes. Such original creative approaches have showed fruitful results in the whole region during a 6- to 7-month period. These results demonstrated the

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importance of learning the basics of academic painting that are fundamental in fine art education. The First Republic exhibition for young artists in Uzbekistan was held in 2002 at the initiative of the Academy of Arts and proved the willingness and ability of young artists to escape educational norms and rules. A similar second exhibition was held in 2004 and the participants had a task to create works of ‘art outside traditions’. In this way, the Academy of Arts is trying to encourage young artists to create nonstandard works and stimulate an individual world vision. Strangely enough, a rich art heritage in Uzbekistan inhibits some young artists. The beauty of ancient and mid-century memorials, miniature painting, and the richness of folklore art has captivated them, and often bound them to set solutions and set education rules. Becoming acquainted with the modern art of Central Asia and Western art and participating in international competitions and exhibitions plays a big role in the evolution of art. The Asia art exhibitions held in the mid-1990s and the two international biennales in 2001 and 2003 gave a significant boost towards these new tendencies in art when more developed forms of conceptual art started to be introduced in Uzbekistan. Artists like Mr. A. Akhunov, Ms. Usmanova and Mr. A. Nikolayev created the whole range of original installations and received awards and grand prizes in a few international competitions. External factors influenced the change of the conceptions and artistic beliefs of these masters. Another significant project was the exhibition entitled ‘Underground of Bukhara’ that was represented by the Swiss Bureau for Co-operation, where Bukhara artists demonstrated an absolutely new edge to art. A very different picture of the world – through brutal, expressive, emotional, tense and impressive works – was presented at the exhibition in complete contrast to previous exotic traditional landscapes and the beautiful architecture of Bukhara. Another interesting project was an exhibition of the work of young artists in Tashkent in 2003. These artists completed their undergraduate degrees in Uzbekistan and continued their studies in the Academy of Arts in Como, Italy. Their ability to work with different materials like metal and ceramics that they had learned in Italy and their novel solutions stunned the spectators. This once again shows how important an external influence is for local artists who have academic education but do not have the ability to turn their skills into tools for expressing new and unique plastic ideas. It is another reason why some corrections should be made to the modern educational programme of institutions of higher education. Perhaps, it would be a good idea to let students chose their own artistic direction during their master’s course. The introduction of a few more studios teaching modern art forms like installation, performance art and video art should be included in the existing educational programme.

5. Miniatures in the System of Modern Academic Education The interpretation of our own heritage is another issue. Miniature painting heritage has been interpreted in different ways in the works of various painters during the twentieth century. The traditions of miniature painting were used as an attribute of

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national style by artists like Usto Mumin, Chingiz Akhmarov, Telman Muhamedov and Javlon Umarbekov. The miniature painting of Uzbekistan was reborn in its original form only in the 1980s when a few studios for the revival of oriental miniature painting were established. Miniatures were made on paper, leather, enamel and papier-mâché. The technology for producing papier-mâché was borrowed from the famous Russian centre of lacquer miniatures, Paleha. Renowned masters from Paleha were invited to share their experience and to demonstrate how to produce and paint papier-mâché objects. Amongst them were jewellery boxes, pencil cases and other works of the souvenir type. The main idea of these miniature traditions was later used by Uzbek artists in creating monumental murals (frescos) in the interiors of architectural buildings. Many miniaturists produce various objects decorated in a miniature style. These are part of the souvenir industry and quite popular with foreign tourists. Many others, however, do purely artistic work and take part in exhibitions. The famous artist, master of frescos and paintings, Chingiz Ahmarov, led the revival of the miniature. He was assisted by two other miniaturists, Sh. Muhamejanov and N. Holmatov, who were elected to be Academicians in 1997 at the Academy of Arts of Uzbekistan. However, their facilities were inadequate, as was their education. The regular teaching of this art had to be carried out in specialized institutions. A special department of lacquered miniatures was therefore opened in 1981 at the art college of Benkov in Tashkent. Later on, a book miniature department was opened at the same college in 1995. During the period from 1981 to 2003, 107 students had graduated from these two faculties of the Eastern miniature. Tashkent Institute of Art and Theatre (National Institute of Arts and Design since 1997) has similarly opened a faculty of miniatures as an experiment and students have been enrolled on a regular basis since 1999. The Department of Miniatures and Calligraphy was opened in this Institute in 2001. An artistic studio of miniature and decorative painting was also established at this department for the deeper understanding of the miniature. Professor A. Mirkhayev, a famous painter, was the Chairman of this department. The tasks of the studio are broader than just a revival of the miniature. The name of the department, Miniatures and Calligraphy reflects the willingness to create miniature traditions in modern painting.

6. Theories of Art as an Important Part of Art Education The teaching of the history and theories of art plays a very important role in the formation of the individuality of future artists. Besides in special art faculties, these subjects are taught in other creative departments. The formation of creative thinking in students depends on their erudition and their knowledge of the achievements of world art. However, the meaning and value of teaching art and its methods are not appreciated enough in the modern system of education. There are plenty of sites on the Internet about teaching economic disciplines, foreign languages and history in Uzbekistan, but very little or almost nothing on the issues of methodology and theories

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of teaching fine arts. The most problematic situation is in the rural regions due to the lack of necessary conditions for teaching theory, such as a lack of equipment for demonstrating materials, and no galleries where world art can be introduced to students. Teachers are therefore trying to compensate for this by introducing students to local artefacts and buildings such as architecture memorials, crafts and folklore. Recently, the state paid special attention to the establishment of the technical base of art education by providing up-to-date computers and equipment. Institutions now have free access to the Internet. Uzbekistan is making its first attempts to use information technology in the field of art. Together with electronic textbooks on the history of world art, new multimedia programmes for different fields are being created. These are ‘Eastern Miniatures’, the ‘Blue Ceramics of Samarkand’, ‘Baysun Folklore’, ‘Shashmakom’, ‘Culture and Art of Uzbekistan’ and others. However, many teachers still do not have enough skills to work with the Internet.

7. Forms of Teaching in the Traditional Sphere of Art An education in traditional crafts depends on the appreciation of folklore art by the state and the society. Traditional culture was treated as having a spiritual value but not valued as an artefact during Independence. The government issued decrees in the field of folklore art development, reduced taxes for the export of traditional craft and gave some benefits to masters of folklore. There are different forms of teaching traditional crafts today in Uzbekistan. The first is the transmission of crafts skills and knowledge to children by their relatives by word of mouth and by example. The second is in the form of apprenticing students, who very often come from different places to learn from a master and the third is the academic one, where traditional crafts are taught in lyceums, colleges and institutes. The first two forms of teaching are more typical for traditional art, as they help the art to remain local specialities of their particular type. For example, the teaching of wood carving in Tashkent by Tashkent masters evens out the tradition peculiarities of the Bukhara, Kokand and Khiva schools of carving. The teaching of embroidery and carpet weaving usually takes place in two forms. Girls learn it from their mothers before getting married and then make their dowry (often carpets, bedding and dresses) themselves. Special ornaments are made by female masters called Chizmakashi. This is a well-known differentiation in the process of teaching of traditional crafts that needs further study. Generally speaking, artistic and educational processes in all stages of art development in Uzbekistan were interconnected. Education was always an important factor in the formation of high art. The main priority nowadays is to set art free from ideological dependence and state control so now there is an opportunity to stimulate and develop the individuality of students. However, there are still economic, organizational and methodical problems. A critical issue is that art education for children is not appreciated by local authorities in rural regions of

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Uzbekistan. The social component of art in the education system is still rather low. Art education has not been used as an efficient means of teaching other disciplines and this issue has never been examined. The Central Asian region could benefit from an international discussion on art development issues on this issue, along with the others raised in this article.

Further Reading Akimushkin, O., Okada A. and Zhengyin, Lin. 2003. Arts of the book, painting and calligraphy. In: Adle, Chahryar, Habib Irfan and Baipakov, Karl M. (eds.) History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. V. pp. 555–628. Paris: UNESCO. Kalter, J. and Pavoloy, M. 1997. Heirs to the Silk Road. p. 368. Stuttgart: Hansjorg Mayer. Lentz, T.W. and Lowry, G.D. Timur and Princely Vision: Persian Arts and Culture in the 15th Century. Los Angeles County Museum of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery. Pugachenkova, G. and Khakimov, A. 1988. Editions of Art. p. 279. Leningrad: Avrora. Pugachenkova, G. and Galerkina, O. 1979 Miniatures of Central Asia. p. 206. Moscow: Izobrazitelnoye Iskusstvo. Pugachenkova, G.A. and Rempel, L.I. 1982. Essays on Art in Central Asia. p. 287. Moscow: Iskusstvo. Staviskii, B.Y. 1974. Art of Central Asia. p. 255. Moscow: Iskusstvo. Veymarn, B.V. 1974. Art of Arab Countries and Iran. p. 188. Moscow: Iskusstvo.

Chapter 13

To Strive, to Seek, to Find and not to Yield Arts Education in Hong Kong: A Model of Persistence Darwin Chen

The fundamental importance of the arts in the development of human potential cannot be overemphasized. In Hong Kong, the drive to establish education through the arts and education in the arts as the keys to future growth and to new ways of thinking about and experiencing the world really began in 1995 with the establishment of the Hong Kong Arts Development Council. Previously, an arts policy in Hong Kong had not been formally articulated and the various support mechanisms that were in place were more concerned with the provision of funding to a few major arts organizations than the active development of the arts on a broad front. The establishment of the Arts Development Council gave Hong Kong an institution charged by the Legislature with a duty to plan, promote and support the broad development of the arts in order to improve participation and education in the arts so as to improve the quality of life of the whole community. The Council was given a high degree of autonomy and new funds were made available to assist it to carry out its functions. Notwithstanding this, the Council’s role was, and remains, largely advisory. Limited resources mean that the Council has to be highly strategic in its funding allocations. We can initiate projects as exemplars or models of best practice but cannot assume responsibility for the long-term, large-scale implementation of worthwhile initiatives. Responsibility for education policy is vested in the Secretary for Education and Manpower who heads the Education and Manpower Bureau of the Government Secretariat. The Permanent Secretary for Education and Manpower implements policies at the kindergarten, primary and secondary levels. A number of statutory and non-statutory bodies provide advice to the government on a variety of issues. The Education Commission advises the government on the development of education as a whole in the light of community needs. Its terms of reference are to define overall educational objectives, formulate education policy, recommend priorities for implementation, initiate research and coordinate planning and development. The Curriculum Development Council advises the government on matters

Former Chairman of the Hong Kong Arts Development Council, Hong Kong; e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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relating to school curriculum development. The University Grants Committee provides advice on the development and funding of higher education. The Vocational Training Council advises the government on matters related to technical education and industrial training. In addition, a range of other bodies provides advice and implements policies relating to examinations, academic accreditation, language education and research, teacher education and qualifications and allocations from the Quality Education Fund. As a highly focused but relatively minor player in this complex policy, advisory and service delivery environment, the Arts Development Council adopted a ‘squeaky wheel’ approach – on the premise that it is the squeaky wheel of any machine that eventually gets the attention it needs. Over the years, we have had to work at many different levels – in the community, in schools, in higher education, in teacher training, in curriculum development and in a complex policy and regulatory environment and across all art forms – in order to move the arts education agenda forward on a broad front. It has been a gradual, incremental process, as over the years other issues and concerns have been more strident in their clamour for attention, but we are now seeing results. In this chapter, I will outline the approaches taken by the Arts Development Council and the strategies that we have adopted in order to achieve our goals. From the outset, the Council recognized that it was only going to be able to achieve its own objectives through partnership arrangements with individuals and organizations. To a certain extent this involves minding other people’s business in order to come to an understanding of what drives them and their policy issues and concerns. Only in this way could we hope to find common ground, and therefore support, for our own goals. When we work to help others to meet their development objectives, it also helps us to meet our own. The first task in 1995 of the newly formed Arts Development Council was to articulate the various strategies that might be employed to help us achieve our goals. The Council’s Five Year Strategic Plan acknowledged that arts education in Hong Kong required further development. Attitudinal barriers to the understanding and appreciation of the arts meant that the arts were at best marginalized and at worst ignored. Our philosophy was, and is, that the arts are an integral part of everyday life and human communication, and that arts education is a lifelong appreciation of the creative process. We believe that the development of the arts will not only bring people personal enjoyment and improve their quality of life but also enhance their critical and analytical faculties and enliven creativity – all of vital importance in Hong Kong’s future information and knowledge-based economy. The goals and strategies set out in the Five Year Strategic Plan were fleshed out in a formal arts education policy document published in December 1996. Under four broad headings – access, excellence, resources and advocacy – the Council set out an agenda of key tasks covering support for arts education, support for training and professionalism, the establishment of effective working relationships, the promotion of the arts and enhancing the public visibility of the arts. Copies were distributed to all primary and secondary schools, educational institutions, arts organizations, policymaking bodies and relevant arts professionals. A separate Arts Education Committee

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was established to drive the agenda forward. This Committee brought representatives of central government (responsible for education service delivery), municipal governments (responsible for arts facilities and support), and representatives from primary, secondary and tertiary (including teacher training) institutions into the Council’s own policy and administrative process. Whenever possible, representations were made to key policymakers in education to exchange views and to promote mutual understanding on the promotion and development of arts education.

1. Policy Development Our top four key tasks were all to do with arts and education policy development. We undertook to support arts education through policy and funding decisions; to initiate dialogue with various institutions on the improvement of arts education and influence education policy makers in the formulation and implementation of arts education policies; to promote research into the arts curriculum and teaching methods and to facilitate major arts education projects to garner support in the education sector and among the general public. To this end, in 1997 the Council organized an important international symposium on the arts and education in Hong Kong. This symposium helped to set the policy debates in Hong Kong firmly in the context of international developments in educational policy and provision and to lend to our efforts the weight of international best practice. It presented cogent arguments for giving a higher profile and status to the arts in education. It addressed issues as diverse as the arts, education and human potential; the arts, communication and new technologies; the arts, the school and the community; and the arts and the economy as a rationale for the dynamic development of the arts in Hong Kong education. Key messages from the symposium included the concept of lifelong education. Keynote speaker, Professor Ken Robinson, cited former President of the European Commission Jacques Delors’ four pillars of learning through life – learning to know, by combining a sufficiently broad general knowledge with the opportunity to work in depth on a small number of subjects; learning to do, in order to acquire not only an occupational skill but also, more broadly, the competence to deal with the complexity of modern life; learning to be, so as to better develop our full potential and learning to live together, by developing an understanding of other people and other cultures and, through an appreciation of the interdependence of all people, developing a commitment to pluralism. Elliot Eisner, Professor of Education and Art at Stanford University, propounded the case for promoting opportunities for creative thinking and innovation as an integral part of the ways in which our young people experience education in schools. He argued that the notion of creativity must be broadly used, not just to refer to the production of a new artistic object or form, but to problem-solving in every field. Creativity is not intrinsically part of the arts alone but is also a vital component of industry and business, of education and of social and community development.

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The film producer, Sir David Puttnam, noted how the convergence between technology and art and between education and entertainment represents an enormous opportunity to put at the service of education the best of creativity and the most sophisticated techniques of entertainment. It creates the potential to reinvent the way we learn; no longer treating the arts as a pleasant addition to the serious business of education, but putting them where they truly belong – at the very heart of what it means to be a fully educated human being. In a similar vein, Raymond Weber, Director of Education, Culture and Sport for the Council of Europe, noted that art and culture are increasingly seen as important factors in increasing a nation’s GDP and job creation, as a trigger for establishing industries and as an important factor in tourism. Similarly, culture’s relationship to other areas of public policy, including education, regional planning, health and sustainable development has been substantially strengthened through innovative and dynamic forms of cooperation. The symposium also looked directly at questions of policy and provision in the arts and education from curriculum planning to assessing standards, and examined specific issues and innovations within the different arts disciplines. It generated a powerful sense that the energy and commitment that it had helped to focus should be channelled into a positive programme of future work and development. This was timely indeed, as in 1998 the Education Commission embarked on a comprehensive review of education policy in Hong Kong. After more than 2 years of deliberations and public consultation, a comprehensive reform agenda was mapped out and announced by the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region in October 2000. The guiding principle behind the reforms is to build an education system that is conducive to lifelong learning and all-round development. Aesthetic development is now recognized as one of the five essential learning experiences in the overall aim of education set out by the Education Commission. In tandem, the Curriculum Development Council has undertaken a holistic review of the school curriculum. The Arts Development Council’s Arts Education Committee was an active participant in this review process. Following a lengthy consultation process, the Council submitted a range of position papers to the Government through its key advisory bodies and published A Creative Hong Kong 2000: The Millennium Challenge through Arts Education. The Council kept an active watching brief on the process of educational reform and continued to make our views known. A discussion forum entitled 21st Century Education Blueprint and Arts Education Development was held in July 2000 and submissions were made on the school curriculum, facilities and teacher training. In January 2001, the Arts Education Committee organized a series of focus group meetings and an open forum for educators, artists and parents to better respond to a consultation paper entitled Learning to Learn: Key Learning Area – Arts Education issued by the Curriculum Development Council. Our response addressed the role of schools, teachers, the authorities and the Arts Development Council in promoting and developing the arts as a key learning area.

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A key goal was achieved in 2000 when arts education was formally designated as a key learning area. Arts education is now becoming more entrenched in the school curriculum and a Committee on Arts Education has been established by the Curriculum Development Council to set directions for curriculum design and to map out plans and strategies for the development of its subject curricula. In his recent 2004 Policy address, the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region indicated just how far arts education has progressed in terms of policy priorities. He stated that The Government will enrich Hong Kong’s quality of life through a variety of policies and programmes, among which education ranks the highest. As Asia’s world city, we will create an environment which fosters innovative thinking, mutual respect and team spirit, and we hope citizens can cultivate their artistic interests and personal tastes for their spiritual enhancement and cultural enrichment. We expect our society to be one which encourages self initiative, entrepreneurship and aspirations, while valuing creativity and diversity.

While these policy initiatives gratifying, the Council cannot rest on its laurels. We will continue to press for a better arts education infrastructure and the better provision of arts education in schools. We would like to see at least one specialist arts secondary school in each district of Hong Kong, and we will continue to advocate the establishment of a visual arts academy, a stronger arts department in tertiary institutions and more arts education research. We would also like to see the arts integrated into all subjects taught in schools. These are long-term goals and all require significant resources. In difficult economic circumstances it is important to remain pragmatic. Policy pronouncements by government do not necessarily translate into more resources being made available to the Council. However, they do mean that our advocacy messages will get a better hearing. Strong policy pronouncements made by government in support of a more creative culture gives us a much stronger case when we approach potential partners. Many government departments, statutory bodies and other government-funded institutions have a significant capacity to support the development of arts education in Hong Kong. Our job is to remind them of government policy and help them to be a part of our overall effort. Throughout the long process of educational reform, the Council has supported a range of arts education research initiatives in order to make more-effective and better-informed contributions to the process. One of our first projects was to support the publication of teaching materials in art and craft for primary schools. In these early days, even basic teaching and learning tools applicable to Hong Kong were in short supply. Later our research efforts were less concerned with filling gaps in provision and became much more strategic. In 1998, we supported research into models of effective art courses for Hong Kong schools. The report, which highlights the success stories of arts education in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the United States, was completed in 2001, and in 2002 we published excerpts for distribution to all local primary and secondary schools. We have also supported research into the effectiveness of Artists in Schools programmes, the relationships between education-related executive and advisory bodies and school arts education, cultural development in universities and feasible models of integrated arts curriculum.

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2. New Directions In May 2001, Council published a new Three Year Plan, Hong Kong Unlimited, with four key objectives which focus on arts development as an investment in social and cultural resources. This plan marks a shift from the concept of the arts as consuming wealth to the arts as generating wealth. It is a misconception that arts development is an elitist form of consumption or a way of flaunting a society’s wealth, or that it is only the product of a wealthy society. Rather, arts development is an investment in social and cultural resources. By social resources we mean the process of consolidation and mobilization of a community based on security and mutual trust, family values and education, acceptance, inclusiveness and tolerance. Cultural resources mean imagination, creativity, sociability, image-building and conceptual thinking; all in an open and free environment that relishes free and frank debate. As a stimulant to creativity, liberal thinking, productivity and competitiveness, the arts improve people’s quality of life. At an operational level, the Arts Development Council moved from being a funding agency for arts practitioners to a developmental agency responsible for the promotion and support of the arts needs of the whole community. This shift in emphasis is in line with the growing needs of Hong Kong society and mirrors the philosophy espoused by arts councils and cultural agencies in many other parts of the world. Our development strategies emphasize widening our networks and building strategic partnerships. We have always been concerned to build strong working relationships with others to promote cooperation and communication. In our early years, we established the Arts Education Committee and joined forces with the Education Department, in an Arts Education Working Group that addressed issues concerning arts education in schools. Our reach is broader now and has resulted in a better acceptance of the idea that the arts cultivate creativity and contribute to personal growth and social development as well as making a crucial contribution to Hong Kong’s international standing and competitiveness. We are forging a social consensus on arts development that we hope will lead to better coordination between the various arts sectors, the general public, commercial enterprises, public organizations and government departments so that the work will be executed in a spirit of genuine understanding and smooth partnership. The four key objectives that now drive our work are developing the social functions of the arts; expanding the market for the arts and building audience participation; promoting lifelong arts education for all and enhancing the artistic level and social status of artists. As a developmental agency we are making significant investments in the growth of arts and culture, in nurturing people’s creativity and in promoting innovation so that in future, the public and private enterprises in Hong Kong will be recognized not only for their efficiency but also for their humanitarian concern and their culture of quality. By identifying with social harmony and prosperity, we believe that the arts will earn the recognition and appreciation of the general public and help Hong Kong to become a cultural metropolis.

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There can be no doubt that the restructuring of the Council and the refocusing of resources on large-scale proactive projects has worked exceedingly well. Despite some sense of disenfranchisement felt in the arts community as less money has been made available to individual artists in the form of small project grants, the Council has not deviated from its goal of promoting the interests of the arts. These interests are clearly better served by having a better informed and better educated community. The benefits will then flow from the community to individual artists in all areas of the arts in the form of better and bigger audiences for their work. We are concerned to create an environment in Hong Kong where the arts can grow and prosper. We would like to see the arts as much a part of our lifestyle as our world-renowned love of shopping. To achieve this goal we need to work not just with artists and arts organizations or with teachers and teaching and learning institutions, but with the entire community. Hong Kong is a testament to the power of free market principles. The principles of demand and supply apply equally well to arts education. We believe that our efforts to stimulate the supply of art in the community will translate into a greater demand by that community as a whole for arts education and for the arts in all their creative diversity.

3. Arts Education Projects Over the years, a great many of the projects supported by the Council have had a significant arts education component, even if that was not their main focus. Indeed, it may be possible to claim that everything we do contributes in some way to the education in the arts of our community. In the following sections, I will outline a number of the initiatives undertaken or supported by the Arts Development Council. For reasons of space I will focus primarily on those undertaken by the Council itself and its Arts Education Committee. In addition to these I must acknowledge the great many others supported by each of our specialist art form advisory groups in arts administration, arts criticism, dance, drama, film and the media arts, the literary arts, music, the visual arts and xiqu. An early key task of ours was to devise ways to bring the arts into schools. Arts education in formal education is concerned with providing students at all levels with ample opportunities to learn about the arts and participate in artistic activities. We attach equal importance to both developing an interest in and fostering an understanding and appreciation of the arts, and in facilitating the development of knowledge and skills through active participation in the arts. We sought to facilitate ways of bringing practicing artists and performing companies into the school campus for specific projects in order to cultivate closer links between teachers, students and artists. In 1996, we devised and collated a Directory of Artists-in-Education to be distributed, free, to all schools and education institutions in Hong Kong. This was to provide schools with a quick ready reference on artists and arts groups that had the skills and interest in developing projects in partnership with schools. That same

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year we started work on a pilot Artists-in-Schools Programme that sought to provide an environment for students to understand and experience the process of creativity through contact with artists and various art forms in school-based activities. This programme was launched in 1997 with the support of the Education Department and generous sponsorship from the Hongkong Bank Foundation. In the first year, 14 school projects were supported from among many applicants. In both 1998 and 1999, a further ten projects were supported. Over the 3-year period, 44 artists and 17 arts organizations joined the programme and more than 30,000 students were among the beneficiaries. The pilot programme provided a range of case studies on the ways in which art projects stimulate and encourage students to think and work creatively and assist teachers to draw inspiration from this new stimulus and apply new ideas to curriculum development. Concurrently, training programmes for artists were initiated in order to help them develop the skills necessary to work collaboratively with teachers and students. In addition, an Outstanding Arts Education in School award scheme was initiated to acknowledge and reward the efforts of schools and teachers in initiating and promoting arts education programmes in schools. A mobile exhibition showcasing successful examples of Artists-in-Schools projects and winners of the Arts Education in Schools awards toured a range of primary and secondary schools and other venues. Building on the successes of this programme, a new Arts-in-Education programme was jointly organized by the Council, the Education and Manpower Bureau and the Hong Kong Institute of Education and again generously sponsored by the Hongkong Bank Foundation. This new 3-year programme sought to explore feasible and innovative ways of integrating the arts in the formal curriculum in order to nurture a proactive learning environment. Subject integration with the arts was a new concept in Hong Kong. To give local schools, teachers and artists a better understanding of the process, sharing sessions and workshops were organized in the first year with specialists from Britain, the United States and Australia who had been invited to share their experiences with teachers and artists. Other practical workshops focused on the skills and techniques necessary to implement successful arts education programmes. For each of the second and third years of the programme, eight projects were selected. In each project one school took the lead role, in collaboration with a second partner school and either an individual artist or an arts organization. In the most successful projects, the close collaboration between artists and teachers resulted in a powerful combination of pedagogical expertise and artistic insight and enhanced models of student learning. Over the course of these two years, 32 schools, 262 teachers, 53 artists and more than 3,800 students benefited from the programme. As a pilot project, the Arts-in-Education programme has been very successful. We have demonstrated the benefits of arts education in schools to parents, teachers, school principals and education policy makers. We have a number of well-documented, exemplary projects that other schools can emulate. We do not have the resources to be able to roll out the programme to all schools in Hong Kong but hope that the seeds that we have sown will take root and grow into a formal part of every child’s

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education. This is a long-term goal but we are encouraged by the fact that a number of schools have committed their own resources to continuing the programme. As with the Artists-in-Schools programme, teacher training and training for arts workers were essential parts of the scheme. In 2002, the Council organized a series of talks with visiting specialists in order to facilitate the exposure of the educational fraternity to the latest developments in professional practice and to enhance the understanding of arts education among school teachers, principals and administrators. Howard Gardner, acclaimed worldwide as an authority on intelligence, creativity and human potential, presented a lecture entitled Creativity and the Arts in Our Time and drew comparisons between the arts and sciences to illustrate how creativity involves the minds of the audience as much as the mind of the creator. Other speakers addressed topics as diverse as effective arts education, arts education in Taiwan and arts education: nurturing multiple intelligence and economic development in the twenty-first century. In addition, since 1999 the Council has been able to award scholarships to enable artists and arts workers to study abroad, thanks to the support of the Rothschild Trust, the Leeds University-Chevening Scholarships and the British Foreign Commonwealth Office. Promoting arts education is not just a matter of influencing policy makers, funding research, garnering support in the education sector, facilitating training and professional development and supporting exemplary projects as examples of how to do it and to show what it can achieve. It also involves creating greater public awareness of the benefits of arts education – not least because parents need to be educated, too. Since its inception, the Council has undertaken a range of promotional strategies. In 1998, the Council funded the production and distribution of Xpressions, a bilingual fortnightly multidisciplinary arts magazine. This magazine had a very wide reach as it was distributed both as an insert in the English language daily, the South China Morning Post, and in arts venues throughout Hong Kong. In 2000, we supported the production of nine episodes of an arts programme broadcast on Cable TV News Channel. Each of the nine episodes introduced a specific art form in a simple and entertaining way. In 2001, we commissioned a series of three Announcements in the Public Interest – advertisements that Hong Kong television broadcast companies are required to show free of charge as part of their licence agreements. These advertisements – Arts Life, Family and Wish on a Star – were aired on television and on buses. By illustrating the relationship between art and life in a simple and lively way, the series aimed to bring the message of the arts to all walks of life. In 2002, the Council entered into a co-production arrangement with Radio Television Hong Kong to produce an educational television series called Arts Unlimited. Six half-hour programmes examined the impact of the arts and arts education on individual and community social, economic and cultural development. These programmes aim to convert a wider audience to all the advantages of good school-based arts education and the direct impact it can have on cognitive, intellectual and physical development. They show that through the arts students can learn to analyse and synthesize, form opinions and defend a point of view, deal with paradoxes and open-ended questions, exercise their imaginations and communicate their insights. They help to garner support for the comprehensive development of arts

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education and education in the arts from parents, teachers, the government, business organizations and the general public. Each episode of Arts Unlimited had a unique theme. Only Schooling Matters investigates, through different case studies, how preschool education makes use of different arts media to help make learning fun. The Art of Street Performance shows how street arts forge links between presenters and their public. Arts Education Activities explores how art in classes can break through traditional boundaries, open new horizons and develop creative arts activities. Other programmes focus on how the arts can assist a community to discover more about itself and create new markets, on how the arts assist commerce and the practical difficulties of promoting the arts in schools. Arts Unlimited made its debut in April 2002. Copies on disk were delivered free of charge to all local schools. The first series was so successful that a second series of ten episodes was produced in 2003 and broadcast first on TVB Jade and rerun on Cable TV News Channel 1. This series reflected the diversity of the arts in Hong Kong. Of particular relevance, the episode Project Hope for the Arts described how art was incorporated into other subjects in schools while In Search of Art took viewers in an artistic hunt all over Hong Kong. In 2003, the Council and Ming Pao, a Chinese-language daily newspaper, jointly published a regular weekly half-page column called Arts Appreciation Zone to introduce aspects of the arts and arts education to the general public. The project ran for 36 weeks, each with a unique topic. To make the column more interactive, readers were invited to free arts performances and encouraged to write reviews, the best of which were published in the column. Also in 2003, the Council instigated the Hong Kong Arts Development Awards programme to give greater public recognition to outstanding achievement in the arts. It is the first recognition scheme in Hong Kong that includes all sectors of the arts community. Awards, in the form of a trophy and a cash grant, are given for arts achievement in all sectors to younger rising artists and to recognize outstanding achievement in arts sponsorship and arts promotion. In addition, awards are given for outstanding arts education in the categories both of schools and non-school. The awards and the high profile ceremony was held to present them all help to increase the profile of the arts in the community and their contributions to society. Our early arts education promotion activities were concerned primarily to promote the benefits of arts education in schools. Now that arts education has been accepted as a central learning experience, our strategy is based on the premise that effective arts promotion starts with education. We are now devoting more of our energies to promoting arts education among the general public. Our three year plan focuses on building strategic partnerships to help make the arts more accessible to the general public. In this, the higher profile of the arts and arts education in the public policy agenda is a great boon. We are now invited more often to cooperate with the government and to provide advice and information on the arts implications of policy decisions, and are more proactive in identifying strategic partners in both the public and private sector to work with us on major events that help the arts to take root in the community.

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Fig. 13.1 Cantonese opera Source: Hong Kong Arts Development Council. Photographed by, Mr. Chan Tin Shing, 2002.

The annual Hong Kong Book Fair brings the arts closer to the community. The Council had for a number of years been a participant, but for the last few years has taken a much higher profile as co-organizer of the Book Fair. A wide range of activities, including critics’ recommendations and a writing competition for secondary schools, have been held. In addition, sharing sessions that allowed acclaimed authors to meet critics and readers to meet and exchange their thoughts and experiences were very popular. An Appreciation Zone provided a lively and exciting space for visitors to the Fair to experience other art forms through performances and workshops. In 2002, the Council organized a 2-day Arts Education Expo in association with the Hong Kong Heritage Museum. Arts groups and primary and secondary schools all demonstrated their successes in arts education through exhibitions, workshops, games and performances. Booths were set up by each of the participants to showcase everything from woodblock prints to multimedia computer-generated art, pottery, puppet making, digital music, dance, Cantonese opera and drama. A number of recent initiatives have helped to raise the profile of the arts as an aspect of peoples’ daily lives. In partnership with the Arts Promotion Office of the Leisure Cultural Services Department and New World First Bus Limited, we organized a competition called ‘Mobile Art Gallery’ that saw the works of 12 local artists exhibited all over Hong Kong both inside the buses and as part of their livery. This project has been extended to other forms of transportation in Hong Kong. Hong Kong ferries and ferry piers have been made available to exhibit the work of local artists. In addition, in 2003 the Council launched an innovative Artwork on Loan scheme. In collaboration with the Leisure Cultural Services Department and the Hong Kong Central Library, the Council reproduced 132 original works of art by 27 local artists and made them available for loan to the public so that they may be enjoyed at home. Multiple works may be borrowed by schools so that they may hold mini-exhibitions and a variety of other art appreciation activities based around these works.

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4. Future Prospects To succeed in the competitive global economy in the twenty-first century, a nation must embrace a vital and creative cultural life generating imagination and lateral thinking in every field. There will be an ever-increasing correlation between economic performance and creative endeavours and aspirations. It is no accident that the world’s financial centres are also the world’s cultural centres – London, New York and Paris. Hong Kong is well placed to take up the mantle as Asia’s world city. The Government of Hong Kong has embarked on the single largest arts development and promotion project ever undertaken anywhere in the world. This project is also, understandably perhaps, one of the most controversial. The Government of Hong Kong has invited proposals for the development of a 40-ha waterfront site at the southern tip of West Kowloon into an integrated arts, cultural and entertainment district. The West Kowloon Cultural District will be a HK$24 billion (US$3 billion) project that will deliver an unprecedented array of arts and cultural facilities to the people of Hong Kong and the region. Nearly 30% of the gross floor area has been set aside for arts and cultural facilities, including a theatre complex comprising three theatres, with a seating capacity of at least 200, 800 and 400 seats, respectively; a performance venue with a capacity of at least 10,000 seats; a museum cluster comprising four museums of different themes; an art exhibition centre; a water amphitheatre; and at least four piazza areas. Integral to the whole project is a stunning glass and steel canopy designed by renowned architect Sir Norman Foster that will embrace and integrate all the different components of the development and make a very strong architectural statement. The development is being planned as a public–private partnership. The government has set out its baseline in terms of the provision of core arts and cultural facilities, the canopy and other issues. The government also reserves the right to appoint a third party to operate or mange any of the core facilities. The successful developer will undertake all the planning, design, construction, operation, maintenance and management aspects of the project and will, in return, be issued with a grant of the land for a term of 50 years. The West Kowloon Cultural District will be the new heart of Hong Kong’s twenty-first century urban culture. It will enliven our cultural life and animate the people’s participation in that life. It will harbour cultural and intellectual exchanges and become a haven for the city’s traditions, memories, inspirations and aspirations. All this hardware is good news for the arts in Hong Kong but developing the software – the artists and audiences – is even more important. The West Kowloon Cultural District will be a symbol of our commitment, as a community, to the arts. It will help to raise the status of the arts in our community and generate new opportunities for audiences to encounter the arts. In all this, the Hong Kong Arts Development Council will continue to play its part. There remain huge challenges for arts education in Hong Kong. If we are to achieve our impressive arts goals we must be able to generate specifically

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Hong Kong content to fill all the marvellous new venues and to showcase our abilities on the world stage. Our relationships with our near neighbours will be important in this regard. At a Summit on Arts and Cultural Policy with senior officials from Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Macau held in June 2002 we discussed cultural issues, opportunities for cooperation and exchange and the prospects for arts education. In addition, the recent Mainland–Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement (CEPA) concluded between Hong Kong and the Central Government will result in more exchanges and employment. The key challenges for the future are to train talent, to stimulate imagination and intelligence and to garner the support of the whole community for our artists in their unequivocal pursuit of artistic excellence. Acknowledgements I appreciate the assistance of local Hong Kong arts writer, Mr Jonathan Thomson, as co-author of this essay.

Note The quotation in the title is from Alfred Lord Tennyson, Ulysses (1842).

Further Reading Hong Kong Arts Development Council 1996. Arts Education Policy. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Arts Development Council. Hong Kong Arts Development Council 1996. Five Year Strategic Plan. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Arts Development Council. Hong Kong Arts Development Council 1999. A Creative Hong Kong 2000: The Millennium Challenge through Arts Education. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Arts Development Council. Hong Kong Arts Development Council 2001. Hong Kong Unlimited: Three Year Plan 2001–2004. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Arts Development Council. Robinson, K. 1998. Facing the Future: The Arts and Education in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Arts Development Council.

Chapter 14

Sustainable Education for Sustaining Communities: The Arts Integrated Curriculum. Two Case Studies of China and Thailand Lindy Joubert

1. Introduction This article presents an overview based on field trips to a select number of schools in Thailand and one in China. The aim was to look at the teaching of the arts in the primary and secondary curricula and its potential scope in relation to a more sustainable education. This factor lies at the centre of educational aspirations that aim to achieve a quality education for employment, deeper understanding of social issues and the development of life skills for adaptable, flexible individuals with a solid grounding in the best human values.1 It is important to rethink current educational models in the light of providing a holistic education that makes links between the arts, sciences and humanities. Research in this field indicates that students are closer to attaining their potential when a holistic approach to learning is achieved.2 Each country has its own characteristics and the contrasts between their various approaches to incorporating the arts into education remind us how diverse the world, is in spite of globalization and the ‘global village’. In this article, I identify some new developments, through selected examples in China and Thailand, where the arts are used as a unifying principle in providing a quality education. The truth of the matter is that the arts can, in fact, be UNESCO Observatory on Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Arts, Director, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning. The University of Melbourne; Tel: +61 3 8344 7437; Fax: +61 3 8344 5532; e-mail: [email protected] www.abp.unimelb.edu.au/unesco/ While working as a consultant at UNESCO 2000 to 2003, projects linking the arts into the core curriculum at the primary and secondary levels were researched. This work took place under the auspices of the Principal Regional Offices for UNESCO in Thailand and China and the Education and Culture sectors at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris. The work was achieved through the cooperation of UNESCO National Commissions and Ministry of Education in each country. 2 Harvard University’s Project Zero supports the work of eminent scholars, including the work of Howard Gardner and his theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner is Immediate Past Co-Director of Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. One of the aims of Project Zero is the need to understand and enhance thinking, learning and creativity in the arts, the sciences and the humanities at individual and institutional levels. 1

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the catalyst to unlock old attitudes and achieve a much greater retention rate in classes. An arts-related curriculum can increase interest in the subject matter, give students confidence in themselves and provide them with new ways and means of learning. Above all, by integrating the arts into learning, the subject becomes far more attainable and students feel stimulated to learn.3 The examples of best practices in quality education from Thailand and China discussed here use the arts for facilitating holistic, multidimensional and sustainable educational outcomes. However, the involvement of the arts in the broader school curriculum, and the benefits they provide, is a relatively new area that requires considerable research in the future.

