Early Feminist Pioneers, Their Lives, and Their Reform Efforts: Eight Case Studies 152756357X, 9781527563575

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Early Feminist Pioneers, Their Lives, and Their Reform Efforts

Early Feminist Pioneers, Their Lives, and Their Reform Efforts: Eight Case Studies By

Satish Sharma

Early Feminist Pioneers, Their Lives, and Their Reform Efforts: Eight Case Studies By Satish Sharma This book first published 2021 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2021 by Satish Sharma All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-6357-X ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-6357-5

Dedicated to, My True Teacher, My Spiritual Master

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword .................................................................................................... ix By Dr. Ramona Denby-Brinson Preface ....................................................................................................... xii Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1 Introduction Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 21 Margaret Fell (1614-1702) Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 45 Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845) Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 59 Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 80 Lucretia Mott (1793-1880) Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 99 Dorothea Lynde Dix (1802-1887) Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 118 Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) Chapter Eight .......................................................................................... 141 Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902) Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 169 Jane Addams (1860-1935) Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 188 Conclusion

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Appendix A ............................................................................................. 214 Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions, Woman’s Rights Convention, held in Seneca Falls, New York, July 19-20, 1848 Appendix B.............................................................................................. 219 Margaret Fell’s Writings: 1660 Letter to King James II, Women’s Speaking Justified, and Pamphlets of Margaret Appendix C.............................................................................................. 243 Mary Wollstonecraft’s Writings and Summary Content of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman Appendix D ............................................................................................. 248 A Summary View of Margaret Fuller’s Woman in the Nineteenth Century Appendix E .............................................................................................. 254 Main Writings of Jane Addams Notes and References .............................................................................. 256 Bibliography ............................................................................................ 285

FOREWORD

Reflecting on my twenty-eight years as an academic, I am almost immediately brought back to my experience of being a twenty-two-yearold African American female, first-generation college student, pursuing a master’s degree in social work. It was during this time that I encountered a highly regarded professor from India who would impact my view of academia. Dr. Satish Sharma, the author of this book, would become my lifelong mentor and the person, who by uttering one word, changed my life trajectory. Near the end of my graduate program, while preparing for a recognition ceremony, Dr. Sharma handed me a card containing his handwritten note that I have kept for nearly three decades. On that notecard, the greeting began: To my scholar. The word scholar bounced from the card into the very fabric of my soul. I share this story for a few reasons. First, words have power and the profound potential to ascribe meaning and value to a person’s life. The words that we render can be used for harm, but they can also be the start of something significant. For me, the twenty-two-year-old protégé experiencing an impactful moment with her senior mentor, my professional life was transformed and I was inspired to encourage positive outcomes for those individuals I have encountered along this journey. I share this story to express to readers the author’s genuine positive regard and respect for women. This respect forms the basis of his scholarly work. His scholastic work has elevated women, by recognizing and valuing our many contributions. The author’s body of work and his latest offering, chronicles the status and role of women, acknowledging that we are the vessels of life and preservers of societies. This short window into my life is shared to illustrate the author’s understanding of the power of the narrative. Through his latest writing, Early Pioneer Women, Their Lives, and Their Reform Efforts: Eight Case Studies, the author embraces the power inherent in narrative accounts by illustrating the transformative and consequential nature of eight women who changed societies. In my case, the author helped to define my life narrative through the utterance of a single word. Likewise, in his eloquent and powerful narration of the lives of eight women pioneers, he allows others to study these women’s lives and the emulative nature of their work.

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The book contains several important elements and provides readers a newfound way to understand the domination of men over women and how such was entrenched and pervasive in multiple societies and cultures, including Indian, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Israeli. Additionally, throughout the book, we learn that although some women fared better than others, depending on the historical time or their location in the world, male dominating societies, although persistent, have unsuccessfully thwarted the advancement of women. Moreover, some readers will be surprised to learn that in ancient and early times (varying across societies), women and men’s status was more equal. The author’s careful research and study of the matters reveal that although women’s quest to receive equal rights, privileges, authority, and power has been a long haul, there are historical time periods (including contemporary times) worthy of review because they highlight women’s incredible resilience and resolve to create more just societies. Ultimately, the signature pedagogy of the book are the eight case studies contained in chapters 2-9. Highlighted are the achievements and works of: Margaret Fell (1614-1702), religious leader and Mother of Quakerism; Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845), social reformer and Angel of Prisons; Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), philosopher and advocate for women’s rights; Lucretia Mott (1793-1880), abolitionist and credited with launching the women’s suffrage movement; Dorothea Lynde Dix (18021887), social reformer and humanistic advocate for those suffering from mental illness; Margaret Fuller (1810-1850), confident journalist and unapologetic feminist; Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902), activist, reformer, and convener of the Seneca Falls Convention (convention about women’s rights); and Jane Addams (1860-1935), social worker and leading force in the settlement house movement. The author’s powerful narrative of the eight pioneering women’s lives is a valuable literary contribution. The manner in which the author chronicles the women’s achievements enables readers to draw modern-day parallels. By way of carefully highlighting the challenges that the women faced and how they galvanized networks, resources, courage, and conviction to usher in broad sweeping reforms, the author positions readers to seriously examine today’s leaders, women and men. For example, the author narrates Margaret Fell’s courage and conviction and in doing so, communicates to today’s activists that it is fitting and indeed necessary to use your voice to decry unjust and unfair dealings, even when perpetrated by our governmental leaders and religious establishments. Other lessons for today’s reformers, many of whom are fighting for economic and social justice, are found in the work of Elizabeth Cady Stanton. The author brings to life the risks and bravery associated with

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social movements. Elizabeth Cady Stanton was an outspoken critic of political and religious systems and she did not shy away from espousing her belief that the masses were manipulated by institutional leaders. The author’s writing inspires today’s organizers to look to the lessons of the eight pioneers and he does so through the discovery of archival data and records that were challenging to uncover, but perfectly examined. As readers are guided through the lives of eight remarkable pioneers, they will find themselves contemplating who might be regarded as women pioneers of our current era? A hundred years from now, what will be said about the bold and brilliant women who are leading us through: surviving a global pandemic; fighting against racism and uplifting racial reconciliation; demanding the removal of tyrannical leaders; shedding light on corrupt governments; reminding us that environmental and climate change are real concerns; and ensuring that we have distributive models where resources and power, especially as it relates to advances in technology, are equally leveraged. Today, we do not have those answers but the author has provided us a roadmap and the reflective capacity by which to assess future contributions of pioneering women. In doing so, the author’s words will again influence the life trajectory of a young woman, and this time, it will be the reader who happens upon this illuminating book. Dr. Ramona Denby-Brinson, Professor and Associate Dean College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA

PREFACE

Throughout the history of humankind people have desired personal, social, and societal welfare all over the world, and used such means as: sound character at individual and community levels; adequacy of human and material resources; proper values and beliefs; suitable social and political environments; harmonious and supportive linkages among people and systems; and sympathetic, peaceful, and interactive living at different levels. Orientations of freedom, liberty, equality, fairness, justice, cooperation, unity, regard for one another, patience and tolerance in dealing with situations, eagerness to solve problems collectively, efforts to not create problems, and taking care of worldly and non-worldly tasks have also been part of the struggles of the people. Those considerations guided the earlier research by the author, and his main focus was on general and specific foundations of welfare, peace, and pacifism, with added interest in the problems and issues of women. Thus came forth eight monographs: Migratory Workers and Their Socio-Cultural Adjustment (1964); Modernism and Planned Social Change (1982); Gandhi, Women, and Social Development (1982); Gandhi's Teachers: Rajchandra Ravjibhai Mehta (2005); Gandhi’s Teachers: Leo Tolstoy (2009); Gandhi’s Teachers: John Ruskin (2011); Gandhi’s Teachers: Henry David Thoreau (2013); and Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research (2017). The first piece of research was undertaken by the author in 1964, when he was a student at the Panjab University in India, and started a study on the socio-cultural adjustment of migratory workers in the labor colonies of Chandigarh. That research fulfilled the partial requirement for a master’s degree in sociology and was published by the Panjab University in 1964 as a monograph.1 The next piece of research by the author was a research project focused on the modernization and planned social change in Indian villages. That work was undertaken when the author was a student at The Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio, in America. When completed, that work took the form of a dissertation and fulfilled the partial requirement of a Ph.D. degree. With upgrading and modifications that work was published as a book by the Asian Research Service in Hong Kong in 1982. The foreword to that work was written by Dr. Jerry D. Stockdale at the University of Northern Iowa in Cedar Falls, Iowa.2 In 1979 the author undertook another research project focused on Gandhi,

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women, and social development; this entailed a search for peaceful alternatives to the development and planning in India with global contexts. Some explorations for that work also came from the social development and social planning courses taken at the University of Iowa where the author was a Master of Social Work (MSW) student. That project also took the form of a thesis and fulfilled the partial requirement for the degree. With some revisions and upgrading that work took the form of a book and was published by the Asian Research Service in Hong Kong in 1982. The foreword to that work was written by Dr. Ruth A. Brandwein at the State University of New York at Stony Brook, New York.3 After finishing those research projects some time passed while taking care of several administrative, professional, and scholarly assignments, including “Directorship” of a School of Social Work, guest and book review editorship of two journals, and the founding of a new MSW program at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. In 1999 the author returned to his scholarly pursuits and started a book series related to the four proclaimed teachers of Gandhi: Rajchandra in India, Tolstoy in Russia, Ruskin in England, and Thoreau in America.4 The lives, endeavors, strategies, and lessons provided by those visionaries on welfare, peace, justice, and nonviolence were recounted, and the four books were published by the Gujarat Vidyapith University5 in Ahmedabad, India, in 2005, 2009, 2011, and 2013 respectively. The forewords to those works came from the vice-chancellors of the university, Dr. Arunkumar Dave and Dr. Sudarshan Iyengar.6 Having finished these research projects the author became interested in Quakerism, as some of Gandhi’s co-workers in South Africa and India were Quakers, and Gandhi was impressed by them and by their faith.7 Accordingly, a research project was started with the topic Quakerism, its legacy, and its relevance for Gandhian research. That research effort lasted four years, and the book was published by the Cambridge Scholars Publishing in England in 2017. The foreword to that work was written by Dr. Brij Mohan at the Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.8 After finishing these research endeavors the author turned back to his earlier interest in the problems and issues of women, one of which was their non-recognition in spite of all kinds of contributions they made to the growth, development, and welfare of society since the hoary past. The goal was to highlight and illustrate the lives, endeavors, reform efforts, and contributions made by several early pioneer women who tried to make life and living better for others in different time periods – even at great personal costs. The lessons they left for the future generations of reformers and activists were also a focus of the work. Thus, a comprehensive list of

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such early pioneer women was prepared, with the imposed geographical limits of England and America. The list was long and the selection process was difficult as only a total of eight early pioneer women were to be chosen for the case studies. With that consideration, the screening factors of the time periods to which the early pioneer women belonged, the levels of their accomplishments, the fields to which the accomplishments belonged, and the scope of the effects of the accomplishments on the lives and functioning of the societies were applied. The list that emerged was: Margaret Fell (1614-1702), Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845), Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), Lucretia Mott (1793-1880), Dorothea Lynde Dix (18021885), Margaret Fuller (1810-1850), Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902), and Jane Addams (1860-1935). Three of those early pioneer women were from England and five were from America; they belonged to the midseventeenth century through to early modern times. Among them, in terms of their multi-tasking, were religious and moral reformers, social, political, and educational activists, model teachers and healers, social advocates, community organizers, abolitionists, suffragists, feminists, social workers, journalists, critics, writers, thinkers, philosophers, historians, prison reformers, mental health workers, transcendentalists, pacifist, humanists, and internationalists. Gathering information on them was difficult as their activities were multifarious, and they belonged to the times when action was the rule, and not its publicity or documentation. Moreover, it was men men who wrote about women rather than the women themselves, with the exception of their diaries, memoirs, journals, letters, and occasional articles or pamphlets. The time at which these women lived was a factor; the farther the author went back the less information was available. The authenticity of the information was an issue as different writers had assigned different dates and times to the facts, making it difficult to determine which were the correct ones to use. There were also other gaps in information. Those were the periods when the histories of the societies were “the histories of men” and nothing much positive was written about the lives, endeavors, reform efforts, and achievements of women. Therefore, the most helpful sources for this work were the diaries, memoirs, journals, letters, and epistles written by the pioneer women, and the appeals they made in writing to the governments and the authorities to rectify prevalent undesirable situations. Several good books and other pieces of literature were also helpful for this work. The author is thankful to many institutions and people for their help and cooperation in the completion of this work. Foremost among them was the University of Nevada, in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA. To it, the author is thankful for the provision of partial financial support and the free time it

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allowed through a faculty sabbatical leave to finish the work. To a group of scholars and friends also, like Dr. Brij Mohan, Dr. Shreesh Juyal, Dr. Tom Walz, Dr. Guy Backman, Dr. Paramjit Singh Judge, Dr. Gurpreet Bal, Dr. Felecia Campbell, Dr. Ramona Denby, and others, the author is thankful for their encouragement and support, and the useful feedback they provided on earlier drafts of this work. To the staff and officers of Cambridge Scholars Publishing, the author would like to say “thanks” for taking care of the publication process so carefully and diligently. Finally, he would like to express his gratitude and appreciation to his wife Asha Sharma, son Ashish Sharma, and daughter Anu Sood for their constant patience and the encouragement they provided in the completion of this work. Their suggestions for making some significant improvements in the drafts were also invaluable. Like his earlier works, this book is also offered by the author to the readers with the same sense of humbleness and humility as Gandhi always expressed to his audiences. Satish Sharma, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Historically, the status, role, and parity of women with men has varied a lot from ancient to modern times, and from one society to another. Many disparities have existed between the status and role of men and women, reinforced by existing traditions, customs, and institutions. The domains were personal, familial, economic, social, political, religious, and others. Biases, prejudices, and discriminations prevailed against women, as preference was given to males; that was true of most societies, except for a few matriarchal societies. One world existed for men and another one existed for women. The world of men was superior and it provided them with rights, privileges, and facilities; it pampered them and gave them greater control over the decision-making processes at home and outside of the home. Authority and power also rested with men, with women being relegated to carrying out inferior routine chores and being kept under control by men. They were dependent on men for most of their needs, and the law was also tilted in favor of men. Women had no legal identity of their own and could not represent themselves in courts. They had no property rights and no civic rights. Social and political participation of women was limited; they were taken as insignificant entities, treated as possessions, their status and role undermined, and their achievements underrated. Coercion against women was common and took physical, emotional, psychological, and sexual forms. All of this happened despite the fact that women were the first teachers, philosophers, creators of art and music, and contributed much to the progress and development of societies. They have also toiled alongside men, shoulder to shoulder, throughout human history; participating in the struggles of life with them, and attempting to resolve problems and issues at all levels. During the last two or three centuries, some gains have been made by women in different fields, but they still remain far from their established goal of the same worth, rights, privileges, and freedoms as men. The struggle of women goes on, and it is likely to continue for many centuries more.1 This introductory chapter looks at the status and role of women over the centuries. Starting with ancient times, it pinpoints reform issues that

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Chapter One

existed, the struggle undertaken by women to rectify these issues, and an indication of what this work is about.

