Ecotourism 9789390455423

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There will always be tourists. In spite of terrorist attacks having a decimating effect on the whole tourism Industry throughout the world, mankind has an uncanny knack of “bouncing back”. To make a new world for the 21st century, we need to develop Ecotourism on a much larger scale and educate the public to get back to the beauty of nature and preserve what is left of the ecology in the environment. This book will help the students, research scholars and teachers in providing the latest information on the tourism industry. It sets out in detail all the aspects of the different types of tourists, details of destinations and means of transport. Above all, we must respect the laws and cultures of other countries. Through ecotourism, we have a chance to renew and beautify the world.

Jagbir Singh

Jagbir Singh is the Head, Dept. of Geography, Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi. India. For the past fourteen years, he has concerned himself with deeper issues involving environmental disasters (both natural and man made), environmental ecology and sustainability. The use of Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS has enabled him to work at local, national and international levels. He has received scholarships to attend international conferences in Sweden, U.S.A., Australia, Uzbekistan, Singapore and Malaysia.

978-93-90455-42-3

Jagbir Singh

Dr. Singh convened two international and three national conferences related to environmental issues at global levels. He has written many books including “Tourism Geography”, “Tsunamis: Threats and Management”, “Environment and Development: Opportunities and Challenges” and “Ecotourism.” Dr. Singh has completed his Ph.D. on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Currently, he is doing his MBA in Disaster Management from I.P. University, Delhi, India.

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Ecotourism

Ecotourism

Jagbir Singh Head, Dept. of Geography Swami Shraddhanand College & Member of Academic Council University of Delhi, Delhi, India

©Copyright 2020 I.K. International Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110002. This book may not be duplicated in any way without the express written consent of the publisher, except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for the purposes of review. The information contained herein is for the personal use of the reader and may not be incorporated in any commercial programs, other books, databases, or any kind of software without written consent of the publisher. Making copies of this book or any portion for any purpose other than your own is a violation of copyright laws. Limits of Liability/disclaimer of Warranty: The author and publisher have used their best efforts in preparing this book. The author make no representation or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book, and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness of any particular purpose. There are no warranties which extend beyond the descriptions contained in this paragraph. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The accuracy and completeness of the information provided herein and the opinions stated herein are not guaranteed or warranted to produce any particulars results, and the advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every individual. Neither Dreamtech Press nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Trademarks: All brand names and product names used in this book are trademarks, registered trademarks, or trade names of their respective holders. Dreamtech Press is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. ISBN: 978-93-90455-42-3 EISBN: 978-93-90581-84-9

Preface We live in a world on the move. Early man walked or travelled on horseback and if he lived the life of a nomad he took his few possessions with him. Once the wheel was invented, chariots and carriages were built and early tourism began. Since the end of World War II, large cruise vessels were built to take tourists to the main ports and cities of the world and there was also an increase in the manufacture of aircraft for the same purpose. By 2008, tourism is big business worldwide and we can now reflect on the damage which it has done to the planet in the last sixty two years. It is now time to think positively about ecotourism as tourists must be educated at a local, national and international levels that they must not be allowed to destroy the natural beauty of places which they have come to visit. The greed of developers with their hotel chains have invaded and destroyed the ecology and natural environment of the best coastline strips in every country of the world. At Mauritius, the local people are “outpriced” and have no access to their own beaches. Beach Resorts and Mountain Resorts in different parts of the world have become concrete jungles and are no longer holiday destinations. Because of excessive, uneducated tourists who have no understanding of the local ecology of many places which they visit, ecotourism is now becoming the force needed to educate the public all over the world on the importance of preserving, renewing and respecting the beauty of what we have left. The enormous amount of plastic and paper litter left on the nature strips of tourist areas, as well as on the streets in various countries, is causing the greatest threat to the flora and fauna on land and the marine life in the rivers and oceans. We have to stop polluting the land, rivers, mountains and lakes as well as the oceans of the world. The earth is a living, breathing planet and only education on ecology and the environment throughout the schools of the world will cause ecotourism to be in the hearts and minds of our children, our future tourists.

Jagbir Singh

Acknowledgements Ecotourism is a very important subject which concerns us all in this modern age as we are all travellers in one way or the other. Ecotourism embraces a wide diversity of subjects and in writing this book, I wish to acknowledge the following people. Professor Deepak Pental, Vice Chancellor, University of Delhi, Professor Joan Schreijaeg from Sydney, Australia, who has been a constant source of inspiration and provided me with the guidance to achieve my long cherished ambition for completing this book. I also wish to thank my family members for providing me with moral strength and support. Last but not least I give thanks to the publisher I.K. International who brought this book together in a short time. This book will provide the latest information about tourism and will be very helpful to all teachers and students who are involved in tourism in its many aspects. Jagbir Singh

Contents

Preface Acknowledgements 1. Introduction

v vii 1

2. History of Tourism

28

3. Tourism Types and Motivations

41

4. Significance of Tourism

67

5. Tourism Marketing

77

6. Dimensions of the Hotel Industry and Globalization

92

7. Transport in Tourism

105

8. Tourism Products, Advertising and Promotion

113

9. Different Countries and Organizations in Tourism

128

10. Ecotourism

145

11. Tourism Policy and Planning

168

12. Information Technology in Tourism

186

Glossary

199

Appendix - 1: Fairs and Festivals of India

208

Appendix - 2: Education in Travel and Tourism Institutes Overseas

210

Appendix - 3: Tables

213

References

218

Index

219

CHAPTER 1

Introduction By the 18th century, the word ‘tour’, in the sense of tourism, was established in English language. The word ‘tourism’, although accepted and recognised in common parlance, is nevertheless a term that is subjected to a diversity of meanings and interpretations. For the student, this is a potential difficulty since consensus in the understanding of the term and hence, the scope for investigation that such agreement opens up, is fundamental to any structured form of enquiry and interpretation. Definitional problems arise partly because the word ‘tourism’ is typically used as a single term to designate a variety of concepts, partly because it is an area of study in a range of disciplines (geography, economics, business and marketing, sociology, anthropology, history and psychology) and the differing conceptual structures within these disciplines lead inevitably to contrasts in perspective and emphasis. It is also the case that whilst there has been some convergence in ‘official’ definitions (i.e. those used by tourism organisations, governments and international forums such as the United Nations (UN)), public perceptions of what constitutes a tourist and the activity of tourism may still differ quite markedly. We may, however, tease out some basic technical definitions of tourists and tourism as a starting point. Dictionaries, for example, explain a ‘tourist’ as a person undertaking a tour—a circular trip that is usually made for business, pleasure or education, at the end of which one returns to the starting point, normally the home. “Tourism” is habitually viewed as a composite concept involving not just the temporary movement of people to destinations that are removed from their normal place of residence but, in addition, the organisation and conduct of their activities and of the facilities and services that are necessary for meeting their needs. The spirit of these conceptions of tourism is, however, only implicit in the WTO definition published in 1991. This takes a rather general view of tourism as: The activities of a person travelling to a place outside his or her usual environment for less than a specified period of time and whose main purpose of travel is other than the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited. A number of writers have suggested that this definition needs further qualification by recognising that the time-frame should normally be more than one

2 Ecotourism day (thereby involving an overnight stop—a distinguishing feature that has been central to many attempts to define tourism) but no more than one year. However, neither the WTO definition, nor an earlier statement from the International Union of Tourism Organisation (IUOTO) which saw tourists as any person visiting a country, region or place other than that in which he or she has their usual place of residence, necessarily places an emphasis upon overnight stops as a defining feature of tourism. This view finds favour with a growing number of authors who argue that the actions of day visitors and excursionists are often indistinguishable in cause and effect from those of staying visitors and that these short-term visitors should also be considered as tourists. This raises the wider issue of the relationship between tourism, recreation and leisure. As areas of academic study (and only not least within the discipline of geography), a tradition for separate modes of investigation has emerged within these three fields, with particular emphasis upon the separation of tourism. Unfortunately the terms ‘leisure’ and ‘recreation’ are themselves contested, but if we view ‘leisure’ as “being related either to free time and/or to a frame of mind in which the individual believes himself to be ‘at leisure’ and ‘recreation’ as being an activity or experience set within the context of leisure, then tourism (as defined so far) is clearly congruent with major areas of recreation and leisure. Not only does a significant portion of tourism activity” takes place in the leisure time/space framework, but it also centres upon recreational activities and experiences that may occur with equal ease within leisurely contexts that exist outside the framework of a tourism convergence in the experience of leisure. Sporadic travels by the nomads in the earlier days has now turned into the world’s most flourishing industry, namely tourism. Tourism is unique. It involves industry without a smoke, education without classroom, integration without legislation and diplomacy without formality. (1) Francis Bacon aptly remarked, “Travel in the young is a part of education and in the elder a part of experience.” Tourism as a form of education is a part of civilised existence. Tourism allows people to escape from their normal humdrum lives. (2) Mark Twain wrote “Even heaven can be boring after a while.” The human animal needs change if it is to operate at optimum levels. Travel provides that change. The younger and better educated travel more than the elderly and less educated. The word travel is derived from the French ‘travail’ which means hardship. In the past, transportation was far more primitive than today and travelling was difficult. Far from being a pleasure, travel involved great hardship and risk. Although the development of modern transportation methods has made travelling safer, easier and more comfortable, the element of stress has not been entirely eliminated. Tourism is not an industry. It is better to call it an activity. It is an activity that takes place when people move to some other place for leisure or for business and

Introduction

3

stay at least for 24 hours. Tourism and travel are not synonyms. All tourism involves travel but all travel is not tourism. All tourism occurs during leisure time but all leisure is not given to touristic pursuits. Tourism means the business of providing information, transportation, accommodation and other services to travellers. The travel and tourism industry is made up of companies that provide services to all types of travellers, whether travelling for business or pleasure. Tourism moves people from one region of the world to another. CONCEPT OF TOURISM It arises from the movement of people to and their stay in different destinations. The ‘journey’ is the dynamic element in it and the ‘stay’—static, since journey and stay are in destinations outside the normal place of residence and work. The tourism movement is of a temporary and short duration—say a few days, weeks or months. “Tourism is the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, in so far as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity”. In its pure sense, tourism is a pleasurable activity in which money earned in one’s normal domicile is spent in the place visited. Therefore, tourism and tourists are words which are commonly heard or mentioned in everyday life. Pick up any newspaper and you will find in T.V. and other magazines some reference to tourism, i.e., in relation to government policy, tourist arrivals, products, destination, the impact on the economy, hostility or hospitality of the local people, etc., but how often have you attempted to understand the meaning of tourism or asked the question who is a tourist? By the Swiss Professors Hunziker and Krapt they write as follows: Tourism is the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity. On an analysis of the above definition, we find the following features of tourism: (1) Tourism arises from the movement of people to and their stay in various destinations. (2) There are two elements in all tourism—the journey to the destination and the stay. (3) The journey and the stay should take place outside the normal place of one’s residence and work. (4) The movement to a destination is of a temporary character with the intention of returning within a few days. A tourist is expected to spend a minimum of 24 hours and a maximum of six months at the destination. (5) Destinations are visited for purposes other than taking up permanent residence or employment.

4 Ecotourism (6) Gunn feels that tourism includes all travelling except commuting time and money and recreation is often the main purpose for participating in tourism. DEFINITIONS OF TOURISM The International Dictionary of Tourism, published in 1953 by the International Academy of Tourism at Monte Carlo points out that to tour in English and in French means a journey. “People who travel for the pleasure of travelling out of curiosity or because they have nothing better to do” and even “for the joy of boasting about it afterwards.” The World Tourism Organisation (WTO) has defined a tourist as a temporary visitor staying for at least twenty-four hours in a country visited when the purpose of the journey can be classified under one of the following headings: (a) leisure, recreation, holiday, health, study, religion and sports, or (b) business, family, mission, meetings. Travellers staying less than twenty-four hours, according to the WTO, are excursionists. Tourism arises from the movement of people to and their stay in different destinations. “Tourism is the sum of phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity.” “Tourism may be defined in terms of particular activities selected by choice and undertaken outside the home environment. Tourism may or may not involve an overnight stay away from home.” Tourists would mean those travelling for pleasure, domestic reasons, health, business purposes, conferences, meetings, diplomatic and religious purposes plus arrivals on cruises, even though they do not involve an overnight stay. Persons not to be considered as tourists are the individuals transiting through a country and those coming to take up residence and those who live in one country but cross over to another as workers. Tourism is a pleasure activity in which money earned in one’s normal domicile is spent in places visited. On 4 March, 1993, the United Nations statistical commission adopted the WTO’s recommendations on tourism statistics. “Tourism comprises the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes. The report distinguishes the following types of tourism. • Domestic tourism involving residents of a country visiting their own country. • Inbound tourism involving non-residents visiting a country other than their own. • Outbound tourism involving residents of a country visiting other countries. • Internal tourism which comprises domestic tourism and inbound tourism. • National tourism which comprises domestic tourism and outbound tourism.

Introduction

5

• International tourism which comprises inbound and outbound tourism.” Concept of ‘Traveller’ defined as “any person on a trip between two or more countries or between two or more localities within his/her country of usual residence”. A visitor is defined as a person who travels to a country other than that in which he has his usual residence but outside his usual environment for a period not exceeding twelve months. Visitors are subdivided into two categories: (1) Same-day visitors who do not spend the night in a collective or private accommodation in the country visited. (2) Tourists: Visitors who stay for at least one night in a collective or private accommodation in the country visited. DEFINITIONS OF TOURISM DEVELOPED BY THE WTO • International Tourism: Consists of inbound tourism. • Visits to a country by non-residents and outbound tourism residents of a country visiting another country. • Internal Tourism: Residents of a country visiting their own country. • Domestic Tourism: Internal tourism plus inbound tourism (the tourism market of accommodation facilities and attractions within a country). • National Tourism: International tourism plus outbound tourism (the resident tourism market for travel agents and airlines). RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEISURE, RECREATION AND TOURISM In general, leisure is a measure of time left over after work, rest, sleep and household chores. Leisure is the time when an individual can do what he likes to refresh his/ her spirits. Recreation means a variety of activities which a person could choose to refresh his/her spirit. It may include activities as diverse as a game of golf, watching television or travelling abroad. Tourism, therefore, is simply one of these activities which a person could undertake to refresh his/her spirit. It places tourism firmly as part of the recreational activity spectrum of a person. The following diagram may explain the interrelationship. The difference between leisure, recreation and tourism are as follows: Leisure Leisure in its easiest form may be defined as that duration of time when one is free to do what one likes. It is that span of time when one is on one’s own without any bondage of doing anything. In fact, it is the state of mind of an individual which determines when one is at leisure. As it is rightly said by Cosgrove and Jackson that “many activities are part of both work and leisure; reading, dining and driving

6 Ecotourism Local recreation

Non-local recreation Business and recreational travel

Personal travel Leisure Tourism Recreation

Relationship between leisure, recreation and tourism

a car would all be exactly difficult to categorise”. Thus, “leisure is essentially the time available to the individual when the disciplines of work, sleep and other basic needs have been met” or in other words “leisure can be described as the state of being free from the necessity to work”. In the post-industrial society, the standard of living of the people will keep on improving, thereby creating opportunities and challenges for holiday travel. Leisure time can be grouped under three categories: (a) After work leisure time: This is consumed in activities like watching a movie or TV, reading books or strolling, etc. (b) Weekend leisure: In most advanced countries, Saturdays and Sundays are off days.The two-day weekend leisure is utilised by people for short trips, camping, hiking or plain resting. (c) Holiday: This is a category with which people in the tourism field are mainly concerned. People accumulate vacations for one to four weeks and take one or two holiday trips a year. Recreation Any activity undertaken during the leisure time may be referred to as recreation. The same attitude of leisure can also be applied to recreation. Recreation and tourism are not too very distinct identities. Their faces resemble and are qualitatively much identical. “Tourism is often equated with recreation. Tourism represents a particular form of recreation, but does not include all uses of leisure nor all forms of recreation.” Tourism is distinguished in its particular form by the related concepts

Introduction

7

of leisure and recreation on the one hand and from travel and migration on the other hand. MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF TOURISM The word ‘tourism’, which is widely accepted and recognised in common parlance, is, nevertheless, a term that is subject to diversity of meanings and interpretation. However, we can take out some basic definitions of tourist and tourism as given by various forums and organisations. The League of Nations defined in 1937 the term foreign tourist as: “Any person visiting a country other than that in which he usually resides for a period of at least 24 hours.” According to this definition the following persons were to be considered tourists: (1) Persons travelling for pleasure, for domestic reasons, for health purposes, etc., (2) Persons travelling to some meetings or in a representative capacity of any kind, i.e., scientific, administrative, diplomatic, religious and athletic, (3) Persons travelling for business purposes, and (4) Persons taking a sea cruise. A revised definition given at the UN Conference on International Travel and Tourism held in Rome in 1963 described “Any person visiting a country other than that in which he has his usual place of residence, for any reason other than following an occupation remunerated from within the country visited” is a tourist. This definition covered: (1) Tourist, i.e., temporary visitor staying for at least 24 hours in the country visited and the purpose of whose journey can be classified as: (a) Leisure, i.e., recreation, holiday, study, religion and sports. (b) Business, meeting, convention and family. (2) Excursionists, i.e., temporary visitors, staying less than 24 hours in the country visited. These definitions were again revised and updated at the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) Conference in Ottawa in 1991. The most popular and widely accepted definition of tourism given by the WTO is: “The activities of a person travelling to a place outside his/her environment for less than a specified period of time and whose main purpose in travelling is other than the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited.” This definition explains the following purposes: (a) For pleasure, i.e., holiday, leisure, sports, etc., (b) For religious and social functions, (c) Study and health, (d) Meetings and conventions, and

8 Ecotourism (e) Business and trade. After World War II the scenario has changed, that is, changes in mental attitude towards pleasure seeking. The recognised values of travel have emerged for holiday and education, increase in material wealth coupled with prestige, a growing need to find relief from the working routine, improvements in passenger transport systems, etc. All these factors have produced flows in international tourism and have also contributed some of the most dynamical economical exchanges that occur between the countries. In fact, international tourism has been brought sharply into international focus after 1945 and within two short decades, has started flowing on a large scale. The economical analysis of international tourism is based on accurate and universally accepted definitions which describe the inner characteristics of tourism. International tourism generally consists of inbound and outbound tourism. Therefore, a visitor whose length of stay in a country visited reaches or exceeds 24 hours, thus spending at least one night there, is known as a tourist. Thus, international tourists are defined as: “Temporary visitors staying for at least 24 hours in a country whose motives for travel can be described as being either for: (a) Leisure (pleasure, holidays, health, study, religion and sports), (b) Business, family, and work assignments. This definition clearly encompasses holiday makers and business travellers in the tourist category. Today, most of the countries of the world are using the tourism definition proposed by the Rome Conference on Travel and Tourism 1963. According to this definition, the following persons have been considered as a foreign tourist: (a) Pleasure seekers i.e. sightseeing, recreation, adventure, hunting, religion and sports, (b) Person visiting for business and commercial purpose and also to attend meetings in a representative capacity, (c) Person travelling for family and meeting relatives, (d) Persons coming for education, health, etc., and (e) Persons arriving in the course of a sea cruise. Therefore, from the above definition we can say that tourism is the sum of the relation and services connected with a temporary and voluntary change of residence for various purposes. According to the WTO, tourism is the movement of people away from their normal place of residence and work for a period of not less than 24 hours and not more than 1 year. The WTO is the World Tourism Organisation based at Madrid, Spain. Tourism involves the movement of people to, and their stay at various destinations. There is a clear intention when “going away” to “return home”. The tourist is, therefore, different from the traveller, because travel has an individual character whereas tourism has a mass character. The tourist’s gaze is directed

Introduction

9

towards a landscape, a town or an event by pointing out those features that separate it from everyday life. Finally tourism has also become a status symbol in modern society and thought to be necessary for one’s health. Today 40% of free time is devoted to travel in developed countries. 429 million tourists spent US $ 429 billion between 1990 and the year 2000. Film, pleasure and entertainment are concepts popularly associated with tourism. Over the years the definition of tourism has undergone a change along with the historical changes. • The League of Nations in 1937 recommended that tourism covers the social activity of those who travel for a period of 24 hours or more in a country other than the one country in which a person usually lives. However, the limitation of this definition was that it excluded domestic and emphasised only international tourism. • The Rome Conference on Tourism in 1963 adopted the recommendation to replace the term “tourist” with the term “visitor” and defined tourism as a visit “to a country other than one’s own or where one usually resides and works”, 1. Tourism: The activity of temporary visitors staying at least 24 hours for leisure, business, family, mission or meeting. 2. Excursion: The activity or a temporary visitor staying less than 24 hours but excluding people in transit. • The Tourism Society of Britain in 1976 proposed to clarify the concept of tourism. • In 1981 this concept was refined. These definitions indicate that tourism has expanded in its range and scope. The movement of tourists from the place of origin to the destination is further described as: • International Tourism, when the travel is from one country to another, and • Domestic Tourism, when the travel is within the country, i.e., trips taken by a tourist within his/her own country or where the origin and destination are in the same country. 1. Inbound: This refers to tourists entering a country. 2. Outbound: This refers to tourists leaving their country of origin for another. Who is a Tourist? The 19th century dictionary defines tourists as “people who travel for the pleasure of travelling out of curiosity; and because they have nothing better to do,” and even “for the joy of boasting about it afterwards”. (WTO) has defined a tourist as

10 Ecotourism a temporary visitor staying at least 24 hours in a country visited when the purpose of such a journey can be classified under one of the following headings: (a) Leisure: recreation, holiday, health, study, religion and sports. (b) Business: family, mission, meetings. Travellers staying less than 24 hours according to the IUOTO are ‘excursionists’. The United Nations accepted this definition of a tourist provided by the IUOTO in their conference on International Travel and Tourism in 1963. The current definition adds an array of travellers to those travelling for fun, i.e., persons travelling for business, family, mission or meeting purposes. Definition of Tourist Realising the importance of collecting tourist statistical information, experts at the League of Nations in the year 1937 established the definition of the term ‘tourist’. The League of Nations, with the concurrence of member countries defined the term ‘foreign tourist’ as ‘any person visiting a country, other than that in which he usually resides for a period of at least 24 hours’. The following persons were to be considered tourists within this definition: (1) Persons travelling for pleasure, for domestic reasons, for health, etc. (2) Persons travelling to meetings, or in a representative capacity of any kind (scientific, administrative, diplomatic, religious, athletic, etc.). (3) Persons travelling for business purposes. (4) Persons arriving in the course of a sea cruise, even when they stay for less than 24 hours. (The latter should be reckoned as a separate group, disregarding if necessary their usual place of residence). The following categories were not to be regarded as tourists: (1) Persons arriving, with or without a contract of work, to take up an occupation or engage in any business activity in the country. (2) Persons coming to establish a residence in the country. (3) Students and young persons in boarding establishments or schools. (4) Residents in a frontier zone and persons domiciled in one country and working in an adjoining country. (5) Travellers passing through a country without stopping, even if the journey takes more than 24 hours. Difference between Travel and Tourism The term “travel and tourism” is used here to describe the field of research on human and business activities associated with one or more aspects of the temporary movement of persons away from their immediate home communities and daily work environments for business, pleasure and personal reasons. The “travel and tourism” approach represents a compromise between those who favour the use of one word over the other. In the 1980s it was common practice to use the two

Introduction

11

words “travel” or “tourism” either singly or in combination to describe three types of concepts: (1) The movement of people. (2) A sector of the economy or an industry. (3) A broad system of interacting relationships of people, their needs to travel outside their communities and services which attempt to respond to these needs. Tourism cannot be separated from travel. The advent of the railways in the 1830s made it possible to travel with comfort and speed. The changes in travel technology have been dramatic since World War II. Aeroplane technology developed during the war was brought to commercial usage and has since overtaken practically all other modes of travel. For international tourism, the US is leading the way. THE NATURE OF TOURISM (1) Using Resources Sustainably: The conservation and sustainable use of resources—natural, social and cultural is crucial and makes long-term business sense. (2) Reducing Over-Consumption and Waste: The reduction of overconsumption and waste avoids the costs of restoring long-term environmental damage and contributes to the quality of tourism. (3) Maintaining Diversity: Maintaining and promoting natural, social and cultural diversity is essential for long-term sustainable tourism, and creates a resilient base for the industry. (4) Integrating Tourism into Planning: Tourism development which is integrated into a national and local strategic planning framework, and which undertakes EIAS increases the long-term viability of tourism. (5) Supporting Local Economies: Tourism that supports a wide range of local economical activities, and which takes environmental costs/values into account, both protects those economies and avoids environmental damage. (6) Involving Local Communities: The full involvement of local communities in the tourism sector not only benefits them and the environment in general but it also improves the quality of the tourism experience. (7) Consulting Stakeholders and the Public: Consultation between the tourism industry and local communities, organisations and institutions is essential if they are to work alongside each other and resolve potential conflicts of interest. (8) Training Staff: Staff training which integrates sustainable tourism into work practices along with the recruitment of local persons at all levels, improves the quality of the tourism product.

12 Ecotourism (9) Marketing Tourism Responsibly: Marketing that provides tourists with full and responsible information increases respect for the natural, social and cultural environment of destination areas and enhances customer satisfaction. (10) Undertaking Research: Ongoing research and monitoring by the industry using effective data collection and analysis is essential in solving problems and bringing benefits to a destination recommended by the industry for the consumer. TOURS Tours and their characteristics are closely linked to the motivation of the tourist. Motivation or purpose of a visit is usually: • Holiday or vacation, including a visit with friends and relations. • Meetings and conferences, including other business activities. • Health and sports. • Religion and culture or • Special interests, including study tours, etc.

The purpose of the visit determines the nature of the tour in the following ways: 1. Are you free to choose your destination? 2. Is price a constraint? 3. Is time a constraint? 4. Is quality a determining factor? 5. What facilities and services do you require? The time period that a tour includes will depend on factors like • Holiday period • Price • Attractions and activities • Single destination or multi-destination • Packaged itinerary or individual travel, and • Inclusive arrangements or special interest tours, etc. TOURISTS The tourist, apart from being a holiday maker or a businessman, can also be recognised in terms of region, nationality, socio-economic class, age and sex. Behavioural aspects like his/her stage in the life cycle, personality and educational levels also help the producer of services to design products that fit specific targets or market segments. Today people are feverishly participating in tourism. This may include short trips during the week, weekend breaks or longer journeys during

Introduction

13

The below diagram shows the different stages of Tour Package—Development and Planning Phases

Tour Operator

Research • Market • Destination

Tour Itinerary Development

Negotiations with Tourism Suppliers

Costing of a Tour Package

Financial Evaluation and Pricing

Appointment of Administrative Staff

Marketing of a Tour Package

Operation and Execution of a Tour

Post Tour Management

14 Ecotourism holidays. Old age pensioners have a dream of retiring to a place where the weather is good and the prices low. Modern tourism is one of the most striking phenomena of our times and tourism offers us an opportunity to learn, to enrich humanity and to identify what may be termed as goals for a better life. The table below shows the old and new tourists. Poon’s (1993) old and new tourists Old tourists

New tourists

Search for the sun Follow the masses Here today, gone tomorrow Show that you have been Having Superiority Like attractions Reactions Eat in hotel dining room Homogenous

Experience something new Want to be in charge See and enjoy but not destroy Just for the fun of it Being Understanding Like sport and nature Adventurous Try out local fare Hybrid

Categorizing Tourist Attractions This categorization is impressive through its very comprehensiveness but as Prentice (1993: 39) recognizes, some attractions are hardly worthy of the label, citing genocide and field sports. Prentice’s heritage attraction categories • Natural history attractions: Nature reserves, nature trails, rare breeds centres, wildlife parks, zoos, butterfly parks, geological sites including caves, cliffs and waterfalls. • Science-based attractions: Science museums, technology centres, ‘hands-on’ science centres. • Attractions concerned with primary production: Agricultural attractions, farms, vineyards, fishings, mining, water impounding reservoirs. • Craft centres and craft workshops: Water- and windmills, potters, woodcarvers, glass-maker. • Attractions concerned with manufacturing industry: The mass production of goods including pottery, porcelain, breweries, distilleries, economic history museums. • Transport attractions: Including transport museums, preserved railways, canals. • Socio-cultural attractions: Prehistoric and historic sites and displays including domestic houses, social history museums, costume museums, toy museums. • Attractions associated with historic persons: Including sites and areas associated with writers and painters.

Introduction

15

• Performing arts attractions: Including theatres, street-based performing arts, circuses. • Pleasure gardens: Including period gardens, arboreta, model villages. • Theme parks: Including ‘historic’ adventure parks but excluding amusement parks (where the principal attractions are exciting rides and the like). • Galleries: Principally art galleries. • Festivals and pageants: Including historic fairs and countryside festivals. • Field sports: Fishing, hunting, shooting. • Stately and ancestral homes: Palaces, manor houses. • Religious attractions: Cathedrals, churches, mosques, shrines, wells. • Millitary attractions: Castles, battlefields, naval dockyards, military museums. • Genocide monuments: Sites associated with the extermination of other races. • Towns and townscape: Principally historic townscape. • Villages and hamlets: Principally ‘rural’ settlements, usually of pre-twentiethcentury architecture. • Countryside and treasured landscapes: Including national parks. • Seaside resorts and ‘seascapes’: Principally seaside towns of past eras and marine ‘landscapes’. The much maligned tourist types Type Ridiculous Naive Organized Ugly Uncultured Rich Exploiting Polluting Alternative

Characteristics Camera dangling before his belly, funny clothes, pale skin, fat Inexperienced in travelling, no language skills, can’t find way round, easily duped Dependent on group and guide, follows like a sheep, feels well only with other tourists Behaves as if whole world belongs to him and does all the things forbidden at home Lazing on beach, doesn’t care about place or people, watched TV, eats same food as at home Spends lavishly, puts wealth on show, enjoys being waited on Spends holiday at the cost of other people and cultures, takes advantage of poverty of others Flattens everything in their way, pollutes air, tramples flowers, leaves behind dirty lakes, sea, rivers, beaches Different from others, explores untouched areas, paves the way for mass tourists

TOURISM AS DEFINED BY SCHOLARS There have been numerous attempts to define tourists and tourism since the beginning of the 20th century. In 1910 an Austrian economist named Herman von Schullard, defined tourism from his perspective as the sum total of operations, mainly of an economical nature, which directly related to the entry, stay standpoint.

16 Ecotourism Ogilve (1933) wrote that all persons satisfy two conditions, when they are away from home for any period of less than one year because while they are away they spend money in the place they visit without earning it there. Tourism is the sum of phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stays of non-residents, in so far as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity. This definition defines what tourists do and what is done for tourists. Any person travelling for a period of twenty-four hours or more in a country other than that in which he usually resides is a tourist. Tourists are all those persons who are travelling for pleasure, and arriving in the course of a sea cruise, even though they may stay less than twenty-four hours. Those individuals who travel through a country in less than 24 hours make only brief, non-tourism stops. The definition was again revised at the United Nations Conference on International Travel and Tourism, held in Rome in 1963. The Conference defined the term visitor (tourist) as any person visiting a country other than that in which he has his usual place of residence, for any reason other than following an occupation remunerated within the country visited. “International Tourist.” “International Excursionist.” The WTO defines a domestic tourist as a traveller visiting a destination in his country of residence for at least 24 hours, but less than one year, for the purposes of recreation, holidays, sports, business, meetings, conventions, study, visiting friends or relatives, health, mission work or religion. A domestic excursionist is a visitor travelling in his country of residence for any of the reasons given for tourists, but who stays less than 24 hours at the destination. Canada uses a minimum distance of 80 km for including a respondent in their Canada Travel Survey but the US Bureau of Census defines a visitor as anyone who travels at least 160 km (100 miles) one-way away from home, except for purposes of commuting to work, and regardless of the length of stay. The Australian Bureau definition of a tourist is a person visiting a location at least 40 km from his usual place of residence for a period of at least 24 hours and not exceeding twelve months. UNDERSTANDING TRAVEL AND TOURISM “The tourism industry is an industry concerned with movements.” An ancient poet has said that the benefits of travel are many. The freshness it brings to the heart. The delight of beholding new cities. The meeting of unknown friends and the learning of high manners but the term tourism is relatively a recent phenomenon and is distinguishable by its mass character from travel. The use of the term ‘tourism’ has led to a range of complex meanings which have become associated with the movement of people; a sector of the economy; unidentifiable industry; services which need to be provided for travellers. Tourism may mean sources of employment, economical activities, per capita expenditure, multiplier effects; to

Introduction

17

the industrial sectors, it may suggest promotion, arrivals, length of stay, receipts; while to religious groups, it brings to mind pilgrimage, spiritual search, universal brotherhood, unacceptable forms of tourist practices. To anthropologists, tourism

18 Ecotourism represents a domain of study, which includes contacts between the host and the guest, cultural change. The commercialization of heritage, and prudence. Thus, tourism can be defined as a human experience, social behaviour, geographical phenomena, resource value, and business industry and by a number of other cultural, social and economical values. Tourism is not only a complex phenomenon because of its wide-ranging effects, its complexity also lies in the extremely complicated arrangements that have to be made for international travellers. Tourism has been treated as a lucrative industry of foreign exchange earnings and employment generation in most of the developing nations. Tourism is a multidimensional business where a number of activities make their own separate and individual contributions to a comprehensive service to tourists. TOURS AND EXCURSIONS Travel agencies offer standard, readymade tours or tailor them to the requirements of a group of travellers or an individual. Some travel agencies have their own tourist coaches and cars and offer regular sightseeing tours at fixed prices for a seat in the coach or a seat in the car. Excursion tours often include lunches, local entertainment and overnight accommodation where necessary. For instance there are day-return excursion tours from Delhi to Agra and back but a typical Delhi-Agra-Jaipur tour requires overnight accommodation either at Jaipur or both at Jaipur and Agra. Due to the unprecedented and continuous growth during the last few years, tourism has now been recognised as a major industry in many countries of the world. According to the latest WTO estimation it accounts for more than 10 per cent of the world’s export. In fact, tourism for its economical and social benefits, has been thought of as the most desired human activity and has, therefore, become a global phenomenon in the last fifty years. Better and faster means of transportation and communication have effectively facilitated a massive movement of people throughout the world, drawing them closer through interaction, experience. The diagram below shows the analysis of tourism. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL TOURISTS A national tourist leaves his normal place of work and residence and takes a journey within his own political territory or country without crossing an international boundary. For this journey he is not required to get any documents or undergo any governmental formalities like visa and passport. At the destination his own currency serves the need. As far as language is concerned, the domestic tourists of relatively. smaller states, where a single language is spoken throughout the country, do not have any problem but the domestic tourists of those countries where there are several mother dialects and tongues, or regional language, as is the case with ours,

An Analysis of Tourism

Practices

Principles Accessibility Accommodation Amenities

Attractions

Stay

Surface Water Air Road

Tourism Transportation Destination

Food

Stay Star 5+ 4+ 3+ 2+

Gifts Gym Emergency Exit

Rail Inland

Accommodation

Vehicles

Sea

Entertainment

Food

Budget Inhouse

Restaurant

Operation

Tour Principals Water Surface Travel Agent Operation Mass Individuals Planes Ship Railways Roadways Dance Drama Music Ethnic Wonders Place of World Air

Physical Cultural

Interpersonal Status

Historical Place

Religious Place

Art

Handicrafts Souvenirs

Introduction

Beach Resort

19

20 Ecotourism may face the problems of language and need an interpreter. Whereas, on the other hand, an international tourist has to go for documentation formalities, face the problem of currency and language. Moreover, the free movement of foreign tourists in the country visited is sometimes restricted. The duration of stay is further made limited. The domestic tourist, however, does not face all these restrictions. DOMESTIC TOURISM AND PILGRIMAGE “Domestic tourism forms the base of the pyramid of tourism”. It promotes national integration, strengthens the relationship between the people of the nation from one corner to another, which is so essential, especially in a vast country of such diversified climate and culture as India. Domestic tourism in India may broadly be grouped into three categories on the basis of the motivation. Firstly, the journey will be undertaken to see the historical and archaeological monuments, cities, exhibitions, fairs, etc., including educational tours; Secondly, holiday makers going to hill stations; and Thirdly, a pilgrimage. Figure below shows the elements of tourism. The Elements of Tourism PRIMARY ELEMENTS Activity place

Leisure setting

Cultural facilities • Concert halls • Cinemas • Exhibitions • Museums and art galleries • Theatres

Physical characteristics • Ancient monuments and statues • Ecclesiastical buildings • Harbours • Historical street pattern • Interesting buildings • Parks and green areas • Water, canals and river fronts

Sports facilities • Indoor and outdoor Amusement facilities • Bingo halls • Casinos • Festivities • Night clubs • Organized events

SECONDARY ELEMENTS • Hotels and catering facilities • Markets • Shopping facilities

ADDITIONAL ELEMENTS Sociocultural features • Folklore • Accessibility and • Friendliness parking facilities • Language • Tourist facilities: • Liveliness and ambience of the place information offices, • Local customs and costumes signposts, guides, maps • Security and leaflets

JUST WHAT IS TOURISM? Thus, we define a tourist as a person travelling outside of his/her normal routine, who spends money. This definition of visitor/tourist includes: • People who stay in hotels, motels, resorts or camp grounds.

Introduction

21

• • • •

People who visit friends or relatives. People who visit while just passing through going somewhere else. People who are on a day trip (do not stay overnight). All other categories of people on boats, who sleep in a vehicle of some sort, or who otherwise do not fit the above. For the purpose of this definition, a resident (or someone who is not a tourist) is defined as a person staying more than thirty days. Note that visitors/tourists can • Be attending a meeting or convention. • Be business travellers outside their home office area. • Be on a group tour. • Be on an individual leisure/vacation trip—including recreational shopping. • Be travelling for personal or family related reasons. TOURISM GEOGRAPHY: A BRIEF ANALYSIS Tourism has been defined in various ways but may be thought of as the relationship and phenomenon arising out of the journeys and temporary stages of people travelling primarily for leisure or recreational purposes. The duration of these stays may vary. For statistical purposes, a four-night minimum is commonly accepted for domestic tourism but stays of twenty-four hours are universally recognized in the case of international tourism. Geographers were first attracted to the study of tourism half a century ago. Early American geographers saw tourism as a distinct and significant form of land use and tended to concentrate on the economical aspects of tourism. Other writers observed that tourism modified the existing landscape and gave rise to new and different urban forms. The main British contribution in this early period was Gilbert’s work on the morphology of inland and seaside resorts (1939, 1949). Nevertheless, six broad topic areas can be thought of as constituting the major components of the geography of tourism: (1) Spatial patterns of supply. (2) Spatial patterns of demand. (3) The geography of reasons. (4) Tourist movements and flows. (5) The impact of tourism. (6) Models of tourist space. Tourism geography is defined as being concerned essentially with space. This definition consists of five separate parts: (1) Space or place. (2) Relationships (3) Phenomenal facilities and activities. (4) Travel. (5) Leisure or recreation.

22 Ecotourism The geographer, therefore, views tourism within a spatial or place context. In other words, the geographer’s bias pertains to a specific site and general situational characteristics of a particular area or region. In addition, the relationships of distinct activities and facilities are emphasised. The travel aspect of tourism implies the journey to a given location and the pleasurable experiences in which one is engaged at the destination and the return trip. Both phases, travel, destination and the return trip take place during leisure time and are of a recreational nature. It may be concluded that tourism geography is concerned with patterns of the use of leisure and travel as it occurs in space. Tourism geographers observe, analyse and explain the relationships of specific activities and facilities that are located in particular areas. IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHY IN TOURISM Few disciplines are as tightly related to tourism as geography, the science of spatial analysis with its several subfields. “It is the major discipline that is concerned with the identification, analysis and interpretation of spatial distributions of phenomena and their real associations as they occur on the surface of the earth.” Clearly, geography and geographers have much to contribute to the tourism industry. Many geographers employ the basic rules and procedures of scientific research. While experimental research is possible, it is more common to find the normative and historical types in geographical studies relating to tourism. The normal type, well suited to the redistribution patterns of people during vacation and leisure periods, includes the observation of events and evaluation to determine relationships or norms. “The historical method relies on source detection, evaluation and analysis of findings in determining solutions or conclusions to research problems.” The figure below shows the tourism geography as a system. Tourism Geography as a System

Political influence

Economical influence

Tourism generating region

Technological influence

Social cultural influence

Tourism destination region

Legislative influence

Environmental influence

Introduction

23

IMPORTANCE OF TOURISM GEOGRAPHY The geographer’s bias is towards place and space. His fundamental question is— where? He is interested in the factors, fares or processes that explain why a phenomenon is located where it is or why certain phenomena are distributed in a particular pattern in a specific region on the earth’s surface. The tool that separates the geographer from other scientists is the map. Archival searches, computer applications, field investigations, inductive and deductive approaches, library research and quantitative techniques are methodologies that are used by all investigators. Geographers, however, believe that an appropriate map or series of maps provides insights into subject matter that can be gained in no other way. Therefore, maps, various cartographic devices (i.e., spatial models), and the application of qualitative and quantitative methods are necessary. Geographical Elements From a geographical point of view tourism consists of three major components: (1) The countries of origin of the tourists or generating areas, (2) The tourist destinations themselves, and (3) The routes travelled between these two places as a model. GEOGRAPHICAL COMPONENTS OF TOURISM (1) Accessibility and location. (2) Space. (3) Scenery. (a) Landforms e.g., mountains, canyons, coral reefs, cliffs, etc. (b) Water, e.g., rivers, lakes, waterfalls, grasslands, geysers, glaciers, the sea. (c) Vegetation, e.g., forests, grasslands, moors, deserts, etc. (4) Climate, sunshine, clouds, temperature conditions, rain and snow. (5) Animal life: (a) Wildlife, e.g., birds, game, reservations, zoos. (b) Hunting and fishing. (6) Settlement features: (a) Towns, cities, villages. (b) Historical remains and monuments. (c) Archaeological remains. (7) Culture: ways of life, traditions, folklore, arts and crafts, etc. Therefore, Geography is a science that deals with the description, distribution and interaction of the diverse physical, biological and cultural features of the earth’s surface. Tourism geography is based on physical geography, which encompasses the seven continents, twenty-one oceans and seas and over 200 countries in the

24 Ecotourism world. Travel Tourism geography concentrates on those aspects of geography that facilitate travel and make it more interesting. Knowledge of the continents, countries and oceans of the world add dimensions to life and are a requisite for travel and tourism professionals. Tourism Travel Geography in portraying this also encompasses cultural geography and what all those six billion people are like including something of their ethnic and social codes and what they expect from and dislike about foreign visitors. There are two main aspects of Tourism geography: (1) The world’s geographical resource base for tourism, and (2) The spatial patterns of world tourist activity. The distribution of tourism in different parts of the world and the geographical explanations of these patterns. Following are the main geographical features which attract travellers: Climatic resources for tourism (1) Rainfall. (2) Cloud cover. (3) Sunshine. (4) Hot climates. (5) Tropical climates. (6) Mediterranean climates. (7) Cool temperate climates. (8) Cold climates. (9) Mountain climates. Coastal resources and the sea (1) The sea. (2) The beach. (3) The waves. (4) The tides. (5) Ports and harbours. Historical resources for tourism (1) Early civilization. (2) The classical world. (3) The age of migrations. (4) Mediaeval times. (5) 17th century to the present. (6) Museums. (7) Historical buildings. (8) Historical towns and cities.