2. China: Renmin High School, affiliated to Renmin University of China HSARUC 2.1. Background The High School affiliated to the Renmin University of China was established in the 1950s under the name, the Beijing Intensive Support School for Labouring People. It was the only high school directly under the jurisdiction of the state Ministry of Education. The open and reform policy in 1980 offered the HSARUC an unprecedented developmental opportunity. The school became one of the first municipal top schools in Beijing and was put into the ranks of a Teaching Reform Advanced School. Recently, the school has been enjoying many prestigious awards and special honours as a result of its exemplary approach to education. Over its 50-year experience, the school has developed principles based on truthseeking, enterprise and developing initiatives valuing student’s individuality as a means of tapping their potential. The goal of the school is become a world-class school based on excellence; and to promote the overall development of all students, including developing their initiative and nobility of character. Teachers are given every opportunity to be trained by updating their teaching skills and improving their dedication, initiative and love of their students. 3 The full report of the study for the National Foundation for Educational Research, entitled ‘Arts Education in Secondary Schools: Effects and Effectiveness’ is available from the Publications Unit, The Library, NFER. Research enquiries to John Harland, e-mail: [email protected]. Information from the research summary of the project, ‘Arts Education in Secondary Schools: Effects and Effectiveness’ can be viewed at http://www.nfer.ac.uk/research-areas/pims-data/ summaries/eaj-effectiveness-of-arts-education-iii.cfm. The Association for the Advancement of Arts Education (AAAE) conducted an evaluation of research on ‘How the Arts Contribute to Education’. The study involved more than 350 university and independent researchers; more than 2 million students; more than 35,000 teachers; tens of thousands of artists, hundreds of US cities and 20 international business leaders. Further research programmes not included in this article are included in the Arts Education Partnership, c/o Council of Chief State School Officers, One Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Suite 70 Washington, D.C. 20001–1431. The site can be viewed at http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/champions/

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HSARUC realizes that the combination of a comprehensive education and the cultivation of creativity are at the core of a quality education. This school, therefore, provides an outstanding Chinese model for educational best practice at the secondary level and does so by using the arts as means for educating students in social issues and the development of life skills. The school has established a number of special courses at the secondary level, for example, the modern teenager, out-of-school class, psychological class, creation and invention, environmental protection, science practice. Newly added optional courses are introduction to Web pages, mathematical models, geometry drawing, astronomical observation, automobile simulated driving class, mechanical drawing, photography and carpentry. The school has established a brand new open course of scientific research by putting the classroom into the laboratories of universities and research institutions. The idea of creative education seeped into these courses and has widened the students’ horizon, inspiring them to think differently, enriching their scientific knowledge and cultivating their creativity. As a result, students study and practice are becoming full of variety, independence, practice and initiatives.

2.2. Strategies to Develop Life Skills and Deeper Understanding of Social Issues In the subject called character education, the school adheres to the principle of cultivating students through education, service, management and environment. To improve students’ character-development, the school advocates five key principles: developing their self-discipline and independence, cultivating their self-esteem and self-confidence and giving them the tools for their own self-improvement. The school has also formed a student self-managing system, a trial-based student-centred system in various activities. This has resulted in the formation of an effective character education system. The school’s focus on such matters has enabled it to recruit gifted teenagers specializing in the arts and in sport. These gifted students have won the largest number of medals in municipal, national and international competitions of any school participating and the HSARUC was awarded the banner by the Beijing Education Bureau of ‘excellence in fostering all-round students with individual specializations’. An impressive degree of emphasis is placed on the arts and cultural activities at HSARUC. The wind band, the symphony orchestra, the choir and the dance team have frequently won the top prizes in various competitions for primary and secondary school students. This has culminated in further enriching experiences for the students who have received invitations to perform in Japan, Singapore, Germany and the United States. Apart from more traditional art classes, where painting is taught by eminent Chinese artists in a conventional art studio setting, HSARUC also provides classes entitled ‘enlightening and horizon-widening

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creation and invention class’, and ‘think boundlessly at the lake’. Such innovative and creative learning sessions, as the names imply, encourage the expression of free thought and creativity with practical outcomes. Further activities based on physical and artistic prowess expand the curriculum, and the students as a consequence, achieve outstanding results. Outcomes of multidisciplinary programmes incorporating the arts at HSARUC. The breakthrough in teaching reform and the emphasis on multidisciplinary teaching and learning incorporating the arts is producing evident levels of improvement at HSARUC. The school has achieved great success in teaching and has produced outstanding graduates. As far back as 1955 when the Beijing Intensive Course School for Labouring People opened its senior high school department, the students’ grades in the National College Entrance Examination (CEE) were advancing in leaps and bounds. The percentage of students entering universities and colleges reached 98% or higher, which has had a profoundly positive affect on the school’s reputation. Since the National College Entrance Examination was resumed in 1978, the school took the lead in the grade of CEE in Beijing for 3 years in succession. From 1985 to 2000, the school has led all the other schools in the percentage of students entering colleges over the last 16 years. National colleges and universities, over 86% of which have been registered by the national leading universities, have recruited over 5,000 students. The school has become one of the major sources of candidates to those prestigious universities. This school, therefore, exemplifies best practice in education in China, and China’s policy for achieving a comprehensive and creative education stressing a multidisciplinary, holistic approach based on cultural, creative and artistic goals.

2.3. Recent Developments In recent times, HSARUC has opened to the outside world and undertaken various kinds of teaching and exchange activities with educational institutions abroad. Friendly and cooperative relations are enjoyed with a number of high schools and universities such as the Raffles Institute in Singapore, Wuzang School in Japan, Canton Central Schools and the State University of New York, USA, as well as Sherman School of the American University in California, USA. I had the pleasure of being invited to a concert by Phillips Academy in collaboration with HSARUC, in Massachusetts, USA. The level of expertise by both schools in the areas of dance, singing and musical performance was exceptional, but of greater interest was the camaraderie amongst the Chinese and American students, the sense of their appreciation of each other’s culture and the sophisticated level of communication and interpersonal skills between the two groups. Through developing a broader and more holistic approach to education, there is greater success in achieving the development of all human skills and abilities; enhancing knowledge of social issues and developing life skills. HSARUC’s creative

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education approach has achieved outstanding results for producing the ‘whole person’, not only the students’ intellectual abilities. The creative education approach has enabled dozens of staff members and students from HSARUC to study abroad or to be part of a cultural exchange programme with the partner schools in the various parts of the world. This high level of multidimensional and holistic educational achievement has attracted educational figures from around the world, and HSARUC serves as the finest example of best practices in secondary education in China. (1)

3. Thailand: Pilot Project Over Ten Provincial Schools (2) 3.1. Background I visited Thailand to select education projects at the primary and secondary level that use the arts as a means for education in vocational training, social issues and the development of life skills. The visits were conducted with the expertise and under the guidance of Mr. and Mrs. Wearsuvan and the translation and support assistance provided by Mrs. Darakorn Phensiri. (3) Two schools were visited, one near Bangkok and one in a province 3 h from Bangkok. These schools are part of a pilot project established by Mr. and Mrs. Wearsuvan involving ten schools across Thailand. The aims of this programme were in line with my two main objectives for my visit. The first was to overview the research and practice in teaching the arts in the primary and secondary school curricula in Thailand. The second was to look at the potential scope and application of the arts in schools in relation to vocational training and the all-round development of the human personality. 3.1.1. Description of Projects at Thanyarat School, Pathumthani Province At this school, Mr. Bancha Chanraksa (4) was our generous and informative host and guide. His school was part of the pilot project set up by Mr. and Mrs. Wearsuvan and was built in 1956, under the auspices of the General Education Department under the control of the Ministry of Education. At the time I visited the school, in 2001, it had 2,800 students, 125 teachers in 15 departments and had been developing steadily over the last 25 years. There were six art teachers in the art department who worked with curriculum integration to develop five spheres of learning: cognitive construction, effectiveness, psychomotor skills, applying experience to real life and the integration of art into other subjects. Interdisciplinary learning is part of the curriculum with elective subjects in the arts being selected by students according to their interests, skills and abilities. Vocational training and positive and practical outcomes are a key focus for the structure of the course, as many students are unable to finish their schooling and need to have experience in entrepreneurship, small business skills, marketing,

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manufacturing, arithmetic, science and all other aspects needed for the establishment of a family business venture. Teachers have specific goals based on a student-centred approach to teaching and learning, including real-life experiences, Thai culture and ethics and learning by doing. This project was set up to integrate the arts into subjects such as mathematics, the Thai language, social studies, English and science. Mr. and Mrs. Wearsuvan have conducted their project using qualitative and quantitative research methodology, and have come to many of the same conclusions as those in Harvard University’s ‘Project Zero’ projects, although they have been operating in the provinces of Thailand with no knowledge of the Harvard project. World’s best practice at Harvard’s ‘Project Zero’ in arts curriculum research, reports that schools with strong arts programmes often report a rise in test scores. This is possibly due to the fact that schools that treat the arts seriously may put in place other kinds of innovations that are favourable to academic learning. For example, these schools may demonstrate a more enquiry-oriented approach, be more project based, more demanding of high standards and more focused on processes that lead to excellence. Educators and policy makers internationally, need to understand what issues accompany the arts in secondary education and research is being conducted through ethnographic studies of exemplary schools that grant the arts a serious role in the curriculum. When it is discovered that certain innovations are always found in schools where the arts take a serious role, this finding could account for why schools with serious art programmes have high academic performance. (5) Many secondary students, especially those who disadvantaged, can be provided with equitable and good quality education if the primary and secondary school is made relevant to their demands, values and cultural traditions and their social and economic realities at local levels. (6) However, an outside influence was introduced to Thailand by educator Steve Bell who came to Thailand in the mid-1990s from Strathclyde University, supported by the British Council. His ‘Storyline Method’ had been in operation in the United Kingdom for 25 years with great success. Once introduced, Thai grade scores and student behaviour improved. Mr. and Mrs. Wearsuvan have documented the progress of students under the Storyline Method over 3 years and have found that the students improved in increased participation and interaction, evident pride, cooperation. They looked happy and relaxed and were more confident in using high-tech skills like computers and they worked well in groups. In this method, the teacher works as the mentor, implementor and supporter, encouraging student skills and experience. Mr. Wearsuvan believes that educational reform will be more positive and effective using integration through innovation and a tailor-made local curriculum. Students’ work will be improved when they are encouraged to conduct their own searches for facts and information and when more attention is given to developing their individual potential. Finally, quality assurance in the curriculum and accreditation will need to be improved as well.

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3.1.2. Thanyarat Project Aims Mr. and Mrs. Wearsuvan believe the capacities of the young can be enlarged in developing their – Cognitive skills, to assist students to solve problems and think in a more logical way. – Work-related skills (such as how to set up their own business and acquire business acumen, management skills and entrepreneurship). – Social and spiritual skills, such as devoting their lives to Buddhist principles, including family members in their businesses and being active, contributing members of their community – Other social skills, such as their awareness of sustainable development and environmental issues, their resourcefulness in recycling of materials, their awareness of health and safety issues These goals can only be attained through child-centred teaching where the emphasis is on the student. Teachers have to be trained to achieve these goals. There should be three training sessions for them a year in which they learn how to integrate the process into other subjects. Mr. and Mrs. Wearsuvan believe that one teacher working with one supervisor is the most efficient method for learning the new techniques and the supervisor is the key person in the school and the main conduit of knowledge and new information. Throughout my visit, I observed the various projects being run under the pilot project. My observations are briefly presented below.

3.1.3. Dyeing Textiles The art teacher at Thanyarat School introduced a textile dyeing project, and recruits the knowledge of science teachers for information on health and safety issues, making the dyes, and ensuring their permanence and durability. The mathematic and science class are asked to calculate the specific amounts of fabric needed, to cost the price, work out the quantities of dye needed, together with the chemical formulae of the dye and the proportions that will be used. As a result, the art lesson has become a holistic process of using mathematics and science for an arts-based outcome. This is a core project at the school and is entitled ‘Infusion Instruction’. The project has been going for 2 years for all secondary level classes. Project ‘Infusion Instruction’ is conducted by the school with a budget allocated by the government. It is run by the arts specialist in the school and the visiting arts supervisor, who is in charge of the core curriculum and syllabus for the Department of General Education, Supervisory Unit, in the Ministry of Education. The need for the project arose due to a shortage of teachers. As all teachers work very hard (22–25 periods each week) the idea is to help them work together to share knowledge. As all the teachers have a basic knowledge of the arts, the aim is to lessen the load of

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each. It is, therefore, a mutually cooperative project. Every 2 months in each of the two semesters there is a comprehensive session for analysing and testing results from the project, so that the outcome of the project and its success or failure is tested four times a year. The project faces some problems. One of these is that this integrated system of teaching is not yet fully clear to the teachers. Another is that the teachers don’t have time to study the new process, given their large teaching loads each week. There are, however, positive outcomes as well. The teachers are happy to share ideas and help each other. The students’ attitude to the new process is very positive as they find the learning more interesting. They are happier to study than before and pay more attention to their lessons. They will be able to apply this knowledge in future to earning a living and setting up a small business, thus becoming small-time entrepreneurs in the cloth-dyeing and textile business. They can also apply these skills to working from home and to their daily life. They have become more interested in mathematics, science and other subjects and realize the use of such subjects when approached from a practical angle. The best students also benefit as they have now learned another vocational skill, through the arts. The weaker students are able to apply these practical skills to their daily life.

3.1.4. Home Economics Project, Thanyarat School – Cooking and Selling Food to Other Students Students took classes in domestic science, economics and arithmetic simultaneously. The object of these lessons was to develop small business skills, marketing and entrepreneurship in combination with cooking skills. Students worked together in teams learning how to cook and sell the food to other students. This formed a sound basis and practical introduction for students planning to enter into the local business community with their family members. As many of these students will not finish secondary school or attend tertiary education, this project constituted a practical introduction to vocational training. This kind of project is called an extended learning arena and relies on cooperation between the school and the community. Thanyarat School aims to establish an efficient model of extended learning where the goals of the curriculum are attained through learning by experience. This technique allows the student to enter into different roles in the real economy and find out about the problems facing the supplier and the consumer.

3.1.5. Selling Recycled Products, Thanyarat School – Making Flowers for Buddhist Ceremonies I saw another project geared to vocational training that was based on creative practices usually confined to the art lesson but that are now conducted together with science, Thai language, mathematics and economics lessons. Students were making flowers from recycled products for Buddhist ceremonies, while developing their

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awareness of environmental concerns in combination with learning business acumen. Yellow telephone pages were used with different kinds of recycled paper to produce beautiful paper flowers. Many of these flowers have religious and symbolic significance, for example, the lotus. These students have learned how to recycle waste products in order to create saleable items of considerable beauty. The flowers were most often sold to the Buddhist temples in the immediate region of their school. The teacher explained that the proceeds of the sales were spent on providing much-needed equipment for the school, such as an air conditioner, or new art materials. This is an example of how arts subjects can become less dependent on school funding than many others. It also shows how the arts can work in harmony with a science class for students to understand the composition of dyes; with mathematics for students to understand proportions; with economics for students to understand small business practices and with the Thai language to teach the students how to express themselves. This pilot project demonstrated how creative and artistic practices within the mainstream curriculum may achieve sound and effective results. Qualitative research undertaken throughout the pilot project demonstrated how student’s work, attitudes and outcomes can be positively influenced by the impact of the arts.

3.1.6. Nong Tao Witthaya School, Uthai Thani Province – Small Business and Environmental Awareness Community leaders took an active role with the students in this project. The school was chosen to participate in the project as the National Park nearby had become deforested. Design skills were taught in the school to develop not only creative skills but also small business skills and environmental awareness. The students were also taught to teach their parents how to earn a living in new ways and to protect their natural resources and the beauty of the local surroundings and environment. Science was taught simultaneously with the art subject, to instruct not only the young people but also the villagers on environmental pollution and how to keep the local areas pristine and preserved for future generations. The science subject explained the reasons why chemical fertilizers should not be used and the benefit of using organic fertilizers and biodegradable products. Using straw from the rice fields, farmers and students learned how to produce mushrooms as a small business. Pineapple peel can also be used as a fertilizer after the fruit and flowers have been processed. In domestic science students learned how to make a sauce for vegetarians from the mushrooms while in art class the students learned how to design packaging for their product. The school also developed a trademark that was made into a sticker and distributed on products throughout the region to cooperatives in all the towns. When there is a festival, students advertise it on posters in English and Thai. The Nong Tao Witthaya School is fortunate to be part of a very strong community of 2,500 inhabitants with 500 homes and 407 students at the time of my visit. This

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is a small, manageable community ideal for the pilot project. Rice is the main economy and is harvested once a year, providing good reasons to establish other kinds of economic activity. The school has a dedicated principal who focuses on improving the community’s standard of living and the farmers’ knowledge of sustainability issues. Parents of the students are mostly farmers. This project is supported by the village leaders, Mr. Tapau and Mr. Kulum, as well as other members of the community and volunteers from a local non-governmental organization whose emphasis is on agriculture, supported by the education department to assist the people to earn their living for a better life. We were shown around the school by the school administrator, Amporn Wathanavikkit. The non-governmental organization is a local community group working to assist students from this school who do not usually attend university. The non-governmental organization helps students to learn vocational skills, such as handicrafts or agricultural knowledge. The villagers are integrated in to the school so they may teach such knowledge. Another example is the fishery programme, where the school invites the villagers to teach the students and in turn the school teaches the villagers technical knowledge, such as using new technology, biotechnology, chemical awareness and the importance of using correct herbal fertilizers rather than harmful chemical fertilizers. This has proven to be a successful reciprocal community project with increased understanding and respect for life skills based on the integrated network of all ages and their varying skills. 3.1.7. Uthai Thani Province – Weaving Workshop Project This was a community-based project where local women producing woven textiles in a small cottage industry taught schoolchildren from Nong Tao Witthaya School how to weave, design patterns and to paint their designs. These skills are exchanged for economic and design information from the students. While there are numerous traditional patterns that can be used, the women feel there is also a need to teach the students new, contemporary patterns. These projects proved to be beneficial, not only in the attainment of skills but also because of the community cooperation, the air of interest and excitement surrounding the project and the positive and proactive activities that drew the community together, nurturing attitudes of giving, rather than taking. When the whole family is involved, everyone benefits and can learn something. Both children and parents had the chance of learning both at home and at school in a closely knit, integrated learning environment.

3.2. Assessment of the Case Studies Examined in Thailand and China The education projects discussed in this article are at the primary and secondary level of education in China and Thailand and have used the arts as a means of improving education. They were assessed according to project’s contribution to

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both primary and secondary levels of education. Informative elements including social, economic, cultural, and educational and the involvement of community partners, parents, students and non-governmental organizations within the context of these case studies were also broadly assessed. (7) There is considerable evidence of the benefits of integrating the arts into the school curriculum and the subsequent benefits on the acquisition of life skills, an increased understanding of social issues and the broader, holistic impact this makes on the overall quality of education. Educational methods of this nature have added value to the local economy and social well-being of students. The most effective assessment is through the development of projects based on more holistic learning modalities, their circumstances and the setting up of specific indicators for evaluation. This is currently underway in Thailand. The success of this method can also be analysed in the light of other best practices research projects in the same field.

3.3. Outcomes – All case studies described above confirm the need for a more flexible, holistic learning system. This will lead to changing the curriculum by basing it on the role of the arts in the school and the community, and taking into consideration the circumstances, time and place. One overall model may be applied looking at the various factors of geographic, economic and cultural difference. – The results from the Thailand pilot project will provide indicators with the best way of putting in place the design of new teaching, learning and curriculum modalities using the arts in the mainstream curriculum. It is clear that the success of such projects in providing an improved, quality education at primary and secondary levels and beyond relies on collaboration between ministries, policy planners, community groups, parents, teachers, students, non-governmental organizations and human resource and training institutions and centres. – To launch successful programmes, economic and cultural issues need to be known and understood. Teacher training institutions need to be targeted and increased dissemination of knowledge in all appropriate areas is needed. – In the short term, there will be some difficulty establishing these new learning modalities in the mainstream education system. An obvious outcome from the aims of the Thailand project, relevant to all countries, is the need for government support to provide budgetary support for teacher training, time release and the development of infrastructure. – For future projects to demonstrate an improved quality education at the secondary level based on the arts as a means of education, extra-budgetary projects for local, national and international funding need to be established. Once the benefits have been established on a large and visible scale and changes have been implemented at the teacher-training stage, no large amounts of money will need to be directed to this new and improved programme. Once the changes

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have become an integral part of teaching and learning, it is merely a matter of redirecting existing funds. Therefore a key factor of this assessment is that, in the long term, it does not rely on large amounts of additional monies to be invested, simply a shift in attitude and teaching culture.

4. Conclusion Best practices in using the arts for facilitating sustainable, multidimensional educational outcomes have been presented in this chapter. Examples of best practices in China and Thailand demonstrate how involving the arts throughout the school curriculum provides great benefits; yet, it is a relatively underresearched area. This chapter presents the introductory material for a burgeoning need that can only significantly improve the quality of education in all countries. There is an evident need for reform and for a fundamental re-evaluation of the ways in which schools are organized for teaching and learning. Educators are being challenged to re-examine traditional notions of what should be taught in schools and how it should be taught. This includes an emphasis on a more clearly articulated, rigorous and interdisciplinary curriculum, which acknowledges and values the contributions of an arts education in all social, economic, scientific, mathematical, cultural, environmental and educational issues relevant to any society.

Notes 1. The information on HSARUC was gathered during a visit to the school by the author as guest of the UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific the Chinese National Commission for UNESCO and the Ministry of Education, People’s Republic of China as an expert participant at the UNESCO Meeting on Quality Improvement in Education for the Twenty-first Century, 12–15 June 2001, Beijing. 2. With the cooperation of the Foreign Relations Section, Department of General Education, Ministry of Education Thailand, the author was introduced to the School Supervisors of Arts and Craft General Education, Mr. Kamol Wearsuvan and Mrs. Nittaya Wearsuvan, who are the Supervisors of Arts and Crafts Departments in all secondary schools around Thailand. Mr. Kamol Wearsuvan is the Head of the Arts and Crafts Department for the Thailand Education Department. His responsibilities include maintaining a level of quality control amongst teachers and providing support for teachers who provide innovation and media for education. One of his major work roles is his position on the Secondary School Supervisor Board that supports educational innovation and technology education as well as training teachers and administrators to progress in their own continuing academic education. Mrs. Nittaya Wearsuvan shares many of these responsibilities and they work as a team. This pilot project was conceived and organized by Mr. Kamol Wearsuvan and Mrs. Nittaya Wearsuvan. 3. Mrs. Darakorn Phensiri, is from the Planning Division Department of General Education, Ministry of Education, Bangkok, Thailand.

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4. Mr. Bancha Chanraksa is Assistant Director of Thanyarat School in Pathumthani Province, Thailand. 5. Information from ‘The Arts and Academic Improvement: What the Evidence Shows’. The full set of articles is published in the Journal of Aesthetic Education by University of Illinois Press, Volumes 34, nos. 3–4, Fall/Winter, 2000. The guest editors are Ellen Winner and Lois Hetland. 6. Information from the UNESCO Reference Paper on International Consultation on Educational Governance at Local Levels presented in Paris 27–28 February 2001. 7. All comments made in this article are based on the author’s field trips and discussions with the Chinese and Thai school supervisors, educators, Ministry officials and students.

Chapter 15

New and Varied Initiatives in Arts Education for Cultural Development in Philippine Society Brenda V. Fajardo

Culture is one of the three spheres of social life, the others being the sphere of rights (polity) and the economic sphere. Interest in culture has always remained a passive matter for many, who think of it, if at all, as no more than lived experience, not realizing that culture can be misused and abused by the forces of society. This is the reality in the Philippine situation just as much as it must be in other areas of the global village. Too much attention is being focused on governance, politics and economics, which have all become the primary motivation of political action. The result of this imbalance is a warped and distorted form of society and chaos, where people can no longer discern what is right or wrong, as the order of the day. Much of what the media reports about the Philippines also focuses on the political and economic situation, giving a lopsided view of what goes on in the country. Not many realize that the culture of Philippine society is very rich, strong and solid. People need to be aware of this strength and understand and appreciate the treasures of their cultural heritage in order to balance their everyday pessimism. In spite of the strength of our cultural heritage, it needs to be promoted so that it can withstand the onslaught of globalization, materialism and a mechanistic approach to life. It is in this respect that arts education is imperative in the twenty-first century in order to ensure a humane society.

1. Arts and Culture in the Philippines The arts, as an expression of culture, contain the distilled spirit of a people. It is therefore of utmost importance to preserve, reconstruct, strengthen and sustain one’s own culture through the arts. The arts are also expressions of the life form of individuals whose lived experiences and insights continue to inspire us into doing what is good and right for our community. Consequently, the practice and appreciation of the arts need to be encouraged to unite people in a cultural bond. From art works descend the ideals of earlier generations that contributed to what we are today.

e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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All peoples throughout history have received an education in the arts and as they learned to make the utilitarian objects that become their arts and crafts, and that gave them an understanding of what is true, good and beautiful. This education took place when the older generation handed down its cultural heritage to the younger one, who learned it through repetition and imitation. During earlier times, art was very much integral to life and culture, being the way of living of particular groups of people, so much so that art was not seen as a separate thing but was more like an internal aesthetic sense and children learned the art of their parents without having been formally instructed in it. The history of colonization in the Philippines has contributed greatly to our exposure and assimilation of new cultural modes that have changed indigenous ways, resulting in a cultural expression, which has fused the cultures from inside and outside our boundaries. Colonization has been a continuing process up to the current time. Globalization in the last decades has been accepted primarily for political and economic reasons. As a result, therefore, many cultures have been bombarded and transformed by this global force, leading to a certain extent of homogenization of cultural practices. In the twenty-first century we see hegemonic, economically motivated forces seducing people into a homogenized way of living. A simple example is the number of fast food shops selling crispy-fried chicken, thus creating a generation of crispy-fried chicken eaters. In such a situation, we need to provide our young with a cultural education includes reintroducing them to culturally based food, in order to preserve culturally rooted tastes that allow individuals to retain their unique cultural identity.

2. The Situation in the Philippines of Art and Cultural Education Art education in the Philippines is still a marginalized subject from the primary to the tertiary level in schools. While it does appear on the curriculum, it has either been lumped together with other subjects or it is given the least attention of all subjects because of our overriding focus on science and technology. It is the contention of the country’s leaders in various fields of life that the key to development and progress is an intensification of science and technology, to the exclusion of our artistic and cultural education. But the good news is that an art and cultural education has been sustained by various other sectors of society. This article attempts to show examples of the efforts of some sectors in Philippine society to promote an artistic and cultural education in the belief that it is a major factor for comprehensive sustainable development and consequently, for a better Philippine society. The truth of the matter is that arts and culture have been promoting the development of peoples throughout history. Living traditional arts have been transferred to the younger generations throughout the ages. Artists continue to create works expressing their thoughts, ideas and feelings as well as being responsive to the

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changes of the times. Art, whether consciously or unconsciously, has been a basic activity of civil society. When the Americans came in the early part of the twentieth century to the Philippines, they brought with them an educational system that included some art teaching in the curriculum. World War II resulted in a pro-American stance that meant the continuity of an educational system that was Western in orientation. Thus, the arts and culture of the people became more and more oriented to the West. The use of the English language was encouraged and art lessons were modelled on American ones. In theatrical performances, the English language was used. Until the end of World War II, most artistic expression imitated the West, with locals adapting foreign art forms and idioms. Original works were quietly being created, but these were not as well known as those broadcasted in the popular media. By the late 1960s, artists began to articulate expressions that were rooted in local life and art lessons based on local culture were being formulated. Original plays were written in local languages and cultural identity became an issue. Our cultural identity was promoted as artists became politicized during the years of martial law and actively embarked on educating the people into an awareness of what was happening around them. Several artists immersed themselves in the varied and diverse cultural communities in the Philippines in art forms such as literature, the theatre, music, dance and the visual arts. As a result, many non-governmental groups composed of artists with a fresh perspective on art and cultural education came into being. One of these was the Philippine Art Educators Association, which aimed to professionalize teachers who taught art in order to transform them into art educators. Another was the Philippine Educational Theatre Association, which produced theatrical performances and went around the country educating and empowering people through an integrated theatre arts workshop. There were many other groups of this sort who knew that the key to development and social progress is through education. Thus, one of the outcomes of this proactive attitude resulted in the establishment of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts through the efforts of civil society. An earlier cultural institution, the Cultural Centre of the Philippines, had been established by the Marcos regime, but the National Commission for Culture and the Arts was, in truth, initiated by civil society and through its own networking. It includes representation from the public domain: civil servants from cultural agencies nominate members to its Board of Commissioners and individual artists from the private domain are elected on to its sub-committees. This needs to be explained so that its connection with the Philippine Cultural Education Plan is appreciated. This brings me to other actors in the field of art and cultural education who are also actively engaged in art and cultural education initiatives.

3. The Philippine Art Educators Association As one of many groups that came into being in the late 1960s, the Philippine art educators association (PAEA) was formed to enable those teaching the arts to meet and exchange notes. Most of those teaching art in private schools had very

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little or no training in art education or pedagogy in general, being mostly graduates with fine arts degrees. The aim of PAEA was to provide a venue for furthering their own art education goals and rooting their teaching in Philippine culture. And so, art teachers from many private schools gathered every month to listen to resource persons or to their art teacher colleagues, exploring materials and techniques and discussing classroom management, art education concerns and the substance of art. In these days, few were aware that art was actually part of the school curriculum. Those teaching in public schools had their own separate art education group. In the Philippines, schools were either public, meaning state-run, or private, meaning autonomous schools that were accountable in a limited fashion to the government education agency. Art education, as a concept, was taken to mean art taught to children and thus became synonymous with children’s art. PAEA also held biennial exhibitions of their students’ art in prestigious venues such as the Main Gallery of the Cultural Centre of the Philippines. The association came to be known as advocates of children’s art and creative growth.

4. The Philippine Educational Theatre Association At about the same time in the late 1960s, the Philippine Educational Theatre Association (PETA) was organized by a visionary who wanted to initiate a national theatre movement. To her credit, the young people whom she organized carried her work further and beyond all her own original expectations, as she went into self-exile during the highly political period of the 1970s. PETA provided a repertory of theatre that made people think critically. It produced and mounted original plays, encouraging local playwrights and inspiring them to write more. The process of performing plays also helped to educate its young artist members, as the creative process was preceded by research, including fieldwork, discussions, the analysis of the plays and creative exercises. In addition to PETA’s repertory function, it had a strong education component. For many years it went to the east, west, north and south of the country, using an integrated arts workshop that gave the participants a taste of the various fields of art such as creative drama, writing, music and group dynamics, body movement and the visual arts. Each subject flowed from one to the other through exercises that focused on the issues and concerns of the times. This art education programme became part of what was a national theatre movement that helped create many community and professional theatre groups all over the archipelago. PETA continues to produce plays for its major theatre season but most of its time currently is taken over by agenda plays that are called informance because of their advocacy on certain issues. The work of PETA has clearly shown how art can educate artistically through its productions or through art workshops with groups of people such as school-based and church-based communities, or community-based theatre groups.

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5. Kasibulan (Kababaihan Sa Sining at Bagong Sibol Na Kamalayan) (Women in the Arts and an Emerging Consciousness) In the mid-1980s there was a call for the organization of women in various professions. These included Women in Media, Women in Politics, Women in the Professions and Women in the Arts. Some of us decided to create KASIBULAN, an acronym formed from Kababaihan Sa Sining at Bagong Sibol Na Kamalayan, (women in the arts and an emerging consciousness). Its plan was to meet monthly and in these meetings share each other’s work as part of educating each other. Later, this was changed to inviting one artist and one professional (such as a lawyer, doctor or nurse) so that women’s issues could be discussed. The group embarked on an active art education programme as well as education about gender issues. Substantial exhibitions were the result of these educational meetings. This is an example of the art education of professionals. KASIBULAN still continues to meet and gather every month, ending each year with an annual exhibition.

6. Baglan, an Initiative in the Arts for Community Development Baglan is one of several indigenous terms for the mediator or spiritual healer found in local cultures. The baglan, balian or babaylan, may be characterized as a shaman. The concept of the baglan as a mediator between people, or between what is material and what is spiritual, led a group of artist–teachers to choose this as their group’s name. Baglan as a group was founded in the early 1990s. Stemming from a sectoral and regional programme in theatre, the group’s membership composition has changed over the years from consisting mainly of those doing theatre to a mixture of visual artists, theatre artists, cultural researchers and artist–teachers. Its various educational efforts consist of helping communities to initiate and develop community museums, providing information and knowledge about cultural resource management and an art programme which includes various aspects of artmaking, including songs, dances, traditional weaving, pottery and theatre for children, the youth and adults. One of the highlights of its activities was a 9-year engagement in the artistic and cultural education of a farming community. In collaboration with colleagues from Japan, community theatre workshops were sustained for a series of 5 years. Traditional weaving and other crafts were learned in collaboration with traditional and contemporary artists, as well as cultural exchanges by way of songs, games, dances and cooking. Their other successful experiment in art education was a participatory research project with the community. Three areas were designated: weaving for the burgeoning numbers of weavers, traditional pottery-making, and songs, games and dances for a third group. The project went through several phases. The first was the selection of participants and a day’s workshop on basic research skills. The second was when the participating

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researchers were put in the field to interview local practitioners. This was easy because both the researchers and the informants spoke the same language. Since some could not write, they taped the interviews. The third phase was more involved, including activities such as weavers visiting another island to interview the traditional weavers of that area and the pottery group living and working for a few days with a village community engaged in pottery. A fourth phase included the sharing of the experiences and knowledge acquired, with its application to their own work in mind. The project motivated the participants to continue their work with renewed vigour. Art and cultural education occurred among peers through this process of sharing. This proved to be an empowering activity. Baglan was so inspired by the results of this project that they then applied for a grant from Toyota Foundation, a foreign funding agency, in order to embark on a cultural research project using a participatory method. One of the districts of a province in the southern Philippines was selected for the project. In this project, several phases were included: a survey of the field of study; a cultural resource-management workshop to teach basic skills in research methodology; the preparation of research instruments by participant–researchers based on their knowledge of their local culture, actual field research, a series of consultative meetings, the analysis of the findings and the writing up of the research results. Both projects were meant to empower the local researchers so that this cultural research could be sustained and would result in the planning and development of an art and culture agenda for the community. This method of arts and culture education was approached with a horizontal gesture that engaged the participants in the teaching–learning process. They learned a great deal as they interviewed the members of their communities, but at the same time making them aware of their own cultural history and, in fact, educating them as well. Baglan will continue to do cultural research with communities, using the participatory approach as their method of educating through the arts, since it has been observed that it is effective in empowering individuals by revealing to them capacities they did not realize they possessed. As a group of art studies professors and cultural workers, Baglan is also in the process of writing a four-volume book based on the art curriculum of secondary schools in the Philippines that will address the dearth of books on local art and culture.

7. Dalubhasaan Sa Edukasyon, Sining at Kultura (Desk) an Academy in Education, Art and Culture Seemingly, a pun on the acronym of the then Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS), DESK is composed of professors in the field of arts and culture in the Philippines. Most have actively participated as members of the sub-committees of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts and were part of the task force on the Philippine Cultural Education Plan. DESK was initially attached to the Philippine High School for the Arts as one of its flagship projects, because one of

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its initiators used to be the executive director of this school. Later, DESK chose to become autonomous, as it still is today. DESK decided to embark on an art and culture education that would use an indigenous point of view. Such an orientation stems from the fact that most of the country’s history has been articulated by its colonizers, or by foreigners or natives with colonial minds, using an outsider’s perspective. From the time of its inception in 1996 to the present, DESK has been giving lectures and seminar workshops on the artistic and cultural history of the Philippines. Most of its audience has consisted of teachers at all levels, cultural workers, artists and civil servants from local government units. One of its sustained activities is a seminar workshop for teachers in schools that have a special arts programme. Secondary schools in 15 regions of the Philippines were chosen to participate in this special programme in the same manner as schools with a special programme in sports. This initiative was a response to the transformation of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports into the Department of Education, dropping culture and sports as its mandate. However, the special programme in the arts is still being assessed and the Department of Education has not announced whether it will continue with it, institute it in all schools or drop it altogether. The seminar workshops are actually on-the-job training workshops, as most of the teachers teaching art in the field have had no special training in art pedagogy. The seminar workshops, therefore, deal with both the substance of such courses and the teaching methodology involved. These special programmes comprise six fields: the visual arts, dance, music, creative writing, theatre arts and media arts. The quality of education in arts and culture currently suffers from the fact that the teachers not only lack the capacity to teach the subject but also have a limited knowledge or none at all of the subject itself and this programme is intended to correct the situation.

8. The Cultural Centre of the Philippines Originally conceived as a political apparatus of the then First Lady of the Philippines, Imelda Romualdez Marcos, the Cultural Centre of the Philippines (CCP) was used as a performance venue during her time. After the EDSA people power revolution, when Corazon Aquino became President, those of a different political persuasion took over the Cultural Centre. Some of these personalities were part of the protest movement and, upon achieving power, they instituted programmes taken from the activities of the majority of the population. Thus, a paradigm shift occurred as programmes were reviewed and reformulated and most of the units of the Centre begun to include education components in their programmes. One of these was the Outreach Programme, which either brought national performing art groups to the provinces or alternatively, brought provincial groups to Metro Manila. Aside from performances, it also provided training on request by local government units or schools. Specialists were programmed for lecture tours or as requested by

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communities. Sometimes, studio workshops were also included on the programme, depending on the needs of art groups. The CCP was also responsible for establishing local art councils in various parts of the country in an effort to make the arts sustainable. At present, it has an ‘art for the people’ programme, bringing excellent artists to the schools in various parts of the country to improve the quality of craftsmanship of the local artists, giving them an arts education and provide training to art teachers.

9. Sub-Committees of the National Commission for Culture The sub-committees of the arts of the National Commission for Culture all include an educational component among their concerns. These sub-committees are for music, dance, the theatre, the visual arts, literature, architecture and the cinema. As an example, one of the ways in which the Committee on Visual Arts educates artists and the public is through exhibitions, workshops, newsletters, journals and congresses. Regional and national visual arts congresses have been held for the last 6 years in which the components included an exhibition, workshops and sharing knowledge about the arts in each region. This exchange of information and experience was inspiring to many and served to renew their energies for greater creativity. Although funds came from the state-run cultural agency, those who implemented the programmes were individuals from civil society.

10. The National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) – Philippine Cultural Education Plan When, in 2001, the Department of Education, Culture and Sports was reorganized into a Department of Education, it transferred the administrative supervision of cultural agencies formerly attached to it to the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA). Even if the law affirms that cultural education should remain an integral part of basic education, the NCCA now saw itself as the vanguard movement for cultural education and decided that a cultural education plan be formulated and put into operation. As a result, the Philippine Cultural Education Plan (PCEP) is a comprehensive, medium-term plan that outlines goals, policies, programmes and projects on cultural education through formal, non-formal and informal systems. It is designed to make cultural education accessible to all in specific programmes addressed to the youth, teachers, artists and cultural workers, civil servants and members of the media. Its mission is as follows: The PCEP shall ensure that culture is the core and foundation of education, governance, and sustainable development. It shall develop among Filipinos greater awareness, understanding

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and appreciation of their culture and arts towards the evolution of a consciousness that will improve the quality of their lives.