Women in Ancient Times There is evidence that, during ancient times, women had considerable equality with men in most areas of living and functioning, and they were much better off in terms of their position, status, role, and responsibility in society. One example of that comes from India during the early Vedic times2 when “male gods” and “female goddesses” were mentioned in religious literature, and both were to be revered and worshipped by the male and female populations. Some examples of the female goddesses are Aditi,3 Prithivi,4 and Saraswati;5 hymns spoke of them as being kind, thoughtful, eloquent, holy, immortal, heroic, pure, auspicious, lofty, just, honorable, radiant, benevolent, opulent, divine, powerful, creators of everything, supporters, and protectors of life. There were also references to them as holy teachers and queens who gave strength and power to all. People depended on them for their needs and requirements in their life and life thereafter.6 In practice men and women had the same high status and the same access to all forms of knowledge. That included their right to remain celibate and pursue moksha7 through a union with the Absolute. Women could also become religious teachers and rishis,8 and could compose hymns for the scriptures. Gargi and Maitreyi were two prominent examples who were counted among the highest of pious people, and their names appeared in many places in religious literature. Ordinary women, too, had high status and were allowed to pursue spiritual and mundane goals and knowledge. Many of them wrote plays, composed verses, and excelled in music, painting, and other art forms. They married at a mature age and were allowed to choose their own husbands. That equality between men and women lasted for a long time, and women felt respected, secure, and were not treated as inferiors.9 The degeneration of the status and role of women started during the Brahmanical period10 with the effort of Brahmans to monopolize Vedic practices, and for which they created elaborate ritual, ceremonial, and philosophical orders. Thus, priestly Hinduism began and, instead of direct communication between man and God, Brahmans became the brokers of that relationship. All sorts of powers and privileges started shifting in their favor, and the process of male domination began. Priests started giving women lower estimates of their abilities and capabilities, and more and more curtailed their participation in the social, political, religious, and spiritual affairs of society.11 Some improvements in the status and role of

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women occurred during the Upanishadic period,12 when priestly Hinduism came under scrutiny and an effort was made to bridle the powers, privileges, and practices of Brahmans. That resulted in a better status and role for women in society, and their greater equality vis-à-vis men. Jainism and Buddhism13 were born later out of a similar socio-religious mix, and these traditions also tried to cut into the powers, privileges, and practices of Brahmans while upholding equality between men and women in all areas of life.14 But ritual, ceremonial, and philosophical orders proved to be too deep-rooted, and priestly Hinduism continued more or less in the status quo, in spite of pressures from the Upanishadic, Jain, and Buddhist traditions. The literature of the time also reveals that women still had a respectable status in society, and enjoyed a large number of personal, social, intellectual, and religious freedoms.15 The Upanishadic period was followed by the Dharmashastra period,16 when the Hindu culture was described, laws were codified, moral appeals were made to men and women to follow these laws, and punishments were prescribed for not being in compliance with them. The most famous of such codifications was accomplished by Manu in The Laws of Manu.17 On the one hand Manu profusely praised women in a most lofty manner, but on the other depreciated them abundantly. See, for example, the following verses: “The teacher is ten times more venerable than a sub-teacher, the father a hundred times more than a teacher, but a mother is a thousand times more than the father.” (2.145) “They (Mother, Father, Teacher) are three worlds; they are three principal orders; they are the three Vedas, and they are three fires.” (2.230) “Where women are honored, there the gods are pleased. But where they are not honored, no sacred rite yields rewards.” (3.56)

And, then: “In childhood, a female must be under the control and surveillance of her father; in youth, under the control and surveillance of her husband; and when her lord is dead, under the control of her sons. A woman must never be independent.” (5.148) “Though destitute of virtue, or seeking pleasure, or devoid of good qualities, a husband must be constantly worshipped as a god by a Stri Sadhvi (devoted and faithful wife).” (5.154)

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Chapter One “No sacrifice, no vow, no fast must be performed by women apart from their husband. If a wife obeys her husband, she will for that (alone) be exalted in heaven.” (5.155)

These mixed reviews of women considerably hurt their status and role in society. Women came under the charge of the male members of the family (fathers, husbands, sons, and others) and they were assigned more and more indoor duties. A husband was the lord, and he was to be obeyed and respected, even when he did not possess a single virtue. His desires and wishes were of paramount importance and were to be carried out without complaint or questioning. That further diminished the status of women, hurt their authority within the family, and cut into their personal, social, and religious freedoms. Manu placed a prohibition on the remarriage of widows, and many other restrictions were placed on their personal, social, and religious lives.18 The Puranic period19 made Hindu practices common among ordinary people and attitudes toward women remained ambivalent. On the one hand, there was high praise for the thirty-two godly virtues carried by women and their important position in society but, on the other hand, there was their negative condemnation as being wicked and responsible for everything that was wrong and evil in society. See, for example, the following verses: “(A woman) is the embodiment of rashness and a mine of vices. She is hypocritical, and treacherous…. She is an obstacle to the path of devotion, a hindrance to emancipation…. She is practically a sorceress and represents vile desire.”20 “Falsehood, vain, boldness, craftiness, impatience, over-greediness, impurity, and harshness are the natural qualities of women.”21

There remained high regard and affection for unmarried daughters, but the necessity of a son for personal, social, spiritual, and ritual matters was also there, as enjoined in the Brahmanical period and reinforced by the expectations in The Laws of Manu. Other prohibitions and restrictions were there too, and it was emphasized again and again that women ought not to be left alone and must be guarded and protected by fathers, husbands, and sons. Women’s access to religious activities, education, and social affairs was limited but, in spite of all that, there is enough evidence that many women rose above these barriers and excelled in different worldly and non-worldly domains.22 Overall, however, the expectation of an ideal wife was:

Introduction

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“She who speaks sweetly to her husband and is a clever manager of household affairs, is a true wife. She who is one in spirit with her lord and devotes her whole self to his happiness, is a true wife.”23

Thus, the evidence so far has revealed that the best period for women’s status, role, and honor in society were the Vedic times, after which their rights and freedoms were gradually curtailed; although they were still placed high in terms of dignity and honor in society. The Muslim period24 hurt the status and role of women, and a time came when women were stripped of almost all of their rights and privileges, were paired with the untouchables, and treated like children. Reform movements had been occurring concurrently, and the earliest ones were during the Upanishadic, Jain, and Buddhist movements. That trend continued through the centuries; later examples included the Bhakti movement, Sikh movement, Brahmosmaj movement, and Arya Samaj movement. Some prominent people also contributed to the uplifting of women’s status and role in society; examples were Ramanuja in the twelfth century, Chaitanya in the sixteenth century, Raja Ram Mohan Roy in the nineteenth century, and Mahatma Gandhi in the twentieth century. Past trends and influences also stayed on, and attitudes and opinions about women remained mixed. Gandhi had involved women in his freedom struggle, as he had also done for the untouchables and other low caste populations. That move considerably impacted the status, role, and position of women, and of low caste people. Therefore, after the independence of India, women and low caste people started participating in almost all realms of civic, political, and governmental functioning on an equal basis with others.25 The history of the status and role of women in other ancient cultures is not that lucid, but some glimpses are available from Egypt, Greece, Rome, Israel, and other societies. Some women in ancient Egypt were elevated to the status of “goddess”, and many of them were related by blood or by marriage. Isis and Nephthys, for example, were sisters married to two god brothers; Osiris and Seth. 26 Life was of central concern in Egyptian culture and, accordingly, pregnancy, birth, death, and funeral rituals were eventful happenings to be taken seriously. The planes of life were physical and spiritual, and the movement of life from one plane to another was of great significance. One symbol of life was the palm tree which indicated the eternal nature of life. Goddesses were intimately connected with the conception of life, and the most influential of them were Isis,27 Hathor,28 Bastet,29 and Sekhmet.30 In real life, divine titles were conferred upon influential women to indicate their importance and significance. “God’s Wife of Amun” was the highest ranking priestess of the Amun cult. Ahmose-Nefertari was the wife of Ahmose I, and she held a similar title

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which was later passed on to her daughter Meritamen, and then to Hatshepsut. “God’s Wife” was another title for royal women in sacral roles, with two other titles being “Divine Adorer” and “God’s Hand.”31 Religion was also a mainstay of Egyptian culture. It guided the lives of people, justified the powers of Pharaohs, gave them divine rights, and made them transfer power from one male member to another. Women were excluded from that process, but occasionally they managed to overcome the hurdles and became rulers of the land. Some significant female rulers were Nitocris, Sobekneferu, Hatshepsut, Neferneferuaten, and Twosret, and they ruled society with immense power. Royal blood was another important consideration in the transfer of power; people preferred to be ruled by a woman with royal blood in her veins than by a man who did not have royal blood.32 Older times were better in Egyptian culture, and that was also true for women’s status, roles, and gaining of power. In those days, many women were able to rise to the top as rulers or gain high ranks in the administration. Many were also able to accomplish much in professions that were considered high and noble. Overall, women were taken as equal to men, but in complementary ways to men. They were taken as the creators and nurturers of life, and men were the supporters of life. Women produced heirs for the throne, and men ruled the land. Once a female became a Pharaoh, she adorned herself in masculine robes; it was then difficult to distinguish who was a male Pharaoh and who was a female Pharaoh. A large number of women belonged to the peasant classes. They moved around freely and helped their husbands in their undertakings and activities. Some women were known to run businesses. Upper-class women did not normally work outside of their homes, but managed home affairs and supervised servants and slaves. Some wealthy families kept governesses to help with child care. Dancing, acrobatics, singing, and music-making were respectable professions, and well-to-do women engaged in them frequently. Courts and temples were also respectable places for work, and wealthy women sought employment there too. Noblewomen became priestesses of a male god or a female goddess, but priesthood was also found among ordinary women.33 As time went by women’s status and role in ancient Egypt started to diminish, and fewer and fewer women were found in prominent positions. However, their legal status remained, and they could still buy and sell land, hold or inherit property, and enter into contracts without the consent of male family members. Women could divorce their husbands, and also enjoyed many other freedoms.34

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Somewhat similar conditions prevailed for women in ancient Greece, ancient Rome, and ancient Israel. In ancient Greek culture, some women were raised to the level of “goddess”; an example being the goddess Athena.35 Other examples were the goddesses of fertility, where Demeter and Persephone were particularly popular. In real life, however, women were treated differently and cast as conspirators and troublemakers with wild passions, and led men astray and made them lose their wits. An ideal woman was one who was of mild nature, submissive, chaste, faithful to her husband, and loyal to his desires and passions.36 The reverse was not true. Men could engage with prostitutes, live-in lovers, and other shady characters; there were no serious consequences for them. The consequences of infidelity for women were horrible. Women were expected to remain virgins until marriage, but that rule did not apply to men.37 The overall Greek culture was male-dominated and male-controlled, where women had few personal, social, political, or legal rights. They participated in festivals and religious ceremonies, but could not be part of the assemblies, sports, or warfare. They could not engage in civil or political proceedings, hold public offices, vote, express themselves in public, or freely own or inherit land.38 Their mainstay of life was the home where they took care of chores, reared children, and kept busy with hobbies like spinning, weaving, and wool-work. Women had no identity of their own, and were on a par with other belongings in the home, under the control of fathers, husbands, or guardians (Kyrios). They could not represent themselves in courts and could not make wills. They were not even full citizens of the land. There were, however, variations by region. Spartan women, for example, carried a higher status and role in society compared to other women and were treated differently. They could not vote, or participate in civil, political, or military proceedings. They were, however, permitted to own and inherit land, receive the same physical training that men did, wear clothes of their own choice, work in shops, run businesses, and pursue artistic interests. Many of them distinguished themselves in the areas of their pursuits. Then there were courtesans, slave women, sex-workers, brothel prostitutes, higher-class prostitutes, and other like-women. They fell outside normal society and were treated at variance with the citizen women.39 Girls married at the age of fourteen or fifteen, but men when they were in their late twenties or early thirties. Marriages were arranged by fathers or guardians. Dowry was expected and all girls were expected to marry. Love or romance had very little to do with marriage, a general positive feeling about it was enough. Marriages could end in three ways: 1) when the husband repudiated his wife and threw her out of the home no reason was necessary, 2) when the wife left the home of her husband