Introduction

25

Cultural entertainment and man-made resources for tourism (1) Theme parks. (2) Entertainment. (3) Leisure shopping. (4) Sporting events. (5) Nightlife. Landscape and wildlife resources (1) Natural landscapes. (2) Tropical forests. (3) National parks. (4) Wildlife sanctuaries. (5) Hot deserts. (6) Ecotourism. (7) Ecological carrying capacity. THE GEOGRAPHICAL APPROACH The geographer and other disciplinary specialists who investigate tourism all study the same phenomena and collect data from the same sources. The difference between the approaches of the various disciplines is explained by the unique perspectives out of which they operate. There are three approaches in tourism: 1. The Economical Approach Tourism can make a positive contribution to the economical development of a region. The most important economical effects are: (a) Foreign currency effect. (b) Income effect. (c) Employment effect. (d) Regional equalisation effect. 2. The Environmental Approach “The landscape loses its tourist value through its use, or rather overuse by the tourist. Tourism has certainly contributed to mass awareness of the importance and difficulties of nature conservation but only in the sense of therapeutic reparation. If there were no tourism, more cultural and natural scenery would be preserved, but on the other hand, more areas would become spoiled and unproductive, quite apart from the increasing depopulation of such areas (rural exodus). Negative effects of tourism on the environment have only just become visible. To restate the key concepts they are the automatic haphazard and unplanned buildings and

26 Ecotourism settlements, the architectural destruction of the landscape and the disturbance of the balance of nature. 3. Socio-Cultural Approach 1. Increase of number of tourism/trips. 2. The movement from a seller’s market to a buyer’s market. 3. Increasing awareness of the local population in the tourist areas linked among other things to the desire for more autonomy. Geography and the Study of Tourism What can geographers bring to the study of this field? Tourism (with its focus upon travelling and the transfer of people, goods and service through time and space) is essentially a geographical phenomenon and, accordingly, there are a number of ways through which a geographical perspective can illuminate the subject: (1) The effect of scale. (2) Spatial distributions of tourist phenomena. (3) Tourism impacts. (4) Planning for tourism. (5) Spatial modelling of tourism development. These have included (as examples) attempts at modelling: • Evolution and the change in the patterns of tourism through time at a range of geographical scales; • Spatial diffusion at tourism, both within and between countries; • Development of hierarchies of resorts and tourism places; • Effects of distance on patterns of tourist movements. CONCLUSION Tourism has become an activity of global significance, and as an inherent geographical phenomenon that centres upon the movement of people, goods and THE FUTURE OF TOURISM Exogenous variables • The social and cultural environment • Demographic change • Government regulation • Trading blocks • Globalization • Transportation • Technology • Economic change

Tourism processes of change • Tastes and preferences (old to new tourism) • Sustainability • Ethics • Technology • Health and safety issues • Hypercompetition • Quality issues Intermediaries Interaction THE TOURIST EXPERIENCE Tourism stakeholders • Government and NTOS • Indigenous people • Residents • Tourism businesses

Introduction

27

services through time and space, it merits the serious consideration of geographers. Our understanding of tourism is, however, complicated by problems of definition, by the diversity of forms that the activity takes, by the contrasting categories of tourists and by the different disciplines in which tourism may be studied. Geography as an intrinsically eclectic subject with a tradition in the synthesis of alternative perspectives, is better placed than many to make sense of the patterns and practices of tourists.

28 Ecotourism

CHAPTER 2

History of Tourism INTRODUCTION Man has travelled from the very earliest times. Much of the travel in the beginning was rather a simple affair. Travel in the distant past was not a thing of pleasure as is the case now. The traveller of the past was a merchant, a pilgrim, a scholar in search of ancient texts, and even a man curious of a way for looking forward to new and exiting experiences. Trade and commerce was however the strongest force in the ancient past. It made people travel to distant lands in order to seek fortunes. Gradually the opening of the new trade routes gave a big boost to travel, particularly the Silk Road bringing cloth and spices from China, through India to Europe. The business of tourism started some three thousand years ago. The earliest forms of leisure tourism can be traced to the Babylonian and Egyptian empires. A museum of historical antiquities was opened to the public in the sixth century BC in Babylon while the Egyptians held many religious festivals attracting not only the devout, but many who came to see the famous buildings and works of art in the cities. During the festivals, services of all kinds sprang up—food and drink, guides, hawkers of souvenirs, touts and prostitutes. From the third century BC, Greek tourists travelled or visited the sites of healing gods. Since the independent city states of ancient Greece had no central authority to order the construction of roads, most of the tourists and merchandise travelled by water and the seaports prospered. The Greeks, too, enjoyed their religious festivals. By the fifth century BC, Athens had become an important destination for travellers. Herodotus was the world’s first significant travel writer. As civilisation developed, conscious travel, in order to explore and see the world began. The invention of money by the Sumerians (Babylonia) and the development of trade and commerce, beginning about 4,000 BC, perhaps marks the beginning of the modern era of travel. Sumerians first grasped the idea of money and used it in their various business and commercial dealings. Early travel in the orient, particularly in India and in China was also largely based on trade and commerce. The great explorer, Christopher Columbus set out to find a new route

History of Tourism 29 to India and in the process discovered the new world. India throughout its history has always had a great fascination for foreign travellers. The figure on p. 30 shows the world merchandise trade by region. FAMOUS TRAVELLERS Trade and commerce remained a strong force for many travellers to undertake long journeys to distant lands. This was followed by an urge to explore new lands. There are many references of great explorers who spent many formidable years of their lives in search of knowledge. Even if we go back to just a few hundred years to the third century AD, since the first exploration of Alexander the Great or only about 700 years since Marco Polo and his amazing explorations crossing many lands, we get fascinating accounts from these great persons. These great explorers can be credited with the distinction of perhaps being the pioneers who subsequently paved the way for modern travel. When Alexander the Great during his journeys reached India, he found well maintained roads covered with shady trees. Along one royal highway, 1920 kilometres long and about 19 metres wide, people travelled in chariots, palanquins, bullock carts, on horses, camels and elephants. Young Marco Polo left Venice in the year 1271 with his father and uncle. They travelled through Persia and Afghanistan to the “roof of the world”, the then unknown Pamir Plateau. After crossing the windswept Gobi desert, he reached Kublai Khan’s palace and remained in China for over twenty years. On his way back home, he stopped in Sumatra, Java, India and Ceylon. The Franciscan Friar, John of Monte Corrino, visited India on his way to and back from China during the last decade of the thirteenth century. The expeditions of these great travellers returned with new ideas and also with fabulously rich treasures from rich and highly advanced civilizations of Asia and other areas of the world. The land migrations were done by foot and on horseback, elephant, camel and river craft in Europe, Asia and Africa, and the very limited exploration by crafts and primitive vessels by tides, oar and sails. The figure on p. 31 shows the travels of Ibn Batuta. PLEASURE TRAVEL The concept of pleasure travel as it existed in the West can be associated with the Roman empire. Romans probably were the first pleasure travellers. There existed a fine network of roads and new roads were built increasingly wherever the Romans went. The Romans were able to travel over a hundred or more miles in a day using relays of horses. They journeyed primarily to see famous temples in the Mediterranean areas, particularly the monuments and the famous pyramids of

30 Ecotourism

World Merchandise Trade by Region

Miles Kilometres

Most trade is among developed regions, but some developing regions, such as Latin America, are capturing an increasing share. Sub-Saharan Africa’s share of world trade remains negligible. Of the $7.3 trillion of world trade in 2001, 61.5 per cent was manufactured goods; 20.1 per cent commercial services; 10.9 per cent mining products; and 7.5 per cent agricultural products. (Data from WTO)

The Travels of Ibn Batuta

In the fourteenth century the scholar Ibn Batuta traveled from Morocco to China, and everywhere rulers happily received him. Several even appointed him as a judge thousands of miles from his own home. His geographic writings are a superlative description of life across the vast Islamic realm of his day.

History of Tourism 31

Kilometres

32 Ecotourism Egypt. The Romans also travelled during holiday occasions, particularly to the famous Olympic Games. DIFFERENT FACTORS FOR TOURIST’S MOTIVATION 1. Travel for religious purposes assumed a significant importance during the middle ages. 2. The grand tour. 3. The origin of the concept of an annual holiday. 4. Industrial revolution and development of travel: The concept of modern tourism came into being in the second half of the nineteenth century hand in hand with the development of the industrialized societies of Western Europe and North America. The development of industrialised societies of Western Europe and North America can therefore be considered as responsible for the growth of modern tourism. 5. Rail transport. 6. Paid holiday and Mass Tourism. 7. Effect of the great war on transport systems. 8. Road transport. 9. Air transport. 10. Advent of the jet. 11. Advent of high-speed trains. History of Travel Through the Centuries Never in the history of the world has there been a migration of people from one country to another on such a scale as is taking place today. The world has indeed become very small. The last 25 years have seen a rapid increase in the automobile ownership throughout the industrial world, the vast expansion of aircraft fleets, the installation of networks of hotel and motel chains, the worldwide availability of rental cars and the interconnection of all these sectors of the travel industry through the modern communication systems. These have improved transportation facilities and tour packages. Tourism, or what we popularly call the travel industry, has become a comprehensive social science that needs a serious study and attention as it affects millions of human beings all over the globe. Its development, its management and future are vitally important and can be seen best in the perspective of the history of travel. The map on p. 33 shows the prehistoric human migrations. TOURISM THROUGH THE AGES As early as the third millennium BC, Egypt was a popular place for people from the then known world. The Babylonian King Shulgi who ruled Ur (Egypt) 4000 years

Prehistoric Human Migrations

History of Tourism 33

This map illustrates the latest hypotheses about migrations of humans out of Africa to settle around earth.

34 Ecotourism ago is said to have boasted that he protected roads, built gardens and resthouses for respectable travellers. The ancient Greeks travelled short distances in small boats. Herodotus toured Phoenicia, Egypt, Cyrenaica, Greece and the Black Sea and recorded the history, customs, traditions and practices of the people living in these areas. Philosophers Thales, Pythagoras and Plato all travelled to Egypt. Aristotle visited Asia Minor before starting his peripatetic school for wandering students. THE ROMANS The Romans were probably the first pleasure travellers in the world. Travel became quite sophisticated by the time Christ was born. There are reasons to believe that pleasure travel also developed at the same time in China, India and Japan. Romans used to travel 100 miles a day by using relays of horses, furnished from rest posts five to six miles apart. They travelled to see the temples in the Mediterranean area and the pyramids of Egypt. They also journeyed to medicinal baths called “spas” and seaside resorts. The Roman empire had an excellent network of resorts. The Roman empire had an excellent network of roads. Plutarch spoke of “Globe trotters, who spent the best part of their lives in inns and boats”. Persons of means travelled in litters (littiga) four-wheeled wagons or chariots, others used carts or public coaches. Some Roman cargo ships carried a few passengers. At the same time, travel facilities in India were of a high order when Alexander the Great reached India and he found well-maintained roads lined with green trees, wells for water, police stations and resthouses. A long highway 1200 miles long and 64 feet wide, the historians recorded that men travelled in chariots, bullock carts, on elephants, camels, horses and oxen. Emperor Ashoka’s emissaries travelled to Sri Lanka, East Asia and West Asia to spread the message of Lord Buddha. Chinese travellers came to India and have given accounts of their well-known and extensive travels within India. There were other well-developed travel routes. Camel caravans took travellers along China’s Silk Road, the great trails from Baghdad to Aden, Samarkand to Timbuktu. Beginning with the establishment of a democratic government in Ephesus by Alexander the Great in 334 BC, some 700,000 tourists would collect in Ephesus (now in Turkey) in a single season to be entertained by acrobats, jugglers and magicians, who filled the streets. The map on p. 35 shows the major European voyages of exploration. THE MIDDLE AGES The collapse of the Roman empire in the fifth century brought about the doom of holiday travel in that part of the world. The roads were no longer well-maintained and became infested with thieves. Only about the year 1000 AD, did the principal

Major European Voyages of Exploration

History of Tourism 35

The nineteenth century saw the greatest migrations of Europeans. Europeans regarded the Western Hemisphere as a New World open to European settlement, and their massive migrations forever changed hemispheric demographics.

36 Ecotourism European roads become relatively safe again—largely because of the goods traffic. During that period, no one travelled for pleasure. Men travelled to fight in wars or on pilgrimage to such holy places as Canterbury or St. James at Campostela. Among the few great medieval travellers were Benjamin of Toledo, Macro Polo and Ibn Batuta. Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish scholar who left Zaragossa in Spain in 1160, travelled for thirteen years to Europe, Persia and India and gave details of Jewish communities and the geography of the places he visited. On Marcopolo’s way home he stopped in Sumatra, Java, India, Ceylon and returned home with rich jewels sewn in the seams of his tattered clothes. Batuta travelled in the 14th century from his birth place of Tangiers to Arabia, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. He travelled to India by way of Samarkand, and remained in the courts of the Delhi Sultan Mohammed Bin Tuglaq for eight years (AD 1334–1342). He also visited the Maldive Islands, Ceylon, Sumatra, Spain and Morocco. RENAISSANCE AND AFTER The age of the renaissance broadened the horizons of men and led to a quest for exploration and discovery. Not everyone could sail to Calais but the affluent could explore France, Germany, Italy and could even go further to Egypt and Holland. Travel before the industrial revolution was largely a matter of pilgrimage or business. From the end of the 16th century, some growth in private travel was evident initially for educational purposes and later to satisfy a new curiosity about the way people lived in other places. Coaches were invented in Hungary in the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth century, it became customary to send young gentlemen to a grand tour of the continent for the purpose of education with warnings that Scotland was ‘wild’ and France ‘enough’ to vex any man. Leisure in the 18th century became an attribute of the rich and the cultured. A revolutionary step in travel was taken in the first decade of the 19th century when John Loudon McAdam and Thomas Telford invented a road surface that replaced the dirty roads that were existing in Europe. With the improvement of roads that were existing in Europe, stage coaches became a popular mode of travel. The map on p. 37 shows the European migration in the 19th century. THE ADVENT OF THE RAILWAYS Taking a holiday as such was almost invented with the railways and grew rapidly with the network. When the first railway was opened in England in 1825, John Bull complained. Thomas Cook was the first professional travel agent in the world. In 1841, he hired a special train to carry 570 passengers on a trip from Leicester to London and back. This was the first publicly advertised excursion tour in the world. Mr. Cook’s business started in an interesting way. He was an evangelist

The nineteenth century saw the greatest migrations of Europeans. Europeans regarded the Western Hemisphere as a New World open to European settlement, and their massive migrations forever changed hemispheric demographics

History of Tourism 37

European Migration in the Nineteenth Century

38 Ecotourism preaching against drinking. Motivated by this mission, he organised an excursion to a temperance meeting in 1841. Later, he helped over 1,50,000 people visit an exhibition in London, making travel his business. It expanded in various directions including escorted tours to the continent, to the USA and round-the-world. Even today, the company he started is one of the larger travel outfits in the world. Comfortable railroad travel was started in America about hundred years ago by George Mortimer Pullman, who built a train called ‘Pioneer’. The trains became a popular mode of travel in the United States for quite some time. Elsewhere in the world, railways continue with the automobile and the aeroplane. Japan has introduced its Takaido Express at a speed up to 250 km per hour—a computerised train which runs at a regulated speed and carries passengers. SHIPPING SERVICES In 1840, Sir Samuel Cunard ran the first regular steamship service—what later became known as the Cunard Line, for many years providing luxurious sea travel between America and England. Travellers could cross the Atlantic in 8 days in 1870 and in 6 days by 1907. Travel by sea is now largely done by people who are retired and have enough time at their disposal to take a holiday. Coastal cruises including holiday travel to neighbouring countries are still popular. THE AUTOMOBILE While railways and steamship companies satisfied the desire of the 20th century traveller, another new contraption called the motor car or automobile appeared on the scene to change the travelling landscape. However, technical developments made the cars run faster and by the early 20th century it was possible to travel by car from New York to San Francisco. Dr. Nelson Jackson, an American doctor, was the first non-professional driver to drive across the United States in 1903 from San Francisco to New York—a distance of 3,000 miles. It took him 63 days to cover the distance and he had only one flat tyre during the journey. Today, it is estimated that eighty per cent of the holiday travel in the United States is by automobile. In Europe, the percentage may be a little less. Along the major highways, the old way-side inns have given place to motels or modern inns—hostelries specially built to cater to the needs of the road travellers. Some of these motels provide luxury accommodation with parking areas, swimming pools and sporting facilities. The developing countries like India, Brazil and China are also having a taste of the shape of things to come in the sphere of road travelling.

History of Tourism 39 AIR TRAVEL Air travel has changed the complexion of travel completely, especially in the field of international tourism. The figure below shows the luggage loading and unloading in the airport system.

Car park checkin

Kerbside checkin

Airport terminal checkin

Town terminal checkin

Satellite checkin

Transfer baggage

Storage

Airside baggage hall sortation Airline flight destination

Storage Early checkin Delayed flights

Gate checkin Container baggage trailer/vehicle

Load aircraft

Unload aircraft

Container baggage trailer/vehicle

Airside baggage hall

Transfer baggage

Outbound flight

Passenger baggage claim unit

Passenger

Out-ofgauge luggage

40 Ecotourism TOURISM: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA India, owing to its rich socio-cultural heritage and beautiful natural endowments, has vast potential for the development of tourism. It not only offers varied attractions, but also on a fairly low budget. The phenomenon and activity of tourism in India is as old as its civilisation and culture. The country with her history dating back to more than 5,000 years has always attracted pilgrims and tourists. The first efforts to promote tourism in India was initiated in 1945 when a committee under the chairmanship of Sir John Sargeant was set up to survey the potentialities of developing tourist traffic. In 1966, ‘Department of Tourism’ and ‘Department of Aviation’ were merged into a single ‘Department of Aviation and Tourism’. By March 1967, the function and responsibilities of the department became so important that the Union Government decided to elevate the ‘Department of Aviation and Tourism’ into the ‘Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation’ to deal exclusively with the matters concerning tourism and civil aviation in India. The Indian Tourism Development Corporation (ITDC) was incorporated in March 1965 by the merger of the three separate undertakings. They are: (1) The Hotel Corporation of India Ltd. (2) India Tourism Corporation Ltd., and (3) India Tourism Transport Undertaking Ltd. This has been functioning since 1966. CONCLUSION The conventional view of tourism’s past is dominated by the history of Western cultural experience. Tourism starts with the wealthy, with images of prestigious visits to spas and seaside resorts, Grand Tours and the activities of business entrepreneurs such as Thomas Cook, before it begins to filter down the social ladder. It is too simplistic to portray tourism’s evolution as a geographical process of diffusion from one or two core areas and a social process of downward movement from the affluent. The historical perspective is described and a chronological survey of historical tourism research is presented, with emphasis on the ancient and medieval worlds, the Grand Tour era, and spas and seaside resorts. Tourism, the act of paying money to go from one place to another to see different and unique sights, has been a fact of civilized life since approximately the 12th century. Of course, back in those days it was basically the upper, upper classes that had the time, the money, and the interest in travelling from one spot to another. The word “travel” by the way comes from the medieval English word “travail” which means suffering great hardship, and that is a very good description of travel in its earliest days. Much has been written about the journeys of Marco Polo, who until recently was considered the world’s first tourist.

CHAPTER 3

Tourism Types and Motivations INTRODUCTION Tourism is concerned with pleasure, holidays, travel and going or arriving somewhere. These are the motivations that make people leave their “normal” place of work and residence for short-term temporary visits to other places. Tourism is concerned with consuming goods and services. For example, you need some mode of transport, some form of accommodation to stay somewhere and so on. However, the only reason for the consumption of such services and goods is that we have a pleasurable experience or that we enjoy ourselves. A part of the enjoyment is in the fact that these goods and services are different from what we typically consume everyday. Another aspect of our enjoyment is that we: • look at a set of different landscapes, cultures and lifestyles, and • see different people and hear other languages, etc. Because we are “going away” what we look at and experience becomes something out of the ordinary—something unique. MEANING AND NATURE OF TOURISM One of the earliest definitions of tourism was given by an Austrian economist named Hermann van Schullard, in the year 1910 who defined it as the sum total of operators, mainly of an economical nature, who directly relate to the entry, stay and movement of foreigners inside and outside a certain country, city or region. The concept of tourism found expression, however, in a more technical definition by the Swiss professors Hunziker and Krapf in the year 1942. They stated that “tourism is the totality of the relationship and phenomenon arising from the travel and stay of a permanent resident and is not connected with a remunerated activity.” Peter’s inventory of tourist attractions 1. Cultural: Sites and areas of archaeological interest, historical buildings and monuments, modern culture, political and educational institutions, religious institutions.

42 Ecotourism 2. Traditions: National festivals, arts and handicrafts, music, folklore, native life and customs. 3. Scenic: National parks, wildlife, flora and fauna, beach resorts, mountain resorts. 4. Entertainment: Participation and viewing sports, amusement and recreational parks, zoos and aquariums, cinemas and theatres, night life, cuisine. 5. Other attractions: Climate, health resorts or spas, unique attractions not available elsewhere. THE ELEMENTS OF TOURISM In addition to three basic components of tourism, namely, transport, locale and accommodation there are certain elements or ingredients of tourism. These elements are predisposed towards touristic development. Geographical Components/Parameters 1. Accessibility and location. 2. Space. 3. Scenery. (a) Landforms, e.g., mountains, canyons, coral reefs, cliffs, etc. (b) Water, e.g., rivers, lakes, waterfalls, geysers, glaciers, the sea. (c) Vegetation, e.g., forests, grassland, moors, deserts, etc. 4. Climate, sunshine, clouds, temperature conditions, rain and snow. 5. Animal life. (a) Wildlife, e.g., birds, game reservation, zoos. (b) Hunting and fishing. 6. Settlement features. (a) Towns, cities, villages. (b) Historical remains and monuments. (c) Archaeological remains. 7. Culture: Ways of life, traditions, folklore, arts and crafts, etc. Mental Attractions of Tourism 1. Pleasing weather. 2. Scenic attractions. 3. Historical and cultural factors. 4. Accessibility. 5. Amenities. 6. Accommodation. Types of Tourism There are many types of tourism:

Tourism Types and Motivations (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)

43

Recreational Tourism. Cultural Tourism. Historical Tourism. Ethnic Tourism. Environmental Tourism. Adventure Tourism. Beach and Island Tourism. Health Tourism. Medical Tourism. Space Tourism. Religious Tourism Sport Tourism. Educational Tourism.

Beach and Island Tourism The development of specialised resorts in the global context dates back to the 17th and 18th centuries. Today it is the most popular form of tourism. Beach and Island tourism are two major segments of holiday tourism. Both have ample scope for water-borne recreation. Goa in India and Hawaii in USA are the best examples of these types. Health Tourism Health Tourism has been one of the principal motivators for travel. Health tourism caters to those travellers who travel for their health to certain destinations. There are several forms of health related touristic activities: (1) Weather related. (2) Specific service related. (3) Specific treatment related. (4) Specific surgery related. Tourism health is another important issue. As tourists move from their place of residence to a new unknown destination, they have to adopt to a new situation which may bring some health related problems. Protection of the traveller’s health and the prevention and control of the risks is important. (1) Prevention of accidents. (2) Infectious diseases. (3) The control of coastal bathing waters. (4) The disposal of refuse. (5) Water supply. (6) The organisation of first aid and emergencies. (7) Safety at eating establishments. (8) Quality of equipment. Wildlife sanctuaries and national parks are two important areas of nature tourism.

44 Ecotourism • The existence of wildlife is greatly influenced by the environment which is very basic for their existence. • The range and diversity of wildlife all over the world is influenced by grandeur and the magnificence of the civilisation. • Sport tourism is an organised indoor or outdoor touristic activity which is pursued for its recreational and physical fitness. • A form of tourism in which a person may travel from his place of residence to a place where a sporting activity is organised. Classification of Tourism Tourism may be classified according to different categories. (1) Domestic tourism. (2) International tourism. (a) In domestic tourism, people travel outside their normal domicile to other areas within the country. They do not cross national boundaries. In this case there are no language or currency or documental barriers. A tourist is any person visiting a place for a period of at least 24 hours. Persons travelling on holiday for a period of less than 24 hours are to be treated as excursionists. (b) When people travel to other foreign countries, they are involved in international tourism. In this case there are different languages, different currencies and documentation in the form of passports and visas which stand in the way of the free movement of the people. International tourists are international visitors staying at least 24 hours but not more than one year in the country visited and the purpose of whose trip may be classified under one of the following headings: (a) Pleasure, recreation, holiday, sport. (b) Business, visiting friends and relatives, mission, meeting, conference, health, studies, religion. According to the World Tourism Organisation, a foreign tourist is a person visiting a country other than in which he usually resides, for a period of at least 24 hours. The following are to be considered tourists: (1) Persons travelling for pleasure, for health, etc. (2) Persons travelling in a representative capacity of any kind. (3) Persons travelling for business reasons. (4) Persons arriving in the course of a sea cruise, even when they stay for less than 24 hours. The following are not to be regarded as tourists: (1) Persons arriving to take up an accommodation or engage in any business activity in the country. (2) Persons coming to establish a residence in the country.

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45

(3) Students and young persons in schools. (4) Any person domiciled in one country and working in an adjoining country. (5) Travellers passing through a country without stopping even if the journey takes more than 24 hours. ACCORDING TO THE PURPOSE OF TRAVEL (1) Recreational: Recreational or leisure tourism takes a person away from the humdrum of everyday life. In this case people spend their leisure time at the hills, sea beaches, etc. (2) Cultural: Cultural tourism is to satisfy the cultural and intellectual curiosity and involves visits to ancient monuments, places of historical or religious importance. (3) Sports/Adventure: Trips taken by people with a view to playing golf, walking/skiing in the mountains, hiking, etc. fall within this category. (4) Health: Under this category, people travel for medical treatment or to visit places where there are curative possibilities, i.e., hot springs, spas, yoga, etc. (5) Convention Tourism: It is becoming an increasingly important component of travel. People travel within a country or overseas to attend a convention. Therefore, the tourist is the actor in the system. Tourism is a human experience enjoyed and remembered by many as a very important aspect of their lives. DEFINITION AND MEASUREMENT OF DOMESTIC TOURISM Any detailed study of domestic tourism must begin by adopting a set of definitions and units of measurement. Two elements are common to the definitions used by most members of the WTO who have devised a system of accounting for domestic tourists. (a) Place of residence: Domestic tourism is defined as travel by nationals within a country. (b) Geographical setting of destination: The geographical setting in this case is the national territory. Most definitions specify the time element thereby eliminating trips lasting only one day but, nevertheless, involving expenditure. Some countries specify a minimum distance in their definitions (USA 50 miles, Australia 25 miles). Factors which affect and create obstacles to travel. In spite of numerous factors favouring the development of tourism, there are some that act as barriers to travel. Broadly these fall into the following categories: (1) Cost: People operate within monetary restraints and cannot afford the expense of travel. According to a study on the subject, in the United

46 Ecotourism

(2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

States alone 62 per cent of the people cannot undertake any travel due to the high cost involved. Time: This is characteristic of those who are not in a position to leave their business or profession to take time off from work. Health: Many persons, especially old people, cannot travel due to poor health and physical limitations. Family: Parents of small children are not in a position to travel due to family responsibilities and the inconveniences of travel. Lack of Interest: Ignorance and lack of information about other places and other people can be a major barrier to travel. Strict Visa Policy.

What is Village Tourism? The touristic activity in the rural village areas is simply called village tourism. The culture and the way of life of indigenous village people who are so close to nature are the main attractions for the tourist. Some people took the initiative to develop this kind of tourism by involving the local people in the business. When these people become involved with tourism, we can involve them in the planning and the implementation of the process. The idea here is to make the community people more responsible and to develop their managerial and other skills. Benefits of Village Tourism (1) Economical Advancement: Village tourism diversifies the local economy, particularly in the rural areas where agricultural employment may be insufficient to give proper economical opportunities to the people. Regions benefit from village tourism as the tourist minimizes cultural, social, and physical impacts creating beneficial economical impacts by purchasing local goods and services. The main aim of this tourism is to produce and use local products so that the revenue obtained from the tourists does not go outside. Only the local people will get the opportunity to provide the service to the tourists and with the help of this opportunity, the local people will benefit economically. (2) Local Development: Village tourism stimulates improvements to local transportation, communications and other basic community infrastructures. The local people also take the initiative in developing their own place by themselves and this helps to create a feeling within the community. (3) Educational Development: Village tourism implementation helps to educate the local people and it increases their interest in tourism and conservation by providing them with socio-economical benefits. When they come in touch with educated tourists they realise the importance of

Tourism Types and Motivations

47

education in life. This kind of awareness on villagers leads to the development of educational opportunities in the region. (4) Preservation of culture, tradition and natural environment: People realise that they are the preservers of their cultural and natural property and they start to guard these things by themselves. This helps them to develop self-respect and self-esteem and it means that they can be proud of their origin. Village tourism is premised on the idea that it can be sustainable only if the natural and cultural assets of it are reliant upon to survive and prosper. (5) Contribution to develop sustainable tourism: Village tourism can be an important concept to develop tourism in rural areas in a sustainable way. While we concern ourselves with sustainable tourism, the other relevant term which comes before us is sustainable development. Sustainable development means the development that exists for a long period and which does not create any problem for the near future. The rural tourism spectrum is given below. The Rural Tourism Spectrum Reliance on individual ability and knowledge of the rural environment Visits to wilderness ACTIVITIES areas Walking off the beaten track Camping

Ad hoc or planned use of small-scale facilities/services – lunch in a village inn – overnight stay in farm B & B More formal use of environment for sport

Visit to enterprises in rural area such as visitor attraction – organized holiday – purpose-built attraction without rural theme e.g. Alton Towers, UK

Combines low key with small scale, creating opportunities for economic diversification Medium level of commercialization

High level of organization, marketing, employment and infrastructure commercialization

FORMAL

INFORMAL

FEATURES

Low key, focus on pleasures of the natural environment No commercialization

FORMS OF TOURISM International, Domestic, Long distance, Short distance tourism Domestic tourism includes those travelling within their own country. Domestic tourism does not involve any use of foreign currency nor cause any balance of payment problems. When people travel to a country other than their own with a different economical and political system, the movement becomes international

48 Ecotourism The Positive and Negative Impact of Rural Tourism Impact

Positive

Negative

Economic

Assists viability of existing tourism and non-tourism business

Encourages dependence on industry prone to uncontrollable change

Creates new employment

Creates part-time, seasonal or low-grade employment

Attracts inward investment

Incurs development costs and public service costs

Encourages pluriactivity, helping to stabilize economic base

Leads to local land and house price inflation

Assists in viability of local services

Creates feeling of invasion by tourists; overcrowding and traffic

Creates sense of pride

Increases crime

Revitalizes local cultural traditions, events and crafts

Reduction in local services, e.g., food shops replaced by gift shops

Leads to opportunities for social and cultural exchange

Import of new cultural ideas – challenges existing way of life

Leads to environmental improvement in settlements

Increases wear and tear on landscape features

Provides income for conservation of buildings and natural environment

Creates need for new developments which may not be in keeping with local area

Fosters awareness of conservation as worthwhile activity

Increases pollution (noise, visual, air, water, litter) Affects local biodiversity

Social-cultural

Environmental

tourism. It involves the preparation of several documents—passport, visa, etc.— to cross the national boundaries of a foreign country. It also involves conversion of one’s own currency to the currency of the country where one is travelling. It is also likely that the visitor may face the problems of a foreign language. Long distance tourism comprises journeys exceeding 5,000 kilometres – below that it is termed short distance tourism. The distinction is relevant from the point of view of aircraft operations and marketing. Holiday tourism is what most countries try to promote. Other forms of tourism do not need much promotion. Holiday tourism can be further subdivided into sun, sand and sea type of tourism where beach-related open air activities and good weather are important factors. Cultural tourism is a major touristic resource of the country. Special interest tourism comprises those who visit a country for a common purpose, i.e., visiting friends and relatives, health, education, etc.

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SPACE TOURISM 90,000 people wish to go to outer space at some point in their lives. Commercial director of Virgin Galactic, Stephen Attenborough, said about 250 people from 27 countries have already paid the fare of $200,000 (approximately, Rs. 80 lakh). The prospective flyers include people of all ages and one fifth of them are women. Among the first lot of passengers who would fly into space is Santosh George Kulangara from Kerala. Speaking at the India Today Conclave, Attenborough said that spacecraft developed by government space agencies was not suitable for commercial space travel. Virgin Galactic is offering a sojourn in space, the highlight of which will be five minutes of zero gravity. The spacecraft/spaceship—which will be equipped to carry six passengers—will be taken to the outer limits of the atmosphere (15.25 km) on a mother aircraft. At that height, the motors of the spacecraft will start, pushing it vertically at four times the speed of sound. The noisy trip will come to a pause once the spacecraft transcends the boundary of the atmosphere (100 km) and ventures into space. Passengers will get to see the changing hues of the outer sky but they will have no sense of the supersonic speed at which the craft will travel. Explaining the design of the aircraft through a video of its test flight, Attenborough said that the space vehicle does not need any heat shield. A heat shield is an essential part of a regular spacecraft. Another difference with conventional spacecraft is that the spaceship will not use any motor to come back to Earth. “Its wings rotate 90 degrees and start acting as air breakers smoothly taking it back under the influence of gravity. This does away with the need of any heat shield”, he said. Cultural Tourism In the pursuance of the recommendations of the UNESCO experts, the organizing committee for the development of archaeological centres of touristic interest selected the following 10 archaeological complexes for development. (1) Rock cut caves of Elephanta, Ajanta and Elora. (2) Selected Buddhist centres such as Bodh Gaya, Nalanda, Rajgir, Sarnath, Kusinagar, Saraswati and Sanchi. (3) Monuments at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal, Hampi and Bijapur. (4) Temples of Khajuraho, Bhubaneswar and Konark. (5) Delhi monuments. (6) Agra–Fatehpur Sikri, Deeg and Bharatpur. (7) Mahabalipuram. (8) Martand, Awantipur and Pandrethan in Kashmir. (9) Goa. (10) Jaisalmer.

50 Ecotourism Adventure Tourism Adventure is generally an outdoor activity of sport, which involves elements of daring and risk. Good physical fitness is generally a pre-requisite to participate in an adventure sporting activity. Like sports, adventure has always been an integral part of tourism. Today as a result of advances made in transport technology, which has reduced considerably the time taken to travel long distances plus the growing affluence, this form of transport has made it possible for many people to afford to travel to places where they seek adventurous activities. In India there are many areas particularly in the Himalayan ranges where adventure sports are very popular. Adventure tourism can be divided into the following three subsections: Aerial Adventure Sports (1) Parachuting. (2) Sky diving. (3) Hand gliding. (4) Parasailing. (5) Bungee jumping. Water Adventure Sports (1) White water rafting. (2) White water kayaking. (3) White water canoeing. (4) Flat water adventure. (5) Water skiing. (6) Wind surfing. Land-based Adventure Sports (1) Trekking. (2) Mountaineering. (3) Skiing. (4) Rock climbing. There is a responsibility of tour operators for the safety and security of their clients. Water Adventure Sports (a) The inflatable raft is made from synthetic material and is used to negotiate fast flowing rivers. The sport is moderately priced due to the cost of the equipment. It can be practised in any river offering a reasonable amount of white water. A number of tour operators offer package tours for white water rafting.

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(b) White water kayaking: A kayak is a small white boat which was used by the Eskimos for seal hunting. It is a highly manoeuvrable boat and being smaller can accommodate generally only one person. This sport is not very costly and the equipment required is not large. (c) White water canoeing: The sport is similar to that of kayaking in nature, the only difference being that instead of a kayak, a canoe is used. Canoeing is open unlike a kayak and the paddle executes the strokes only on one side of the canoe rather than the stroke being used on both sides of the kayak. (d) Flat water adventure sports: These sports are practised by being behind a motorboat or any large water body. The potential of this sport is good from the point of view of tourism. (e) Wind surfing: A small surf board with an attached sail is used for sliding the surf on the sea. Directional control is achieved by shifting the sail position and body weight to surf the wind. The sport requires training and more time is required to learn the skills. (f) Surfing: A difficult sport where only a surf board is used for riding the waves and surfing the seas. The control is achieved by manoeuvring the body. Land-based Adventure Sports (a) Trekking: A very popular sport which can be practised at different levels. It is generally associated with a journey across forest tracks or in the countryside, which is still largely untouched by any formal means of transportation. The added attraction is the requirement of very little equipment, and has a tremendous amount of touristic potential. Since this sport also offers a lot of flexibility to the tourist in terms of time, budget and the fitness level required, it is likely to attract many more of them. There are a large number of tour operators and travel agencies running successful trekking operations for both domestic as well as foreign tourists. (b) Mountaineering: This sport is more specialised and requires more physical fitness and determination on the part of the mountaineers as compared with the trekkers. The sport offers some flexibility in terms of time, budget and the skills required. (c) Skiing: Skiing is the major tourist attraction in the European Alps and it is quite common for the rich and famous to take skiing holidays in Switzerland and Austria. To practise this sport, not much equipment is required but the infrastructural costs are very high at the ski resorts because of ski lifts and the turnaround time.

52 Ecotourism (d) Rock climbing: This is a fast emerging sport. The sport involves climbing straight flat rocks under guidance. The activity needs little equipment and can be performed in many areas which have rock formation. ADVENTURE TOURISM IN INDIA India offers umpteen possibilities to water sport’s enthusiasts. Given an undulating coastline dotted with sandy beaches, two major groups of islands, some of the swiftest rivers in the world and numerous island lakes, there is enough to wet the appetite of the most demanding water sport’s buff. Foreign tourists are lured by the exotic locations of water sport centres which are unrivalled in diversity and natural beauty. SNORKELLING The peaceful sport of snorkelling would prove your fears unfounded. It follows the heart of a nature lover who would like to glance beneath the water surface and acquaint himself with the wondrous marine life. The snorkelling apparatus consists of a glass mask to cover the eyes and the nose, a snorkel (tube) to help you breathe and a set of fins to propel your-body without using your hands. Even if you are not a confident swimmer, you can snorkel with the help of a buoyancy aid. However, it takes a few hours of practice to get used to breathing through the snorkel. The ideal places to go snorkelling in India are in the Andaman Islands and the Lakshadweep Islands which are a dream-world with some of the most beautiful lagoons and reefs in the world. SCUBA DIVING After experiencing the delights of snorkelling, it is difficult to resist the temptation of going down further. Most of the marine life and coral formations are found up to a depth of 4–5 metres since sunlight is critical for their development. The apparatus consists of the same mask and flippers used for snorkelling. To this is added an oxygen cylinder with a pressure regulator, an air jacket and a weightbelt. The air jacket is kept deflated, and is inflated in an emergency for coming up rapidly or for keeping yourself afloat on the surface. Depending on the size of the air cylinder, it is possible to stay underwater for one to two hours and go down to a depth of 7 metres. Islands with coral reefs such as Lakshadweep and the Andaman are the ideal location to go scuba diving in India. At present, scuba diving facilities exist at the Andaman Beach Resort, the Bay Island at Port Blair and the Bangaram Beach Resort at Lakshadweep.

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SAILING AND YACHTING Sailing or yachting is a British legacy which has been kept alive by a handful of enthusiasts. The main centres are Mumbai, Pune, Secunderabad and Goa. Sailing is in fact the most established water sport in the country. The Royal Mumbai Yacht Club, Colaba Sailing Club, Secunderabad Sailing Club and the Chandigarh Sailing Club are the main centres where one can learn sailing. Sailing facilities are meant for members only. WIND SURFING In India, board-sailing has been the fastest growing water sport. Goa has emerged as the main centre with almost all major, five-star hotels having the required equipment. Mumbai too has a dedicated bunch of board-head enthusiasts. Pune is another centre which has come up recently where most of the activity is concentrated at the Khadakvasla and the Panshet Lakes. WATER RAFTING Water sports in India are certainly not limited to the coastal areas and the islands. Some of the high action takes place in the boisterous swift streams of the Himalayas, where avid river runners go to satisfy their craving for white waters. In India, Bhagirathi is the most chartered river. Most of the organised activity is concentrated on the stretch between Devprayag and Rishikesh. WATER SKIING AND PARASAILING Goa is the only place where these sports are presently available to those of us who do not have an access to the required equipment. Parasailing is more of an aerial joy ride in which you are tethered to a parasail with the help of a rope, and pulled by either a boat or a vehicle. The dynamics of water-skiing are quite similar to that of snow-skiing. However, the similarity ends here; you will find the feel quite different. Water-skiing is available at a number of places in Goa. This sport is certainly for the physically fit with a zest for speed and tolerance for falls. ADVENTURE SPORTS Adventure tourism is categorised by the deliberate seeking of risk and danger by participants in outdoor activities and is intimately related to the field of adventure recreation. The figure on p. 54 shows the risk factors in adventure tourism.