Art education is the means of putting into place the Philippine Cultural Education Plan in its plans to establish a database of the existing body of knowledge on Philippine culture and arts; define minimum learning competencies and develop instructional materials as well as to create, inventorize and package culture and arts kits and modules for art and culture education.

11. Arts Education for Cultural Development in Philippine Society In the above examples, one can see a variety of initiatives at work that are using arts education as a means to cultural development. We find private individuals banding together to cooperate and work towards a shared vision, mission and goals. Such groups have proliferated in the Philippines and the examples given are only a sample of many others in existence. Furthermore, individuals are not alone in this effort, as state-run cultural agencies, with well-meaning people working in them, are cooperating with civil society. This concerted effort is aimed at the development of the people so that they may become more imaginative, inspired and intuitive and direct themselves towards promoting the good of others. It is only in the arts process that such values may be nurtured. Arts education therefore needs to go beyond the school to work in the communities. This is a vital requisite for the sustainability of culture and identity, especially in this age of globalization where alien phenomena and motives exist that threaten the essence of human existence.

Section VI

Music Programmes for Education, Multiculturalism and Human Development: Japan, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Korea

Chapter 16

Crossroads for Cultural Education Through Music Recent Developments of School Music in Japan Tatsuko Takizawa

1. A Paradigm Shift in Teaching Music in Schools Since April 2002, the Japanese school music curriculum has been dramatically altered from teaching Western-style music to global music through cultural perspectives. These cultural themes have now started to be implemented in the Japanese music curriculum. A cultural music education entails including in the curriculum traditional Japanese music materials, as well as other kinds of music, together with the Western style of music, which has been taught since the beginning of Japanese school music in the nineteenth century. Thus, teaching and researching all kinds of music including classical, popular and folk music, as well as any other kinds of music from all over the world, will be encouraged, especially in secondary schools. Each student must learn to play at least one musical instrument in the genre of Japanese traditional music over 3 school years. Thus, for the first time in the history of Japanese music education, playing a Japanese traditional musical instrument is being included in the curriculum, marking a shift from a Westernized education to one that is focused on Japanese traditional music. In 1879, during the Meiji era, school music in Japan started introducing the Western tonic sol-fa system and staff notation to students. From this time to the present, music education in Japan has been based on learning to play and sing according to this system. Lying behind this paradigm was the national social movement aimed at catching up politically as well as economically with Western societies, since Westernization meant the modernization of Japan. Along with a social pressure to Westernize Japanese lifestyles, school music has also been strongly influenced by the Western style of teaching. In the twenty-first century, however, school music is now opening its window wide to a greater range of world music. The previous scope for school music was based on developing the students’ musical ability to sing, play and read staff notation, using Western-tuned musical materials. Other kinds of music were introduced into the curriculum by the Ministry of Education only to expand the

Professor of Aichi University of Education, Department of Music; e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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students’ abilities to listen to and appreciate music, but were never used for practice or in the field of expression. The course of musical study has been revised almost every 10 years since the start of 1947, in tune with social changes. The most recent is the seventh revision that aims at encouraging Japanese traditional music as a field for practice in the secondary school music curriculum. Six years of primary education and the first 3 years of secondary education are compulsory in Japan, and although the final 3 years of high school are not compulsory, almost all students go on to high school. At the same time, there is much more scope for a musical education outside the classroom and in the wider society. The curriculum has also been redesigned for lifelong education and thus includes many entry points that allow students to identify Japanese traditional culture or character-building and values and ethics. Thus, school music has become the crucial vehicle for educating students in humane values and sensitizing them to their own culture, as well as learning how to recognize the world through musical experience. The time for Westernizing Japanese society is now over and it is now time to establish our own Japanese paradigm. The idea of developing students’ musical ability through teaching Western music has been replaced by the promotion of many kinds of music, or world music, through the new philosophy of music education as cultural education. Because world music is mostly linked to various aspects of people’s cultural and daily life activities, teaching this kind of music is naturally related to the use of music in a specific culture. For examples, most Japanese traditional folk music, like Minyo music, was originally sung by farmers or fishermen

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as they worked. Similarly, the Indonesian Ketjak dance, which is a voice ensemble style of five rhythmic patterns with dance drama, has its origin in a living ceremony, although it is now performed as a tourist attraction.

2. Inter-Subjective Approaches to Teaching World Music Although the Westernizing of Japanese children’s musical imagination has meant the disappearance of Japanese traditional music from people’s musical repertoire, there are still many professionals and experts in Japanese traditional music. But unless an official way is found to train more many artists to perform this kind of music, there will be no-one to inherit it or pass it on. As far as the school music curriculum is concerned, students’ knowledge of Japanese traditional music is poor and they respond to it as if it was the music of a different culture. And it is worth saying that the indifference of students to their culture, whether or not it is Japanese, jeopardizes their personal ability to identify their own culture or to distinguish between their own and other countries. In addition, their competence to communicate with each other and reflect on themselves is diminished. As a result, the development of a stable personality and healthy mental and physical attitudes among the youth is now extremely difficult. One reason for this might be due to their lifestyle of studying too hard in and out the school. They concentrate on studying the so-called major subjects of mathematics, science and language and they take no account of arts subjects, as if these were in truth minor ones. A way of remedying this would be for all subjects to be balanced against each other without some being considered major and others minor. Art subjects are very important to develop students’ abilities to express their own ideas, imagination, creativity and thoughts. The arts are a crucial medium for developing human intelligence, thinking for oneself and recognizing how others are similar or different from oneself. An arts education should help students to communicate. To ensure this development of students’ abilities, teaching the arts should be connected with cultural education. For this purpose, the new music paradigm could be an important vehicle for self-development and social understanding. The key to the study of world music is the study of people’s behaviour as well as their music. In the current school curriculum, there is no subject that teaches the culture of Japan, much less that of other countries. Cultural themes can be found in subjects like social studies, civics and moral education. But such themes are not clearly specified in the course of study or in textbooks. In order to improve the situation where arts education is a minor subject, world music could provide a topic around which both major and minor subjects could be organized, because world music can be related to any subject in science, social science, mathematics, athletics and so on. For example, the development of the tonic sol-fa system can be exemplified by using Indian Jartaranga bowl musical instruments, or it can be explained from a scientific angle by using eight bottles filled with different amounts of water so that

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each one rings a note in the tonic sol-fa system. The Jartaranga example could be expanded into a social science subject about the life of these people, and the bottle experiment could provide the basis for the further scientific investigation of sound. Thus, studying any major subject could be planned from the viewpoint of world music in the curriculum, as world music has a wide educational scope. Even teachers who have no background in Japanese traditional music could plan a lesson that could stimulate interested students into wanting to learn more, because world music has many pedagogical aspects, providing themes for lesson plans where the different subjects can be connected to each other or to some overall cultural perspective. A teaching manual for lesson plans should be introduced here, but because of limitations of space, I restrict myself to describing below the case for Japanese traditional music as a component of world music. This is a teaching strategy for a teacher who has no background in Japanese traditional music. For example, most Japanese traditional musical instruments have roots that connect them to China, India or countries in the Middle East Asia and Europe. Students may be surprised to learn of the connection between a Japanese koto, (a kind of long zither with 13 strings) and a Western piano. The details of the shape and tuning system of each instrument are quite different, but teaching about the instruments in this way could persuade teachers to cultivate a more active concern for Japanese traditional music. In this connection, if particular teachers have difficulties obtaining a genuine, expensive koto in their school, they could make a handmade koto in order to show its unique tuning system for 13 strings (mi-la-sido-mi-fa-la-si-do-mi-fa-la-si). Here is scope for teaching world music in such a way as to include European and Japanese music as examples of the variety of musical instruments all over the world. Furthermore, the relationship between the koto and the piano, and between Japan and Europe, can be demonstrated via a thematic study of the Silk Road in China as the special route for cultural transmission between the East and the West. The piano and the koto are symbolic musical instruments for Europe and Japan, respectively. Thus, to exaggerate, we might say that Japan was connected to Europe by the Silk Road in China. Thus, a music lesson planned in terms of world music can be handled even by teachers who are not qualified music teachers and those who have no background

Fig. 16.2 Koto

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of Japanese traditional music. Teachers would not therefore have to struggle with teaching Japanese traditional music, although they will need at least a minimum knowledge of it. A new perspective for a cultural education in term of the world music could thus provide wide-ranging teaching methods for all types of teacher specializations, so that even social science or science teachers could manage to teach music, depending on their own specialist approach to world music. This strategy incorporates a holistic, inter-subject teaching method in which world music provides teaching themes, which combine with every subject and beyond the limits of each, as well as beyond each teacher’s specialist field.

3. Socio-Cultural Dimesions of Teaching World Music Arts education can also play a large role in students’ psychological and physical development. A school curriculum based on world music could provide students with the knowledge and experience of cultural diversity, such as how people make music in each society or the character of their own traditional culture. Without a particular educational focus to stimulate students’ interest in a culture, they are unlikely to learn what each culture consists of and the ways in which they resemble and differ from each other. Japanese people, in particular, are not acquainted with multicultural societies such as those in America or Australia. Japanese society appears to be homogeneous, although it does contain a large ethnic group of Koreans, among other ethnic minorities. As these minority groups have their own separate schools, in classrooms in general Japanese schools students of nonJapanese origins are too rare to make Japanese children conscious of their own ethnicity or of cultural diversity, as they would be in a multicultural society. The homogeneity of Japanese schools has meant that there has been little focus on cultural education and this has resulted in the indifference of students to culture in general. Most people also are insensitive to their own Japanese culture and we often find them trying to add a Japanese cultural flavour to things when they meet foreigners or go abroad. In such situations, a Japanese tea ceremony or the Japanese traditional music of Kabuki (a theatrical drama) or the shamisen (a kind of three-stringed

Fig. 16.3 Okinawa sanshin

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Fig. 16.5 Samishen

lute) or shakuhachi (a vertical flute made of bamboo) suddenly come to mind. This lack of understanding by the young of Japanese traditional culture often shows up clearly in the school music lesson. This is the main reason why a new paradigm of school music is required to ensure that Japanese traditional music is part of their practical musical education. However, there are others. For example, because a vast amount of different kinds of music are available through the Internet, modern youth have become less discriminating in the face of this quantity of musical information and, what is worse, Japanese traditional music is threatened with being obliterated from their minds. They need some guidance to form their tastes. This is another reason why a new curriculum of school music should promote Japanese traditional music and world music.

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Teachers have become aware of the usefulness of the new paradigm of school music and the scope of a teaching strategy for Japanese traditional music, but there are still old-fashioned music teachers who struggle with Japanese traditional music. In order to support such teachers, a local government and professional support system has come into being. A teaching assistant system to send professional musicians to schools is now being promoted by local governments. Experts in any kinds of Japanese traditional music, living near or even far from the school, are invited into the classroom to teach any instrument, either through regular, temporary or part-time teaching. Thus, the new paradigm for school music has made it possible to open the school door to the outside world, although this system has not yet been fully established. Support of the school by the wider community has been proposed in order to establish a lifelong musical education that develops the students’ sense of identity and personality through music. Although this support system is still focusing mainly on Japanese traditional music, it is hoped to expand the idea to a similar support system for other kinds of music. But this is by no means a project focused only on school events. It should also be part of the everyday curriculum, although the Ministry of Education has not directed that this should be done.

Fig. 16.6 Taiko

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4. Asian Music Educators’ Network In order to promote the vision for such a support system through world music, I have been in communication with Asian music educators from Thailand, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore since 1992, planning seminars or taking them to the world conference of the International Society for Music Education (ISME). The reform of the music curriculum based on learning Japanese traditional music has been investigated, step by step, in demonstration schools since 1980, and was finally put into execution in 2002. After reflecting on this development, I got the idea of developing wider musical materials in order to share our experiences with the music educators of other Asian countries. In 1992, a seminar was held in Japan, focusing on how Japanese traditional music could be enriched by Asian music and vice versa (Takizawa, 1992). Since then, almost 10 years have passed and we are at the next stage of keeping the network going and trying to sustain it as an independent project with no official support. Japanese music educators are now ready to map out a teaching strategy that can be shared with the musical educators of other Asian countries. As was said above, this should not be just a single event but should consist of a regular input into each others’ curriculum development programme. What is required is to establish among neighbouring countries a kind of cultural mission of Asian music in schools. The computerized society could help us to achieve this idea, even if the participating countries are remote from each other. In Japan, school music has already opened its doors to the world outside the school: now we are urging it to open its doors to Asia and the rest of the world as well.

Further Reading Darianathan, E. (ed.) 1997. Asian Music and Dance: Educational Perspectives. A collection of papers given at the Asian Music and Dance Conference in Singapore. Singapore: Nanyang Technological University. Takizawa, T. (ed.) 1992. A Music Education as a Cultural Education: Japanese Music Educators Learn from ASEAN Countries, supported by the Japan Foundation: Tokyo: Academia Music. Takizawa, T. (ed.) 1998. Asian Bamboo Music: Asian Approach to Many Musics. Report for the International Society for Music Education in South Africa, supported by the Japan Foundation.

Chapter 17

Symphony and Sa Re Ga Preparing a Pre-Service Music Education Training Programme for Sri Lanka Robert G. Smith

1. Introduction For 6 months between April and October 1999, I was deployed from my usual occupation as Music-in-Schools Adviser to the Australian Northern Territory Department of Education, to that of international music education consultant to the Ministry for Education and Higher Education in Sri Lanka. Here, I was one of a team working across all curricular learning areas (Asian Development Bank,1997; World Bank, 1996). Many Sri Lankan parents aspire to having their children pursue careers in law, engineering or medicine. Consequently, few other careers are valued and although Sri Lanka maintains one of the highest literacy levels of any country in the world, its infrastructure is in danger of falling apart. Apparently, few young people wish to train to mend taps or climb power poles, or to do any other of those dozens of manual jobs that are essential to a functioning community. Besides, Sri Lanka can employ only so many lawyers, engineers or doctors, so most these days have to emigrate, with a career overseas in their area of training less likely than ever. In a nutshell, my brief involved collaborative work with a representative team of local musicians, music educators and other people representing groups with vested interests in the preparation of a new national initiative to train pre-service specialist music teachers for secondary school music programmes in that country. Within this brief there was a strongly stated expectation that music education might more effectively represent the culture of Sri Lanka as a nation with both diverse and uniquely united and valued musical cultures (National Education Commission, 1997). Considering that this nation’s musical history and prehistory span some five millennia and many more cultural contexts, it is little wonder that I was acutely and sometimes depressingly aware that the 6 months provided for my project seemed to be an impossibly short time in which to engage in any great depth with music and music education in Sri Lanka. Yet it was critical that I secure the trust and

Bob Smith, Music-in-Schools Adviser, Northern Territory Department of Education; e-mail: [email protected]. L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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confidence of those I would need to convince of my competence if I might be of any assistance at all. Indeed, if the venture was anything less than completely collaborative and egalitarian in its implementation, then my role would be little less than that of an arrogant and ill-informed outsider. Indeed, it is from such failures that overseas consultants are often depicted as ‘seagulls’ who ‘fly in, leave their mark on the locals [politely reworded] and fly out again’.

2. Rationing Time In the event, I decided that the most appropriate approach would be to allocate three roughly equal divisions of 2 months each for my half a year in Sri Lanka. Thus, I would spend the first 2 months meeting and interviewing as many of the musical ‘movers and shakers’ across the nation as I could, researching the background to music and music history in that country and attending as many live musical events as my time or internal political strife allowed. In the event I did not get to the east or the north of the island, given that these were Tamil Tiger strongholds (Jayaweera, 1995). For the following 2 months I planned to meet regularly with a ‘reference’ team comprising members representing a diversity of groups and organizations with a vested interest in positive outcomes for the project. Included on this committee would, of course, be the people I had interviewed in the first 2 months. In this period of time we would, collaboratively, formulate a process that could successfully put in place as the new pre-service music course in National Colleges of Education in all Sri Lanka’s regions. To achieve this, I anticipated that my new colleagues would direct me regarding the most appropriate ways to share music education with students in Sri Lanka. After this, the final 2 months would be available for me to work with the support team to refine the process, prepare it in print and introduce sample lectures and lessons to support its implementation.

3. Surveying Music and Music Education in Sri Lanka Initially, my greatest challenge was finding out who really were the movers and shakers and then looking for ways to meet and talk to them. Because my first fortnight turned out to be one where I met barriers every time I attempted to make contact with the people I needed to see, I was tempted to revise my overall time-line. A solution to my abortive attempts came in an unexpected way. One of the staff in the Ministry office where I was based – who was not a music educator, but a senior science administrator – befriended me and, in the course of our social exchanges, invited me to a performance of North Indian classical music. Casually he dropped into the conversation the fact that he was to be one of the leading performers that night.

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On arrival at the venue we were accorded VIP status and ushered to the best seats in the theatre. After an evening of the most wonderful music – I am very susceptible to the charms of Raag – I was introduced to many of the musicians. Two of them were on my list of the people I had wanted but been unable to meet up to this time. From that moment my survey of Sri Lankan musicians took off and indeed snowballed. So, across the remaining 6 weeks that I had designated my ‘preliminary research’ time, I met a virtual army of musicians and composers, critics and media people. If my days were occupied with maintaining a documentation of events, every night was taken up with musical activities, often until the small hours. Subsequent input to the programme was so potent that we appeared to have covered all possible genres, concerns and issues that might support or challenge the evolution of the new pre-service course. Over these first 2 months I also visited numerous schools, colleges and related institutions across Sri Lanka. Music is not introduced as a separate subject in schools until children reach early secondary school age. In primary schools, music is part of a multi-arts learning area of the curriculum. I have no problem with arts integration, particularly in the early years, so I did not consider this a matter that I would be directed to change or to challenge. My own experience suggests that making music in contexts where other art forms interact with it can be a healthy way of relating music to living. However, I had not been invited to Sri Lanka to rewrite the schools’ music curriculum, but to plan and support the implementation of a programme to train specialist teachers to introduce Sri Lanka’s diverse music genres to secondary-school age students. In 1999, music education in secondary schools throughout Sri Lanka encouraged students to pursue only the music of their particular cultural community. They were offered three cultural choices, Carnatic, Western and Oriental music (described later in this article) and each included nothing but the most superficial interaction with the musical concepts, skills or knowledge of either of the other two cultural strands. Roughly three quarters of Sri Lanka’s population are Sinhala. Less than 20% are Tamil. Tamils have migrated to Sri Lanka at various times in its history, some being the descendants of the mercenaries who fought for the early kings and others, more recently, as workers on tea plantations. Seven per cent of Sri Lankans claim to be of Moorish descent. The remainder are mostly Burghers and expatriate Indians (De Silva, 1994, pp. 3–5).

4. A Historical Overview of Music and Music Education in Sri Lanka If we are to make sense of contemporary music and its settings in Sri Lanka a brief overview of that nation’s somewhat complex history is obligatory. Historically, Sri Lanka is inextricably bound to the entire Indian subcontinent. There tends to be a consensus accepting that occupation began with the movement of a people whose remaining populations appear across Asia as hill tribespeople, in some New Guinea

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populations and possibly in the Ainu in Japan and in indigenous Australians. Still surviving in pockets in the south east are the indigenous Veddas, who may also be relics of early groups (Dharmadasa and Samarasinghe, 1990, p. 50). The ruins of ancient cities discovered in the early 1920s at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may indicate the rise, some 4,000 years ago or more, of Dravidian civilization in India. There is some debate about whether the later supplanting of this civilization by invading ‘Aryans’ really happened and thus whether this might have impacted on Sri Lankan history (Thapar, 1996, p. 140). It may even have been an urban myth created in the time of British colonization of Sri Lanka in the late eighteenth century. It has been suggested that the British needed to persuade the locals that they were, as it were, their ‘racial’ cousins. The notion of a common ‘Aryan’ origin might have helped promote the inherent politics of such an idea. In fact, it seems far more probable that the Sinhalese arrived only comparatively recently – probably within three millennia – and that they travelled, not from northern India, but from a region in the south. Over the subsequent millennia, their often sophisticated technologies changed the face of the island. There are numerous documented references to visits by medieval engineers from as far afield as Europe to learn from the innovative ways they used to conserve water in the dry northern regions of Sri Lanka (Seneviratna, 1994, p. 33). What is significant to its musical history is the arrival in Sri Lanka of Theravada Buddhism, introduced over two millennia ago from India. Today Sri Lanka is the home of this most ancient form of Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism discouraged music in any form but that related to ritual dancing, drumming and singing, which are still regarded as semi-religious practices (Kulatillake, 1991, p. 38). Many modern schools continue to maintain oriental marching bands as percussion ensembles for religious and secular ritual. A highlight of my time in Sri Lanka involved meeting and spending quality time with a famous low-country folk musician, Herbert Dayasheela and his family. Herbert is the living representative of a continuous, unbroken tradition of a family maintaining a style of folk percussion music and dance that has existed for almost 30 generations. I was conscious of a tendency among my other musical colleagues to disparage folk music and dance and their exponents. Perhaps this was because throughout Sri Lankan history, folk music traditions are not perceived to have developed into formal or ‘classical’ forms. The numerous performances I witnessed by Herbert and members of his family made me an instant convert to this compelling music and dance form. Perhaps for me the most exciting was one all-night event staged in a remote village in the south of the island, involving the exorcism of demons. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries external influences from South India and Java impacted on Sri Lankan culture, through the Kandyan Court. Then the Portuguese arrived in 1505 as the first economic colonists from Europe, primarily to secure the spice trade in Sri Lanka and also to control spice routes from the east back to Europe. Now European musical instruments began to appear alongside Asian and Sinhala instruments and a four-century evolution of baila and kaffrina as distinctively Sri Lankan dance forms began (Ariyaratne, 1985). In contemporary

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times both use simple, endlessly repeated harmonic progressions based in simple triple and compound duple metres overflowing into traditional Sinhalese percussion music rhythms. The Portuguese also introduced formalized school education, essentially to promote Catholicism, with reading, writing, maths and, interestingly, ‘singing’ as parts of the curriculum. Naively hoping they would rout the Portuguese and then themselves depart, the Sri Lankan kings enlisted the Dutch as mercenaries. Given the colonial aspirations of most European nations of the time, it ought to come as no surprise that they stayed. However – not that it is any sort of justification, of course – they encouraged universal education and maintained ‘singing’ as a subject in a curriculum that, this time around, propagandized Protestant liturgy. Then, in turn, the British drove out the Dutch. The British prioritized the study of Western high art and music as a ‘superior’ musical form in education. A small but committed group of music educators representing less than 7% of the island’s culture continue to promote Western music as the major form of music in an equally small but influential group of private schools across Sri Lanka. St. Thomas’s Boys School outside Colombo, for instance, maintains a choir that might easily have stepped out of Eton. Music appears to have gained prominence as a valued part of the curriculum, for a number of reasons, not least as a means of securing cultural and ethnic identity but also, in the case of Western music, as a social asset and, unlike Buddhist music, for the significant role it plays in Christian worship. Beginning in the late nineteenth century as the consequence of a number of events (Manuel, 1988, p. 193–5) North Indian classical music began to be performed on the island, despite the efforts of the Anglophile music educators I alluded to in an earlier paragraph, and continues to dominate and influence music education in almost 80% of schools. The South Indian Carnatic influences that drive the current Tamil curriculum are also evident in the nineteenth century Sinhala operatic folk epic, the Nadagama.

5. Music Education in Recent and Contemporary Times A historical observer in the 1940s might be forgiven for wondering if self-determination, in politics or in culture and thus music, might ever be a prospect for Sri Lanka. In the early 1950s, however, at a time when Sri Lanka was just beginning to enjoy the fruits of its hard-won political self-determination, a quite remarkable music renaissance heralded an apparent wind of change in approaches to music in education. W. B. Makulloluwe placed Sri Lankan folk music first in school music education. To this end, almost single-handedly Makulloluwe developed a curriculum provided with the resources that enabled schools throughout the country access to these songs and the dances (Kulatillake and Abeysinghe 1976; Makulloluwe, 1962). Media support arrived with increasing interest in the dissemination of Sri Lankan music and O and A level schools syllabuses were promoted by the Sri Lankan Broadcasting Corporation.

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In 1969, Siyawasa, a massive performance event celebrating a century of self-rule in education, led to a revival of interest in school bands. These continue to be maintained as both Oriental and Western marching bands in many Sri Lankan schools. In a few schools, like St Thomas’s, marching bands perform traditional indigenous percussive folk music. In the following year, 1970, partly as an outcome of the interest nurtured in indigenous Sri Lankan music, Dr. Abeysinghe of Kelaniya University established the Sinhala Music Research Unit. Later a Teacher Training College for Aesthetic Studies was established at Giragama with courses in both Western and Oriental music. Carnatic music was not a main focus here because, for obvious linguistic and cultural reasons, music specialists in that cultural genre tended to be trained in tertiary centres where Tamil was the medium. There is no doubt that contemporary Sri Lanka music education reflects the complex and sometimes conflicting ideologies and ethnicities of its diverse peoples. Among Tamil Sri Lankans, the music played is largely South Indian Carnatic music. Many Sinhalese people favour North Indian music, not only probably because of its promotion by All India Radio earlier last century, but also perhaps reflecting their belief in the Aryan origins of the Sinhalese. Earlier, reflecting on my time with low country musician Herbert Dayasheela, I alluded to the apprehension that those who support the dissemination of North Indian, Carnatic and European music traditions appear at the same time to challenge the role of indigenous folk traditions in schools as one that promotes an ‘inferior’ musical culture’. Perhaps, this issue, above all others, challenges change and may continue to do so. If Sri Lankan music is to evolve in a way that reflects its own unique cultural mix, it would seem logical that its own indigenous music should have a significant, if not a leading, role. And yet, from the mid-1980s until the present, the dominant cultural teaching strands for music in schools are Carnatic, primarily for Tamil students, Western, for that small but powerful Anglophile cohort and the obscurely titled ‘Oriental’ music. This latter purports to embrace Indigenous Sri Lankan folk traditions alongside North Indian classical music while the reality seems to be that there is a strong bias in that strand towards North Indian music. I add here, as an aside, that when I was recruited to the position of music education consultant in Sri Lanka I was somewhat perplexed by the strange requirement that I have an understanding of ‘Oriental’ music. Perhaps, I might have been forgiven for wondering why music east of Sri Lanka was to be a major strand in their music-learning area profile. Although the existing curriculum advocated practical and theoretical lessons for students learning music, in some of the larger schools, access to practical music-making was often obviated, either because too few instruments were available or because no appropriate space existed for practical lessons. I visited a number of schools where experiential music education was exemplary. However, for each of these positive examples there were ten where only theory teaching occurred. In 1999, ‘A’ level music contained no practical component in several strands. Reading and writing in language seemed to take priority over real experiential musical competence.

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6. Trials and Tribulations: Drafting a Pre-Service Course So, with 2 months of visits and engagement with some remarkable people and places, together with reviews of historical events and cultural influences, the music reference group and I began to walk the hazardous pathway that wandered too frequently into a mire of each group’s separate musical expectations. For the reference group to function effectively, all members needed to be prepared to listen to each other and share beliefs, philosophical and aesthetic approaches and a raft of diverse understandings of their own, and to some extent, an appreciation of each other’s music. For a time I laboured with discussion sessions where some people said too much and others said too little, or even nothing at all. People deferred to others for reasons of seniority or through respect, gauged in a variety of ways in the Sri Lankan musical community, thus remaining mute. Fortunately, the most famous of all, singer Pandit Amaradevu, regarded correctly by many as a ‘national treasure’, set a wonderfully exemplary role model in his modesty and his preparedness to listen to all. I will always be grateful to this amazing and humbling man. In the later days of my time in Sri Lanka I encountered him outside the Ministry of Education building. Despite being in his late seventies he ran up to me, wrapped his arms around me and gave me the most affectionate embrace. I was, of course, very moved. Amaradevu initiated group communication and we were thus able, in a surprisingly short period of time, to come up with what we all regarded a workable framework for a pre-service music education programme. We hoped this would encourage all trainee music teachers to engage with all Sri Lankan music genres in a largely experiential way (Herbert, 1995).

7. The Pre-Service Music Teacher Training Course We composed these first drafts, conscious that we needed a minimal set of entry criteria for students who aspired to teach music, particularly with our new requirements that they be adaptable enough to develop a working awareness of most Sri Lankan music genres. So, among the usual competencies concurrent with an ability to work with people, we suggested they should have the knowledge, skills and conceptual understanding of at least the existing ‘A’ levels in music in one of the three cultural music strands. We also assumed they would be competent players of one acceptable musical instrument and possess a degree of vocal competency. Both might possibly be reviewed by an audition panel. We also expected enthusiasm and a belief in and commitment to a music education process that would embrace an empathetic acceptance of the place of music in all the diverse communities that flourish across Sri Lanka. Of course, such expectations of the students suggested we needed lecturers who were competent to mentor them. There were also issues regarding the teachers of

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the teachers themselves, who would in turn mentor students on teaching practice. These issues would need to be addressed; as well as others such as those relating to suitable salaries if students were going to be enticed into the programme. However, the details related to these areas are not relevant to the discussion of this article. We expressed concern as a group that many of the methodologies employed in teaching music might have worked effectively in the past but were probably no longer appropriate and that little or no practical learning was taking place in music lessons. Music, we argued, was always best taught and learned experientially. Any process that was put in place needed to move students away from being passive receptors of words of wisdom in lectures, to engagement with music in practical settings. For the immediate future, this would no doubt cause problems, but in future planning it must be a priority. Given, too, the need for music students to gain access to technologies that support learning in contemporary music, we talked about the kinds of technologies musicians would expect to use in their everyday work. These included synthesisers, sound modules, samplers, sequencers, notators, amplification equipment and the like, much of which can now be embraced within the capabilities of a single desktop or laptop computer. Then there was the consideration of human resource support to help students to work with these technologies. Without IT, students learning music in Sri Lanka would be distinctly disadvantaged compared with those overseas who used such technology as part of the economic support of their careers in music.

8. A Summary of the Aims and Objectives of the Course The overarching long-term aims of the Pre-Service Course were to be upgrading knowledge of content and pedagogical skills, and thus creating an engaging learning environment in schools. Specifically, it was intended to update current expertise in communicating knowledge and practical skills to pre-service music teacher trainees. This ought to provide a framework for the acquisition of subject knowledge and practical training to meet the aesthetic concerns and needs of the curriculum. We recognized that it might be a tall order to prepare music educators with the broad competence and common cultural knowledge requisite across the whole range of Sri Lankan music, if the new programme was to work effectively. Yet, at the same time – because expert exponents of each cultural strand were essential to the maintenance of those musical traditions – there was a need to preserve culturally specific Oriental, Carnatic and Western music strands appropriate to particular regions and schools. The other concern alluded to throughout this article is present in the final outcome, that of giving increased attention to indigenous Sri Lankan music and its related traditions in the hope that they might manifest themselves as modern national musical idioms.

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9. Musical Competencies Required, or Broad Areas of Study Sifting through the many ideas and concerns that were presented in the meetings of the reference group challenged us to come up with a framework that would represent all positions equitably. Whether the final model is perfect or not, it appeared rather neatly to support all the aspects, issues and concerns raised in the training of future Sri Lankan classroom music educators. These broad areas of study finally resolved themselves as the following: 1. Subject knowledge; 2. Practical knowledge, skills and understandings within the primary strand (Carnatic, Oriental or Western music); 3. Integrated practical knowledge, skills in and understanding of indigenous and exotic music genres (Carnatic, Oriental and Western music); 4. Knowledge, skills in and understanding of the pedagogy and psychology of music teaching, including and beyond that covered in the general pre-service syllabus; 5. Knowledge of the music curriculum; 6. Music resources, technology and hardware; and 7. Knowledge about ministry, school and classroom and management issues. We decided that the study areas 2, 3 and 4 ought to overlap because they generally related to the acquisition of the practical music and music education skills essential for the practice of teaching and learning music. We felt that study areas 1 and 5 had a strong relationship but, while competency acquisition outcomes for the former related to general learning in musical knowledge, the latter was more strongly tied to the acquisition of knowledge in the existing school music curriculum and syllabuses. Pedagogical and psychological concepts and understandings specific to music also linked to study area 5 as the means of applying skills and understandings from all other areas to the practices of teaching music. As minor studies, study areas 6 and 7 would occupy a smaller segment in the overall time-line for the proposed course. As I write, the course has been operating, with some local modifications, since 2000. I have been privy to informal reports on its progress but these are too scant to indicate how far it has succeeded – or failed. An opportunity to review the process would certainly be welcome and informative. I am assured this will happen.

Notes The title is derived from ‘sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni sa’ the Indian equivalents of the Western sevennote tonic sol-fa scale, ‘do, re mi fa so la ti do’ in solfege. Indian musicologists insist that solfege derives from the Indian ‘sa re ga’ or ‘sagrama’.

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References Ariyaratne, S. 1985. Baila Kapirinna. [Sinhala]. Colombo: Samayawardena. Asian Development Bank 1997. Draft Final Report on Pre-Service Education, Secondary Education Development Project, Phase 2. Colombo, CANEDCOM International Education. De Silva, C.R. 1994. Sri Lanka – A History. Colombo: Vikas Publishing House. Dharmadasa, K.N.O. and Samarasinghe, S.W.R. de 1990. The Vanishing Aborigines: Sri Lanka’s Veddas in Transition, p. 50. Colombo: International Centre for Ethnic Studies. Herbert, T. 1995. Experiential learning: A teacher’s perspective. In Kraft, R.J. and Kielsmeier, J. (eds.) Experiential Learning in Schools and Higher Education, p. 201. Dubuque, IOWA: Kenall/Hunt Publishing Company. Jayaweera, S. 1995. Peace and harmony in Sri Lanka; the educational dimension. In Chandraratna, Donald (ed.) Perspectives on the Resolution of Conflict. Perth, WA: Curtin University of Technology Printing Services. Kulatillake, C. de S. 1991. Ethnomusicology and Ethnomusicological Aspects of Sri Lanka. Colombo: S. Godage & Brothers. Kulatillake, C. de S. and Abeysinghe, R. 1976. A Background to Sinhala Traditional Music of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Department of Cultural Affairs. Makulloluwe, W.B. 1962. Hela Gee Maga [Sinhala]. Maharagama: Saman Publishers. Manuel, P. 1988. Popular Musics of the Non-Western World – An Introductory Survey. Oxford: Oxford University Press. National Education Commission 1997. Reforms in General Education. (Second Report) Colombo. Seneviratna, A. 1994. Ancient Anuradhapura. Colombo: Archaeological Survey Department. Thapar, R. 1996. Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations. London: Sangam. World Bank 1996. Staff Appraisal Report: Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka for a Teacher Education and Teacher Deployment Project (Report No. 15282–CE), Washington: South Asia Regional Office.

Chapter 18

A Paradigm Shift in Teaching Music in Schools Traditional Music and Multiculturalism in Malaysian Education: Approaches in Music Appreciation Classes Tan Sooi Beng

Until recently, music education in South East Asian countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines has been based mainly on European models. Music programmes focus mainly on Western classical music theory, harmony and history. Students play Western percussion instruments and recorders in the classroom and join Western kinds of school bands, orchestras or choirs as extra-curricular activities. By stressing the importance of the Western system, educators have implied that other musical systems including their own are relatively unimportant or even inferior. In recent times, efforts have been made by music educators in South East Asia to re-evaluate the nature of music education. Increasing numbers of educators realize that there is a need to introduce their own traditional music (including the music of minorities) as well as the music of South East Asia and other parts of the world to the young through the music curriculum. This new trend in music education in South East Asia has occurred in tandem with the rise of an articulate middle class (including music educators) who are experiencing a new wave of nostalgia for their traditional culture and identity. This new middle class is concerned with the demise of its traditions caused by the emergence of a global consumer culture that has dominated many aspects of everyday life. This chapter looks at how particular forms of traditional Malaysian music and selected genres of traditional music taught in certain schools in Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines have been introduced in Malaysian secondary schools to children aged between 13 and 17. A comparative approach, which could be adapted to teaching the traditional music of South East Asia in music appreciation classes through active music-making and guided listening, is illustrated in this article. The notation and methods of teaching used in the respective countries have been adopted. It should be stressed that cross-cultural studies are new in Malaysia and educators are still experimenting with appropriate instructional approaches.

Professor in Ethnomusicology, School of Arts, Universiti Sains, Malaysia; e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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1. Why Multiculturalism? A multicultural approach to music learning is important for many reasons. Many countries in South East Asia have long histories of cross-cultural influence emanating from both Asian and Western sources. They also have multi-ethnic populations resulting from migration and colonial intervention. The population of Malaysia, for instance, comprises over 60% Bumiputera (Malays and other indigenous groups such as the Orang Asli, Kadazan, Bajau, Iban, Bidayuh, Melanau, Penan and many others), 28% Chinese (of different dialect groups), nearly 8% Indians (originating from different parts of India) and over 3% others (which includes Arabs, Eurasians, Indonesians, Thais and Philipinos) (Department of Statistics, 1993). Given this diversity, a music curriculum designed to help students understand cultural diversity in their own country as well as in the region will encourage inter-ethnic understanding and intercultural communication. This approach will also give recognition to the value of all kinds of music (including the music of ethnic minorities and one’s own traditional music). Students exposed to a variety of sounds can also develop greater musical flexibility. Through involvement in other musical styles, they will be less prone to judge new music without first trying to understand it. They will also learn different ways to construct and notate music. Through the multicultural approach, students in Malaysia will be able to see not only the similarities (as well as the regional differences) in instrumentation, musical style, form, playing and learning techniques of South East Asian ensembles but also the differences between South East Asian music and Western classical music. They will be able to see that Malaysian music has many similarities with the music of its neighbours.

2. Music Curriculum in Malaysian Secondary Schools Music education in Malaysia is compulsory and centralized at the primary level (ages 7–12) but is an elective subject at lower secondary (ages 13–15) and upper secondary (ages 16–17) levels. All schools are governed by curricula, textbooks and teaching materials provided by the Ministry of Education. There are similarities in the music education systems of Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia. Music is a compulsory subject at the elementary level. Music classes can be taken as electives at the secondary level. As education is centralized, all public schools share a common syllabus. Music first became an intra-curricular subject at the primary school level in 1982. It should, however, be noted that many middle-class families send their children for private piano (and other instrumental) lessons outside school hours. These children take the graded exams of the Royal Schools of Music of Trinity College, London, or Yamaha exams every year. Malaysia has one of the highest number of private candidates taking these exams in the region.