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Chapter One

for any reason, and 3) when the father of the wife asked for her return on any pretext. Marriages could also end by mutual consent and overall divorce policies were liberal. However, a bad reputation came with divorce, and women were hesitant to bring about divorce proceedings.40 Education was essential for boys and girls. Their initial education entailed reading, writing, and basic arithmetic. Their higher education was focused on literature, poetry, philosophy, history, astronomy, religion, mythology, music, and other fine arts. Athletics was also considered essential for both sexes. Boys, however, were encouraged more toward intellectual and professional accomplishments, and girls more toward taking care of household duties and the rearing of children. Women were also expected to be proficient in dance, music, gymnastics, and fine arts. So the intellectual achievements of women were handicapped, although many did distinguish themselves in their areas of endeavor.41 Rituals and ceremonies were important, and women were expected to play a significant role in them. Activities in them were masculine only, feminine only, and mixed. Accordingly, in some rituals and ceremonies women were excluded, in some men were excluded, and in some both men and women participated. Deities were both male and female, and they were worshipped by both men and women.42 In ancient Rome and ancient Israel similar circumstances prevailed, but with variations according to the land, the people, and their social, cultural, and political histories.43 In summary, the status, role, and equality of women with men varied in ancient times from one period to another, and from one society to another. Generally, the earlier times were better for women as they enjoyed considerable freedom of movement and accomplishments, and were held in high regard. But hurdles and bottlenecks were always there in relation to their rights, privileges, authority, and power. Public arenas, administration, and political participation were three main areas where women were specially excluded, and men dominated there. The preference for a male child over a female child was there in most societies, and having a male child was almost essential for ritual purposes and for the continuation of the progeny. That was particularly true during the later periods. The expressed equality of men and women was more symbolic than real. In symbolic terms, women were raised to the level of “goddess”, capable of doing anything and bestowing boons upon people, but in reality, gaps existed between the symbolic equality and the practical equality, and men were in advantageous positions in most areas of functioning. The above circumstances applied to almost all societies across different cultures, and so the problems of status, role, authority, and power have existed for women since the earliest times. As societies moved forward these issues

Introduction

9

became bigger and increased in intensity. Thus, women were never equal to men, even though visionaries and reformers had tried to accomplish that from time to time.44

Europe and America Europe had gone through very tough times during the earlier parts of the Middle Ages due to the tense internal conditions and the invasions which had been coming from the outside. By the tenth century, things started calming down as foreign invasions ceased, and that gave Europe room for stabilization and balancing. Agricultural and technological innovations had come on board, production had increased, populations had expanded, and towns and cities were growing. All of this gave a boost to trade, and new methods of economic dealings were invented. But ups and downs continued, and violent clashes with the Islamic states added to the uncertainties. Nevertheless, the power of the church continued to grow. This led to the organization of military orders, and several Christian states were established. Papacy now started demanding temporal authority in addition to the religious authority which it already had. This led to clashes between states and the church, and these clashes intensified over time. The church had been under attack from the public since 1024 due to its autocratic functioning, revision of pristine Christian teachings, and increased leanings toward secular practices. With time these attacks and clashes increased. There were internal dissensions within the church, and they played a part in prevailing tensions and confusions. A fusion of philosophy and theology had been occurring, scholastic thought was gaining ground, and systematic approaches to the discovery of truth were being emphasized. This led to many new trends in science and religion. Chivalry, courtship, love, and romance were also being advocated, and people were paying attention to that. This led to further changes in the arts, literature, living styles, and aspirations. The windmill, heavy plow, horse collar, and advanced methods of preparing war materials had been invented, alongside other developments. Both the state and the church benefited from these changes. As far as theology, teachings, and practices were concerned, the church maintained its medieval position, and resistance to that came from the laity. People wanted the church to be more transparent in its functioning and involve common folks more in its decision-making processes. That did not happen, and so frustrations and tensions increased. People started breaking away from the church and new religious orders started to form. These orders favored Apostolic living,

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Chapter One

hermetic practices, and the taking back of Christianity to its earlier beginnings.45 During the Late Middle Ages, trends toward commercialization, urbanization, and secularization increased. Industrialization was also gaining ground, and the mobility of people to towns and cities was expanding. As a result of these events, feudal customs and traditions started to weaken, relationships and affairs became more formal, and traditional support networks started to decline. Extended families started to give way to nuclear families. Climate changes occurred and, accompanied by overspecialization of cropping patterns, brought frequent economic downturns. The number of workers shrank, production decreased, and social unrest began. On the other hand, the changes also led to advances in art, philosophy, science, theology, and literature, and a new Renaissance appeared. That impacted society and the people’s way of life changed. Faith and reason became different domains, legal changes occurred, and customary law started falling into disfavor. The Protestant Reformation occurred in 1517 and it challenged many of the previous premises and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. That movement soon spread across Europe. The Protestant Reformation emphasized individualism, humanism, and advocated non-traditional approaches to religious practices. One example of this was that each person could choose their own religious functioning and be their own priest. The Bible was still the final authority for religious affairs, but information and guidance for religious affairs could now come from other sources.46 Explorations, discoveries, and innovations during the latter part of the Late Middle Ages also impacted society as new trade routes were discovered. Among the navigators responsible for that were Prince Henry, Bartolomeu Dias, Vasco de Gama, Christopher Columbus, and John Cabot. They helped connect Europe to a much wider world; commercially, culturally, and politically. Religious warfare continued and revolutions occurred in many lands. Thus, the tapestry of Europe changed further. Democracy was also gaining momentum, and the English Parliament and French Estates General came into existence. Centralization of power occurred and territorial power weakened. Religious education remained important throughout, but secular education was there by its side. Accordingly, secular art and literature mushroomed. All of these events impacted both men and women of Europe47 Much of what had happened in Europe also occurred later in America, but with variations according to the land, the people, their circumstances, and their history. A new world had emerged with the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492. But most colonies were

Introduction

11

founded after 1600, and by 1770 there were thirteen colonies with a population of about 2.5 million. These colonies were ruled by the British Crown. People in these colonies were independent-minded and the British rule was autocratic. As a result, conflicts were occurring and intensified by 1765. In 1776 a “Declaration of Independence” was issued explaining why they regarded themselves as no longer under British rule. Freedom finally came in 1783 with the “Treaty of Paris.” A new constitution was written in 1787 and adopted in 1789. In 1791 a “Bill of Rights” was added which guaranteed people several fundamental rights; they included equality, liberty, and freedom. With the passage of time, more colonies were established in the South and the West. The population grew, economic activities expanded, and more prosperity came to the nation. However, ideological issues lingered on. One of them related to the existing slavery in the country. The North was in favor of getting rid of this menace, but the South was not. Abraham Lincoln came to power as president in 1960, and one of his platforms was halting and removing slavery from the land. The South did not want this. Therefore, seven Southern states separated from the Union and established their own Confederacy. A civil war followed which lasted from 1861 to 1865. The North won that war, but Lincoln had already freed all the slaves in the South in 1863 through his “Emancipation Proclamation Act.” Slavery finally ended in America in 1865 with the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Jim Crow laws of the 1870s prolonged the issue, as they denied some basic rights to blacks and poor white people. This problem was resolved through the civil rights movement of the 1960s. Some issues, however, still lingered on and continued to plague the nation for many more years to come.48 The above-mentioned historical circumstances reshaped the lives of men and women in Europe and America, and the influences were both negative and positive. On the negative side, people experienced a sense of loss of what they had in earlier times and expressed how their lives had changed due to the changing circumstances. Now they no longer had the same cozy and secure environment as they had when they lived in small villages and towns, and they could not experience the warmth provided by extended family members, friends, neighbors, and other community members. The informal functioning of the social order they loved, and which provided them empathy, sympathy, help, cooperation, togetherness, and belongingness, was no longer there. Relationships, values, beliefs, and workings had become diluted, and mobility brought them face to face with strangers whose backgrounds and orientations they were not aware of. Increasing commercialization, industrialization, and urbanization also

12

Chapter One

affected their lives and thrust them into many difficulties never experienced before. They felt lonely in the environment of towns and cities and were forced to work for others, where competition to land a job was strong and working conditions were very poor. Other insecurities loomed large and the risks of manipulation and exploitation were many. No help was available in cases of emergencies and sickness, and that brought additional havocs in living. The sense of fairness and justice was disappearing, and life was caught up in struggles. Hunger and poverty were common. In these circumstances living an ideal life was difficult, and even, almost, unthinkable. On the positive side, the occurring changes brought some new opportunities to the people. The constraining environment of the medieval days was no longer there, and people felt freer to act and live as they wished. They also felt enthused by the new developments and challenges, and they had fresh hopes, aspirations, ambitions, and goals for a better living. They also felt more inclined toward progress, invention, and adventure; desiring more material wealth and comforts. Their outlook had changed, and they were now aware of larger social and political issues. New knowledge excited them, and their sense of individuality became stronger. They liked the democratic trends and felt more empowered vis-à-vis the collectivities and the state.49

Women’s Issues The influences of the above-mentioned circumstances were common to men and women but, for women, there were additional issues due to the biases and prejudices against them throughout the centuries. The main questions were: 1) whether or not women had an independent existence, separate from men; 2) whether or not women were full citizens of society; 3) whether or not women were to be treated on a par with men at home and outside of the home; 4) whether or not women had the same rights to freedom that men had; 5) whether or not women had the right to consent to marriage; 6) whether or not women had the right to choose their marriage partners; 7) whether or not women had the right to divorce their husbands; 8) whether or not women were entitled to the same privileges and responsibilities at home and outside of the home that men were; 9) whether or not women could keep their names after marriage; 10) whether or not women could decide where to live; 11) whether or not women could dress as they liked; 12) whether or not women could have custody of their children after a divorce; 13) whether or not women had the same guardianship rights to their children, both during and after a marriage, that men had; 14) whether or not women had the same rights to ownership of

Introduction

13

property, possessions, titles, and rulings that men had; 15) whether or not women could inherit property and titles, and pass them on to others; 16) whether or not women could sell their property and possessions; 17) whether or not women had survivor’s rights to possessions, incomes, pensions, and property; 18) whether or not women could work outside of their homes; 19) whether or not women could keep their wages and incomes; 20) whether or not women could run businesses and be legally responsible for them; 21) whether or not women could enter into contracts and be legally responsible for them; 22) whether or not women could borrow money in their own names; 23) whether or not women were free to enter into trades, occupations, and professions such as law, medicine, teaching, and theology; 24) whether or not women could participate in the security services, and have the same roles and responsibilities that men had; 25) whether or not women could have the same work conditions, wages, salaries, promotions, and ranks, for the same qualifications that men had; 26) whether or not women could have the same prescribed moral standards in social and religious settings that men had; 27) whether or not women could use contraceptives, have abortions, and have a say in maintaining the size of the family; 28) whether or not women could have protection against sexual mistreatment, sex trafficking, and rape; 29) whether or not women could participate in labor unions; 30) whether or not women could have continuity in their jobs in cases of childbirth and other exigencies; 31) whether or not women could have the same rights to education, both basic and higher, that men had; 32) whether or not women could participate in public affairs; 33) whether or not women could openly express their views in public; 34) whether or not women could hold public offices; 35) whether or not women could participate in political processes; 36) whether or not women could vote; 37) whether or not women could take part in governmental and non-governmental activities; 38) whether or not women could have the same treatment before the law as men had; 39) whether or not women could participate in legal proceedings, represent themselves in legal cases, serve as witnesses, and serve on juries; 40) whether or not women had the freedom to have their own religious faith, separate from men; and 41) whether or not women had the same sexual flexibility away from marriage that men had.50 All of the above-mentioned questions begged answers, and the main sources for these were the legislative bodies, the governments, the churches, the social organizations, and the people. However, there were other problems and issues which begged attention, and among them were the issues of temperance, slavery, the miserable conditions of mentally ill people, the mishandling of prisoners, the bad treatment of Native

14

Chapter One

Americans, and a distrust of foreigners. The dangers of strife and war were present, and these threats were internal as well as external. Poverty, hunger, unemployment, work issues, environment issues, religious reform issues, health and sanitation issues, resettlement of migrants, food shortages, corruption at different levels, and conciliation/reconciliation issues were there, which presented challenges and begged attention and resources. Thus, women’s issues were in a competing position with them in terms of attention, consideration, efforts, and allocation of resources.51

Women’s Struggle Women suffered a lot through the centuries and bore adverse circumstances without much complaining or protesting. The needs were there for the establishment of their identity, dignity, honor, credibility, worth, independence, and the same rights as men. Customs, traditions, and institutions that were overbearing to them, and applied pressures on them, also needed changing. But men were at the helm of the affairs and already possessed privileged positions. Accordingly, not much help could be expected of them, and attainment of the changes was difficult to come by. From time to time some women did try to deal with that situation and attempted to fight against the prejudices and discriminative practices they faced. But the countercurrents were strong, and their efforts, energies, and means could not match them. Social movements from time to time tried to do the same, but these also failed to bring in long-lasting changes, and the bases and fundamentals of women’s lives remained about the same. This situation continued up to relatively recent times when, finally, an opportunity appeared. Women grabbed that opportunity and were able to start their struggle in a more comprehensive and organized way. The year was 1840 and the place was London. An Anti-Slavery World Convention was to be held there, with delegates invited from many nations. America was to participate and delegates from the two antislavery societies were selected. Among them were women as well as men. When the proceedings were about to begin a question arose as to where to seat the women delegates, and whether or not they were to be allowed to participate in the convention. This matter became contentious when the speeches and discussions started. Finally, a vote was taken of the present delegates and that turned out to be negative. Thus, it was declared that the women from America could not sit with the male delegates, and their status in the convention was to be that of “observers”, and not of “participants.” This situation irritated the American delegates and, accordingly, most male delegates chose to sit with the women to mark