54 Ecotourism Risk Factors for Adventure Tourism Accidents Accident risk • Slip, trip or fall on the level • Fall from a height • Step on/twist ankle/entrapment • Strike stationary object • Lifting/carrying • Water submersion • Exposure to extreme temperatures • Animal related

Client factors

Equipment factors

• Attention to/compliance with instructions • Language factors • Showing off • Not using protective equipment/clothing • Physical fitness • Previous injuries • Overconfidence • Inexperience

• Poor quality equipment • Absence of PPE/safety equipment • Equipment inappropriate for conditions/activity • Equipment ill-fitting • Equipment inappropriate for client’s abilities

INJURY RISK TO CLIENT

• Unexpected adverse weather • Sudden weather changes • Lighting levels • River flows • Temperature extremes • Slip and trip hazards

Management and organizational factors • Failure to adequately brief clients • Insufficient guide experience • Untrained/unqualified guides • Failure to point out specific hazards and risks for activity

• Failure to match clients with equipment • Use of low-quality equipment/inadequate investment • Failure to check and maintain equipments • Failure to provide clothing for extremes

• Failure to check weather/ water/snow conditions • Failure to heed weather warnings • Guide’s inexperience in adverse conditions • Hazardous short cuts

Extra-organizational influences Weather forecasting accuracy; seasonal workforce; commercial pressures to operate in adverse conditions; absence of regulatory bodies/codes of practice.

(1) Need of Planning in Adventure Tourism Hence, tourism planning is needed for a variety of reasons like: • To coordinate the role of the public and the private sector. • To properly direct development. • To demarcate the areas for development. • To determine the types of adventure sports to be promoted. • To prevent any negative impact.

Tourism Types and Motivations • • • •

55

To regulate and legislate. To improve the quality of services. To train human resources, and To market a destination, etc.

Planning for Participants in Adventure Tourism All the same, to ensure that your adventure is enjoyable and carefree, various matters need to be kept in mind while making arrangements/planning for an adventure tour: • Be prepared for ethnic and even primitive accommodation in huts and camps. • Be careful about the source for drinking water. If in doubt, boil it, purify it with chemical tablets, or carry bottled water. • Check on arrangements for good comping. If you are going to be camping you may have to carry your own tent. If accommodation is provided usually food is, too. • For trekking or white water rafting, check whether a four-wheel drive vehicle is necessary to gain access to the site. • Always carry reliable and accurate maps. • Engage a guide whenever it is advisable in wildlife sanctuaries. It is often mandatory. • Carry a basic first-aid kit. • Carry supplies of photographic film as in wildlife sanctuaries and on treks, mountains, etc. these may be unavailable. • Open fires add romance to a camp site, but ensure that they are permissible and safe. Also ensure afterwards that they are entirely extinguished. • If there are no toilet facilities, check that you are not in the danger of contaminating any freshwater sources with your waste. • Check whether equipment for camping, skiing, trekking, mountaineering, etc. is available at the site or whether you need to carry it with you. • Check that your equipment is reliable that and it is in a good usable condition. This is especially important for river rafting, skiing, mountaineering, rock climbing, etc. • Check that shoes fit well, and are comfortable. • Ensure that your clothing is suitable for all the appropriate weather conditions or not, as climate and temperatures vary widely not only throughout the year, but also between day and night, dark and light, when the sun goes behind a cloud and of course with a high altitude. Other Aspects of Planning for Adventurous Touristic Development • Establish overall touristic development objectives and policies for employment generation, private investment, preservation of the

56 Ecotourism

• •

• • • • • •

•

•

•

environment, increase the flow of international tourist and domestic tourist arrivals. Objectively assess the potential for adventure in tourism and promote it. Establish standards in the field of adventure tourism development, i.e., the mean standard should be maintained in the equipment’s manufacturing training manual to staff members and participants in adventure institutes, rescue operations, etc. Planning should support the sustainability in the development of adventurous tourism. Continuous monitoring, feedback and research programmes are required for the future development. Genuine public participation should be ensured wherever necessary. Strict rules and regulations should be formulated in planning to minimize the negative impact of adventurous tourism on the environment. Bureaucrat’s and politician’s interference in the allocation of land for the development of adventures in tourism must be minimised. Marketing planning should be formulated for the development of adventure in tourism. The essential aim of the marketing planning is to arrive at a balanced growth of demand and supply. An integrated approach for adventurous tourism planning is required, that is to say, the PASOLP approach (product, analysis, sequence of outdoor, leisure and planning approach). Financial planning is required to allocate the funds for purchasing equipment, developing sites, infrastructure and superstructure facilities, the development and training of the manpower, etc. Planning should be formulated and implemented after assessing the carrying capacity of each area in which tourism is sought to be promoted.

Mass Tourism Mass tourism refers to the participation of a large number of people in tourism i.e. a million tourists visiting Spain, Italy or France often outnumber the residents. But this phenomenon is limited to developed countries only. During the twentieth century, one of the most spectacular growth sectors in leisure activities has been travel and tourism. It has been increasingly recognised that tourism is an essential part of modern life. It is an indicator of status in modern societies and is also thought to be necessary for health. Earlier, tourism was a privilege enjoyed exclusively by the wealthy. Now travel is not a luxury but rather a necessity for business and a basic right for all people. The concept of mass tourism emerged along with the introduction of paid holidays. Mass tourism is the opposite of selective or elite tourism. It stems from being a form of mass consumption. Mass tourism is one form of mass leisure.

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Mass tourism is an agent of profound economical and cultural change. Mass tourism involves the movement of large numbers of tourists with relatively little surplus income and mass tourism depends not only on the growth of leisure time but also the structure of the free time and on the economics of the tourism industry. The factors responsible for mass tourism are as follows: (1) Sustained prosperity with a consequent rise in the income of the people. (2) Increase in paid leisure time. (3) Rise in educational standard. (4) Reduction in the size of the family. (5) Development of a good communication system. (6) Growth of travel agencies. (7) Monotony of work life in an industrialised society. (8) Growth in the number of international conferences. The nature of mass tourism as a form of mass consumption has a number of characteristics. • Spatially polarised. • Segmented markets. • Dependency. • Price. • Seasonal. • Environmental pressures. • Urban tourism. • Rivers, lakes, forests.

Unsustainable tourism practice

Sustainable tourism practice

Mass tourism

Socio-cultural tourism At Ecotourism

Nature of Tourism

58 Ecotourism WHY INDIA IS NOT A MASS TOURIST DESTINATION The following are the reasons why tourists in millions do not come to India. (1) Distance: India is located far from the affluent tourist markets of the world. High airfares are a major constraint. (2) Image: India is not yet well known abroad as a holiday destination. Its image is an essentially that of an exotic country with an ancient history and civilization as the two main resources. (3) Facilities: Tourist facilities in India are not adequate and well developed. There is an inadequate hotel capacity, unsatisfactory domestic air and ground transportation, etc. (4) Non-affluent Neighbours: India’s neighbours are not rich. Their citizens cannot, therefore, afford to travel. European tourism is basically travelling to neighbouring countries. Even in ASEAN countries the international tourism is an over 50 per cent from the neighbouring countries. In India, it is less than 10 per cent. (5) India’s political problems with its neighbours, especially Pakistan, are a major constraint. (6) Crime and corruption (7) Lack of security and terrorism. INDIA’S IMAGE AMONG FOREIGN TOURISTS (1) India has a moderate level of familiarity among potential US travellers. (2) India does not have an image advantage over other Asia–Pacific destinations. (3) The ratings for India with regard to the reasonable costs for a traveller’s stay in the country having sunny comfortable weather and good shopping are moderate. India has not been effective in communicating these benefits to potential travellers. (4) Her image of having good shipping is below the average rating. (5) Her ratings on hotels that meet American standards and a good place to relax are low. (6) It is seen as having interesting customs, an exotic place, one with interesting night life or beautiful beaches. (7) Contradictory statements. (8) India is not perceived as a place with activities for children, good recreation, sporting facilities or for familiar types of food, nor a relaxing place to visit with interesting night life or beautiful beaches. (9) India is also perceived as an unsafe place in which to travel. (10) It is seen as having interesting customs, an exotic place with scenic beauty and some unique natural attractions and a place that offers lots to see and do.

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(11) It is able to provide a feeling of adventure and challenge and having many out of the way places which are worth seeing even if it means taking poor accommodation. MOTIVES Tourism involving the movement of people may be motivated by different factors. One of the most driving forces behind tourism is the search for sun, an unpolluted atmosphere, sea and other water resorts. This type of movement is generally from north to south. The Mediterranean countries have benefitted mostly from the above mentioned form of tourism. Another category of tourists has social motives behind visits to other places. They value opportunities to meet people and exchange views. TRAVEL MOTIVATIONS In the course of history, motivation for most travel has been fairly obvious— religion, economical gain, war, escape, migration. What is left is travel for pleasure, which is the most common form of travel in the modern world. The following may be listed as motivations causing people to travel: Educational and Culture (a) (b) (c) (d)

To see how people in other countries live, work, and play. To enjoy scenic beauty and cultural sights. To gain a better understanding of what goes on. To attend special events/festivals/cultural functions.

Relaxation and Pleasure (a) To get away from the routine of life. (b) To have a good time away from home. (c) To have a romantic or exotic experience. Ethnic (a) To go to places from where one’s family came from. (b) To visit places where one’s family or friends lived in the past. Miscellaneous (a) To avoid unpleasant weather, for instance, cold winter or very hot summer. (b) To enjoy sun, dry climate or to swim on a beach. In other words, to improve one’s health.

60 Ecotourism (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

To participate in sports, i.e. swimming, skiing, fishing or sailing. To go to places where living is less expensive than at home. To have an adventure in new areas with new people. Conformity, to do what your friends have done already. One up-manship. To boast to one’s friends what they have not been able to do. (h) To participate in history by visiting ancient temples, monuments, etc. (i) To get to know the world or intellectual curiosity. Basic Travel Motivators With the advent of mass tourism, especially after the First World War, various attempts have been made to study and ask why people wish to become tourists. The relationship among the types of tourists, travel motivations and types of destinations is illustrated in figure below. Types of Tourists Psychographic Profile • Allocentric • Near Allocentric • Mid-Centric • Near Psychocentric • Psychocentric

T R A V E L M O T I V A T I O N S

Types of Destinations Travel Experience(s) Sought • Ethnic • Cultural • Historical • Environmental • Recreational • Business, Combinations

Primary Link Secondary Link

McIntosh has stated that basic travel motivators may be grouped into the following four categories: (1) Physical Motivators which are related to physical relaxation and rest, sporting activities and specific medical treatment; all are connected with the individual’s bodily health and well-being. (2) International Motivators which are related to a desire to visit relatives, friends or to escape from one’s family, workmates or neighbours, or to meet new people for a new friendship, or simply to escape from the routine of everyday life. (3) Cultural Motivators which are connected with the individual’s desire to travel in order to learn about other countries and their people and their cultural heritage expressed in art, music, literature, folklore, etc.

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(4) Status and Prestige Motivators which are identified with the needs of personal esteem and personal development. These are related to travel for business or professional interests, for the purpose of education or the pursuit of hobbies. The above-mentioned are the four broad categories of motivators. Breaking down and elaborating these broad categories will give as many reasons as to why more and more people engage in tourism. These include: (1) Pleasure. (2) Relaxation. (3) Health. (4) Participation. (5) Curiosity and culture. (6) Ethnic and family. (7) Spiritual and religious. (8) Status and prestige. (9) Professional or business. We have to enumerate some of the motivations cited in respect of modern tourism. (1) The exploration of the close and distant neighbourhood has become at present travel aimed at knowing other country’s regions or people, and also travel. (2) Motivating forces subsist in journeys to sacred religious places and in pilgrimages. (3) Participation in the events of religious or secular authority manifest themselves today in the form of travel to political meetings and ceremonies. (4) The utilisation of natural medical treatment comprising in the widest sense, all travel undertaken with the objects of rest and relaxation, medical care or treatment of diseases. (5) Travel for the enjoyment of the beauties of the landscapes has undergone modifications both in the conception of what is beautiful and in the expression of sentiment. (6) A further motive force of tourism is constituted by sports travel. This includes travel for the sake of travelling to watch the joy of sport in action. TOURIST MOTIVATIONS BASED ON THEORIES Two types of motivational theories may serve to illustrate the point. (1) Firstly, there are a number of theories that focus on the analysis of tourist behavioural patterns as a means of exposing tourist motives. One of the most interesting is Graburn’s explanation of tourist ‘inversions’—shifts in behavioural patterns away from the norm and towards a temporary opposite. This might be shown in extended periods of relaxation.

62 Ecotourism (2) A second set of motivational theorism places the emphasis upon the idea that touristic movements are a product of a combination of factors that both prompt the participant to leave their present location and attract them to another—a push effect. This idea is implicit in many motivational theories but perhaps receives its most explicit statement in Iso-Ahola’s model of the social psychology of tourism. Here elements of escape from routine environments are deliberately juxtaposed with a parallel quest for intrinsic rewards in the environments to be visited. Pull factors that induce the tourist into the destination (attraction/marketing?)

Push factors that prod the tourist out to the destination (motivation?) Curiosity i.e., travel is essentially productive

Self-indulgence Education/health/ spiritual/sex

Self-actualization

Observed destination magnetism

Tourist Motivation

Strengthen mental souvenirs

Lively response to post-modernism

Reflex actions/ habit

In India, tourism is the third largest industry. Tourism as an industry began in India in 1978. When we consider reasons why people wish to become tourists, we are dealing with motivation. Motivation is an essential concept behind the different patterns of tourist’s demands. Dann has pointed out that there are seven elements of motivation in tourism. (1) Travel is a response to what is lacking yet deserved. This approach suggests that tourists are motivated by the desire to experience phenomena which are different from those available in their home environment. (2) Destination pull in response to motivational push. This approach analyses the motivation of the individual tourist in terms of the level of desire and the pull of the destination. (3) Motivation as fantasy. This approach suggests that tourists travel in order to undertake behaviour which may not be culturally sanctioned in their home setting. (4) Motivation as classified purpose. This approach analyses the main purpose of a trip as the motivator for the travel purpose which may include visiting friends and relatives, enjoying leisure activities, etc.

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(5) Motivational topologies. This approach divides the tourist’s behaviour into sunlust and wanderlust. This will be explained later. (6) Motivation and tourist experiences. This approach is characterised by the authenticity of tourists experiences. (7) Motivation as auto-definition and meaning. This suggests that the way in which tourists define their situations will provide a greater understanding of tourist motivation than simply describing their behaviour. McIntosh and Goeldner mentioned four categories of motivation: (1) Physical motivators: These are related to refreshment of body and mind, health purposes, sports and pleasure. This group of motivators are seen to be linked to these activities which reduce tension. (2) Cultural motivators: These are identified by the desire to see and know more about other cultures, to find out about the natives of a country, their lifestyle, music, folklore, dance, etc. (3) Interpersonal motivators: These include a desire to meet new people, visit friends or relatives, seek new experiences. Travel is an escape from routine relationships with friends or neighbours and the home environment or it is used for spiritual reasons. (4) Status and prestige motivators: These include a desire for the continuation of hobbies and education and are also seen to be concerned with the desire for recognition and attention from others, in order to boost the personal ego. Crompton has identified eight socio-cultural motives as follows: (1) Escape from a perceived mundane environment. (2) Exploration and evaluation of the self. (3) Relaxation. (4) Prestige. (5) Regression. (6) Enhancement of kinship relationships. (7) Facilitation of social interaction. (8) Novelty and education. The following psychological needs have been identified. (a) The escape motivation: This is essentially a wish to get away from a perceived mundane environment. (b) Relaxation: This is a wish for recuperation. (c) Play: This is a wish to indulge in activities associated with childhood. Play on holiday is culturally approved. Adults indulge in games not otherwise permitted. There is a regression into the carefree state of childhood. (d) Strengthening family bonds: In the common situation where both partners work full time, the holiday represents a time when both can renew their relationship.

64 Ecotourism (e) Prestige: Status and social enhancement can be temporarily gained on the basis of the destination chosen for the holiday. Certain destinations are fashionable and prestigious, such as for an Indian, a visit to Kashmir or Goa is considered prestigious. (f) Social interaction: The holiday provides an opportunity for social interaction with the people of the host society. In many cases the rationale for the holiday is simply an opportunity for sexual activity which we find in the sex tourism of the Far East in Thailand or in the Philippines. (g) Educational opportunity: Tourism provides a chance to see new and strange sights, to learn about other places of the world and talk with people of other cultures. Also there is a chance to see the sites of history and the original great works of art. The level of educational attainment is an important determinant of travel used properly, as education broadens horizons and stimulates the desire to travel. (h) Self-fulfilment: The voyage of discovery may not be simply a discovery of new places and people but also an opportunity for self-discovery. The search for self-discovery might change one’s perspective on life. (i) Wish fulfilment: For some the holiday is an answer to a dream. The popularity of theme parks is an escape into a fantasy. (j) Shopping: Shopping is not only one of the most common touristic activities but it can also be the motivating factor for travel away from home and indeed for international travel. Fluctuations of tourist activities: (1) Exploration: Small numbers of visitors are attracted by natural beauty or cultural characteristics—numbers are limited and practically no tourist facilities exist. (2) Involvement: Limited involvement by local residents to provide some facilities to tourists is present and markets begin to emerge. (3) Development: Large numbers of tourists arrive, control passes onto external organisations and there is an increasing tension between locals and tourists. (4) Consolidation: Tourism becomes a major part of the local economy although rates of visitor growth start to fall. (5) Stagnation: The peak number of tourists is reached but the resort is no longer considered attractive. (6) Decline: Attractiveness continues to decline, visitors are lost to other resorts and the resort depends more on day visitors than on longer time visitors. PURPOSE OF TOURISM What motivates a tourist? Why tourism? or What is the purpose of tourism? These

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65

are pertinent questions and answers are particularly relevant for those who are or intending to be tourism professionals. 1. Sun, sea, sand and sex. 2. Leisure, touring, sightseeing, culture. 3. Visiting friends and relations (VFR). 4. Business and incentive travel. 5. Special interest. OTHER DETERMINANTS Besides the motives mentioned in the earlier sections there are also certain other determinants of tourism. • Psychological. • Socio-Political. • Economical. • Time. • Nature of Visa. Why People become Tourist? 1. Relaxation, rest and recreation. 2. Pleasure. 3. Health. 4. Curiosity and culture. 5. Ethnicity and family. 6. Participation in sports. 7. Spiritual and religious pilgrimages. 8. Status and prestige. 9. Professional or business. 10. Education. 11. Seeing new sights. 12. Natural climate. 13. More agreeable climate. Attractions for Tourists Natural and developed attractions are the ‘mainspring’ that drive much of the desire to travel. The whole sector of the service economy has grown in order to satisfy the needs of tourists. Types of Attractions (1) Ancient monuments and historical buildings. (2) Designated areas, parks and gardens.

66 Ecotourism (3) Theme parks. (4) Wildlife attractions. (5) Museums. (6) Art galleries. (7) Industrial, archaeological sites. (8) Amusement and leisure parks. (9) Geological and botanical gardens. (10) Festivals. (11) Cultural centres/exhibitions. (12) Beaches. (13) Mountains. (14) Open countryside. (15) Climatic features—sunshine, pure and fresh air. (16) Spectacles—Niagara Falls/Grand Canyon. Attractions are the principal appeal of any destination. The success of many touristic destinations depends upon a combination of man-made and cultural attractions which they have to offer. CONCLUSION In modern era, the whole world has become a global village, in which tourist can go from one place to another to see new things according to their choice. Therefore, motivation is a very important factor to influence the tourism industry. Every tourist has their own plan to see special things which they motivate them. Hence, many nations are trying to attract the international tourists in their own country and do advertisement to make strong motivation. India is also playing very important role to extend the tourism industry through incredible India as commonwealth will be held at New Delhi in 2010. Therefore, we have great opportunity to attract the international tourists.

Significance of Tourism 67

CHAPTER 4

Significance of Tourism INTRODUCTION Tourism is unique because it involves industry without smoke, education without a classroom, integration without legislation and diplomacy without formality. Tourism is an activity essential to the life of nations because of its direct effects on social, cultural, educational and economical sectors of societies. Tourism is the world’s largest export industry. Today, tourism is a major item of international trade, perhaps the biggest international business activity after all. International tourism is the largest single item in the world’s foreign trade and for some countries it is already the most important export industry and earner of foreign exchange. To create new industries and to transform the rural life of a developing country like India is a gigantic task. The relevance of tourism in this situation is that income from international tourism can bring the foreign exchange essential for major investments. Tourism involves cultural exchanges and results in the cultural enrichment of those who travel as well as of those at the receiving end. Cultural factors attract tourists to destinations. Architecture, historical monuments and birthplaces of famous men are often visited by tourists. Without culture to make the difference, every place would seem blandly the same. Without different cultural heritage, places around the world would have little to offer that would attract, for purposes of tourism. The main economical significance of tourism—money earned in place of normal residence is spent in places visited—is common to all tourism. No place in the world is isolated and distance is no longer so costly. Now businessmen and politicians travel from one country to the next, covering thousands of miles, in a matter of hours. Some even live in one country and work in another. The importance of tourism has been increasingly realised because of its social, economical, political, cultural and aesthetic implications. Tourism is no longer an adventure to be undertaken by the few. Recent phenomenal increases in tourist traffic from all over the world testifies to the fact that it is a commodity of mass consumption.

68 Ecotourism Basic Components in Tourism Industry and Employment Opportunity Transport

Attractions

Accommodation

Air Transport Rail Transport Road Transport Ocean Transport

Ancient Monuments Historical Buildings Theme Parks Wildlife Attractions Museums Art Galleries Archaeological Sites Culture Centres Amusement and Leisure Parks Beaches Mountains Open Countryside Climatic Features

Resort Complexes Hotels Motels Youth Hostels Holiday Centres Inns Farm Houses Sleeper Trains Camp sites Caravans Villas Apartments

ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE The economical importance of tourism can be studied in relation to its contribution to the increase in income, foreign exchange earnings, employment, return on investment, conservation of resources, etc. The following headings will be described in details. 1. Contribution to National Income It is the opportunity to increase the income level of the people that has motivated many countries, particularly the underdeveloped countries, to attract foreign tourists. Expenditure incurred by foreign tourists forms an important source of income. 2. Contribution to Foreign Exchange Earnings Since most of the foreign tourists come from developed countries, forming the hard currency area, efforts have to be made to attract tourists. Expenditure by foreign tourists in the tourist receiving country forms a source of foreign exchange to the latter. 3. Contribution to Employment Generation The importance of tourism to the national economy can be judged with reference to its contribution to the generation of employment. This aspect of tourism is of a high significance particularly in underdeveloped countries where there is largescale unemployment and where employment opportunities grow at a slow rate. In underdeveloped countries, efforts have to be made to create larger employment opportunities against a given investment. The employment opportunities created by tourism would depend upon the intensive development of the tourist industry in

Significance of Tourism 69 that country. Tourism can be visualised as an important factor in activating the idle resources of the nations. On many occasions the places of interest for tourists are the natural resorts such as parks, coastlines, dams and rivers, jungles, forests etc. The tourist industry creates a demand for these products. It creates a value for the product which otherwise would remain idle. 4. Contribution to Economical Development Tourism as an industry is of vital importance as a tool for rapid economical development in underdeveloped countries. More and more attention is therefore given to the development of this industry. 5. Contribution to Social Aspects Tourism does not have merely an economical aspect. It has a social aspect too while planning for future development. It considers the social aspects of tourism. The twentieth century has witnessed rapid economical development in several countries, particularly in Europe and North America. Economical development is reflected in increasing wages and declining hours of work. It is envisaged that within a short period, particularly due to automation, the hours of work will be reduced by at least 25 to 30%. Increasing incomes and reduction in hours of work have social implications. The development of tourism is closely associated with the efficiency of importing people to train others in the utilization of leisure. Increase in income and growing transport facilities have made individuals more mobile and have increased the prospects which tourism as a commodity can satisfy the needs of modern societies, where leisure is ample. A characteristic feature of modern society is the increase in mental tension in some highly industrialised societies. FACTORS AFFECTING THE GROWTH OF TOURISM The phenomenal growth in tourism during the last twenty-five years has been due to several economical, cultural and technological factors. Principal among these are: (1) Increased leisure. (2) Industrial development and urbanization. (3) Revolution in transport. (4) Education and culture. (5) Rising standards of living. (6) Publicity and promotion. Hence, tourism has come to be recognised as a significant factor in the economy of many nations. In some cases, it has become the most important factor. Tourism is the biggest foreign exchange earner for countries like Nepal, Thailand, Spain and New Zealand, and ranks third among the export earnings of India.

70 Ecotourism The significance of tourism includes: • Image building. • Educational significance. • Cultural significance. • Tourism and gross domestic product. • Domestic product. • Increase in employment. • Problem of tourism growth. The various forms of employment created by tourism may be classified as follows: (1) Direct employment: The person who works in tourism enterprises. (2) Indirect employment: Jobs generated in the supplying sectors. (3) Induced employment: Additional people supported by the spending of income made by the direct and indirect employees. (4) Construction employment: Jobs generated in the construction of tourist facilities and infrastructure. TAX BENEFITS TO THE STATE Reveneue from Tourism

Property Tax

Import Duty

Sales Tax

Income Tax

Hotel Tax

Transport Tax

Entertainment Tax

IMPACTS OF TOURISM Any form of industrial development will bring with it impacts upon the social and physical environment in which it takes place. In view of the fact that tourists visit a place of production in order to consume the output, tourism is responsible for such impacts. The impacts of tourism on any destination will be determined by a wide variety of the following factors: (1) The volume of tourists arriving. (2) The structure of the host economy. (3) The type of activity of the tourist. (4) The type of tourist. (5) The fragility of the local environment. (6) The difference in social characteristics between the host community and the tourists. Every destination will be subject to change in its carrying capacity, i.e., a level of tourism activity that can be sustained in the long-term without creating serious, irreversible changes to the destination. The carrying capacity is defined as that level of tourist presence which creates impacts on the host community’s

Significance of Tourism 71 environment and economy that are acceptable to both tourists and hosts and sustainable future time periods. The local and alien factors manipulated by the planning and management of touristic development will result in impacts on social and environmental structure, such as: (i) The economical impact. (ii) Impact on employment. (iii) Environmental impact. (iv) Socio-cultural impact. Economical Impact (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

The effect on income. The effect on employment. The effect on the area’s balance of payment with the outside world. The effect on investment.

Income (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Mostly direct in areas with a buoyant level of tourism. Labour intensive accommodation such as hotels. In a large number of attractions. Ground handling arrangements.

The Development of the Social and Cultural Impacts of Tourism Several specific characteristics of tourism must also be kept in mind. Firstly, the transitory nature of the relationships between hosts and guests, often coupled with language barriers, allows little opportunity for understanding to develop between the two groups. Factors Shaping the Physical Development of Tourism The prerequisites that shape the development of tourism may be defined without too much difficulty. Different processes of development can and do occur, and these will be associated with contrasting spatial patterns and forms. NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF TOURISM UPON ECONOMICAL DEVELOPMENT Although the development of tourism has a number of powerful attractions there are also significant negative impacts. Firstly, the industry is subject to instabilities and in many tourism regions, climatic constraints produce a pronounced seasonal effect. Tourism demand patterns are highly responsive to a number of potentially disruptive influences including:

72 Ecotourism Factors Affecting the Developmental Patterns of Tourism Topography Available of land accessibility Existing development

Physical constraints

Natural/non-natural Unique/Ubiquitous Dispersed/ place specific Non-commericial

Nature of tourist resources and attraction

Level of (political) control Level of planning Sources of investment

Planning and investment condition

Patterns of ownership Spatial integration or segregation Structural integration or segregation

Level of integration

Domestic/ international Elite/ mass Culturally similar or dissimilar

Nature of the tourism market

• Economical recessions in generating countries. • Changes in the price of holidays as a consequence of fluctuations in the international monetary exchange rates or price wars within the travel industry. • Changes in the cost of transportation reflecting particularly the changes in oil prices and associated costs of aviation fuel. • Short- or medium-term economical and political instability in destination areas. • Warfare and civil unrest. • Negative images stemming from a range of potential problems at destinations including levels of crime, incidences of illness and epidemics, or even a simple decline in feasibility. • Terrorism. Economical Significance of Tourism • • • • •

Economical diversity is promoted to avoid single sector dependence. Sectors interact and reinforce each other. Net revenues are proportionally higher. Money circulates within the community. More jobs and economical activity are generated.

Regulation • Communities make the critical decisions for the developmental strategies.

Significance of Tourism 73 • Planning to meet ecological, social and economical carrying capacities. • Holistic approach stresses the integration and well-being of community interests. • Long-term approach takes into account the welfare of future generations. • Integrity of the foundation assets is protected. • Possibility of irreversibilities are reduced. THE ECONOMICAL DIMENSIONS OF TOURISM Direct Economical Impact These impacts are largely on the “front-line” businesses that initially receive the tourism expenditures. These can include businesses such as hotels, restaurants, retail stores, transportation carriers and attractions. Indirect Economical Impact These impacts are from the intermediate rounds of spending on the supply of goods and services to the sectors of the industry identified above. An example would be the supply of bed sheets for a hotel. THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF TOURISM IN POVERTY REDUCTION At the national level, tourism can contribute to economical growth but it can also have social, environmental and cultural benefits and costs. In principle, tourism provides employment opportunities thus diversifying and increasing the income and reducing the vulnerability of the poor. These advantages are as follows: • Tourism is consumed at the point of production therefore increasing opportunities for individual and microenterprises to sell additional products or services. Induced Economical Impact Tourism Spending

Accommodation Services

Foods Beverage Services

Cultural Services

Passenger Transportation Services

Recreations Entertainment Services Tourism Spending

Financial Services

Travel Agencies Tour Operators

74 Ecotourism • Tourism not only depends on financial, productive and human capital but also largely on natural and cultural capital which are often assets possessed by the poor. • Tourism is labour intensive thus providing the poor, who have large labour reserves, opportunities to be involved. • Tourism thrives on diversity drawing from a large resource base thus increasing the scope for wider participation. • Tourism provides important opportunities for women to find employment. Tourism directly responds to the poverty reduction objectives since it has the potential to: • Unlock opportunities for proper economical growth by providing formal and informal employment. • Create profit and collective income from locally owned enterprises. • Facilitate social development by increasing access to infrastructure by providing local people with the opportunity to access tourism infrastructure. • Help in increasing the participation of the local communities in decisionmaking as tourism products are often assets owned by the poor. • Reduce the vulnerability of the poor by helping to diversify income opportunities. • Promote environmental protection given that natural and human environments are the lifelines in the development of tourism. Table 4.1: Economical Impacts of Tourism Economical Benifits

Economical Costs

• Tourism generates local employment, both directly in the toruism sector and in support and resource managerial sectors. • Tourism stimulates profitable domestic industries, hotels and other lodging facilities, restaurants and foods services, transportation systems, handicrafts and guide services. • Tourism generates foreign exchange for the country and injects capital and new money into the local economy. • Tourism helps to diversify the local economy. • Improved road systems and infrastructure that contribute to the entire destination can be justified and supported by the benefits emanating from the development of tourism. • While often the jobs that are created through tourism may be low paying and unskilled, they can constitute an important step for the poor to improve their economical condition.

• Higher demands created by activities for tourists may increase the price of land, housing and a range of commodities necessary for daily life. • Demands on health service provision and police services can be created during the tourist seasons at the local taxbase.

Significance of Tourism 75 Table 4.2: Social Impacts of Tourism Social Benifits

Social Costs

• The quality of the life of a community can be enhanced by economical diversification through tourism. • Tourism creates recreational and cultural facilities which can be used by local communities as well as domestic and international visitors. • Public spaces may be developed and enhanced through tourism activity. • Tourism enhances local community esteem and provides the opportunities for greater understanding and communication among peoples of diverse backgrounds.

• A rapid growth in tourism can result in the inability of local amenities and institutions to meet an increase in demand. • Without planning and proper management litter, vandalism and crime often accompany the development of tourism. • Tourism can bring overcrowding and traffic congestion. • Visitors bring with them wealth. Young members of the host community are particularly susceptible to the economical expectations that these tourists bring. The result can be a complete disruption of the traditional way of life in the community. • The community may change (including community bonds, demographical and institutions). • The authenticity of the social and cultural environment can be changed to meet the demands of tourism.

Table 4.3: Cultural Impacts of Tourism Cultural Benefits

Cultural Costs

• Tourism can enhance local cultural awareness. • Tourism can generate income to help pay for the preservation of archaeological sites, historical buildings, and districts. • Despite much criticism about the alteration of cultures to unacceptable levels, the sharing of cultural knowledge and experience can be beneficial for both the hosts and the guests of tourism destinations and can result in the revival of local traditions and crafts.

• The youth in the community begin to emulate the speech and attire of tourists. • Historical sites can be damaged through the development of tourism and pressures. • There can be long-term damage to cultural traditions and the erosion of cultrual values, resulting in cultural change beyond the level acceptable to the host destination.

BARRIERS TO REDUCING POVERTY THROUGH THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM There are a number of barriers to ensuring that tourism can play a role in poverty reduction. They include: • Lack of government programmes targeted to the tourism related informal sector.

76 Ecotourism Table 4.4: Physical Environmental Impacts of Tourism Physical Environmental Benefits

Physical Environmental Costs

• Parks and nature reserves may be created and ecological preservation supported as a necessity for nature-based tourism. • Improved waste management can be achieved. • Increased awareness and concern for the environment can be a result of naturebased touristic activities and development.

• Negative changes in the physical integrity of the area. • Rapid development, over development, and overcrowding can forever change the physical environment and ecosystems of an area. • Degradation of parks, reserves and other attractions such as beaches may occur through overuse and poor management.

• Lack of educational and training opportunities for the poor in order to facilitate their access to the tourism industry. • Lack of reasonable credit to allow the poor to start small enterprises. • Lack of market knowledge that would guide the poor in making good choices in starting small-scale enterprises. • Lack of technical advice and direction. • Inadequate infrastructure for tourism in areas with a high level of poverty. CONCLUSION In the present world, tourism continues to grow dramatically on a worldwide basis. A proper study of it can be effectively directed towards specific market targets for measurable gains, both on domestic and foreign tourism level. The economic significance of tourism cannot be undermined. It has emerged as one of the largest growing industry around the globe, and also supporting various primary and secondary travel industries like hotel, transport and entertainment industries. World over, tourism is recognized as a big source of earning foreign exchange and employment generation. To tap the gains from tourism, a proper planning, marketing and promotion is required with the active support and participation of the government.

CHAPTER 5

Tourism Marketing INTRODUCTION In the field of tourism, marketing is assuming a new significance. It is concerned with the assessment of constant consumer demand. Krippendrot has defined marketing in tourism as follows. Marketing in tourism is to be understood as the systematic and the coordinated execution of a business policy by tourist undertakings whether private or state owned at local, regional, national or international levels to achieve the optimal satisfaction of the needs of identifiable consumer groups and in so doing to achieve an appropriate return. The tourist product can be sold as a package or assembled by the tourist himself. The tourist product can be analysed in terms of its attractions, its facilities and its accessibility (e.g., Kashmir, Niagara Falls). A tourist market may be identified as corresponding to each tourist’s product. In this sense, market means buyers and potential buyers of each tourist product. The identification of a segment of the total market is very important. Marketing Tools There are several activities which are commonly used in the conduct of a marketing campaign e.g. advertising, development of a sales force and the use of public relations, which are as follows: • Advertising and sales promotion • Tourist literature • Public relations in tourism. DEFINITIONS OF MARKETING Marketing is the creative managerial function which promotes trade and employment by assessing consumer needs and initiating research and development to meet them. It coordinates the resources of production and the distribution of goods and services, determines and directs the nature and scale of the total effort required to sell profitably the maximum amount of product to the ultimate user.

78 Ecotourism “Marketing is defined as that activity which directs the flow of goods and services from production to consumption.” (American Marketing Association) “As a business discipline, marketing consists of the systematic study of the demand-generating or consumer-motivating forces which are temporal and spatial considerations influencing economical transactions, and the interacting efforts and responses of buyers and sellers in a market.” (Eugene J. Kelly) “Marketing is concerned essentially with the prediction of people’s future behaviour and an attempt to influence their behaviour in some particular way.” (Colin Melver) “It is easier to pay lip service to the marketing concept than to apply it in a business. Marketing is simply customer orientation looking at your business from the customer’s point of view”. (The British Institute of Management News.) “Marketing may be defined as the efficient utilisation of a company’s resources to match existing or future consumer demands, and the manipulation and promotion of the same to ensure that the products of these resources are in the right place, at the right time and at the right price to meet that demand.” (Neville Teler) “Marketing looks after the needs of the customer, selling goods after the needs of the producer.” (Professor Arnold Carbin) “Selling focusses on the needs of the seller, marketing on the needs of the buyer.” MARKET SEGMENTATION Market segmentation is the process of identifying groups of buyers of the total market with different buying desires or requirements. Most markets are too large for an organisation to provide all the products and services needed by all the buyers in that market. To delimit the market is therefore necessary to ensure efficiency and also to conserve financial resources of the organisations. This leads organisations to select target markets necessitating market segmentation. Market segmentation has certain obvious advantages in that the organisation is: (1) Better placed to spot and compare marketing opportunities. (2) Makes finer adjustments of the product and marketing appeals, possibly to cater to the needs of the buyers, and (3) Can develop marketing programmes and budgets on the basis of a clearer idea of the response characteristics of specific market segments. The markets are divided on the basis of several factors. The most commonly used bases of market segmentation include: (i) geographical segmentation: Under this the market is divided into different geographical locations such as cities, provinces, regions or countries, (ii) demographic segmentation: This is on the basis of demographic variables such as age, sex, occupation, income, education, social class, region, etc., and (iii) psychographic segmentation: This is on the basis of psychographic variables which refer to such aspects of an individual as

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his life style, personality, buying motives and product knowledge and use. Among the peculiarities of tourist products are: (1) Tourism is an intangible, non-material product. (2) Production and consumption of tourist services are closely interrelated. (3) A tourist product is assembled by many producers. (4) Tourism demands are highly unstable. (5) Dominant role of intermediaries. (6) Diverse motivation. It is comparatively simple to determine why people buy a certain make of refrigerator, smoke certain brands of cigarettes, use certain brands of toothpaste or certain types of packaged food. The subjective and objective reasons, expectations and desires which influence tourist’s choice for certain holiday destinations, types of accommodation and vacation activities, are far less evident. Very often two people make exactly the same choices for entirely different and sometimes even mutually exclusive reasons. TOURISM FINANCE The principal sources of finance generally are: (1) The government. (2) Commercial undertakings, banks, financial institutions. (3) Tourists. (4) Tourist organisations—national, regional and local. MARKETING PROCESSES AND FUNCTIONS This factor eventually led to the adoption of the marketing concept. Marketing concept in the field of tourism comprises the following major processes or functions: (1) Market research. (2) Product formulation and development. (3) Product distribution. (4) Advertising. (5) Sales promotion or support. (6) Public relations. For preparing any successful marketing plan, we deal with four variables, popularly known in the marketing jargon. (1) Product. (2) Price. (3) Place. (4) Promotion.

80 Ecotourism The diagram below shows the factors influencing tourist demand. Factors Influencing Tourist Demand Economic determinants

Social-psychological determinants

Exogenous determinants

Personal

Demographic factors

Supply of products

Distribution of incomes

Motivations/preferences

Political/economic stability

Cost of tourism products

Attitudes

Technological advances

Cost of transportation

Amount of leisure time

Access

Value of currnecy/exchange

Past experiences

Level of tourism development

Government tax policies and controls on tourist spending

Cultural awareness

Barriers to travel e.g. laws

(Source: Modified from Bull 1995; loannide and Debbage 1998; Mathieson and Wall 1982; Tribe 1995)

MARKET RESEARCH In order to formulate any marketing strategy, it is very essential for a national tourist organisation and others engaged in marketing a tourist product to know the answers to the following questions: (1) Who are the persons who engage in tourism and where do they live? (2) Who are the potential customers and where do they come from? (3) What are their likes and dislikes? (4) What are their travel preferences and interests? (5) What do they buy and where do they stay? (6) What mode of transport do they use? (7) What are their entertainment preferences? (8) What are the trends in competition? (9) What types of marketing programmes would be needed? TOURISM MARKETING PRINCIPLES Marketing is a management philosophy which, in the light of tourist demand, makes it possible through research, forecasting and selection to place tourism products on the market most in line with the organisation’s purpose for the greatest benefit. Market segmentation—Market segmentation is a recognised and universally accepted way of analysing demand. Market segmentation refers to the process by which people with similar needs and wants are grouped together for the purpose of better focussing on and serving the market. To determine the compromise point between developing a product for everyone and offering one product for all, it is

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necessary to examine the criteria which a segment must meet to determine its viability. A segment must be: (1) Measurable. Can we determine how many potential tourists are in this segment? (2) Accessible. Can these tourists be reached through promotion and through existing or potential methods of distribution? How easy will this be? (3) Substantial. Are there sufficient numbers of tourists in this segment to support a marketing effort aimed specifically at them? (4) Defensible. Are the tourist characteristics unique enough to justify a separate programme targeted at them? Is such a programme immune to the mass marketing approach of competitors? (5) Durable. As the market develops, will this segment maintain its differences or will these differences disappear? (6) Competitive. Do we have a relative advantage over the competition in our attempts to serve this market segment? MARKET PLANNING Market planning implies a future orientation. It involves identifying suitable marketing objectives as well as determining appropriate marketing strategies to achieve those objectives. A model of the planning process could be therefore presented as indicated below: MARKET PLANNING PROCESS Product analysis

Market analysis

Competitor analysis

Development objectives

Identification of marketing objectives Target market selection Marketing mix selection Product Price Promotion Distribution

External forces

82 Ecotourism The diagram below shows the typical destination management system. A Typical Destination Management System Accommodation Regional Tour operator Local brochures tourism guide brochure advertising

GDS database

Destination Management System

Hotel

Consumer

Multimedia CRS kiosk database

Regional tourism organization

Internet-based consumer

MARKET/PRODUCT/ COMPETITOR ANALYSIS Marketing Mix: The marketing mix is comprised of four elements—product, price, promotion, and distribution. All four elements are provided in accordance with the needs of the target markets. Travel and tourism is best understood in terms of demand and supply within a total market. At its simplest, marketing can be explained as a process of achieving voluntary exchanges between two individual parties. • Customers who buy or use products. • Producer organisations which supply and sell the products. • Understanding their needs and desires (why they buy). • Which products they choose, when, how much, at what price, how often? • From where they buy them? • How they feel after their purchase and consumption of products? • Which products to produce and why? • How many? • At what price? • When and where to make them available? Five marketing propositions: • Marketing is a managrial orientation or philosophy. • Marketing comprises three main elements linked within a system of exchange transactions. • Marketing is concerned with long-term (strategy) and short-term (tactics) • Marketing is especially relevant to the late twentieth-century marketing conditions. • Marketing facilitates the efficient conduct of business.