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The primary school syllabus was very Westernized till 1994 when the curriculum was revised. Some basic rhythms and forms of Malaysian music have been included in the new syllabus. At the same time, the new syllabus promotes creativity and spontaneity as well as ensuring that there is conformity between its objectives and its content (Ministry of Education, 1993). In 1996, music was introduced as a subject in 20 pilot secondary schools in Malaysia. In 1997, the pilot project was extended to boarding schools. Musical instruments are provided by the Ministry of Education. The music curriculum is divided into the following parts: – Basic theory and elements of style, where students learn the elements of music such as rhythm, melody, scale, pitch, dynamics and form. The level of difficulty in basic theory and harmony is increased each year; – Music appreciation, concentrating on the traditional music of Malaysia, South East Asia and Asia and the lives and works of a few famous Western composers; – Performance skills and expression, on selected traditional and Western instruments and – Documentation, where students are encouraged to carry out group projects of selected traditional music based on interviews with performers, collection of photographs, attendance of performances and documentation in the form of a folio or a scrapbook and tape recordings. The core components of basic theory, music appreciation and performance skills and expression are also found in the music curricula of other South East Asian countries such as Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia. However, most public schools do not teach students to play traditional instruments in class at either elementary or lower secondary levels, due to the lack of trained teachers and instruments.1 At the secondary level, the music curriculum is multicultural and emphasizes knowledge of the traditional music and cultures of Malaysia as well as that of other countries. The objectives of this curriculum include raising the level of knowledge regarding traditional music and culture through music that is inherited, as well as the music of other cultures; defining the special characteristics of traditional music and other elements connected to music; discussing other elements connected to the traditional music of other cultures and studying and comparing several types of traditional music of Malaysia with the traditional music of other countries (Ministry of Education, 1995). As a result, there is a conscious effort to include Malaysian and South East Asian musical components in all sections of the curriculum. For instance, in the theory section, basic dance rhythms in Malaysia and the musical

1 Students can learn how to play traditional musical instruments as an extra-curricular activity at the primary and secondary level, especially in richer schools, which can afford to acquire the instruments. The type of traditional ensemble taught depends on the instruments available in the particular region. For instance, in Bangkok, students may learn to play the pi phat and mahori ensembles while in Chiengmai, students may learn the lanna ensemble.

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elements of selected forms of Malaysian music are explored; in the appreciation section, the musical styles and instruments of the various ethnic groups in Malaysia as well as of South East Asia, Asia and Europe are discussed and in the performance section, students are required to learn how to play specific traditional pieces for Malay instruments such as the kompang (year 1), caklempong (year 2) and gamelan Melayu (year 3) in addition to the Western keyboard and recorder. The students also sing Malay, Iban, Kadazan, Chinese and Indian folksongs as well as the songs of other Malaysian and Asian communities.

3. Current Limitations of Music Teaching Schools that offer music as an elective at the secondary school level face many problems and music instructors have to work within a number of constraints. To start with, music teachers are given only two and a half h to teach music each week. Because the syllabus is wide and students have to cover all four components of the curriculum, the actual number of hours devoted to playing traditional music is limited. Many teachers have no background in traditional music and are learning as they teach. Classes are big (with 40 or more students in a class) and the majority of the students have not seen the instruments or heard the music taught before. Only selected instruments used in performance classes, such as kompang, caklempong, gamelan, keyboards, recorders and percussion instruments are supplied to selected pilot schools. Very often, there are not enough instruments for all students to play at the same time. Furthermore, teachers and students are sometimes prevented from playing musical instruments by certain religious authorities, especially in rural schools. The music curriculum is centralized by the Ministry of Education and standard textbooks, notation and musical pieces are used by all schools. There is little room for improvisation. Due to the lack of time, instruments, skilled teachers and other limitations, it is thus not possible to teach musical skills at a high level in public schools. Talented students are expected to pursue advanced training at specialized colleges for the arts (such as the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan in Malaysia). The music classes in the public schools are meant to introduce the diverse forms of music to the students, to show how the different cultures interrelate with one another and to promote mutual understanding.

4. Example of an Instructional Approach in Music Appreciation Classes In order to sustain the interest of students in the music of different ethnic groups in Malaysia as well as of South East Asia and Asia, a participatory and comparative approach should be employed in music appreciation classes.

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Active music making. The study of multicultural music should be approached through various experiences in singing, playing instruments, moving to music and guided listening. It is important that the students are allowed to experience performing and hearing how traditional pieces work to give them some kind of practical experience, even though musical instruments are not available. We emphasize that students cannot learn about a musical form or ensemble through the textbook without hearing or experiencing the musical sound itself. Improvized instruments, singing and body percussion. Teachers are also encouraged to substitute actual instruments with other instruments available or to create their own instruments that simulate the sounds of the original instruments. If there are no instruments available, the music can be sung, using the mnemonic syllables used in traditional music. In Malaysia, as a result of constraints of time and lack of instruments, teachers rely greatly on singing and body percussion to experience music. Audiovisual aids. Practical exercises should be supplemented with photographs, musical recordings and videotapes of the particular ensemble. Cultural context. Discussions of the cultural context and historical development of the respective ensembles, focusing on cross-cultural influences, should be introduced. Students should be encouraged to find out more about the cultures of the ethnic groups studied by looking up books, encyclopaedias or the Internet (if computers are available, especially in urban schools) and to document these cultures in their folios. Similarities and differences. The similarities and differences between musical instruments, musical textures, scales and forms of other ensembles in Malaysia and South East Asia should be discussed so that students understand that the different forms of music of the region share commonalities and that they are different from Western classical music. Examples of lesson plans using the above approach are given below.

5. Lesson Plans Gong ensembles of South East Asia (comprising mainly knobbed gongs which sit on a rack, suspended gongs, drums, xylophones, flutes and stringed instruments) and bamboo ensembles (mainly struck and stamped bamboo instruments) have been selected for these lesson plans, as these ensembles can be found in all South East Asian countries, including Malaysia. It should be noted that a similar approach may be applied to the introduction of many other instruments, such as bamboo and wooden flutes, jaw’s harp, lutes and mouth organs as well as vocal music in South East Asia, all of which have similar musical characteristics.

5.1. Lesson Plan 1 (Wayang Kulit Kelantan) Objectives. Introduction to basic instruments and polyphonic texture played by melodic instruments and various drums, rhythmic cycles played by drums, the gong

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cycle (gongan), which is punctuated by other gongs and cymbals, melody and cross-cultural influences. Materials. Wayang Kelantan instruments (other gongs and drums can be substituted). If instruments are not available, the exercises can be sung. Learning Wayang Kelantan, Lagu Pak Dogol. Wayang Kelantan is an indigenous form of Malay shadow puppet theatre which combines Thai, Javanese, Middle Eastern, Indian and South East Asian elements. It is found in the northeastern state of Kelantan near the Thai–Malaysian border. It uses the Kelantan-Patani dialect of Malay and is based on local versions of the Indian epic, Ramayana. Occasionally, local folk stories are also performed. The Wayang Kelantan puppets have Thai, Javanese and Malay characteristics. For instance, the giant ogre (raksaksa), Maharaja Wana resembles Thai puppets because of its snub nose and pinnacled crown. At the same time, Maharaja Wana has Javanese characteristics. These include the round eyes portraying violence and the feet, which are spaced close together. The faces of the refined princes and princesses, such as Seri Rama and Siti Dewi, respectively, depict the ideal of Malay beauty. They have small mouths and noses and narrow eyes similar to refined Javanese puppets. Siti Dewi wears a traditional Malay female headdress while Seri Rama is adorned with a Thai pinnacled crown.

6. Instruments (see Fig. 18.1) 6.1. Musical Elements Polyphonic texture. The gong cycle. The music of the Wayang Kelantan is based on gong cycles (gongan), which are repeated throughout the piece. The end of each cycle is marked by a gong. For example, Lagu Pak Dogol, which accompanies the clown Pak Dogol when he walks, consists of eight-beat gong cycles. The end of each cycle is marked by the tetawak ibu (G). The gongan is binary and is subdivided in half by the tetawak anak (g) which is played on the fourth beat. The gongan is further subdivided by the canang (dong = the pitch of canang ibu, ding = the pitch of canang anak) and kesi, which play on every beat. The kesi produces two timbres (x = dampened sound ‘cap’, c = ringing sound ‘cing’) (see Fig. 18.2). Students are asked to play the gongan if instruments are available; other drums and gongs can be substituted; or students can sing using mnemonic syllables. Students exchange parts. The rhythmic cycle. The gedumbak and gendang anak play interlocking patterns producing a resultant rhythm which is repeated throughout the lagu. Together, the two drums provide the steady pulse of the gong unit. Students are asked to play the rhythmic cycle if instruments are available; other drums and gongs can be substituted; or students can sing using drum syllables. Students exchange parts (see Fig. 18.3).

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Canang

Kesi

Gendang

Gedumbak

Geduk

Serunai ibu/anak

Fig. 18.1 Musical instruments of Wayang Kelantan (Tan and Matusky 1999: 15)

Dx

G dc 7 xD

2 Dx

6 5

Fig. 18.2 Gongan of lagu pak dogol (Tan and Matusky 1999: 21)

Fig. 18.3 Interlocking patterns of the gedumbak and gendang anak

dc

8 1

dc

4 g Dx

3 dc

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c = drum syllable ‘cap’ produced by the right hand striking the drum head towards its centre with a springy hand and closing the base end with the other hand; d = drum syllable ‘dung’ produced by the right hand striking the drum head towards its centre and leaving the base end open; t = drum syllable ‘ting’ produced by striking the drum head near its rim with the fingers of one hand and closing the base end of the drum with the other. Melody (serunai, dalang). The melody is played by the serunai. Because of its quadruple reed, the serunai provides a loud sound, which can be heard above the drumming. In sung pieces, the serunai alternates with the dalang to produce the melodic line (changing at the end of the gong cycle).The melodies are improvisatory and are highly ornamented. Five to seven tone scales are used. Students are asked to listen to the serunai melody of lagu pak dogol and the stepwise movement with small leaps, repeated notes and ornamentation.

7. Intercultural Influences in Instrumentation and Musical Style Thai, Malay and Middle Eastern elements are found in the music of wayang kelantan. This musical ensemble resembles that of the Menora, the Thai dance drama of Kelantan and South Thailand. The gedombak corresponds to the thap, the geduk to the klong, the serunai to the pi, the kesi to the cing and the canang and tetawak to the mong of Thailand. Rhythmic and gong cycles are found in the different musical cultures of South East Asia. The serunai is also similar to other reed instruments in the Middle East, such as the surnay of Iraq and the zurna of Turkey. Note on notation. The cipher notation and mnemonic syllables have been adapted from the notation used in the respective South East Asian societies. As in the countries of origin, the notation functions as a reference and is available only for the main melody and percussion instruments. As far as possible, the notation should not be used for reading while playing. It must be emphasized that one cannot learn an entire musical system by just looking at notation. For this, intensive training is needed with a teacher on a one-to-one basis. Summary. Although I have focused on Wayang Kelantan as an example, the same lesson plan and method of teaching could be applied to introduce other gong ensembles such as the makyong, gendang silat, gamelan Melayu of West Malaysia, engkerumong (Sarawak), kulintangan (Sabah), gamelan Jawa, mahori (Thailand), kulintang (Philippines) caklempung (Sumatra), gamelan gong kebyar (Bali), saing waing (Burma), pin peat (Kampuchea), pi phat (Laos and Thailand) and so on. Through this practical approach, students are introduced to the similarities (with regional differences) in instrumentation and instrumental functions, polyphonic texture, highly ornamented melodies and the cyclic nature of forms and cipher notation found in South East Asian gong ensembles.

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7.1. Lesson Plan 2 (Togunggu/ Togunggak) Objectives. Introduction to basic instruments, polyphonic texture played by various bamboo instruments, rhythmic cycle, interlocking and resultant rhythms and crosscultural context. Materials. Togunggu/togunggak instruments, but other bamboo instruments can be substituted and students can be encouraged to make their own bamboo instruments by cutting strips of bamboo from the surrounding vegetation. If instruments are not available, the exercises can be clapped; body percussion can be used. Learning Togunggu/togunggak. Bamboo instruments in a cross-cultural context. Bamboo is an old plant of pre-Neolithic origin. It is found in the tropical jungles of Asia and has many uses. In many Asian communities, bamboo is used to carry water, to cook rice and other foods and as musical instruments. Bamboo instruments are therefore one of the earliest instruments found in Asia. Today they are still played to drive away evil spirits during healing ceremonies and harvest festivals or for entertainment in many parts of Asia. In Malaysia, bamboo instruments still prevail in the musical lives of small communities such as the Temiar of Kelantan, the Jah Hut of Pahang, the Iban, Kajang, Kayan and Kenyah of Sarawak and the Kadazan Dusun of Sabah. As in other parts of Asia, bamboo instruments can be played solo or in ensembles. Solo bamboo instruments in Malaysia comprise mainly aerophones such as the mouth organ and flute; plucked idiophones such as the jaw’s harp and chordophones such as the tube zither. These instruments are usually played for courting and entertainment. Solo instruments play short melodic motifs, which are improvised. Sometimes the melody is accompanied by a drone. It should be noted that a number of mouth organs or tube zithers can also be played at the same time if the performers wish. The performers improvise upon the same melodic motifs. Ensemble instruments comprise mainly idiophones, such as bamboo tubes of different lengths, which are stamped or struck with pieces of wood. These ensembles often accompany dances, rituals and festivals. Bamboo ensembles are often used to substitute for gong ensembles, which are expensive and difficult to acquire. Ensemble instruments play interlocking patterns that produce the resultant rhythms. The timbres and interlocking rhythms of the bamboos should be emphasized. Instruments. The Dusun of Sabah are known for their gong ensembles, which comprise hanging gongs of various sizes used to accompany dances, rituals and festivals. These gongs play complex interlocking rhythms. When expensive gongs are not available, bamboo tubes, known as togunggu or togunggak struck with wooden sticks may be substituted (see Fig. 18.4). Rhythmic cycles, interlocking rhythms, resultant rhythm. The bamboo tubes play interlocking rhythmic patterns with their entrances staggered. The koritikon (named after the koritikon gong) starts playing a basic rhythmic pattern. This bamboo tube is played with an unpadded stick, imitating the ringing sound of the koritikon gong, which is also beaten with an unpadded stick. This is followed by the gendang (imitating the drum) playing a similar pattern. The other bamboo tubes take turns to join

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Fig. 18.4 Togunggu/Togunggak names of instruments (left to right): gandang, koritikon, loposon, kuribadon, kutowon, dururung, tururui, tangon, polombuson

the ensemble, producing a complex rhythm and intricate interlocking timbres. The other bamboo tubes are struck with sticks padded with rubber, producing slightly dampened sounds that imitate those of the corresponding gongs. Students are asked to play the interlocking rhythmic patterns if instruments are available. If not, other bamboo instruments can be substituted or students can clap the parts or use body percussion. Students can also exchange parts. Summary. The same lesson plan and method of teaching can be applied to introduce other bamboo ensembles such as the alu dan tangbut (stamping tubes of the Kayan, Sarawak), ding galung (stamping tubes of the Jah Hut, Malaysia), patteteg (xylophone blades, Kalingga, Philippines), tongatong (stamping tubes, Kalingga, Philippines) and many other ensembles in other parts of South East Asia. Through this practical approach, students are introduced to the similarities (with regional differences) in instrumentation and instrumental functions and complex interlocking rhythmic patterns found in Malaysian and South East Asian bamboo ensembles.

8. Conclusion By way of conclusion, let me stress that developing music materials for the classroom in public schools requires a long process of planning and experimentation prior to its implementation. We are still gathering materials from Malaysia and South East

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Fig. 18.5 Interlocking Rhythms in Gong Ensembles of the Dusun of Tambunan, Sabah (Played on the Togunggu/Togunggak)

Asia. School teachers have to be provided with teaching aids and training workshops. We recognize that there are some limitations in the approach put forward here but these cannot be avoided. They include the standardization of pitches for gongs, which is necessary for class participation throughout the country. Creativity and improvisation are limited as the lesson plans are meant to introduce the music of gong and bamboo ensembles to students who have no knowledge of the respective

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forms of music. Nevertheless, we believe that through active participation and music-making in a multicultural context in the classroom, children learn about the diverse cultures in the region, and how cultures interrelate and enhance one another, thus encouraging positive attitudes towards multicultural experiences and living with one another. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Toyota Foundation for providing me with a grant to conduct fieldwork in schools and institutions of higher learning in South East Asia. Materials obtained during fieldwork helped in the development of the music curriculum, the instructional approaches and textbooks for secondary schools. I would also like to thank the Curriculum Development Centre (Ministry of Education, Malaysia) for inviting me to sit on the planning committee of the Music Programme for Secondary Schools in Malaysia, to write the textbooks and to run workshops for music teachers. My gratitude also goes to Orawan Banchongsilpa (Chulalangkorn University Demonstration School), Felicidad Prudente and Kristina Benitez (University of Philippines), Endo Suanda (Bandung), Juju Masunah (Yogyakarta) and Jenny Lindsay (Ford Foundation, Jakarta) for introducing me to selected music programmes and individuals involved in school music curricula in the individual countries.

References Benitez, K. and Prudente, F. 1991. A Training Manual for the Workshop on Traditional Philippine Musical Instruments. Manila: Centre for Philippine Music Traditions. Department of Statistics 1993. Population and Housing Census of 1991. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Menengah Atas, Pendidikan Muzik. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (Ministry of Education, Malaysia) 1998. Buku Sumber dan Aktiviti Pendidikan Muzik Tingkatan Satu. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. Lundquist, B. and Szegc, C.K. 1998. Musics of the World’s Cultures: A Sourcebook for Music Educators. United Kingdom: CIRCME and ISME. Tan, S.B. and Matusky, P. 1998. Pengantar Muzik Malaysia Buku I, Pulau Pinang: Asian Centre. Tan, S.B. and Matusky, P. 1999. Pengantar Muzik Malaysia Buku 2, Pulau Pinang: Asian Centre. Takizawa, T. 1998. Asian Bamboo Music, Japan: Research Committee for World Musics in Schools. Wisuttipaet, M. 1990. Theoretical Concepts in Thai Classical Music. Trans. by F. Ellsworth Peterson. Bangkok: Srinakharinwirot University.

Chapter 19

Layers of Thought on Korean Music, Music Education and the Value of Music and Arts in the Context of Education and Human Development Ki-Beom Jang

1. The Background to the Current Musical Culture of Korea Living in a global society, it is essential to understand each other and appreciate the culture of others as well as our own. Koreans would like their national musical culture to become more heterogeneous: one in which we can appreciate the aesthetics and values of the uniqueness of each cultural heritage and at the same time celebrate musical diversity. However, there are mainly only two kinds of music prevalent in Korea today: Korean traditional music and Western music. The root of Korea’s traditional music, like its culture, goes back thousands of years while Western music has influenced Korean culture only in the last 100 years. Western missionaries, primarily from the United States, taught Korean religious converts hymns and gospel songs for the purpose of worship; a music that became the root of Western music in Korea. Today, the musical culture of Korea is dominated by Western music, as we discover when listening to a FM radio station or by asking a Korean to sing a song. The Korea Broadcasting System (KBS) is the official government broadcasting system for Korea but according to the current music-broadcasting schedule, 2 h are allocated for Korean traditional music, compared with about 12 h for contemporary Western or classical Western music. About an hour is allocated for the music from other Asian cultures. This is the sorry result of the endeavour of thousands of educators and an enlightened public who have been fighting to increase the amount and availability of Korean traditional music on the nation’s airwaves. Why is it so hard to change? Why does it take such a long time to get results? There are many reasons, each of which is unique to the Korean situation. Neighbouring Asian countries such as China and Japan have a similar musical culture, although it is not severely skewed as that of ours. The most critical reason for our situation is the Japanese occupation of Korea from 1910 to 1945, a period that is called the Japanese colonial period. During these 36 years the Japanese tried to

Department of Music Education, Seoul National University of Education, 1650 Seocho Dong, Seocho Ku, Seoul, 137–742 Korea; e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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demolish Korea’s own culture, including its traditional music. Their aim was the complete social, cultural and political occupation of Korea. An example of this cultural persecution can be found in the Japanese policy of changing the names of all Korean individuals to Japanese names. This practice was called chang ssi gae myung: changing one’s name. Another example was the forcible replacement of the royal court musical group by a Western kind of military band, with the expulsion of court musicians from their positions and the replacement of traditional Korean court music. The expelled musicians scattered and went into hiding throughout the nation and this threat of persecution resulted in the abandonment of Korea’s unique musical heritage for more than half a century. Another explanation is the change of the social structure in post-war Korea. After liberation from the Japanese occupation, the southern half of Korea was under US military administration up to the end of Korean Civil War. Fortunately, the Korean War ended in an armistice with the help of the United States and allies of the UN. However, the US administration of South Korea was a big factor in changing the Korean social structure, which had up till then been based on Confucianism. The Western influence on the Korean people caused them to become more pragmatic than idealistic. In order to solve the problems of starvation and poverty, people tried to find tangible and immediate solutions. Thus, Western methods and the Western system came to be admired by the Korean people after the war. Schools and educational systems were built along the lines of US systems. The primary resources for living were provided through the US military government for more than 5 years from 1950 to 1955. Under this system, the study and enjoyment of Korea’s cultural and musical identity was considered a luxury, not a necessity, for post-war Koreans. The third reason is related to, as well as the consequence of, the previous two. During these periods of instability, many young people left their motherland to study abroad in the United States and European countries. After the Korean Civil War, they returned to their homeland, greatly influenced by Western thought and Western ways of living. They become the leaders of the country in every field, from the political, educational and economic to the spiritual, thus spreading the contagion of the Western musical culture and even Western culture as a whole throughout the society. The fourth reason for the domination of Western music over Korean music is the power of the Christian Church. The first Christian missionary came to Korea in 1882. Since then, Christianity spread very quickly throughout the nation. The missionaries not only engaged in missionary work but also tried to improve the quality of the Korean people’s lives through systematic education. Thus, they built many churches, high schools and universities. Yonsei University and Ewha Women’s University were established in the early twentieth century by the missionaries and became prestigious private universities in Korea. Western music was and still is taught in these schools and universities. Nowadays, Korea is considered to be one of the most Christianized countries in the world. According to national statistics, about a third of the Korean population are Christians or churchgoers and the world’s largest Protestant church is located in Seoul, Korea. During Korean church services, Western kinds of choirs sing anthems composed by Western songwriters and composers; church orchestras

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perform Western Christian music and congregations sing Western hymns. As a consequence, Christian churches and believers have unintentionally played an important role in terms of forming the Western-dominated musical culture of Korea.

2. The Consequences 2.1. A Lack of Cultural Identity Up to the early 1960s there were no arguments about the nation’s musical culture or national identity. However, during Korea’s economic boom in the 1970s, people became aware of the importance of cultural identity in all sectors of Korean life, especially in music and the arts. As a result, many traditional music and arts departments have been established at university level and traditional music education institutions at the secondary level, such as the National Traditional Music Junior High School, were founded throughout the nation. In the Korean public educational system, music lessons are mandatory. For example, in the seventh National Curriculum, music is included among the ten basic schooling subjects identified. The time allocation for teaching music per week is shown in Table 19.1. It seems, therefore, that the future of music education as a basic schooling subject is secure and in no danger of being eliminated. The reality, however, is not that simple. Expanding teaching time for music and art in school is difficult because Korean students are college oriented. Parents believe that music is very important, but in order to get into college, studying music or spending time on musical activities is time not spent studying the subjects that are important for college entrance exams. School musical education does not therefore meet either the needs of the students or the wishes of their parents. Two essential goals must therefore be met. Koreans need to secure more time for teaching the arts in school and public and music (arts) educators need to make sure that the national culture is embedded in every aspect of arts education. Thus, there must be no disparity between the needs and demands of students and their parents and what is taught in school. In addition, obtaining more teaching time for music, and providing a more diversified musical culture that reflects the national cultural identity are what really matter. Korean students need more school hours devoted to arts education and a better quality of arts education in schools. Music education is no exception to this. Table 19.1 Time allocation for music Grades Weekly time allocation classes/(min)

Title of class

School level

1–2 3–6 7 8–9 10

Joyful life Music Music Music Music

Elementary

3 (40) 3 (40) 2 (45) 1 (45) 1 (45)

Middle High

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2.2. Why is Identity Important? Living in an information and communication technology-based global society, the value of the unique cultural basis of each individual is more important than ever before. Why do Korean people need to emphasize their Korean identity? Not because we are nationalist, but because we believe that securing our national identity is the way to broaden and build a harmonious global society. Korean traditional music is unique in character. Studying and preserving this unique feature is a means of enriching human culture as a whole. By examining its tonal system, one can distinguish the unique features of Korean music. Most Korean traditional folk music consists of 3 to 5 tone scales (for example D, E, G, A and B). This is quite rare. Furthermore, the performance styles of these tones are unique too. Tone A is called Ju Eum, meaning a tonal centre, and must be produced in a straightforward manner, without any vibration. Tone E is called Yo Sung, meaning a shaking tone, and it must be produced with a very pronounced vibrato shaking. The last tone is B. Tone B is called Toe Sung, meaning a breaking tone, which must be produced in a glissando style, from C to B. This scale and tone production system is quite unique to Korean folk music. Korean traditional music also employs a unique notation system called Jung Gan Bo, meaning well-shaped block notation. Jung is a Chinese character which designates a well. Gan means block. Thus, the meaning of Jung Gan Bo is ‘a notation system using a well-shaped block’. Jung Gan Bo was developed during the Yi dynasty by King Sejong (1418–1450). The origin of Jung Gan Bo, however, goes back to the Korea dynasty (918–1392) from which the name of this country originated. It is more convenient than the Western five-line notation system, in that it employs letters, rather than placement on lines, to indicate pitch; and blocks, rather than musical symbols, to indicate the duration of the pitch. In order to expand our knowledge of human symbolic systems and musical notation systems, further research on the Jung Gan Bo notation system must be done and made available to everyone interested in musical notation systems and related symbolic systems. If Korean traditional music were abandoned, this would be a loss to all humanity, because it is part of our shared precious cultural heritage and evidence of human literacy, just as losing the Egyptian pyramids would be a loss for all human beings, not just Egyptians.

3. Korean Attitudes to the Arts From ancient times, music and the arts have been very highly regarded by Koreans. Especially for our ancestors, music was a way of communicating with God. Even today, many shamans play music when performing their exorcisms. Religious services have always been accompanied by many kinds of music, so much so that many Korean kings established an administrative office for music. However, our music is valued far less than this today.

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3.1. A Study of School Principals In a survey of 40 school principals with more than 25 years of educational experience this writer asked their opinion of the importance of music as a school subject. Thirty-nine of them chose music as a very important schooling subject. However, when they were asked to list ten school subjects in order of importance, music was ranked at seventh place and visual art was ranked at tenth place out of the ten subjects. Thus, in reality these principals do not think music and art are priorities. Why is that so? There are many reasons, but most critical is that every student wants to get into college and music is not included in the college entrance prerequisite test, called the academic achievement test. The academic achievement test is somewhat similar to the SAT in the United States. It is divided into four subject areas: mathematics, a foreign language, social science and science and physics.

3.2. Disparate Realities There is a disparity between what the students would like to do and what they are required to do. This writer conducted a survey in 1996 among 432 secondary school students in Seoul, Korea. The findings of the survey gave me a good grasp of the practice of music education in Korea and many insights for changing music teachertraining programmes in teacher-training universities. According to the survey results, more than 90% (391) of the respondents stated, ‘I like music very much’. However, more than 86% (337) of those liked music, stated, ‘I do not like music class’. These students chose a wide range of reasons, most of which were related to the content, activities, method and structure of teaching music. The problems facing Korean music education and arts education are twofold. One is related to the educational structure and the other is related to school music and arts education. It seems that school music education and arts education do not meet the needs of the students. Thus, unless we change our educational structure, especially the college entrance examination system, and the content and method of music and arts education, there is no chance that music and arts will be valued and practised as a core activity of human life.

3.3. Realities of Music Education in Korea As we can see in Table 1, music as a school subject in Korea is mandatory up to the tenth grade. In Korea there are public schools, privately established schools, special purpose schools and alternative schools. Every school is under the supervision of the city (municipal) or county (provincial) superintendent of educational affairs. The Korean government considers the public school system as the main source of education. Privately founded schools, which are also under the administration of a local

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superintendent, are included in the public schools system. The Korean Ministry of Education is in charge of the nation’s education as a whole. Each province and city has an office of education and a superintendent of educational affairs. The content of the Seventh National Music Curriculum consists of ‘concepts’ and ‘activities’. Under concepts, seven elements of music – rhythm, melody, harmony, dynamics, timbre, tempo and form – are listed. The activity component includes singing, instrument playing, music composition and music appreciation. The public school music curriculum is formulated on the concept of a spiral curriculum. Though the national music curriculum emphasizes a well-balanced musical education consisting of four activities, singing is the main activity practised in school music classes. Textbooks containing Western music and Western-style music, Korean traditional music and some of the folksongs of other Asian countries are the main teaching–learning materials. Learning the basic techniques of how to sing and play classroom instruments is the major emphasis of elementary music classes. Music theory and musical appreciation is taught in secondary school music classes. General music classes in elementary schools are taught either by general classroom teachers or by a music specialist. Although in the elementary music class, singing is the predominant activity, sometimes playing classroom musical instruments such as triangles, xylophones, tambourines, recorders and danso are incorporated into the curriculum. Activities are rarely initiated by students in the elementary music class. Every semester students are evaluated, based on their ability in performing each task, such as singing, playing musical instruments and so on. In the middle and high schools, full-time music teachers teach music discipline. Singing is the most frequent activity. Although there is one unit per week allocated for music instruction for the tenth grade, very often music is not taught in high schools and that time is used for preparation for the college entrance examinations.

3.4. Music Education in Arts Schools (Special Purpose Schools) Special purpose schools are established according to the special school law. Currently there are 41 special purpose schools, which are aimed at educating gifted and talented students in science, foreign language, arts, music and physical science. There are 20 arts high schools in Korea for students concentrating on the arts (including Western music, fine art, ballet and traditional music). There are two kinds of music classes in arts schools, the general music class and the music major class. Music major classes include the following: musical theory, the history of music, sight-singing and dictation, the practice of music lessons in major subjects, chamber music, choral/orchestra, performance practice, computer and music and musical appreciation. Full-time music teachers teach general music classes and each music field (or major) is taught by a part-time lecturer with a corresponding specialization.

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3.5. Music Education in Alternative Schools There are ten alternative high schools in Korea for students who have difficulties adjusting to normal schools. Each school’s music programme is independent, according to the philosophy of the school. Some alternative schools follow the national music curriculum, whereas others have developed their own unique music programmes such as Samulnori, band, choir and rock band, based on the needs of their students. Samulnori is a performance-based form of Poongmul, traditional Korean drumming. It originated in Korean farming communities where people used to dance and play the drums to express their thanks and joy after the harvest season. Recently, Poongmul was produced on the stage in a form called Samulnori. It is pieced together by the union of four instruments, each of which represents an element of nature: Kkwengari (lightning), Changgo (rain), Buk (clouds) and Jing (wind). Through Ho-hup, a circular uniform breathing technique and the basis for all Samulnori, players are able to play as one group in one harmony. Music is taught by a certified music teacher or by part-time music specialists. In general, the class size of the alternative school is smaller than that of the public schools. Group teaching is performed.

3.6. Music Education in Private Institutions (Studio Teaching) Private music institutions in Korea are very active. Parents send their children to these private music institutions (studios) for various purposes, such as learning musical instruments, fostering their emotional growth, the harmonious development of their character and cultivating their aesthetic sensitivity. In these institutions various instruments are taught, including the piano, the flute, the clarinet, the violin, the cello, the danso, a Korean traditional vertical bamboo musical instrument with five finger holes, and the kayakeum, a Korean 12-stringed plucked instrument developed during the Samhan period (AD 42–452) and vocal training (Figure 19.1). Among these instruments, the piano is the most popular for young children. Private music institutions offer teaching based on individual needs. Thus, the main teaching method provided is individual lessons and small-group teaching based on a selected method book.

3.7. A Study of the Value of Musical Abilities to Educational Development The main purpose of this study was to measure the influence of a child’s musical abilities upon their development, using a sample of elementary schoolchildren in Seoul. The underlying intention of conducting this study, however, was to show

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Fig. 19.1 Korean musical instruments

administrators and decision-makers evidence of the value of music and the arts in education and human development. There are two limitations to this case study. The first is the limitation of the word ‘development’. This notion is limited to academic and behavioural fields. In the academic field, mathematical achievement was the first subject chosen for this study, whereas in the behavioural field the following school report card variables were chosen: assiduity, responsibility, cooperation, creativity, sociability and cheerfulness. The second limitation of this study is the limitation of the word ‘musical abilities’. In this study, the word ‘musical abilities’ is limited to the ability to discriminate between the five elements of music, rhythm, melody, dynamics, timbre and tempo. In order to measure the musical ability of the subject, the Korean music aptitude profile (KoMAP) was used. The Korean music aptitude profile was developed by the author of this study. It is a half-standardized and Web-based aptitude test consisting of five musical elements: rhythm, melody, dynamics, timbre and tempo. The test is for 5-year-olds to 13-year-olds. This study was assisted by Jin-Kyung Ha, a graduate student and full-time teacher in Sangwol Elementary School. The subjects were 118 fifth–sixth graders of Sangwol Elementary School in Seoul who participated in the study. The case study was conducted throughout a period of 15 months. The pre-test was administered to the subjects when they were fifth graders (from 30 September 2002 to 7 October 2002). The post-test was administered when the subjects became sixth graders (from 28 October 2003 to 1 November 2003). Since KoMAP consists of five components, only one component of the test was assessed per day. The author of this study and the teachers of the Sangwol Elementary School agreed to conduct a quasi-experimental study in order to measure the influence of musical abilities upon the development of elementary school students. The study was quasi-experimental. Based on the assessment and subsequent analysis, we examined the following:

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Table 19.2 Mean score of Korean music aptitude profile (KoMAP) Test period Pre-test Post-test Mean score difference Test elements Rhythm 16.65 (21) Tempo 14.47 (21) Timbre 17.69 (21) Dynamics 15.23 (21) Melody 16.25 (21) (21) is a maximum score for each component

– – – –

18.91 (21) 15.47 (21) 17.88 (21) 16.38 (21) 16.49 (21)

2.26 1.00 0.19 1.15 0.24

The relationship between the children’s musical abilities and other variables. The school report cards of the subjects (sixth graders). Any changes in other variables between the fifth graders and the sixth graders. The relationships between the changes in musical abilities and in other traits.

The research findings were then documented. As at January 2004, we had conducted the procedures up to the second bullet point above. The mean score of KoMAP is summarized in Table 19.2. Though the mean score of the post-test is somewhat higher than that of the pre-test, the results will be subjected to a statistical analysis to determine their reliability.

3.8. A Comparison of Musical Ability Scores to Mathematics and Other Behavioural Traits The subject’s musical ability was divided into three grade levels (high, normal and low). Then, each group’s mean score of mathematical ability and other behavioural traits were calculated. The results are summarized in Tables 19.3 to 19.7.

4. Summary Although this study has not been completed, by examining the data obtained, the author would like to suggest the following:

– There is a positive relationship between musical abilities and mathematical achievement scores.

– Rhythm ability has a positive relationship with mathematical achievement, cooperation, creativity, sociability and cheerfulness.

– Tempo ability has a positive relationship with mathematical achievement, assiduity, responsibility and creativity and cheerfulness.

– Timbre ability shows a positive relationship with mathematical achievement, cooperation, sociability and cheerfulness.

– Dynamics ability shows a positive relationship with mathematical achievement, assiduity, cooperation, creativity and sociability.

– In most cases, groups with high musical abilities display better behavioural traits.

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Table 19.3 Rhythm ability and other traits mean score Variables mean group Rhythm Math. Assid. Resp.

Co-op. Creat. Soc.

Cheer.

High (31%) 20.14 (21) 2.30 2.41 2.46 2.32 2.32 2.38 2.46 Mod (40%) 18.10 (21) 2.00 2.26 2.38 2.28 2.30 2.21 2.36 Low (29%) 14.78 (21) 2.06 2.47 2.47 2.29 2.26 2.32 2.35 Assid assiduity, Resp responsibility, Co-op cooperation, Creat creativity, Soc sociality, Cheer cheerfulness These six behavioural traits are of major concern in the Korean public school system. Thus, at the end of each semester, teachers must evaluate each student’s performance in these areas. Three levels are used: good (3.00), moderate (2.00), and poor (1.00).

Table 19.4 Tempo ability and other traits mean score Variables mean group Tempo Math. Assid. Resp.

Co-op.

Creat.

Soc.

Cheer.

High (32%) Mod (44%) Low (24%)

2.39 2.19 2.36

2.39 2.25 2.25

2.24 2.40 2.18

2.55 2.29 2.36

16.71 14.84 12.84

2.18 2.12 2.00

2.55 2.31 2.21

2.63 2.27 2.46

Table 19.5 Timbre ability and other traits mean score Variables mean group Timbre Math. Assid. Resp.

Co-op.

Creat.

Soc.

Cheer.

High (31%) Mod (40%) Low (29%)

2.41 2.35 2.15

2.28 2.28 2.33

2.38 2.33 2.20

2.44 2.43 2.30

19.39 18.02 16.23

2.19 2.15 2.00

2.25 2.52 2.28

2.44 2.46 2.40

Table 19.6 Dynamics ability and other traits mean score Variables mean group Dynamics Math. Assid. Resp.

Co-op.

Creat.

Soc.

Cheer.

High (25%) Mod (46%) Low (29%)

2.43 2.27 2.21

2.37 2.27 2.27

2.33 2.31 2.24

2.37 2.47 2.27

18.43 15.91 13.24

2.37 2.16 1.79

2.53 2.40 2.15

2.50 2.55 2.18

Table 19.7 Melody ability and other traits mean score Variables mean group Melody Math. Assid. Resp.

Co-op.

Creat.

Soc.

Cheer.

High (21%) Mod (49%) Low (30%)

2.20 2.41 2.17

2.20 2.33 2.31

2.36 2.26 2.30

2.32 2.41 2.40

17.88 16.54 15.01

2.16 2.10 2.09

2.36 2.36 2.37

2.44 2.41 2.46

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Although highly related variables have been found, it is not safe to conclude that musical ability has a positive relationship with academic achievement in all subjects or all behavioural traits. Further investigation of the relationship between musical abilities and academic and behavioral traits is necessary.