Introduction

15

their protest at the decision of the convention organizers. Among the American female delegates were two prominent activists, Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who were witnesses to the great insult poked at the women. In the evening the two women met at the hotel where they were staying and decided to take the matter further; to bring it to some satisfactory conclusion in the near future. However, eight years passed after their return to America. Lucretia had been busy with her preaching and speaking tours, and Elizabeth had been busy with her home life and family matters. In 1848 the two women happened to meet again in the town where Lucretia’s sister lived and where, in the nearby town of Waterloo, Lucretia attended a Quaker convention every year. At that time these two women, and some other ladies, put forth a call for a “Woman’s Rights Convention” for the same year; the first of its kind in America. That convention did take place at Seneca Falls, New York, and Lucretia’s husband, James Mott, presided over it. Women’s issues were discussed, speeches were made, and a “Declaration of Sentiments”, modeled after the “Declaration of Independence” of 1776, was presented. Many other resolutions were also passed at the convention. Thus, the struggle of women to gain equality with men in terms of the same rights and privileges began in earnest.52 The “Declaration of Sentiments” contained both conceptual and practical aspects; it was pointed out that the conditions and circumstances which women faced were poor, and that the guilty parties responsible for the situation were men, the church, and the government. It was also mentioned that God had made men and women equal, and bestowed upon them the same inalienable rights and privileges of life, liberty, freedom, and happiness. These rights and privileges were to be enjoyed and protected jointly. Instead of opposing these rights and privileges, the church and the government were to respect and protect them. If a church or a government failed to do that then it should be replaced by one which would. It was also added that the church and the American government had denied women the rights and privileges to which they were entitled and, for that reason, women had suffered much. Accordingly, changes were in order in the stands, views, and practices of the church and the government in order to be fairer to women. Men were also the culprits, as they had inflicted many tyrannies and injuries upon women over the centuries. Examples of this were: 1) men withheld from women the right to citizenship and participation in civic, political, and religious affairs; 2) men did not allow women to exercise the right of franchise; 3) men made women submit to laws in which they had no voice in the formation; 4) men withheld from women other rights to which they were entitled; 5)

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Chapter One

men oppressed women in all possible ways; 6) men denied women the same status in marriage; 7) men denied women the right to own property and the wages they earned; 8) men made women morally corrupt; 9) men made women obey them and treat them like masters; 10) men made divorce and guardianship of children one-sided; 11) men kept all the power to themselves and claimed supremacy over women; 12) men taxed women’s property without the benefit of representation; 13) men monopolized profitable and lucrative employment opportunities for themselves, and left women the unattractive jobs with low remuneration; 14) men closed women’s other avenues of gaining wealth and distinction; 15) men blocked women’s entry into theology, law, and medicine; 16) men blocked women’s opportunities for full education; 17) men allowed women only subordinate positions in the state, church, and social organizations, and excluded them from the top positions; 18) men created false sentiments against women; 19) men created double standards which were lenient for themselves and constrictive for women; 20) men restricted the spheres of women’s activities; and 21) men contrived to lessen women’s confidence in their powers and self-respect, and made them willing to lead the life of dependents.53 On these and other issues relating to the conditions and circumstances of women, and the excesses of the church, the government, and men, resolutions came forth one by one. These resolutions were read loudly, commented upon briefly, and then adopted by the participating members through voting. The summary content of these resolutions was: 1) women had the right to pursue their true and substantial happiness; 2) any law that conflicted with the goal of true and substantial happiness of women was to be taken as invalid; 3) all laws that denied women a proper place in society, or made them take a position inferior to men, were to be taken as devoid of authority; 4) women were men’s equals, were intended to be so by the Creator, and the highest good of the race demanded that they be recognized in that way; 5) women ought to be aware of the laws under which they lived; 6) women ought not exhibit degradation and should not be satisfied with the present circumstances; 7) women ought not accept that they already had the rights they wanted; 8) women ought to obtain the right to express themselves and participate in religious and other activities; 9) speaking in public audiences by women must not be taken as indelicacy or impropriety; 10) the same amount of virtue, delicacy, and refinement of behaviour required of women must also be required of men; 11) women ought not accept the current circumscribed limits, and must move forward to larger spheres; 12) women should get the right to vote; 13) the equal capabilities and responsibilities of women must be recognized, and they should have same

Introduction

17

rights as men; 14) women should promote righteous causes through righteous means, especially in the areas of morality and religion; and 15) any customs, traditions, or authorities, of ancient or modern origins, which were adverse to the women’s goals should be taken as false and considered at war with the interests of mankind. Lucretia summed up the spirit and purpose of the convention by declaring that the speedy success of women’s causes needed a zealous and untiring effort, where men’s cooperation was also welcome.54 Reactions to the Seneca Falls convention and the resolutions it adopted were very negative from the media, the churches, and the public. But the women organizers did not care for that and decided to move on. After the Seneca Falls convention similar meetings were held in other locations, pointing out the unjust conditions in which women lived and functioned. The results of these started to emerge, albeit slowly. Education, for example, had been confined mostly to boys, and a few girls from upperclass families.55 After 1870, girls from working-class families began to get an education and thereby enhanced their employment opportunities. The typewriter went on sale in 1874, the telephone was invented in 1876, and the job market had broadened. This allowed more women from workingclass families to enter the job market. Laws had existed in Britain since 1842 banning children under the age of ten from working and, from 1847, both children and women could work for no more than ten hours a day in textile mills. By 1867 that rule applied to all children and women working in all situations. What was happening in Europe also started to happen in America, and protective laws for children and women were attended to. The beating of women became punishable by law. Strides were being made in other domains too. Oberlin College became the first institution to confer bachelor’s degrees on women in the 1860s, and the process of educational achievements by women never shrank back after that. The first female doctor in America came on board in 1849, the first woman with a Ph.D. degree in 1877, the first woman ran for the presidency of America in 1872, one woman was elected as a mayor in 1887, 1895 produced the first female dentist, and 1898 saw the first female architect. That list went on and on. Then there were female members of the parliament, congresswomen, governors, judges, lawyers, teachers, professors, bank managers, secretaries of the state, cabinet ministers, scientists, civil servants, and many others. Property and wage issues were also attended to. Mississippi was the first state to grapple with such issues in 1839, followed by New York in 1858, with other states following in a similar manner. The progress made during the nineteenth century was carried over into the twentieth century. Wyoming became the first state to let women vote in 1896, and general

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Chapter One

voting for women across America was allowed in 1920. Selective voting for women in Britain started in 1918, and general voting in 1928. Strangely, however, not all women were in favor of gaining the right to vote; an example of that was the surfacing of the Women’s National AntiSuffrage League in 1908. One main organization that fought for the causes of women was the National Organization of Women (NOW) which was founded in 1966. Other organizations that fought for the causes of women were the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) which was established in 1897, and the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) which was established in 1903. In America the corresponding organizations were the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), both of which were established in 1869, but then merged in 1890. Men were also trying to help in women’s causes; an example being the Men’s League for Women’s Suffrage founded in 1907.56 The changes happening in Britain and America also started to happen in other countries. Organizations from local to national levels were busy dealing with woman’s issues and making progress on them. For example, women being allowed to vote was allowed in New Zealand in 1893, Australia in 1902, Finland in 1906, Norway in 1913, Denmark in 1915, Canada in 1917, Germany, Poland, Russia, and Austria in 1918, the Netherlands in 1919, Sweden in 1921, Britain and Ireland in 1928, Spain in 1931, Turkey in 1934, France in 1944, Italy in 1945, Argentina, Japan, Mexico, India, and Pakistan in 1947, China in 1949, Greece in 1952, and in other countries later. The breadth of occupations also expanded and female workers, officers, and entrepreneurs could now be seen in every field. Progress was being made in other areas too. The League of Nations, the United Nations, and other international organizations got involved and were busy dealing with the problems and issues faced by women. Thus, progress was being made in relation to women’s problems and issues all over the globe, though many issues lingered on and required further attention from governments, churches, social organizations, the public, and other international bodies.57

This Work With his interest in peace, pacifism, and welfare in society, the author of this work has focused on the lives, endeavors, reform effort, and contributions of eight pioneer women from England and America, and the lessons learned from them have been discussed in the final conclusion chapter. These early pioneer women belonged to different time periods

Introduction

19

(the seventeenth century through to early modern times), came from different backgrounds, and had varied interests in the problems and issues of human beings. But all of them wanted people to have better lives and, to that single mission, they devoted their whole lives without expecting anything in return. These early pioneer women, as mentioned in the Preface, were: Margaret Fell (1614-1702), Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845), Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), Lucretia Mott (1793-1880), Dorothea Lynde Dix (1802-1885), Margaret Fuller (1810-1850), Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902), and Jane Addams (1860-1935). The contributions of these women were significant and many-sided, and they carved for themselves permanent places in the history of humankind. By way of their initial introductions, Margaret Fell was called the “Mother of Quakerism.” She belonged to the nobility in England, was one of the first converts to the Quaker faith, and was also a co-founder of Quakerism. She was a staunch feminist who rebelled against the existing church practices which discriminated against women and she was part of the group of “Valiant Sixty” preachers who traveled from one place to another to spread the messages of Quakerism among the people. With all her might she supported George Fox, the father of Quakerism, and eleven years after the death of her husband became his life partner. She was an eminent leader of the Quaker movement and was on a par with men like Fox and others. She helped coordinate its travel ministry, operated its Kendal Fund, promoted the Gospel, advocated for Quakers who were imprisoned by the authorities, and took care of their families. She declared that women should have the same role in society that men had, and also wrote Women’s Speaking Justified to indicate that preaching by women was justified, approved, and allowed in the scriptures. Elizabeth Fry was also from England and came from high-class society. She was a Quaker by faith, a Christian philanthropist, a social reformer, and early on had worked for the betterment of insane and homeless people. Later, after her visit to Newgate Prison, she developed an interest in improving the living conditions and treatment of women prisoners and, in the process, also brought many changes to the prison system and the penal code. She was a driving force behind the passing of many laws directed at the more humane treatment of prisoners and earned the epithet of “Angel of Prisons.” Many features of the prison systems that we see today were actually suggested by her. Mary Wollstonecraft was also from England. She was the daughter of a farmer and later turned herself into a forceful writer, philosopher, journalist, scholar, educator, and women’s rights activist. She wrote novels, treaties, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children’s book. However, she became more known for her works A

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Chapter One

Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. She was very daring in her life and actions and became a role model for many other reformers and activists, including Lucretia Mott, Margaret Fuller, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony. Lucretia Mott was also a Quaker. She was an ordained minister, reformer, activist, pacifist, abolitionist, and a role model for women like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Lucy Stone. She was one of the founders of the women’s rights movement and a very powerful advocate of the causes of women. She focused her energies on the issues of temperance, religious reform, and peace problems too. Dorothea Lynde Dix came from a humble family background, but her grandparents were quite successful and invited her to live with them at the age of twelve. She wanted to become a model teacher and was successful, but her interest was later diverted to the treatment and welfare of the mentally ill. In that field she created a world-wide revolution while also contributing to the efforts of the Civil War, siding with the North. The fields of mental health and treatment of the mentally ill owe a lot to her national and international efforts. Margaret Fuller came from a well-off family and was an influential author, philosopher, and activist. She was also a journalist, editor, critic, and reviewer. She advocated for the rights of women, including their independence and self-sufficiency. The transcendentalist movement was strong during her times and she was a part of that movement too. Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a mother, philosopher, reformer, activist, abolitionist, and historian of the women’s rights struggle. She, too, was one of the founders of the women’s rights movement, and her role in it remained crucial throughout her lifetime. She advocated women’s equality with men and an overall understanding of women’s issues by society. Later in her life she devoted time to other wider issues. She died peacefully in 1902 knowing that her life’s mission had been accomplished. Finally, Jane Addams, who also came from an upper-class society and became a social worker, community organizer, reformer, and activist. She was a pacifist, peace activist, and founder of the settlement movement in America which later became a model for all other settlement facilities in the country. She was a thinker, scholar, philosopher, author, and suffragist. Later in life, she co-founded the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, and was a co-winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. It is hoped that reformers, activists, scholars, and students will benefit from this work by drawing their own conclusions and inspirations from the lives, endeavors, struggles, sacrifices, and achievements of these early pioneer women. We begin the next chapter with the case study of Elizabeth Fell.