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The figure below shows the elements of tourism plan. The Elements of a Tourism Plan Domestic and international tourism markets Tourist attractions and activities Accommodation

Transportation Natural and socio-economic environment Other infrastructure

Institutional elements

Other tourist facilities and services Residents’ use of tourism infrastructure

PREPARING THE PROMOTION PROGRAMME Product covers the shape or form of what is offered to prospective customers. In other words the characteristics of the product as designed by managerial decisions. Product components include: • Basic design, such as the size and facilities of a hotel. • Presentation, which for service products, is mainly a function of the atmosphere and environments created on the producer’s premises. • The service element includs numbers, training attitudes and the appearance of staff engaged in ‘delivering’ the product to the consumer. • Branding which identifies particular products with a unique name and image and is a synthesis of all the product elements as well the focus of promotional activity. Booms and Bitner recommend a ‘revised marketing mix’ for services which comprises: • Product • Price • Promotion • Place – People (number, training, attitudes). – Physical evidence (furnishings, colour, lighting, noise). – Process (customer involvement, procedures in service delivery).

84 Ecotourism A similar approach to the marketing mix adopted by Morrison (1989, p. 175) whose definition comprises • Product. • Packaging. • Price. • Programming. • Place. • People. • Promotion. • Partnership. Four broad consumer segments are listed below: Hotels (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Corporate/business clients. Group tours. Independent vacationers. Weekend/mid-week package breaks. Conference delegates.

Tour operators (1) Young people 18–30. (2) Families with children. (3) Retired/senior citizens. (4) Activity seekers. Transport operators (1) First class passengers. (2) Business class passengers. (3) Economy class passengers. (4) Charter groups. (5) Apex purchasers. Destination attractions (1) Local residents in the area. (2) Day visitors from outside a local area. (3) Domestic tourists. (4) Foreign tourists. (5) School parties.

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Different Services in Tourism Industry Tourism Service

Primary/Principal Supplier

Intermediary

• Tickets

Airlines, Railways

Travel Agents

• Tours

Airlines/Railways, Hotel/Resort/Any other Ground Services Providers, Meal Provider, Guides, Tourist Attraction Providers, etc. packaged by tour operators.

Tour Operator, Travel Agents

• Cruises

Cruise Company/Ocean liners.

Travel Agents

• Accommodation

Hotel, Resort, House Boat, Guest House, others.

Travel Agents, Hotels, Tour operator

• MICE arrangement

Hotel, Transporter, Advertising Agency, Event Management Companies.

Travel Agents, Event Management Companies.

• Passport and travel documents

Embassies, High Commissions.

Travel Agents, Passport and Visa handling—specialist travel agents.

• Insurance

Insurance Companies.

Travel Agency.

• Foreign exchange

Banks, Foreign Exchange Handling Agency.

Travel Agents, Hotels

• Car rentals

Tourist Transporter, Car Rental Agencies.

Travel Agents, Hotels, Tour operators.

• Ground services

Guide, Escort, Local Agents and others.

Travel Agents, Tour Operators, Hotels.

TOURISM MARKETING: A CASE HISTORY OF INDIA Traditionally a country which welcomes guests, India’s experience in modern tourism is not even 25-year old. By the mid-fifties, India decided that it should have overseas offices to project new images of India in order to attract the tourist. The markets chosen were USA, UK followed by West Germany, France and Australia. These offices were essentially information offices whose job was to distribute and disseminate tourist information through brochures printed in India although these offices were useful in projecting the new image of an Independent India. Also in Australia, the story was more or less repeated as Australians started taking Indian holidays only in the late sixties or from the early seventies. The local tourist offices began to improve the image of India as a land of Ajanta-Ellora, the Taj Mahal, the Himalayas and the Mahabalipuram. Cultural tourism relating to monuments and ancient civilisation was the initial theme of promotion as people in the Western world would at first do more reading to identify India with such images.

86 Ecotourism HOW TO SET UP A TRAVEL AGENCY It is necessary to obtain a number of recognitions and approvals to start a travel agency. For getting the recognition easily, the following conditions need to be followed: (a) The agency is centrally located, preferably in a business area and easily accessible to the general public. A ground floor location is preferred. (b) Should have been in business for at least one year and must demonstrate its desire and ability to promote travel in a professional manner. (c) Have competent and experienced staff to quote fares and schedules, make reservations and issue tickets. (d) Have adequate finance. (e) Maintain ethical standards of business in its dealing with passengers. (f) Be able to obtain the required government licences where applicable. The travel agents in India offer documentation services, like passport and visa, have to be on the approved list of the regional passport office of the Ministry of External Affairs as well as on the Reserve Bank of India for release of foreign exchange and for the eligibility of passengers to travel. (g) Have the approval of the International Air Transport Association to represent member airlines. Separate recognition is required for passenger and cargo sales. This recognition is granted only after there has been satisfactory functioning of a travel agency for at least one year. The airlines insist on certain minimum financial guarantees for IATA approval. Similarly, Indian Airlines in India accept IATA approved travel agents for their sales distribution. (h) Have the approval of certain airlines to sell their tickets. Here, again, separate recognition is needed for selling passenger tickets and booking air cargo. (i) Have the approval of the Department of Tourism to claim publicity and promotional benefits for tour operators handling inbound tourists. This approval is not necessary for travel agents who do not deal with inbound tourist traffic. The first travel agency was set up by Thomas Cook in 1841. The Cook company has, at present, over 1,000 offices in 145 countries and 13,000 employees all over the world. There are four main types of retail travel agency. (1) Business house agency: Catering mainly for the travel needs of commercial and industrial firms. Such agencies incur high staff and office costs since they are located near their clients in city centres. (2) City centre agents: Located in or near to main shopping centres, they need a high turnover to justify city centre costs. (3) Countrytown agencies: This type is most profitable with a mix of business and holiday traffic.

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(4) Suburban agencies: Selling principally tours with a markedly seasonal pattern of business. The buying decisions of consumers are founded increasingly on the advertising campaigns and on the elaborate brochures of tour operators and other principals. FUNCTIONS OF A MODERN TRAVEL AGENCY (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Travel information. Preparation of itineraries. Liaison with providers of service. Ticketing. Provision of foreign currencies. Insurance.

BEGINNING OF ORGANISED MARKETING Market planning in the fifties and the sixties was not really feasible because the base of Indian tourism was small. More importantly, the resources for promotion were even smaller because the personnel were not well trained as tourism was a new industry. For preparing any successful marketing plan, we deal with four variables, popularly know in marketing jargon as the “four P”. (1) Product: It means attractions: Tourist resources that a country can offer include beautiful monuments, scenic beauty, beach and mountain resorts, transportation services, hotel accommodation, polite and friendly people, etc. (2) Price: It implies the optimal rates at which the tourism product can be sold. (3) Place: Most suitable distribution channels. In other words, the markets where the product should be sold. (4) Promotion: It implies the communication process which we have discussed in the preceding page at length. TOURISM MARKETING POLICY (1) Product The products plays an important role in marketing. As far as the tourist is concerned, the product he buys covers the complete experience from the time he leaves home to the time that he returns home. A tourist product is not just an airline seat or a hotel bed or relaxation on a sunny beach but rather a ‘package’. The tourist product

88 Ecotourism is a composite product which is an amalgam of attraction, transport, accommodation and entertainment. All tourists, be they travelling separately, or in an inclusive group to various destinations, are components of tourist products in the eyes of their producer but they are merely components of a composite product. The tourist products, what the country has to offer, are namely: • Architectural resources. • Natural resources. • Museums and monuments. • Culture. All these things are to be designed and presented according to the requirements of the tourist. The tourist product can be analysed in terms of: • Attraction. • Facilities. • Accessibility. The attractions are those elements in the tourist product which determine the choice of a tourist to visit one destination rather than another. (2) Motive for Travel (3) Purchasing Habits of Travellers There are a series of facts about the actual business of holidaying or taking a trip, for example: • Class of travel. • Methods of transport used. • Countries. • Resorts. Tourism Markets International Airline Domestic Airline

Business Hotels Business Hotels

Vacation Resorts

Car Rental Company

Sports/Tour Operator

Public The organization of a travel agency and how travel agents channel products to the public.

Proto Indo-European

6000

5000

4000 Balto-Slavic Sanskrit Germanic Latin 2000

West

North

East

Danis h Norw egian Swe dish Goth (extin ic ct)

Germ an Icela ndic

Old Persian

Celtic

The Indo-European family of languages. The languages in this “family tree” are all descendants of proto Indo-European, and common word roots can be found among them.

Tourism Marketing

(Present)

Engli sh Dutc h

1000

Old Church Slavonic

Classical Greek

Hind i Beng ali Punja and mbi India any othe r n lan guag es

3000

Lithu ania n Russ ian Ukra nian Bulg arian Polis h Czec h Rom ania n Italia n Fren ch Span ish Portu gues e Gaeli c Wels h Mod ern G reek Alba nian Arme nian Pers ian Kurd ish

Years before present

Indo-Iranian

89

90 Ecotourism • Places. • Visits. • Length of stay. • Time of travel. • Expenditure incurred. • Tourism marketing • Marketing concept This is clear that the marketing is a human activity directed at satisfying needs and wants through an exchange process. Marketing is the managerial function which organises and directs all those business activities involved in assessing and converting customer purchasing power into an effective demand for a specific product or service and in moving the product or service to the final customer or user so as to achieve the profit target or other objective set by the company. The important aspects of marketing concepts are: (1) Customer orientation. (2) Dual-core marketing job. (3) Integrated marketing. TOURISM MARKETS The main personnel in the tourism industry include suppliers, tour operators, travel agencies, and tourists. Each employee has a support in the development of the electronic market. In the tourism industry, the language is the main tool by which you can sell tour product. The diagram below shows the world’s leading languages. The world’s leading languages and the number of speakers of each (in millions) Langauge

Native speakers

Total speakers

Mandarin

885

1,075

Hindi

375

496

Spanish

358

425

English

350

514

Arabic

211

256

Bengali

210

215

Portuguese

178

194

Russian

165

275

Japanese

125

126

German

100

128

French

77

129

Malay-Indonesian

58

176

Note: A native speaker is one for whom the language is his or her first language.

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The table below shows the major religions in the world. Adherents of the World’s Major Religions (mid-2001 estimates in thousands) Religion Christians

Total

Africa

Asia

Latin America

Northern America

Europe Oceania

2,019,052

368,244

317,759

486,591 261,752

559,359

25,343

Roman Catholics 1,067,053

123,467

112,086

466,226

71,391

285,554

8,327

45,295

70,164

77,497

7,478

Protestants

345,855

90,989

50,718

Orthodox

216,314

36,038

14,219

564

6,400

158,375

718

Anglicans

80,644

43,524

735

1,098

3,231

26,628

5,428

387,167

139

356,533

660

2,777

1,570

307

6,313

250

6,277

–

–

11

24

819,689

2,384

813,396

775

1,350

1,425

359

14,111

215

4,476

1,145

6,045

2,506

97

1,207,148

323,556

845,341

1,702

4,518

31,724

307

Buddhists Confucians Hindus Jews Muslims

Source: Adapted from the 2003 Encyclopaedia Britannica Book of the Year.

CONCLUSION As an industry, tourism has many components comprising the overall “travel experience.” Along with transportation, it includes such things as accommodations, food and beverage services, shops, entertainment, aesthetics and special events. It is rare for one business to provide the variety of activities or facilities tourists need or desire. This adds to the difficulty of maintaining and controlling the quality of the experience. To overcome this hurdle, tourism related businesses, agencies, and organizations need to work together to package and promote tourism opportunities in their areas and align their efforts to assure consistency in product quality.

92 Ecotourism

CHAPTER 6

Dimensions of the Hotel Industry and Globalization INTRODUCTION Tourism is by some accounts the world’s largest industry. Every year a greater proportion of the world population takes part in tourism activity, and in most countries tourism is one of the fastest-growing sectors of the economy. Despite the fears of terrorism in 2008 (Mumbai), international tourism arrivals numbered over 700 million in that year, and international tourist receipts approached $500 billion, excluding air fares. Tourism is the top earner of foreign exchange for many countries, and it is expected to grow everywhere by at least 5 per cent per year, with even higher rates in the poor countries. The aftershock of the attacks on the United States in September 2001 and other terrorist attacks around the world were harmful, but the World Tourism Organization believes that world tourism will continue to expand. Citizens of the rich countries account for the largest tourist expenditures, and the rich countries are also the most popular destinations. Measured by tourist arrivals, the leading destinations in 2009 were France, Spain, the United States, Italy, and China. When tourism income is measured as a share of total national income, however, the importance of tourist income to the poor countries becomes clear. Tourism contributed over 10 per cent of the total GDP of South Africa. The tourist potential of any spot depends upon its “three A’s”: • Accessibility, usually via convenient air routes. • Accommodations, at all levels from simple pensions to grand resort hotels. • Attractions, which can include a pleasant climate, as well as beaches, museums, architecture, historic sites, festivals and performances, shopping opportunities, and more. According to the World Tourism Organisation (WTO), there were about 13 million rooms worldwide in hotels, motels and similar establishments in 1996. How did this massive industry start? Travel had created a demand for home away

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from home. There is a close link between the growth of accommodation facilities and the development of the modes of transport. Hotels emerged from taverns by the simple expedience of a change in name. The word “hotel” had a more glamorous ring to it. In France, a hotel is the city residence of the rich, famous and prominent people. Hotels form an important and vital segment of tourism infrastructure. The present capacity stands at 55,000 rooms in the approved category, which needs to be doubled by the end of the decade if we have to double our share of the international tourist market. The government has drawn up a fiscal concession scheme to draw investment to this segment including tax holidays and exemptions as well as loan waivers. The regions which get the highest state subsidy will be rural areas, hill stations, pilgrim centres and island and beach resorts. The heritage hotel scheme is also going to take the development of tourism development into the hinterland of major tourist circuits. Accommodation for domestic tourists is to be strengthened by establishing camping sites, tented accommodation and paying-guest accommodation. Apartment hotels are also being envisaged. An important distinction in accommodation for visitors is the split between serviced and non-serviced types: serviced means that staff are available on the premises to provide some services such as cleaning, meals, bars and room service. The availability of such services, even if they are not in fact used, is included in the price charged. Non-serviced means that the sleeping accommodation is provided furnished on a rental basis, normally for a unit comprising several beds, such as an apartment, villa, cottage or caravan. While services for the provision of meals, bars and shops may be available on a separate commercial basis, as in a holiday village, they are not included in the price charged for the accommodation. • Booking services: handling enquiries and bookings including telephone, mail and computerised systems. • Reception/check-out services: registering arrivals and departures, checking bookings and allocating rooms, possibly associated with support services, such as baggage handling, includes invoicing and the settling of the accounts. • Room/site services: delivering rooms or self-catering units cleaned, checked ready to occupy. • Food and beverage: including restaurants, bars and coffee shops. • Other services: including shops, leisure facilities, secretarial services, dry cleaning and all other services. Accommodation is a very important part of the infrastructure of tourism and the development of tourism is an incentive for good accommodation. Holiday accommodation may be classified into three main categories: (1) Service accommodation including hotels, pensions, guest and boarding houses.

94 Ecotourism (2) Self-catering accommodation including camping caravans, rented flats and houses. (3) Homes of friends and relatives where no payment is made for the use of accommodation. Hotels and motels constitute the largest sector of accommodation. Hotels and motels are similar except that motels are roadside hotels with parking space to accommodate travelling tourists, travelling by car. Accommodation may also be classified into two sectors—the commercial sector which includes hotels, motels, guesthouses and the supplementary sector to cover all other forms of accommodation. The supplementary sector includes private permanent residences used for hosting friends and relatives as well as second home buildings which are the occasional residence of a household that usually lives elsewhere and which is mainly used for recreational purposes. Camps and caravans may constitute an intermediate category wherein private tents or caravans are sited in commercial camping grounds. Tourism Industry Provincial & Local Tourist Organizations

National Tourism Organization

Component Industries

Accommodation

Transport

- Hotel Industry - Motel Industry - Holiday Resorts - Supplementary Accommodation

-Air Transport -Rail Transport -Road Transport -Water transport

Travel Trade Organ -Travel agency -Tour operators

Recreation Entertainment Provision of indoor and outdoor recreation and entertainment faciliteis

Private Sector Support Services

Tourist Attraction

Public Sector Support Sevices

-Market Services -Finances & Insurance Services -Training and Education

-Natural : Mountains, lakes, forests, beaches, etc. -Man made : Monuments, fairs & festivals, performing arts, handicrafts, etc.

-Public utility services -Health, Safety, Banking -Immigration facilities -Training and Education, etc.

Structure of Tourism Industry

Accommodation Industry Beginning from the common primitive custom of free entertainment for the stranger at the door to a modern highly sophisticated paying-guest system, this form of commercial hospitality has long acquired the status of an industry. Ogilvie, in

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Great Britain, was, perhaps, the first economist to realise the impact of tourism on the accommodation infrastructure when he observed it. Thus, in the promotion of tourism, a very vital sector is when the hotel industry is acting more or less as the kingpin. Hotels for Tourists In India we have not been able to define “hotels for tourists”. The hotels, hostels, pensions, boarding houses and even mere cafes and restaurants are included in the category of transient hotels. However, in 1963, hotels were classified on an internationally accepted star-system, in which some of the basic amenities considered for categorisation were larger rooms, lounges for recreation, etc. The five basic principles of effective public relations are: • Honesty. • Interest. • Imagination. • Consistency. • Distinctiveness. NEW ACCOMMODATION CONCEPTS Condominium hotels are a recent innovation. An American concept, these are hotels with apartments instead of basic rooms. This type of accommodation is preferred by the families as they provide adequate space required by them and are also economical. The apartments have also facilities to cook meals. According to Gerald W. Lattin the four major classifications of American hotels are: (a) The commercial or transient hotel. (b) The resort hotel. (c) The residential hotel, and (d) The motor-motel hotel. Commercial Accommodation Serviced

Self-catered

Hotels

Condominium

Motels

Time-sharing

Unlicensed hotels, motels and guest houses

Apartments Villas

Farmhouses Hired RVs Paying-guest accommodation Youth hostels Cruise ships Hired yachts

96 Ecotourism MANAGERIAL SYSTEMS Advantages of hotel chains (a) Financial economies. (b) Marketing economies. (c) The size of the rooms. (d) Risk spreading. HOTEL ORGANIZATION The following are the various departments of a modern hotel: • Rooms. • Housekeeping. • Food and Beverage Department. • Marketing and Sales. • Hotel Marketing. ACCOMMODATION SECTOR There are many different types of accommodation products which are usually categorised on the following basis: (1) Fully-serviced accommodation. (2) Partially-serviced accommodation. (3) Non-serviced accommodation. Types of Accommodation (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)

Resort complexes. Hotels. Motels. Bed and breakfast establishment. Youth hostels. Holiday centres and villages. Clubs and institutions. Inns and taverns. Farmhouses. Cruise liners and ferries. Buses and coaches. Sleeper trains. Camp sites. Touring caravans. Villas/apartments. State-owned historical hotels.

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The Structure of Accommodation Accommodation can be categorised in different ways. It can be categorised by location, price, by the type of visitors and by the type of facilities they offer. Luxury hotels are at one end of the scale while budget hotels are at the other. It is, however, difficult to place international lodging accommodation into strict, exclusive categories: (1) International hotels. (2) Commercial hotels. (3) Residential hotels. (4) Resort hotels. (5) Floating hotels. (6) Capsule hotels. (7) Airport hotels. (i) Hotel and Similar Establishment (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

International hotels. Commercial hotels. Residential hotels. Floating hotels. Airport hotels. The Structure of Accommodation Commerical Sector

Self-catering

Serviced Hotels, licensed (i) International Hotels (ii) Commercial Hotels (iii) Residential Hotels (iv) Resort Hotels (v) Floating Hotels (vi) Capsule Hotels (vii) Airport Hotels Hotels, unlicensed motels Private Hotels Guest Houses Farmhouse

Caravan and campsites Villas, Appartments, chalets Hired motorhomes

Holiday centres, villages, camps

Cruise ships

Hired yachts

98 Ecotourism (ii) International Hotels (1) Modern western style located in all metros and other large cities as well as principal tourist centres. (2) Luxury hotels. (3) Classified on the basis of an internationally accepted system of classification. (4) Five such categories ranging from 1-star to 5-star. (5) Extensive services. (6) International chains own large numbers of such hotels. (iii) Commercial Hotels (1) Direct their appeal primarily to the individual traveller. (2) Most hotels receive business guests located in important commercial and industrial centres of large towns and cities. (3) Generally run by owners. (iv) Residential Hotels (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Also known as apartment houses with complete hotel services. Tariff charged on monthly/yearly basis. Accommodation provided is both furnished and unfurnished. No meals are provided for the guests. The apartment hotels are popular in the United States and Western Europe.

(v) Floating Hotels (1) (2) (3) (4)

Located on the surface of the water. All facilities and services of a hotel are provided. The atmosphere is exclusive and exotic. In some countries old luxury ships have been converted into floating hotels.

(vi) Airport Hotels (1) Located near airports. (2) Cater to the needs of transit passengers, airport crew and passengers of delayed or cancelled flights. (3) All services of a 5-star hotel. (4) Provision of shuttle services within the hotel and airport. (vii) Resort Hotels (1) Cater to the needs of the holiday-maker. (2) Located near sea, mountain regions, and other areas having natural beauty. (3) Rest, relaxation, and entertainment are the key factors.

Dimensions of the Hotel Industry and Globalization (4) (5) (6) (7)

99

Informal atmosphere. Emphasis on entertainment, recreation and sports, both indoor and outdoor. Rarely attract commercial patronage. Longer duration of stay.

Types of Resorts (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Summer resorts. Winter resorts. Hill resorts. Health resorts. All season resorts.

Supplementary Accommodation (1) Offers accommodation only. (2) Some forms of accommodation offer limited services. (3) Services provided are minimal which include overnight stay and meals. (4) Modest standard of comforts. (5) Moderately priced. (6) Informal atmosphere. Forms of Supplementary Accommodation (1) Motels. (2) Youth hostels. (3) Camping sites. (4) Bed and breakfast establishments. (5) Tourist holiday villages. TYPES OF HOTELS (a) International hotel: These are modern Western type hotels in the metropolis and principal tourist centres. (b) Resort hotel: Resort hotels are mainly near the sea or in mountains and cater to the needs of tourists. (c) Commercial hotel: Commercial hotels cater mainly to travellers who visit a place for commercial or business purposes. (d) Pensions: These are found in Europe and the USA. These are accommodation facilities operated by a family usually living in the building. MAJOR HOTEL CHAINS IN INDIA (a) The Ashok Hotel chain run by the Tourism Development Corporation of India has 37 hotels with 3,800 rooms.

100 Ecotourism (b) The Taj Group of Hotels is owned by the Tatas and has 28 hotels in India and 15 overseas. The Taj Group has also started a second chain of budget hotels for middle-class people called Gateway Hotels. (c) The Oberoi Hotel chain has 26 hotels—14 in India and 12 abroad. (d) The Welcome Group has 21 hotels in India. GLOBALIZATION Today is the era of information technology by which we can go from north to south and east to west to any part of the world. Due to the exchange of information from one continent to other continents, trade from one country to other countries, involvement of multinational coporations, speed in transport, and the involvement of the United Nations, the world has become a global village. Due to different climates and varied development of technology, one country cannot produce all resources for all of its communities. In modern times it is possible due to globalization that we can get any product in the local market. MEANING OF DEFINITION OF GLOBALIZATION Many scholars have given a definition of globalization in their own way. According to Dr. Jagbir Singh (in 2008), globalization is a process at an international level by which more than two countries from different continents, or countries from the northern hemisphere to the southern hemisphere, become close without geographical boundaries and exchange their products. According to Professor Joan in 2007, when more than ten countries from different parts of the world share their commodities, their technology, the movement of the people gives a free interchange of goods and ideas because people travelling can boost trade with their demands of what they want to buy. This is called globalization. GLOBALIZATION IN RELATION TO TOURISM The Tourism Industry is the most important factor for any country’s economy and therefore almost every country is doing its best to develop a Tourist Centre in order to attract International Tourists. Due to the globalization of the world the movement of the people from one country to another has become faster and due to Information Technology, the availability of the information gives the tourists greater options to explore what differnt countries have to offer. They buy local products and this gives foreign currency to local regions and this helps the tourism industry to develop itself.

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TYPES OF GLOBALIZATION (1) (2) (3) (4)

Continent globalization. Multi-continents globalization. Regional globalization. Hemisphere globalization.

CAUSES OF GLOBALIZATION (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Information technology. Speed in transport. Soft visa policies. Multinational corporations. Tourism industry. Economical development. International trade. The concept of the global village.

GLOBALIZATION AS A TOOL IN TOURISM (1) It gives more option for International Tourism. (2) It helps develop an infrastructure for the Tourism Industry. (3) It provides opportunities for medical tourism as well as Yoga and Meditation. (4) Globalization also gives International Hospitality to the Tourism Industry. (5) It helps governments soften in their approach to issuing International visas. (6) Many banks are giving International Travel Loans and this boosts International Tourism. TERRORISM AND TOURISM India is a tourist destination with many varieties of climate all year round and this fact makes it very attractive to a broad spectrum of wants, needs and wishes to satisfy the modern day demands of tourists who form the tourism industry. There are many languages spoken in India as well as English and the country presents a kaleidoscope of movement and colour as seen by no other country in the world. It is the jewel of the east like a diamond shining in all its brilliance. The many facets of its history go back 5,000 years and in the presence of its monuments from the past one feels that time stands still.

Trabzon, Kashgar, and Merv were once great cities on major trade routes, but when Europeans opened sea routes around Africa and Asia, these and many other cities declined. Few ever recovered their former economic strength.

102 Ecotourism

Internal Asian Trade Routes in 1400

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Before the partition of 1947 when India gained Independence from British Rule, a greater religious tolerance permeated the land and its people and there was no terrorism. Today, in 2008, we are living in an entirely different world. The word “Terrorism” is now at the top of the list of man-made disasters and in the study of disaster management, new preventative and educational policies have to be put into place to prevent this scourge on humanity for all time. To begin with, every citizen should be registered and issued with an identity card. This would give a database of citizens for police files in order to make their job easier. There are three type of terrorism: (1) Local Terrorism. (2) National Terrorism. (3) International Terrorism. (1) Local Terrorism involves the behaviour of extreme anti-social types organised in groups in any country in the world and armed with guns, rifles and hands grenades, determined to use force to gain their own political ends. (2) National Terrorism is also within the boundaries of any country where extreme political violence has broken out and destroyed the structure of its society on a larger scale. This form of terrorism causes much destruction and displacement of people. People are forced to migrate across boundaries. (3) International Terrorism is when terrorists commit violent crimes against people in other countries without warning and often without a clear cut motive. The recent terrorist attack on 26th Nov, 2008 in Mumbai at the Railway Station, the Oberoi, Taj and Trident Hotels has unleashed worldwide shock not only causing intense grief and suffering to all of those who lost loved ones but causing also irreparable damage to the Tourism Industry all over the world. How does Terrorism affect the Tourism Industry? First and foremost it induces “fear” and this fear spreads to a worldwide mental insecurity that “anything can happen anywhere at any time.” The effect of the “man-made disaster” at Mumbai means that thousands of tourists have cancelled their trips not only to India but to many other destinations in the world also. The Australian government through the media has warned its citizens not to travel to India and those that are there are to return home. Many Australians travel to India throughout every year and the Tourism Industry in India will suffer very badly because of the recent terrorism attacks. Cancellations will affect the Air Travel industry, shopping at points of landing, the whole of the Hospitality industry including Hotels, Restaurants, Souvenir shops, the Photographic industry, shoes and clothing. How can we overcome Terrorism? The world as we know it is a Global village but with Terrorism it has become a Global Prison as everyone is filled with fear. The world is overpopulated and its

104 Ecotourism resources are stretched to the limit so if the population were reduced, this would be a first step in reducing poverty. Since the Industrial Revolution machines have taken over what used to be done by hand and now in this technical age one computer has replaced forty office workers. Terrorism thrives when the social fabric of families breaks down, when governments fail to uphold law and order and poverty sows the need of discontent and unrest. People of the world will have keep a closer watch on what their neighbours are doing and report anything suspicious. Unless the mother of the world meet the emotional needs of their children in the first seven years of their lives, the roots of terrorism will continue to grow. Parents in every country need to know the importance of responsible parenting. The attack on Mumbai is a challenge to the security of large Indian regions. Funds for terrorists and terrorist organizations must be stopped and here the banks will have cooperate. CONCLUSION Tragedy brings enlightenment and an awakening in its aftermath. Such events are lessons for the world to learn and from the Tourism Industry alone we have to work together in order to rise above the global Economical Crisis and make the world a better place in which to live. Tourism breeds International Friendship. Terrorism is the weakest chain in tourism and it must be eliminated and replaced by a stronger chain of friendship which can hold the world together.

Transport in Tourism 105

CHAPTER 7

Transport in Tourism INTRODUCTION Tourists use air and surface transport to reach their destinations. We therefore have to develop an inter-modal mix of transport where tourists come to India by air, link to a special tourist train, take a coach tour or follow a part airport surface itinerary. We therefore need to enlarge our wayside facilities and transport systems. This includes importing state-of-the-art coaches and cars, improving the condition of national and state highways and the facilities required to access attractions. Subsidy schemes are being envisaged for the implementation of this plan so that and important need of the travel trade can be met. THE HISTORY OF TRAVEL EVOLUTION Transportation and travel have been revolutionised since the 1850s to the point at which, as Robinson points out: Human conceptions of territorial space, with a special relationship of physical distance, have undergone a continuous evolution. A brief review of these seven major transportation evolutionary eras is provided below: (1) Pre-industrial Travel System Era: This was the period before wide scale industrialization in North America and Europe. Travel was arduous and often dangerous and only a small proportion of the population had the money or the reason to travel. (2) Early Industrial Society Travel System Era: Rapid industrialization and advances in transportation technology brought about road improvements, railways, canals and steamship services during this era. There were more persons with the money and the reasons for travelling and thus travel increased. (3) Mature Railway System Era: The railways began to market their services more aggressively. Travel agencies and tour operating companies were formed. Thomas Cook was one of the innovators in this field during this

106 Ecotourism

(4)

(5)

(5)

(7)

era, beginning his company’s activities in the 1840s in the United Kingdom. Again, more people were travelling in this era than in the one before. Express Travel System Era: During this era express services became increasingly available, meaning that the trains or other forms of transportation did not stop at every station or terminal but only at the major ones. This enhanced the speed of travel and encouraged more travel and tourism than before. Automobile-Based Travel System Era: From about the 1920s onwards, the influence of the privately owned automobile accelerated in North America and Europe. Commercial travel by air also had its beginning during the 1920–45 period. Modern Tourism Travel System Era: The modern tourism travel system era spanned the period of 1945 to 1974. It is still prevalent today but some fundamental changes have taken place since the energy crisis years began in 1973 and 1974. Mass air travel was another post-Second World War phenomenon, and the introduction of wide-bodied jets in 1970 further increased air travel and tourism. Post-Mobility Adjustment Era: The present era is one in which travellers have and will continue to look in increasing numbers to alternative, group orientated modes of transportation.

SYSTEMS OF TRANSPORT Air Transport (1) (2) (3) (4)

Long-haul scheduled airlines. Medium short-haul scheduled airlines. Chartered airlines—long or short haul. Air taxi services.

Water Transport (1) (2) (3) (4)

Ocean going liner’s voyages. Short sea voyages (ferry services). Charter cruise ships. Inland-water services.

Rail Transport (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Scheduled rail services. Express coach services, both domestic and international. Private hire services. Tour and excursion operators. Under-sea services.

Transport in Tourism 107 Road Transport (1) (2) (3) (4)

Scheduled buses. Charter or private hire cars. Inter-country bus services. Private car and car rental services.

MODES OF TRAVEL The primary modes of surface travel are automobile, bus, rail and sea. Their importance, however, varies according to the technological advancement, affluence and resources of a country, but the railways are the predominant mode of travel in India. Coach or bus travel remains the cheapest mode of travel anywhere in the world. New technology has also led to the development of new forms of waterborne transportation. AUTOMOBILE The automobile is the most popular mode of travel all over the world. Developing countries too are witnessing a boom in domestic travel with a rising number of people in domestic travel being in a position to own a car. The successful launching of the small Maruti in India has led to numerous families in cities looking for places away from home for a holiday. Most travel in the world, both domestic and international, takes place in the family car. A major reason for this increase is due to the fact that public transportation has not been given enough importance and met with the need for comfort for the traveller. Tourism involves the movement of people. As a consequence, the relationship between transportation and tourism is a very important aspect of the study of tourism. The demands of tourism have stimulated the rapid development of transportation. Transport may be public or private, inland or international, and air or surface. In recent years, the fastest means of long distance tourist transport has been the aircraft. There are four major modes of tourist transport: Automobile, rail, ship and aircraft. Tourist’s choice of the mode of transport is affected by the following factors: (1) Distance and time factor. (2) Status and comfort. (3) Safety and utility. (4) Comparative price of services offered. (5) Geographical position and isolation. (6) Range of services offered, and (7) Level of competition between services.

108 Ecotourism ROAD TRANSPORT Road transport is dominated by the automobile. The car is the most perfect means for providing a door-to-door service, providing views of the landscape and a means of transporting recreational equipment. The development of the automobile has allowed the freedom to travel. Car rental and recreational vehicles (or RV) spurred the development of travel by car. Road transport has a number of attractions for tourists: (1) The control of the route and the stops en route. (2) The ability of carrying baggage and equipment easily. (3) The ability to use the vehicle for accommodation. (4) Privacy. (5) Low expenses. RAIL TRANSPORT The railway may be considered as the most powerful means for mass travel in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Trains are perceived to be safe and inexpensive. They may also provide views of attractive scenery like the toy train between Siliguri and Darjeeling. Railway terminals are often in the centre of the destination. Most Indian trains have speeds of 100 kilometres per hour but the Rajdhani Express runs at a speed of 130 kilometres per hour. The fastest train in India is the Shatabdi Express having a speed of 140 kilometres per hour. The reasons for travelling by train are: (1) Safety. (2) The ability to look out of the train and see en route. (3) The ability to move around the coach. (4) Personal comfort. (5) No traffic problems. INDIAN RAILWAYS “Indian Railways move about 20 million people daily—almost equal to the population of Australia.” Although air services today are the leading mode of transport for international tourism, the other forms of surface transportation such as road, rail and sea are no less significant. The greatest contribution of the industrial revolution was the steam engine. The railways transformed society, changed the face of the earth and dynamited the economy. Without the railways the transport renaissance would not have taken place in India. India would have remained as backward as Afghanistan which is a country without railways. Transport and communication are essential to the

Transport in Tourism 109 existence of all societies except the simplest subsistence economies. The first public railway was opened between Stockton and Darlington in Northern England in 1825 and railways became the fastest and most popular form of transport for both passengers and goods during the nineteenth century. The Indian Railways is the nation’s lifeline and the principal mode of transport in the country. From a modest beginning in April 1853, when the first railway train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane, a stretch of 34 kilometres, the Indian Railways now boast a route of 61,836 kms and this has now grown into Asia’s largest and the biggest undertaking in the country. The development of the railways has had great effects on the mobility of the people as well as of goods. Railways provide cheap transport. For long journeys, the railways are still the best form of freight transport. The railways are an agent for urbanization. Urbanization is a process of transforming rural into urban areas. This process has a tremendous effect on the economical composition and is responsible for causing a proportionate rise in the urban population. It is widely accepted that railways play an important role in the smooth functioning of the economy. Without railways, it would be virtually impossible for the modern process of production and distribution to function. The network has always monitored the trend of development. (1) Historically, because railways have provided the foundation for communications, trade and commerce and national defence. (2) Economically, as the network plays a major role in opening up the hinterland and widening the markets. (3) Environmentally, by being largely instrumental in the relative levels of ecological and environmental pollution. (4) Socially, by determining the trends of urbanization, it gives employment as the population shifts. (5) Politically, as railways are vital to national defence and social security TRAVEL BY SEA Boats were first used around 6000 BC. In ancient Egypt, a wide variety of handpaddled barges and boats were navigated along the Nile. Travel by ship was the only means to travel overseas till the middle of the twentieth century. In Greece, there are only 15 airports to serve the islands. Shipping made a significant contribution to travel during the nineteenth century. Water transport today plays two main roles in travel and tourism with ferrying and cruising. Since the fifties, the passenger shipping industry steadily shifted its emphasis from line voyages to cruises. India and the Indian Ocean do not figure anywhere in major cruise itineraries. Occasionally, a luxury cruise ship on its round the world journey may touch an Indian port like Cochin, Madras or Mumbai but seldom for more than five days.

110 Ecotourism AIR TRAVEL John Wise, however, achieved the distinction of being the first man to fly a distance of 1,130 kilometres at one stretch. In the early 20th century, the Tissardier Brothers Gaston and Albert flew an electrically powered airship which contributed to the development of modern aviation. On July 2, 1900, Ferdinand Count von Zeppelin, a German engineer flew in his airship at a speed of twenty miles an hour which could make way against winds of sixteen miles an hour. The aeroplane has had a revolutionary impact on tourism from World War II onwards. The modern era can be termed the mass air travel era. Air travel is the second most popular mode of tourist transport, next to automobiles, especially for the international travel. Air travel is attractive because of its speed and range and also because, for business visitors, it offers status as well as saves valuable work time when travelling on a long-haul basis. In the development of international tourism, air transport has played the most important role. There are some 10,000 commercial planes in the world offering 1.6 million seats every day. Air transport for the masses has been a post-Second World War phenomenon. The beginning of the jet travel in 1958 was the most dramatic event which gave a new dimension of speed, comfort and efficiency to air travel. The air fares are determined on different considerations like the volume and traffic demand in an area, level of competition, etc. For example, the air fares between Europe and America are lower in terms of mileage compared with the same distance between London and Delhi. It is simply because the volume of traffic on the London–Delhi route is not as high as on the London–New York route. To attract more passengers, airlines are offering cheaper promotional fares. Excursion fares and group fares are examples of such promotional fares. Excursion fares are provided to the tourists on the basis of a return journey and have conditions of a minimum and maximum stay at the destination. The passenger must spend at least 10 days in the country to which he/she is visiting. The future of air travel is bright. It is highly probable that the number of air journeys made will increase substantially. Forecasts point to a market size before the end of the century, roughly double what it was in 1995. The figure on p. 111 the contribution of transport technology to reductions in travel time. International Tourism through Train Travel Train travel is important for international tourism. India is now wooing affluent foreign tourists on its now famous Palace on Wheels train. Another train—the Great Indian Rover—was introduced to attract Buddhist tourists, but it was discontinued for lack of patronage. Compared with travel by any other mode, air travel over long distances has become the epitome of economy, speed and comfort. The traveller usually rides comfortably, enjoys good meals, wines and dines. The

Transport in Tourism 111 The contribution of transport technology to reductions in travel time

(a) 1500–1840 Average speed of horse-drawn coaches and sailing ships was 16 km per hour

(b) 1850–1930 Steam locomotives averaged 100 km per hour. Steam ships averaged 25 km per hour (c) 1950s Propeller aircraft 480–640 km per hour (d) 1960s Jet passenger aircraft 800–1120 km per hour (e) 1980 Jet Jumbo aircraft 900–1200 km per hour (f) 2009 onwards Concord Aircraft 1500–1800 km per hour

cost of air travel has been declining due to the increased use of this mode of travel and the technological revolution. Why world airlines are losing money: • Economical forces, that is, recessions, general inflation and substantial increases in fuel and infrastructural costs. • Regulatory policies, namely deregulation in key markets and governments limiting and/or delaying compensatory increases. • Aviation industrial situations of overcapacity, changing marketing methods of consolidation and discounting. • Changing nature of demand from low volume and high yield, to a formula of a large volume and low yield. • Obsolete equipment in the operation of uneconomical aircraft and the consequent inability to generate sufficient funds to acquire more efficient equipment. The role of Automobile Associations to Indian Tourism Transport: (1) To encourage and develop automobile movement in India. (2) To deal with the problems of common interest affecting the motoring community as a whole and the members of automobile associations in particular.

112 Ecotourism (3) To represent the members of the federation at international meetings, conventions, and at discussions affecting the motoring public. (4) To study problems affecting motorists in relation to the use of the roads by motor transport taxation, road safety, the tourist trade and other ancillary and incidental problems and to make efforts through a constitutional means for the amelioration of the conditions for motorists in respect of all matters. (5) To study the question of national touring and vehicle circulation in India and to promote progress and affect reforms suggested by such studies. (6) To encourage the development of international tourism and circulation in all its aspects in the East and with particular reference to India. (7) To collect and disseminate information on touring and getting motoring value. (8) To promote mutual cooperation and reciprocity for adjustments among the members of the Automobile Associations in India, for rendering efficient and maximum service to the motoring public. (9) To achieve, by mutual understanding, discussion and help, the coordination of activities of various automobile associations in India from an all-India point of view. (10) To cultivate reciprocal relations with kindred institutions in other countries. CONCLUSION The importance of transportation to economic growth and productivity is undisputed. At the macro level, a well-known body of literature has documented and analyzed the size and composition of the transportation services sector and estimated its contribution to the national economy. At the micro level, techniques have been developed and refined for determining the economic impact of transportation programmes and projects. Surprisingly little work, however, has been focused on understanding the importance of transportation to specific industries and sectors. To what degree and in what ways are sectors such as agriculture and travel and tourism dependent upon transportation? How has transportation congestion influenced productivity in particular industries? How can particular industries that rely indirectly on transportation assure that the nation’s transportation system will offer a favourable business environment in the future?