5. Layers of Thought Koreans and many Asians view music and arts as an important part of life. According to Confucian theory, one should be knowledgeable about music in order to become a leader. Confucius (552–479 BC), the philosopher and politician of the Ro in ancient China, explained that animals just listen to music without comprehending it and, whereas normal people merely enjoy music, leaders must be able to listen to music, grasp its meaning and judge its quality, and use the underlying logic in music in order to guide the public properly. To know music is to know ethics. As we can see, for Koreans and Asians, the value of music is not detachable from life itself. To value music and the arts is essential for humanity. This is in sharp contrast to much Western thought that emphasizes the absolute formalistic view of the arts advocated by the German aesthetician Eduard Hanslick, namely, ‘arts for arts sake’. There is a difference between the Confucian and Western attitudes towards music and the arts, but having different opinions is not always a bad thing. Understanding our differences can be beneficial for all of us. The arts are important because they are our means of expressing our cultural heritage and documenting human development. They are our means of self-expression and of communication. Within the forms of art we can trace our history, styles and ways of thinking and acquire the wisdom and aesthetic sense that are invaluable resources for understanding the past and future of humankind. What is the goal of education in this global society? There are many, but I do believe that the goal of education must be different from that in previous centuries, where discipline-based excellence, self-fulfilment and competition to become the top dog were the virtues most valued. The most important goal of education for this new era is learning desirable attitudes and behaviour. Music and the arts have the characteristics needed to satisfy this goal in today’s global society. This is because in the foundation of music and the arts lies the character of self discipline, the uniqueness that contrasts with and compliments others, helping each other, listening to each other, making harmony with others and making each unique element a splendid part of an everlasting masterpiece. Education for excellence is important. Excellence without caring for others, without helping others and without loving others will result in endless antagonism and ruthlessness. In this era we must understand each other, help each other, care for each other and love each other. Within the very truth of music and arts there lies no competition, and no one wins or loses. All of us should pursue knowledge in the arts and music for they are the best means of communication and mutual understanding available to us.

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Further Reading Gordon, E. 1971. The Psychology of Music Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Gordon, E. 1977. Learning Sequence in Music. Chicago, IL: G.I.A. Publications. Gordon, E. 1986. Primary Measures of Music Audiation. Chicago: G.I.A. Publications. Jang, K. 1988. A comprehensive examination of music teacher training programs in selected universities in the Republic of Korea. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan. Jang, K. 1998. A Musical Approach to Develop Creativity. Seoul: Music Education Research Press. Jang, K. 1999. Teachers’ Manual for Performance Evaluation in Elementary Music Education. Seoul: Eumaksegye (Music World). Jang, K., Kim, K. and Cho, S. 2003. The development of music aptitude profile for primary school children in Seoul. Journal of Music Education Science, 2, 1, 231–267. Lehman, P.R. Tests and Measurements in Music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Ministry of Education 1997. The 7th National Curriculum. Seoul: Ministry of Education.

Section VII

Theatre, Dance and the Holistic Experience: India, Hong Kong and Malaysia

Chapter 20

Rasa – A Life Skill Sangeeta Isvaran

Rasa (sanskrit, lit. ‘taste’), a concept first introduced in the Natyasastra, the oldest existing Indian treatise on dramaturgy (200 BC–AD 200) can be translated as aesthetic appreciation, but this is a superficial definition that does not do justice to the spiritual and philosophical implications of this term. It is perceived as an experience ranging from simple enjoyment to complete absorption, to trance, to so-called out-of-body experiences. While these terms might alarm people, it is essential to understand that rasa refers to a complete state of empathy of a person with himself or herself, with another, or with a state of being or situation. Almost every classical dance form in South and South East Asia, (not to mention music, sculpture, poetry and literature) claims some form of rasa as its goal. In this endeavour, dance in these parts of the world becomes pure communication using the body, facial expressions, music, rhythm, dialogue, storytelling and whatever else works. There is no concept of dance as just body movement. It is complete theatre that endeavours to transport the artist and the spectator into a realm where nothing exists but art. However rasa need not lie solely in the realm of classical art forms. This article endeavours to build a different approach to a pedagogy more suitable to the Asian framework, using the concept of rasa as perceived in various performing art traditions in South and South East Asia and from the perspective of the philosophy propounded in the Natyasastra. Since I work with dance and the educational system in Asia, I choose not to use just the physical form of the art but the underlying philosophy as well. My goal is to use rasa in novel, effective and exciting ways to aid holistic education. I first explain the concept of rasa as detailed in the Natyasastra and give examples of how it is used in performing art forms. After this, the potential integration of this concept in the education system, to aid both students and teachers is illustrated. Several case studies are then described using different techniques for invoking rasa. This is followed by an observation of the benefits, problems and questions that could arise from invoking rasa.

22, II Avenue, Sastrinagar, Chennai – 600 020; e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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1. The Natyasastra I draw extensively on the Natyasastra for concepts and methods of integrating rasa into education. The Natyasastra describes rasa as a technique one can follow to attain the experience as well as a method of evaluating the experience itself. It discusses the various qualities of rasa and the different ways of realizing it developed in different cultures and above all, the need for it in society. One of the founding precepts of the Natyasastra was that the theatre is meant to educate the illiterate, enlighten the literate and entertain the enlightened. The threefold objective of art as education, enlightenment and lastly entertainment was not a new concept 2,000 years ago. Fascinated by this view of art, several scholars over the centuries further expanded this concept. It was carried overseas to different parts of Asia and different manifestations of this concept are found in various traditional literatures, as well as in several different artistic traditions in Asia. I believe that this theory has a great deal to offer in re-evaluating the role of art in human life and the need for it in education systems. Very practical guidelines are given in these ancient traditions on how to experience and invoke rasa together with descriptions of the qualities and skills (both physical and emotional) that are developed through it. I find this approach harmonizes with holistic learning. We have yet to comprehend the psychological benefits of accessing the peak experiences called rasa.

2. The Rasa Sutra The rasa theory of the Natyasastra is a seminal work based on the famous rasa sutra or basic formula to invoke rasa. The rasa sutra states, ‘vibhava anubhava vyabhicari samyogat rasa nishpatti’. Bhava means emotion and vibhava is the cause of a bhava. Anubhava is the physical manifestation or performance of that bhava. Vyabhicari bhavas are transient emotions that reinforce the main emotion. Thus the rasa sutra states that vibhava, anubhava, and vyabhicari bhavas together produce rasa. Good vibhava and anubhava imply the strong invocation and expression of a bhava. Appropriate vyabhicari bhavas aid in enhancing the bhava so as to evoke rasa. This is not just an abstract construct in the Natyasastra but can also be seen in practice in several South and South East Asian dance and dance dramas. For example, taking a scene from the epic Ramayana, different versions of which are found all over Asia, let the principal emotion or sthayi bhava be the sadness, (soka), of Sita. The cause of this sadness, the vibhava, is her abduction by the demon king, Ravana, and her separation from her husband, Rama. The sadness is more potent if the vibhava is strongly established. If the sthayi bhava is deeply felt, then it will result in the sorrow being physically manifested through weeping, a heaving chest and so on. These physical manifestations are the anubhava. But in sadness she also can rage at Ravana. She feels sorrow and joy when thinking of the happy times she spent together with Rama earlier on. She can feel disgust for Ravana’s behaviour or feel fear in his presence. Through all this, the fundamental thread of sorrow must

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be maintained. But the transient emotions, the vyabhicari bhavas of anger, joy, disgust and fear enhance the present sad state. If performed appropriately, they will tune the mind and emotional state of the spectator to that of the performer and the spectator will feel the rasa of karuna, or compassion. So how is this 2,000-year-old concept that seemingly exists only in the musty traditions of the classical arts relevant to the modern-day educative process? As teachers, we can all learn from this technique. Vibhava refers to a stimulus or a problem. We try to provide different kinds of stimuli. Then we guide the students towards understanding and expressing their response or anubhava. (We do not impose on them what the response should be but help them express, in the fullest manner possible, their reaction). The vyabhicari bhavas are all the possible ramifications evoked by the stimulus or problem that strengthen the students’ reaction or inference. If the stimulus provided (the vibhava) is engaging enough, if the guidance of the students along their path to understanding (anubhava) is fulfilling, exploring along the way all the various possibilities (the vyabhicari) presented by this problem, then the students experience immense satisfaction (rasa) on reaching the end result. This could apply to a wide range of tasks from solving a mathematics problem, to the development of a social construct or computer programme, to baking a cake. It is the duty of the teacher to present the stimuli (a space–time construct, a marketing strategy and an arithmetic problem) vividly, to entice students along the path of understanding and give them the confidence to express their inferences as perfectly as they understand them, leading to rasa. The teacher, too, experiences this rasa in this process of communication. Learning today is a highly stressful process and few students actually understand or apply in real life what they have learnt. Education nowadays develops the memory, but does not develop the ability to think for oneself, or a sense of values and ethics. The world needs creative, empathetic, application-oriented, high-energy, positive thinkers who care for the society they live in. Perhaps the arts can bring that touch of creativity, community and dynamism into education.

3. Rasa in Education Rasa can be used in many ways in the learning process. Education today focuses primarily on developing career skills, but rasa is a life-skill that makes the difference between earning a living and living a life to the fullest. In the ideology of ‘arts for arts’ sake, including some form of art in the curriculum can help develop innate qualities of generating rasa or the ability to relate intuitively to oneself, one’s body, environment and other people. But rasa can also be used as a tool to aid the teaching process. It can be demonstrated that integrating rasa and other selected aspects of the performing arts in the teaching process of any subject can make learning more exciting, effective and a lot more fun. The body can be consciously used to make more profound the process of communication which is, in essence, what education, as well as the performing arts, is all about.

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Rasa emphasizes the building of a bond between the performer and spectator where they both meet on the same plane of thought. Teachers are, in a sense, performers, endeavouring to make the student spectators engage themselves wholeheartedly in the dance, which is the learning process. Aspects of the performing arts and rasa can be appropriated to help teachers communicate more effectively, to help cross the chasm between the teacher and the taught and most important of all, help students understand and learn the subject matter more efficiently. Rasa can be used to inject more energy in the classroom. Considering that education plays such a vital role in developing societies, why not enhance the quality of teaching through simple, cost-effective yet vivid, visual measures using the arts? Moreover, we live in a world that is increasingly torn apart by hatred, religious intolerance, bigotry and violence. It is important that education focuses on developing caring and informed individuals. But this purpose seems to be thwarted by economic and political agendas. On one hand, people cling desperately to religious, social or ideological identities, and on the other certain societies are losing entire ways of being, including their traditions, customs and language; trading wholesale, centuries-old cultures for the dream of modernity or ‘Westernization’. The stress of trying grimly to carve out an identity and ruthlessly manipulating religion, ideology and social structures is reflected in the education system. Why not help develop processes to build empathy, tolerance and acceptance using rasa?

4. Case Studies Art should not need to justify its position in society but should be recognized for what it can bring into the lives of children and adults. But I also acknowledge that these are not arguments that will convince school boards, governments and overanxious parents. In this article, I have tried to give a description of several case studies where dance has been introduced boldly, stealthily and ingratiatingly, wearing various guises to conceal its ‘frivolous’ motives. These are interesting, perhaps even bizarre experiments in desperate endeavour to incorporate the arts into the main curriculum in schools that are geared towards training students to pass highly competitive exams. In many developing nations, education is viewed as a basic tool of existence; a road to success or merely survival and art is considered too frivolous to play a part in this process.

4.1. Where Dance has been used as Purely a Creative Art Form (Abacus School, Chennai, India) The aim was to sensitize the students to interest themselves in as well as to practise different forms of dance and music from local and Pan-Indian and global cultures. An emphasis was placed on traditional forms of dance that are slowly dying out.

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On a more fundamental level, priority was given to understanding and using forms of nonverbal communication, body language and signs and symbols that are growing obsolete. This project was carried out in a private school where many children came from wealthy and mostly Westernized families. It was a challenge to interest them in what to them was very ‘uncool’ and unsophisticated music and dance forms (MTV being the ‘coolest’ channel); to make them say ‘vanakkam’ or ‘namaste’ rather than ‘Yo!’s up?’; to coax and cajole boys saturated with the Western notion that dancing is for girls or ‘sissies’, to dance (this was achieved after using various local martial art and circus forms); and to get them to understand and perhaps absorb gestures and symbols of local Tamil and Indian culture. The workshop of course had a ‘cool’ name, ‘creative movement education’.

4.2. Where Dance has been used to Bolster the Physical Education Curriculum (a Survey as Part of My Master’s Thesis, with Help from the Madras Craft Foundation, Chennai, in Conjunction with Various Schools across Chennai, India) Most schools in India have a very poor physical education curriculum due to the lack of funding and materials. Since there is not enough sports equipment for all the students to use, many schools use a system of physical training (PT), a hangover from the colonial period, which consists of a series of exercises like a drill which a large number of children can do at a time. An interesting but controversial experiment was carried out wherein various folkloric dance forms were introduced into schools to replace PT, with four aims: sensitizing students to these art forms, providing physical and mental stimulation, providing work for dancers who find it difficult to earn a living from their art, and lastly, incorporating dance as a regular part of the curriculum. The challenge came in trying to accomplish this while guarding the artistic and creative aspect of these dance forms, knowing fully well that they were not meant as mere physical exercise.

4.3. Where Dance has been used to Aid the Educative Process (Avvai Home, Chennai, India) This was a project using dance as a part of a biology class: with the subject – the working of the heart. By physically taking on the roles of arteries, veins, auricles, ventricles, valves, blood and muscles and so on, the children understood visually the working of the heart. They were encouraged to simulate various anomalies such as what would happen when the aorta was blocked or the valves were stuck, or the left ventricle had a hole. And then they drew their own conclusions. That was one subject in the exam that all could illustrate and answer.

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4.4. Where Dance was Substituted in a Moral Science Programme at a Juvenile Correctional Centre (Purasuvalkam, Chennai) Called in to replace a moral science teacher who had died, we set up a project in which a situation from the Ramayana (a popular Indian epic now found all over South East Asia) was explored and later performed. It was treated, not as a religious text but as means of exploring notions of gender, social roles, equality and justice. The scene was chosen where Sita, the model wife of Rama, chooses to enter the fire to prove her chastity which Rama doubts, since she had been captured and held prisoner by the demon, Ravana. It was amazing what a group of 10- to 15-year-olds had to say about Sita’s plight, Rama’s dilemma and the justice meted out. In the performance, each child chose to be a flame and decide for herself whether Sita should be burnt or not. The audience was also involved in the performance, creating an extraordinary experience where social practices that are normally followed blindly were questioned and girls growing into women asked, felt and expressed the needs, desires and frustrations of this maturing process; their perceptions of themselves as soon-to-be-women, of society and of society’s perceptions and expectations. There were no solutions – there never are – but what was created was an atmosphere of sharing and bonding whereby everyone learnt from one another.

4.5. Where Dance was Included as a Part of a Vocational Training Programme for Professional Sex Workers, Child Sex Workers, Transvestites and People Affected with HIV, with Oxfam (Phnom Penh, Cambodia) This project was built around techniques to facilitate self-expression and to build self-esteem. Any means was used to get the participants to respond, from the Bollywood music that seems to be popular all over Asia and Africa, circus techniques and acrobatics to build trust, belly dance and go-go dance moves to overcome inhibitions and build pride in all the different parts of the body and, lastly and most importantly, traditional abhinaya (the art of communication in classical Indian dance forms) techniques to help them express themselves. For example, one exercise or game required each participant to choose an emotion – such as to be happy, sad, angry, hurt or disgusted. In the beginning, it was playful and everybody loved doing caricatures and exaggerated imitations of the emotion. After a lot of giggling, in the second round each one was asked to add a sound to the expression. Then the next time, their own name became the music for the emotion. In the next round, each one had to react to the emotion expressed by the neighbour on their right. In one round everyone was asked: why do you feel happy or sad or angry or in pain? By this time the emotions had become so real and the feeling of empathy so strong

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in the group that many were able to talk, laugh, cry, express their anger and their dreams in a safe atmosphere and seek pleasure and understanding from the others.

4.6. Where Dance was Included as an Optional After-School Activity in a Burmese Street Children’s Home with World Vision (Yangon, Myanmar) The children were between the ages of 5 and 11 and their favourite game was the hugging game. In an endeavour to help them relate to shapes and textures in their environment and their own bodies, and due to the complete lack of funds to buy materials with, the hugging game was developed. Hug your table! Feel its sharp edges and hardness. Hug a tree! Try to mould your body to it as close as possible and feel the differences in the wood. Hold your friend’s hand, see how your fingers interlace and meld together. Hug your friend; and find spaces in his body for you to fit into. Pile four children together and shine a torch on to them. If they fit together properly, the light does not pass through to the other side. The shapes, contortions, forms and giggles generated in this game were amazing.

4.7. Where Dance was Used to Aid Dogs: With the SPCA (Bangkok, Thailand) A workshop was held to sensitize children to the cruelty meted out to street dogs in Bangkok. Through movement, mime, rhythm and dialogue (mostly howling, barking and growling), a relationship with dogs was explored. What it means to be a dog and what it might feel to be a dog was the theme of the project. Random words associated with dogs, chants, movements displaying the different moods of dogs, rap songs, sniffing, licking, woofing and biting formed part of the performance. Dogs, of course, also participated in the workshop.

4.8. Where Dance, Legend, Death and Immortality were Interwoven with Village Children in Indonesia with Local Children (Pajangan, Indonesia) The story of Ganesha (the elephant-headed son of Siva) and the moon is a well-known Indian legend. The story starts after a long epic where Ganesha eats too many sweets on his birthday and then rides home on his mouse. The mouse is scared by a snake. Ganesha falls off, so that his stomach bursts open and the sweets fall out dancing. In a fit of rage, Ganesha kills the moon when it makes fun of him. Those being the days where there was no electricity, utter darkness descends and Dewo Kalo (meaning the God of Time in Sanskrit), the son of Siva in Indonesia, rises up

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in all his terrible glory to devour all life on Earth, as Time will surely do. This is a new twist added to the Indian tale and the children were placed in the throes of the dialogue between Ganesha and Kalo, the Indian and Indonesian sons of Siva, to solve all the troubles on this planet.

5. Benefits Observed When, at a given moment, no other reality exists but that created by the art; when the artist ceases to be and lives completely this virtual reality; when the spectator, the artist and the art are one in spirit: that is the experience of rasa at its purest. In truth, this happens extremely rarely, but the joy of dancing, learning and bonding can always be experienced. I could summarize some of the positive outcomes of these programmes in the following observations culled from interviews with teachers and students. The various projects could help to – Bring alive visually a subject like biology or mathematics and help transform a boring classroom lesson into a lively one, with no added cost or expensive materials required. – Create the ability to live an emotion, situation or completely different dimension of reality with the comforting notion that one can step out of it at any time. We underestimate the psychological benefits of experiencing rasa (the term ‘peak experience’ has been coined for this concept). Rasa implies total empathy where one is in union with one’s own self or with another. – Build bonds: people who experience rasa together, who have lived an intense or simply enjoyable experience together, have a bond to fall back on. – Build concentration and discipline. – Build capacities of empathy and sympathy as one can live another’s experience more easily. – Build tolerance and acceptance by celebrating the differences between people and different states of being. – Create self-confidence, a sense of a universal state of being, a calm centre that many an adolescent would welcome to combat the confusion of growing up. – Create reservoirs of energy that one can draw on in a highly stressful world. – Combat the allure of hard drugs. With rasa one can get and generate a ‘high’ at any time. Why, then, take drugs? – Teach children how to go to the core of any activity or concept, teaching the need for deeper involvement and feeling it completely, holding nothing back. – Develop emotional control, since the energies generated could also be negative and have to be contained. – Build bonds with the natural environment. – Celebrate our own cultural heritage and reinforce the beauty of a multicultural society.

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– Help support traditional art and artists. – Build a dialogue between the teacher and student. Usually teaching seems to be a one-way process with the teacher sending out messages and students receiving them. By bringing art into the classroom, there is more room for bilateral discussion and for an exchange of opinions on different issues and building bonds with students. – Develop creativity, which is necessary not just in art but to handle situations and problems in work and other spheres. All these points and more can be illustrated with practical examples and techniques drawn from various performing art traditions from all over the world.

6. Possible Negative Outcomes, Issues and Questions There could also be several harmful consequences if the art programme is not well thought out before being implemented. Here are a few problems that have come up and a few questions that still remain unanswered. Taking an art form out of its traditional milieu and introducing it in a completely different context have many implications, not all of them good. While many art forms make the transition successfully from, say, a ritual context or a village context to a school education system, others could lose their essence. Each individual case has to be assessed carefully, to see whether it can be introduced in a way that is beneficial and sensitive to the needs of the art form itself, the artists, the children and the school system. For example, many schools and universities of dance teach standardized versions of a vibrant folk form, that are choreographed with a strict sequence of movements set to a set musical composition. As a result, a vibrant social form that was originally improvised by groups of people as they danced is reduced to a strict pattern of movement that is now taught as part of the curriculum of dance. This is essential if the dance has to be performed on a proscenium stage and if the children perform ‘in harmony’ and their performance is evaluated. In order to standardize the dance so that all the children perform in the same way, it is set in strict patterns, completely obliterating the purpose of the form as social interaction, where improvisation and interaction between people is more important than perfect movement techniques. Instead of art bringing some spontaneity into the school, the school reduces the art to the same level of rote-learning prevalent in all the other subjects. Thus, when an art form is being used as a classroom tool, care must also be taken to ensure that its artistic value is preserved and that, although it can be used to enhance the educational process, this is not its only goal. The art form must be treated with respect. Other negative consequences are the reinforcement of peer pressure, competitive instincts, racial and gender prejudices and cultural stereotypes. Some of these can be prevented if it is emphasized over and over again that the object of the art programme is not to create artists, dancers or musicians. If the children are inspired and decide to make it their career, then that is a different matter, but the emphasis

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of the programme is not on performance. Above all, the evaluation process must not depend on practical performance but rather on what the children have learnt about the art and how they apply it creatively. To emphasize the problem of evaluation, we must consider how one may set exams in art subjects without engendering a unhealthy competitive instinct. Dance is not about who has the most stamina, who moves the fastest, who has the highest leaps or the best technique. Examinations or other evaluative procedures have to be developed that respect and encourage individuality and that assess the students’ internal perception of the art form as much as their external practice of it. This is a problem that has yet to be solved. In cases where art is used in the classroom, when the class is evaluated it is not the best artist who should get the highest marks but the student who has applied the principle of the art most creatively and effectively in the learning process. For example, if the creation of a pot has been used to explain the concepts of centripetal and centrifugal forces in physics, it does not matter if a student produces an extremely ugly pot as long as it perfectly illustrates these forces. It is clear that it is not the art form that is being evaluated, but the learning process. Similarly, patterns of education vary drastically from traditional modes of teaching to the Westernized model of the school system practised in most parts of South and South East Asia. The mode of transmission of artistic knowledge is as vital as the piece of art produced. While many worry that traditions of art are being lost, we should also worry about the loss of traditional modes of teaching, of teacher–student relationships, of the transmission of not just techniques, but ways of being. While one talks of school educational systems and governments being resistant to the introduction of art, the contrary is also true. Art practitioners also decry the idea of teaching their art en masse in schools. For instance, many traditional gurus of dance do not wish to teach in schools. They dislike being bound by time schedules, by curricula that emphasize a set number of items to be taught over a set period of time, irrespective of the needs of each child and, above all, by the examination mode of evaluation demanded by the school which, they rightly claim, engenders a spirit of competition detrimental to the whole philosophy of art. So, when implementing an art course in a school the needs of the practitioners-turned-teachers have to be taken into account and also, more importantly, they, too, have to understand that perhaps they must make some compromises for the benefit of the children. What happens when the visiting artist leaves? In one instance, after the project was over, we evaluated the results and found the impact of the project wonderful. When we came back after a month just the opposite had happened. The children missed the programme, found the regular teacher inadequate and wanted her to be replaced by the artist. But the teacher is not meant to be an artist, and artists who work in the class must work in tandem with the teacher in charge and ease out of the programme as gently as they were eased into the lives of the children in the first place. The art programme must be monitored against misuse for local political propaganda. It is common knowledge that art can be used for subversive purposes as well, and that children are very susceptible to suggestion. Rasa can be used to generate hatred as much as empathy. It would be very dangerous and

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very easy for unscrupulous authorities to deliberately sanction projects for political and religious propaganda. How can the needs of schools in rural areas be addressed? Children from urban and middle-class backgrounds have access to some form of art outside their school if their parents so wish. But children from groups at the poverty level and below have no such access. Moreover, children living on the streets, such as juvenile delinquents and orphans live outside regular social structures. So even the local temple, or social gatherings which might give them access to some form of art, is denied to them. Is art meant only for those who can afford it? There are always problems, of course, in every community regarding such things as class distinctions, religious beliefs, the status of art, gender distinctions, local customs and social taboos. The implementation of a policy cannot be made only by the central government in a huge country like India. The local authorities will have to take action too.

7. Conclusion As these principles are applied, it is clear that more problems will come to light but that does not detract from the fact that rasa could help bring alive the often tedious process of education. The problems seem immense and the questions almost impossible to answer, but by pooling our knowledge and keeping ourselves aware and sensitive to the needs of the various groups involved, a successful programme can be launched that could benefit thousands of children. From all that I have observed, the ability to feel rasa is a universal one, as is the need to feel it, requiring no special intelligence levels or physical abilities. One can find it at any stage in life, but it would be wonderful if one started learning to access it from childhood. Like any ability, once it is learnt, it can be applied to any activity. One can feel rasa working on a computer programme or building marketing strategies. Three important inferences about using rasa in education are described in the following subsection:

7.1. The Process of Realizing rasa is as Important as the Actual Experience This is not a system of pedagogy that imposes the right answer on the student, nor does it encourage the mere memorization of facts. This system encourages students to think for themselves, develop their own ideas and draw their own conclusions, at the same time encouraging them to explore all the ramifications and possibilities of the issue. This builds their creative abilities, intellectual faculties and self-confidence, apart from making the process of learning an enjoyable one. They learn to understand the root of the problem and not just to spout the answer memorized.

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Rasa can be used to enhance and diversify the ways students experience, appreciate and celebrate knowledge. This is also a system that works on the students’ need to be completely engaged in the subject and raises the level of comprehension and empathy with the subject matter. Rasa makes one feel, bringing facts and figures to life; so that, for example, history classes in the regular education system make you memorize facts about the judicial system, rasa can evoke the horror of injustice and corruption. Geometry opens you to the fascinating world of shapes and structures, while rasa opens your eyes to these structures in our own world around. Physics tells you about the laws of gravity, but rasa can make you feel the weight of your body and its relationship to the Earth. It is clear that both knowledge systems complement each other. Anom Amengkunagara III, the crown prince of the Kraton of Surakarta, afraid that many aspects of Javanese culture were disappearing rapidly with the advent of the Dutch, commissioned three poets to write the Serat Centhini, a Javanese epic, in 1809. In it, rasa (which is a legacy of a Hindu tradition) is defined as follows: If you look for rasa in the skies you will never find it. Above the earth and below the firmament it is peerless. Rasa is the taste on your tongue, the sensation on your skin, the sound in your ear, the essence of your marrow, the scent in your nose, the thought and understanding in your brain, the feeling surging in your heart, the perception through your eyes…. Rasa is Allah’s secret that is concealed in your heart. It is by that that we know.

Rasa, for better or for worse, makes colours brighter, sounds clearer, smells and tastes stronger, makes emotions deeper, the power of understanding sharper and renders empathy more natural. It is, I think, a part of the human condition to seek an experience that goes beyond the physical and the intellectual. Rasa is beyond religion, culture, language and economic status; rasa teaches one to experience the meanings of the words love, compassion and justice – all human concepts that need to be lived, not mimed or manipulated. Should not our children learn to access this energy buried deep inside, that can help them to grow into healthy, happy, wellbalanced individuals, supporting them in a world that is increasingly cruel, intolerant and filled with conflict? Education today is about facts and figures, theories and constructs that, while seeking to analyse, control and manipulate the world around us, succeeds more often than not in alienating us from our environment. Rasa seeks a more intimate interpretation of the world around, using the body, the intellect and the senses to weave oneself into the web of life.

Further Reading Bandem, I.M. and deBoer, F.E. 1995. Balinese Dance in Transition. Kaja and Kelod. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. Brandon, J.R. (ed.) 1993. The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre. Cambridge University Press. Cadet, J.M. 1995. Ramakien, The Thai Epic. Chiang Mai: Browne International. Chandler, D. 1998. A History of Cambodia. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. Cuisinier, J. (n.d.) Danses Cambodgiennes, d’après la version originale du Samdach Chaufea Thiounn, premier Ministre du gouvernement cambodgien (Cambodian dances, after the origi-

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nal version of Samdach Chaufea Thiounn, Prime Minister of the Cambodian Government) revised and enlarged by Jeanne Cuisinier. Phnom Penh: Royal University of Fine Arts. Irvine, D. 1996. Leather Gods and Wooden Heroes, Java’s Classical Wayang. Times Edition, Singapore. Kam, G. 2000. Ramayana in the Arts of Asia. Asia Books. Kravel, P.T. 1995. Sek Thom: Khmer Shadow Theatre. Khmer version edited by Thavro Phim and Sos Kem, English translation by Sos Kem, abridged, adapted and edited by Martin Hatch, Southeast Asia Program: Cornell University and UNESCO. Miettinen, J. 1992. Classical Dance and Theatre in South-East Asia. Oxford University Press. Nut, S.H.J. 1994. Etude du vocabulaire du theatre Royal Khmer. Thesis submitted for a masters degree of Indian Studies under the supervision of Madame Saveros Pou, University of Paris III. Also available in Cahiers d’études franco-camodgiens, Service Culturel de l’Ambassade de France, No. 6) at the Centre Culturel et de Coopération Linguistique, Pnom Penh. Phim, T.S. and Thompson, A. 1999. Images of Asia, Dance in Cambodia. Oxford University Press. Richman, P. (ed.) 2000. Questioning Ramayanas. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Rutnin, M.M. 1996. Dance, Drama and Theatre in Thailand: The Process of Development and Modernization. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. Soedarsono, W.W. 1990. The State Ritual Dance in the Court of Yogyakarta. Gadjah Mada University: Gadjah Mada University Press. Stutterheim, W. 1989. Rama-Legends and Rama-Reliefs in Indonesia. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Swami Satyananda Puri The Ramakirti (Ramakien): The Thai Version of the Ramayana, Bangkok: India Studies Centre, Thammasat University. Unni, C.P. 1998. Natyasastra, Vols. I, II, III, IV, New Delhi: Nag Publishers. Vatsyayan, K. 1968. Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts. New Delhi: Sangeeta Natak Academy.

Chapter 21

Tertiary Dance Education in Malaysia Joseph Gonzales

The government of Malaysia approved the establishment of the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan, or the National Arts Academy in 1990, under the auspices of the Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism. This was to be the nation’s first institution of higher learning, providing full-time training focused solely on the arts and one that would reflect Malaysia’s cultural heritage and identity. Although several universities in Malaysia now offer undergraduate and graduate arts degrees in theatre and music, few if any, place an emphasis on Malaysian traditional performing arts. At present, there are no first degrees offered in dance. The mission of the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan was to produce skilled practitioners in the performing arts and develop creative and knowledgeable artists; awarding a Diploma in Performing Arts (dance, theatre, music, writing and, since 2002, cinematography) upon the completion of 4 years of study. In 1994, the then Secretary-General, Datuk Ismail Adam, Assistant Secretary-General Dato’ Tengku Alaudin Tengku Abdul Majid, Mrs. Norliza Rofli (who was specifically requested to pursue her masters degree in arts management during this period) and other officers of the Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism established a blueprint for arts education in Malaysia at the tertiary level. Professors from local and international universities, artists and other relevant personalities were consulted about the structure of education that would be offered at this unique and ground-breaking academy. Prof. Dr. Mohammad Anis, Zakaria Ariffin, Krishen Jit and Prof. Hanafie Imam, all of whom were committed to the establishment of the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan, were appointed as the first Head of Dance, Writing, Theatre and Music, respectively. Dr. Anis has pursued his graduate studies at the University of Hawaii at Manoa and his doctorate at the University of Ann Arbor, Michigan. He has made dance research his domain in Malaysia. Zakaria Ariffin is a prolific playwright and the winner of the prestigious South East Asia Writers Award 2002 for literary achievement. Krishen Jit is a well-respected director in the region with a wealth of knowledge of Asian and Western theatre forms, while Hanafie Imam is a leading jazz musician with a masters degree from Berklee College of Music. After years of service and sacrifice, all these scholars (with the exception of Zakaria Ariffin, who currently heads

Head of Dance, Akademi Seni Kebangsaan (National Arts Academy), Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism, Malaysia 464, Jalan Tun Ismail, 50400 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; e-mail: senitaü@gmail.com L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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the theatre department) have left the academy to pursue other interests and head other institutions. 1999 saw the appointment of Joseph Gonzales, one of the institution’s pioneer lecturers, as Head of Dance, whose background was primarily in performance and choreography as opposed to academia. Through discussion with Malaysian luminaries such as Ramli Ibrahim, Dr. Zamin Haroon Chandrabanu, Marion D’Cruz, Choo Tee Kuang, Suhaimi Magi, Mew Chang Tsing and Loke Soh Kim, the general consensus was that the training offered too broad an approach to dance training and it lacked focus and direction. The system then underwent a major paradigm shift with a greater emphasis on three major areas, namely, traditional dance training, Western dance training and choreography, retaining and reinforcing its multiculturality. The intention of the dance department of the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan is now to train the body to be responsive to the various styles of dance in Malaysia, but with a world and global perspective. To make the academy more competitive, the diploma is now offered in three years instead of four. This more focused and comprehensive programme was tailored to produce good and skilled dancers. The ability to analyse, communicate ideas verbally and interpret them using the language of dance remains an integral component of the training. With the realization that not all students will be proficient in all areas of dance, the academy now offers its courses in a modular format, as is practised in numerous universities and institutions of higher learning. This provides the students with an opportunity to choose, to specialize and to excel in one or more areas of dance, depending on their aptitude, talent, desire and determination.

1. Traditional Dance Training The initial 4-year dance curriculum encompassed Malaysian traditional dance, of which some were offered as elective courses only: the martial art forms Silat and Tai Chi, Indian and South East Asian dance, namely, Javanese, Philippine and Thai, ballet, modern dance, choreography, notation, theory and history courses. The structure of the programme was a little haphazard, especially in the field of traditional dance. It was also not cost effective, as some of the lecturers had to be appointed from overseas, entailing the expense of housing them and giving them per diems and other benefits, while some of these courses had only three students registered. Many hours of deliberation with Malaysian lecturers and experts have resulted in a compulsory traditional dance module that, it is hoped, will result in graduates with a strong sense of their Malaysian identity and heritage. The traditional dance syllabus includes Malay classical and folk dance and the traditional dances of other ethnic groups like the Chinese and Indians (who make up approximately 50% of Malaysia’s population) and those from the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo. In simple terms, it now reflects the diverse cultural composition of Malaysia. Classical Malay dance (or court dance) has its origins in the royal courts of Malaysia which date back to the fourteenth century. The various

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courtly dances, such as the joget gamelan, terinai, mengadap rebab, layang mas and asyik are fairly slow in tempo, with graceful arm movements and intricate hand movements that require tremendous sensitivity, often beginning in a seated position and progressing through a kneeling position to a standing position. The eye line of the dancer usually complements the hand gestures and is generally downcast, as it was considered rude to look royalty in the eye, but from time to time, they may steal seductive glances at their audience. These dances have a strong Thai and Indonesian influence and there are interesting tales and legends about their origin. The musical accompaniment is a gamelan ensemble, consists of brass gongs, the serunai, a woodwind instrument rather like a flute, and a few percussion instruments. Sarawak and Sabah have numerous indigenous tribes, each with a myriad of dances. These dances are very beautiful and generally derive their inspiration from nature and the lives of the indigenous people, thus involving subjects such as hunting or harvesting. The tales of proud warriors and legends of people with great power and strength are a source of pride for the people. Myths about gods and spirits, Bobohizan and Monsopiad and other beliefs have also inspired many of these dances. The placement of the feet, the way the weight is transferred and the gentle arm movements give many of these dances a light, floating, exquisite quality, which is seen in the Kanjet Ngeleput and Datun Julud of the Orang Ulu, Ngajat of the Iban people and Rejang Be’uh of the Bidayuh tribe. There is sometimes a sudden change of weight or accent on a movement. This is frequently accompanied by improvised vocal interjections, which add a dynamic contrast. This is difficult to master and therefore even more difficult to teach.

Fig. 21.1 Mohd. Kamaludin Mohd. Daud in ‘Kanjet Ngeleput’, a dance of the Orang Ulu tribe of Sarawak. (Picture courtesy of Akademi Seni Kebangsaan, 2002.)

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The dances from Sabah, like the Sumazau, Kuda Pasu, Sumayau and the Limbai of the Kadazan, Murut, Bajau, Dusun and Suluk tribes have similar qualities. The music that accompanies these dances is performed with specific instruments like the sape, a four-stringed instrument made of wood indigenous to the Kenyah, Kayan, Kelabit and Penan tribes, the kulintangan, an idiophone ensemble made of brass gongs and the seruling, a bamboo flute approximately 8–14 in. long. It requires good ear training for the dancer to become accustomed to these melodies and interlocking rhythms. These dances were initially performed to pray for good weather, to invoke and appease the spirits and to celebrate the harvest festivals of Gawai in Sarawak and Keamatan in Sabah. Although most members of these tribes have now adopted Islam or Christianity as their religion, the beliefs and customs of their forefathers are still widely practised and carefully preserved. The many folk dances in Malaysia that are performed in celebration of joyful community events such as the harvest festival, birthdays, coming-of-age rituals, engagement parties, weddings and sometimes as evening entertainment after azan isyak, the fifth and final Muslim prayer time of the day. There is a playful and sometimes flirtatious quality in many of these dances. Originally, many of these dances were performed only by the men, but in the last 30 years or so, female dancers also participate, although dancers of different genders never physically touch each other. Dances performed by both men and women include the joget, zapin, inang and asli. Other folk dances use handheld props such as scarves, fans and plates and the dances are often named after these props like Tarian Piring (the plate dance) and Wau Bulan (the kite dance) among others. Many of these dances are now taught at the academy. The dance department of the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan has made great efforts to locate and identify traditional dance teachers who practice their art in remote villages across Malaysia and invite them to conduct master classes. During their stay at the academy, their work is recorded and documented as best as possible, given the limitations of manpower, skill and time. To fulfil the requirements for the award of the diploma in dance, there is a compulsory 4-week practical and research placement. The undergraduates are required to spend this time living with an adopted family in a village where dance is still a major and thriving activity. The students learn the local dance forms but, more importantly, begin to understand the significance of dance within a particular society. While this research project is at a fairly introductory level, as the necessary methodologies have not been mastered by these young students, some of the efforts have been excellent. Among the most commendable projects have been Mohd. Kamaludin Mohd. Daud’s work on the Sumayau dance of the Lotud Dusun tribe in Tuaran, Hanimah Samsudin’s research on Angalang Pailang of the Muruts in Keningau and Shafirul Azmi Suhaimi’s work on the dance of the Malay Cocos in Tawau. All these are dances from Sabah, while another fast-disappearing dance, the Tari Inai in Kelantan, was researched by Zamzuriah Zahari. As a result of her tenacity, Zamzuriah is now regarded as leading exponent of this dance among the younger generation and is frequently invited by the Kelantan State Government to give performances.