CHAPTER TWO MARGARET FELL A FIRST IN FEMINISM, ADVOCACY, AND RELIGIOUS-POLITICAL REFORM

Introduction This case study pertains to an early pioneer woman, Margaret Fell (1614-1702), who was a foremost follower of George Fox, the founder of Quakerism, and who married him in 1669 after being a widow for eleven years. Many of Margaret’s activities, endeavors, and ministry were guided by the teachings of Fox and The New Testament, through which she advised, exhorted, and explained the principles and practices of Quakerism to other Quakers and the public. She was born and raised in seventeenthcentury England and, by nature, was brave, compassionate, caring, and eager to know God and Truth. She worked and strived during the times when the world mostly belonged to men, and all important outside activities were monopolized by men. This was particularly true of the activities in the religious and political realms. Margaret rose above these barriers through her determination and strong willpower, and became one of the pillars of the Quaker sect, alongside men like Fox, Nayler, and others. Her education and high position in society also helped. She believed in the spiritual equality of women with men and advocated on women’s behalf. Thus, she became one of the first to proclaim equal religious rights for women and was a forerunner of the later feminist movement in America in the mid-nineteenth century.1 She vigorously participated in the Quaker movement, took part in the ministry, counseled other preachers, collected funds for needy Quakers and their families, provided them with help and support, advocated on behalf of imprisoned Quakers, helped those facing court trials, ran the affairs of Swarthmoor Hall, and met the needs of the residents and visitors. She managed the Kendal fund for supporting traveling missionaries, corresponded with all sorts of people, and wrote much to clarify the positions of the sect. She

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further tried to find in the scriptures an equal place for women alongside men, wrote epistles and pamphlets that enhanced the Quaker movement, and encouraged others to write about the issues and dilemmas faced by the sect.2 In relation to all that and more, Margaret worked hard her whole life and earned the epithet of “Mother of Quakerism.” Isabel Ross, in her preface to Mother of Quakerism, wrote about her: “Indeed (she) was an outstanding woman, a pioneer in thought, with grace of body and mind, a woman winning the love and respect of great numbers of men and women by her understanding of sympathy, her wisdom, and her power to encourage and inspire. She had the spiritual qualities which revealed to her profound religious truths and in addition she had the practical ability which enabled her to manage a large household and estate and help to organize the growing body of Friends into a coherent whole, resilient against the troubles of the time.”3 In overall terms, the main points to be remembered about her personality and accomplishments were: 1) her unshakable faith in the Christian teachings and in Fox; 2) her immense zeal to promote the Quaker movement and enhance Quaker beliefs and practices among the people; 3) her active participation in the Quaker ministry and counseling of other preachers; 4) her help and support of needy Quakers who were being persecuted, punished, tortured, or were being brought before the courts; 5) her help and support of needy Quaker families; 6) her engagement in advocacy and reform work as needed; 7) bringing a fresh look at the scriptures, and finding in them a balanced view of men and women; 8) proving and establishing women’s ability to speak in public and their right to preach; 9) bringing more flexibility to religious matters; and 9) through her leadership and work serving as an example to others in the Quaker movement.4 Margaret worked hard her whole life and practiced, preached, wrote, served, counseled, and did all kinds of other work. She also enhanced the Quaker movement in so many ways. Below we reflect upon her life, mission, goals, endeavors, workings, and overview some of her writings. The lessons learned will be indicated in the conclusion chapter.

Early Life Margaret’s maiden name was Margaret Askew and she was born of good, honest, and reputed parents in 1614 at Marsh Grange in the parish of Dalton-in-Furness in Lancashire, England. England, in those days, was facing many political, religious, and social upheavals in the form of rivalries, intrigues, wars, shortages, and other problems that were spread widely throughout the country. Accordingly, there was much dissatisfaction

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among the people and new sects had been forming. Margaret’s father was John Askew who valued his country and was known for his moderation and patience. He belonged to the landed gentry of England and was bred in the manner suitable for the upper classes. In spite of the isolated location of his estate, in the north of England where he lived, he made sure that both Margaret and her sister received a good education suitable for his class. Thus, both the sisters received high education and were destined to gain respectable positions in society. Little is known about Margaret’s mother or her other relatives from the available records.5 In 1632, at the age of seventeen or eighteen, Margaret married an aspiring young attorney, Thomas Fell (1598-1658). He, too, belonged to the landed gentry of England and had easy access to the royalty. At the time of marriage, he was thirty-four years old and had recently inherited a large estate of Swarthmoor and Hawkswell, near Ulverston, which extended to Morecambe Bay. Swarthmoor Hall was a part of that estate, and later became a place where much Quaker activity took place for many years. He was a bright man and worked at Gray’s Inn. In 1641 he became a Justice of the Peace for Lancashire, and a few years later became a Judge of Assize of the Chester and North Wales Circuit. In 1648 he became Sequestrian Commissioner of Safety, in 1649 was given the office of ViceChancellor of the County Palatine of Lancaster, and in 1655 was made Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He also represented Lancashire in the British Parliament between 1646 and 1653. When Oliver Cromwell came to power and started expanding his authority, he positioned himself against that and moved away from all political activities.6 In relation to his work Thomas had to travel a lot and was away from home for weeks and months. Margaret, in the meanwhile, oversaw the affairs of the estate and took care of the home, children, servants, visitors, and the rest. Kindness, integrity, openness, and honesty were parts of the personalities of Thomas and Margaret, and their religious leanings were strong. They tried to help one and all, and their doors remained open for the rich as well as the poor. Thus, the couple passed the first twenty years of their married life and together brought nine children into the world. One of the children died in infancy but the other eight survived to adulthood.7 The couple had a close relationship, and Margaret wrote: “He was a tender loving husband to me.” 8 In relation to other people she wrote: “He was much esteemed in his country, and valued, and honoured in his day by all sorts of people, for his justice, wisdom, moderation, and mercy; being a terror to evil doers, and an encourager of such as did well.”9

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Fox and Quakerism The seventeenth century was a critical period for England. The Protestant Reformation had already occurred and several Puritan sects had emerged. Social and political conditions were uncertain and upheavals were common. Political democracy, common ownership of resources, and the leveling of class differences were being advocated. A primitive form of communism had appeared. Men and women could now read the Bible on their own and interpret its messages. Reason as well as faith were the bases of that. The belief was that the soul could communicate directly with the Creator and so there was no need for any intermediary priest. People, therefore, stopped going to church gatherings and started meeting in homes to worship God in their own ways. They challenged the workings of the state and the church and pointed out their inadequacies. They desired change and sought the freedom to discover God and Truth on their own. In this environment of confusion, questioning, and protests, new sects were born. Among them were “Diggers,” “Levellers,” “Ranters,” Muggletonians,” “Brownists,” “Familists,” “Independents,” “Seekers,” “Fifth Monarchists,” “Mennonites,” and “Quakers.” All these sects challenged the orthodoxies and disowned ordained ministry. They wanted only the Holy Spirit to guide them and additionally emphasized that the messages of the Bible could not be understood without the “inner light” that resided within each person. Simple living and behaviors were also emphasized, and their goal was to take Christianity to its pristine beginnings.10 Most of the new sects, mentioned above, disappeared as quickly as they had appeared. Only Mennonites and Quakers survived to later times. The founder of Quakerism was George Fox, born in 1624 in a Puritan family with strict religious standards. As a boy, he was troubled by the competing claims in Christianity and left home at the age of nineteen to find his own answers about God and Truth. He traveled north to put his questions before many lay people and clergymen, but no one gave him satisfactory answers. In 1647, when he was wandering on the moors of Yorkshire and Lancashire, he had a revelation, “There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can speak to thy condition.”11 After that George had many more revelations and, collectively, they became the bases of Quakerism. The main themes in Quakerism were: 1) God was the only “true teacher” who spoke to people inwardly, in the depths of their hearts through the “inner spirit”, and revealed all needed knowledge and guidance; 2) there was no need for any outside teacher, priest, or guide; 3) God’s “word” was written first on the hearts of people, and then it took the forms of scriptures, rituals, sacraments, and other practices; 4) revelations had a priority over

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the scriptures, rituals, sacraments, and other practices; 5) each person was inherently divine and carried a “divine light” within; 6) each person, therefore, was self-enlightened and was to be self-guided; 7) each person had the capacity to have revelations, and thus gain needed knowledge and guidance; 8) all revelations were individual, but they were to be shared and compared in collective settings; 9) meetings for sharing and comparing the revelations could be held at any time and at any place; 10) pursuit of faith required loyalty, devotion, genuineness, and sincerity; and 11) outcomes of the revelations were to be noticed and practiced in all walks of life, and on all occasions. One more core consideration in Quakerism was that life was meant to serve God, who resided in each person in the form of the Holy Spirit and provided an “inner voice” to the person. That “inner voice” was to be listened to and attention was to be paid to the callings coming from within. Other important considerations in Quakerism were: 1) people were equal spiritually, 2) everyone was noble and worthy, and 3) everyone deserved the same treatment and salvation. Shared living was emphasized, and the belief was that it made the hearts of people come together and gave them a common consciousness. Love of God appeared through that. Service to others was important and each person had to find time for it no matter how busy they were. Simplicity, integrity, humility, hard work, entrepreneurship, self-reflection, and selfreform were also essential, and were to be practiced in ways that “life spoke for itself.”12 Quakerism remained stable for a time, but then circumstances started changing and with that the tradition also changed. In later years the sect was divided into three main branches: 1) Conservative Quakers - who stuck to the original beliefs and practices, 2) Liberal Quakers - who adjusted the beliefs and practices according to changing circumstances, and 3) Evangelical Quakers - who took the beliefs and practices back to the form from which the sect had originally parted.13

Turning Point The Interregnum Period of the English Civil War began in 1649 and many changes occurred in quick succession. People were still dissatisfied and frustrated, and some dissident groups started merging with the Quakers, calling themselves “Children of Light” and “First Publishers of Truth.” George, in the meantime, had spent the years 1648 and 1649 in the Midlands, and the year 1650 mostly in jail. In 1652 he visited Pendle Hill. While coming down from that he had another revelation about “a great people to be gathered, dressed in white raiment.”14 From thereon he started preaching formally and accepting followers. People felt attracted to him

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because they found his messages straightforward and coming from his inner experiences of God and Truth. He was twenty-eight years old by then and had already witnessed much opposition to his movement from the clergy and lay people.15 During his wanderings in June 1652 he happened to visit Swarthmoor Hall. Judge Fell was away at that time on his circuit tour. Margaret was also away for the day, but their son and six daughters were at home. George asked them if he could stay there for a few days and permission was granted. Margaret came home in the evening and met Fox. Upon talking to him her reaction was: “(He) opened as a book that we had never read in (about) the Light of Christ in our consciences.”16 A day or two later George visited the local parish church at Ulverston while Margaret, her children, and her servants were also there. It was a “lecture day” and, after the singing was over and the sermon was about to begin, George sought permission to speak. There he stood and addressed the clergy and the audience like this: “He is not a Jew that is outward, neither is that circumcision which is outward. But he is a Jew that is one inward, and that is circumcision which is of the heart.”17 He went on to explain that Christ was the “Light”, and that Light inwardly lighted every person who came into this world. The scriptures were the words of Christ and the Apostles, but it was the Spirit who gave birth to these words. He added: “You will say, Christ saith this, and the apostles say this; but what canst thou say? Art thou a child of Light, and hast thou walked in the Light, and what thou speakest is it inwardly from God?”18 Margaret also heard him, and a new light shined upon her. She revealed later: “This opened me so, that it cut me to the heart, and then I saw clearly we were all wrong. So I sat down in my pew and cried bitterly. And I cried in my spirit to the Lord, ‘we are all thieves; we have taken the scriptures in words, and know nothing of them in ourselves.’ ”19 At that point Margaret became emotional and did not clearly understand what Fox said further, but she understood that he shared his inner experiences with the audience and talked about false prophets and priests and deceivers of the people who merely taught in words but had no inner experiences.20 For that speech George was thrown out of the church, but he kept on preaching in the churchyard. Later in the evening, he spoke at Margaret’s place while the whole family listened. They were convinced of what George shared with them and were all converted to his persuasion. Margaret remarked: “I saw it was the truth, and I could not deny it; I did as the Apostle saith, ‘I received the truth in the love of it.’ ”21 Judge Fell returned home three weeks later. The neighbors told him that a great disaster had befallen his family; they had all been “bewitched,” and turned away from their religion. Judge Fell kept quiet. He first talked to James Naylor and Richard

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Farnsworth (Fox’s co-workers) who were there in his home by then, and then to Fox in the evening. He was impressed by them and understood the decision of Margaret and the children to change their faith. He did not convert to Quakerism, but always remained supportive of Quakers and protected them, during his tenure as a judge, from imprisonments, trials, and in other ways. He also allowed Quakers to use Swarthmoor Hall as a place for their activities which included the holding of meetings, lodging of visitors, and launching of missionaries from there. Thus started Margaret’s life as a Quaker and, from her home, she provided muchneeded stability and support to the movement during the times when no formal organization of Quakers existed, and they were being persecuted widely for all kinds of concerns and reasons.22

Quaker Movement After settling affairs at Swarthmoor Hall, George resumed his travels and spent a year and a half visiting Lancashire, Westmorland, Cumberland, West Yorkshire, and surrounding areas. He returned to Swarthmoor Hall from time to time. The clergymen, congregation, and lay people were still angry with George for his efforts at blasphemy, and he was routinely attacked, beaten, and punished. But Judge Fell and Margaret tried to help him as much as they could. George remained determined to spread the messages of Quakerism and, for that, he was willing to make any sacrifice. He continued to travel, preach, and deal with the difficulties. He started addressing the structural issues and slowly tried to build an organization. He also penned down his thoughts in a journal, wrote epistles, and became the most influential leader of the movement. Margaret tried to help him with that in all possible ways. Margaret also attended to the family affairs, entertained, fed, and supported the residents of Swarthmoor Hall, took care of the visitors to it, and started correspondence with the authorities, clergymen, persecutors, and the public to clarify the positions of the Quaker movement.23 She also wrote pamphlets and epistles to spread the messages of Quakerism. New converts were coming to Swarthmoor Hall with different backgrounds, orientations, and experiences; Margaret provided them with guidance and forged unity developed among them. This she did for the overall Quaker population as well. Traveling preachers reported their activities and difficulties to her. Sitting at the central controls in Swarthmoor Hall she managed and recorded all that, and tried to provide the necessary advice, guidance, support, and direction. All that is well-recorded in The First Publishers of Truth.24