Tourism Products, Advertising and Promotion 113

CHAPTER 8

Tourism Products, Advertising and Promotion INTRODUCTION A ‘product’ may be defined as the ‘sum of the physical and psychological satisfaction it provides to the buyer.’ ‘Marketing’ by definition is the development of a product to meet the needs of the consumer and then employing the techniques of direct sales, publicity and advertising to bring this product to the consumer. A tourism product is a package tour which comprises an air seat, accommodation at the place to be visited, local transportation, sightseeing, entertainment, meals shopping, etc. The product is composite in nature and includes everything a visitor purchases, sees, experiences and feels from the time he/she leaves home until the time he/she returns. The tourist product can be bought as a package as indicated above or separately. Airline seats and hotel rooms are tourist products which can be bought separately. In the case of the tourism product, the basic raw materials would be the country’s natural beauty, climate, history, culture and the people. Other aspects would be the existing facilities necessary for comfortable living such as the water supply, electricity, roads, transport, communication and other essentials. In other words, the tourist product can be seen as a composite product, as the sum total of a country’s tourist attractions, transport, accommodation and of entertainment which hopefully results in consumer satisfaction. The tourist product can be entirely a man-made one or nature’s creation, improved upon by man. The tourist product can therefore be analysed in terms of its attractions, its facilities, and its accessibility.

114 Ecotourism ATTRACTIONS Of the three basic components of a tourist product, attractions are very important. Attractions are those elements in the tourist product which determine the choice of a particular tourist to visit one particular destination rather than another. The attractions could be cultural like site and areas of archaeological interest, historical buildings and monuments or scenic like flora and fauna, beach resort, mountains, national parks or events like trade fairs, exhibitions, art and music festivals, games, etc. FACILITIES Facilities are those elements in the tourist product which are a necessary aid to the tourist centre. The facilities complement the attractions. These include accommodation, various types of entertainment, picnic sites, recreation and so on. These are indeed important for every tourist centre. ACCESSIBILITY Tourist attractions of whatever type would be of little importance if their locations were not accessible by a normal means of transport. Tourist generating markets which are linked by a network of efficient transport, receive the maximum number of tourists. THE TOURIST PRODUCT The following are some other peculiarities of the tourist product which we must understand. (a) A wide range of services which the tourist requires and which constitute the tourism product in his mind cannot be provided by a single enterprise. Each of its components needs a high degree of specialisation and every enterprise produces only a part of the final product. Naturally, the need for cooperation and coordination in marketing efforts is paramount. (b) The marketing of tourism is further complicated by the singular dichotomy between supply and demand. Supply is constant and considerable fixed investment is required to expand it and a highly trained manpower is needed to operate it. It cannot be adopted quickly to demand variations. The existing facilities and establishments cannot be easily modified to qualitative change.

Tourism Products, Advertising and Promotion 115 (c) Tourism demand is highly unstable. Seasonal factors can affect it. Political unrest and economic instability caused by inflation and currency fluctuations can damage it. (d) Trade intermediaries in tourism—travel agents, tour-operators, charter operators—are powerful factors in the marketing of the tourist product. They have bargaining power in relation to the suppliers of tourist services. They can also influence the choice of a holiday destination. (e) Tourism products cannot be transported to the consumer. They cannot stock them or hold them in abeyance. It is a highly perishable product. An airline seat or a hotel room not used today is a total loss. (f) The entitlement to the use of a service facility in a tourism product does not mean that ownership passes to the user. Hotel rooms and transport seats are hired only for a specified period while the ownership remains with the proprietors. India is certainly a destination which can be the envy of any other destination. India offers the following products: (1) A rich cultural experience: ancient monuments, art, architecture, dance, music. (2) A unique cuisine: developed over the centuries. (3) Inexpensive shopping: handicrafts, jewellery, cotton garments, silks, leather goods—at prices which most visitors can afford. (4) Outdoor holiday: trekking and mountaineering in the Himalayas, beach holidays at its many sea resorts. (5) Adventure sports: skiing, heli-skiing, river-rafting, rock climbing, trekking and mountaineering—India has them all. (6) Photo safari and bird-watching: For people who love nature, there are opportunities to visit many wildlife parks and bird sanctuaries in India. The distribution channels in tourism Direct sell

The tourism product

The Internet

• Car hire • Airlines • Hotels/accommodation • Attractions • Other modes of transport

Regional tourism organizations

Travel agents Tour operators

Destination management systems

Tourist

The tourist as a consumer

116 Ecotourism ADVERTISING Tourism advertising can be defined as paid public messages designed to describe or praise an area. This can be done through the use of newspapers, magazines, radio, television, posters, brochures or other media. It is necessary that a tourist organisation should use the best advertising to create a favourable image in the minds of the travellers. To most readers abroad, an advertising message may be the first introduction to the area and must have a touch of quality. “Shot-gun” advertising of having one or two advertisements in a magazine or a newspaper is considered a waste. It requires frequency and repetition. The advertising campaign should be a coordinated affair combining magazines, radio, TV and possibly display hoardings to have a good impact. A consumer may read an advertisement in a magazine and see it on the TV screen. When he comes out into the street he may also see it on the wall as a displayed advertisement so he cannot thus miss the message. ADVERTISING AGENCY Most national tourist organisations and major tourist enterprises have their own advertising agencies. Advertising agencies are specialists in the planning, creating and placing of advertising. They have artists and copywriters for the creative work of developing advertising designs as well as photographers and experts in printing and typesetting to produce finished art-work. Some advertising agencies have their own marketing departments to assist their clients in drawing up marketing plans or departments to develop sales support and public relations campaigns. Good advertising agencies have a media account and art executives who advise the manager about the marketing plans within the framework of the budget leaving the final decision to him. The selection of a suitable advertising agency is a major factor which determines the success or failure of a promotional work. The choice of an advertising agency depends on the size of the promotional budget, the range of services required, but above all, an objective assessment of the professional qualities of the agency. A good advertising agency can create beautiful advertisements which stick in one’s mind. ADVERTISING Advertising may be defined as an activity designed to spread information with a view of promoting the sales of marketable goods and services. • Planning the Advertising. • Media Selection. • Message Selection.

Tourism Products, Advertising and Promotion 117 • Cost of Advertising. • Determining Advertising Effectiveness. In determining advertising effectiveness, the commonly used methods are given below: (1) Enquiries. (2) Recall tests. (3) Recognition tests. (4) Sales tests. Advertising, the powerful instrument of modern marketing, has only recently come to be used extensively for the promotion of tourism. There are few steps in planning an Advertising Campaign. Steps in developing an advertising plan • Set advertising objectives. • Decide on an in-house advertising or agency. • Establish a tentative advertising budget. • Consider cooperative advertising. • Decide on an advertising message strategy. • Select advertising media. • Decide on the timing of the advertisements. • Prepare final advertising plan and budget. • Measure and evaluate advertising success. Advantages and Limitations of Cooperation Advertising Advantages: • Increases the total budget available. • May enhance the image or positioning of the sponsor. • Can communicate a better match between the customer’s needs and the partner’s services. Limitations • More time needed to plan advertisements. • Each partner sponsor must give up absolute control over advertising message strategy. • Other compromises may be required. Advertising message strategy • The main theme, appeal or benefit to be communicated in the advertisement. • A statement that fully describes the message idea. • A broad creative approach that is used to communicate the message idea to target audiences. Media selection criteria • The target markets: reading, viewing or listening habits. • Positioning approach, promotional goals and advertising objectives.

118 Ecotourism • Media evaluating criteria. • Relative strengths and weaknesses of each media alternative. • Creative requirements. • Competitive media placements. • Approximate total advertising budget available. Media evaluation criteria • Cost. • Reach (circulation: Pass-along rate). • Frequency. • Waste-factor. • Lead time and flexibility. • Clutter and dominance. • Message permanence. • Persuasive impact and mood. Advertising media alternatives • Newspapers. • Magazines. • Radio. • Television. • Outdoor. • Direct mail. • Other. ADVERTISING TO ATTRACT QUALIFIED CANDIDATES The following is a checklist of the points to which Human Resource specialists need to pay attention: • Achieving objectives by catching the attention of the people to whom they are addressed, by making an attractive, attention-grabbing advertisement. • Information Content: A potential employee will want the advertisement to provide him with answers about the job. • Media Selection: Choose the type of media which has been successful in the past or which is right for a particular job vacancy advertisement. • Budgeting: The amount that is spent will clearly depend on the extent to which the industry is in a buyer’s or seller’s market for the type of person for whom it is looking. • Response analysis: To assist in budgeting and in analysing the performance of an advertisement, it is essential to analyse the response it gets. Using a recruitment advertising agency: An agency will be able to provide expert services on copywriting, advertising design and media selection.

Tourism Products, Advertising and Promotion 119 Some points related to appearance to be kept in mind are: • Dress neatly and simply. • Wear clean, unwrinkled clothes. • Keep your hair clean and well combed. • Use make-up and jewellery sparingly. Bathe regularly. • Avoid smoking, chewing gum, or eating where you can be seen by visitors. • Always strive to look the very best you can. There are major modes of advertising Newspaper Advertising: Limitations • • • • • • • • •

High reach. High geographical concentration. Good frequency. Tangibility. Short lead times (Flexibility). Relative low cost. Ability to communicate detailed information. Ability to place in most appropriate location. Ability to schedule to exploit day-of-week factors.

Magazine Advertising: Limitations • • • • • • • •

Limitation on creative format. Clutter. Low reach. Low frequency. Long reading times. Relatively expensive. Difficulties in geographical targeting. Inability to schedule and to exploit day of the week factors.

Magazine Advertising: Advantages • • • •

Tangibility. High audience selectivity. Good reproduction quality. Long lifespan and good-pass along rate.

Radio Advertising: Limitations • No visual communication. • Cannot transmit complex messages or detailed information. • Short lifespan.

120 Ecotourism • Clutter. • Shared attention. Television Advertising: Advantages • • • • •

Potentially high reach. High persuasive impact. Availability of uniform national coverage. Exploits day-of-week and time-of-day factors. Some geographic and demographic selectivity.

Radio Advertising: Advantages • • • • •

Relatively low cost. Audience selectivity. High frequency. Short lead time (Flexibility). Exploits time-of-day and day-of week factors.

Television Advertising: Limitations • • • • •

High total cost. Short lifespan. Inability to transmit detailed information. Clutter. Relatively high cost factor.

Outdoor Advertising: Advantages • • • • •

High reach and good frequency. Geographical selectivity. Relatively uncluttered. Long lifespan. Large size.

Outdoor Advertising: Limitations • High waste factors and inability to target. • Relative long lead times, can’t transmit complex messages or detailed information. • Limitations of creative format. • Inability to schedule or to exploit day-of-week or time-of-day factors. Direct Mail Advertising: Advantages • Audience selectivity.

Tourism Products, Advertising and Promotion 121 • • • • • • •

Highly flexible. Relatively uncluttered. High level of personalisation. Ability to measure response. Tangibility. Low minimum cost. Short lead times.

Direct Mail Advertising: Limitations • “Junk mail” syndrome and high discard rate. • Relatively high total cost. • Limitations on creative format. HUMAN RESOURCE TO TOURISM INDUSTRY (HR) Travel and tourism is a complex human activity, leading to the consumption of a myriad of transportation, accommodation, meals, entertainment and other goods and services. The most significant feature of the tourism and hospitality industry is its capacity to generate large-scale employment opportunities. It offers enormous potential for economically utilizing natural attractions like landscapes, mountains, beaches, rivers, etc. that would otherwise remain either idle or underutilized. It also applies to a multitude of man-made attractions like monuments, palaces, forts and unique rural and city environments. This service industry also offers employment opportunities in the accommodation sector, transport sector, food service areas and many more such areas, which are essential towards making the stay of the tourists comfortable. PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE INDUSTRY The lack of professional credibility afforded to hospitality and tourism occupations can be attributed to a number of factors: (1) The prevailing perception that the sector’s jobs are predominantly low skill, low wage jobs. (2) Lack of awareness about the sector’s wide range of employment and career. (3) The relative newness of the sector and its continually evolving nature. (4) Shortage of training materials and facilities. Difficulty in keeping pace with rapid changes in the global marketplace. (5) Complexity of the multidisciplinary nature of tourism studies.

122 Ecotourism (6) Gap between the training capacity of training/educational institutes and the actual need of the industry. (7) Shortage of higher level programmes for managerial development. KEY HUMAN RESOURCE (HR) NECESSARY FOR SUCCESS The success of any developmental strategy for the hospitality and tourism sector will be determined to a large extent by the human resources which can deliver efficient high-quality services. As a consequence of the rapid growth in tourism the need to develop the required human resources in various segments of the industry has become imperative. In particular some of the critical human resource issues in the service industry are as follows: • Quality of education, training and development imparted to employees. • Attracting the right candidates to the industry. • Retaining employees. • Attitude, appearance, personality and technical competence of the employees. Basic Elements in Attracting Qualified Candidates • Pay: The first thing that is needed is to ensure that the remuneration package is attractive. This means paying the market rate unless the job or the company’s reputation is good enough to persuade people to settle for less—and this is a rare event. • Benefits: Many companies are offering non-traditional benefits to help employee’s balance the details of their professional and personal lives. Benefits such as life insurance, medical coverage, paid leave, etc. have become fairly standard. Compensation packages increasingly focus on the specialized needs of workers. • The Job: It is more likely to get someone good if the job as described in the advertisement or at the interview, looks sounds and is good from the points of view of interest, challenge and opportunity. • Fun and safe working environment: Businesses realise that employees will work if the surroundings are fun. Music is played to motivate them to work hard and they are given the freedom to complete any given tasks. They can also participate in decision-making towards everyday procedures. This shows that their views are respected. • Cooperative and helpful colleagues: Especially with new employees, the existing employees are willing to assist them with any difficulties or problems that arise. They make the new ones feel at home by not treating them differently.

Tourism Products, Advertising and Promotion 123 • The organisation’s excellent reputation: Many employees find companies that have a good reputation for working conditions. Businesses like these show that they are long established and know every trick of the trade in the industry. The excellent corporate culture also attracts employees because they have good practices that make them successful. • Understanding managers: Managers learn employees’ names and treat them as individuals. They recognise employees’ goals and needs and provide recognition and praise to employees that do well. Managers like these are the favourite among employees and the managers usually motivate them to work even harder. PROMOTION Tourist promotion is one of the elements of the marketing mix or an important tool for marketing. It comprises the creation and distribution of the message of the product. For this purpose, various media are used—advertisements, films, brochures, leaflets, posters, etc. The message is communicated through different channels: press, cinema, radio, TV, direct mail to actual and potential target groups. The present-day tourist promotion is market-orientated. Marketing executives want to have detailed and intimate information about potential tourists. Tourist promotion is no longer based on instinctive approaches or guess work. It is a part of a complete tourist marketing plan decided upon by the enterprise or the organisation concerned. COMMUNICATION IN TOURISM PROMOTION Media, advertising brochures, posters/leaflets are designed to inform, persuade and motivate people to create a state of mind disposed towards the sale of a tourist product. Communication is a continuous process; messages have to be repeated to change attitudes. To get a positive response from a consumer, the communication process passes through the following phases, creating: (a) Awareness that the product exists. (b) That it is easily available, useful and reliable. (c) Comprehension as to what the service or product can do for the customer. (d) Conviction that the service or product will give him value for his money. It is at this stage that the consumer decides to take or leave the product. A tourist product cannot be used by everyone. The first step in this direction is to know your product well—its advantages, disadvantages, attractions and position vis-a-vis a competitive product. Then you must know who are the potential users of this product. If you have an expensive product to sell, your sales message will make little sense to people who can hardly make both ends meet. The sales

124 Ecotourism message for an expensive tourist product like a tourist package has to be directed to those who can afford to buy it. Otherwise, it is a wasteful effort. SPECIAL MARKETING ACTIVITIES—SALES PROMOTION SUPPORT Sales promotion consists of activities directly involved in the day-to-day function of selling travel services. It is also a process of training employees to be salesorientated. An important method of selling is making personal calls on prospective clients. The staff has to be trained to offer alternative suggestions to the clients if the original suggestion be not accepted. Similarly the telephone is an important means of selling. A telephone operator can make or mar the business. PRINTED LITERATURE Tourist brochures and folders are the principal sales tools available to a tourist office. Here are some basic rules for printed sales brochures: (1) Get to the point. Don’t beat about the bush. Be brief. (2) Provide all the information that people want. (3) Be different, creative and distinctive. (4) Literature should be professionally designed and the photographs outstanding. Approach to Tourist Promotion The important tools of public relations in tourism are: (1) Press releases/presentations/conferences/pictures stories. (2) Familiarisation visits for travel agents, tour operators or newspaperman. This is an important sphere of PR activity undertaken by national tourist offices/carriers/hoteliers, etc. (3) Participation in fairs, exhibitions and other organised events. (4) Use of travel films for cinema and television. A few basic rules and principles for effective PR are: Honesty: The product shall be objectively portrayed. The art is to tell things as they are rather than try to appear perfect. The first rule of good PR is to be candid and cooperative. The open-door policy is the best. Interest: Effective public relations depend on winning not only attention but creating active cooperation for one another. Imagination: Cheap tricks to get attention never pay in the long run. They often arouse suspicion and result in adverse effects. Consistency: The core of effective PR is sympathetic listening and persuasive communication.

Tourism Products, Advertising and Promotion 125 Distinctiveness: Things which are unique or distinctive in a tourist service or product should be stressed. CHALLENGE OF MARKETING—CONSUMERISM Consumerism is a powerful movement in industrialized societies. The travel industry is criticised on the following three main issues: (1) It follows practices to make bigger sales, but in the process damages consumer interests; overselling seats by airlines, passengers with confirmed reservation being bumped; hotels overselling with the same consequences. (2) Inefficiency. The main target of attack is the travel agent, who gives inaccurate and misleading or completely wrong information. (3) Promotional literature published by official tourist organisations, tour operators and even airlines who have glorified a destination promising more than what can be delivered. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PROMOTING TOURISM Several countries want to promote tourism for the following reasons: (1) Need foreign exchange. (2) Source of employment. (3) It is a rapidly growing industry. (4) Better image of the country. (5) Having competitive advantage. (6) Removing the regional disparities. (7) It has positive effects on other economical sectors such as agriculture, industry, handicrafts, etc., and (8) Increases tax income, both direct and indirect. These were the points in favour of developing tourism. Besides these advantages, it has also some disadvantages. (1) The social problem arising from the friction of filling some higher paid jobs in the industry by outsiders. Serious negative effects of tourism are the effect on the cultural values of the destination. They are not able to understand the local culture so they treat, behave and act in their own way which is bound to affect the socio-cultural set-up of the destination point. Those tourist centres are more threatened by this ‘cultural invasion’ whose main attractions have the social and cultural assets of places like Varanasi. (2) The economical disadvantages of excessive tourism may be first the inflationary effect due to (a) general increase in the prices of certain commodities, and

126 Ecotourism (b) rise in the construction of buildings, due to heavy hotel building and, therefore, an increase in the land prices and house rentals for the residents. (3) Environmental problems. Sales Promotion: Sales promotions can be described as methods of communication where the identity of the consumer is known and where the advertiser is reaching his retailer or consumer by a letter and supporting promotional material. Sales promotion consists of activities directly involved in the day-to-day function of selling travel services. Similarly, the telephone is an important means of selling. Direct Mail: There are several effective methods of using direct mail—personal letter is the best—next best could be a reproduced letter—individually addressed and signed. PUBLIC RELATIONS Public relations has been defined as deliberate, planned and sustained efforts to establish and maintain a good understanding between a firm and its various public investors, financiers, customers, employees as well as the media. PUBLIC RELATIONS IN TOURISM Some important tools of public relations in tourism are: (1) Press releases, sales presentations, sales conferences, release of pictures and stories. (2) Familiarisation visits of travel agents, tour-operators and journalists. This is an important sphere of public relations actively undertaken by the National Tourism Offices/Carriers/Hotels, etc. Travel writers and correspondents are in a position to focus attention on a destination, but the NIA has to choose the writers carefully. The escort from the home to the office to go with the writers should be a very bright young man or a woman who can promptly answer their questions and dispel any doubts. An unintelligent and servile escort can do a lot of damage as the writers will draw their own conclusions which can be wrong. (3) Participation in fairs, exhibitions, and other organised events. (4) Coordination with the personnel department in the production of a staff magazine. Assisting the personnel department in keeping employees informed of the company’s objectives and strategies.

Tourism Products, Advertising and Promotion 127 CONCLUSION Tourism product development is mainly undertaken to facilitate product diversification, development or improvement of tourism products with the help of knowledgeable and qualified staff. It aims at enhancing visitor experience by building consensus and strategic alliances with business stakeholders in order to bring about socio-economic growth. Tourism product development seeks to support in the maintenance, development and enhancement of the tourism product. A large number of companies offer training programmes and advice on tourism product development. The services include sustainable tourism product planning and development, presentations, seminars, campaigns and strategies for destination marketing organizations, individual operators and agencies. These companies make use of a community and stakeholder-based approach to assist businesses and destinations to plan for successful tourism in the long-term from cost-effective, environmental and communally sustainable perspectives.

128 Ecotourism

CHAPTER 9

Different Countries and Organizations in Tourism SRI LANKA An ancient country with a rich cultural heritage and scenic beauty, Sri Lanka did not figure anywhere among the popular tourist destinations till the late 1960s. This small island republic has an area of 25,332 sq miles, a population of 12,711,143, a tropical climate and a colourful, ever smiling hospitable people. Its tourism however was not well organized. The total number of visitors to this land were a little more than 20,000 a year till 1965. It was in 1965 that the Government of Sri Lanka realised the potential of tourism for the economical development of its country. The government obtained the services of Mr. S.N. Chib, the first Director General of Tourism, Government of India, in 1966 as a UN advisor on Tourism. Mr. Chib advised the government about tourism planning and marketing. Till then, Sri Lankan Tourism was marketed like Indian tourism as a cultural package which to foreign visitors was not very different from the Indian tourist product where a variety of temples and monuments were the only tourist attractions offered. The Sri Lankan Government was advised to play the cultural aspect of tourism in a low key and to develop altogether a new concept of beach tourism as the beaches of Sri Lanka were ideally suited to the requirements of the newly affluent class of travellers from Europe who were in search of sun, surf and sand in remote and tropical islands. The availability of chartered aircraft at low prices had made Colombo as easily accessible as Spain or Yugoslavia for tourists from northern Europe. The price of ground arrangements in Sri Lanka was an added attraction where the government decided to give a 65% bonus to foreign visitors on their expenditure in foreign exchange, but Sri Lanka did not have reasonably good hotels for its beautiful beaches. The first step in the direction of planned development was the establishment of an autonomous public corporation—the Ceylon Tourism Board in 1966. A master plan for touristic development was prepared and a hotel training school was set up to train hotel personnel. The Development and Financial Corporation of Ceylon

Different Countries and Organizations in Tourism 129 offered hotel development loans on generous terms. Another attractive feature of these loans was that a part of the loan was available in foreign exchange to enable hotel enterprises to import necessary equipment. The government and the private industry went about the business of developing beach resorts in real earnest and in a matter of a couple of years, a number of beach hotels appeared on the scene, both in the public and private sectors. The Sri Lankan Government follows an open sky policy in respect to charters and chartered traffic from Europe which has, therefore, been growing at a fast rate. The majority of tourists to Sri Lanka come on a 15-day all inclusive tour package. At least one week is spent on beaches while the other week is spent on sightseeing in Sri Lanka or excursions to neighbouring India or the new destination of the Republic of the Maldives, which is less than an hour away by air. In order to make Sri Lanka an impressive tourist attraction, the government has been offering a bonus of 65% on the tourist dollar to discourage the sale of foreign exchange on the black market. The new Sri Lankan Government has since changed this system and the Ceylonese Rupee like the Indian Rupee now floats with major foreign currencies. Sri Lanka prepared a five year plan (1977–81). The estimated additional employment to be generated by the plan by 1981 was to 59,000—both direct and indirect in a population of 12 million people. Sri Lanka obviously is a good example of successful tourist planning. MALDIVES The republic is scattered over 2000 islands and has a population of only 1,20,000. It is connected both with India and Sri Lanka by air. In fact, Indian Airlines changes itself into Maldive International Airlines during their flights from Colombo to Male, the capital of the Maldives and back (thrice a week). Trivandrum is also connected with the Maldives directly by an Indian Airlines’ flight three times a week. The newly independent Republic of the Maldives started tourism planning in the early 1970’s to produce additional sources of income and employment for its people. A few of the islands are being developed as secluled beach resorts for tourists. Beautiful self-contained bungalow-type accommodation has been created with rooms facing the sea. The sandy beaches, the multicolour coral stones and rocks under the crystal-clear rippling waters present a scenic beauty rarely seen. Some of the resort islands where the facilities are reasonably well developed are the Islands of Bandos, Willingili and Baros. The beauty of these islands is solitude and privacy. One may rent a launch and spend a day on a completely uninhabited island by oneself or enjoy all aquatic sports in the company of friends or visitors. The temperature on these islands varies from 26 degrees centigrade to 30 centigrade throughout the year. The government does not insist on a visa from tourists. A valid passport is sufficient for entering the country.

130 Ecotourism Shopping is quite an attraction as no customs duty is levied on the importation of goods. An interesting aspect of the Maldives is that it has its airport at one island, Hullule and the capital on another, Male. Hotels are scattered over several other islands, all linked with motor boats. The main occupation is fishing. SINGAPORE In 1957, Singapore and Malaysia were one country. After 1960, tourists started arriving in Singapore for a different reason. They found shops open on Sundays with unbelievably low price tags on imported goods. Visitors from Australia and New Zealand discovered a new world full of itinerant bargains. Asian hawkers were selling dishes with strange names and stranger flavours. Interesting foods taken on stools outside the rickety shophouses, fire crackers erupting on festival days, touts promising ‘Best buys for you sir’, were sounds heralding in a new era. The government of Singapore realised the potential of tourism and set up an organisation to promote it and its tourism efforts got a real boost in August, 1965, when Singapore seceded from the Malayan Federation and became an independent republic. The Singapore Tourist Promotion Board (STPB) was born with a mandate to be the catalyst in the development of tourism. The government gave them enough funds to undertake the promotion of Singapore all over the world and also to develop new attractions by the simple method of giving back to them a small tax collected on hotel room rental charges and meals. Singapore has not looked back since then. Singapore has a population of only 2.4 million—77 per cent are Chinese, 15 per cent are Malay-Indian and 2 per cent are others. It has an area of 1,000 sq kms, the same as Hong Kong. This is one of the two countries in Asia—the other being Hong Kong in Asia, where the number of visitors in a year is more than double its population. English is the language for business and of the government and people also speak Mandarin, Malay, Tamil and Hindi. The port of Singapore, the world’s second busiest, is used by major shipping lines. Singapore’s advertising campaign is an example of the cooperative working of Singapore Airlines and the Singapore Tourist Promotion Board. Their advertising is perhaps the most noticeable in USA and in Europe compared with that of other Asian destinations. In the UK and USA, Singapore runs television commercials, which not many Asian countries can afford. In order to keep tourists occupied in Singapore, a number of tourist attractions have been added and promoted. Among these is the privately run 20 hectare Junong Bird Park. The park boasts a myriad of birds and a 30 metre high waterfall, all enclosed in a gigantic forested cage. Other areas to visit include a Chinese and Japanese garden, a nature reserve, an orchid garden, etc., but the most popular man-made attraction is the newly developed Santosa Island which is reached by a cable car or by ferry. On this island, a fast and efficient mono-rail is used to move people. Festivals have been revived and given an international flavour to bring

Different Countries and Organizations in Tourism 131 tourists. These include the annual international kite flying contest, International dragon boat races, bird singing contest, orchard parade, Chinese opera, etc. They have created a wealth of tourist attractions out of what one of their own leaders has described only three decades back as “swamp-lands, five buildings and the death houses of sago lane”. SWITZERLAND The Swiss are one of the world’s great lovers of holidays—75 per cent of the population take a holiday for at least 4 nights in a year. The favoured destinations of Swiss out-bound travellers are Italy and France. Over 15,000 Swiss visit India annually despite its small population of about 7 million people. Switzerland is a very popular tourist destination—10 million visitors annually spending over seven billion US dollars. Earnings from tourism bring in 8 per cent of the national economy. Tourism provides jobs to 3,60,000 people. Switzerland is a confederation with an area of 41,295 sq km. Its capital is Berne. The Alpine mountains cover over 60 per cent of the land area. Private cars dominate the 66,000 km of its road network. The Swiss government collects enormous sums of money from toll taxes on roads. Swiss national railways operate 1,400 km long of an excellent railway network and their punctuality can be checked with the tick of the clock. During the past 100 years, Switzerland has transformed itself from a poor country subsisting on agriculture and handicrafts into one the wealthiest countries of Western Europe. Much of the Swiss success can be attributed to tourism and the country’s ability to offer to the world a haven from political and financial storms that engulf the world from time to time. Geneva and Zurich are two of the major financial and business centres where dictators, prime ministers and smugglers keep their money. In 1995, it offered another tourist attraction by legalising casinos. BRAZIL Brazil has a population of 156 million, making it the fifth most populous nation in the world and one of the world’s largest in area (8,511,965 sq km). It is only slightly smaller than USA. Like the USA, Brazil is the ‘melting pot’ of immigrants from Europe, Africa and Asia. Unlike most Latin American countries, Brazil has a well defined tourist image based mainly on its wonderful beaches and the carnival of Rio de Janeiro. Brazil has five tourist regions and of these, the Amazon holds a fascination for foreign visitors as an ecological resource threatened with destruction. The northeast is Brazil’s poorest region where drought is a perennial problem. The major city of El Salvador with colonial architecture and a spectacular carnival, attracts visitors. In the south of Brazil, a major tourist attraction is the Iguassu Falls—three times larger than the Niagara. The underdeveloped heartland of Brazil,

132 Ecotourism the centre west, has benefited from the construction of the new federal capital of Brasilia in the sixties. NEPAL Tourism is the biggest industry in Nepal, a poor landlocked country (area, 147,000 sq. km. with a population of 19 million). A new international airport as well as several new hotels are under construction. The Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal remained closed to foreign visitors till 1950 when it was opened to tourism. It contains eight of the world’s highest peaks including Mount Everest and Annapurna. The number of arrivals in 1995 was 3,50,000, one-third of whom were Europeans, followed by one-fourth Indians. The Japanese and Americans also had a fair representation. Leading airlines like Lufthansa, British Airways. Thai International and Indian Airlines connect Nepal with the rest of the world. Mountaineering and trekking are the prime attractions. Some gambling casinos in the capital of Kathmandu provide a diversion. The Kathmandu valley has a problem with acute pollution—a capital built for 40,000 people which now hosts 700,000. In the subtropical foothills lies the Tiger Tops Wildlife Reserve—a cultural attraction which is in the Kathmandu valley. Nepal has a new constitution and an elected democratic government. It is following the lead given by India in liberalising the country’s economy. Inflation is running high–almost 30 per cent annually. Tourism is Nepal’s number one export, earning US$ 175 million in 2009. CHINA The People’s Republic of China was not open to tourists till 1981. Visitors could come to China only by invitation. Now visas are generously granted and the government is making serious efforts to boost tourism and attract foreign investment for hotel construction. China, a country of 1.2 billion people with an area of 9,600,000 sq kms is a great touristic draw especially as it remained closed to tourism for several decades. It is the third largest country in the world after Russia and Canada. Two-thirds of the area of China is not cultivable. In 1992, the ruling 15-member politburo committed itself unequivocally to economical reforms. The official press reported that China’s communist party has called for 100 years of market-oriented reforms. China has doubled its standard of living in a few years. The lifespan of an average Chinese has reached 70 years, compared with 60 in India. Literacy is 70 per cent compared with 52 per cent in India. In order to improve the tourism industry, the government has relaxed control of its tourism by a state-owned company. The National Airlines has been split into several regional airlines to give competition a chance. China has given the Boeing Company an order for 32 new planes costing US$ 2 billion. A joint venture has been set up with the McDonnel

Different Countries and Organizations in Tourism 133 Douglas Aircraft company to produce Jetliners in China – at an estimated cost of US$ 1.2 billion. China has about 2,000 tourist hotels with a capacity of over 300,000 rooms. Beijing has 25,000 western style rooms and Shanghai another 25,000. China, being a vast country, has a tremendous variety of climate. North China is cold with a barren landscape. The Chinese capital Beijing contains the former Imperial Palace. The great lake of China and the ancient capital Zian are only 50 kms from Beijing and are connected by rail. In south China, the scenery is luxuriant and the climate warm and humid. The gorges of the Yangtze river near Ichong and the coastal ports of Shanghai and Gwangdzhou are important centres of business and trade. Western China is also now open to visitors. Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, is popular with western visitors. It is linked by the Royal Nepal Airlines from Kathmandu by air. China has now become a major tourist destination attracting about 40 million foreign visitors in 2009. TOURISM IN GOA History of Goa Goa has been a very important historical and cultural centre since ancient times. In the Bhisma Parva of Mahabharata, it is referred to as Gopakpattan or Gomant. In Sutra-Samhita is was mentioned as Govapuri. The first European power, the Portuguese, occupied ‘Diu’ in 1534 and Daman in 1559. They established themselves in Goa in 1560 and made ‘Panaji’ as its capital in 1843. The Portuguese territory of Goa, Daman and Diu was finally liberated in December 1961. There are two basic types of tourist resources in Goa: (1) Natural. (2) Man-made. The former includes the natural attractions such as azure blue sea water with a white milky surf washing the feet of western ghats amidst eye-catching brilliant lovely golden-silvery sands, bright sun with blue sky and a lush green background with rocky terrain with inhabited life in sea and on the land. The man-made resources include temples, churches, casinos, hotels, restaurants and some other infrastructures and superstructures. The socio-cultural phenomena such as carnivals and fair festivals are also major attractions. Among the natural attractions are the main beaches, sanctuaries, inland water-ways and islands. One out of every eight foreign visitors comes to Goa. Foreigners constituted 250,000—over 20 per cent of the 1.16 million visitors to the tiny state of Goa in 2008. Today, tourism provides direct or indirect jobs to 20 per cent of the adult population of the state. Primarily, Goa has a good tourist product with a 100-km long coastline with more than a dozen excellent beaches. The weather is mild throughout the year. The winter months are particularly pleasing—no heat, sunny and bright skies and almost no rain. With such a good image, it is not difficult for

134 Ecotourism Goa to attract visitors. India is one of the few countries in the world blessed with a tremendous variety of touristic resources. Developing countries do not receive major benefits from tourism due to various reasons, including their poor image as a holiday destination and inadequate touristic infrastructure. India is no exception. On an overall basis, the first five favourable factors are: (1) Friendly people. (2) Beautiful scenery and sights. (3) Comfortable accommodation. (4) Good shopping. (5) Good beaches. The unfavourable factors listed were: (1) Lack of local transport. (2) Complicated travel formalities. (3) Uncomfortable travel. (4) Lack of good accommodation. (5) Lack of night life. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF GOA The state of Goa has an area of 3702 sq km, enjoys a tropical maritime location lying between north latitude 14°53’57’’ and 15°27’59” and east longitudes from 73°40’54” to 74°20’11” on the west coast of India, i.e. “Konkan” flanked by the Arabian Sea in the west and the Sahyadris in the east and has numerous streams in its area. The state of Maharashtra to the north and the state of Karnataka to the east and south form the boundaries of Goa. Climate The climate of Goa is influenced by its location, i.e. maritime tropical on the west coast of India. The summer temperature is around 35°C between March and May. The rainy season experiences precipitation of about 250 cms of rainfall, i.e. between June and September. The mild winter season is experienced between November and February. The transition between rainy seasons and the winter season is in the month of October, i.e., autumn and parts of February and March form the transition to spring. Heritage The state of Goa is known both for its natural and cultural heritage. There are over 29 beaches in the 105 km long coastline of Goa. The deciduous and evergreen Sahyadris also present a pleasing tropical forest area with four important wildlife sanctuaries. The cultural heritage reflects historical influences and therefore they exhibit a composite culture of different ages in Goa’s history. It’s said that Goa is

Different Countries and Organizations in Tourism 135 bestowed with the best of the east and the west. It therefore has churches, temples and fairs, festivals, Jatras (pilgrimage) which exhibit societal harmony. These form important pull factors for the arrival of tourists. There are many reasons for its growth: (1) The availability of a high degree of infrastructure, other facilities and cultural activities. (2) By virtue of its geographical location and high degree of interaction/ accessibility with other towns and major tourist centres. (3) Picturesque locations, history, the classic Indo-European architecture of Panaji and modern architecture in other parts. (4) Location of major rivers which have served as great sources of transportation. There is a high potential for the growth of tourism due to the following factors: (1) The geographical location and high degree of interaccessibility with other towns, major tourist centres and the large-number of lesser known sites of interest to the tourist. (2) The continuous process of the infrastructure and superstructure of buildings and also the future potential and use of long beach stretches. (3) Advantages of being partially secured by the present rail link as well as the proposed Konkan railway (Mumbai–Ernakulam) in the future. (4) Job opportunities to the densely populated surroundings. IMPACT OF TOURISM IN COASTAL GOA (i) Physical Impact The construction of various buildings can be perceived in either way—they have destroyed the beauty of nature or they have preserved and enhanced the scenic beauty as well. New construction works are not keeping a rhythm with traditional architectural form and styles. Old buildings have Gothic or Indian classical carved styles and everything was spacious. It seems that tourism has not encroached much on agricultural land. The reason is that the tourists coming here come primarily for beach activities and are concentrated along the coastal region. The negative aspects of tourism which one can observe in Goa are the changes in the settlement patterns, the ribbon-like commercial development (mostly—hotels-motels, etc.), the visual pollution of the countryside by advertising/hoardings, noise pollution by vehicles—which creates dust and smoke pollution too, as well as the littering and garbage generation at many places.

136 Ecotourism (ii) Social Impact There is an increase in drug trafficking, gambling, prostitution and crime. The foreigners in their minimum dresses behave in a manner which is not permissible in Indian society. (iii) Cultural Impact Many local customs are now changing. The religious faiths in practice are dwindling and ethnic ties are loosening. The people especially the new generation, are too westernised and ignore their own culture. All these elements are reflected in their lifestyle, dresses, language, literature, music, interest of films, etc. Everything has western dominance. Tourism is the largest source of income in Goa. The tourist can pay more than the locals. This phenomenon increases the prices of consumer items particularly food and beverage items and local people (to get land and start their own business) face a hard situation especially in peak season. Now it has become almost impossible for an average middle class or poor person to get land in order to start their own business. They have to be dependent on others. So in this regard, tourism has created disparity. EIGHTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN FOR TOURISM IN GOA The objective of the 8th 5-year plan for tourism in Goa was to ensure that every guest leaving Goa should have a smile of satisfaction on his or her face and no complaints whatsoever and the Government has ensured the minimum required accommodation for low and middle income groups at the most visited spots. It is proposed to develop water sports and a golf course. The Government of Goa implements a number of guideliness for preserving the coastline of the state. These should be aimed at ensuring the following: • Sandy beaches should belong to the Government and the public and not to individuals. • No fencing should be erected at a distance of less than 100 metres from the high watermark. • Existing plantations should be strengthened and complimented with additional plantation. • Structures like bars and refreshment stands to serve the swimmers should be at a minimum distance of 100 metres from the high tide line. • The total height of a new building should generally not be in excess of the foliage of the coconut trees. • Each hotel or other development facing the beach should have an adequate sewage system. Thus, briefly one can summarize that the importance of tourism in Goa has been felt by many organisations. They may be government bodies, international

Different Countries and Organizations in Tourism 137 organisations, local groups and councils. All have analysed the phenomena—its consequences, potentialities and solutions. The active participation of all bodies to a common goal will certainly be fruitful. We can hope that Goa will achieve its target. DIFFERENT ORGANIZATIONS ITDC The Government of India set up in 1965 the Department of Tourism in three separate corporations, viz., Hotel Corporation of India Ltd., India Tourism Corporation Ltd., and India Tourism Transport Undertaking Ltd. The main function of these corporations was to construct and manage hotels in the public sector, produce material for tourist publicity and to provide transport facilities for the tourists. The Indian Tourism Development Corporation Ltd. (ITDC) came into being with effect form March 28, 1970. OBJECTIVES Broadly the objectives and functions of the unified corporation fall under the following categories: 1. Construction and management of hotels, motels, restaurants, tourist bungalows, guesthouses and beach resorts at various places for accommodating tourists. 2. Provision of transport facilities for tourists. 3. Provision of entertainment facilities for tourists by way of organising cultural shows, music concerts, sound and light shows, etc. 4. Provision of shopping facilities for tourists. 5. Provision of publicity services to assist India’s promotion overseas as a tourist destination and to project the national importance of tourism at home. WTO The WTO, the successor of the IUOTO, had been in association with around 100 national tourism organisations since 1946. The WTO was created at the IUOTO Extraordinary General Assembly which took place in Mexico between 17 and 28 September 1975. The procedure adopted during the meeting ensured the continuity of international actions initiated under the old IUOTO by the new WTO. Tourism organisations aim to promote national and international tourism development and to balance the macroeconomical policies of each region and each

138 Ecotourism sector involved in tourism. Nationally, these are public sector agencies and professional associations (comprising hotels, travel agencies, transport companies, etc.) and international, governmental and non-governmental organisations. Thus, the WTO is the inter-governmental organisation responsible for tourism and has been recognised as such by the General Assembly of the United Nations. Objectives The fundamental objective of the World Tourism Organisation is to promote and develop tourism in order to contribute to economical expansion, international understanding, peace and prosperity, as well as to promote universal respect and the observance of basic human freedom and rights without distinction of race, sex, language or religion. The WTO is able to provide assistance in the following areas: • Inventories of existing and potential tourism, resources, national tourism, the development of master plans, formulation of policies, plans and programmes for the development of domestic tourism. • The institutional framework of national touristic administrative structures, tourism development corporations, legislation and regulations. • Evaluation of the impact of tourism on the national economy and on the environment. • Statistics, forecasting, statistical analysis, market research, market analysis, promotion, publicity and public relations. • Training feasibility studies for tourism and hotel schools, managerial development. • Planning and management of the aims of national, social and cultural values for tourism uses. • Area development, development of new tourism sites, development of particular tourism products (beaches and aquatic sports, spas, mountain resorts, ski resorts, leisure parks, wildlife reserves, national parks, cultural tourism and ecotourism. • Tourist accommodation (planning, location and improvement of hotels, holiday camps, rest homes, motels, camping sites, etc.), hotel classification systems. • Sources and methods of finance for tourism investment, pre-investment studies, feasibility studies of investment projects, cost/benefit analysis. • Safety of tourists and tourist facilities. The Members The WTO has four levels of membership: • Ordinary members.