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Thus, the emphasis of the syllabus at Malaysia’s only tertiary institution offering dance is on a comprehensive understanding of Malay dance forms. Dances from the Chinese and Indian cultures are already taught extensively at private institutions like the Kwangsi, Kwangtung and Hainan associations, and many dance schools such as the Temple of Fine Arts, the Sutra Dance Theatre, the Sri Ganesalaya and the Bharatam Academy specialize in Indian dance. As a result, at the academy the intention is only to provide an introduction whereby students may acquire an understanding of the basic movement vocabulary and an appreciation of these very intricate art forms. Again depending on the natural ability and the diligence of the students, a fairly high level of competency can be achieved. Chinese dance master, Zhou Gui Xin, from mainland China, now lectures at the academy and his results are already very impressive. There are compulsory elements for students of all departments at the Academy One is traditional Malay theatre, Mak Yong, sometimes spelt Ma’ Yang, Makyung, Ma’yong or Ma’ Yong. Another is Bangsawan, also known as Malay opera, incorporating acting, singing and dancing. ‘The extra turn’ (a specific section of the play) is a song and or dance interlude that occurs when the curtain is lowered for a scene change. This has no relevance to the development of the plot of the play. Last to be mentioned is the shadow play, Wayang Kulit. These traditional theatre forms incorporate elements of music, dance, and acting, demonstrating that multidisciplinary training in Malaysia began centuries ago. Among the advantages of this approach is that students develop different skills that they are then able to utilize in a cross-disciplinary performance, if required. Makyung and Randai (an Indonesian theatre form) are quite popular in Malaysia, in which the performers form a circle in which they remain visible to, but are apart from, the audience. The structure provides an avenue for exploration and the improvisation (of dialogue) is a key element in these plays. Fortunately, the academy moved quickly to obtain the services of the masters of these various theatre forms, such as Rahman B. and the late Syed Hamid in Bangsawan, the late Hamzah Awang Amat, who was a master puppeteer or dalang, and Khatijah Awang, a prima donna of Makyung, who were awarded National Laureates for the Arts in 1994 and 2000, respectively. These traditional masters were able to pass their knowledge to the some of younger generation such as Mohd. Kamarulbahrin, Juhara Ayob and Norzizi Zulkifli, who are among the most sought-after young practitioners. Traditional art forms have an oral tradition but a select number of scholars such as Prof. Dr. Ghulam Sarwar Yousof, whose doctoral thesis was on Makyung, are also employed at the academy to furnish the theoretical, historical and ethnological aspects of the traditional arts. This gives greater credibility and strength to the academic requirements of such an institution. The status held by the traditional masters and the importance given to them have allowed them opportunities to explore their craft further, providing greater exposure for their particular art and allowing them to garner international awards and accolades, such as the prestigious Fukuoka Prize for Arts received by Hamzah Awang Amat in 2000. During her time at the academy, the late Khatijah Awang directed Anak Raja Gondang, Dewa Muda and other classics in the Makyung repertoire performed by young students of the academy. Unfortunately, both these great theatre personalities passed away in 2000.

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The efforts of the last three years in the comprehensive development of traditional dance syllabus were showcased in the traditional dance performance series, JENDELA, produced by the dance department: Jendela ASK [Akademi Seni Kebangsaan] 2002 was an eloquent and worthy testimony of the quality of ASK’s avowed mission statement to preserve the traditional arts in the country. (Yaanie, 2002).

2. Western Dance Training Ballet was introduced in the 1950s in Malaysia and modern dance was introduced in the 1970s. These forms of dance have grown from strength to strength. There are uncountable numbers of private ballet schools teaching the syllabus of the Royal Academy of Dance and the Imperial Society of Teachers of Dance. There have been a few dancers who, having obtained these qualifications, have pursued their dance training overseas at very reputable colleges. Among these are Tan Pek Khuan, Sylvia Yong, Andrew Pan, Catherine Yong, Ellie Lai, Lee Yupin, Choo Tee Kuang, Loke Soh Kim, Joseph Gonzales, Viknendren Sivalingam, Vincent Tan, Anthony Meh, Aman Yap, David Lee, Ungku Abdul Majid, Lena Ang, Aida Redza, Gan Chih Pei and Mew Chang Tsing. Some of these dancers then worked in musical theatre, professional ballet and contemporary dance companies in America, Asia and Europe. The 1990s saw a great many of them return and start their own schools in Malaysia. The Federal Academy of Ballet instituted a professional diploma course in 1992 but this has since closed, due to a poor response from students. The Ellie Zhou Ballet Studio began a professional dancers course in 1999, focusing primarily on ballet while River Grass Dance Academy also has an intensive dancers course. Contemporary dance and ballet have been taught at the academy and the development of some of the dancers in these years has been remarkable. While we are under no illusion that the majority of students would reach international standards in ballet performance, it is clear that the benefits of this training are greater strength and elevation, energy, flexibility, coordination and technique as well as a greater vocabulary of movement. The more prolific choreographers and prominent ballet and modern dance teachers teach at the academy, or have schools of their own. The healthy competition among the young dancers and increased performance opportunities have seen a marked improvement in the standard of ballet and contemporary dancers. The growing reputation of the academy is becoming felt in the dance scene, with dancers frequently performing for various choreographers. In 2001, an annual contemporary performance series, JAMU, was launched, featuring commissioned choreography by lecturers Mew Chang Tsing, Choo Tee Kuang, Marion D’Cruz, Suhaimi Magi, Loke Soh Kim, Gan Chih Pei and Joseph Gonzales. Many Malaysian dance critics noted this JAMU was a feast for the senses setting standards for Malaysian contemporary dance to aspire to. (Mohan Ambikaipaker, 2001)

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The close relationship of the academy with other prominent Malaysian choreographers, like Ramli Ibrahim, Aida Redza and the Venezualan dancer, Judimar Monfils, who have taught here from time-to-time when their schedules have permitted, has added to the landscape of modern dance training at the academy and greatly influenced a new generation of dancers in Malaysia. It was good to note that at the independent dance festival organized by MyDance Alliance Malaysia, (a non-profit organization to promote dance, affiliated to the international body with headquarters in New York), showcased 20 works by Malaysian artists. Of these, six were by the young graduates of Akademi Seni Kebangsaan in very modern works.

3. Choreography With the ability to tap into their cultural heritage and having studied modern choreographic techniques, Malaysian contemporary dance choreography has been the area of greatest improvement and achievement, making waves both locally and internationally. The number of dance productions has increased, as has the quality and standard of performance. Many dance companies have been invited to dance festivals and received good reviews for their work: Though it will understandably take years before the overall effect of such experiments are seen, some results have been relatively instant. In a dance production by the National Arts Academy, ‘Putera’ choreographed by Joseph Gonzales merged bharathanatyam, Chinese dance, and modern western leaps with traditional Malay music. (Veronica Shunmugam, the Sunday Star)

The exciting realization that our potential for development and exploration is enormous has led to a greatly developed choreography syllabus of the dance programme of the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan. This now incorporates improvisation classes and a slow but progressive development of composition and choreography. In 2000, the dance programme also instituted an annual 1-week choreography workshop for both students and practitioners from around Malaysia, called Sanggar Koreografi. The gathering of creative minds in such an environment is not unlike the Judson Church workshops, which encouraged a great deal of experimentation and exploration within the contemporary context and proved to be the nucleus of the post-modernist movement in modern dance, introducing concepts of contact improvisation and multidisciplinary creativity. Again, results are beginning to be seen at national dance competitions. With a multicultural approach to dance education, traditional forms, customs, and practices are second nature to numerous young dancers and form the core of their personalities. With the exposure to modern dance vocabulary, some students are able to filter information, decide what styles they relate to or how they wish to crystallize modern dance into their personal manner and style of moving and working. Some of the results have been remarkable, and to watch them in an improvisation session is truly fascinating. The success to date of a few graduates who have seriously ventured into choreography and performance is testimony to the eclectic training that they have received. The use of traditional elements to find new

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movement patterns and vocabularies has been seen in work presented at most Malaysian festivals. Rasuk, by Academy graduate, Syed Mustapha Syed Yasin, garnered him the award for Best Choreographer 2004 at the Boh Cameronian Arts Awards. This work has a Malaysian flavour, colour, taste and rasa. Other notable young choreographers are A. Aris A. Kadir, Mohd. Kamaludin Mohd. Daud, Azizi Sulaiman, Firdaus Mustapha Kamal and Shariful Azmi Suhaimi. Mohd. Arifwaran, a theatre/dance major of the academy, is one of the most adventurous graduates. He has been invited to work with dance companies in Germany, Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand and Japan. Other young choreographers from Batu Dance Theatre, under the artistic directorship of Vincent Tan Lian Ho, the Dua Space Dance Theatre (under the artistic directorship of Anthony Meh and Aman Yap) and the River Grass Dance Theatre (under the artistic directorship of Mew Chang Tsing) have also received acclaim and benefited from their eclectic training at their respective schools. The themes that have been chosen by the young choreographers to work with are diverse, challenging, and sometimes controversial, such as social justice, issues of identity, gender issues and human rights, reflecting the tremendous influence of their mentors. From religion and the role of women in society to comedy, these students who began at point zero are making a difference: Absolutely riveting. A real scorcher. Fantastic! Something tells me we are on to something good. (Siebel, 2000)

4. Challenges It has become clear that structuring a dance programme that develops traditional Malay dance progressively and in a logical manner is exceedingly difficult, when the traditions are so varied and diverse. Initially, the basis of traditional Malay dance education was the folk forms of joget, zapin, inang and asli. However, mastering these forms does not in reality prepare the dancer for the more intricate court dances or the folk dances of the indigenous groups of Sarawak and Sabah. The pertinent question would be, what basic skills, if any, are the common denominators in these varied forms and how, when they have been identified, relevant exercises could be devised and structured to develop a good traditional dancer. As such an experimental course, the ‘Introduction to Traditional Dance I and II’ was instituted in 2001 to explore similarities in an effort to create a workable and usable syllabus. The emphasis is on developing the sensitivity of the hands and eye line, postures for traditional dance, a ear for music and the inner quality so important for traditional dance. This work is still in its infant stages although there are early indications that this may become a definitive foundation for teaching traditional Malay dance. The question of authenticity is one that has to be grappled with, with since traditional Malay dance is one that has a verbal tradition and very little documentation or notation. The variations of each traditional dance form from one area or state in Malaysia to another and from one master to another are very evident and it is nearly impossible to know for certain

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which is most accurate. The dance department is currently working on instructional videos and books and formalizing methods of teaching and documenting Malaysian traditional dance based on the teaching of one master in particular, Syed Manap, who passed away a few years ago. When he was active in dance, Syed Manap taught scores of dancers at numerous institutions all over the country and was generally considered to have possessed a good, sound knowledge and understanding of traditional Malay dance. Dance education is not available in the primary or secondary school curriculum in Malaysia. The main thrust of most-developing nations is science and technology and Malaysia is no exception to this. As a result, arts education has taken a back seat, since both formal and informal exposure and training in the arts is an option only for those who have an interest, and possibly, the financial means to pursue it. Children love to dance and the Federal Academy of Ballet has approximately 2,000 students studying dance. This indicates a huge market for the arts, but the number of students choosing to pursue dance education at tertiary level is ridiculously small. This is unfortunate, as there are large numbers of naturally talented children constantly expressing themselves through dance at informal gatherings in the communities they come from and at events such as National Day celebrations. The value and benefits of arts/dance education in schools has been researched and well documented, especially in America, Australia and New Zealand. As Howard Garder, co-director of Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate School has stated, ‘To withhold artistic means of understanding is as much of a malpractice as to withhold mathematics’ (Gardner, 1991). Committed to this area of education, and through some private funding, the Dance Programme of the Academy has participated in exchange programmes that have helped tap into available resources and research dance education in the schools curriculum in other countries like Indonesia, Singapore, the United States of America, Australia, the United Kingdom and New Zealand. The long process to formulate a plan that will serve the Malaysian context and its implementation will be difficult as there are insufficient resources and expertise for it. In this country, where the diverse cultures have provided a huge reservoir for creativity, this is also the issue of primary concern when trying to incorporate dance education in a formal manner in the education structure, as the sensitivities of the various ethnic groups have to be taken into account. The process of training the mind and body in the framework of formal tertiary level for a professional dance education is overwhelming, for many enrol without knowledge and adequate mental preparation, and this is a contributing factor to the high failure rate. What sorts of jobs await the dancers who do succeed in completing (assuming it is ever complete) their training? Dance is an insecure profession anywhere in the world. Wages, medical benefits, career advancement and pension plans are almost nonexistent. The professional environment in Malaysia is filled with all those uncertainties and perhaps more so that most societies as it has to contend with social prejudice, especially that pertaining to male dancers. It is not a lucrative profession that is able to attract the young and talented, especially in a world where the economy is driven by technology and manufacturing-based businesses.

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There are state-run professional dance companies which function purely to provide entertainment during corporate events, visits by foreign dignitaries and to celebrate various festivals and even sporting events in the country. These are primarily traditional dance companies. The dancers generally begin with a paltry monthly salary of approximately RM670 (RM3.85 = approximately US$1). The Petronas Performing Arts Group, funded by the national petroleum company, Petronas, which also funds the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra, recognizes the diploma of the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan and gives the graduates of the academy a starting salary of approximately RM1,200 a month. Besides, payment for overtime incurred during rehearsals, they also receive a 2-month contractual annual bonus payment. This is the most lucrative dance contract for predominantly traditional dancers in the country. At the same time, Malaysia has a thriving commercial dance culture catering to product launches, corporate events and discotheques that employ numerous dancers who are stronger in jazz dance styles. Some are contracted to event management companies, while others are freelance performers. Their salaries are much better ranging, from RM1,500 to RM5,000 on the average per month. More contemporary dance performances are now being staged by the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan, MyDance Alliance (an independent and voluntary organization of arts practitioners and enthusiasts), the Actors Studio Theatre and the Dua Space Dance Theatre. The Actors Studio Theatre is the most successful and prolific theatre company, producing performances and managing two theatre spaces staging more that 300 events annually, owned by stalwarts Faridah Merican and her husband, Joe Hasham. This has possibly been the most influential company in changing the face of performing arts in Malaysia since the 1990s. It is surprising that there is only one professional contemporary dance company in the country – the Dua Space Dance Theatre, which was launched in 2003 and currently employs six full-time dancers, three administration staff and its two artistic directors, Anthony Meh and Aman Yap. Generally, although most performances are well produced and professionally presented, funding, and thus employment, is on a project-to-project basis. As in most countries, funding is extremely difficult to obtain. Recent performances by the Dua Space Dance Theatre, the Sutra Dance Theatre and the River Grass Dance Theatre have had good corporate support and made a financial profit. Contemporary dance companies are generally financially dependent on teaching and conducting workshops. This has its benefits as it provides a little more stability and is essential in training young talent and building an audience base. Post-performance training is not available in Malaysia. Should a dancer retire, the process and transition is not necessarily smooth and very little professional advice and help is available. In Malaysia, the Sarawak Cultural Village is a resort opened in 1990 by the Sarawak Economic Development Corporation, where the traditions and cultures of the indigenous people of Sarawak are showcased and made accessible to locals and tourists. This village has resident dancers and, having seen the necessity and importance of this type of training, has requested the assistance of the Dance Programme of the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan to create a study

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module that will equip them to move on to the next stage of their careers. The National Theatre, Istana Budaya, Lembaga Kebudayaan Sabah (the Sabah Cultural Board), Yayasan Johor (the Johore Foundation) and the Petronas Performing Arts Group have also sent senior dancers for short courses in teaching and choreography at the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan and other institutions.

5.

Recommendations

Obtaining approval to establish the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan as an institution of higher learning under the Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism and not the Ministry of Education has been a source of innumerable problems and obstacles. One of the biggest challenges to the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan has been to obtain accreditation for the diploma courses offered. As these are government ministries whose directives are tabled at cabinet level, the assumption was that cooperation and problem solving would be simple. However, nothing could be further from the truth. After 7 years of negotiating and tabling volumes of paper, in 2001 the Civil Services Department and the Ministry of Education finally accredited the courses offered by the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan, a time lag which perhaps has also been a contributing factor to the poor enrollment figures. The University Malaya, the University of Technology (MARA) and other local universities are proposing to offer full-time degrees in dance in the future. The National Accreditation Board that is responsible for assessing courses offered at private institutions of higher learning has now formed a board of experts in the field of the performing arts. In this panel, dance is represented by Prof. Dr. Mohd. Anis Mohd. Nor, Joseph Gonzales, Marion D’ Cruz and Ramli Ibrahim. The task of the panel is to try to standardize the various courses with respect to qualifications for intake, methods of assessment, careers and challenges with the impending globalization of education. Both public and private universities will be required to have their curriculum more accessible to potential students for purposes of comparison and to help them make informed decisions. It is possible that these changes in the tertiary education system will filter down to the more fundamental levels of education. Perhaps, then, the pursuit of dance training will appear more attractive. Despite these obstacles, a few cases stand out that give great hope to current and future students and the credibility of the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan. Khor Jee Fei, a harp major of the music department, was offered a place at the University of Sydney to pursue a masters programme in harp performance while Mohd. Kamaludin Mohd. Daud was accepted at the Hong Kong Academy of the Performing Arts. The academy is in discussion with the Western Australia Academy of Performing Arts at Edith Cowan University in Perth, Australia, with the idea of possibly initiating Malaysia’s first dance undergraduate degree programme, or other similar arrangements. These memorandums of understanding with various institutions of higher learning internationally are a good marketing tool for the academy and will, we hope, encourage dance and arts scholarships at the tertiary level in Malaysia. The

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direction taken by the dance programme at the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan and, indeed, dance in Malaysia as a whole, will depend on the outcome of the efforts of the Ministry of Culture, Arts and Tourism and other practising artists to persuade the Ministry of Education to include arts education in the schools curriculum. Serious consideration should also be given to the establishment of an arts council in Malaysia to channel funding to deserving artists and organizations and ultimately make careers in dance and the arts more attractive. The improvements in the arts environment in Singapore, for example, are astounding. These successful structures and support systems are crucial and must be implemented in the not-too-distant future of the development of dance at all levels of education.

Further Reading Gardner, H. 1991. The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How Schools Should Teach. USA: Basic Books. Gonzales, J. 2001. Evolution of Malaysian Contemporary Dance Choreography, p. 222. Singapore: World Dance Alliance, Gonzales, J. 2001. The Training of a Malaysian Artist. Australia New Zealand Dance Research Society. Inaugural Journal. Gonzales, J. 2000. Making contemporary dance in Malaysia. In Mohd. Nor, Mohd. Anis (ed.) Asian Dance – Voices of the New Millennium, pp. 53–64. University of Malaya Press. Gonzales, J. 2004. Choreography – A Malaysian Perspective. Akademi Seni Kebangsaan. Gonzales, J. 2004. In Contemporary Dance. Encylopedia of Performing Arts Volume 8. GhulamSarwar, Yousof (ed.). Singapore: Archipelago Press and Editions Didier Millet. Knappert, J. 1999. Mythology and Folklore in SEA. Oxford University Press. Miettinien, J.O. 1992. Classical Dance and Theatre in SEA. Oxford University Press. Ministry of Culture Arts and Tourism Tarian-Tarian Melayu. Kuala Lumpur. Mohd Nor, Mohd. A. 1993. Zapin; Folk Dance of the Malay World. Singapore: Oxford University Press. Mubin, S. 1983. Taman Saujana. International Book Service. Nasarudin, Mohd G. 1995. The Malay Dance. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Sabaruddin, S. 1993. Tarian-tarian Melayu. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Bakti Wira. Siebel, S. 2000. Critique for “Dance menscapes – when they Dance 3, Day and Night, May 15–21. Winstedt, R. 1961. The Malays: A Cultural History. Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Chapter 22

Theatre and Education: A Different Interpretation for India Subodh Patnaik

Natya Chetana is a theatre group in India founded under the leadership of Subodh Patnaik in 1986 when he started doing theatre with a research component to establish whether theatre could play a role in educating society. As a result, Natya Chetana became involved in researching traditional rural theatre, as well as the social development strategies and practices of non-governmental organizations and the impact of theatre on the audience as a process. The past 17 years have, therefore, yielded a harvest of rich experiences and breakthrough events in Natya Chetana. This article is in three parts. The first part discusses the theory and practice of community theatre and theatre for social development, as embodied in Natya Chetana. The second part discusses the value of theatre as an art form to social and community development and the third part explains the different processes needed for the success of a community theatre group.

1. Background: The Theory and Practice of Community Theatre When expanding the notion of education, Natya Chetana did not limit itself to classroom matters. It is well known that India is a country with a high level of illiteracy. Most of these people live in villages so remote that in many cases they have little or no opportunity of attending school. In the state of Orissa, to which I belong, there are 64 different tribes using at least 13 different major dialects, among the many minor ones. Cultural behaviour is consequently very far removed from a system of alphabets. There is still an uneven demand from the population for a formal school system for children. Traditionally, education was recognized as a way to obtain the skills needed to be able to live a better life. It was meant to encourage learners to analyse their skills and abilities, earn enough to support

Director, Natya Chetana ( Theatre for Awareness), N-3/230, Nayapally Lottery Plot area, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India-751015; Tel: + 91–674–555400; Fax: + 91–674–555300; e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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themselves and transmit their talents and beliefs to the next generation. This knowledge and skill was never delivered to the next generation at school, which is the contemporary model of education available today. The caste system revolved around the particular role you played in the community, like farming, gardening, leather working, cooking, cleaning and sweeping, temple affairs, protection and war-related jobs, health care, midwifery and so on. Sometimes I feel this may have been a better way of facilitating the transmission of the different skills and knowledge needed from one generation to the next than attending any school or institution. This division of roles was a self-sustaining and progressive way of transferring education. Within a family, the father was the teacher for his sons and mother was the teacher for her daughters. However, the control of these important and need-based skills was wrested from families by the dominant class and the society became trapped into consisting of three classes. The first produces the resources and is controlled by the upper class. In between is the middle class, which cannot be totally abolished as they supported the upper class. As the caste system came to be thought of in a negative light, so did the traditional indigenous method of education. This problem was addressed as a response to the politics of the caste system, and all students were given equal rights regardless of their caste, starting with sitting in a classroom next to each other. In this context, traditional theatre played a role in creating social values. The shape and behaviour of our society was influenced by performances in the theatre as the audiences were mostly unable to read. Artistic and cultural expression like drawing, painting, sculpting and acting has always been an effective medium in creating values in the minds of the audience. If we analyse traditional art, we recognize that the expression of art in rural society was a way of making life beautiful, thereby helping to build community spirit, peaceful attitudes and a lifestyle centred on spirituality. Nowadays modern technology has imposed the notion that the model of an ideal society comes from the west or the north and made people believe money is the answer to life. These dominant concepts are destroying the self-sustaining skill and knowledge of traditional education for life. After a long-term campaign against illiteracy and the declaration of a literacy drive by the government and nongovernmental organizations, we still observe cases in villages where parents strongly resist sending children to school. This is because the curriculum has little to offer in terms of its usefulness for daily life and because books are the principle media for teaching. In such a system, the teacher is a dictator and no scope is left for intimate interaction or the participation by both sides in the learning process. Finally, the competitive system of an examination-oriented education is aimed at establishing that one student is the best and another is the worst. In this system there is no scope for discovering or promoting the special features or unique qualities that a child may exhibit. This has discouraged the spirit of growth in them and their potential to support themselves. The poor people clearly see that children who have been educated at school behave differently from those who are brought up in their own culture. Such children are steered away from any reasonable possibility of earning an income and,

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instead sit around waiting for an opportunity to get a seat behind a table, which is a futile dream. When they fail to achieve this goal, as the number of office jobs available is limited, they end up roaming around the village as unemployed youth. Secondly, an education centred around books and notebooks is also a costly affair for a poor family struggling to live on a minimum wage. Their priority is simply to survive (a process that requires food, clothes and meeting household and community obligations) and there is nothing to spend on extras like school. In our society, there are two groups of people. One section wants to enjoy life more and more and to express their freedom as much as they can. The other section is more numerous but is struggling merely to exist. In this situation the theatre, which can be a matter of ‘joyful learning’ has turned into a simple ‘enjoyment exercise’ for two reasons. Firstly, the small group of people who want to enjoy life and have freedom to fulfil their wishes do not want to learn anything, so they promote the kind of theatre where they get nothing more than simple enjoyment through appreciating an ‘art’ or the power of controlling the medium in the name of popularizing art. Secondly, the bigger section is forced by their economical situation to give less priority to the evolution of a theatre that is capable of responding to and examining contemporary issues. As a result, the theatre has been unable to fulfil its didactic role. It has been taken over by the dominant class only so that they can use it for building up their own profits. This, therefore, has been the challenge for developmental organizations: to attract children to school and make the formal system a joyful learning experience. The other use of the theatre is to influence the mass audience to join together in analysing their present conditions and search for ways to answer their real problems. The theatre has been used in many ways by many different organizations to fulfil both of these aims. Those working in social development have used, for example, street theatre, process drama, role playing, applied drama, community theatre, theatre in education, theatre therapy and children’s theatre to achieve their goals. I here focus on Natya Chetana, as an example of the use of the theatre in social education. In 1986, Natya Chetana started up as a serious theatrical group to experiment with applying the theatre to social education. We named our group the ‘theatre for awareness’: natya, meaning the theatre and chetana, meaning awareness. The whole idea of social development has been conceived as a tree, where the roots are the minds of the people, the trunk is their united effort, the leaves are their attempts to achieve unity and the fruit is the result of this united effort. So finally, all share the fruit, whether it is sweet or sour. Using this image, Natya Chetana took on the role of watering the roots. This is an educational process. Natya Chetana believes that the aim of the education is to make the people aware of their lives and show them a way of resolving their problems through displaying the history of similar attempts, so that a person educated in this way does not repeat the same mistake. Natya Chetana was happy to discover that the role of the theatre and that of education are the same. Thus, Natya Chetana strongly believes that the theatre is itself an educational process. After this, we started studying the implications of the theatre.

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Natya Chetana has been trying to develop an effective method of theatre where the audience, whether they are children or adults becomes ‘aware’. In this line of reasoning, the actors can be either children or adults. We believe that society was created when human beings learned to communicate with each other. This communication facilitated progress, as communication always leads to analysis. Communication is a political process that affects social values and economic projects. Each medium of communication has been developed to feed the eyes and ears of those whom one wants to make aware through giving them information. The communication of information is enjoyable when it is accompanied by beauty. For example, we can appreciate a story even when not a single fact has been given. We can draw and paint without expressing our own feelings. Likewise, the theatre became a way of projecting ideologies or values for living a better life by enacting a story, so that serious matters can be imparted without strain or pain, just as a capsule of bitter powder can be concealed within a colourful sweet wrapper. Nowadays this idea is being explored in commercial advertising, in posters and on television and profits are made from it.

2. The Value of Community Theatre in Community and Personal Development Through our work in Natya Chetana we have made a number of observations which I have listed under the headings below.

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2.1. Community Development The theatre brings a sense of community, of coming together and unity. In one village there was a conflict among the villagers originating from the caste system of the Hindu religion. Natya Chetana volunteers initiated a process to perform an annual drama in the village. In this, we strove consciously to get actors and actresses from all castes. Through the processes of rehearsal the two factions gradually joined hands to make it a success. Because the community wanted to be the best performers in their own area they felt the need of unity. This solved the problem.

2.2. Social and Political Personal Development Theatre provides a platform to express whatever cannot expressed in naturally occurring situations. Natya Chetana had facilitated many theatre workshops among the community theatre performers to raise village issues through theatre. As the people take theatre to be a medium of entertainment, they have the confidence to criticize some of the characters of their village whose mannerisms and circumstances are portrayed in plays. In one case, the issue of sexual harassment of women workers in a cashew-processing factory was depicted in a play we facilitated. One of the women in the play was a worker in the factory who had faced this problem. Next day after the show, the villagers related to the subject and stopped working in that factory. This created a big scene. The factory owner searched for the Natya Chetana facilitators (one of whom was myself) wanting to kill them. However, the villagers helped us to escape from the anger of those exploiters.

2.3. Spiritual and Emotional Personal Development The theatre gives participants a sense of confidence. We have come across volunteers who were suffering from the nervousness. But just by participating in Natya Chetana plays, they have gained the confidence to face jobs interviews. Another example is our children’s theatre project in a tribal area. These tribal are mostly silent in the presence of people from the outside, and social activists in the area believe that the silence of the tribal is the root cause of their exploitation. Natya Chetana did some experimental theatre with these children, based on their own experiences. This led to the children becoming much more vocal, expressive and confident. The theatre develops positive thinking. Actors participate in the emotional flow of a play and enjoy the positive successes of the protagonist. In this way, plays teach actors to be optimistic and to resist becoming frustrated. The theatre gives actors the scope to experience pain on stage and to realize deep happiness at the end. The theatre encourages actors to become creative in real life. We have all made visits to different actors and experienced the uniqueness in way they decorate their

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living environment and their choice of clothing. They are somehow different from and more creative than ordinary people, and to be creative and innovative is the ambition of every actor, as theatrical expression is always creative. The theatre encourages actors to have a better understanding of mental and physical health issues. Acting is both a mental and a physical process. Being a member of a group secures the actors’ mental stability and their physical health is ensured through the physicality demanded in the theatre. Acting, thus, becomes a way of keeping mentally and physically fit. Other theatrical groups, as well as Natya Chetana, must have experienced this. It hardly ever happens that a show is cancelled because the actors have a health problem. The theatre provides eternal pleasure. This is the principal reason why the theatre is alive today. Classical Indian theory describes the nine rasas, which are the nine ways of providing eternal pleasure or emotion to audiences. The rasas refer to the method of presentation in order to achieve the highest degree of interaction between the performers and viewers at the mental level. To achieve this capacity, our artists continually practice their art. The theatre encourages a spiritual orientation. Acting is a process requiring a high degree of concentration. It is a game of trust. It is a practice of commitment or dedication. The artists have to forget who they are for a temporary period so as to be a part of the play. If we attain this goal, we achieve spiritual status. In India, traditional performers in villages are sometime worshiped as if they are the incarnation of God or the sacred spirits. There are many types of rituals that need to be performed when practicing and performing traditional theatre.

2.4. Cognitive Personal Development Actors learn how to express themselves clearly. By going through theatrical training actors learn how to use body language as well as projecting their voices, thus becoming better able to express themselves. Writers and directors are also tested as to whether they project their intentions clearly or not. The audiences become the judge. Theatre is a medium in which our communication skills are tested. Actors learn to reflect upon and analyse problems. Through the process of making a play, each of the participants engages in self-analysis, reflecting on the justification of their participation and their contribution to the play. Is it common for actors to ask the question ‘why’ at each moment on the stage during a performance. Actors learn to anticipate and plan for the future. The theatre is always a step towards visualizing the future. It carries the history of happenings of our society and projects on the stage, helping participants to be prepared for the future. This is how Mr. Agusto Boal interpreted the concept of Forum Theatre as being a rehearsal for the forthcoming revolution. Natya Chetana also underwent such an experience. In October 1999 it produced a play called Sapana Ra Sapan that had showed a cyclone at the climax of the play, where the hero loses his beloved wife. Just two weeks after our performance, the super cyclone of 1999 happened in the very same

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area where we had held our show. Working in the theatre always entails imagining possible future events and their logical consequences. Actors learn how to make life choices. Theatre is a reflection of life. When one enacts past or future events in the artificial space of the stage and when one learns the methods of a theatre, a value system is created in that person. We have examples of great saints and philosophers who have recognized that the theatre is an instrument for creating values or choices. A theatre practitioner chooses a life different from that of the mainstream and may also become a role model for others to emulate or follow. Natya Chetana has become convinced that in the process of social reform careful preparation is needed to accomplish changes in the minds of those who want changes in themselves and their social or political situation. Then they have to try to change, not as separate individuals but rather by a united effort. When the change is finally accomplished, everybody shares in the achievement equally. So, preparing people mentally for change is in practice the foundation for any successful change. A building endures only in relation to the stability of its foundation. That is why the role of theatre in social reform is crucial. The theatre is not simply a tool that conveys educational information, like a lifeless poster or a printing machine. It is a dynamic art form, which is a live performance; an interesting process of communication combined with aesthetic beauty to motivate the audiences towards a belief, which is projected through the story or the subject of the play. Thus, the theatre is a unique educational process. So, Natya Chetana has taken theatre to be much more than an art or a simple medium of expression. Natya Chetana performs plays by taking the community into its confidence so that the community owns it. It takes into account communication, indigenous art,

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social purpose, joyful learning or education for building awareness. Natya Chetana has developed its method after having experienced many successes and failures. Theatre nowadays is still performed with the objective of simply entertaining, or with the aim of innovation for simply aesthetic reasons. But Natya Chetana wishes to stage performances where the audiences are attracted by the subject matter of a well-made artistic piece. A socialistic art! The audiences should not leave, simply appreciating an innovative presentation or merely being entertained. Rather, they should want to go home and think about the subject, question their friends, or become silent and reflective, because the subject matter has struck them as relevant to their lives and circumstances.

3. Steps for Mounting a Successful Community Theatre Group The following are the processes that Natya Chetana follows:

– Choose the target place and audience where the play is going to be performed. – Identify, check out and negotiate with possible agents of social reform in that

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area who will ensure that follow-up activities are made after the production. These activists need to be consulted on the subject of the play and to be taken into the performing group’s confidence so they will treat the issue that the play deals with as a priority. Go to the people who are the target audience and live with them for a period to learn about them; their life, their culture, their stories and idioms, their accents,

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their visual art and their own songs, dances and plays. The Natya Chetana group spends at least 15–30 days undertaking this cultural survey and exposure: Come back with the experiences gleaned and create a performance from the ingredients discovered during the observation period. The theatre group creates the main story line, developing a situation of conflict based on observations of an issue which has been selected and identified as a priority. Then they use the forms of costume, properties, musical instruments, dance movements indigenous to the area together with inspiration from the traditional theatrical forms of the area, if there are any. The overall idea is not to copy whatever traditional theatrical forms that exist there, but to improvise on the indigenous form and use it to create the basis of an innovative dramatic presentation, which may be taken as a modern concept. Even though it intends to transmit a message through the play, Natya Chetana never wishes to project advice or solutions to problems in people’s lives. However, it wishes to signal that the community can recover from their individualistic approach and become united to lead a full community life. Bring the theatre on bicycles to the community. Natya Chetana is a cyclist group that may cover hundreds of kilometers on one expedition. The furthest distance we covered was 700 kilometers for putting on 70 performances, spending 15 nights in different villages along the way. In this connection, I should mention that initially, cycling to nearby villages to put on performances was due to financial constraints. But when Natya Chetana once used a motor vehicle with the support of a government grant, the children of one remote village got into a squabble because they wanted to sit in the driver’s seat, and then the whole villagers started fighting at the parents’ instigation. In another place the village agent of the political party in power in the state government at the time started taking credit for our work by claiming that our theatre was a gift by his government. This led to conflict between the two agents. Using a vehicle established that Natya Chetana had been given money by the government. Finally, people started thinking that we were employees of some institution and we had come to perform for our own profit. All these unwelcome responses were due to our using a motor vehicle. Since then the possibility of using a vehicle to transport the theatre turned into the strategic use of bicycles instead. We have observed that using bicycles helps greatly in the whole process. Perform in an unconventional way, such as staging a performance during the day when potential audiences are available, arriving without notice rather than calling audiences by beating drums and not performing on conventional stages or spaces, or using conventional forms. Document the audiences’ reaction (calculating the size of the audiences from time to time, taking photos and videoing them without their knowledge, placing secret observers in the audience to listen to comments and discussions and record them in pocket tape-recorders. These audiovisual records help in analysing the body language of the audiences when post-production reflections are done. Take utmost care to attract all attention possible during the performances. Encourage dialogue and debate among the viewers without expecting clapping or simple praise for the performance. Natya Chetana believes that clapping after

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a show is a symbol of failure, as clapping is not indigenous behaviour. The play aims to create the sensation experienced in daily life when there are conflicts, where there is no ‘happy ending’ or solution to the problem. The aim is therefore to leave the audiences dissatisfied with the ending climax and to encourage them to search for answers for the protagonist. Avoid imposing our own presence as superior to the audience or giving any advice, or showing any way in the performance any way in which the people’s problems could be solved. Reflect from time to time in between performances on ways of improving the presentation through improvisation to achieve a better impact. After returning from the theatrical expedition, document the play by writing up its final shape. Keep in touch with previously chosen collaborating agents like local voluntary agencies, youth clubs, women’s clubs and school teachers to follow up on the responses created through the shows. Encourage the villagers to develop local theatre action groups to which Natya Chetana is prepared to impart skills.

If you look carefully into this process, you see it has a strong community orientation. We initially named this community-oriented education theatre Psycho Theatre (which aims at disturbing the psychology of the audiences, creating mental conflicts), and then changed into the title to CYCO Theatre by changing only the spelling, which incorporated the ‘cycle’ as part of the identity of Natya Chetana. This helped us to be identified with the grassroots villagers in remote pockets who can be reached only by bicycle. Natya Chetana performs theatre in the cities in the same spirit, but using a different style of presentation which is ‘Intimate Theatre’. This is a style improvised to wean city people from an addiction to the conventional proscenium theatre and encourage them to move back towards their indigenous community theatre, as well as experiencing the theatre as a process of learning and analysis for a better

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life. ‘Intimate Theatre’ is performed in unusual intimate spaces for limited audiences and in a style where no modern or electric lighting and effects are used. Natya Chetana also has tried to make an impact on school children by adopting ten tribal villages. From 1992 to 1995, Natya Chetana collaborated with the Singha Bahini Youth Club in the Dharuadihi area of Sundergarh district. That was at a time when there was an ongoing debate on the nature of social development, expressed through the slogan, ‘Are the poor poor because they are silent, or are the poor silent because they are poor?’ We wanted to give a voice to school-going tribal children. We wanted to make them confident about talking, to improve the quality of their voices and speech and to encourage them to analyse the sociopolitical and economical status of their society. We thought theatre would be a useful way of achieving this and a good way of helping the rising generation. In the first year of the project, the parents did not want their children to visit the children’s theatre centre started by Natya Chetana. In the second year, the children’s who attended our children’s theatre centre became vocal and confident in the classroom and they started getting better results than their fellows in their examinations. In the third year, the villagers then started pushing their children to go to the theatre centre and be selected. Finally, the people decided to own the process and continue these centres on their own. In the centres the children put on regular performances. The idea was not to provide any prewritten scripts for the plays but through the animators of the centres, we facilitated plays created with the participation of the children. The annual festival of ten plays in the ten centres demonstrated the success of our efforts. The local youth club became prominent and is now being recognized as a social development organization. However, the educational department of the state government has never conceived of theatre as an important feature of the educational system. This is the case not only within the state but also in the whole country as well as in South Asia. People still think of theatre as medium of simple enjoyment and education as the opposite. However, Natya Chetana has experienced theatre as an educational process and there is still a long way to go. There are interesting areas yet to explore, such as theatre in the school, learning the curriculum through theatre, theatre as a projection of voice and feeling, theatre as a right to expression and theatre as a therapy.

Chapter 23

The Black Box Exercise An Arts Education Model from Hong Kong Yuewai Wong

1. The Black Box Contains Records of Flying When we open the black box, it is often after a big disaster. The black box helps us piece together the puzzle and solve the riddle. Each of us has a black box inside us. It contains the record of our experience our secrets and our hidden explosions. We wait for a disaster so that others can piece together the puzzle and solve the riddle.