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Margaret also had a deep understanding of the scriptures and had considerable knowledge of the Quaker beliefs and practices. Thus, she tried to put a new light on these subjects, particularly in relation to the status and role of women in religious affairs. George had already proclaimed the spiritual equality of women with men and allowed women to participate in the activities of the new church. Women, therefore, could read scriptures, could preach, and could participate in other endeavors of the Quaker movement. George had done this long before he put down his thoughts on the peace testimony. He had written in his journal that it was wrong of others to claim that women had no souls, “no more than a goose.” He repeated that assertion on many occasions and defended the right of women to speak and participate in religious activities. He also indicated that after the fall of Adam and Eve women had been restored to the status of “helpmeet” by Christ, and therefore any Biblical injunction against their speaking was misplaced and misunderstood by the people. In 1656, George wrote his first tract entitled The Women learning in Silence: or, the Mysterie of the womans Subjection to her Husband, as also, the Daughter prophesying, wherein the Lord hath, and is fulfilling that he spake by the Prophet Joel, I will pour out my Spirit unto all Flesh. Therein he also defended the right of women to speak, prophesize, and be part of the ministry. He made the same assertion again in other places such as his journal, epistles, and other publications, and continued to defend the right of women to speak, prophesize, and be part of the ministry, indicating that the Holy Spirit was available to all human beings and that gave women the right to speak and participate. However, controversies existed within the Quaker movement over whether or not women could be a part of the ministry. George, therefore, wrote his second tract entitled Concerning Sons and Daughters, and Prophetesses speaking and Prophesying in the Law and the Gospel. In that tract, he again defended the right of women to preach, prophesize, and be part of the ministry, indicating that Paul’s injunction against the speaking of women was meant only for those women who had not been reborn in Christ. For all other women preaching, prophesying, and being part of the ministry were allowed.25 Margaret, too, had a similar position on the subject and wanted to continue that dialogue. She wrote much on the subject and shared her views, positions, perceptions, and interpretations with others. She emphasized the supreme importance of each person and the equality of all human beings before God at the spiritual level. That led Margaret to develop her ideas of universal love, peace, harmony, cooperation, and denouncement of conflicts, wars, violence, unjust conditions, prejudices, and discriminations. Margaret was opposed to capital punishment and evils like lying, thieving,

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dishonesty, infidelity, drunkenness, and slavery. For all these views and positions she suffered much and was imprisoned three times, for different periods, by the Puritan and the Episcopalian governments.26

Trials and Tribulations The trials and tribulations of Quakers started from the beginning of the movement, and as their numbers increased the opposition to them also increased. Quakers were regularly beaten, harassed, fined, imprisoned, and brought before courts; their properties were confiscated, and their families suffered too. A large number of Quakers died in prisons. The main complaints against the Quakers were: 1) they had strange beliefs and practices; 2) their undertaken testimonies were weird; 3) they marched on to other churches and disrupted their proceedings; 4) they refused to bear arms; 5) they did not take the oath of allegiance in courts; 6) they did not show customary respect to the superiors; 7) they refused to pay tithes imposed by the churches; 8) they protested against the church and the government; and 9) they pointed to the corruption, covetousness, hypocrisy, and savage treatment of innocent people by the churches and the government.27 All of this angered the clergymen, the magistrates, the judges, and the governmental authorities, and their wrath fell upon the Quakers. The most punished of them was George Fox. Therefore a need existed for the support of Quakers and their advocacy before the authorities. Financial and legal help was needed; Margaret was busy collecting this and providing it to needy Quakers and their families. From time to time she also petitioned the authorities and pleaded with them to be more compassionate, understanding, and tolerant of Quakers and their beliefs, practices, and testimonies.28 In 1653, George was beaten by a mob at Ulverston on his way to Swarthmoor Hall, and he and Nayler were put in jail. Judge Fell was away at this time. As best as she could, Margaret tried to handle the situation and pleaded with the authorities for their release. Such occurrences were not uncommon but were regular events for Quakers. Again and again, Margaret tried to intervene and come to the rescue of suffering Quakers. Judge Fell also tried to help and tried to protect Quakers in all possible ways. Four times Margaret wrote to Oliver Cromwell; in 1653, 1655, 1657, and again in 1657, pleading with him to bring relief to Quakers. She wrote to the council, to officers of the army, and to members of Parliament. For that, she traveled to London on several occasions and stayed there for extended periods making petitions to the authorities on

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behalf of the Quakers being persecuted. She also met with King Charles II and King James II.29 Judge Fell died in 1658 and the problems of Quakers increased. A share of Swarthmoor Hall came to Margaret, with the rest of the estate going to her son, George. The activities of the Quakers continued uninterrupted. The English Civil War started in 1642; in 1649 King Charles I was beheaded, and his son King Charles II ascended the throne. Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan faction of the English Protestant Movement came to power. But chaos continued and dissident groups kept on forming. Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and, in May 1660, King Charles II was restored to the throne. He was suspicious of ongoing intrigues across the land and was also opposed to the strict standards imposed by the Puritan church. Accordingly, laws were passed which banned gatherings in the country unless they were within the auspices of the state church. Quakers were particularly targeted. Two weeks after the restoration of King Charles II to the throne, soldiers showed up at Swarthmoor Hall and arrested Fox and Nayler on charges of plotting against the King. Both were put in Lancaster jail, and Fox stayed there for twenty weeks. Margaret, in the meanwhile, pleaded with the authorities for their release. For that, she once again paid a visit to London, in June 1660, and met with the King with a letter30 stating that Quakers had suffered for twelve years at the hands of the authorities due to misinformation on the part of the government, and they bore all cruelties patiently. That had not happened because of any malice, misdoing, or transgression on the part of Quakers, but because the authorities misunderstood their beliefs, principles, practices, and testimonies. They were not plotting against the government nor going against it; their struggle was against the false priests, teachers, and professors who were deceivers of the people, and betrayed their souls through misleading teachings contrary to Christ’s commands. Priests also earned salaries for preaching, but this should have been done free, devoid of any monetary attachments. Quakers were the ones who followed Christ’s commands through devotional worship in the right spirit. The government should, therefore, remove all suspicions or doubts about them, as they were good, true, honest, and peaceable friends of the throne, and loved, owned, and honored the King. Swear they would not, because their master was Jesus Christ, the King of kings, and they owed allegiance only to him. No man on earth was their master, and for that faith they were ready to suffer to any extent. Liberty of conscience was a fundamental right of Quakers, and they would hold on to that right at any cost. This also included civil rights and liberties. Margaret added further: “We are a people that follow after those things that make for

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peace, love, and unity; it is our desire that others’ feet may walk in the same… Treason, treachery, and false dealing we do utterly deny.” 31 She further indicated that other people fought with physical weapons of all sorts, but Quakers chose to fight with spiritual weapons only. They were against all strife and wars, and their search was for good, peace, love, and unity in universal terms. Margaret thus tried to indicate that Quakers were nonviolent people who followed only peaceable principles and practices, lived in virtue which took away all conflicts and wars, and refused to take oaths, take off hats in respect to the superiors, and pay tithes imposed by the churches because they were against the teachings of Christ. Margaret also wrote a position paper entitled A Declaration and an Information from Us the People of God called Quakers… which she personally delivered to the King in the summer of 1660.32 Six months later, in January 1661, George and eleven other Quaker members added another statement on peace and pacifism to the existing one fashioned after Margaret’s statement. That document was entitled A Declaration from the Harmless and Innocent People of God, called Quakers...33 and it was signed by George and the others. A postscript to that document was added by Margaret where she indicated that she had left her home and family and traveled two hundred miles to be with Truth and answer any objections to it. Thus, the three pieces together stood as the formal statement of Quakers on peace and pacifism and was known as The Peace Testimony. The three main leaders of it were Margaret, George, and Naylor.34 Thanks to the efforts of Margaret, George and the others were released from prison in 1661 after which, in September, Margaret returned to Swarthmoor Hall. Later that year, Quakers refused to participate in the insurrection of the Fifth Monarchy Men on the grounds of their vows for peace and to not bear arms; again they were arrested and persecutions began. Margaret met with the King one more time to plead on their behalf and stayed in London for fifteen months while deliberations were ongoing. Ultimately, George and the others were released through the proclamation of the King. However, in 1662, several “Quaker Acts” were passed forbidding Quakers to hold meetings. They could be imprisoned and tried for not taking the oath of allegiance and for other transgressions. Thus, many Quakers were put in jails once again, and Margaret again went to London to ask the King and his counsel to be more understanding of Quakers and intercede in their arrests. Once again, she was favorably heard and most Quakers were released. Margaret returned home victorious in September 1662.35

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The Struggle Continues In 1662 Margaret started doing missionary work and traveled from Devonshire to Northumberland to spread the messages of Quakerism. She, too, thereby became a part of the famous “Valiant Sixty” preachers. 36 She returned from that mission in 1664, and upon reaching Swarthmoor Hall discovered that the place had been ransacked and that George and others had been arrested on charges of plotting against the King. Later, she was arrested37 for refusing to take the oath of allegiance and for continuing to allow Quaker meetings in her home. She was put in Lancaster prison and at her pre-trial she remarked: “… this I say for my allegiance, I love, own, and honor the King and desire his peace and welfare; and that we may live a peaceable, a quiet, and a godly life under his government according to the Scriptures; and this is my allegiance to the King. And as for the oath itself, Christ Jesus, the King of kings, hath commanded me not to swear at all, neither by heaven, nor by earth, nor by any other Oath.”38 To the charge that she allowed Quaker meetings in her home against the law she remarked, “As long as the Lord blessed her with a home, she would worship Him in it.”39 After that she was jailed again and she stayed there for six months. Her prosecution took place on September 21, 1664, and life in prison was pronounced for her. Her property and belongings were also confiscated. Her reaction was: “Although I am out of the King’s protection, yet I am not out of the protection of Almighty God.”40 Margaret’s daughters tried to gain her release and pleaded with the King on her behalf. However, the King did not have the authority to overturn actions of Parliament. Later, in 1664, the “Conventicle Act” was passed to deal with the nonconformity of dissident groups, and arrests and persecutions of Quakers increased further. Margaret, too, was put in prison where she remained for four and a half years. The only exception to that were her two brief paroles in 1665 and 1667. She was released in the summer of 1668. While in prison Margaret used the time to her advantage; she corresponded widely, and wrote epistles and position papers like To the Magistrates and People of England, A Call to the Universal Seed of God, A Letter Sent to the King from M. F., The Standard of the Lord Revealed, A Touchstone, or, A Perfect Tryal of the Scriptures, and Women’s Speaking Justified, Proved, and Allowed by the Scriptures. Her position papers were later published by Ellis Hookes in London, and some of them have been summarized and commented upon in this chapter.41

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Marriage to Fox After her release from Lancaster prison, Margaret again traveled; she met Friends in the north and the west of England, and then went to Bristol and London. In 1669, George too returned from Ireland and the north-west of England and reached London. By then Margaret had been a widow for eleven years. At one point George had a vision, and he wrote: “I had seen from the Lord a considerable time before, that I should take Margaret Fell to be my wife. And when I first mentioned it to her, she felt the answer of life from God thereunto.”42 Now he proposed marriage to Margaret and she agreed . The two decided to seek permission from Margaret’s children and from the Friends Meeting in Bristol. First, they went to Swarthmoor Hall and sought permission from Margaret’s children with George assuring them that he had no interest in the property there.43 That permission was granted. Then they consulted with the Friends’ circle and received their consent too. The marriage of George and Margaret was solemnized on October 27, 1669, with ninety-four Friends signing as witnesses. Margaret was then fifty-five years old, and George was ten years younger. Margaret changed her name to Margaret Fox, but the marriage of George and Margaret remained more of a spiritual affair than a physical union, as their lives later revealed.44

Arrested Again After the marriage, George and Margaret spent ten days together, following which George resumed “his service to the Lord”; he traveled throughout the Midlands and the southern counties. Margaret returned home to her duties and responsibilities at Swarthmoor Hall. Margaret and her son, George Fell, were at odds with each other and did not have a good relationship. Margaret had other adversaries as well. They conspired together and Margaret was arrested again in 1670. A “Second Conventicle Act”45 was passed in 1670 following which the persecution of Quakers increased. It complicated the release of Margaret from prison and she remained there for a year. She was finally released in April 1671 on the King’s order. In 1670, Margaret’s son, George Fell, died; George Fox was seriously ill, and Margaret was bothered by the weakness and illness acquired in prison. Defections were occurring in the Quaker movement, and Friends’ families were suffering all over. Thus, 1670 and 1671 were not good years for Margaret, but she tried to keep herself above all these circumstances and attempted to do her best.46