Different Countries and Organizations in Tourism 139 • Associate members. • One permanent observer. • Affiliated members. The Structure of the WTO The structure of the WTO includes the General Secretariat, the General Assembly, the executive council, the Regional Committees, the Committee of Affiliated members and the various commissions and specialised committee. The General Assembly and Its Regional Commissions The General Assembly is the principal organ of the organisation. It is composed of delegates from the associated and ordinary members. They meet in ordinary session twice a year to adopt recommendations and agree on the budget of the organisation. Decisions are adopted by a two-thirds majority. There are six regional commissions created by the General Assembly. They are charged with implementing the recommendation of the Assembly in their respective regions and encouraging intraregional tourism. These are the WTO commissions for Africa, and the Americas, East Asia and the Pacific, South Asia, Europe and the Middle East. The Executive Council and the Committees The executive council is made up of twenty ordinary members elected by the Assembly. It meets twice a year and implements the necessary measures to enforce the resolutions taken by the General Assembly. It administers and controls the budget of the organisation. It has four subsidiary committees—the programming and co-ordination technical committee, the budget and finance committee, the environment committee and the facilitation committee. The mandate of the facilitation committee is to propose measures that relax administrative customs, policies and health controls and make them more flexible in order to encourage touristic movements across borders. The General Secretariat comprises the Secretary General and a staff of 85 international officials (in 1994) based in Madrid. The WTO became an executing agency of the UNDP in May 1976. A few months later, UNDP Resident Representatives throughout the world became WTO representatives for all matters concerning technical cooperation in the field of tourism. There are three categories of members: 1. Full members. 2. Associate members. 3. Affiliate members.

140 Ecotourism The activities of the organisation include: 1. Clearing house for all available information on international and domestic tourism including statistical data, legislation and regulation and special events and its systematic collection, analysis and dissemination. 2. Making travel easier by reducing and simplifying frontier formalities and removing barriers to the free movement of tourists. 3. Organising and convening international conferences, seminars, roundtables and technical meetings on all aspects of tourism. 4. Preparation of draft international agreements on tourism, and the permanent activities of the WTO include the collection and updating of available information on training needs. Special activities include the participation in technical cooperation projects for vocational training. There are three organs through which the WTO functions: 1. General Assembly: This is the supreme organ and sovereign body of the WTO composed of delegates representing full members, associate members and representatives of affiliate members. It meets every two years and may consider any question and make recommendations on any matter within the competence of the WTO. 2. Executive Council: It consists of full members elected by the Assembly at the ratio of one member for every five full members of the WTO Organisation with a view to achieving a fair and equitable geographical distribution. The council meets at least twice a year. 3. The Secretariat: The Secretariat consists of the Secretary General and such staff as the organisation may require. The Secretary General is responsible for carrying out the general policy and work programme of the organization in accordance with the directions of the General Assembly and Executive Council. TAAI It was in 1952 when an All India Travel Agents Association was established. The main objective of the Association was to safeguard and protect the interests of its members by way of having a constant dialogue with the concerned government agencies from a small beginning in the year 1952. The Travel Agents Association of India (TAAI) today has over 300 members. The annual convention of the Association is attended by a large number of representatives from the travel trade both from government as well as non-government bodies and important matters related to the promotion of tourist products are discussed in these conventions. The Travel Agents Association of India has its registered office in Mumbai and regional offices in Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai. The Association publishes a monthly magazine Travel News for the benefit of its members. The vital role played by the

Different Countries and Organizations in Tourism 141 travel agents in the growth and development of tourism in the country and its promotion is recognised by all segments of the travel industry. The government works in close collaboration with them, not only in India but abroad as well, encouraging them to plan and organise package tours for various destinations in India. IATA The International Air Transport Association is the global organisation for virtually all Airlines and the international carriers. The principal function of the IATA is to speed up the movement of persons from any point on the world air network to any other by a combination of routes on the basis of a single ticket bought at a uniform price in one currency. The same applies to the movement of goods, cargo, etc. History and Organization The International Air Transport Association was founded in 1945 by the airlines of many countries to meet the problem created by the rapid expansion of civil air services at the close of the Second World War and as a non-governmental organisation from a special act of the Canadian Parliamentary Assembly in December 1945. As an organisation, the IATA is voluntary, non-exclusive, non-political and democratic. Membership is automatically open to any operating company which has been licensed to provide scheduled air services by a government eligible for membership of the ICAO. Resolutions of traffic conferences of the IATA standardise not only tickets, but also way-bills, baggage checks and other similar documents. The establishment of standard air fares is the most significant part of the IATA’s work. For the public, the IATA achieves the transformation of a ticket or air-way bill into a single magic carpet for international air transport from anywhere, despite geographical diferences, carriers, natural boundaries, linguistic, monetary, legal, economical and other differences. The IATA divides the world into three areas commonly known in the industry as the IATA traffic conference areas. The IATA Traffic Conference Areas are defined as: Area 1: The whole of the North and South American continents and the islands adjacent thereto: Greenland, Bermuda, the West Indies and the Islands of the Caribbean Area, the Hawaiian Islands including Midway and Palmyra. Area 2: Europe, Africa and the islands adjacent thereto: Ascension Island and that part of Asia situated west of and including Iran. Area 3: Asia and the islands adjacent thereto except that a portion of Asia is already included in area 2, the East Indies, Australia, New Zealand and the Islands of the Pacific Ocean except those included in area 1.

142 Ecotourism President Director General Chairman Executive Committee Standing Committee Managing Director General Secretary

Director Finance and Accounting Dy/Asstt. Director

Director Legal

Technical Director

Dy/Asstt. Director

Dy/Asstt. Director

Managerial Staff

Managerial Staff

Director Public Relations

Regional Director

Dy/Asstt. Director

Regional Committees

Managerial Staff

Financial Committee

Regional chapters

Other Managerial Staff Director Traffic Conference

Director Personnel & Administration

Traffic Conference Committee

Dy/Asstt. Director Managerial Staff

Dy/Asstt. Director

Director Medical Dy/Asstt. Medical Officer Other Medical Officers Staff

Managerial Staff

Organizational Structure of IATA

IAAT The International Airport Authority of India is a public undertaking under the Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation. It was constituted on February 1, 1972, by an Act of Parliament to develop, control and manage the four international airports of Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata and Chennai through which the major international and domestic transport services operate. The chief executive of the Authority is a

Different Countries and Organizations in Tourism 143 chairman who is assisted by a full time member of the board as its Executive Director. The functions of the International Airport Authority of India are the following: 1. To improve and develop airport infrastructure. 2. To provide and facilitate services for the operation of air transport. 3. To provide and coordinate services for the comfort and convenience of air passengers. 4. To develop, construct and maintain runways, taxiways, aprons, passenger terminals, cargo terminals and all ancillary buildings of airports. 5. To coordinate with different agencies to start the total operation of airports. The Government agencies are the Department of Civil Aviation which provides all air navigational services comprising air traffic control, aeronautical navigational aids, the Department of Meteorology providing aviation meteorological services, customs, health and immigration organisations. The main source of revenue for the authority is from fees collected from domestic and international airlines for landing, parking and housing their aircraft at the four international airports. ITDC The India Tourism Development Corporation (ITDC) is a public sector corporation created by the government to undertake major responsibilities in areas where the government, due to its own limitations, could not participate actively. It came into existence in the mid-sixties when the private sector was not so active in tourism development and entrepreneurs were not willing to go to areas where profitability was not guaranteed. Presently, the government is not funding the ITDC. It has been asked to create its own resources and to meet its expansion plans. There is also a move to sell some of its hotels presently operated by the ITDC. ACCOMMODATION With four thousand rooms in the ITDC’s 35 hotels, motels and resorts, the Ashok chain is the largest in India and the only one to provide tourist services in all parts of the country. Hotels have been divided into three categories—elite, classic and comfort hotels. The first two categories consist of deluxe as well as three to five star properties while comfort are the budget hotels. The ITDC runs fourteen independent restaurants, six of them at airports. The corporation runs duty-free shops at five international airports: Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi and Tiruvananthapuram.

144 Ecotourism CONCLUSION The organization plays a role in promoting the development of responsible, sustainable and universally accessible tourism, paying particular attention to the interests of developing countries. The organization encourages the implementation of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, with a view to ensuring that member countries, tourist destinations and businesses maximize the positive economic, social and cultural effects of tourism and fully reap its benefits, while minimizing its negative social and environmental impacts.

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CHAPTER 10

Ecotourism INTRODUCTION Tourism has been identified as one of the fastest growing industries in the world and the tourist business has gradually emerged as the largest single industry in the world next only to agriculture. Today, tourism is an economical activity of immense global importance. The World Tourism Organisation (WTO) says that today approximately 550 million people leave their place of residence annually and travel to various destinations. The developing world’s share of international tourist arrivals has more than doubled in the last 15 years. With such rapid growth it is no wonder that the impact of largely unplanned touristic development has had a deep impact on the environment, the ecology and the people. The environment, whether it be natural, or man-made, is the most fundamental ingredient of a tourism package. Tourism pleasure has been destroyed by mounting human pressure and intrusion which has led to the decline and damage to the forest cover of our precious ecosystem and biodiversity. The adverse effect of the unplanned growth of tourism has also been felt on agriculture, forests, wealth, land resources, the local people and their lifestyle. Appropriate relationships between tourism and the natural and sociocultural environments, which place responsibilities on both the tourist-receiving countries and the tourists themselves, were further specified by the WTO in 1985 during its sixth General Assembly through its adoption of the Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourism Code. This statement contained the following provisions: • In the interest of present and future generations, we must protect the tourism environment as being one—human, natural, social and cultural is the legacy of all mankind. • To facilitate such understanding and respect, the dissemination of appropriate information should be encouraged on (a) The customs of host communities, their traditional and religious practices, local taboos and sacred sites and shrines which must be respected.

146 Ecotourism (b) Their artistic, archaeological and cultural treasures, which must be preserved. (c) Wildlife and other natural resources, which must be protected. MEANING AND DEFINITION OF ECOTOURISM Sustainable development is the slogan of the 21st century and sustainable tourism is one section of sustainable development. The words “sustainable tourism” are synonymous with ecotourism. In a general sense, ecotourism means the management of tourism with the conservation of nature in such a way that the fine balance between the requirements of tourism and ecology on the one hand and the needs of the local communities for jobs and new skills on the other hand, are maintained to generate income from employment and also keeping in mind a better status for women. DEFINITIONS (1) In 1991, the international ecotourism society produced one of the earliest definitions stating that “ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas that conserve the environment and sustain the wellbeing of local people.” (2) In 1995, according to Harold Goodwin: Ecotourism means “purposeful travel to natural areas to understand the culture and natural history of the environment taking care not to alter the integrity of the ecosystem, while producing economical opportunities that make the conservation of natural resources beneficial to local people”. (3) In 1996, the World Conservation Union (WCU) defined ecotourism with a slight difference: “Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promote conservation, have a low visitor impact and provide beneficially active socio-economical involvement for local people.” (4) Finally, the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) has defined it as “Tourism that involves travelling to relatively undisturbed natural areas with the specified object of studying, admiring and enjoying nature and its wild plants and animals as well as exciting cultural aspects found in these areas”. HISTORY OF ECOTOURISM Hotzer identified four fundamental pillars that needed to be followed for a more responsible form of tourism. These included: (1) A minimum environmental impact,

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(2) A minimum impact on and maximum respect for host cultures, (3) Maximum economical benefits to the host country’s grass roots, and (4) Maximum ‘recreational’ satisfaction to participating tourists. The development of these concepts is the culmination of dissatisfaction with government and society’s negative approach to development, especially from an ecological point of view. While there is not a universal definition for ecotourism, its general characteristics can be summarised as follows: • All nature-based forms of tourism in which the main motivation of the tourists is the observation and appreciation of nature as well as the traditional cultures prevailing in natural areas. • It contains educational and interpretative features. • It is generally but not exclusively organized for small groups by specialised and small, locally owned businesses. Foreign operators of varying sizes also organise, operate and/or market ecotourism tours generally for small groups. • It minimizes the negative impact upon the natural and socio-cultural environment. • It supports the protection of the natural flora and fauna. IMPORTANCE OF ECOTOURISM Ecotourism can advance the three basic goals of convention on biological diversity such as: (1) Conserve biological features. (2) Promote the sustainable use of biodiversity. (3) Shape the benefits of ecotourism. In India, tourism is the second largest net earning means of foreign exchange. The main strength of Indian tourism at present lies in its cultural attractions, particularly monuments and archaeological remains, fairs and festivals, wildlife and beaches. The aim of the tourism policy now is to diversify the tourism product in such a way that the development of ecotourism and nature-based tourism are promoted to attract environmentally conscious tourists. Therefore, ecotourism is the most fascinating and most recent form of nature tourism. It encompasses activities which make a destination integrated environment friendly based touristic attraction, where visitors can go to enjoy nature and its surroundings. It takes place in nature’s solitude and visitors and destination operators attempt to envisage appropriate methods and measures to give direct and indirect benefits both to the hosts and guests, in a mutually acceptable manner. Ecotourism is defined as travel that is less damaging to the natural and cultural resources of the destination than traditional tourism, which in theory, increases the economical, social and environmental benefits. The depletion and degradation of touristic resources does

148 Ecotourism not contribute to the enhancement of the quality of life of host communities. While mass tourism is more interested in night-life attractions, dining and shopping, experiences which ranked as most important to ecotourists are the following (Weight, 1997): • Uncrowded destinations. • Remote wilderness areas. • Learning about wildlife and nature. • Learning about natives and their culture. • Community benefits. • Viewing plants and animals. • Physical challenges. Ecotourism, in other words, incorporates both a strong commitment to nature and a sense of responsibility. Ecotourism operators are also known for fair trade. The most important aspect of fair trade is that it should benefit the people who produce the product and who are affected by it. Fair trade in tourism is about money, or any other form of remuneration acceptable to the hosts, being invested both in depleting resources such as the environment—threatened by the impact of touristic activity and in fostering and promoting health and education, training and employment. Emergence of Ecotourism Ecotourism is narrowly defined and relates to a particular kind of natural tourism. For some, ecotourism is a form of tourism that contributes to the conservation of natural resources. In this case, ecotourism itself becomes a strategy for protecting parks and promoting economical developments in rural areas. At present a number of regions commonly use the term ecotourism for agro tourism, rural tourism, green tourism and even adventure tourism. The basic concept of the foregoing types of tourism, as enunciated by the European centre for professional training in environment and tourism, is sustainable development implying the pursuit of the optimum, but not the maximum use of resources and sometimes people correlate ecotourism with the concept of green tourism. Thus, we could say that ecotourism’s roots lie in nature’s unusual places out of a usual place in the environment. Ecotourists, too, differ greatly in several aspects including the following: • Distance travelled. • Length of stay. • Desired level of physical effort and comfort. • Importance of nature in the trip motivation. • Level of learning desired. • Amount of spending. • Desired activities, and • Personal demographics.

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Although the term ecotourism appears to be recent, the concept of balancing tourist’s use with resource protection was put forward many years ago. Ecotourism originated in the developing countries during the second half of the 1960s in conjunction with the rise of the modern conservation movement. In the late 1980s, ecotourism was an unknown entity that was just beginning to emerge in the popular lexicon. The diagram below shows the changing nature of tourism and its consumption. Consumers - Inconstant, contentious, value conscious - High expectations - Changing demographic profiles Politics

Industry - Strategic alliances - Mass customisation - Performance and process appraisal - Yield management - Total quality management

Changing nature of tourism and its consumption

- Trade policies, incentives; - Policy and planning control vs. self-control - Fabricating a magnetic private sector

Globalisation

Technolgoies

- Worldwide competition - Reinforcement of the multinational, cultural oneness

- Compatibility with industry - Relative ease of access - Drawn of an information industry Competition

- Quality propelled, - Transition from co-oriented pricing to psychological pricing - Database Marketing

Growth and Development of Ecotourism Ecotourism already accounts for perhaps a third of these travels and is specially prominent in the fastest growing tourism market. It even dominates some markets. Kenya estimates that eight out of ten visitors come for the wildlife, as do most

150 Ecotourism tourists to Costa Rica. These countries, along with Australia, are widely regarded as world leaders in ecotourism. South East Asia has a great potential for ecotourism. Campbell (1994) reported that, in 1990 alone, approximately 20 per cent of all foreign tourists to Thailand visited natural tourism sites. There are various explanations, as pointed out by Lindberg, Furze, Staff and Black (1997), for ecotourism growth. • Increasing environmental awareness and interest including the desire to be perceived by others as environmentally sensitive. • Increased media exposure to natural areas around the world. • Related to the above two, a desire to see natural areas before they disappear. • Increasing dissatisfaction with traditional touristic destinations and products and a desire for more educative and challenging vacations. • Desire to go to novel destinations sometimes as a way to ‘Outdo” others being the first person who has been to the Antarctica. • Easier access to remote ecotouristic destinations through the development of air routes, roads, and other infrastructures. However, ecotourism is regarded as being beneficial for visiting some areas as it appears to offer several potential advantages. • It sells traditional environmental knowledge and the image of a symbolic relationship with nature as an increasingly rare commodity. Experiencing this is growing in demand, in which indigenous people enjoy a virtual monopoly. • It can assist in revalidating indigenous environmental resources including parks and nature reserves which otherwise have a limited market value. • It permits the commercial utilisation of environmental resources, including parks and nature reserves which otherwise have a limited market value. • It can be combined with the local food production, nature-based handicrafts and medical products for the tourist market. • It is relatively labour-intensive and produces higher returns than traditional market products. • It reduces the problem of market dustiness since visitors are willing to pay a premium to access “primitive and remote” destinations. • It is based on the support of the environmental movement in the developed countries thus reducing the dependency of indigenous minorities and strengthening their position in land and resource conflicts. The demand for ecotourism appears to be growing. However, growth presents numerous long-term challenges. The major issues include: • The necessity to keep ecotourism enterprises small-scaled, despite demand, in order to avoid damage to the environment. • Limited markets demand fewer opportunities for repeat business. • Long-term sustainability of local value systems and lifestyles.

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• The fact that visitors generally do not pay for the full cost of maintaining the site. • Ecotourism destination areas lack strong marketing support. Ecotourism Resources Ecotourism involves touristic activities, which are nature-based. The geographical diversity of India has given a wealth of ecosystems, which are well protected and preserved. These ecosystems have become the major resources for ecotourism in India. They consist of: • Biosphere reserves. • Mangroves. • Corals and coral reefs. • Deserts. • Mountains and forests. • Flora and fauna, and • Weltlands. CHALLENGES FOR ECOTOURISM The ecotourism industry is facing various challenges due to a lack of strategic business planning and a lack of well-trained local native guides, lack of suitable marketing techniques (for both tourism and local artisans), lack of methods for gaining community consensus on developmental projects and a lack of infrastructure, etc. LEGISLATION FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM There are so many policies, legislations, regulations and instruments framed to fulfil obligations and to realise the potential of ecotourism as a tool for the conservation and economical development under the agreements signed under the international conferences. They are: (1) The Wildlife Protection Act 1972. (2) The Environment (Protection) Act 1986. (3) Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986. (4) The Water (Prevention and Control of Population Act 1974, as amended upto 1988.) (5) The Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1977, as amended by Amendment Act 1991. (6) The Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981, as amended by Amendment Act 1987. (7) National Forest Policy 1988.

152 Ecotourism (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24)

Forest (Conservation) Act 1980. The National Environment Tribunal Act 1995. The Liability Insurance Act 1991. Recycled plastics manufacture and usage Rule 1999. Manufacture, use, impact, export and storage of hazardous microorganisms. Authentically Engineered Organisms or Cells Rule 1989. Hazardous Waste (Managements and handling) Rules 1998. Biomedical Waste (Management and handling) Rules 1988). Laws relating to the Airline sector. Antiquities and Art Treasure Act 1972. Laws relating to the preservation of cultural heritage. Municipal Solid Waste (management and handling Rules 2000). Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000. Ozone depleting substances (Regulation) Rules 2000. New biodiversity Bill 2000. The prevention and control of pollution (uniform consent procedure) Rules 1999. Legislation relating to the surface transport business.

All these acts are directly or indirectly concerned with ecotourism. ECOTOURISM: OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Ecotourism is one of the fastest growing trends in the tourism industry. The term ‘ecotourism’ has been defined in many ways, and is generally used to describe touristic activities which are conducted in harmony with nature, as opposed to the more traditional ‘mass’ touristic activities. Comprehensively, ecotourism has been defined by the ecotourism society as: Ecotourism strategies for developing countries: A four-pronged strategic approach is needed which includes: • Consumer awareness and education. • Tourism industrial action ensuring a good infrastructure. • Destination planning and development. • An expanded concept of marketing ecotourism to developing countries. ECOTOURISM IN INDIA The tourism industry covers diverse activities such as transport, accommodation, entertainment, catering, handicrafts and souvenirs amongst others. Some may have a severe negative impact on visitor’s destinations and the population in the

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absence of proper checks and balances. Tourism development puts pressure on all local resources because tourists consume energy, water, food and other raw materials some of which may be in a short supply locally. Due to haphazard development, some touristic destinations have lost their natural allure and are likely to become centres of garbage and litter very soon. The much larger number of domestic tourists, leisure travellers and pilgrims cause even greater damage. The economical loss due to environmental degradation has been grossly underestimated due to a lack of adequate data. Some important points suggested by this report for the Sustainable Development of tourism resources are as follows: • The first essential step towards harmonising touristic development with local ecological conditions is to assess the carrying capacity of each area in which tourism is sought to be promoted. • Tourist plans for an area must be integrated into the overall developmental plans for the area. This would ensure that the demands on local resources are assessed together and that the object of tourism does not conflict with those of socio-economical or developmental plans in the area. • Non-governmental organisations, especially ecological and adventure groups have an important role to play in this regard. They have, quite often, an intimate understanding of local ecological conditions and can provide the necessary input for developing educational touristic literature, guiding tourists and keeping a vigil over unwanted and illegal touristic activities. • It must be ensured that tourism inculcates values respectful to the local cultural traditions, environmental conditions and economical needs. Tourism policy action plans, which are related to sustainable tourism development, are as follows: • Bringing out periodical publications and organising seminars, workshops and presentations on the economical and social benefits of tourism, to educate and create awareness amongst administrators, planners and the masses. • Establishing at least a few tourism resorts of excellence to present an ideal tourism package of the country. • Giving guidance and financial assistance to state/union territory governments for preparing Tourism Master Plans identifying the tourism resources, priortising the developmental circuits and projects and specifying the most suitable forms of tourism. • Focussing on the development of ecotourism in the North-East and the re-establishment of the tourism industry in the Himalayan mountains. • Implementing integrated/intensive development of tourist destinations only after assessing the carrying capacity of local aspirations and the benefits likely to accrue to the community.

154 Ecotourism • Imposing regulatory measures on developers, operators, tourists and the local communities under the existing laws and rules to ensure the social, cultural and the environmental sustainability of touristic projects. We have misused nature to the point where there will soon be nothing for the future generations to come to see. Today, we are all familiar with the concept of sustainable development, an intervention which goes hand in hand with the spirit of globalization. In development, globalization seeks to view natural resources as belonging to the global community rather than a nation state or a community defined by ethnicity or location of culture. In a country like India, 50 million Indians determine the priorities for development. Their needs determine what to produce and what to consume. Consequently every developmental activity has changed landuse patterns, displaced people, threatened the environment and driven marginalised sections of the population into invisibility. Tourism, the “smokeless industry”, is also becoming a partner in the irrational use of land, water and air as well as communities, their culture, lifestyle and traditions. Briefly stated, following are some of the problems which can arise out of unplanned or badly planned tourism. • Deforestation. • Privileging some species to the detriment and loss of other species which diversifies the ecology. • Loss of natural resources for firewood and timber. • Soil erosion and coastal erosion. • Land degradation, water pollution and garbage. • Impact of the construction of roads and settlements and changes in land use. • Migration of the small and poor peasant population and influx of outside agencies. • Urbanization and the attendant problems of providing water, electricity, infrastructure, etc. • Development of shanties and slums. Tourism Impact on Environment

Natural

Non-Biotic Areas

Cultural

Biotic Area

Flora Air: Smoke, Dust Water Fauna Soil Water bodies Underground: Coal, Stone Cutting Surface: Road metal

Economical Area

Social Area

Cultural Area

Infrastructure Communication

Health Population Movement

Values Customs & Tradition Institutions Contents of Cultural Landscapes

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• Problems of social cohesion in the poorest or remotest regions of the country. All forms of tourism that are exploratory, stress experience and have as their object the appreciation and preservation of nature, without destroying the natural resources, are considered to form ecotourism. This term was coined by the tourism industry of Belize, a Central American Country, very rich in natural resources. The forms of ecotourism can include the scientific, sporty, adventurous and passive uses of nature. The ecotourism movement in India was an offshoot of new trends in tourism that were there to help make India a more holiday orientated destination to attract larger numbers of international tourists. It was to transform the Indian tourist product from passive forms (like movements etc.) to more active forms like adventure, wildlife and heritage tourism. Sustainable Tourism Development Sustainable tourism is a positive approach intended to reduce the tension and friction created by the complex interactions between the tourism industry, visitors, the environment and the communities which are the host to the holiday makers. It is an approach which involves working for the long-term viability and quality of both natural and human resources. The Global 1990 Conference referred to sustainable tourism as “the management of touristic resources in such a way that fulfils economical, social and aesthetic needs while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems. The basic principles of sustainable tourism development based on the Rio Declaration of Environment and Development are: • Travel and tourism should assist people in leading healthy and productive lives in harmony with nature. • Travel and tourism should contribute to the conservation, protection and restoration of the earth’s ecosystem. • Travel and tourism should be based on sustainable patterns of production and consumption. • Nations should cooperate to promote an open economical system in which international trade in travel and tourism services can take place on a sustainable basis. • Travel and tourism, peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent. • Protectionism in trade, in travel and tourism services should be halted or reversed. • Environmental protection should constitute an integral part of any touristic developmental process. • Tourism developmental issues should be handled with the participation of concerned citizens, with planned decisions being adopted at the local level.

156 Ecotourism • Nations shall warn one another of natural disasters that could effect tourist or tourist areas. • Travel and tourism should use its capacity to create employment for women and indigenous people to the fullest extent. • Touristic development should recognise and support the identity, culture and interest of indigenous people. • International laws protecting the environment should be respected by travellers and the tourism industry. Three main goals of sustainable development are: • Ecological sustainability ensures that any development is compatible with the maintenance of essential ecological processes, biological diversity and biological resources. • Social and cultural sustainability ensures that the development which increases people’s control over their lives is compatible with the culture and values of people affected by it and maintains and strengthens a community’s identity. • Economical sustainability ensures that development is economically efficient and that resources are managed so that they can support future generations. This philosophy presents some unique challenges and opportunities for the tourism industry: • Tourism demand is proportional to the quality of the environment of the destination. • Tourism is often a more sustainable use of natural resources rather than the obviously consumptive industries such as mining, logging, hunting and the like. • Tourism increases the population of the destination and some touristic activities are not sustainable. • Properly managed, tourism can be a powerful force for the conservation of our natural and cultural heritage. • Sustainable tourism has become a cult for tourists and destinations alike under the guise of ecotourism. The Agenda 21 was set up for the travel and tourism industry and its relevant associations to follow in drafting and implementing its sustainable tourism programme: • Assessment of existing regulatory economical and voluntary frameworks. • Assessment of economical, social, cultural and environmental implications. • Training, education and public awareness. • Exchange of information between developed and developing countries. • Participation of all sectors of society. • Design of new products for the tourists.

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The table below shows the core indicators.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Indicator

Specific Measures

Site protection Stress Use intensity Social impact Developing control

Category of site protection. According to IUCN index. Tourist number visiting site (per annum/peak month). Intensity of use peak period (persons/hectare). Ratio of tourists to locals (peak period). Existence of environmental review procedures of formal controls over the development of the site and use densities. Percentages of sewage from site receiver treatment. Existence of organised regional plan for tourism component. Number of rare/endangered species. Level of satisfaction by visitors (questionnaire-based). Level of satisfaction by locals (questionnaire-based).

Waste management Planning process Critical ecosystem Consumer satisfaction Local satisfaction

Source: WTO (1995). Madrid

The table below shows the “Impactogram” and its sphere Ecosphere

Technosphere

Sociosphere

Incidence of air, noise and water pollution, change in water quality, destruction of wildlife and forest cover, changes in forest firewood (i) Collection of firewood (ii) Changes in bird, insect, butterfly community (iii) Ramification of reptiles, amphibians (iv) Ecological malpractices (a) Dumping waste (b) Camping, garbage deposition (c) Deposition of human excreta Changes in the structure and function of a mountain habitat. (a) Changes in plant and animal diversity. (b) Overgrazing and erosion. (c) Desertification. (d) Urban expanses, loss of open spaces and beauty, encroachment of the countryside.

Development of roads Changes in housing pattern (hotel, motels, shops, etc.) Mechanization of agro-aquatic system (dam, diversion channels) Tourism affluence

Westernization Devaluation of social values, cohesion and structure. Loss of cultural identity. Exposure of social malpractices (crimes, vices, thefts). Materialism of traditional society. Exposure of disease, bad habits alien to land. Changes in dietary habits.

Environmental Impacts of Tourism: A Review A representative cross-section of positive and negative effects that tourism may have upon physical environments and a proposal of five key headings under what tourism effects may be grouped.

158 Ecotourism The table below shows a Guidelines for Sustainable Tourism (1) Identify and minimise product and operational, environmental problems paying particular attention to new projects. (2) Pay due regard to environmental concerns in design, planning, construction and implementation. (3) Be sensitive to the conservation of environmentally protected or threatened area’s species or scenic aesthetics achieving landscape enhancement where possible. (4) Practise energy conservation, reduce and recycle waste, practise fresh water, management and control sewage disposal. (5) Control and diminish air emissions and pollutants. (6) Monitor, control and reduce noise levels. (7) Control, reduce and eliminate environmentally, unfriendly products such as abestos, CFCs, pesticides and toxic, corrosive, infectious, explosive or flammable material. (8) Respect and support historical or religious objects and sites. (9) Exercise due regard for the interests of local populations including their historical traditions and culture and future development. (10) Consider environmental issues as a key factor in the overall development of travel destinations. The table below shows the balance sheet of environmental impacts of tourism Area of Effect

Negative Impacts

Positive Impacts

(1) Biodiversity

Disruption of breeding/feeding patterns. Killing of animals for leisure or to supply the souvenir trade loss of habitats and change in species composition. Destruction of vegetation. Soil erosion. Damage to sites through trampling over key infrastructures (e.g. water supply networks) Water pollution through sewage or fuel spillage and rubbish from pleasure boats. Air pollution. Noise pollution (e.g. from vehicles or sport aircraft and speed boats, tourist attractions like bars, discos, etc. Littering). Depletion of ground and surface water. Diversion of water supply to meet tourist’s needs. Depletion of local fuel sources. Depletion of local building material sources. Land transfers to tourism. Detrimental visual impact on natural and non-natural landscapes through the development of tourism. Introduction of new architectural styles. Changes in (urban) functions. Physical expansion of built-up areas

Encouragement to conserve animals as attractions, establishment of protected or conserved areas to meet tourist’s demands.

(2) Erosion and physical damage (3) Pollution

(4) Resource base

(5) Visual/ structural change

Tourism revenue to finance ground repair and site restoration. Improvement to infrastructure prompted by tourist’s demands. Cleaning programmes to protect and attractiveness of location to tourists.

Development of new/improved sources of supply

New uses for marginal or unproductive lands. Landscape improvement (e.g. to clear urban dereliction) Regeneration and/or modernisation of a built environment. Reuse of disused buildings.

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The impacts of tourism upon the diversity of flora and fauna link with the second area of concern namely erosion and physical damage, and this illustrates how environmental problems tend to be interlinked. Erosion is typically the result of trampling by visitor’s feet, and whilst footpaths and natural locations are the most likely places for such problems to occur, the extreme weight of numbers can lead to damage to the built environment. SUSTAINABLE TOURISM The World Commission on Environment and Development defines ‘sustainable development’ as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. At the 1992 Earth Summit, the concept of ‘Sustainable development’ had been placed firmly on the global agenda and this issue is assuming great significance in the development of tourism. There are basically three principles involved in sustainable development. These principles are equally applicable to touristic development as well. 1. Firstly, development must be ecologically sustainable, i.e, ecological sustainability which means that the 2. Touristic development must be compatible with the culture and values of the local people and that thirdly 3. The WTO Publication—Sustainable Tourism Development Guide for Local Planners (by George Mcintyre) has summed up a model form of sustainable tourism as one designed to (a) Improve the quality of the life of the people; (b) Provide a good experience to the tourists; and (c) Maintain the quality of the environment which is essential for both the tourists and the local community. The benefits of sustainable tourism have been summed up very adequately as follows: • Sustainable tourism encourages an understanding of the impacts of tourism on the natural, cultural and human environment. • Sustainable tourism ensures a fair distribution of benefits and costs. • Tourism generates local employment, both directly in the touristic sector and in various support and resource managerial sectors. • Tourism stimulates profitable domestic industries—hotels and other lodging facilities, restaurants and other food services, transportation systems, handicrafts, and guide services. • Tourism generates foreign exchange for the country and injects capital and this new money goes into the local economy. • Tourism diversifies the local economy, particularly in rural areas where agricultural employment may be sporadic or insufficient.

160 Ecotourism • Sustainable tourism seeks decision-making among all segments of society, including the local population so that tourism and other resource users can coexist. It incorporates planning and zoning which ensures touristic development appropriate to the carrying capacity of the ecosystem. • Tourism stimulates improvements to local transportation, communications, and other basic community infrastructures. • Tourism creates recreational facilities which can be used by local communities as well as domestic and international visitors. It also encourages and helps pay for the preservation of archaeological sites, and historical buildings and districts. • Nature tourism encourages the productive use of lands which are marginal for agriculture, enabling large tracts to remain covered in natural vegetation. • Cultural tourism enhances local community esteem and provides the opportunity for greater understanding and communication among people of diverse backgrounds. • Environmentally sustainable tourism demonstrates the importance of natural and cultural resources to a community’s economical and social well-being and can help to preserve them. • Sustainable tourism monitors, assesses and manages the impacts of tourism, develops reliable methods of environmental accountability, and counters any negative effect. Any policy for sustainable development will revolve naturally around the following cardinal principles: (a) that there is a need for striking a balance between development and conservation, (b) that there is a need for a true commitment from the nation as a whole to the goals of sustainable touristic development, (c) that adequate, effective and pragmatic control systems are devised and are efficiently put into place, and (d) that the policy incorporates and motivates the cooperation of the local community who must perceive the benefit of such participation and should be able to partake in the same. India is fortunate and unique in having such a geographical diversity that has given it a wealth of ecosystems which are well protected and preserved. These ecosystems have become the major resources for ecotourism in India. These consist of: • biosphere reserves. • mangroves. • corals and coral reefs. • deserts. • mountains and forests.

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• flora and fauna, and • sea, lakes and rivers. The Tourism Policy of 1982 and guidelines on ecotourism aim to achieve some of the following objectives: (a) The level of development is compatible with the general capacity of the physical environment and resources. (b) Sufficient facilities and services are provided to serve the tourists and the local population. (c) The hotel rooms are distributed in such a manner that the natural characteristics and qualities of the area are enhanced. (d) The tourism-related constructions are designed carefully and sensitively to merge with the surroundings to enhance the natural beauty, and (e) The architectural heritage sites and other areas of historical value are protected adequately. Sustainability Position Anthropocentric Very weak Exploitation of resources Economic growth Technological innovation

Ecocentric Weak

Strong

Very strong

Resource conservation Managed growth Common interpretation of sustainable development

Resource preservation Zero economic growth Zero population growth

Minimization of resource use Anti-economic growth

(Source: Adapted from Turner, Pearce and Bateman 1994.)

Regulation and Sustainability While the major emphasis in the development of sustainable tourism is on public participation and involvement, it is essential that the Government plays the role of coordinating and controlling the activities to arrive at the objectives defined. Aware of this requirement, a number of regulations have already been put into place by the Government of India. Many of these legislations are designed to protect ecologically fragile and sensitive ecosystems. Some of the important ones among them are: 1. Forest Act, 1980 which controls the use of forests for non-forestry uses. 2. Wildlife Act, 1972 which designates the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries and stipulates a comprehensive framework for wildlife protection and conservation.

162 Ecotourism 3. Environment Protection Act, 1986 stipulates several measures for protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing, controlling and abating environmental pollution along coastal regulation zones. CRZ were gazetted by a notification under the Act in 1991 and a wide range of activities have been prohibited along the sea coast within a 500 metre range of the high tide line (HTL). Tourism which is sustainable should: • Stimulate awareness of tourism impacts. • Be well planned, with a strategy identifying limits of acceptable change/ carrying capacities. • Generate direct and indirect local employment. • Support viability of local enterprises. • Provide income which is retained in the local area as much as possible. • Support diversification in local and regional economies. • Encourage local community involvement. • Support existing infrastructure and provide justification for retention and improvement of local services. • Respect the integrity of the local environment, culture, people, infrastructure and character of an area. • Promote local pride. • Assist in conservation works in the natural and built environment. • Be carefully monitored with strategies for minimizing negative impacts in place. Guidelines for Ecotourism In addition to the above regulations, the Government of India has worked out recently certain broad guidelines for ecotourism which stipulate that the development process itself should meet the following cardinal principles. 1. It should involve the local community and lead to the overall economical development of the area. 2. It should identify areas where conflicts may arise because the resource used for the promotion of tourism may be the same from which local communities get their livelihood. Ecotourism policy attempts to minimise such conflicts by finding ways to balance the needs for development with the necessity of preservation. 3. The type and scale of touristic development should be compatible with the environment and sociocultural characteristics of the local community. 4. An ecotourism policy should be planned as a part of the overall area’s development strategy and should be guided by an integrated land-use plan. It should not be seen as something alien to the environment.

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Some of the salient features can be briefly mentioned as: (a) Decisions for the development of tourism in ecologically fragile areas have to be based on a thorough understanding of local resources, social and economical factors and other characteristics. The objectives of touristic development in any specific area, as well as the intended beneficiaries, have to be decided on the basis of these factors on a platform of discussions and negotiations with those most directly concerned. (b) The development of a physical infrastructure for tourism should be preceded by the preparation of an inventory of the available resources and a careful zoning/management plan to ensure the proper use and preservation of valuable natural sites. (c) Wherever the destruction or serious alteration of areas of high primary productivity like wetland seagrass beds, coral reefs, rainforests, etc. becomes necessary for the development of tourism, a careful social and economical cost-benefit analysis should precede any such planning. Further, planning and promotion of tourism should be undertaken as a component part of an integrated, comprehensive resource managerial plan based on sound ecological principles. (d) The “Tourism Management Plan” should also establish standards for resort development, covering among others, the style and location of structures, the treatment of sewage and the control of litter, the preservation of open spaces and the public use of fragile areas. It should lay down further procedures to ensure that sewage is not directed to the beach and that the groundwater and solid waste like litter, garbage, trash, etc., are systematically collected and disposed of suitably. The planning and regulatory process should carefully go into various details that have a bearing on the ecology and should specify methods for construction materials to be used for such construction, encourage the use of ecofriendly local materials, minimise noise pollution, etc. (e) Physical planning and design should integrate community services, transportation and tourism. There are numerous instances of a community’s lifestyle being affected adversely and hardship caused to them because of pressure on limited civic amenities when an influx of tourists takes place without proper planning for civic services, transportation, etc. TOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT With the rapid development of tourism all over the world, lots of people are concerned about its impact on natural environments. In recent times, they have become quite vocal and have been aggressively voicing their protests against the unregulated growth of tourism.

164 Ecotourism • Western attitude towards nature. • Indian attitude towards nature. • The need for conservation. • Definition of environment. Environment, today, has acquired a broad definition. It includes not only land, air, water, flora and fauna but also encompasses “people, their creations, and social, economical and cultural conditions that affect their lives.” A government-funded Himalayan Foundation has recently issued the following guidelines for trekkers, mountaineers and other tourists going to the Himalayas for the preservation of environments in India. (1) All litter must be deposited in the litter boxes kept for this purpose. (2) People going to mountain treks must not throw litter on the way. In course of time, heaps of litter become an eyesore for people who may come the same way later. It is happening in our Himalayas and it must stop. (3) Visitors going to monuments must not carve their names or initials on the walls. Such vulgarity ruins the monuments. If you see someone doing that, persuade him or her not to do so. (4) Noise pollution is not less harmful than air or water pollution. Honking the horn unnecessarily must be avoided at all costs. (5) It is absurd to disfigure historical and ancient statues, depriving our children of the privilege of seeing these great works of art in their original glory. “A thing of beauty is a joy forever.” Our great artisans took scores of years to carve out these figures for us to enjoy but we seem to relish disfiguring them in a moment. (6) The smuggling and stealing of ancient statues and artifacts has become common due to the high prices of such precious treasures. Tourists and the local residents must remain alert to such vandalism. (7) Sea beaches were formed over thousands of years and we must not ruin them by our rash action. Tall, multi-storeyed buildings on the beach front affect the structure of the beaches sometimes leading to the disappearance of the beach itself. If tourism is not to be a threat to its own future then all countries should devote special attention in the following areas: (a) A quantitative and qualitative analysis of the natural, cultural, artistic and human resources and plan their use as well as their protection. Most planned tourism extends their use but does not protect resources. (b) Realise that one country’s heritage is a part of the heritage of mankind and, therefore, avoid conflict, war and mis-sensitivity to a holistic view of heritage. (c) Recognise the social and economic importance of tourism and extend its conversationist aspect to create an unpolluted environment.

Ecotourism Tourism and Environmental Impact Water TOURISM OPERATIONS Release garbage, sewage into lakes, rivers, beaches Release of oil from cruise ships, ferry boats, etc. IMPACT

IMPACT

Contamination, health hazards, destruction of aquatic plant and animal life.