The highlight of the multimedia theatre performance, Four Grand Inventions, created by Danny Yung in 1999 was a short piece of creative writing. In this performance, a man in black presented the audience with a black box. Once the box was opened, a series of thought-provoking images emerged on stage in a well-articulated and artistic manner. These images intrigued the audience and encouraged them to enter the black box. We realized then that curiosity was the driving force behind the desire to open up the unknown, in this case everybody’s own black box. On the other hand, a disciplined and creative approach was required to make the inventions or ideas materialize.

2. What do You Understand by a ‘Black Box’? The orange box inside an aircraft or the psychologist’s understanding of the individual human brain? A black box theatre, a TV set or a computer that links people to the other parts of the world? A classroom, a school and a school of thought or a collection of visions and a collective vision? When people were simply presented with the words ‘black box’, they came up with a bunch of associations

e-mail: [email protected] L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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and images from various contexts. The black box was meant to provide a platform for expanding people’s curiosity, improving their ability to make associations, to be imaginative and to develop the spirit of self-motivated exploration. From this point, the black box exercise arts education scheme was born.

3. An Exercise and an Arts Education Experiment The black box exercise is an arts education scheme initiated in 1995 by Zuni Icosahedron, a Hong Kong art collective founded in 1982. This model employs installation art creatively to enable young people who are artistically and creatively under-served in the existing education curricula and environment to acquire the tools and concepts for learning and for creative expression and communication. By installation art, we mean most of the means of expression learnt inside and outside the school. We added to this an active component by demanding that students actually experience the subject matter they are learning or studying. Installation art refers to a schematic curatorship that involves a whole set of actions including planning, research, decision making, execution, evaluation and critique. For young participants, the miniature scale of the black box space 30 cm × 30 cm × 30 cm makes it easier to handle and more focused in exploring sitespecific idea of the installation arts. At the same time, other generic skills such as decision making, problem solving and independent critical thinking are acquired. Participants are given opportunities to experience being an artist, a curator and a critic. The model awakens young people’s awareness of the self as well as their relationship with the physical, social and intellectual world. Since its inception in 1995, as the black box exercise model became stronger and stronger conceptually and educationally over time, it has also become more widespread in terms of the number of cities visited in the world. The black box exercise has been partnered by invitations from more than 100 schools and youth centres in Hong Kong and more than 60 overseas, including Asia and Europe. The total number of participants involved in the black box exercise activities has exceeded 150,000. The developmental goal of the black box exercise is to multiply a replicable learning model with local partners in different places in the world. The black box is a self-contained learning environment consisting of a wooden box with a uniform external appearance that serves as a miniature gallery measuring 30 cm × 30 cm × 30 cm, coupled with a series of workshops that helps develop participants’ interest in learning and motivation. During this process, young people are provided with the chance to learn from artists in creative workshops and to exchange ideas with them. They can then use this experience to explore their own interests, experiment with communicative expressions and acquire skills. After having gone through this process, each young person creates and curates an installation art exhibit inside the wooden black box for public exhibition. A collection of the finished black box creations (usually around 200

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or more each time) under a commonly agreed theme is exhibited in a sitespecific installation environment created by artists and participants together. The black box exercise is mainly designed and created for young people, yet parents, teachers, artists and those from all walks of life have been invited in to bring the arts education project to the community and society as a whole. Family and community participation brings in different levels of resources, including knowledge, expertise, experience and diversity from outside the school. This all enhances the ability of young people and students both to learn and to participate in real-life situations.

4. An Attempt to Define and Redefine Arts and Education The original title, the ‘Black Box exercise’, was derived from a Chinese proverb that means ‘operating in the dark’. This is a catch phrase commonly used by the populace in criticizing public institutions in Hong Kong, which are found to be making decisions ‘in a black box’, that is, in an opaque bureaucratic system or even in a conspiracy. When applied to an art project, it may become a critique of incestuous and provincial practices within the arts community. The black box is opaque and mysterious, but rich in content. It needs redeployment. The black box is an enclosed space, a conceptual frame that defines what is excluded and what is included. It circumscribes and delimits ideas, content and actions. Seen positively, a black box constitutes a system of intentions and actions that are directed by the players and are both deconstructed and reconstructed. As Prof. Siu King-Chung, who, together with Danny Yung and the author of this article, is a founder of the black box exercise, remarks, opening the black boxes or advocating the concept of transparency may mean the birth of new orders and systems. To enrich the existing education system and extend this enrichment to society at large, the black box exercise model has developed and advocated a series of conceptual and pedagogical approaches that can be reflected and redeployed by individuals.

5. The Stages of Black Box Activities The black box exercise is carried out through a number of interconnected activities. Firstly, an exhibition of black box installation works created by artists is held to stimulate, inspire and to create a dialogue with potential participants. Then interdisciplinary lecturers and a workshop are held with the following aims: To facilitate the establishment by students and participants of an interest-driven self-motivated study plan. To share and exchange information, views and experience between them and artists working in different genres. To allow students to explore, experiment with and experience each individual

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medium with an aid of the artists, teachers and the black box curator/facilitator. Finally, a collaborative exhibition is held where students and participants display the process of their activities and their black box miniature installation art pieces. The installation environment of the public exhibition is jointly created by students and artists. After this, an evaluation workshop is held where participants reflect on their own work as critics, curators and policy makers. Future activities are intended to include the development of notions of sustainability and continuity; a lifelong approach to learning and an appreciation of the virtual community and a Website gallery.

6. Black Box Creative Concepts in Relation to Arts Education and Globalization Culture 6.1. An International Arts Education Curriculum The creative concepts discussed below that have been developed over time serve as the foundational content of the black box scheme and are designed to enhance and enrich participants’ learning experiences. These concepts are introduced and presented by artists and workshop facilitators for participants to discuss and explore according to their own interests and the project timeframe. Explorations of the concepts in diverse dimensions are carried out with the participants in different cities or in countries with different cultural and historical backgrounds. These concepts have provided the backbone of our attempt to merge arts education and arts-in-education. Being a forward-thinking scheme, black box concepts are open for interpretation and change when the need arises.

6.2. Creativity on a Fair and Common Ground Every participant, whether an artist or a non-artist, has the same black box platform to learn and to create with. Young participants are treated with the same respect as any adult individual. Whether the participant is a famous artist or an important public figure or simply an average student, in the black box exercise people are people, and all are given exactly the same environment in which to express themselves. This sounds a bit like attending a public examination where everybody is asked to provide a solution to the same set of questions, but the exercise is not intended to be competitive at all. It is based instead on a conscious attempt to challenge the name-oriented nature of artistic creation and to provide an opportunity to re-examine the core values of any individual in society. Hence, in the final

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exhibition, name plates, titles or any other information are not attached to the black box exhibits; which all look the same until they are opened by the audience. All this information is provided in the programme notes in which a location map is enclosed. The term ‘non-artist’ used here is meant to start a discussion on how conventional concepts and values might lead people to absorb values or ‘truths’ unthinkingly and without examination. The black box exercise sees that creativity belongs to everybody. It is not exclusive to ‘artists’.

6.3. Inclusion Versus Exclusion All the participants are invited to create an installation art piece inside the black box only, so that outside remains uniformly black. When defining what is inside we are defining what is outside at the same time. This ‘back and forth’ thinking is not restricted to a two-way process: it evokes a web of complex analytical and intellectual activities. Designing a curriculum in the educational context inevitably defines what knowledge is relevant and what is not. Hence the inclusion and exclusion issue extends to addressing the issue of who defines what in a learner-focused approach. In the global context, the idea of inclusion and exclusion also extends to questions of nationalism versus internationalism that are found in world history, and how racism and Eurocentric policies matter to us in this globalization era. It brings in the idea of the differences between ‘mine’ and ‘yours’. Why do we need to have nations and national governments? How has this come about and what good has it brought us?

6.4. Freedom and Its Limits As in any other scheme or project, rules are set for the black box exercise. As young people tend to rebel against rules and regulations, this gives them the chance to use their attention and energy to discuss the idea of freedom and its limits. ‘Knowing one’s own limitations in order to be free to create alerts in young participants to be more aware of the reality that circumscribes our actions, to look at things critically and learn to translate these limitations into a framework or guidelines that help us define a clearer goal for our actions. The discussion will usually start from the question: Do I have total freedom to do whatever I want? If a teacher gives a piece of paper to a student in an art class and asks him to draw whatever he wants, does this mean the student is free to draw? The answer is not simple. Not to mention the values, ethnic and personal relationship issues involved, there are clearly limitations within which the student must work. Among these are the size of the paper and its texture, the type of materials offered to draw with and the command itself, ‘draw something’ are all conditions or limitations to freedom in this simple task. Does total freedom exist?

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Student participants are encouraged to train themselves to confront and tackle such confines and view things from different angles, then channel this knowledge into the actions required to create a world (a black box exhibit) that they would like to see or change, but now with a better knowledge of its confines (the rules of the game).

6.5. Individuality Versus Collective Creativity We all have our own history, background, family and beliefs that make each of us unique. Each miniature installation artwork inside a black box is displayed in an overall installation exhibition containing many individual black box exhibits. All participants are informed of the final exhibition arrangement that will show this collection of black box exhibits together. Participants are encouraged to contribute both ideas and the labour for the final exhibition. This raises the participants’ awareness of the connection between themselves and other members of the black box community in the same exhibition. It reinforces the idea that ‘No man is an island’ and in some occasions, it provides isolated individuals with a way of entering into a community or society.

6.6. A Bottom–Up Approach to Developing a Civil Society Everyone has the same black box as everyone else to express themselves. Metaphorically, the black box exercise scheme serves as a mechanism to collect views and opinions from individuals at the ‘bottom’, then communicate them collectively to the ‘top’, such as the teacher, the school principal, the city mayor or the country president. It helps to raise questions and awareness of the appropriateness of the top–down approach to governance in a modern civil society. The black box scheme is an enjoyable, creative, simple and clear model in which young people can learn about and canvass their own concerns in any particular situation. In this case, the facilitator or teacher’s role is an important factor affecting the depth of this learning experience. This discussion on democracy also sheds light on the issue of the equality of education. Is everyone equal in our existing education system, society and the world?

6.7. Art Versus Institutions and Systems As a miniature gallery, the black box is created to reflect, evaluate and critique the existing gallery system and curatorial system – asking questions such as who can be an artist? Who can be a curator? Why is the gallery system as it is? What makes the curator so powerful in deciding what to show and whom to be included? In creating

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a black box exhibit, participants are encouraged to compare every conceptual and practical detail between their own ‘black box gallery’ and an average gallery in their own society. In this exercise, participants will come up with a series of questions and investigations on the foundation and formation of existing institutions and systems. In turn, participants become more able to reflect, evaluate and critique, and even more importantly, to create new systems and institutions that match their own ideal vision. Diversity seems to be the keyword in these conclusions.

6.8. Form and Content of Representation and Communication The black box is a space for thinking, imagining, examining, commenting and more importantly communicating – the form of the black box and the content of the black box exercise are closely related to each other. This demonstrates to young participants the complex relationship between form and content.

6.9. Cross-Community/Cross-Discipline and Cross-Culture To begin with, the black box idea adopted the mixed-media characteristics from installation artworks to break down the categories of the different means of expression in order to motivate students. As the black box scheme grew and after having collaborated with different partners, the idea of ‘crossing’ has emerged to generate new intellectual dialogues and foster different levels of exchanges. This can be adapted to address the different needs and concerns of different ‘communities’. In fact, this development provides participants with the chance to examine and break down various kinds of boundaries, such as geographical, racial and conceptual boundaries. The black box exercise creates an awareness of the political, economic, scientific and cultural interdependence that exists across national and cultural borders. It acknowledges the complexity of the world’s peoples, including their differences, similarities, conflicts and connections. This learning experience helps prepare young people for higher education or future growth.

6.10. An International Arts Education Curriculum The black box exercise has developed into an inspiring, proactive and effective approach in schools for students to involve themselves in an ‘ownership-based’ creative and communication process to learn about learning, the arts, society, themselves and life in this world and beyond. Combining a pedagogical and theoretical approach with a focus on the learning experience, the black box exercise is an open, organic curriculum that is rich in content that calls for the infusion of a global perspective into all disciplines and at all grade levels.

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7. Black Box Exercise Principles 7.1. Hands-On Activities The black box exercise lets young people carry out projects that are related to their own interests. It encourages them to obtain their own experience first-hand, instead of taking in knowledge or truth from other sources without questioning. They are encouraged to do research and development on the basis of their own experience and this skill is expected to help them throughout their lives.

7.2. Project-Based Learning The black box exercise attempts to include a wider spectrum of individuals than normal and may thus be extended to international exchanges. It is carried out on a project basis with a specific target group of participants every time, such as students in the same class or school, young people who have joined it as an extra-curriculum activity after school or outside school, and even people from all walks of life who are participating in a cultural or art festival. The participants are encouraged to join in and contribute to the whole process from the start. In most cases, the theme is set up among the project initiators to achieve a particular purpose or objective. The theme is presented to the participants and discussed before consensus is reached. In some cases, sub-themes are set to address the participants’ needs. Once the theme has been agreed, the participants initiate and carry out research. Teachers and artists provide the background, inspiration and direction. The individual or group presents the research findings for discussion in the presence of fellow participants, artists, teachers and possibly parents or the project or workshop facilitator. A series of workshops are then led by artists in the disciplines that are believed to be relevant sources of inspiration, skills and knowledge. In these workshops, participants are given the chance to raise questions, concerns and views for discussion. Most of the time, the artists serve as facilitators to provide suggestions for sources of information and the inspiration for participants’ further exploration, instead of giving them solutions. Participants then work on their own or in groups to realize the idea inside the black box, either at school or at home. The finished black boxes are collected at school or sent direct to the exhibition venue with an information sheet from the participant(s) describing the facts, personal feelings, reflections and comments of participants on the creation of the black box as well as on the exercise that they have undergone. All the data that show the process are compiled into a booklet for exhibition-goers to read at the venue.

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They are also encouraged to contribute ideas and labour to prepare the sitespecific installation of the public exhibition. They are all invited to attend and officiate at the opening of the public exhibition. The exhibition-goers are also requested to take up a participatory approach. Participants are invited to open up the uniform-looking black boxes to discover, one at a time, the individual universe inside each black box. During the participants’ visit to the exhibition, a discussion session is organized for them to share, review and evaluate their work and for further inspiration and action.

7.3. Role Playing in Real Time Taking part in black box exercise scheme, young people and participants experience different roles such as that of the artist, the critic and the curator, first in the workshops during the process and then later in the real-life situation. They learn to work as artists who create their own installations by applying the skills learned and ideas developed in a variety of two-dimensional and three-dimensional media and with different kinds of media, developing and refining their visual ideas in response to a range of motivations. They learn to work as critics who develop their understanding and skills by commenting on and interpreting the meaning in their own work and the work of others, and by carrying out a contextual examination of how art is created and viewed. Finally, they learn to work as curators who form a thematic collection through understanding the context and investigating the collective values and purposes of different artists whose works are included in the exhibition. The black box exercise also enables participants to arrive at a deeper knowledge of the self and with such matters as their relationship with local culture, sociopolitical contexts and the environment. By going through the above role-play exercises both in workshops and in real life, we therefore get a better understanding of the nature and structure of a piece of art and of an exhibition as a whole. We also get a better grip of the art of communication in relation to individuals, communities and societies.

7.4. Community Sharing Different communities have been formed through different black box projects. The black box exercise has built a platform or a community where participants, including exhibition-goers from all over the world, can relate to one another through the whole participatory experience they have undergone. In short, the iconic symbol of the black box has developed a collective memory on creativity. This is going to be strengthened by the development of another community in the virtual world as the black box exercise Web site is about to be built to encourage continuous participation, inspiration and the sharing of ideas around the globe.

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7.5. Replicablity of the Model The black box exercise can provide the expertise for and partnership with any interested organizations all over the world. Each organization may personalize the scheme by adding its own unique local flavour or to address specific needs and concerns with our collaboration.

8. The Black Box Exercise Characteristics and Approaches 8.1. Installation Art The black box exercise provides participants with the opportunity to become artists, critics and curators instead of being the passive viewers and consumers of the arts. By introducing a ‘scaled-down’ version of installation art, we encourage students to express themselves in whatever way they find comfortable. The inviting nature of installation art excites the students’ imagination and creativity. It liberates them from the existing skill-based school curriculum that suffocates their motivation to create, especially when they are not skillful in sketching and drawing. In most cases, such students are easily discouraged and can be labelled artistic and creative underachievers, even though they might have many ideas to express. At the end of the day, the student participants who enjoyed this accommodating means of expression gained self-confidence. One of the key characteristics of installation art is the relationship between the space for creative work and the specified space. In dealing with a three-dimensional space produced by the two-dimensional planes of the black box, students are encouraged to learn and to explore the subject matter in both abstract and actual terms. For instance, students may make use of a photo or a drawing to accompany everyday objects to tell a story or express an idea. Mixing different media in the process of creation, students are engaged in abstract, conceptual and cognitive activities. In even the simplest expression, such as putting a single found object into a rather small three-dimensional space, students become sensitive to the relationship between the actual physical space and the idea to be expressed by placing the object in it. Furthermore, as only one opening is allowed for each black box and it has to be opened before the individual creative work can be seen, students are required to deal with perspective and to take into account audiences’ expectations and their viewing experience when they open the box. Despite the fact that the black box is a three-dimensional space, there is no restriction to students who want to use it in a two-dimensional manner, for instance, to seal the internal space by putting a piece of paper or picture on top of it. Students may also mount a picture on one internal wall of the black box. In this case, the depth of the internal space has already altered the appearance of the picture from the way it is seen when mounted on a wall, as it usually is in a gallery. And more importantly, the

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student can see and tell the difference and thus own the aesthetic and learning experience from start to finish. Using a well-made wooden black box as a container for the art work enhances the overall visual presentation of the work. On one hand, it makes the student participants feel the importance of the event and thus, of their own importance as individuals who are respected. On the other hand, it shifts the focus of both students and exhibition-goers from treating the installation as a piece of craft to appreciating it as an individual’s creative expression. Far from being disparaged, the skills in the making and executing of the ideas shine all the more brightly in the black box.

8.2. Workshop Based The workshop is the key component in the black box scheme. During these workshops, students carry out a series of learning activities in the company of artists, teachers and black-box workshop facilitators. There are no fixed or predetermined objectives; instead, a number of tasks are set to facilitate the learning process. Students learn to formulate their own plan of study using the theme that has been decided. The black box curator or workshop facilitators set up meetings with the artists and teachers in advance to familiarize them with the concepts and execution of the project. Another round of meetings is held to discuss the details of the preparation of the workshops. Artists who have had experience in and an aptitude for working with young people are preferred.

8.3. Artists’ Involvement The artists’ involvement in the black box exercise scheme brings the holistic learning experience into real life in every sense. Students are no longer confined to a controlled environment. The school curriculum can be enlivened and widened instantly by channelling these valuable community resources. Interaction with artists makes the art real to students and they no longer think of it as a detached and abstract activity.

8.4. Ownership Giving a well-made black wooden box to the participants aims to enhance their physical and conceptual ownership of their work and increases their motivation and responsibility towards the work. This is similar to the difference between buying a home and renting one: where the motivation to decorate, maintain the space and invite guests to visit is likely to vary widely in each case.

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8.5. A Cross-Regional Exchange Model and Network The black box exercise had been partnered with different arts and academic institutions in different parts of the world. Each experience is unique. To highlight this, I offer a brief account below of the work done in different cities.

8.5.1. Tokyo, Japan Workshop participants from diverse backgrounds like teachers, students, parents, art administrators, visual artists and theatre people came together to talk. Despite the fact that the participants came from different walks of life and different backgrounds, during the workshop they were often reluctant to behave differently from each other. Since being ‘the same’ as others is commonly known and accepted social behaviour, the workshop was designed to loosen them up and provoke them to reveal their true colours in the black box. Significant differences between their pre-workshop black box ideas and their post-workshop black box artwork demonstrated that our aim had been achieved. Problems of interpretation and the reserved manner of the Japanese participants made communication difficult. However, the theatre artists’ attempt to create trust with each participant individually through games that required body contact and confrontational facial expressions helped them to relax and some black box creations were found to be quite outrageous.

8.5.2. Macau, China A cross-generational exchange was attempted in Macau since the backgrounds of the participants, especially in terms of their age, varied widely. There were two groups of participants; adults in an evening degree course in arts administration and junior high school students. The theme set aimed to enhance awareness, interest and communication between the generations. Cross-generational exchange was encouraged by the two groups discussing their work-in-progress with each other and in the discussion and sharing session held at the opening after all participants had opened each box. Informal exchanges among the participants who helped to prepare of the final exhibition also took place during the preparations. In general, the student participants of both groups showed a keen interest in the project and a strong sense of ownership of their black box creation. This may be because of a total lack of participatory art activities such as this in this city. In addition, the teachers’ strong art background and committment reinforced the students’ motivation. For instance, teachers with a solid painting background cast a significant influence on the distinguished painterly effects shown in the black boxes created by their students. However, this did not stop the students’ quest for artistic advancement or exploration. On the contrary, with the asset of such outstanding drawing technique

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as the foundation, integrated with the cross-media concept, their black box art pieces excelled in sophistication. This observation reinforced the idea that mixedmedia workshops help to inspire students participants.

8.5.3. Berlin, Germany As well as artists, professionals from the industry were involved in carrying out workshops and contributing to the display of the final exhibition. This helped to make the whole process of workshops and final exhibition real. It also provided a sophistication that was a counter reference to the ‘naïve’ black box creations, so that both participants and exhibition-goers became aware of the process from naïvity to sophistication. Comprehensive planning and execution could be achieved since an established art institution collaborated with the project. The achievement of this project thus went beyond just being a student project. It set a new standard of its kind. A CDRom in three languages was produced and this creative documentation provided another space for all participants for their future development as well as opening up the possibility of the virtual black box project on the Web.

8.5.4. Taipei, Kaohsiung and Five Other Cities of Taiwan An alliance among seven cities in Taiwan on the same project enhanced the exploration of a countrywide perspective of the whole culture of the state as well as local regional cultures. When black boxes of the same city were grouped and showed next to other cities, the regional curatorial concept coincided with the ‘individual versus collectivity’ black box concept. Having the chance to work with the national contemporary arts museum enhanced the positive image that art by children and young people is worthy of respect. It coincided with another black box concept that of ‘creativity on a fair and common ground’ in that everybody was given the same platform for creating a work of art and expressing ideas. In this case, the ‘platform/container’ was not only the black box but the national museum that was being shared. This also helped to demystify the impression that museums are made only for well-known artists.

8.5.5. Copenhagen, Odense, Aalborg and Arhus of Denmark Over the years, our Danish partners have collaborated closely with the black box exercise. All the experiences obtained in the cities described above have been tried out in Denmark. Since Denmark is one of forerunners in educational theory, today they are also the most dedicated to exploring new pedagogical methodologies and concepts that enhance students’ learning abilities in every way. Hence, a close partnership with the local education sector has been established. Together with the black box curator, participating teachers from Denmark were most committed to

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the development of the programme by the virtue of their innovative educational system. After many years, the black box exercise has been formalized and is being tested out as the basis of the curriculum for different grades in some schools.

8.6. Zuni Icosahedron (Founded in 1982, an Independent Cultural Collective) In the last 20 years, this membership-supported organization has played a vital role in developing new frontiers for culture in Hong Kong and abroad. Zuni has produced more than 100 original productions of alternative theatre and multimedia performances and has been active in video, sound experimentation and installation art, as well as in arts education, arts criticism, arts policy research and international cultural exchange. In 1999, Zuni was awarded a 3-year administration grant from the Hong Kong Arts Development Council to facilitate its operation. Entering the new millennium, in liaison with other cultural organizations, Zuni co-produced the cross-city cultural festival, ‘Festival of Vision – Hong Kong/Berlin’, held in both Berlin and Hong Kong in 2000, available online at www.zuni.org.hk.

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Section VIII

Conclusion

Chapter 24

Conclusion A Vision for the Future Lindy Joubert

1. Valuing the Outcomes of Educating in the Arts ‘Educating in the Arts – the Asian Experience’ presents essays on the benefits of the arts across a range of educational scenarios. Increasingly, people affirm the benefit of educating in the arts when integrated into the school curriculum or other informal educational situations. Subsequent benefits for young people are recognized, such as the acquisition of life skills, increased understanding of social issues and overall, a broader, holistic impact. Education of this nature has added value to the local economy and social well-being of students through the appropriate use of the arts. Some effective assessment has been based on the development of arts projects through multidisciplinary learning modalities, their particular circumstances and the setting up of specific indicators for evaluation. This practice is currently underway in some Asian countries but needs to be established across the region as it is crucial for educators in the arts to research and analyse outcomes of their work, especially in the light of other relevant best practices research projects. Chapter 5 by Jane Cheung provides a valuable example with her account of the Arts-in-Education (AiE) Programme. This was organized by the Hong Kong Arts Development Council and co-organized by the Curriculum Development Institute of the Education and Manpower Bureau and the Creative Arts Department of the Hong Kong Institute of Education. The AiE programme provides a sound model for best practice as it relied on community capacity and built on existing strengths through the dedication and commitment of the artists involved, providing excellent role models to staff and students through an enhanced programme delivery. Student learning was revitalised using an interdisciplinary approach involving artists and arts organizations working closely with schoolteachers in the formal curriculum. The programme facilitated partnerships between professional practising artists and schools, creating programmes that enhance the study of the arts and other curriculum areas through the arts. The programme also investigated the

UNESCO Observatory on Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Arts, Director, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning. The University of Melbourne; Tel: +61 3 8344 7437; Fax: +61 3 8344 5532; e-mail: [email protected], www.abp.unimelb.edu.au/unesco/ L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts – The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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process of artists working alongside students to give an immediate experience with the arts, exploring different ways of thinking and working more creatively in the arts and other subjects. The third aim of the AiE programme investigated how arts and non-arts teachers interchanged experiences and ideas with professional artists, thereby developing new and exciting ways of teaching their particular subject areas. The Thailand pilot project and the Chinese case study in Chapter 14 provide practical information for establishing the necessary machinery for designing new teaching, learning and curriculum modalities. The success of the issues examined in the Thailand and Chinese case studies provides strategies based on outcomes for improving the quality of education at the school level. In the broader context, continuing positive results rely on collaboration with ministries, policy planners, community groups, parents, teachers, students, NGOs and human resources and training institutions and centres. Evidence of the effectiveness of the arts when integrated into the broader curriculum as a means of enhancing life skills and improving knowledge, and the ultimate effects on social and economic issues needs to be known and understood. The Thai and Chinese case studies confirm the need for a more flexible, holistic learning system, which will lead to a changing curriculum based on the school, the community, circumstances, time and place. A flexible and overarching model may be applied taking into consideration the various factors of geographic and cultural difference. An obvious necessity for inventive new approaches to educating in the arts is Government approval to provide budgetary support for teacher training, time release and development of infrastructure. Mr. Kamol Wearsuvan and Mrs. Nittaya Wearsuvan, Supervisors of Arts and Crafts in all secondary schools around Thailand, devised and ran the Thai project across ten schools for the Thailand Education Department. They claim that once the benefits have been established on a large and visible scale and changes have been implemented at the teacher training stage, no large amounts of money need to be directed to new and improved programmes. Once the changes have become an integral part of teaching and learning, it is really a matter of redirecting existing funds. No further money for time release or teacher training or infrastructure support needs to be applied. Therefore, a key factor of this assessment in the long term does not rely on large amounts of additional monies to be invested, simply a shift in attitude and teaching culture. This is a vital strategy for schools across Asia and serves as an outstanding best practice model for integrating the arts across the school curriculum. Asian countries, as do many countries around the world, feel the need to focus on areas of learning that are considered “important”, such as mathematics, science and the humanities. There are still such immense problems associated with achieving a ‘good education for all’, that the arts are overlooked. The arts can, however, be the mechanism that is needed to add more life and vitality to learning conventional subject matter. This results in students taking school more seriously, feeling more confident, finding new ways to learn and applying themselves to difficult tasks and valuing the challenge of education. Using the arts in the curriculum,

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students feel more inclined to stay at school and to think more creatively of vocational opportunities. There is an evident need for reform calling for a fundamental re-evaluation of the ways in which schools are organized for teaching and learning. Educators are being challenged to re-examine traditional notions of what should be taught in schools and how it should be taught. This includes an emphasis on a more clearly articulated, rigorous and interdisciplinary curriculum, which acknowledges and values the contributions of all aspects of social, economic, cultural and educational issues relevant to the particular society. Teaching and learning can no longer rely on old paradigms of truths that were relevant in the past. We are now approaching entirely different problems in how people teach and learn as the age of technology has changed young people’s lives and futures.

2. The Vital Role of NGOS When Educating in the Arts Activities and programmes of NGOs internationally are framed by a number of different educational or training rationales. Clearly, they vary considerably according to the differing countries, social contexts and cultural groups. However, all are based on the concept of ‘active learning’ – student centred, problem solving and project based. Training based on artistic and multimedia processes can provide young people, excluded from the mainstream, with high levels of motivation. The arts have the capacity to increase students’ level of achievement in ‘learning how to learn’ or in some cases, ‘ways to re-learn’. Increasing evidence emerges showing how programmes build confidence, encourage negotiation, enhance problem solving and develop communication and teamwork. Additionally, outcomes from the work of NGOs in this area touch on a wider set of arguments relating to the role of arts education. Although there is considerable anecdotal evidence that the arts can play a crucial role in the lives of young people enabling them to move on to mainstream education and employment, it is important for projects to collect quantifiable data to provide tools for measuring learning outcomes. The research identifies ways to measure the success of the arts as a means of enhancing education, particularly for the informal education sector. The arts are an influential mechanism in reaching socially excluded young people and in developing new educational strategies. The arts as a means of education are having an important role to play in partnership with institutional schooling. However, defining the nature and practice of informal education can be difficult and there is a dearth of evidence describing both the institutions and the specifics of teaching and learning which give the NGO sector its distinctive place in many people’s lives. There is wide debate on how to educate young people for the societies of the future. Key themes presented in some essays in Educating in the Arts present projects that develop systems for the social inclusion of students. NGOs and informal education systems are often better positioned to develop new and radical

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programmes than conventional schooling. Dialogue between these innovative activities, and the demands of formal education, needs to take place at policy and curriculum levels. NGOs demonstrate softer, more pliable outcomes that substantiate the need for educational policy to take account of different ways of describing successful learning, especially in relation to students at the primary and secondary school levels, who have been failed by formal education channels.

3. Building Educational Opportunities Informative elements for future development and long-term aims are important considerations when projecting plans for long-term gain for educating in the arts across Asia. How best does an education incorporating the arts achieve its objectives and have the widest impact? Within the context of the authors’ experiences related throughout the book’s essays, the mutual acknowledgement from the Ministry level with all educational institutions and resources, educators, community groups and NGOs, agree to the value of an education incorporating the arts in both formal and community-based structures. When all sectors contribute to this holistic approach to education, a range of criteria emerges as platforms for future development and planning. Educators and planners need encouragement to build on the opportunities offered by the different sectors and to develop strategies to offer learners. Furthermore, education incorporating the arts needs to be promoted as the right of every young person, and to be part of an accessible, lifelong education and training. This training has the capacity to develop individual talents and needs to be developed and extended across educational arenas to increase the appreciation of culture and heritage and the many forms of creative expression of each country. Ethical and equity issues inform the right of all young people to have the right to participate in these activities particularly as proven outcomes confirm the need for an arts integrated approach for enhanced innovative, creative and critical thinking. The whole learning experience creates, within a safe learning environment, the means for shaping, challenging, affirming, exploring personal and social relationships and community identity. By having a broad, outward view, an arts-based education can demonstrate the creative expression of different countries which develops insights and aspirations, thus encouraging international understanding and tolerance. The work of artists needs to be acknowledged and recognised within the education process, particularly for their capacity to break down barriers and provide important messages through creative mediums such as artworks and theatrical, dance or musical performances. These creative ways of presenting difficult themes are more readily acceptable to young people. This broad view can be achieved by rudimentary goals such as curriculum content; training trainers and teachers; equipment, infrastructure and materials; and

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cooperation between schools on a national and international basis. As previously discussed, new teaching strategies require initial financial support to assure success. Strategies for increased funding can only be achieved through ongoing cooperation between policy planners, Treasuries and Ministries of each country.

4. UNESCO’S Leadership Role in the Arts in Education International collaborations have been established over the last 5 years between UNESCO and its partners in the field of Arts Education, culminating in The World Conference on Arts Education, Building Creative Capacities for the 21st Century The Conference discussed issues relating to a wide variety of themes including advocacy and the implementation of Arts Education at a policy and governmental level; the impact of Arts Education on social, cultural and academic areas; how quality of education relates to teacher training and pedagogical methods; and the importance of promoting partnerships for implementing Arts Education programmes. Outcomes from the Conference will support the implementation of future developments in the field of Arts Education through the proposals presented in the conference, Road Map for Arts Education, a work in progress proposal designed to provide an adaptable framework to encourage UNESCO Member States to develop their own relevant guidelines. This conference also affirmed the Asia Pacific Action Plan’s proposal for the establishment of a series of subregional Observatories across the Asia-Pacific region, which will contribute to a wider and more open communication platform for Arts in Education communities. This initiative, established by the UNESCO Office of the Regional Advisor for Culture in Asia and the Pacific, is a breakthrough in increasing dialogue, understanding, sharing and improving knowledge through teaching and learning within formal and informal education systems. The first UNESCO Observatory for Research in the Arts has been established at The University of Melbourne, Australia, and aims to foster a collaborative outreach between the University and multi-institutional and multidisciplinary areas relevant to government and community networks on matters of direct importance to the public interest. The Observatories will identify new developments where the arts are the unifying principle and each one will have a different scope, to address all aspects of the arts in education and the quest for maximising human potential. UNESCO’s AsiaPacific Action Plan aims for the establishment of a series of subregional Observatories to function as clearing houses of information about the instrumental uses of the arts in education. The Observatories will collect, analyze, synthesize, repackage and disseminate information from a regional network of input-providing institutions. This will facilitate knowledge-sharing and information-utilization by the network of institutions and by UNESCO, its Member States and cooperation partners. In the long term, the Observatories are to become the basis for informed advocacy processes, which lies close to UNESCO’s mandate and will also be

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supported by the Arts in Education (AiE) community. Asia-Pacific Action Plan’s objective is that the Observatories will thereby contribute to mainstreaming arts, creativity and culture in formal and non-formal educational systems. The UNESCO Observatories open opportunities for challenging current educational models, broadening horizons and stimulating new thinking in order to provide links in learning that are generally absent in contemporary educational practice. UNESCO acknowledges the shift in the current worldview, in some quarters, towards linking the humanities, the sciences and the arts. Numerous programmes exist where our perceptions of these disciplines are enhanced through the arts to see their underlying unity. The Observatories can have a long-range plan to establish ways and means young people can learn well by understanding that the way traditional schooling has approached education does not necessarily work for all. The variety of arts in education programmes presented in Educating in the Arts confirms that young people learn in many different ways. Therein lies the challenge for the Observatories, to demonstrate the value of an arts-integrated curriculum or the arts in communitydevelopmental activities, and to conduct research and disseminate the findings.

5. The Future Information Computer Technologies (ICTs) are the engines fuelling change and development for the twenty-first century and impact profoundly on social, cultural and economic worlds and the potential of people’s lives through education, communication and creativity. Major objectives and challenges for the future are reliant on the powerhouse of computerised resources, initiatives and strategies, and are at the cutting edge of progress. In spite of the dramatic rise in computer usage, applications and knowledge, a vast majority of the world’s population remains outside these trends and experiences. They stand at risk of being even further marginalized as the world embraces increasingly sophisticated computer know-how. What is needed at this point of time are inclusive measures to address the growing digital divide that is generating instability, social and political disruption, and even undermining the legitimacy of governments. This was according to Makarim Wibisono, President of the Economic and Social Council – ECOSOC – the principal organ of the United Nations, New York, in the economic and social fields. The World Summit on the Information Society – WSIS – provides an important forum for sharing visions, voicing concerns and finding avenues to bridge the digital divide and provide a truly equitable, accessible information society. Kofi Annan, in his message to WSIS, spoke of the need to develop special tools and to adopt realistic and viable plans of action. The UNESCO Young Digital Creators project is one of these dynamic plans of action having the potential to link young people around the world through a variety of digital art forms. The arts in education, with computer technologies, have the capacity for expressing cultural diversity,

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the desire for peace, inclusive education, gender equality, developing life skills, understanding health issues, overcoming violence, drug education, networking across political boundaries and establishing an appreciation of all the best life has to offer through creativity, communication and knowledge. The arts and creativity are the shock-troops, paving the way for harmonious interaction on a global scale, transcending racial, physical, emotional, cultural and political differences and preceding the armies of politicians, educators, economists and business opportunists. The arts enter where others often fear to tread. The combination of arts and ICTs has never been more timely as politicians, decision makers, educators and concerned people internationally search for solutions for ‘Digital Inclusion’ and ‘Digital Exclusion’.

5.1. Who will Benefit and how? Some developing countries have already made significant advances in embracing the opportunities and applications of ICTs; however, only 5% of the world’s population can claim connectivity, and the greater majority of these are from developed countries. ICTs have the capacity, through creativity, to provide developing countries further opportunities in much-needed areas ranging from electronic commerce, assistance to small- and medium-sized entrepreneurs, to the empowerment of youth and communities. ICTs provide transparent and easily accessible computer programmes for youth and access all areas such as schools, NGOs, clubs, organisations and associations. ICTs, being geared for long-distance education, empower participants by building skills and capacities, facilitating new and transparent mechanisms for cost-effective computerised services and programmes. The numerous ICT pedagogical projects engage in creativity, dialogue, communication and informed decision making for their youthful participants, and educators at all levels. ICT technologies have the capacity to facilitate the productive integration of young people into the global economy.