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Fox to America and Back In 1671, George and his party (ten men and two women) started making preparations to leave for America via the West Indies, Barbados, Jamaica, Antigua, and the Leeward Islands to preach. Many Friends came to see them off when they sailed. After visiting the different islands along the way, the party finally reached America. By boat, on foot, and on horseback, they went as far north as Rhode Island. On their way, they kept on establishing Quaker meetings, and information of all this was being passed on to Margaret at Swarthmoor Hall. Margaret, in the meanwhile, was trying to unify the Quaker movement, strengthen its pastoral care, and work out its various teaching practices. For that, she also traveled widely. George returned to Bristol on June 28, 1673, and Margaret joined him as soon as she received the information. Thereafter George, Margaret, and Margaret’s daughter Rachel traveled together to different parts of the land, preaching and trying to strengthen the Quaker movement.47 Arrests remained common to George and, in mid-December 1673, he once again faced an arrest for violation of the “Conventicle Act.” That arrest lasted until February 1675, by which time he had been tried many times. Efforts continued for his release on the parts of Margaret and others. Finally, George was released, and he returned to Swarthmoor Hall in June 1675. He and Margaret stayed there peacefully until March 1677; they were planning and organizing the future of the Quaker movement, and building its formal organization, which included separate meetings for women. This was also the time when George became busy putting together the records of the Quaker movement, including his own letters, epistles, and pamphlets of the past twenty-three years. Entries of these were made in his Journal. He recorded who went out preaching across the land and who went abroad. Particulars of the establishment of different meetings were also noted down. Having done that George set out again on his travels; Margaret and Rachel joined him for about a week, with others joining him later. Margaret’s life from thereon was primarily confined to Swarthmoor Hall, taking care of the home and other affairs, although she occasionally traveled to other places. She was now sixty-three years old and separation from George bothered her a lot. However, she accepted it patiently and took it as “God’s will.”48

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Final Years of Fox After his travels around the country, George returned to London, and from there traveled to Holland. After his return from Holland in 1677 he spent almost a year in southern England and London preaching, visiting meetings and Friends, writing, and mitigating the sufferings of imprisoned Quakers. In September 1678 he returned to Swarthmoor Hall and stayed there for one and a half years. He was busy writing letters, epistles, pamphlets, and creating a greater understanding of the Quaker movement. In March 1680, he left Swarthmoor Hall for the last time and lived in, or nearby, London for the rest of his life. There he kept on pleading for imprisoned Quakers, urging Parliament and the City of London to be lenient with them, and not arrest them for minor transgressions.49 Conditions slowly started improving for Quakers during the early 1680s, and by 1686 a large number of them had been released from prisons. The “Glorious Revolution” occurred in 1689 whereby political power was passed on without bloodshed, and the foundation was laid for a constitutional monarchy. The “Toleration Act” was passed in 1686 which further improved the conditions of Quakers in terms of more freedom in functioning and respect from others. By that time George was growing weak and, in April 1690, Margaret decided to pay him a visit in London. She stayed there for a while and then returned to Swarthmoor Hall. George died on January 13, 1691, two days after he attended the Gracechurch Street Meeting and spoke there. The news of George’s death reached Margaret through a letter written by William Penn and carried by someone else. She immediately went to London and, at his eulogy, she and others described George as a rugged saint who provided tender care to people and had the gift of deep understanding of them. They also spoke of him as a true leader, unselfish, meek, modest, contented, easy-going, steady, civil, with great spiritual powers, and one who sacrificed much for the Quaker cause. Margaret was then seventy-seven years old and she was still to live eleven more years.50

Margaret’s Last Days Local, Quarterly, and Yearly Meetings had come on board in the Quaker movement and Margaret tried to strengthen their functioning by offering advice to them and by participating in them. However, divisive tendencies were also there among the Friends and this went against the grain of the Quaker movement. Accordingly, Margaret once again started writing letters, epistles, and pamphlets to ease these tendencies and

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pleaded with the Friends to stay united by keeping the Holy Spirit at the center of their lives and letting it be their teacher, guide, friend, and leader. By that time Margaret had also grown quite weak and she died on April 23, 1702, a short time before her eighty-eighth birthday. She was laid to rest in the burial ground at Sunbrick, two or three miles away from Swarthmoor Hall. As was customary among Quakers, no headstone was placed on her grave.51

Margaret’s Writings Margaret’s writings were on all kinds of subjects, but primarily they touched upon advocacy, reform efforts, preaching, and feminism. She started writing shortly after her conversion to Quakerism, in the forms of letters, epistles, pamphlets, and short booklets. In these pieces, she tried to clarify the positions of the sect, spread the messages of Quakerism to others, advocated on behalf of suffering Quakers and their families, pleaded with the authorities to be lenient and kind to Quakers, and urged them to be more understanding of Quaker beliefs, practices, activities, and testimonies. She also responded to many inquiries received from members of the sect and pleaded with them like this: “My Dear Hearts, Be faithful every one in your particular measure of God, which he has given you, and in the invisible wait in silence, and patience, and obedience, in that which opens the mystery of God.”52 That was how she began one of her letters, in 1654, to fellow Quakers, and encouraged them to keep their lives simple by following the principles and practices of Quakerism. Her more substantial writings also started early, with examples like: A Woman Forbidden to Speak in the Church written in 1654; False Prophets, Anticrists, Deceivers written in 1655; A Loving Salutation to The Seed of Abraham Among the Jews, A Testimonie of the Touchstone for All Professions, and All Forms, and Gathered Churches, and For Manasseth Ben Israel all written in 1656. In all Margaret put her signature to twentythree pieces, with the most popular being: A Declaration and An Information From Us the People of God Called Quakers written in 1660; A True Testimony From the People of God (who by the World are Called Quakers) of the Doctrines of the Prophets, Christ, and the Apostles also written in 1660; and Women’s Speaking Justified, Proved, and Allowed by the Scriptures written in 1666 with a postscript added in 1667. All that gave Margaret ample opportunity to express herself on behalf of the sect and on how she felt about the principles and practices of Quakerism.53 Below are briefly overviewed two of Margaret’s writings; their full texts are available in Appendix B.

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1660 Letter to King James II54 Margaret started this letter with the observation that Quakers, the people of God, were hated, despised, spoken against, and declared unfit to live. Accordingly, they suffered a lot at the hands of the authorities, the people, and the church. They had been whipped, stocked, persecuted, imprisoned, and even put to death. All this happened, not because of any wrongdoing, or breach of the law, or the hurting of others on the part of the Quakers, but because they chose to turn to their consciences and did not accept the ways and manners of the political system and the church which acted in opposition to the teachings of Christ. Christ had advised “swear not at all,” “call no man master upon earth, for ye have one master in heaven,” and “let your yea be, yea, and your nay, nay, for whatever is more than this, cometh of evil.” James, one of the Apostles, also exhorted the people to have “the faith of our own Lord Jesus with respect of persons, for if you respect persons you commit sin.” Thus, Quakers could not act in opposition to the teachings of Christ and the Law of the Lord, and they suffered because of that. They believed that Christ was the only eternal prophet, king, and teacher, and they tried to abide by his teachings through their actions guided by the Spirit. The church, in opposition, contrived rituals, ceremonies, and sacraments, and employed priests who were sustained through levied tithes. That was against the teachings of Christ and therefore Quakers could not join the established churches or participate in their worship. Margaret continued the letter with a further observation that miseries and sufferings borne by Quakers were due to ignorance, on the part of the authorities, of the principles and practices of Quakers. But Quakers were innocent people and yet they suffered immensely. They could say with honesty, integrity, and singleness of mind, that they were peaceable people and were interested in the welfare of the whole of humankind. If the authorities would understand that then they would carry no prejudice, malice, envy, hatred, or ill-will toward Quakers. She urged the authorities to get rid of all fears and suspicions of Quakers and have faith in their truth, love, and fidelity to the King. The authorities should also trust their intentions in that they were honest and genuine people. All they wanted were freedom of conscience toward God and other people, and normal civil rights and liberties. Persecutions of Quakers must stop, as Quakers only desired good for all and wished that others could also gain knowledge of Truth and the way as revealed by Christ and thereby be saved. For this, people needed to turn to their consciences, let the light of the gospels shine within them, and stay away from the persecution and oppression of innocent people. The light in the

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heart also set people on the path to righteousness and justice, and made them knowledgeable about the glory of God. Quakers only wanted to direct the minds of people to these goals, and Christ had said: “it is written in your law, you shall be all taught by God.”55 Margaret, in her letter, further tried to stress that the protests and demonstrations of Quakers were not against the King; they were against those priests and teachers of religion who were not guided by the God within, but merely by the letters of the scriptures. Such priests and teachers of religion made their own inventions and articulations and ascribed their own interpretations to the scriptures. They led people away from the God within and were “absolute deceivers of the people and betrayers of their souls.” They had high positions, but not one of them could say that he had been guided by the infallible spirit within, like that of the Apostles who gave us the scriptures. Without first coming to the God within they could not claim to know God and teach forthwith. These priests and teachers of religion also participated in the changes of governments, parliaments, and protectors, as per their selfish ends, and appealed and petitioned to the current ones to maintain their powers. With the help of these governments, parliaments, and protectors they continued their covetous practices, took away the freedoms and liberties of the people, and oppressed and suppressed them. Magistrates and other authorities did the same. Therefore, Quakers had to suggest to people to not uphold those priests and teachers of religion but to keep their freedoms and liberties and follow the dictates of their own consciences. The deceitful and betraying priests, and teachers of religion, were surely not fit to lead the people and they could not continue in this manner. But Quakers still pitied and loved their souls and prayed to God to forgive them for what they did to innocent people. That was what they stood for, worked for, and suffered for; the good of all people. Margaret also tried to explain that Quakers followed only those things that brought forth peace, love, and the unity of all, and their desire was that others would do the same. Quakers were also against all strife, wars, and contentions brought forth by lust, and which hurt people’s souls and living. Quakers loved the souls of all people and suffered only for that reason, though for that they were labeled as transgressors. Christ had said, “My kingdom is not this world, if my kingdom were this world, then would my servants fight.” Quakers were Christ’s servants and they only wanted to seal his testimony, with their blood if necessary. Also, they wanted to solve problems and issues with spiritual weapons alone, and not with carnal ones. For that, they were ready to offer their backs, cheeks, and the rest to anyone to be smitten. To the King, Margaret exhorted that he should do justice for the sake of his

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own welfare and prosperity, be merciful to all, and stop violence wrought upon Quakers by wicked people. Liberty of consciences and civil rights they did demand, and for that they were made objects of prey by profane and envious people, including the priests. Their activities and testimonies were misrepresented and they were described as plotters and traitors. But treachery and false dealings they utterly denied; they spoke the truth only, in plainness and singleness of the heart.56 That was the sum total of what Margaret tried to share with King James II on April 5, 1660.

Women’s Speaking Justified57 This document was written by Margaret in 1666 in the form of a pamphlet, and then a postscript was added to it in 1667. Margaret started the pamphlet by saying that objections had arisen among different people, including the clergy, with regard to women speaking in the church, and women were labeled as meddlers in the affairs of God. Support for the objection had been drawn from the scriptures like: Corinthians, Chapter 14, Verses 34, 35; Timothy, Chapter 2, Verses 11, 12; and other sources. She pointed out that the objection was based on wrong interpretations of the scriptures, and the purpose of the pamphlet was to offer clarification through a proper reinterpretation of the scriptures. But before that was done it was important to know how God manifested his will concerning women and unto them.58 Margaret wrote that “God created Man in his own Image, in the Image of God created he them, male and female. God blessed them, and God said unto them, ‘Be fruitful and multiply…’ ” (Gen. 1:28). Thus, God joined male and female and made no other distinction between them. Citing what had happened between Adam and Eve, Margaret pointed out that the Serpent offered temptation to Eve first and she ate the fruit. She then gave the fruit to Adam and he ate it too. Both later confessed to God what had happened. God punished the Serpent and put enmity between the Serpent and the woman, and between his seed and her seed. However, speaking by Eve was allowed and those who proclaimed that women ought not to speak in the church spoke out of envy, jealousy, and against the will of God. Also, the Son of God came of a woman, and the proclamation was that we may receive and adopt the sons of God (Gal. 4:4-5). Apostles also spoke of the church as a woman with God as its father and woman as his wife. Accordingly, the church belonged to woman as well as man. To note in that regard were: “I have called thee as a woman forsaken, and grieved in spirit, and as a wife of youth” (Isaiah 54:6) and “How long wilt thou go

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about, thou back-sliding Daughter? For the Lord hath created a new thing in the earth, a woman shall compass a man” (Jer. 31:22). Thus, Margaret continued to prove that the church ought to be equally open to men and women, and offered further scriptural evidence on that. Those who spoke against women speaking in the church also spoke against the proclamation of the Apostles. They, in addition, also spoke against the Power of the Lord and the Spirit, as they pointed to the sex of woman and ignored the Seed, the Spirit, and the Power residing in her. Margaret further tried to point out that when Jesus came to Samaria he did preach to women (John 4:11), and the woman who came with a box of precious ointment and poured it on the head of Jesus knew more about the secret power and wisdom of God than the disciples of Jesus did. That was why Jesus said: “Why do ye trouble this woman, for she hath wrought a good work upon me?” (Mat. 26; Mark 14:3). Also, many women followed Jesus on the way to his crucifixion and wept (Mat. 28:55; Mark 15). Even the women of Jerusalem wept, and he said to them: “Weep not for me, ye Daughter of Jerusalem; but weep for yourselves, and for your children” (Luke 23:28). As further proof of the significance of women in the church, Margaret wrote that even Jesus owned the love and grace found in women, and he received appreciatively the love, kindness, compassion, and tender dealing offered by women to him (Mark 16:1-4; Luke 24:1-2; Mat. 28). Jesus also used women, like Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Mary the mother of James, and others as his instruments for receiving and conveying the messages to others. For example, after his rising, he said to women All Hail! And they held him by the feet and worshipped him. Then Jesus said unto them: “Be not afraid, go tell my Brethren that they go into Galilee, and there they shall see me” (Mat. 28:10; Mark 16:9). And when Mary was weeping at the sepulcher Jesus said unto her: “Woman, why weepest thou? What seekest thou?” (John 20:16-17). Thus, Jesus conversed with women and delivered to them his messages for conveying to others. Without the presence of women there how else could the redemption of mankind have occurred? Women were the ones who did not depart, as men did, and sat waiting, watching, and weeping at the sepulcher until the time of Jesus’ resurrection came and they were there to receive and carry his messages.59 Turing to the main objection, Margaret wrote that 1 Cor. 14 prohibited only those women from speaking in the church who were transgressors, confused, carried malice, or intended to create strife. That was also true of those women who were childlike in understanding or spoke in an unknown tongue. But the restriction did not apply to those women to whom the promise of the Lord had been fulfilled, and they carried with them the everlasting message of the gospel (Acts 2:16-18; 1 Cor. 11:3-4). 1 Tim 2