Increasing toxity in water bodies, contaminated sea food, etc.

Atmosphere IMPACT

TOURISM OPERATIONS

Air and noise pollution, Adverse impact on plant life Loss of recreation value.

Increase in travel to destinations (Motor car, Ship, Train, Aeroplane)

Vegetation IMPACT

TOURISM OPERATIONS

Loss of forest wealth, constant trampling of plants, conflagrations in the forested areas, effects on plant life, etc.

Chopping of trees for resort construction Thoughtless use of fire in Parks and Forests Vehicular traffic in Parks and Forests Collection of flowers, plants and fungi.

Human Settlements TOURISM OPERATIONS Construction and Expansion of hotels, shops, etc. IMPACT Displacement of people, traffic congestion, increased pollution, etc. Monuments TOURISM OPERATIONS Use for recreational purposes, excessive usage for sight seeing, etc. IMPACT Overcrowding Disfiguring Loss to preservation, etc.

165

166 Ecotourism The table below shows the environmental impacts in specific habitats Habitats influenced

Effect of tourism development

Marine waters

Pollution from sewage outfall Sea dumping of waste Oil pollution from tourist boats Litter and threat to marine creatures

Coastal habitats

Habitat loss and fragmentation Deterioration in ecological diversity Destabilization of sand dunes Erosion of coastal landscape

Inland waters

Sewage pollution Eutrophication Oil pollution from boats and barges Disturbance from watercraft of bird communities

Upland heaths, mires and tundra

Erosion Habitat loss and fragmentation Disturbance to nesting birds

Agricultural land

Loss of area for production Conflict between adjacent agricultural uses and tourism

Semi-natural grasslands

Loss of open landscape Habitat loss

Heathlands, scrub and rocky area

Habitat loss and fragmentation

Forests

Habitat loss and fragmentation Disturbance from recreational activities

(Source: European Environment Agency 1998).

(d) Recognise that traditional values, particularly non-materialistic values should guide tourism as a social force and a negotiable resource between the rich and the poor. (e) To achieve tourism related goals via bilateral and multilateral agreements, into which socio-economic goals can be introduced, if tourism is for developing the host country. (f) The threats and obstacles model in tourism development should address to the dual problem—preserve as you develop. (g) All tourism development must not be related to short-term needs, no matter how pressing, but must respond to obligations which we must feel towards the exploited, the marginalised, the poor and backward, the uneducated, etc. Therefore, the view of tourism should be longterm. This means that the habitual consumer attitude, which has been developed with general social approval, should be discouraged.

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CONCLUSION Ecotourism India has developed recently, for the concept itself is a relatively new one. Ecotourism entails travelling to places that are renowned for their natural beauty and social culture, while making sure not to damage the ecological balance. Ecotourism pertains to a conscious and responsible effort to preserve the diversity of a naturally endowed region and sustaining its beauty and local culture. Indians have been known since ages to worship and conserve nature. So the growth of ecotourism in India is but natural. Also the Government of India has set up the Ministry of Tourism and Culture to promote ecotourism in India alongside other types of tourism. Ecotourism in India has grown significantly I recent years in India since the country has a diverse geography which led to the development of many tourists destinations. These various destinations not only de-stress the tourists but also rejuvenate them. There are various ways in which tourists can enjoy nature in India. And this has given ecotourism in India a major boost.

168 Ecotourism

CHAPTER 11

Tourism Policy and Planning INTRODUCTION Planning for proper tourism development started some 50 years ago when the effects of unregulated development became evident in countries like Spain and France. The World Bank, the World Tourism Organisation and the United Nations have shown concern over the degradation of environments and the impact of tourism on heritage and culture of host destinations through unplanned tourism. At the national level, the tourism planning process passes through the following stages: (1) Establishment of goals based on research. (2) Market and resource analysis. (3) Conceptual planning and approval thereof. (4) Master planning. (5) Staged implementation of the programmes. (6) Evaluation, direction and monitoring to ensure quality. Tourism is an activity that affects both the host and guest communities. It affects all the sectors of the economy, the society in general and also the environment. When there are conflicting interests and objectives between various agencies, problems arise. Unregulated tourism growth may at times destroy the very resources on which tourism is built. Because of these factors, the development of tourism cannot be left to the market forces alone. A carefully formulated policy is therefore necessary, taking into account the total and harmonious relationships in society and the economical factors. In this context, the lack of environmental focus of our tourism policy does not stand out. The following aspects should be considered in tourism policy and planning at all levels—International, National, Regional or Local Planning: • Incentives and facilities should be provided only to those who abide by the environmental laws related to their business operations. In wildlife tourism, permission to enter natural parks, etc. should be granted only to

Tourism Policy and Planning 169 those who take precautions regarding tourism behaviour, waste disposal, etc. in the parks so as not to disturb the wildlife. • Environmental laws and protection should not be left for the judiciary only to act, but should be incorporated as an implementing measure in the policy document itself. This should thoroughly cover constructional activities in coastal resorts or outside wildlife sanctuaries. • Recognition should be given to a particular trade and industry, i.e., hotels, travel agencies, tourism transport operations based on the evaluation of an environmental aspect. These codes could be drawn up separately for these agencies and the mechanism for implementing them should be stated. A tremendous amount of scope exists for making incentives for tourism like adventure, sports, etc. dependent on environmental regulations. These activities worldwide are linked to spreading environmental awareness. The tourist in these areas actually participates with a sense of bettering the environment. In such conditions an environmental code will find an acceptance. The thing is to incorporate this in the policy packages so as to deter the tourist operators from taking advantage of tourist’s ignorance. The table below shows the diversity of tourism planning Planning Sector

Typical Tourism Planning Concerns/Issues

Physical (land)

Control over land development by both public and private sectors, location and design of facilities, zoning of land uses. Development of tourist transportation systems, development of public utilities (power, water, etc.) Shaping spatial and sectorial patterns of investment. Creation of employment. Labour training. Redistribution of wealth. Distribution of subsidies and incentives. Social integration/segregation of hosts and visitors. Hospitality. Authenticity presentation of heritage and culture. Language planning. Maintenance of local customs and practices. Designation of conservation areas. Protection of flora and fauna. Protection of historical sites/buildings/environment. Regulation of air/ water/ground quality control over pollution assessment of hazards. Formation of business plans and associated products. Promotional strategies. Advertising sponsorship. Quality testing and product grading. Provision of tourist information services.

Economical

Social/Cultural

Environmental

Business and marketing

Formulating Tourism Development Policy Any policy affects the entire country or a region together with their communities and it must balance economical, environmental and social concerns. A tourism policy can take many forms. Some of the basic issues that need to be addressed in policy formulation are as follows. • The reasons for developing tourism should be stated in the policy. These reasons often include a combination of the following:

170 Ecotourism

•

•

•

•

— Economical reasons for increasing incomes, providing employment, earning foreign exchange, increasing government revenues and using tourism as a catalyst for the expansion of other sectors. — Social reasons for encouraging cross cultural exchanges and introducing the country to foreigners and providing recreational opportunities (for domestic tourism). — Using tourism to help achieve environmental and cultural conservation as objectives for which resources are not otherwise available. The forms of tourism to be developed and the related types of international, and domestic tourist markets to be attracted, are a basic policy consideration. Usually several forms of tourism are suitable for development within a single country or region but in different areas and sometimes in different time periods. The general level quality in tourism also needs to be set forth in the policy. Many destinations are now, by policy, opting for what they term, quality tourism. Another consideration is whether tourism should be ‘market-led’. Developing forms of tourism that will attract a broad market regardless of the impact of the development or product-led developing forms of tourism that are most compatible with the environment and society. Targeting only those markets that are consistent with the product, even though this may result in fewer economical benefits, usually attempts to balance these two approaches. A policy consideration is the extent of development to be allowed. Should tourism be limited to a main aim at a medium level or encouraged to become a major sector of the economy. A large country or region may decide to develop different levels of tourism in different areas and at different times based on environmental, socio-cultural together with infrastructural developmental considerations. The growth rate of tourism to which to aim—slow, medium or fast—is often a policy consideration. Even though the potential exists for fast growth, for example, it may be desirable to control the growth rate for several reasons. — Social reasons of allowing residents adequate time to adjust to tourism and learn to participate in it. — Developmental reasons of balancing the development of tourist facilities with the development of the infrastructure. — Manpower planning reasons of allowing sufficient time to train a person to work effectively in tourism. — Economical reasons of integrating the development of tourism with other economical sectors, and not creating distortions in the economy.

Tourism Policy and Planning 171 • The respective roles of the government and private sectors in developing and managing tourism can be an important factor in determining what type of policy is to be instigated. • Achieving environmental protection, cultural conservation and sustainable development are all important policy considerations. • The general location and staging of development may be stated in the policy and then further refined in the structural plan. Preparing the structural plan is based on several considerations, including the following. • Developmental objective and policies—these are basic inputs to the structural plan, for example, the recommended form of development. • Type and location of the major tourist attraction features. • Type and location of existing accommodation, and the projected accommodation and other tourist facility needs. • Location of existing and already planned transportation facilities and other critical infrastructure such as the water supply. • Overall environmental land use, tenure resource, social and economical analysis and synthesis. This indicates various important influencing factors—suitable climatic zones for tourism, location of developed and available land for tourism development, the carrying capacities of potential tourism developmental areas, location of resource areas that may be more important for other types of development, areas where the labour supply will be available to work in tourism, and the location of economically depressed areas where development is needed. Concentration of tourism development, as opposed to dispersed development, offers several advantages. • Better opportunities for the planning of integrated development and the application of developmental design and environmental controls. • More efficient provision of transportation access together with access to other infrastructure. • Convenience to tourists of facilities and services being in proximity. • Capability of concentrated development to support a greater variety and more specialised facilities and services. • Containment of any negative environmental and socio-cultural impacts in specific areas. PLANNING PROCESS The process of tourism plans at National/Regional levels is based on sustainable, integrated and approaches to be implemented. A step by step description of various

172 Ecotourism plans is very essential. The objectives must be related to those of the overall economical developmental plan. The key steps in planning are: (i) Study Preparation • Careful preparation of study to provide the type of developmental guidance. • Formulation of terms of reference. • Selecting a technical team to carry out study by appointing a steering committee. • TOR for national/regional plans to indicate the output and activities that are necessary to prepare a developmental policy and plan. • Special considerations to be made such as the economical, environmental and social issues which should be specified in TOR. • Identification of implementation techniques. • Many places have some limited tourism development. These existing patterns must be considered in the formulation of the TOR. • Emphasis on rejuvenating and important existing developments. • TOR should indicate when the plan and its targets are to be realised. (ii) Determination of Objectives • Objective needs to be determined. • They state the desired results of developmental tourism in the country/ region. • Should be a sub-set of the overall objectives for the nation, the economy, the people and the social structure within an area. • Deal with growth leading to an increased standard of living, employment, and investment potential in the area/country. • To minimise negative environmental and sociocultural impacts. • To be determined in close consultation with the government. (iii) Survey of all Elements • Take early steps in gathering information from existing resources and on potential availability. • Lack of information is one of the main constraints. • Recording of information and statistics, which is very crucial. • Determining the present structures of demand and supply in tourism. Principles on which assessment is based • Attractions to be built progressively throughout the entire country for a proper spread. • Areas and attractions selected for special development should appeal to a wide range of tourists. They should benefit a cross-section of tourists over a long possible season.

Tourism Policy and Planning 173 • Priority to those areas which can be easily and successfully developed. • Attractions based on existing infrastructural services to be given priority, as they require less finance. • Similar or competing attractions should not be developed unless there is a large volume of visitors. • New/unique and out of the ordinary attractions to be developed. The data required includes (a) Global and regional tourism pattern and trends by (WTO) World Tourism Organisation. (b) Characteristics of existing or potentially competing tourist destinations that offer similar products and attract much the same tourist markets. (c) Tourist arrival trends in the planning study/country/region. (d) Existing and already planned tourist accommodation, transportation facilities/services including both accesses to country/regions. (e) Other types of infrastructure already available. (f) Existing natural resources, land and tenure pattern/ownership leasing. (g) Economical and employment patterns. (h) Physical/social developmental plan. (i) Environmental character/quality, climatic patterns, topography, quality extent of air, water, noise, visual pollution, congestions. (j) Socio-cultural patterns—effects on local society’s cultural patterns. (k) Existing and already planned educational and training centres/institutes. (l) Existing governmental and private sector organisations in tourism and their organisational structure and staffing. (m) Present investment policies and availability of capital investment in tourist facilities, services and infrastructure. (n) Existing tourism, legislation and regulations. (iv) Analysis and Synthesis • Synthesis refers to combining and integrating the various components of the analysis in order to obtain more comprehensive understanding of a situation. • Both qualitative and quantitative analysis and synthesis of the survey information to be carefully carried out. • Several calculations can be made from market analysis. The number of types of accommodation required are projected and other services/facilities needed are identified. • Based on the projection of tourist facilities and services needed, the transport and other infrastructure facilities/services required can be determined.

174 Ecotourism (v) Policy and Plan Formulation • Preparation of physical structure plan. • Preparation of master plan (MP). Master plan is a process for completing and detailing additional work on the portions of the conceptual plan (CP) which are approved for further development. • The difference between the conceptual plan and the master plan lies largely in the level of details. • Where the conceptual plan might indicate the need to expand an airport runway and terminal facilities, the master plan would go into specifics on the land and construction. (vi) Financial Planning • • • • • •

Very essential. Total outlay for both infrastructure/superstructures. Estimate details. Each proposal to be assessed separately. Rates of return for investment proposals. Sources of finance/capital. — Government sources. — Private support—incentives. — Foreign capital. — Financial Corporations/Banks.

(vii) Human Resource Planning • Professional and efficient management, an obvious prerequisite for successful tourism development. • Quality of staff training, which was neglected in the early stages of development. • Building a pool of efficiently trained people to fill various jobs to be created. • Special affinities to manpower needs. • Human resource developmental programme. • Job analysis, description, specifications and forecasts. (viii) Implementation • Specifying implementation techniques. • Final plan and recommendations are to be realistically achieved and implemented. (ix) Administrative Structure • Setting up of an adequate administration set up to look after various aspects. • Responsibility to be assumed by some entity in the form of an organisation.

Tourism Policy and Planning 175 (x) Monitoring Progress • During and after implementation, the progress must be monitored to ensure that the objectives are being achieved. • It will detect any upcoming problem so that remedial measures can be taken before the problem becomes serious. • Periodic monitoring. • A system of constant revision and monitoring of the plan’s progress should be the regular exercise of the planning process. • Continuous revision of targets in the light of changing resources. • Cost escalation. (xi) Time Factor • Important element. • Completing the plan on time to avoid cost escalation. (xii) Marketing and Promotion • • • • •

Various steps of marketing. Preparation of the marketing plan. Stages of implementation. Marketing budget. Evaluation of plan. Basic Stages in Tourism Planning

Analysis of Previous Tourism Development

Evaluation of Position of Tourism

Formulation of Tourism Policy

Definition of Development Strategy

Elaborating of Action Programme

Monitoring

176 Ecotourism TYPES OF PLAN Reasons for Planning in Tourism (1) Firstly, through the capacity of physical planning processes to control development, planning provides a mechanism for a structured provision of touristic facilities and associated infrastructure over quite large geographical areas. This geographical dimension has become a more significant aspect as tourism has developed. Initially, most forms of tourism planning were localised and site specific reflecting the rather limited horizons that originally characterised most patterns of tourism. (2) Secondly, in view of natural patterns of fragmentation within tourism, any systems that permit the coordination of activities are likely for the development of the industry’s potential. This fragmentation is mirrored in the many different elements that are required to come together within a tourism plan, including accommodation, attraction, transportation, marketing and a range of human resources. (3) Thirdly, as noted in the introduction to this chapter, there are clear links between planning and principles of sustainability. The commonest form of intervention is via a touristic developmental or managerial plan. (4) Fourthly, planning can be a mechanism for the distribution and redistribution of tourism-related investment and economical benefits. This plays a particularly important role for planning, given that tourism is becoming an industry of global significance but one where activity does not fall evenly across different regions and where the spatial patterns of tourist preference are also prone to variations through time. (5) Fifthly, the integration of tourism into planning systems gives the industry a political significance and control which therefore provides a measure of status and legitimacy for an activity which heretofore had not been enjoyed. (6) A common goal of planning is to anticipate likely demand patterns and to attempt to match supply to those demands. Furthermore, through the exercise of proper controls over physical development and service delivery, planning will aim to maximise visitor satisfaction. There is now ample evidence from around the world that the unplanned tourist destinations are the ones that are most likely to be associated with no satisfaction from the visitors. DIVERSITY OF TOURISM CONCERNS/ISSUES Planning sector: Typical tourism planning concerns/issues • Physical (land) control over land development by both public and private sectors, location and design of facilities.

Do m

Tourism Policy and Planning 177

ti es

nat ional Tourist M Int er ark nd a et c

Tourist attraction and activities

Transportation Other infrastructure

Natural and socioeconomical environment

Gr ou p

Accommodation Other tourist facilities and services

Institutional elements

(Re rist) siden ts Use of Tou

Principal components of tourism

• Zoning of land uses. • Development of tourist transportation systems. • Development of public utilities (power, water, etc.) Economical: Shaping spatial and sectoral patterns of investment. • Creation of employment. • Labour training. • Redistribution of wealth. • Distribution of subsidies and incentives. Social/cultural: Social integration/segregation of hosts and visitors. • Hospitality authenticity. Presentation of Heritage and Culture • Language planning. • Maintenance of local customs and practice. Environmental: Designation of conservation areas. • Protection of flora fauna. • Protection of historic sites/buildings/environment. • Regulation of air, water/ground quality. • Control over pollution. • Assessment of hazards. Business and Marketing: Formation of business plans and associated goals: • Products, promotional strategies. • Advertising. • Sponsorship. • Quality testing and product grading. • Provision of tourist information services.

178 Ecotourism TOURISM PLANNING AT NATIONAL, REGIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS Tourism Planning at the National Level Main determinants of national tourism plans and policies in forty nine countries (in rank order). • To generate foreign revenue and assist balance of payments. • To provide employment. • To improve regional and local economies. • To create awareness of the destination/country. • To support environmental conservation. • To contribute to and guide infrastructural development. • To promote international contact and goodwill. Tourism Planning at the Regional Level • Concerns for the impact of tourism upon regional economies and employment patterns. • Development of infrastructure, including transport systems to assist in the circulation of visitors within the region as well as the provision of public utilities such as power and water supplies, both of which are frequently organised at regional levels. Therefore tourism is a part of the services industry. Its importance—economical and social—has to be balanced by a government in relation to the competing priorities of a nation. National Goals National objectives could be as following: (1) To develop an infra- and superstructure to provide recreational facilities for visitors and the resident population. (2) The preservation of cultural resources and their heritage. (3) To maximize economical benefits in terms of improving the standard of living of the people. (4) Generation of new employment. (5) Stimulation of development at regional levels. (6) Ensuring that the development at tourist centres and resorts is consistent with the needs of each area. (7) Maximising visitor’s satisfaction. DEMAND AND SUPPLY Factors influencing tourism development:

Tourism Policy and Planning 179 (1) Size of the existing population. (2) Diversity and vitality of already existing touristic activity. (3) Whether the facilities were planned and planted in the area or grew spontaneously because of some man-made or national attraction. (4) Availability of land and finance. (5) Impact on the local community—benefits and social costs. (6) Attitude of the local people towards the tourism projects. (7) Magnitude and speed of development. (8) State of the local economy—options of alternate development. (9) Availability of local manpower—a dynamic population. (10) Whether the area can be extended for future expansion or be limited to a possibility of only a small expansion. LEVELS OF PLANNING Need for Integrated Planning The following must be considered in any area planning: (1) Preparation of overall inventory of national tourist resources. (2) Determination of broad parameters of urban planning and architectural specifications. (3) Cost benefit studies of the proposed projects. (4) Exploration of possibilities of investment in private and public sectors. The following 8-point project structure for tourism planning and development is recommended: (1) Establishment of goals after a feasibility study. (2) Market and resources analysis. (3) Conceptual planning. (4) Approval of the plan. (5) Master planning. (6) Staged implementation programme. (7) Evaluation and direction. (8) Monitoring operations to ensure quality of services and operational success. The following points must be taken into consideration: (a) What facilities should be erected and when? (b) Alternative uses of atmosphere. (c) Pollution. (d) Serenity of landscape. (e) Integrity of landscape. (f) Cost of land and its ratio to building and development costs.

180 Ecotourism (g) Traffic circulation. (h) Zoning and density. (i) Services—water, electricity, gas, sewerage, etc. TOURISM PLANNING IN INDIA (1) India adopted a policy of development through planning in 1952, when the first five year plan for the development of the Indian economy was drafted by the newly established planning commission. (2) Second plan (1957–62). In the fifties there was little awareness in the country of the economical or social significance of tourism. The plan was divided into three parts. Part-I schemes dealt with the development of accommodation at places of international tourist interest, where foreign tourists could be attracted. The expenditure on such projects was incurred totally by the central government. Part-II schemes included the development of tourist facilities at places of interest for domestic tourists, which could also interest overseas visitors. Part-III scheme included projects which were primarily of domestic interest and were financed by the state governments. A number of tourist bungalows were constructed all over the country under the Part-I scheme, now named ‘traveller’s lodges’ (3) In the third plan (1962–67), this practice was continued resulting in a network of tourist facilities in areas where none existed before. Bodh Gaya, Khajuraho, Bhubaneswar, Konark, Mahabalipuram, Sanchi, Tiruchirapalli, Kanchipuram, Madurai and several other places were provided with basic facilities acceptable to foreign tourists. (4) The fourth plan (1967–74) had a chequered story. The Central Department of Tourism completely took over the planning and development of facilities suitable for overseas tourists while the state governments assisted in developing facilities for domestic tourists. State governments were free to shape their plans the way they liked. The highlights of the fourth and fifth five-year plans were the beginning of two major projects in the central sector in order to attract the tourist traffic to main destinations, that is, those who would come primarily to holiday in India and not be in on transit through India. The Seventh Plan (1985–1990)—Focus on outdoor Holidays: The concept of a large number of circuits gave place to the emphasis on outdoor holiday tourism– developing and strengthening infrastructures both at the beach and mountain resorts along with the normal activities of cultural tourism. India hoped to attract more people coming for an outdoor holiday. Financial allocations for the Department from Tourism of the Central Government were enhanced from twenty-one crore

Tourism Policy and Planning 181 rupees in the sixth plan to Rs. 120 crore in the seventh plan. Its aim was directly not to build any luxury hotels but to confine its activities to building only three-star accommodation. The Eighth Five Year Plan (1992–1997): Development through the private sector: The thrust during the eighth five-year plan was through the private sector. State governments, however, were expected to play a significant role in providing the essential infrastructure for tourism. An important scheme included in this plan was the involvement of the private sector by providing better incentives and equity support towards the project costs. Another significant scheme for strengthening the tourism infrastructure was the “Special Tourism Areas” scheme under which participation of central/ state governments and the private sector was envisaged. Thrust in this plan was also on various activities concerned with adventure sports and adventure tourism, including mountains and beach tourism. The Ninth Plan (1997–2002): It envisages an expenditure of Rs. 1000 crores on tourism development over the five-year period. Like the previous plan, the 9th plan expects the government to act as a facilitator using the synergy of the private sector for developmental purposes using tax concessions and other facilities as baits. It also envisages the strengthening of India’s tourist organizations and expansion of training facilities for human resource development. The Tenth Plan (2002–2007): In order to develop tourism in India in a systematic manner, position it as a major engine of economic growth and to harness its direct and multiplier effects for employment and poverty eradication in an environmentally sustainable manner, the National Tourism Policy was formulated in the year 2002. Broadly, the “Policy” attempts to: • Position tourism as a major engine of economic growth; • Harness the direct and multiplier effects of tourism for employment generation, economic development and providing impetus to rural tourism; • Focus on domestic tourism as a major driver of tourism growth. • Position India as a global brand to take advantage of the burgeoning global travel trade and the vast untapped potential of India as a destination; • Acknowledges the critical role of private sector with government working as a proactive facilitator and catalyst; • Create and develop integrated tourism circuits based on India’s unique civilization, heritage, and culture in partnership with States, private sector and other agencies; and • Ensure that the tourist to India gets physically invigorated, mentally rejuvenated, culturally enriched, spiritually elevated and “feel India from within”. The Eleventh Plan (2007–2012): The Ministry of Tourism propose to continue supporting creation of world-class infrastructure in the country so that existing tourism products can be further improved and expanded to meet new market

182 Ecotourism requirements and enhance the competitiveness of India as a tourist destination. In consultation with the State Governments and UTs the Ministry of Tourism have identified several tourist circuits and destinations for integrated development. During the current financial year, the Ministry has sanctioned so far Rs. 323.00 crore for various projects throughout the country. This is an all time record and will facilitate timely execution of projects during the working season. Some of the important infrastructure projects which have been sanctioned in the current financial year are: Heritage Destinations/Circuits • MOT has recently sanctioned Rs. 8.00 crore for the project of illumination/ lighting of monuments in Rajasthan. • The tourist facilities at Sanchi and adjoining tourist places in Madhya Pradesh are being improved at a cost of Rs. 4.64 crore. Tourist Facilitation Centre, Public Amenities, Parking and Landscaping and Beautification of approach roads will be done. • The project of Development of Mahanadi Central Heritage (Rs. 3.94 crore) has been sanctioned. In this project Jetties, River Bank, Nature Trail, picnic area, etc. will be developed at various places along the river to enhance the experience of visitors to these destinations. • An Indian Freedom Circuit on Mahatama’s Park in West Bengal is being developed at a cost of Rs. 2.27 crore. • The project Bijapur-Bidar-Gulbarg Circuit sanctioned at a cost of Rs. 6.40 crore. • Art & Craft Village at Goregaon Film City has been sanctioned for an amount of Rs. 3.86 crore. • Revitalization of Gandhi Thidal and Craft Bazar, Puducherry sanctioned recently for and amount of Rs. 2.67 crore. • The project of Development of Srirangam Tamil Nadu (Rs. 3.27 lakh) has been sanctioned. • Development of Vallore fort area at a cost of Rs. 0.89 crore. • Sound & Talatal Ghar, Sivasagar in Assam (Rs. 1.58 crore) has been sanctioned. Beach and Sea Tourism • MOT has sanctioned a project of Rs. 5.00 crore for development and beautification of Beach Promenade in Puducherry. • Another project for development of walkway along the bank of river Arsalar and Vanjiiar in Karaikal, Puducherry (Rs. 4.78 crore) • The project of Development of Marina Beach in Tamil Nadu has been sanctioned (Rs. 4.92 crore).

Tourism Policy and Planning 183 Ecotourism • A project of Ecotourism for development of Horsely Hill in Chittor Distt. of Andhra Pradesh has been sanctioned. • The project of development of Satkosi in Orissa (Rs. 4.25 crore) has been sanctioned in which Interpretation Centre, Landscaping, Elephant camps, Trekking park, Watch Towers and parking facilities, etc. are proposed to be developed. • MOT has sanctioned a project for development of Eco tourism in MorniPinjore Hills and Sultanpur National Park in Haryana for which Rs. 2.63 crore have been sanctioned. • The Project of Integrated Development of Tribal Circuit with special focus on Ecotourism in Spiti in Himachal Pradesh has been approved for Rs. 6.98 crore. • Development of Wayanad in Kerala for an amount of Rs. 2.01 crore. • Development of Tourist Circuit (Western Assam Circuit) DhubariMahamaya-Barpeta-Hajo has been sanctioned for an amount of Rs. 4.97 crore. • Development of Mechuka Destination (Rs. 4.41 crore in Arunachal Pradesh). • Development of Tourist Destination at Khensa at a cost of Rs. 4.58 crore in Nagaland. • Circuit—Udhyamandalam—Madumalai, Tamil Nadu Rs. 4.39 crore. TOURISM PLANNING IN INDIA—AN ASSESSMENT If planning is forecasting a country’s ambition in a particular field and achieving objectives in a given period with the resources available, India’s efforts at planning are not impressive. Planning is also concerned with future implications of current decisions. In all eight five-year plans, the targets set were too high and the resources available were too low. Now, the ninth plan is head on. India’s concept in tourism planning has never been sufficient. At times, the country got foreign experts to help as political masters tended to listen to foreign experts more than the home grown experts, but political will and understanding were missing. Every two years the minister in charge of tourism and civil aviation changed—changing also the focus on the development of tourism. An unfortunate fact was that senior bureaucrats who are expected to take objective decisions bent head over heels to ministerial whims. Now tourism circuits were discovered in their states where none had existed. Indian Airlines created new flights which were introduced to different states with scant regard to the viability of operations. The resources were thinly distributed over a number of projects that resulted in delays and cost escalations. Apart from the political pressure

184 Ecotourism from the Central Minister for his State, each State Minister felt that his state was the victim of central discrimination. No tourist place in India has been developed which can be cited as a good example of successful total planning. The building of youth hostels all over the country was a good decision but the selection of sites was not based on objective surveys. Most of these hostels are located for away from the downtown area. The sixth plan (1980-85) proposed the development of 61 travel circuits with 441 tourist centres, with little money to achieve results. The arrival’s target was set at 3.5 million—up from 800,00—another impossibility considering the available international and domestic air capacity. No attempt was made to liberalise the entry of more international airlines to increase the capacity for the required growth in arrivals. The domestic air capacity was not adequate even to meet the demands at the 1980 levels. INDIA AND TOURISM POLICY In India, tourism as a subject does not figure in our constitution. It was recognised as a part of the Ministry of Transport in the 1950s. The Department of Tourism came into existence in 1965. At the same time the Indian Tourism Development Corporation (ITDC) was also formed with the promotion of tourism as its object. The state governments also established their tourism departments and tourism developmental corporations more or less at the same time. The first tourism policy was announced in 1982. It recognised the importance of tourism. As tourism promotes an exchange of ideas and views and facilitates an interaction of people and their culture, it can be a potent instrument for achieving national integration, better international understanding and ultimately a peaceful co-existence for the people of the world. Its potential to create employment, attract capital and its ability to earn foreign exchange was also recognised. It was perceived as a force which could correct adverse trade balances and regional imbalances, create employment opportunities and give a direct stimulus to the socio-economical development of backward areas in a country. The National Action Plan 1992 Following were some of the main objectives of the action plan of 1992: • Socio-economical development of the area. • Increase in the employment opportunities. • Preservation of national heritage and environment. • Optimisation of the foreign exchange earnings through international tourism. • Increase in India’s share of world tourism.

Tourism Policy and Planning 185 Tourism Policy 1992 The tourism policy of 1992 gave the following thrust to tourist related activities: • Set up accommodation and tourist (related) facilities at tourist destinations in the private sector. • Excavated historical and archaeological sites in the state. • Encouraged wildlife tourism. Permissible infrastructure to be set up within such destinations. • Encouraged nature and health tourism. • Encouraged sports and adventure tourism. • Developed adequate hill resorts for which Kammanagudi, Nad, Male Mahadeshwara and Biligirirangana have been identified. • Encouraged fairs and festivals and conducted tours of the state. • Developed two world heritage sites in Northern Karnataka and provided infrastructural support. • Single window clearance for hotel projects. 31 projects, expected to generate 3,343 jobs at the cost of 289.5 crores, have already been cleared. • A tourism advisory council constituted by members from the government, trade, academies and other experts has been set up to monitor the progress of tourism in the state. A master plan has been submitted for a centre with an investment to cover 257 areas for tourism development. • The coastal circuit is to be developed in the wake of the Konkan Railway being operative in 1996. It is hoped that Singapore and Malaysia will help to finance such a development. Three MOU’s have been signed for a Convention Centre at Bangalore with 5 four star hotels at five locations and an international travel agency. CONCLUSION Tourism policy and planning is the backbone in tourism industry of any nation and Indian Govt. hopes to do more to expand their opportunities, to enhance their potential. We should not forget that tourism is an industry which emerges in the context of unresolved socio-economic structural issues, such as land distribution patterns or the take over of traditional occupations by modern mechanized capital. Tourism happens to be a source of livelihood for millions in India and aggressive privatization does not ensure social and economic safety nets. In the face of the unhindered entry of international capital and successive alienation, perhaps, it is difficult to agree that “the future is in our hands.”

186 Ecotourism

CHAPTER 12

Information Technology in Tourism INTRODUCTION Tourism is an information intensive industry. It is having a big impact on all areas of tourism by introducing and using advanced technology. Transportation, travel, hospitality and entertainment will bring many benefits and changes to the tourism industry. The tourism industry is one of the industries deeply affected by the Internet. The terms tourism industry and travel industry may be used interchangeably to refer to the industry which has been made into a business that provides travelrelated services. HOW DOES THE TOURISM INDUSTRY WORK Tourism is an industry and it occurs at visitor’s destination areas—areas with different natural and man-made features attracting non-local visitors (or tourists) for a variety of reasons and activities. Therefore, a destination area must have attractions which appeal to at least one type of tourist. Tourism is frequently referred to as a business or industry of non-existence as it does not produce a distinct product. It is properly an industry, but more a cross-section of a regional or national economy. Tourism is an industry, similar to other industries like agriculture and mining dependent on the continued availability of those resources upon which it is based. It is further categorised as a service industry because a large proportion of human forces are actively engaged in it and find employment in this industry. The tourism industry is also considered to offer a low-cost means of creating jobs in comparison with the capital intensive requirements of job creation in the manufacturing industry (Vose, 1995). It is a dynamic industry as it is dominated by the changing ideas and attitudes of its customers and must be prepared to show a much greater degree of sensitivity and willingness to adjust to the conditions than it has in the past (Robinson, 1976). Tourism is a movement of people, a demand force and not a single industry. Jafari (1990) projects it as a circular flow between two worlds: the ordinary (tourist sources or generating system) and the non-ordinary (tourist destination or receiving system).

Information Technology in Tourism 187 The diagram below shows the ‘New’ Tourism & Forces of Change in the Tourism Systems Source: Modified Leiper (1990) and Poon (1993)

Exogenous Variables Demographics

Social Trends

Economic/financial Trends

Market Forces Politics/ legislation & regulation

The ‘new’ tourist

Human Resources

Production - Production flexibility - Consumer-driven - Diagnoal integration - Integration of marketing and product development - Innovation

Consumer - Independent - Flexible - Experienced traveller - Changing lifestyle - Changing demographies

Global warming

Safety

Sustainable development

Traveller generating region (TGR)

Transit route region

Technology

Globalization

Technology

Transportation

Technology - A system of information techniques (ISIT) - Rapid diffusion - Adoption is industry-wide - Technologies ‘talk’ to each other

Tourist destination region (TDR)

New Tourism: Flexible, Segmented. Environmentally sound, Diagonally integrated

Concentration

International Trade Management - Mass customization - Yield management - Market segmentation - Innovative pricing

- Airline deregulation - Environmental Pressures - Consumer Protection - Flexibility to take vacations - Actions by tourist any time of the year receiving destinations - Disenchantment of host countries and a government with the benefits and costs of mass tourism

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Information technology is a modern day boon for mankind. It gives accessibility to information at our fingertips. There have been discussions on ‘Information

188 Ecotourism highways’ so hence the high-tech tourism industry. The promising and diversified possibilities of information technology have reduced everything in space and time between people, countries and continents and ultimately has led to the emerging concept of a ‘Global Society’ and ‘Global Tourism’. UNESCO defines information technology as “Scientific technology and engineering disciplines together with managerial techniques used in information handling and processing applications with computers and the interaction with men and machines is associated with such social, economical and cultural matters.” Component of IT There are many components of Information Technology which are used in the tourism industry such as: phone, computer with internet and without internet facilities, T.V. with cable and without cable connection, radio, satellite, GIS software programme, satellite phone, fax machine, camera, wireless, electronic payment, DVDs, CDs, etc. which can be extensively used for providing and receiving information. ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN INDIAN TOURISM India is one of the greatest civilizations of the world, the continuity of which is traceable back to thousands of years. A decisive factor in shaping India’s culture and history has been its geography and ecology. Beginning from the snow-clad peaks of the Himalayas in the north to the sea encased southern peninsula, India is a veritable mosaic of landscapes and environment. With a variety of climatic conditions and therefore a wealth of flora and fauna, it becomes a place of natural choice for tourists from abroad as well as from domestic regions desirous of experiencing other regional cultures. The importance of Information Technology in tourism, especially of the World Wide Web, has increased tremendously over the past years and this trend will certainly continue. Tourism is ranking at the top ahead of all other categories of international trade. Tourism is concerned with pleasure-holding travel and going or arriving somewhere. There is the motivation that makes people leave their normal place of work and residence for short-term temporary visits to other places. Though there are many definitions of tourism, it could be simply defined as a ‘travel and stay of a non-resident’. In order to travel to a particular area there must be a reason. For example, a person may travel for leisure, business, visiting people and relatives, health, education, etc. The paper shows the use of information technologies like computers and various other sources of information in the context of tourism. Today, the consumer has become very informed and also inquisitive. He/she require every kind of information possibly available regarding the goods that they are purchasing or the services of which they are about to avail. The need of information is more important in the service

Information Technology in Tourism 189 industry such as tourism, where the goods being sold are intangible. In other words, the customers here are unable to see or touch the product that they are about to purchase but, they can only imagine, maybe, the comforts of a flight they are about to take or the beauty of their travel destination and, in such cases it becomes important to provide more and more information so that the client can imagine the feeling of the product. Computers and other components of IT are being used in a big way by the tourism sector for handling all types of tourist information needs. The number of tourists are increasing and so are the number of destinations. This has led to a boom in the tourism services, which in turn has led to a greater demand of information. The right kind of information at the right time and right place is more important now than ever before. Transport is necessary to travel and accommodation to stay at the destination. So, tourism as an industry, has three major components: Attraction, Accommodation and Transport. Tourism is unique. It involves industry without smoke, education without a classroom, integration without legislation and diplomacy without a formality. This growth of tourism activity clearly marks tourism as one of the most remarkable economical and social phenomenon in the world. USE OF THE INTERNET IN TOURISM We know that the Internet is the network of networks and so the Internet is becoming more and more popular in the whole world. The Internet has reached every part of India. It means that the Internet provides information related to The below diagram shows the information through remote sensing. Sensor System

Remote Sensing Sytem

Onboard analog-to-digital conversion and calibration Direct telemetry to Earth or indirectly through tracking and data relay satellites (TDRS)

Atmosphere Ground Data Preprocessing • Radiometric • Geometric

Visual or Digital Information Extraction • Biophysical • Land-use/land-cover

Incorporation of ancillary data

Distribution and use of Information

190 Ecotourism tourism like the suppliers, tour operators, etc. and travel agencies can distribute and access tourist information using the worldwide web. Any tourist information system depends heavily on a proper maintenance of the underlying tourist information database, especially in the context of online booking. The prices and the number of available products have to be correct on an up-to-date database to satisfy this requirement and there is a need to decentralise and maintain the tourist information database. Hence, it is the responsibility of the tourist information provider to provide accurate details and if any details are modified then they must be updated in the database immediately. In India, where every state has its own different language, it is necessary to provide information in multiple languages. Such information can be implemented by simply translating the information using a web-based translation software. USE OF E-COMMERCE IN TOURISM The Internet has brought about a new concept called electronic commerce to marketing and business. In tourism e-commerce can be defined as the “buying and selling of tourist products and services using the internet.” The Internet will probably continue to have an important role in e-commerce including online ordering by customers. In e-commerce using the business to customer (B to C) angle, the tourist may now book online any combination of tourist services through any combination of procedures. IMPACT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ON TOURISM The impact of new technology is seen in almost every human activity. Information Technology has created a tremendous impact in the field of tourism. It has created effects on many components involved in tourism. Following are a few examples: Globalisation of Business: There is now a global market for doing business. The Internet has allowed the gaining and distribution of information on a global scale. This opens up new markets of sales and, on the other hand, customers reach new markets at their source. Rapid Development of Customer Demands and Markets: Due to the launching of portals and sites, the scope of online advertising and its converting potential to business is quick. Online Booking: Although there will be some fake bookings the internet provides great flexibility in the hands of customers and the tourism industry.

Information Technology in Tourism 191 Paperless Ticketing: Airlines abroad now automatically issue paperless tickets unless customers request a paper ticket. Better Communication: The link between the different hotel chains, airways, resorts, vacation packages and cruises can now be more easily done due to electronic communication. Information Technology and Computer Reservation System in Travel Sectors The travel services all over the world and in many parts of India are fully computerised. The travel services, such as railways, airlines tickets, car rental, bus/coach hire, all are computerised and thus, proper informative management is possible. Information regarding the tourists or passengers of yesterday, today and tomorrow is now readily available through the data generated by various tourism organisations. The fields of travel services using computer applications can be summed up as: (1) Railways: Railways is the most favoured form of travel in India. The software package used in ticketing and other customer services has been specially designed and developed for the Indian Railways and the railways itself provides the training required for operating the package to its employees. A dial-in facility for information is also available. A person can dial the number for the information required and get the information by following the directions of the computerised system. This has made travelling in India not only easier, but also stress-free in terms of reservation. (2) Car Rental: Car rental is a big business the world over and in the metropolis and big cities of India as well. The main clients of car rentals are the corporate or business travellers along with the tourists wanting better service and comforts while travelling. The car rental business is fully computerised abroad, particularly in the USA and Europe. In India, very few companies have computerised their car rental services. For the purpose of international booking e-mail and fax are the most preferred for booking and also for making any inquires. (3) Airlines: The airlines have seen the maximum computerisation in the travel segment. Computer reservation system is widely used to book tickets in all the airlines. The increasing popularity of air-travel globally gave rise to the need for a better and more efficient distribution mechanism. This information system now also provides information and reservation facilities in many hotel properties and car rental companies globally. Information Technology and Tour Services The tour operators are also using computers on a large scale. The preparation of tour proposals, itinerary, costing and pricing, invoice preparation, vouchers all are

192 Ecotourism done on the computers. Software packages made specially for tourism purposes are readily available in the market. Many big companies like SITA, TCI and others have their own customized software package developed for the purpose of tour operations handling. Tour operators also make use of information technology in designing their products. Destination databases provide all the information related to accommodation, sight-seeing, attractions, etc. Information Technology and Accommodation Sectors The Hotel Industry is using computers in all the departments like front office, house-keeping, etc. Computers are used to provide essentially efficient and better services. They are used for booking, billing, taking care of room services and food and beverage services also. (1) Reservation: The room reservation system of star category hotels has been computerised almost all over India. A reservation system is very important as a proper system takes care of the selling of rooms, keeping in view both the daily fluctuations concerning arrivals and departures. In a properly managed property, much depends upon the accepting and rejecting of reservation requests. The room reservation requests are considered on the status of Guest, i.e., whether the guest is a business traveller or a tourist or a business partner or whether he/she may be a black-listed guest and so on. The main advantage of a computerised reservation system is that one is able to keep a record of the sold and unsold rooms. (2) Food and Beverage Services: Computers are used to keep track of the bill preparation and menu card preparation, among other functions. Computers are also used for reserving tables in a restaurant—even a table in a specific location of a restaurant. In a few restaurants, menus are displayed on screen or monitor and patrons can order via the screen. The guest can order by the computer and they will be served by a waiter. In this way the guests are not bothered by the presence of a waiter and can also understand easily and decide upon the food and price without any embarrassment. (3) Billing: The billing of the room, room services and restaurant services are all done using computerised receipt printing. The rates of the different rooms per day are already there in the computer software packages, where billing a guest, the check-in and check-out data and time are typed and the automatic processing allows computerised bills to be prepared. New technologies are always coming up and the old technologies are becoming obsolete, so keep reading the periodicals and journals to keep track of the changes taking place.