5.2. Current Strategies are Insufficient It is recognized that current strategies and programmes have largely been insufficient or inappropriate with regard to needs of children and youth who are vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion. The urgency to address the needs of learners who are vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion through responsive educational opportunities was also pointed out in the Dakar World Education Forum in April 2000: The key challenge is to ensure that the broad vision of Education for All as an inclusive concept is reflected in national government and funding agency policies. Education for All … must take account of the need of the poor and the most disadvantaged, including working

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children, remote rural dwellers and nomads, and ethnic and linguistic minorities, children, young people and adults affected by conflict, HIV/AIDS, hunger and poor health; and those with special learning needs… (Expanded commentary on the Dakar Framework for Action, para 19)

The current state of affairs presents vast opportunities for ICTs to establish, viable and far-reaching educational programmes using creative mechanisms such as digital music and digital art forms as the vehicle of communication and knowledge. ICTs are immensely flexible, adapting and fulfilling the needs of the variety of users worldwide. Music software is a universal language, encouraging young people in and out of school situations to become involved in new and exciting ways of learning. Future potential for educating in the arts in vibrant and informative ways can be achieved through the creation of projects linking a diverse range of issues, needs and nationalities. Communication using ICTs will be no obstacle as new and inventive forms of arts practices such as music, visual arts, storytelling and composition become the dialogue. Using ICTs creatively have the capacity to teach literacy and numeracy; to build knowledge; create understanding of different creeds, cultures and religious groups; to build new friendships and overcome issues of exclusion. Programmes addressing life skills, peace education, health education, environmental education, cultural diversity and all other areas can be successfully addressed by educating through the arts, and ICTs. Educating in the arts in combination with ICTs fulfil the principle of inclusive education, which was adopted at the Salamanca World Conference on Special Needs Education (UNESCO, 1994) and was restated at the Dakar World Education Forum (2000). Inclusive education means that… …schools should accommodate all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions. This should include; disabled and gifted children; street and working children; children from remote or nomadic populations; children from linguistic, ethnic or cultural minorities; and children from other disadvantaged or marginalized areas or groups. (The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education, para 3)

5.3. Educating in the Arts using ICTs Meets the Challenges of our Societies Education has to face the variety of individual talents and the wide range of cultural backgrounds from the groups making up each society. Education has to take on the difficult task of turning diversity into a constructive contributory factor of mutual understanding between individuals and groups. Any educational policy must be able to meet the challenges of pluralism and enable everyone to find their place in the community to which they primarily belong and at the same time be given the means to open up to other communities. The International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century reminds that education policies must be sufficiently diversified and must be so designed as not to become

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another cause of social exclusion, and that schools should foster the desire to live together. (UNESCO, 1996). This statement highlights the significance and strength of educating in the arts and ICTs for the future. Diversity becomes a contributory factor of mutual understanding between individuals and groups. Through the arts and technologies being integrated into the core curriculum throughout the Asian region, the challenges of education are met, helping young people find a place in their community. When given the opportunities to open up to other communities, the potential for producing original and highly creative work is enhanced. Teachers and NGOs utilising ICTs, and the arts in digital educational projects, take into account specific topics of interest of youngsters from diverse cultural backgrounds and can provide new opportunities for young people with little or no access to education. The arts and ICTs have the means to foster deeper and more harmonious forms of education and creative development. To prevent the ever widening digital divide, to prevent digital exclusion and promote digital inclusion, educating in the arts with ICTs have a significant role in providing responses to the broad spectrum of learning needs in formal and nonformal educational settings. Rather than being a marginal theme, an education in ICTs and the arts is an approach that looks at how to transform education systems in order to respond to the diversity of learners. It aims to enable both teachers and learners to feel comfortable with diversity and to see it as a challenge and enrichment in the learning environment. Linking ICTs with arts practices offers the opportunity to understand the underlying unity across all sectors of education and knowledge, the arts, natural, social and physical sciences, mathematics, heritage, languages and more. When music is applied to the learning of language or mathematics, or the significance of colour theory or optics, or perspective to understanding our world, the flexible and adaptable nature of the arts and the powerful tool of ICTs can have much greater relevance to a broader range of young people. In his speech to the 160th Executive Board, the Director General of UNESCO highlighted the need to make the special and urgent needs of marginalized and excluded groups an integral part of all UNESCO’s programme actions so as to enable the Organization to make a more effective contribution. Educating in the Arts for the Asian region will be successful when the UNESCO’s aims to promote inclusive approaches in education are put into practice. These include the forging of a holistic approach to education, which ensures that the concerns of marginalized and excluded groups are incorporated in all education activities, and cooperating to reduce wasteful repetition and fragmentation. Also by developing capacities for policy-making and system management in support of diverse strategies towards inclusive education, and bringing forward the concerns of groups who are currently marginalized and excluded. In light of the above, the future success of educating in the arts for the Asian region will become evident when comprehensive educational activities and approaches are assured that take into account the needs of currently marginalized and excluded groups. Supporting schools, clubs, centres, NGOs and organisations in economically disadvantaged countries is a key priority. Refinement and development of indicators

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for youth education and support to strengthen capacities at the national level can be achieved. Gathering and disseminating information and ideas, and stimulating dialogue about the diversity of needs are key factors for sustainability. The establishment of training and learning sessions for children through viable, holistic programmes will extend pedagogical platforms and establish e-learning modules worldwide. These training and capacity-building activities usually rely on the support of sponsors and establishing mentor programmes. Now is the time for sweeping changes. Decisive factors are confirming the need to educate people differently, to be prepared with the best resources to face a new world. A good education is vital if the future generation is to function productively in a new, socially responsible, sustainable world. As global borders shrink and the human dilemma increases, other values become a priority in maximising creative and well-educated communities. Cultural, political, economic, spiritual and social issues are equally important when considering the role of educating in the arts for the future. Marginalized groups, the disaffected and the poor stand at greater risk of being completely left behind in the rush for economic development. Only by good planning at the early stages on a broad level will educating in the arts ensure successful long-term outcomes. The issues discussed in this book are subject to scrutiny and by taking a tough stand on what one’s own values and belief systems are, by engaging in debate and joining in forums for discussions and researching, and analyzing and disseminating ideas, the arts and the education communities will become clearer about the status of educating in the arts, thus providing a strong platform for advances in the field. Educating in the Arts – the Asian Experience provides a challenge for education systems in the Asian region, for the building of social capital and stronger communities through the arts, cultural activities and practices. Increasingly, there is recognition of what the arts can do, so this book presents numerous examples of what happens when educating in the arts embraces other disciplines. By working in a collaborative manner, greater success can be achieved. Recognising how the arts can utilize the expertise from other disciplines, and vice versa, outcomes will contribute to dynamic and effective ways the arts can best be used in education systems. Collaborative arts projects in multidisciplinary teams can be responsible for contributing to the construction and sustainability of improved education systems. This will ensure that sufficient thought is given to how people will live, maximizing their potential for the next 20, 50 or 100 years, and that it will be far better organised. The planning must start now and strategies must be put in place and address how educating in the arts can make a solid contribution for the coming generations.

Further Reading Fine, M. 2000. Creating Inclusive Communities. An Inquiry into organizational approaches for Pursuing Diversity. Academy for Education Development and The National Youth Leadership Council, Service-Learning Diversity project.

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Human Sciences Research Council (HSCR) 2000. With Africa for Africa. Towards Quality Education for All. 1999 MLA Project. UNESCO. UNICEF. HSCR. International Consultative Forum on Education for All 2000. Statistical Document. Education for All Year 2000 Assessment. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. International Consultative Forum on Education for All 2000. Global Synthesis. Education for All Year 2000 Assessment. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Joubert, L. 1999. ASPACAE 10th International Conference, Singapore. Future of the Arts of the Asia Pacific Region. Joubert, L. 1999. ASPACAE 10th International Conference, Singapore. Building Art in Public Spaces. Joubert, L. 1999. UNESCO-PROAP-ACEID 5th International Conference, Bangkok. Conference Session Chair. Paper presented, The Past and Future of ASPACAE. Joubert. L. 2002. Young Digital Creators. Working document for the Digital Arts sub-portal of the UNESCO Knowledge Portal. Part F. Initiation and creation: The dissemination of tools for electronic creation for young people both in and out of school written for the Division of Culture, Section for Arts and Creativity. Joubert, L. 2005. Arts for Hope Project – a Community Arts Challenge for Sustainable Communities. Planning Institute of Australia. Joubert, L. 2005. Asia Pacific Arts in Education Observatory Program pp. 259–270. Joubert, L. 2005. Community Arts in Action: Development of a Framework for Evaluation. Paper presented at UNESCO New Delhi, India. Joubert, L. 2005. Community Arts through Action and Education: Development of a Framework for Evaluation pp. 125–128. UNESCO publication, ‘Educating for Creativity’. Joubert, L. 2006. UNESCO Observatory Program. Round Table Presentation at UNESCO World Summit on Arts Education Lisbon. 6–9 March. KACES Korea Arts and Culture Education Service Arts Education publication for the UNESCO Asia Pacific Regional Conference. In preparation for the World Conference on Arts Education. 23–25 November 2005, Seoul Korea. UNESCO 2006. World Conference on Arts Education, Building Creative Capacities for the 21st Century was held in Lisbon, 6th – 9th March 2006. Organized by UNESCO and the Government of Portugal. Updated information will be available on the Lea International Web site: http://www. unesco.org/culture/lea

Author Index

A Abeles, H., 75 Abeysinghe, R., 243, 244 Adle, C., 189 Ajioka, C., 21, 103–119 Akimushkin, O., 189 Allen, G., 75, 76 Amini, M., 62 Annan, K., 338 Ariyaratne, S., 242 Arnheim, R., 56, 63 Asanbekov, S.A., 134 Attig, G., 13, 18, 47–52

B Bacon, E., 122, 123, 126 Baipakov, K.M., 189 Bandem, I. M., 286 Benitez, K., 260 Bernard, A., 29 Bhirasri, S., 41, 136, 137, 139. See also Feroci, C. Brandon, J.R., 288 Broudy, H.S., 55, 56 Burton, J., 80

C Cadet, J.M., 288 Callaway, G., 77 Caroll, K.L., 63 Carroll, A., 31–44 Chandler, D., 288 Chandraratna, D., 288 Chanraksa, B., 209, 216 Charnovitz, S., 16 Chaumeau, C., 94

Chen, D., 11, 23, 191–203 Chen, M., 22, 147–161 Cheung, J., 20, 65–80 Chiaki Ajioka. See Ajioka, C. Cho, S.-K., 272 Chotonov, U., 121, 122, 128, 129 Clarke, A., 110, 111 Cohen, J.L., 34 Colwell, R., 80 Conant, E.P., 33 Cronin, B., 149 Cuisinier, J., 288

D Darianathan, E., 238 Deboer, F.E., 286 De Silva, C.R., 241 Devenport, E., 149 Dewey, J., 77 Dharmadasa, K.N.O., 242 Dissayanake, E., 56 Dosbol, N. U., 121, 122, 128, 129

E Einstein, A., 11 Eisner, E., 55, 59, 63, 78, 193 Ellis, E., 148 Engelhardt, R., 29 Eppel, M., 65

F Feroci, C., 38, 41, 136. See also Bhirasri, S. Fine, M., 342 Florida, R., 79, 144, 160 Fontaine, C.

345

346 G Galerkina, O., 189 Gardner, H., 6, 199, 205, 297 Ghulam-Sarwar, Y., 293 Gonzales, J., 27, 289–300 Gordon, E., 272 Greer, W.D., 63 Guerrero, A.M., 45

H Habib I., 189 Hafeli, M., 80 Hantover, J., 43 Harada, M., 33 Harland, J., 77 Hashmi, S., 42 Hawkins, S., 110 Haynes, J., 81 Heng, S.C., 93, 94 Herbert, T., 245 Hetland, L., 6 Heywood, D., 87, 93 Hindle, R., 90 Hokusai, K., 32, 106, 110 Hor, L., 88 Horowitz, R., 80

I Irvine, D., 288 Ishido, N., 163–175 Isvaran, S. 50, 275–286

J Jacobs, H.H., 60, 63 Jang, K.-B., 26, 261–271 Jayaweera, S., 240 Jensen, V., 47–52 Joubert, L., 3–29, 205–216, 333–342

K Kalaw-Ledesma, P., 43 Kalter, J., 189 Kam, G., 288 Kear, M., 77 Khakimov, A., 179–189 Kielsmeier, J., 248 Kim, K., 272 Kinder, K., 81 Knappert, J., 300 Kraft, R.J., 248

Author Index Kravel, P.T., 87 Kulatillake, C. de S., 242, 243

L Lau, W., 80 Lehman, P.R., 272 Lentz, T.W., 189 Leung, C., 80 Lowry, G.D., 189 Lundquist, B., 260

M Macarthy, T., 148 Makulloluwe, W.B., 243 Manuel, P., 243 Martiniello, M., 81 Matsuura, K., 5 Matusky, P., 255 Mehrmohammadi, M., 55–63 Melniker, A.S., 133 Menzies, J., 105, 108–113 Miettinen, J., 288 Mitter, P., 42 Mohd, A., 299 Mohd, N., 299 Mokrynin, B., 121, 122 Mubin, S., 300 Mukdamanee, V., 135–143 Muscat, R., 95

N Nakamura, I., 163–175 Nasarudin, M.G., 300 Nasritdinov, E., 121–133 Navvab Safavi, M., 60, 61 Newton, 11 Nouth, N., 86 Nut, S.H., 288

O Oddie, D., 75, 76 Ohler, J., 56 Okada, A., 189

P Patnaik, S., 301–311 Pavoloy, M., 189 Phensiri, D., 209, 216 Phim, T.S., 288

Author Index Pike, G., 56 Ploskih, V., 121, 122 Podlozny, A., 77 Popova, O.P., 132 Prudente, F., 260 Pugachenkova, G.A., 189

R Rempel, L.I., 189 Richardson, C., 80 Richman, P., 288 Robinson, K., 193 Rooholamini, J.H., 57 Rutnin, M.M., 288

S Sabaruddin, S., 300 Samarasinghe, S.W.R. de, 242 Sam, S.-A., 83–99 Schagen, I., 81 Seidel, S., 78 Selby, D., 56 Seneviratna, A., 242 Shabazova, S.S., 133 Shaeffer, S., 29 Smith, R., 239–247 Soedarsono, W.W., 288 Staviskii, B.Y., 189 Stutterheim, W., 288 Sullivan, M., 41 Swami Satyananda Puri, 288 Swanwick, K., 65, 76 Szego, C.K., 260

T Takizawa, T., 231–238 Tan, S.B., 249–260

347 Tennyson, A.L. F., 203 Thapar, R., 242 Thompson, A., 288 Thomson, J., 203 Tuy, K., 87

U Unni, C.P., 288 Usubalieva, K.N., 129–132

V Vatsyayan, K., 288 Veymarn, B.V., 189 Vittachi, I.,

W Wagner, T., 29 Walling, D.R., 63 Wearsuvan, K., 209–211, 216, 334 Wearsuvan, N., 209–211, 216, 334 Wheelwright, C., 115 Wibisono, M., 338 Williams, M.E., 161 Winner, E., 6, 216 Winstedt, R., 300 Wisuttipaet, M., 260 Wong, Y., 313–329 Wood, K., 76

Y Yip, R., 80

Z Zhengyin, L., 189 Zukin, S., 12, 13

Subject Index

A AAAE (Association for the Advancement of Arts Education, USA), 7, 206 Academic achievement, 7, 8, 79, 265, 271 Advocacy, 5, 8, 40, 222, 337 AIDS, 15, 340 AiE, 13, 20, 65, 71–77, 333, 334, 328. See also Arts-in-Education Programme Akademi Seni Kebangsaan (National Arts Academy, Malaysia), 27, 39, 252, 289–292, 294, 295, 298–300 Architecture, 12, 21, 127, 135, 137, 180, 186, 226 Art, 3–5, 7, 13, 17, 32, 41, 50, 70, 103, 154, 188, 222. See also Arts: contemporary; folk; installation; Japanese; Kyrgyz; state; Thai Art for Education, 13, 18, 49–52 Art galleries visitors, 156 Art Gallery of New South Wales, 21, 103–119 Artistic development, 3, 43 Artists anti-realist, 21 realist, 21 Arts. See also Art: community; and community regeneration; drama; and everyday life; and healthcare; and humanities; integration in curriculum; and language teaching; local traditions; and mathematics; and science; and technology; traditional; visual; Western traditions Art schools curricula, 32 establishment, 32, 33, 35 place in community, 38 Arts education Asia, 47–52 Cambodia, 83–99

core curriculum, 15, 205, 341 Hong Kong, 191–203 Informal, 90, 335–337 Iran, 55–63 Outcomes, 333–342 partnerships, 5, 8, 65 Phillipines, 219–227 as research field, 11 as right, 19, 161, 336 role of NGOs in, 335–336 school, 31–44 Singapore, 147–161 social exclusion, 7, 12 social impact of, 9–10 and technology, 6, 147–161 Uzbekistan, 179–189 Arts-in-Education Programme, 65–80, 198. See also AiE Asia, 18, 31–44, 47–52, 249–253, 256–260, 276, 334 Asia-Pacific Action Plan, 337, 338 Asian Development Bank, 239 Association for the Advancement of Arts Education. See AAAE Australia, 21, 39, 40, 103–119, 242, 297

B Behaviour, 16, 75, 106, 210, 269, 271, 276, 310 Beijing, 24, 34, 40, 43, 67, 80, 206–208 Bilingual education, 14, 15 Black box, 28, 313–326 Boys, 18, 47, 48, 74, 279 Brooklyn College, 12 Buddha (exhibition), 21, 221 Budgetary support, 215, 334 Building Creative Capacities for the 21st Century, World Conference on Arts Education, 5, 337 Bukhara carpets, 123, 124 349

350 C Calligraphy, 32, 42, 59, 62, 187 Cambodia arts, 83, 84 culture, 85 school system, 85 CANVAS, 22, 165–167, 172, 173 Change, agents of, 4, 9 Character, 4, 24, 41, 61, 171, 207, 232, 264, 267 Child, UN Convention on the Rights of, 30 Children digital-age, 163–175 working, 339, 340 Children’s theatre, 28, 303, 305, 311 China, 15, 24, 38, 41–44, 149, 208, 214, 216, 234, 271, 293 Choreography, 75, 290, 295–296 Citizenship, 28, 56 Classroom, 4, 8, 19, 32, 48, 75, 77, 151, 155, 207, 222, 237, 266, 278, 284, 311 Collaboration, international, 5, 337 Colonization, 4, 24, 25, 143, 220, 242 Committee for Education Funding, 97 Communism, 122, 182, 184 Community arts, 3, 17 Community arts centres, 17 Community groups, 13–17, 334, 336 Community regeneration, 10–11 Communities, creative. See Creative communities Communities, sustaining, 11–12, 205–216 Composition, 27, 41, 88, 156–159, 223, 266, 295 Computers, 56, 155–157, 188, 253 Connectivity, 339 Convention on the Rights of the Child, UN, 30 Co-operation, 185, 186 Crafts, 35, 36, 104, 136, 137, 158, 179–181, 188, 334 Craftspeople, 20, 52, 83, 123, 127, 136 Creative communities, 4, 12, 13 Creativity, 5, 7, 9, 11–13, 22, 68, 147 Cultural diversity, 96, 235, 250, 340 Cultural heritage, 4, 9, 19, 61 Cultural industries, 16, 97 Cultural participation and community change, 11, 12 Culture, 5, 6, 9, 10, 13, 17, 21, 25, 27, 29 Curators, 17, 110, 112, 164, 316, 322 Curriculum arts, 18, 20, 58–63, 80, 90, 193, 195

Subject Index core, 4, 15, 24, 205, 211, 341 interdisciplinary, 29, 216, 335 school, 8, 14, 20, 42, 59, 66, 79, 89, 96, 153, 159, 194, 206, 216, 233, 322, 340 Curriculum Development Centre (Ministry of Education, Malaysia), 260 Curriculum Development Council, Hong Kong, 77, 191, 194, 195

D Dakar Framework for Action, 340 Dakar World Education Forum, 339, 340 Dance, 7, 17, 27, 50, 66, 67, 72, 76, 80, 87 Dance education. See Dance training Dancers, 20, 27, 67, 279, 283, 294, 297–299 Dance training traditional, 27, 290–294 Western, 27, 290, 294–295 Delors Report, 6. See also International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century Democracy, 6, 11, 104, 140, 316 Department of National Heritage, UK, 72, 75 Department of Statistics, Malaysia, 250 Developed countries, 93, 150, 339 Developing countries, 4, 339 Development, 3–17, 22, 25, 28, 35, 38, 40, 43 Digital age, 22, 56 Digital age children, 163–175 Digital arts, 343 Digital Creators Project, UNESCO Young, 338 Digital divide, 338, 341 Digital music, 166, 201, 340 Digital technology, 67, 166 Digital workshops, 22, 163 Disabilities, students with, 8 Disadvantage, 210, 246, 341 Diversity, 3, 8, 48, 66, 138, 152, 195, 200, 235, 319, 341 Drama applied, 28, 303 process, 28, 303 Drugs, 50, 283, 339

E E-commerce. See Electronic commerce Economic alliances, 16–17 Economic development, 39, 84, 86, 87, 92–94, 98, 342 Economic issues, 334

Subject Index Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), 338 Economies, local, 14, 15, 28 Education, 3–29, 31, 35, 47, 49. See also Arts education, training: Arts; acquisition of character and; and behaviour; bilingual; classroom; cultural; curriculum; formal; indigenous; institutions; long-distance; Ministries of; music; non-formal; outcomes; pedagogical methods; primary; quality; retention rates; secondary; and social exclusion; tertiary Education for All, 6, 15, 47, 148, 196, 334, 339 Education and Manpower Bureau, Hong Kong, 20, 65, 79, 141, 198, 333 Educational policy, 193, 336, 340 Educators, 3, 7, 8, 15, 27, 56, 65, 98, 165, 216, 221, 238, 246, 249, 261, 335 Eighteenth century, 242 Eighth century, 179 E-learning, 284, 342 Electronic commerce, 339 Elementary students, 19, 62 Eleventh century, 116, 117 English, 8, 24, 70, 73, 104, 111, 112, 199, 210, 213, 221 Entrepreneurs, 212, 339 Entrepreneurship, 14, 15, 17, 152. 195. 209, 211, 212 Environment, 11, 14, 22, 28, 44, 56, 66, 86, 91, 95, 98 Environmental education, 340 Equity, 98, 336 Ethics, 25, 210, 232, 271, 277 Ethnicity, 12, 13, 235 Ethnic minorities, 94, 235, 250 Ethnic relations, 6 European influence, 23 Evaluation, 62, 68–70, 78, 165, 215, 216, 284, 314, 316 Expression, 9, 12, 22, 67, 84, 97, 106, 107, 116, 139, 141

F Fifteenth century, 182 Film, 17, 118, 168–169 Folk arts, 21 Formal education, 8, 197, 336 Fourteenth century, 291 Funds, 112, 136, 148, 191, 215, 226 281, 298, 334 Future, the, 338–339

351 G Galleries, 40, 86, 133, 140, 147, 156, 158, 188 Gender, 14, 15, 52, 223, 281, 286, 296, 339. See also Boys; Girls; Women Gender equality, 339 Girls, 18, 24, 48, 111, 154, 188, 279, 281 Glasnost, 23, 183 Globalization, 9, 24, 55, 91, 92, 142, 205, 219, 298, 316 Global village, 18, 205, 219 Government, 6, 10, 14–17, 21, 28, 33, 49, 79, 87, 94 Gwangju Culture Hub City of Asia, Korea, 112

H Handicrafts, 96, 123, 214 Health, 15, 86, 194, 211, 306, 339, 340 Healthcare and arts, 9 Health education, 15, 340 Heritage, 9, 21, 25–28, 72, 86, 88, 98, 111, 135, 142 Heritage, cultural, 4, 9, 19, 61, 62, 86, 97, 158, 220, 261, 271, 284, 295 Heroes and Villains from Japan’s Floating World (exhibition), 103, 109, 112, 113 Higher education, 20, 85, 184, 192, 239, 319 HIV/AIDS, 340 HKADC, 11, 23. See also Hong Kong Arts Development Council Holistic learning, 25, 215, 276, 323, 334 Homogenization of cultural practices, 24, 220 Hong Kong Arts-in-Education (AiE), 20, 65–80, 125 Hong Kong Arts Development Council, 20, 23, 65, 68, 191, 202, 326, 333. See also HKADC Hong Kong Bank Foundation, 20, 65, 79 Hong Kong Institute of Education, 65, 68, 69, 79, 187, 333 HSARUC (High School), 207–209 Human development, 25–26, 261, 271 Humanities, 7, 8, 205, 334, 338 Human resources, 16–17, 83, 87, 97, 184, 334 Human Sciences Research Council (HSCR), 343 Hunger, 340

I ICTs (Information Computer Technologies), 338–341 IDEA (International Drama/Theatre and Education Association), 5, 6

352 Identity, 9, 12, 21, 24, 26, 56, 84, 97, 99, 221, 243, 262, 263, 336 India theatre and education, 301–311 indigenous education, 14, 15 Indonesia, 26, 39, 249–251, 281, 282, 291, 293 Inequality, 4 Informal education, 14, 29, 90, 333, 335–337 Information age, 9, 18 Information computer technologies. See ICTS Information technology, 142, 149–153, 159, 164, 188. See also IT; ICTS Infrastructure, 16, 19, 31, 34, 38, 97, 151, 152, 160, 215, 334, 336 Innovation, 16, 33, 68, 150, 152, 154, 193 196, 210, 308 Installation art, 28, 314, 316–318, 322–323, 326 International, 5, 14, 17, 18, 44, 56, 86, 88, 95, 98, 111 International collaboration, 5, 337 International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century, 6, 340–341. See also Delors Report International Consultative Forum on Education for All, 343 International Cultural Corporation of Australia, 120 International Drama/Theatre and Education Association. See IDEA The International Society for Education through Art (InSEA), 5, 6 International Society for Education through Art. See InSEA International Society for Music Education. See ISME International Yehudi Menuhin Foundation. See MUS-E Iran, 55–63 ISME (International Society for Music Education), 5, 6, 238 IT, 148–151, 154, 155, 157–159, 165. See also Information technology; ICTs

J Japan digital workshops, 22, 163 music curriculum, 25, 231–233 Japanese art, 21, 34, 40, 103–119

Subject Index K Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (Ministry of Education, Malaysia), 260 Khmer Rouge, 20, 83–85, 87 Korea, 6, 10, 25, 33, 34, 261–271 Korean War, 26, 262 Kyrgyzstan folk arts, 122–127 independence, 122, 132 state art, 128 Kyrgyz style, 121, 126, 128

L Languages, 43, 55, 72, 73, 187, 221, 325, 341 Language teaching, 8 Learning, active, 61, 76, 150, 198, 335 Learning disorders, 8 Learning outcomes, measurement, 29, 335 Libraries, 17, 86, 180 Life skills education, 14, 15, 17, 18, 48, 207 Linguistic minorities, 339 Literacy, 28, 55, 56, 62, 148, 164, 239, 302, 340 Literature, 21, 77, 104, 106, 116, 137, 151, 221, 226, 276 Local economies, 14, 15, 215, 333

M Malaysia dance training, 27, 290 Ministry of Education, 260 music education, 26, 250 Master student relationship, 19, 31 Mathematics, 7, 50, 51, 72, 210–213, 233, 265, 269, 277, 282, 334, 341 Measurement, 9, 14, 29, 49, 151, 267, 268, 335, 338 Ministries, 215, 299, 334, 337 Ministry of Culture Arts and Tourism, Malaysia, 289, 299, 300 Ministry of Education, Singapore, 154 Ministry of Education, Youths and Sports, Cambodia, 85 Ministry of Information Arts and Communication, Singapore, 149 Modern Boy, Modern Girl: Modernity in Japanese art 1910–1935 (exhibition), 103, 108–110 Monks, 20, 83, 94 Motivation, 48, 49, 68–71, 314, 321–324, 335 Mountains, 121–133

Subject Index Multicultural, 25–27, 92, 104, 142, 149, 235, 250, 251, 260, 282, 295 Multi-disciplinary, 6, 8, 11, 13, 17, 20, 21, 208, 293, 295, 333, 337, 342 Multi-media, 56, 66, 77, 78, 151, 157, 174, 188, 201, 326, 335 Multiple intelligences, 6, 7, 11, 13, 205 Multiple Intelligence Theory, 13–14 MUS-E (International Yehudi Menuhin Foundation), 5 Museums, 22, 35, 46, 86, 105, 110, 112, 113, 165, 202, 325 Music Christian, 26, 263 digital, 166, 201, 340 global, 25, 231 Japanese, 25, 231, 234, 240 Korean, 261–271 Malaysian, 26, 249–252 performance, 208, 266 Sri Lanka, 25, 244 traditional, 249–251, 253, 266 Western, 88, 232, 243, 246, 247, 261, 262, 266 Music education cross-cultural, 26, 250, 254 Japan, 25–26 Korea, 261–271 Malaysia, 250 Sri Lanka, 239–247 Musical instruments, 173, 233, 234, 242, 251–253, 255, 257–268, 309 Musicians, 20, 25, 83, 91, 99, 237, 239, 241, 246, 264, 283 Music teacher training. See Pre-service music education training

N Nanyang Girls’ High School, 154 National Art Exhibition, Thailand, 21, 137 National Arts Academy, Malaysia. See Akademi Seni Kebangsaan National Education Commission, Sri Lanka, 25, 239 National Foundation for Educational Research. See NFER National identity, 6, 21, 84, 263 National School Boards Association (NSBA), USA, 79 Natya Chetana, 28, 301, 303–311 Natyasastra, 26, 27, 275, 276 NFER (National Foundation for Educational Research, UK), 8

353 Nineteenth century, 23, 38, 40, 180, 231, 243 Ninth century, 38 Non Government Organizations (NGOs) formation and function of, 14–16 influence of, 16 interaction between community groups, 13–14 parents and young people, 13–14 relationship to government, 10, 14, 16, 17 NSBA. See National School Boards Association Numeracy, 340

O OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development), 13 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. See OECD Organisation for Research and Curriculum Development (ORCD) (Iran), 60

P Painters, 20, 41, 43, 83, 129, 180, 186 Painting, 19, 21, 32–35, 37, 38, 41–43, 49 Parents, 13–15, 28, 47, 48, 51, 68, 89, 103, 164, 170, 194, 199, 214, 263, 267, 304, 311, 315, 334 Partnerships, 8, 20, 65, 68, 78, 80, 196, 200, 333, 337 Peace, 5, 11, 97, 99, 129, 130, 175, 302, 339 Peace education, 340 Pedagogical methods, 5, 325, 337 Perestroika, 23, 183 Performance, 48, 67, 68, 70, 75, 80, 87–89, 96, 97 Performing arts, 26, 27, 71, 91, 92, 98, 277, 278, 298 Personality development, 17 Phillipine Art Educators Association, 24, 221–222 Philippines, The American presence, 24 arts education, 24, 219–227 cultural identity, 220, 221 Place, 5, 6, 11, 14, 40, 63, 77, 97, 122, 128, 130 Pluralism, 55, 96, 181, 193, 340 Poetry, 90, 104, 115, 116, 275 Poets, 20, 83, 286 Policy, 22, 41, 58, 60, 86, 89, 97, 137, 161, 164–165

354 Politics, 12, 31, 129, 181, 219, 223, 242, 243, 302 Pol Pot, 20 Portugal, 5, 29 Poverty, 4, 9, 12, 13, 21, 88, 93, 122, 133, 262, 285 Pre-service music education training, 239–247 Project Zero, 24, 205, 210, 297

Q Quality, 9, 11, 13–15, 17–19, 23, 24, 32, 47–52

R Race, Rasa, 27, 275–287, 296, 306 Religion, 278, 286, 292, 296, 305 Renaissance City, 22, 147–153, 155, 158, 161 Renaissance City Report, Singapore, 10, 148, 149, 152, 160 Renmin University, 24, 206 Researchers, 4, 6, 10, 88, 165, 172, 223, 224 Retention rates, 18, 47 Role-playing, 28, 61, 303, 321 Rural, 27, 47–49, 52, 188, 252, 302, 339 Russian academy, 23

S Safety net, 14 Salamanca World Conference on Special Needs Education, 340 Schools curriculum, 8, 14, 20, 26, 59, 79, 84, 89–90, 192 HSARUC, 206–209 music in, 231–233, 239, 244, 249–260 primary, 47, 48, 66, 68, 90, 172, 241, 251 secondary, 5, 51, 66, 67, 96, 147, 153, 154, 156, 181, 192, 195 Thailand, 209–215 Science natural, 341 physical, 266, 341 social, 233–235, 265 Sculptors, 20, 83, 129, 152 Sculpture, 21, 35, 38, 41, 42, 49, 107, 110, 121, 127, 135–137, 141, 155, 179, 180 Seasons (The Beauty of Transience in Japanese Art) (exhibition), 114–118 Second century, AD, 179

Subject Index Self-confidence, 7, 24, 52, 61, 67, 74, 75, 77, 207, 287, 322 Seventeenth century, 38, 128 Seventh century, 115 SIAP (Social Impact for the Arts Project), 11, 12 Singapore art education, 147, 151, 153–154 arts education programme, 22 creativity, 147, 149, 152–154, 158, 159 government, 22 information technology (IT), 148–151, 159 Ministry of Information and the Arts, 10 Renaissance City Report, 10, 148, 152, 160 Sixteenth century, 106 Social capital, 12, 342 Social exclusion, 7, 12, 341 Social impact for the arts project. See SIAP Social inclusion, 335 Social issues, 4, 14, 15, 17, 18, 140, 141, 207–209, 215, 342 Social responsibility, 4, 150, 159 Social welfare, 14 Software, 71, 72, 149–153, 156, 157, 161, 170, 171, 202, 340 South China Morning Post, 80 Soviet, 23, 121, 122, 127–132, 183–185 Soviet Union, 21, 122, 128, 129, 132. See also USSR Special learning needs, 340 Spirituality, 3, 92, 302 Sri Lanka national education commission, 239 pre-service music education training, 239–247 State art, 21, 128 Stelarc, 159 Story-telling, 19, 61, 62, 90, 275 Students art school, 40 elementary, 19, 62 primary, 67, 72, 73 school, 50, 324 secondary, 156–158, 210 tertiary, 79, 193, 212, 244, 289–300 Sustainability, 24, 214, 227, 316, 342 Sustainable communities, 10, 22, 205–216

T Tasmanian School of Art, 39 Teachers, 9, 10, 18, 20, 24, 32, 34, 36, 39, 43, 47, 48

Subject Index Teaching and learning, 24, 28, 47–49, 90, 92, 97, 99, 195, 197, 208, 210, 215, 216, 334, 335, 337 Teacher training, 25, 48, 52, 79, 192–194, 199, 215, 245–246, 334, 337 Teamwork, 7, 104, 335 Technology, 9, 13, 17, 67, 71, 78, 93, 123, 124, 141, 142, 147 Tenth century, 116, 117 Tertiary education, 79, 195, 212, 220, 289–300 Thai arts, 21, 135–137 culture, 135, 140, 142 heritage, 135, 142, 143 royal family, 21 Thailand, 23, 26, 38, 41, 44, 51, 95, 135–143 Thailand Education Department, 216, 334 Thanyarat School, Thailand, 209–213 Theatre children’s, 301, 303–305, 311 community, 301–304 Indian, 301–311 rural, 301 street, 303 therapy, 303 Theatre for awareness. See Natya Chetana Theatre in education, 303 Thirteenth century, 116 Tokyo, 33, 35, 41, 103, 111, 114, 118, 163, 167, 324 Tourism, 16, 17, 94, 95, 97, 194, 289 Toyota Foundation, 224 Trade and Tourism, Departments of, 17 Training. See also Arts education; Dance training; Education; Pre-service music education training; Teacher training Treasuries, 337 Twelfth century, 84, 116 Twentieth century, 23, 24, 34, 35, 107, 109, 112, 118, 163, 175, 179–183, 185, 186, 221, 262 Twenty-first century, 5, 6, 24, 150, 163, 194, 199, 202, 216, 219, 220, 231, 337, 338, 340–341

U UN (United Nations): Convention on the Rights of the Child, 30 Unemployment, 21, 132, 303 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization): Director General, 5, 341. See also Division of Arts and Creativity;

355 General Conference; International Appeal for the Promotion of Arts Education and Creativity at School; Links to Education and Art International (LEA); Matsuura; Observatories; World Conference on Arts Education; Young Digital Creators Project UNESCO Observatory for Education in the Arts, The University of Melbourne, 337 United Kingdom, 8, 65, 77, 114, 152, 154, 170, 210, 297 United Nations. See UN United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. See UNESCO United States of America, 12, 65, 208, 297 University of Melbourne, 104, 337 Urban design, 12–13 Urban policy, 10 USSR, 23, 183, 184. See also Soviet Union Uzbekistan arts development, 179–183 arts education, 181–185 independence, 181, 183–185

V 100 Views of Mount Fuji (exhibition), 103, 114 Violence, 254, 278, 339 Visual arts, 7, 31, 32, 66, 67, 97, 114, 121–133, 141, 195, 197, 221, 222, 225, 226, 340 Vocational opportunities, 22, 24, 28, 86, 209, 335

W War, 4, 24, 26, 34, 35, 42, 43, 95, 103, 106, 112, 129, 221, 262, 302 Western influence, 21, 23, 26, 110, 111, 139, 262 Westernization, 4, 135, 231, 278 Women, 32, 112, 214, 223, 262, 280, 292, 296, 305, 310 World Bank, 239 World Conference on Arts Education, Building Creative Capacities for the 21st Century: Road Map, 337 World Conference on Special Needs Education, Salamanca, 340 World Declaration on Education for All, 6 World Economic Forum, 151 World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), 338

356 Writing, 19, 50, 55, 62, 67, 68, 105, 106, 113, 167, 175, 201, 222, 224, 225, 243, 244, 289, 310

Y Yehudi Menuhin, International Foundation. See MUS-E Young Digital Creators Project, UNESCO, 338

Subject Index Young people, 13, 14, 28, 29, 35, 75, 203, 222, 314, 315, 320. See also Youth Youth, 34, 38, 84, 91, 150, 151, 157, 175, 184, 186. See also Young people

Z Zuni Icosahedron, 28, 314, 326–329

Education in the Asia-Pacific Region 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

J. Fien, D.Yencken and H. Sykes (eds.): Young People and the Environment. An Asia-Pacific Perspective. 2003 ISBN1-4020-0944-5 M.W. Charney, B.S.A. Yeoh and T.C. Kiong (eds.): Asian Migrants and Education. The Tensions of Educationin Immigrant Societies and among Migrant Groups. 2003 ISBN1-4020-1336-1 Y.C. Cheng, K.W. Chow and M. Mok (eds.): Reform of Teacher Education in the Pacific in the New Millennium. Trends and Challenges. 2004 ISBN1-4020-2701-X S.Alagumalai, D.D. Curtis and N. Hungi (eds.): Applied Rasch Measurement. A Book of Examplars Papers in Honour of John P. Keeves. 2004 ISBN1-4020-3072-X C.-H. Ng and P.Renshaw (eds. ): Reforming Learning. Issues, Concepts and Practices in the Asian-Pacific Region. 2005 ISBN1-4020-3002-9 Y.C. Cheng (ed.): New Paradigm for Re-engineering Education. Globalization, Localization and Individualization. 2005 ISBN1-4020-3619-1 W.J. Campbell, N. Baikaloff and C. Power (eds.): Towards a Global Community. Educating for Tomorrow’s World. 2006 ISBN1-4020-3960-3 C. Bjork (ed.): Educational Decentralization. Asian Experiences and Conceptual Contributions. 2006 ISBN1-4020-4356-2 P. Hughes (ed.): Secondary Education at the Crossroads. International Perspectives Relevant to the Asia-Pacific Region. 2006 ISBN1-4020-4667-7 Y. Nagata(ed.): Alternative Education. Global Perspectives Relevant to the AsiaPacific Region. 2007 ISBN1-4020-4985-4 L. Joubert (ed.): Educating in the Arts. The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays. 2008 ISBN978-1-4020-6386-2

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