Information Technology in Tourism 193 Information Technology and the Media The Media is playing a very important role in providing information. The Media can be television or print media which provides the required information. (1) Television: Television has proved to be a great source of information. There are many travel-related programmes on the different channels. Most of the programmes provide information about new areas of travel, how to approach these, where to stay, what to eat, and also what are the do’s and don’ts. Many of the Indian organisations have also understood the scope of TV as a promotional themselves, e.g. Taj Group of Hotels, Thomas Cook and so on. Earlier, only print media was being used but lately very attractive and subtle advertisements of the tourism sector have started on the television channels. (2) Print Media: The travel industry has been using print media for a long time for promoting business. Regular advertisements appear in the newspapers and magazines regarding the different fabulous or once in a life time offers regarding a package tour. Brochures and pamphlets are printed by tourism organisations for promoting themselves. Many of the brochures and pamphlets are just promotional materials. Newspapers are the best way to advertise for reaching the general public. (3) Others: Various conferences, seminars and other meetings of the various organisations are organised to keep the travel and tour industry together. The future plans are discussed on these occasions along with business transactions. These are the best places to make business friends or new business partners. Many new CDs are coming on to the market promising to be complete travel guides. (4) Advertising Sector: Travel and Tourism fit especially well with interactive media because this is an information savvy industry where transactions can be made online, and current web users are heavy users of travel and tourism products and services. Interactive media can be good for interactive marketing. The following table shows the success factors for marketing on the web: Activity

What

How

Attract

Attract consumers to the application. Generate interest and participation. Make sure customers come back. Learn about consumer’s preferences. Customize interaction and value delivery.

Audience creation, mnemonic branding, advertising. Intuitive interface or navigation interactive content, user-generated content. Dynamic content, transaction capabilities, online communication Information capture, continuous preference learning Personalized/customised communications and products/services, realtime interacting, linkages to core business.

Engage Retain Learn Relate

194 Ecotourism (5) Internet: The Internet is the latest and fastest way to gain information and also to conduct business. The direct booking on the various CRSs (Computer Reservation Systems) is possible over the Internet. The Internet is not only easy to access but it is also very easy to use since it is graphic orientated and uses very few commands. There is a lot of information posted on the Internet by the various departments of tourism all over the world. Many tour operators and airlines display their brochures on the Internet as it gives a wider scope of publicity for reaching people. New Software Technologies (1) Collaborate Filtering: It is a data mining type of software. This type of application uses the power of a customer database to identify customers who have similar profiles like preferences, interests, and travel patterns, etc. based on previously accumulated customer knowledge. The findings are used for direct marketing. (2) Personalization Software/Profiling: This software is also a form of data mining. This type of software tracks and monitors the preferences and purchasing behaviour of consumers. (3) Knowledge-Based Software: This software is based on the belief that people want more choices but they just do not want to be burdened with those choices. This type of software takes criteria set by customers and goes into digital databases. (4) Videoconferencing: Video conferencing is the type of software that allows people to communicate with each other visually, regardless of their physical location. It helps geographically dispersed business to cooperate. That may reduce the need for business travel. GIS Application in Tourism Planning Geographical Information System (GIS) is now recognised widely as a valuable tool for managing, analyzing, and displaying large volumes of diverse data pertinent to many local and regional planning activities. Capabilities and aplications of GIS are given below. Due to the complex nature of tourism planning issues, the potential of GIS in resolving these issues is increasingly acknowledged. Generally, GIS applications in tourism have been confined to recreational facility inventory, tourism-based land management, vision impact assessment, and recreation, wildlife conflict and have been limited by a lack of funding and an uncoordinated, inadequate data collection procedures. Three different landscape features usually characterise tourism destinations: 1. Points, 2. Lines, and

Information Technology in Tourism 195

Interaction model depicting the relationship of the geographic information sciences (remote sensing, geographic information systems, cartography, and surveying) as they relate to mathematics and logic and the physical, biological, and social sciences.

Capabilities of a GIS Database Integration and Management

Trend

What has changed

Measure Tourism Impacts

Data queries and spatial analysis

Routing patterns

What is the best route? What is the pattern?

Spatial modelling tourism development? Decision support Implementation of GIS

Modelling

What if?

Visitors Management/Flows Analyze the relationships associated with resource use Assess potential impacts of damage to the environment.

Suitable Application Area of GIS Functional Capabilities of a GIS Data entry, storage and manipulation Map production

GIS Basic Question

Location

What is it?

Condition

Where is it?

Tourism Applications

Tourism Resource Inventories Identify most suitable locations for development?

196 Ecotourism Common tourism-related issues and GIS applications Problem

GIS application

Benchmark/database Environmental management Conflicts Tourism Behaviour

Systematic inventory of tourism resources. Facilitating monitoring of specific indicators. Mapping recreational conflicts, recreational wildlife; user conflict Wilderness Perceptions Predictions Identify suitable location for tourism/recreation development, simulating and modelling spatial outcomes of proposed tourism development. Integrating socio-economical and environmental database within a given spatial unit. Decision support systems.

Carrying capacity

Data integration Development control and direction

3. Polygons. Point features are individual tourist attractions, for example, a camping ground in a park or an historic site along the highway. Coastal beaches and resorts often follow a linear pattern while big theme parks or natural parks are characteristics of a polygon feature. These location attributes are essential to a geographical information system. It is apparent that GIS has tremendous potential for its application in tourism. However, due to the general lack of tourism databases, and inconsistencies in data, its applications are limited. For example, there is very little site-specific information about sources of visitors’ origin and destination, travel motivation, spatial patterns of recreation and tourism use, visitors expenditure patterns, levels of use and impacts and suitability of sites for recreational/touristic development— all of which are suitable application areas of GIS. Barriers in use of IT in Indian Tourism • • • • • • • • • •

Lack of computer knowledge. Lack of electricity power. Low income level. Lack of infrastructure. Lack of proper maintenance. Very high cost of learning and purchasing. Lack of upgrading. Communication skills problems. High costs of equipment. Computer and Tourism Education is not compulsory at school and college level.

Information Technology in Tourism 197

A remote sensing instrument collects information about an object or phenomenon within the instantaneous field-of-view (IFOV) of the sensor system without being in direct physical contact with it. The remote sensing instrument may be located just a few metres above the ground and/ or onboard an aircraft or satellite platform.

198 Ecotourism The Future of IT in Indian Tourism • • • • • • • • • • •

Information and reservation systems. Computer reservation systems/Global distribution systems. Managerial information systems. Internet services and World Wide Web. Graphical. Expert systems, knowledge-based systems and intelligent agents. Enterprise modelling. Reverse marketing. Management science. Quality control. Legal and social aspects of IT applications in travel and tourism. IT industry in India and its growth prospects

Total Number of PCs Internet Subscribers Internet Users Cable T.V. Subscribers Fixed Phones Television Sets

Present Level on 31 March, 2000

Target 2010

4.3 million 0.77 million 3.2 million 37 million 26 million 75 million

28 million 47 million 220 million 90 million 140 million 280 million

Software Industry in India between 2000–2008

Software Industry in India Software Exports from India IT Industry in India

2000

Target 2009

$5.7 billion $ 3.9 billion $ 8.6 billion

$87 billion $ 50 billion $ 140 billion

Source: IT & Cyber Law’s by Dr. V.D. Dudeia, p. 1112.

CONCLUSION The technologies mentioned are mostly applicable in advertising and attraction sectors. Using the modern technologies, the present situation of tourism in the whole India can be improved tremendously. Tourism is now one of the fastest growing sectors of economy of many countries particularly in India as it assumes a dominant role in the service.

Appendix 199

Glossary Agent A wholesaler who represents buyers or sellers on a permanent basis. Adventure Tourism The nature-based tourism in an unusual, remote and exciting environmental type of tourism which presents a challenge to the tourist as it requires the testing of the tourist’s skills and physical fitness. Alternative Tourism A form of tourism that advocates smaller scale and limited tourism in the numbers of tourists involved and the dimension of tourism development. It is also called green tourism or responsible tourism. Attractions Natural or man-made features which collectively or singly create the appeal of a country. Advertising Any activity designed to spread information with a view to promoting the sales of marketable goods and services. Airline Any air transport enterprise offering or operating a scheduled international air service. Amenities Features which enable a visitor to enjoy various attractions and which draw him to a country and for the use of which he normally has to pay. These refer to recreational and entertainment programmes, cultural and art centres, hotels, restaurants, transport services, etc. Business Travel Type of travel necessitated by passenger’s professional activities and possibly requiring special services like conference room, secretarial services, etc.

200 Ecotourism Cultural Impact The effect of tourism activity or tourism development on the culture of the region or locality. The form of tourism whose object is, among other things, the discovery of monuments and sites. It contributes to their maintenance and protection and in doing so brings social, cultural and economic benefits to people. Cultural Tourism A form of tourism in which the culture and traditions of the region are the main attractions. Destination The place at which a traveller terminates his journey. The ultimate stopping place according to the contract of carriage. Destinational Tourist A tourist who terminates his/her journey at a particular country for the purpose of making a tour travelling from place to place for pleasure in that country. Domestic Tourism A form of tourism where people of a country travel within the boundaries of their country. Domestic Tourist A local person who makes a tour travelling from place to place for pleasure, business, family, mission, meeting, etc. within the country. Ecotourism Ecology-oriented green tourism in which tourists seek out environmentally sensitive travel or vacations which help improve the knowledge of an environment of the area. Excursionist A temporary visitor staying less than twenty-four hours in the country visited. Geographical Segmentation Dividing a market into different geographical units such as countries, states, regions, cities and local areas. Guide A person who is licensed to take paying guests on local sight-seeing excursions. Guided Tour A tour conducted only by local city guides. Destination The place at which a traveller terminates his/her journey. The ultimate stopping place according to the contract of carriage.

Appendix Glossary 201 Infrastructure The basic public services needed for the successful operation of tourism enterprises and for optimising the comfort of the visitors. It includes such services as roads, electricity, water, security, sanitation and health services, telephone and postal communication, railways and airports. Itinerary Pertaining to a journey, a tourist itinerary is a composition of a series of operations that are a result of the study of the market. Market The totality of actual and/or potential buyers of given products or services in a specified geographical location at a given point in time or during a given period of time. Marketing Mix A mixture of elements which interact and complement each other to achieve the targeted results. It is the combination of marketing variables that a firm uses to pursue the level of sales sought in the target market. Market Segmentation The process of identifying or defining smaller distinct groups into segments with the larger market place. Beach resort travellers, for example, are a segment of resort travellers. Marketing A total activity which includes an evaluation of the market and the requirements of individuals within that market, together with an evaluation of a service, facility or visitor plan, separately or jointly. Its cost or accessibility and the total facilities to provide visitor satisfaction. It includes a merchandising programme aimed at a particular type of customer to convert him to a user or purchaser of the service. Mass Tourism The large-scale movement of travellers and the development of a standardised product. Motel A place which provides wayside amenities for tourists travelling by road, by automobiles. It provides, under one roof, all the usual facilities expected by the tourist including attached bath. Motivators The factors which motivate consumers to buy a particular type of holiday. Multiplier The numerical coefficient showing how great an increase in income results from each increase in such investment spending.

202 Ecotourism Multiplier Effect The money spent by the tourist circulates through the economy and stimulates it, as it changes hands and is spent and re-spent a number of times. There is a chain reaction of spending, triggered off by the injection of the tourist dollar into a destination economy. This constant turnover of tourist expenditures is known as the multiplier effect. National Park A body responsible for the formulation and implementation of a national tourist policy. It is the agency and the instrument for the execution of the national government’s responsibilities for the control, direction and promotion of tourism. National Tourist Organisation The body responsible for the formulation and the implementation of national tourist policy. It is the agency and the instrument for the execution of the national government’s responsibility for the control, direction and promotion of tourism. Package A travel plan which includes most elements of a vacation, such as transportation, accommodation and sight-seeing. Package Tour A travel plan which includes most elements of a vacation, such as transportation, transfers, accommodation and sight-seeing in a given destination. Passenger Transit A passenger continuing his journey on the same through flight. Passport A document issued by a National Government to their own citizens as verification of their citizenship. It is also a permit to leave one’s own country and return. Promotion All activities in producing and increasing sales, including advertising publicity, personal selling. The activities that supplement and make more effective advertising and personal selling. Special events individually treated to bring public attention to specific products. Publicity Activities to promote a company or its products by planting news about it in the media not paid by the sponsor. Public Relation Continuous and consistent representation of an organisation’s policies to the public at large and to sections of the public who have a special interest in the organisation’s activities.

Appendix Glossary 203 Resort, Resort Complex A self-contained site which provides all or most of the products and services required by a tourist. They tend to combine attractions with support services such as accommodation and catering. Rest and Recreation The specified time is usually included in most planned tours to allow the traveller time to relax and/or shop and visit places of interest not included in the tour. Rest House Semi-hotel establishments situated in out of the way places. The rest houses are popular establishments in India and most of these are owned by the State Governments. These establishments at certain places are also called circuit houses and Dak Bungalows and are scattered all over India close to national highways, primarily meant for government officials on tour. Foreign tourists can also stay under certain conditions. These are convenient for tourists travelling by road. Sales Promotion All activities in producing and increasing sales, including advertising, publicity personal selling. The activities that supplement and make advertising and personal selling more effective. Social Tourism All the relations and phenomena resulting from the accession to tourism of low income groups made possible or facilitated by specific social measures. It is the type of tourism practised by those who otherwise would not be able to meet the cost without social intervention, i.e. without the assistance of an association to which the individual belongs. Supplementary Accommodation Various types of accommodation other than the conventional hotel type. It includes accommodation for travellers in youth hostels, motels, camping sites and guest houses, etc. Tariffs The published fares, rates, charges and/or related conditions of carriage of a carrier. Tour Operator A company which specialises in the planning and operation of prepaid pre-planned vacations, and which makes these available to the general public through travel agents. Target Market A set of buyers sharing common needs or characteristics that a company decides to serve in a market.

204 Ecotourism Tour Package A travel plan which includes most elements of a vacation such as transportation, accommodation and sight-seeing. Tourism The practice of touring or travelling for pleasure or recreation and the guidance or management of tourists as a business. Tourism Policy Guidelines and decisions designed to assist the tourism industry in meeting objectives and goals. Tourism policy usually results from the actions of the Government’s various agencies and organisations. Tourist A temporary visitor staying at least twenty-four hours in the country visited and the purpose of whose journey can be classified under one of the following headings: (1) leisure (recreation, holiday, health, study, religion and sport), (ii) business, family, mission, meeting. Tourist Centre A village or town with a definite concentration of tourist resources, with a material base and an infrastructure for tourism development. Tourist Domestic A local person who makes a tour, travelling from place to place for pleasure, business, family, mission, meeting, etc., within the country. Tourist Product A sum total of a country’s tourist attractions, infrastructure and tourist services which hopefully will result in consumer satisfaction. Tourist Region A branch of an economical region with specific high dependence on natural and man-made tourist attractions. Tourist Visa A document issued under the authority of the Government to a person visiting a particular country as a tourist. Travel Agent A person, firm or corporation qualified to provide tours, cruises, transportation, hotel accommodation, meals, transfers, sight-seeing and all other elements of travel to the public as a service. Visa An endorsement on the passport issued by the representative of a government. The endorsement enables a person to travel to a country for which it is issued.

Appendix Glossary 205 Visa Tourist An endorsement on a passport issued to a person who wishes to visit a country as a tourist. The visa is effective for a period of three months. Tourists must arrive within six months of the date of the issue of the visa. The tourist can extend his stay for a further period of three months if he applies to the concerned authorities. Visa Transit An endorsement on a passport which is issued to a tourist whose destination is somewhere else and is passing through. Such visitors passing through a country enroute to some other destination are granted transit visas on production of through tickets for the onward journey. Visitor Any person visiting a country other than that in which he/she has his/her usual place of residence for any reason other than following an occupation remunerated from within the country visited. Wildlife Sanctuary An area where protection is given only to the fauna and the operations like harvesting of timber, collection of minor forest products and private ownership rights are permitted, so long as they do not interfere with the well-being of the animals. Youth Hostel A building which offers clean, simple and inexpensive shelter to young people exploring their own country or the world, travelling independently or in groups for holiday or educational purposes. LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FOREIGN TOURISTS PASSPORT AND VISA Foreigners desirous of visiting India should be in the possession of a valid national passport or other valid travel document and valid visas granted by the Indian Missions abroad. Nepalese and Bhutanese do not require passports or visas when they proceed to India from their respective countries. Maldivian nationals also do not require visas provided that their stay in India is limited to 90 days. On arrival, all passengers are required to fill in the disembarkation card. Tourism Visa Foreigners desirous of coming to India for tourism purposes can obtain multientry tourist visas valid for a period of 30 days. The visa fee is roughly equivalent of US$ 5 and single/multiple visas valid for six months have a fee of US$ 25.

206 Ecotourism Collective Visa The facility also exists for the issue of a collective visa for group tours consisting of not less than four members and sponsored by a travel agency recognised by the Government of India. Other Types of Visa Foreigners wanting to come to India for any purpose, other than tourism, can do so after obtaining appropriate visas out of the following. (a) Business Visa. (b) Student Visa. (c) Conference Visa. (d) Visa to foreigners of Indian origin. (e) Visa to foreign technical/experts. (f) Visa for mountaineering expeditions. (g) Visa for sports team/individual sportsmen. (h) Visa for foreign journalists/media persons. Landing Permit Facilities Foreign tourists may note that no landing permit facilities are available to any foreign tourist landing without a visa. A limited facility exists only for group tours consisting of four or more members and sponsored by a travel agency recognised by the Government of India. Registration Foreigners coming to India on a long-term visa of more than 180 days should obtain a registration certificate and residential permit from the nearest foreigner’s registration office within two weeks of their arrival. Health Regulations Foreign tourists should be in the possession of a yellow fever vaccination certificate complying with International Health Regulations if they are originating or transiting through yellow fever endemic countries. AIDS Test Foreigners coming to India with the intention of staying for one year or more will have to undergo an AIDS test in any one of the nearest surveillance centres. In case there is no surveillance centre nearby, foreigners should report to the nearest district medical officer/chief medical officer/civil surgeon or any other officer assigned for the purpose.

Appendix Glossary 207 Departure from India Foreigners leaving by road, by air or sea have to fill up an embarkation card at the time of departure. Registration certificates are to be surrendered by the foreigners finally departing from India at the departure point. TOURISM REGULATIONS Those in the tourist trade should know all the legal and quasi-legal regulations which concern the tourist trade. A traveller who is also a tourist is governed by the laws and regulations in force in the country to which he visits. Visa Requirements There are several types of visas available to foreign nationals as follows: (1) Entry visa. (2) Tourist visa. (3) Business visa. (4) Long-term visa (Maximum duration of 5 years). (5) Collective landing permit (group tourists from abroad). Special Permits • • • • • •

Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Arunachal Pradesh. Assam. Himachal Pradesh. Lakshadweep. Manipur.

Custom Regulations/ Economic Regulations (a) Currency. (b) Income Tax. (c) Foreign Travel Tax.

208 Ecotourism

APPENDIX - 1

Fairs and Festivals of India (1) International Kite Festival: January 13–15 organised at Ahmedabad. (2) Makar Shakranti/Pongal: January 14, a harvest festival of South India. (3) International Elephant Festival: January 11–20, an unusual elephant marathan, more of the cultural influence of Kerala. (4) Republic Day: January 26, marks India’s adopting of the constitution celebrated all over the country. (5) Vasant Panchamai: January 28, dedicated to Saraswati the goddess of learning. (6) Surajkund Crafts Mela: February 1–15. Here in a recreated Indian village, near Delhi, all the crafts of the country are displayed and sold. (7) International Yoga Week: February 2–7. Celebrated at Rishikesh, a picturesque town at the foothills of the Himalayas. Demonstration of asanas and lectures on yogic disciplines are the highlights. (8) Khajuraho Dance Festival: February 27–March 5, celebrated Indian dancers bring alive the sculpted panels on the temples of Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh. (9) Holi: March 8. Festival of colours. Celebrated nationwide with throwing of coloured powder and water on friends. (10) Id-Ul-Fitr: March 25. Celebrated at the end of Ramazan, the Muslim month of fasting. (11) International Flower Festival: March/April. Organised at Gangtok, Sikkim where 500 odd varieties of orchids are displayed. (12) Ram Navami: April 1. Lord Ram’s birthday is observed throughout the country with great devotion. (13) Mahavir Jayanti: April 5. Marks the birth of Lord Mahavir when religious procession and worship at Jain temples is witnessed. (14) Baisakhi: April 13. The Hindu solar year begins on this day. Celebrated with dancing and festivity all over North India. (15) Id-ul-Zuha: June 1. Commemorates the sacrifice of Prophet Ibrahim’s son in obedience to a command by God.

Appendix 209 (16) Kangra Valley Tea Festival: June 5–7. Palampur, in Himachal Pradesh, is the venue of this unique festival. (17) Rathyatra: June/July. Puri in Orissa reverberates with activity when spectacular giant chariots are taken out in the streets in honour of Lord Jagannath amidst mammoth gathering. (18) Muharram: July 1. Muslims commemorate the martyrdom of the grandson of the prophet Muhammed. (19) Teej: July 22–23. Welcoming the monsoon, with women decorating swings with flowers and donning gaily-coloured veils. (20) Hemis Festival: July. Celebrated in Leh where mask-dances in the courtyard of Hemis Monastery are an attractive feature. (21) International Mango Festival: July. Celebrated at Saharanpur and Delhi. An endless variety of mangoes to savour. (22) Raksha Bandhan: August 8. Mainly celebrated in northern and western India when sisters tie silken colourful rakhis on the wrists of their brothers and pledge their love. (23) Janmashtami: August 11. Celebrated throughout the country. A day of fasting for the devotees. (24) Independence Day: August 15. Day of India’s independence. Solemn ceremonies in all cities mark the occasion. (25) Onam: August 30. This harvest festival of Kerala is celebrated with homes being decorated with flowers and swings set up for the occasion. (26) Ganesh Chaturthi: September 19. The elephant headed god, Ganesha, is worshipped during this festival. The celebrations are impressive particularly in Maharashtra. (27) Gandhi Jayanti: October 2 is the birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation. Prayer meetings are held at Rajghat in Delhi and Subarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad. (28) Dussehra Durga Puja: October 24. India’s one of the most colourful of celebrations. In Delhi and other parts of north India, effigies of Ravana are consigned to flames. At Kulla, in Himachal Pradesh. (29) Diwali: November 13. Festival of lights, when all of India is aglitter. Lord Ram’s home coming is celebrated and Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity, propitiated. Fireworks and crackers in the night lend it an exclusive festive tone. (30) Pushkar Fair: November 26–29. A huge cattle market and camel fair is organised on full moon night at Pushkar in Rajasthan. (31) Guru Nanak Jayanti: November 29. Birth anniversary of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikh faith.

210 Ecotourism

APPENDIX - 2

Education in Travel and Tourism Institutes Overseas I. Higher Degree in Tourism Centre D’Etudes du Tourisme, Unviersite D’Aix en Provence, 3 Agenue Robert Schuman, 13-100 Aix en Province, France. Doctorate of 3rd Cycle Speciality in Economy and Law of Tourism, Duration: 2–3 years. The Scottish Hotel School, University of Strathclyde, Ross Hall, Crookston Road, Glasgow G 52 3NQ, United Kingdom. Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Tourism. Duration: One year. Department of Hotel and Catering Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, Survey, United Kingdom. Postgraduate Diploma in Tourism with possible extension to M.Sc. Duration: 1–2 years. Universita delgi Studi di Firenze, via Curtatone, Florence, Italy. Higher Diploma Courses Duration: 1–2 years. George Washington University, Washington, D.C., USA. Master’s Degree in Tourism Administration Doctor of Education with a concentration in Tourism. Duration: 2–4 years University of Calgary, Canada. Advance Master’s Degree in Tourism Administration. Duration: 2 years University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, England Postgraduate Diploma in Tourism. Duration: 1 year

Appendix 211 University of Simon Bolivar Caracas, Venezuela Postgraduate Courses in Tourism. Duration: 1 year University of Sorbonne, Paris, France Postgraduate Courses in Tourism. Duration: 1 year University of Zagreb, Yugoslavia. Advance Courses in Tourism Administration Duration: 2 years University of Lincolnshire and Humberside, UK Bachelor of Business Administration B.B.A. Hons. with specialisation in Tourism Duration: 3 years Edith Crown University, Perth, Western Australia, E-mail: [email protected] Degree Course in Tourism Management Duration: 3 years. The Netherlands Institute of Tourism and Transport Studies, Sibeliuslaan 13,4837 CA Breda. The Netherlands Graduate Course in Tourism Management Duration: 4 years Centre International De Glion, CH 1823 Glion Sur, Montreux, Switzerland Graduate course in Hospitality and Tourism Management Diploma Course in Hospitality and Tourism Management Duration: 1–3 years II. Diploma and Short Courses in Tourism Department of Hotel and Catering Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom. University certificate. Duration: 1 year. Centre D’Etudes Superieures du Tourisme, Universite de Paris 1, 13, Rue de Santeuil, Paris 5e, France. Higher Diploma, Duration: 1 year. Institute Technici per il Tourismo, Via Della Badia dei Roccettini II, San Domenico di Fiesole, Florence, Italy. Certificate of Profession. Duration: 1 year. Scuola International di Scienze Turistiche, Via Cavalier, d’Arpino 5/A 00197 Rome, Italy. Post-Graduate Diploma. Duration: 1 year

212 Ecotourism Hochschule Fur Welthandel, Institut Fur Fremdenverkhresforschung, FrazKleingasse 1, 1190 Vienna, Austria. University Course in Tourism leading to the University Certificate, Duration: 1 year. Adelaide College of TAFE, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia. Diploma in Tourism Management, Advanced Certificate in Tourism. Duration: 1–2 years.

Appendix 213

APPENDIX - 3

Tables Table 1 Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) In India, 1996–2008 Year

FTAs (in Million)

Percentage (%) change over the previous year

1996

2.29

7.7

1997

2.37

3.8

1998

2.36

– 0.7

1999

2.48

5.2

2000

2.65

6.7

2001

2.54

– 4.2

2002

2.38

– 6.0

2003

2.73

14.3

2004

3.46

26.8

2005

3.92

13.3

2006

4.45

13.5

2007

5.08

14.3

2008

2.72

11.1@

(Jan–June) P P: Provisional, @ Growth rate over Jan–June, 2007 Source: (i) Bureau of Immigration, Govt. of India, for 1996–2007 (ii) Ministry of Tourism, Govt. of India, for 2008

214 Ecotourism Table 2 Month-wise Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) In India, 1996–2008 Month

Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) 2006

2007

2008 (P)

Percentage (%) Change 2007/06

2008/07

January February March April May June July August September October November December

459489 439090 391009 309208 255008 278370 337332 304387 297891 391399 442413 541571

535631 501692 472494 350550 277017 310364 399866 358446 301892 444564 532428 596560

591337 561393 541478 384203 300840 340159

16.6 14.3 20.8 13.4 8.6 11.5 18.5 17.8 1.3 13.6 20.3 10.2

10.4 11.9 14.6 9.6 8.6 9.6

Sub-total (Jan–June)

2132174

2447748

2719410

14.8@

11.1@

Total

4447167

5081504

14.3

P: Provisional, @ Growth rate over Jan–June of previous year Source: (i) Bureau of Immigration, Govt. of India, for 2006 and 2007 (ii) Ministry of Tourism, Govt. of India, for 2008 Table 3 Foreign Exchange Earnings (FEE) (in Rs. Crore) from Tourism in India, 1996–2008 Year

FEE from Tourism in India (in Rs. Crore)

Percentage (%) change over the previous year

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006* 2007* 2008 (Jan–June)#

10046 10511 12150 12951 15626 15083 15064 20729 27944 33123 39025 44360 25825

19.2 4.6 15.6 6.6 20.7 – 3.5 – 0.1 37.6 34.8 18.5 17.8 13.7 18.2@

*Revised Estimates, # Advance Estimates, @ Growth rate over Jan–June, 2007 Source: (i) Reserve Bank of India, for 1996 to 2007 (ii) Ministry of Tourism, Govt. of India, for 2008.

Appendix 215 Table 4 Month-wise Foreign Exchange Earnings (FEE) (in Rs. crore) from Tourism in India, 2006–2008 Month

FEE (in Rs. Crore)

Percentage (%) change

2006*

2007*

2008#

2007/06

January February March April May June July August September October November December

3970 3793 3378 2850 2350 2566 2990 2698 2640 3355 3793 4642

4698 4401 3144 3218 2543 2849 3436 3080 2594 3785 4533 5079

5438 5182 5035 3773 2988 3409

18.3 16.0 22.7 12.9 8.2 11.0 14.9 14.2 – 1.7 12.8 19.5 9.4

15.8 17.7 21.5 17.2 17.5 19.7

Sub-total (Jan–June)

18907

21853

25825

15.6@

18.2

Total

39025

44360

2008/07

13.7

*Revised Estimates, # Advance Estimates, @ Growth rate over Jan-June of previous year Source: Ministry of Tourism, Govt. of India.

Table 5 Number of Domestic Tourist Visits to all States/UTs in India, 1996–2007 Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007*

No. of Domestic Tourist Percentage (%) change over Visits (in Million) the previous year 140.12 159.88 168.20 190.67 220.11 236.47 269.60 309.04 366.27 391.95 461.76 526.57

*Provisional Note: Figures for Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh have been estimated. Source: State/UT Tourism Departments.

2.5 14.1 5.2 13.4 15.4 7.4 14.0 14.6 18.5 7.0 17.8 14.0

216 Ecotourism Table 6 Number of Foreign Tourist Visits to all States/UTs in India, 1996–2007 Year

No. of Foreign Tourist Visits (in Million)

Percentage (%) change over the previous year

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007*

5.03 5.50 5.54 5.83 5.89 5.44 5.16 6.71 8.36 9.95 11.75 13.17

8.4 9.3 0.7 5.3 1.1 – 7.8 – 5.1 30.1 24.6 19.0 18.1 12.1

*Provisional Note: Figures for Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh have been estimated. Source: State/UT Tourism Departments.

Table 7 Share of Top 10 States/UTs of India in Number of Foreign Tourist visits in 2007 Rank

State/UT

Foreign Tourist Visits* Number

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Delhi Maharashtra Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan West Bengal Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Kerala Goa Total of Top 10 Others Total

Percentage Share (%)

2018848 1919491 1703103 1493157 1401042 1154770 769724 534563 515808 388457

15.3 14.6 12.9 11.3 10.6 8.8 5.9 4.1 3.9 3.0

11898963

90.4

1269216

9.6

13168179

100.0

*Provisional Note: Figures for Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh have been estimated. Source: State/UT Tourism Departments.

Appendix 217 Table 8 Share of India in International Tourist Arrivals in World, Asia & the Pacific Region, 1996–2007 Year

International Tourist Arrivals (in Million) World

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007*

572.4 596.0 614.3 637.4 684.7 684.4 704.7 692.2 761.4 803.0 847.0 903.0

FTAs in India (in Million)

Asia and the Pacific 90.4 89.7 89.4 98.8 110.6 115.8 124.9 113.2 144.1 155.3 167.0 184.3

2.29 2.37 2.36 2.48 2.65 2.54 2.38 2.73 3.46 3.92 4.45 5.08

Percentage (%) share of FTAs in India in World

Asia and the Pacific

0.40 0.40 0.38 0.39 0.39 0.37 0.34 0.39 0.45 0.49 0.53 0.56

2.53 2.65 2.64 2.51 2.40 2.19 1.91 2.41 2.40 2.52 2.66 2.76

*Provisional Source: (i) UNWTO Tourism Market Trends 2006 Edition, for the year upto 2004. (ii) UNWTO Barometer October 2007 and June 2008 for 2005, 2006 and 2007. Table 9 Share of India in International Tourism Receipts in World, Asia and the Pacific region, 1996–2007 Year

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007*

International Tourism Receipt (in US $ million) World

Asia and the Pacific

438.3 441.8 444.1 457.3 474.1 462.2 480.1 527.2 629.0 680.0 742.0 856.0

84.8 82.2 72.1 79.0 85.2 88.0 96.3 93.5 123.9 134.6 156.5 188.9

FEE in India (in US $) million

2832 2889 2948 3009 3460 3198 3103 4463 6170 7493 8634 10729

Percentage (%) share of India in World

Asia and the Pacific

0.65 0.65 0.66 0.66 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.85 0.98 1.10 1.16 1.25

3.34 3.51 4.09 3.81 4.06 3.63 3.22 4.77 4.98 5.57 5.52 5.68

*Provisional Source: (i) UNWTO Tourism Market Trends 2006 Edition, for the years upto 2004. (ii) UNWTO Barometer October 2007 and June 2008 for 2005, 2006 and 2007.

218 Ecotourism

References Aldous, T. Battle for the Environment (London: Fontana/Collins, 1972). Anand, M.M. Tourism and Hotel Industry in India (New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India, 1976). Archer, B.H. Tourist Research in the United Kingdom. Journal of Travel Research. 10; 4 (March 1972). Ashworth G.J. Marketing in the Tourism Industry (London: Routledge, 1990). Bhatia, A.K. International Tourism Management (New Delhi: Sterling, 2001). Bhatia, A.K. Tourism Management and Marketing (New Delhi: Sterling 1997). Bryden, John M. Tourism and Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973). Cohen, Eric. ‘Towards a Sociology of International Tourism’, Social Research, 39, 1 (1972). Donald, E. Hawking (Eds.) Tourism Planning and Development Issues (Washington: George Washington University, 1980). Foster, D. Travel and Tourism Management (London: MacMillan, 1985). Hodyson, A. The Travel and Tourism Industry (Oxford: Pergamon, 1987). Jefferson, A. Marketing Tourism (Harlow: Longman, 1988). John M. Bryden. Tourism and Development (London: Cambridge University Press, 1973). McIntosh, R.W. Tourism Principles, Practices and Philosophies (Ohio: Grid, 1977). Robinson, G.W.S. ‘The Recreation Geography of South Asia,’ Geographical Review (October 1972). Robinson. H. A Geography of Tourism (London: MacDonald and Evans, 1976). Rosemary Burton. Travel Geography (London: Longman, 1989). Singh, Jagbir. Tourism Geography (New Delhi: Jyoti Publication, 2005).

Index

219

Index Accommodation concepts, 95 Accommodation industry, 94 Accommodation, 93 structure of, 97 types of, 96 Adventure sports, 53 Adventure tourism, 50, 52 participants in, 55 planning in, 54 Advertising agency, 116 Advertising, 116 Aerial adventure sports, 50 Air travel, 39, 110 All India Travel Agents Association, 140 Automobile, 38, 107 Beach and sea tourism, 43, 182 Brazil, 131 Coastal Goa, impact of, 135 tourism in, 135 Commercial accommodation, 95 Competitor analysis, 82 Cultural tourism, 49 Direct mail advertising, 121 Domestic tourism, 20 definition and, 45 measurement of, 45 Domestic tourist, 16

Ecotourism, 152 advantages of, 150 challenges for, 151 characteristics of, 147 definition of, 146 development of, 149 emergence of, 148 growth of, 149 guidelines for, 162 history of, 146 importance of, 147 meaning of, 146 Eighth five year plan (1992-1997), 181 Eleventh plan (2007-2012), 181 Excursions, 18 Foreign tourists, 8 India’s image among, 58 legal requirements for, 206 GIS, application in tourism planning, 194 capabilities of, 195 Globalization tourism, 100 Globalization, 100 causes of, 101 types of, 101 Goa, physical environment of, 134 tourism in, 133 Health tourism, 43

220 Index India Tourism Development Corporation (ITDC), 143 India, adventure tourism in, 52 ecotourism in, 152, 160 hotel chains in, 99 major resources for, 160 mass tourist destination in, 58 tourism policy of, 184 Indian railways, 108 Indian tourism, role of information technology in, 188 Information technology, 187, 191 and accommodation sectors, 192 and the media, 193 International Air Transport Association (IATA), 141 organizational structure of, 142 International Airport Authority of India, 142 International tourists, 8, 18 Island tourism, 43 IT in Indian tourism, 196 Land-based adventure sports, 50 51 Leisure, 5 Magazine advertising, 119 Maldives, 129 Market analysis, 82 Market planning process, 81 Market segmentation, 78 Marketing, challenge of, 125 definitions of, 77 Mass tourism, 56, 57 characteristics of, 57 National action plan 1992, 184 National tourists, 18 New software technologies, 194 Newspaper advertising, 119 Ninth plan (1997-2002), 181 Organized marketing, 87 Outdoor advertising, 120 Parasailing, 53

Pilgrimage, 20 Planning, levels of, 179 Pleasure travel, 29 Product analysis, 82 Promoting tourism, advantages of, 125 disadvantages of, 125 Promotion programme, 83 Radio advertising, 119, 120 Rail transport, 108 Railways, advent of, 36 Recreation, 5, 6 Rio declaration of environment and development, 155 Road transport, 108 Romans, 34 Rural tourism, impact of, 48 Sailing, 53 Scuba diving, 52 Seventh plan (1985-1990), 180 Shipping services, 38 Singapore, 130 Snorkeling, 52 Space tourism, 49 Special marketing activities, 124 Sri Lanka, 128 Sustainable tourism, 159 benefits of, 158 characteristics of, 162 development of, 153, 155 guidelines for, 158 legislation for, 151 principles of, 159 Switzerland, 131 Television advertising, 120 Tenth plan (2002-2007), 181 Tour services, 191 Tourism and environment, 163 Tourism development policy, 169 Tourism finance, 79 Tourism geography,

Index importance of, 23 Tourism in Goa, eighth five-year plan for, 136 Tourism in India, 40 Tourism industry and employment opportunity, 68 Tourism industry, 186 challenges of, 156 human resource to, 121 opportunities for, 156 Tourism marketing policy, 87 Tourism marketing, 85 functions of, 79 Tourism markets, 90 Tourism planning in India, 178, 180, 183 Tourism planning process, 168 Tourism planning, diversity of, 169 Tourism policy 1982, 161 Tourism policy 1992, 185 Tourism, 5, 10, 16, 20 approaches in, 25 barriers to, 75 classification of, 44 concept of, 3 cultural impacts of, 75 definitions of, 4, 7, 15, 32 e-commerce in, 190 economical dimensions of, 73 economical impacts of, 74 economical importance of, 68 elements of, 20, 42, 177 environmental impacts of, 76, 158 forms of, 47 future of, 26 geographical components of, 23 geography of, 21 growth of, 69 history of, 28, 32 impacts of, 70, 71 importance of geography in, 22 in Goa, 136 in India, 40 in middle ages, 34 information technology in, 186, 190 issues of, 176 marketing principles of, 80

221

marketing processes of, 79 meaning of, 41 nature of, 11, 41 planning in, 176 problems of, 154 public relations in, 126 purpose of, 64 role of, 73 significance of, 67 social impacts of, 75 terrorism and, 101 transport in, 105 types of, 4, 42 use of the internet in, 189 Tourist attractions, categories of, 14 Tourist promotion, 123 communication in, 123 Tourists, 12 definition of, 9, 10 motivation theories of, 61 motivation of, 32 Tours, 12, 17 Train travel, international tourism through, 110 Transport, systems of, 106 Travel agency, 86 functions of, 87 Travel by sea, 109 Travel, 10, 16 modes of, 107 Village tourism, 46 benefits of, 46 Visitors, categories of, 5 Water adventure sports, 50 Water rafting, 53 Water skiing, 53 Wind surfing, 53 World merchandise, 30 WTO, 137 structure of, 139 Yachting, 53

TM

There will always be tourists. In spite of terrorist attacks having a decimating effect on the whole tourism Industry throughout the world, mankind has an uncanny knack of “bouncing back”. To make a new world for the 21st century, we need to develop Ecotourism on a much larger scale and educate the public to get back to the beauty of nature and preserve what is left of the ecology in the environment. This book will help the students, research scholars and teachers in providing the latest information on the tourism industry. It sets out in detail all the aspects of the different types of tourists, details of destinations and means of transport. Above all, we must respect the laws and cultures of other countries. Through ecotourism, we have a chance to renew and beautify the world.

Jagbir Singh

Jagbir Singh is the Head, Dept. of Geography, Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi. India. For the past fourteen years, he has concerned himself with deeper issues involving environmental disasters (both natural and man made), environmental ecology and sustainability. The use of Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS has enabled him to work at local, national and international levels. He has received scholarships to attend international conferences in Sweden, U.S.A., Australia, Uzbekistan, Singapore and Malaysia.

978-93-90455-42-3

Jagbir Singh

Dr. Singh convened two international and three national conferences related to environmental issues at global levels. He has written many books including “Tourism Geography”, “Tsunamis: Threats and Management”, “Environment and Development: Opportunities and Challenges” and “Ecotourism.” Dr. Singh has completed his Ph.D. on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Currently, he is doing his MBA in Disaster Management from I.P. University, Delhi, India.

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