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had exhorted, “Let women learn in silence with all subjection; but I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence; for Adam was first formed, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the Transgression.” Margaret suggested that in this case the Apostle was putting a restriction on a woman’s speaking in relation to her husband only, to be in subjection to him, not to teach him, and not usurp authority over him. But there was no reference there about women speaking in the church. What about the pouring of the Power and the Spirit of the Lord upon women, and their receiving and conveying the messages of God to others? As women were entitled to the Power and the Spirit of God, must not they also speak the Word of the Lord to others? The men of the generation were blinded about these facts and they corrupted the words of the Apostles. Thus, restrictions came about on women speaking in the church. Otherwise, why did the Apostle entreat his yokefellow to help those women who labored with him in the gospel? (Phil. 4:3). And why did the Apostles join together with women and others, in prayer and supplication? (Acts 1:14). In summary, then, the Apostles did allow the union and fellowship of women with the Spirit of God, as they also did for men. Accordingly, women had as much right to speak in the church as men did.60 Referring to the pre-Christ times, Margaret said that the “Age of Darkness” existed at one time and the rule by the Beast was there. The Spirit of Truth and the Power of God had been overshadowed then. That gave rise to the opposing of women speaking. But now blessed be the Lord, the Beast’s reign was over. The darkness of the past and the night of Apostasy had come to an end. Divine light shone everywhere like that of the morning star. Joy was all around. Woman and her seed were free and they enjoyed perfect redemption. Both men and women carried the same rights and privileges. Man was a part of woman and woman was a part of man. The two were inseparable. Accordingly, no discriminating distinctions were needed between the two. Margaret suggested that more could be added in that regard from both the Old and the New Testaments. Therefore, opposition to women speaking must stop, and parties should note that even the Divine, Jesus Christ, was born of a woman. That should be sufficient to satisfy those who opposed women speaking in the church.61

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Postscript In the postscript to Women’s Speaking Justified, Margaret again referred to 1 Cor. 14:34 and 1 Tim. 2:11 (For it is not permitted for them to speak, but to be under obedience; as also saith the law, if they will learn anything, let them ask their husbands at home, for it is a shame for a woman to speak in the church) and responded that, even at face value, the proclamation could not be applied to all women, as some women were widows without husbands and some were virgins. Therefore, the intention of the proclamation was to apply it to those women who were under the law. If that was not the case then Paul would have contradicted himself. Moreover, Christ was the same in males and females and he was the husband and the wife of the church. He had, accordingly, declared that both my daughters and my sons may engage in preaching and prophesies. That was why women like the four daughters of Philip could preach and prophesize. The Apostle did not forbid that. But the blind priests ignored that fact and dwelt only on I permit not a woman, as saith the law. Women were also led by the Spirit and these women were not under the law. So, a distinction was to be made as to who could and could not speak. Those women who were under the law and could not come to Christ could not speak, and those who were not under the law and could come to Christ could speak. That is to say, whomsoever God manifested, male or female, could speak and engage in the law of righteousness to the end. Margaret then went on to cite examples from the scriptures of women who had preached and prophesized. Isiah, for example, had gone to the prophetess and had let her speak (Isaiah 8). In Joel 2 it was mentioned that the handmaids could speak and prophesize. In the times of the Gospel when Mary came to salute Elizabeth in the hill country of Judea, Elizabeth heard the salutation of Mary and the babe leaped in the womb. Mary was filled with the Holy Spirit. Elizabeth then said in a loud voice: “Blessed art thou amongst women, blessed is the Fruit of the Womb.” That was Elizabeth’s sermon that stood as a record of the day. Further examples were of Rachel, Leah, and Hannah. Rachel and Leah helped build the House of Israel. Hannah had prayed and spoken in the Temple of the Lord. Ruth was blessed by women in the Gate of the City. The Queen of Sheba spoke when she came to Solomon and received the law of God. Queen Hester did the same when she spoke words of comfort to Jews who prayed and worshipped the Lord in all places. One more example of women speaking was that of Judith who spoke to the elders of Israel and exhorted them not to be tempted and to worship God the right way. They also needed to remember the tribulations faced by Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Moses,

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who were steadfast in their faith and pleased God. Upon Judith’s speaking, the elders commended her, said that what she spoke was true, and no man would reprove those words. Thus, Judith spoke, and so did a wise woman when she cried to Jacob and saved the city of Abel (2 Sam. 20). But blind priests posed objections to women speaking and, at the same time, continued to benefit from their words. A distinction was to be made between a true church headed by Jesus and a false church headed by the Pope. The former was superior to the latter. In the false church women’s speaking was prohibited but, in the true church, both males and females were allowed to speak (Rev. 22:17). The Spirit saith, Come, and the Bride saith, Come, and that Bride comprised both men and women in the church. Thus, Margaret ended the postscript to her Women’s Speaking Justified.62

Closing Remarks This chapter has overviewed the life, endeavors, works, missions, contributions, and two sample writings, of a daring early pioneer woman who came from the early seventeenth century, belonged to the nobility of England, and who sacrificed her all for a cause that was close to her heart. Margaret Fell was her name. She was born during the times when religious leanings were strong among the public, the church and the government were autocratic, and the whole world seemed to belong to men. Accordingly, Margaret’s parents wanted to make it certain that their two daughters were not handicapped in any way and they arranged for their good education in spite of the isolated location of the estate where the family lived. The times were rough and all kinds of social, political, and religious issues prevailed which brought uncertainties and confusion to society. Shortages, downturns, diseases, population shifts, and social unrest were also common. Values, opinions, and behaviors were changing rapidly and many new sects were forming. Quakerism was one of them. Margaret married at the age of seventeen or eighteen to an ambitious attorney who was twice her age and later became a very prominent person in the region. Their married life moved smoothly for the first twenty years, but then in 1652 George Fox visited Swarthmoor Hall, the whole family listened to his talk, were convinced that what he spoke was Truth, and decided to change their faith to Quakerism. What happened after that has been well described in this chapter. Margaret was chosen for this work because she presented one of the early examples of pioneer women. She was unique and different, educated, intelligent, enthusiastic, sincere, devoted, capable, and a first in feminism, advocacy, and religious-political reform. Conditions during her time were

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conservative and women were expected to manage home affairs and children only. Outside participation in the religious, social, and political fields was meant for men and they spoke on behalf of the women and children of the family. Men also occupied all the important leadership positions in the socio-political order. Strict rules existed for women for living and functioning and women were not supposed to cross the prescribed boundaries for any reason. Speaking and asking questions in public was one of those boundaries, reinforced by tradition, custom, hegemony, and the church. Margaret rebelled against these restrictions placed on women and, in doing that, she was helped by her education and high position in society. Also helpful in that regard was the Quaker tradition which provided liberalities to men and women alike. Thus, Margaret organized, planned, served, administrated, counseled, directed, helped, advocated, reformed, and preached in the Quaker movement and rose to the levels of Fox, Farnsworth, Nayler, Penn, and others. She was still bothered by the existing inequalities by gender and tried to take that cause further. Thus, she became a forerunner and a role model of many more future activists and reformers, including some illustrious ladies who started the women’s rights movement in America in the middle of the nineteenth century. Throughout her life, Margaret worked hard, struggled, and made many sacrifices to put the Quaker movement on a firm footing, and in the process also helped many people and organizations. It is difficult to imagine what would have happened, and in what shape the Quaker movement would have been, if Margaret had not come onto the scene and provided all her services and resources. Thus, the Quaker movement owed a lot to her, as she single-handedly conducted and managed the bulk of the affairs of the movement. In the next chapter we present the case study of another early pioneer woman; Elizabeth Fry, who became well-known for her prison reform and relief work.

CHAPTER THREE ELIZABETH FRY A PIONEER IN PRISON REFORM AND RELIEF WORK

Introduction In nineteenth-century England, Elizabeth Fry, a Quaker, relief worker, and pioneer in prison reform, stood alone as a shining star. Women in those times were not treated well and suffered from all kinds of handicaps and inequalities. Prisons were horrible places; dark, damp, dungeon-like, crowded, and located in run-down buildings. They were also filthy, unventilated, and unhealthy. The environment there was stiff and all types of convicts were kept in close proximity. Among them were those with minor transgressions like theft and misbehaviors, and those with serious crimes like rape and murder. Some of them were just in temporary custody soon to be released, some were in transition to be sent to other prisons, some were awaiting trial, some were being tried, and others were there awaiting a death sentence. Among them were men and women, children and old people, sick and healthy people, mentally ill and mentally sound people, and dangerous and ordinary criminals. All were confined together in narrow spaces without proper separation. Provisions available to the prisoners were few, and items like food, clothing, hygienic provisions, and other necessities, were to be bought through rendered labor or other means. Relatives, friends, and other benefactors from outside could help and buy the provisions for prisoners, or they could donate them in kind. There were no regular health examinations of prisoners, and there was little by way of treatment of sicknesses or handling of emergencies. Cooking, washing, and sleeping were done in small places, and sleeping was on bare floors or tiered beds. Squabbles, fighting, and crimes among prisoners were common and, for that, they were punished harshly. Outside contact for the prisoners was practically non-existent. The organization of the prisons was weak and loose. Jailers were unqualified people drawn

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from the lower ranks of the communities. Their positions carried no particular prestige, their wages were low, and even those were not paid on a regular basis. Accordingly, there were many corrupt practices among them, and they often extracted money from the prisoners for small conveniences or favors through bribes. They smuggled alcoholic products and drugs into the prisons and sold them to prisoners for money. They also stole from the prison supplies and accepted money from prisoners for other reasons too. Supervision of the jailers’ actions was almost nonexistent and, accordingly, they had a free hand in running the prisons. The overall consequences of that for the prison population were horrible, and jails were breeding grounds for inactivity, boredom, depression, insanity, disease, and other personal and social ills.1 This chapter attempts to share the life, endeavors, struggles, and contributions of Elizabeth Fry in relation to her efforts at prison reform, and attention has also been paid to her related relief work for women prisoners. The lessons learned will be shared in the conclusion chapter.

Life of Elizabeth Elizabeth was born on May 21, 1780, in Norwich, England, into a well-to-do family among twelve brothers and sisters. Norwich was then a center of religious and intellectual life, and that surrounding had much impact on Elizabeth. Both parents were long-standing Quakers. Her father and his family were followers of George Fox, the founder of Quakerism. Her mother was the granddaughter of the first Quaker theologian, Robert Barclay, who wrote An Apology for the People called Quakers.2 So Quaker elements were strong in the family, but Elizabeth’s parents were not rigid and they let the children carve out their own lives. Accordingly, Elizabeth freely socialized in the town, and studied music and dancing; activities normally discouraged by Quakers. Early on Elizabeth was a shy child and unsure of herself. She had a poor opinion of her abilities and others considered her to be on the dull side. But, as time passed, she became more and more confident, independent, fearless, innovative, and persistent in her undertaken causes. Influences in that regard were the gayeties she enjoyed in London, and the people of different backgrounds she met and associated with. Elizabeth also later became increasingly selfabnegated and started pursuing austerities suggested by Quakerism. Her mind now turned away from pleasant frivolities and more toward serious Quaker practices. She was only nineteen years old then.3 The family’s home was in Earlham. Her father, John Gurney, was a partner in Gurney’s Bank, and her mother, Catherine, was the daughter of

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one of the founders of Barclays Bank. Elizabeth, thus, was raised in quite well-off circumstances. Her mother died when she was only twelve years old and, as one of the older sisters, the burden of looking after the younger siblings shifted to her. She met Joseph Fry when she was twenty years old. He was a banker and a member of the Fry’s chocolate-making family. The two got married on August 19, 1800, at the Norwich Goat Lane Friends Meeting House, and then moved to St. Mildred’s Court in the City of London. From 1809 to 1829 the couple lived in Plashet House in East Ham before moving to the Cedars on Portway in Forest Gate, where they lived until 1844. Together Elizabeth and Joseph had eleven children; five sons and six daughters. One child died early at the age of five.4

Reform Orientation Elizabeth’s diary showed that she was influenced by the teachings of Priscilla Hannah Gurney, Deborah Darby, and William Savery. They made her feel interested in humanitarian and social reform causes. There was also an example of that in her own family circle; her sister’s husband, Fowell Buxton, was also interested in humanitarian work and in 1816, in the company of Sam Hoare, had helped establish the Society for the Reform of Prison Discipline. Buxton and Sam often used to visit prisons and they recommended that Elizabeth did the same. Elizabeth visited prisons in 1814, 1815, and 1816; she was horrified to see the terrible conditions in which prisoners lived. In the meantime, Elizabeth had also made an acquaintance with Peter Bedford, a Quaker, who had developed an interest in the problems of vagrant boys in London. That interest was shared by Buxton and Sam as well, and Elizabeth became a partner in that venture.5

Prison Issues Elizabeth was always interested in the poor and needy people and tried to fulfill their needs as best as she could. By then the Quaker movement was one hundred and fifty years old, but opposition to it still existed with many Quakers languishing in jails. Prejudices against Quakers were strong due to their opposition to the government’s policies and the misleading practices of the church. People did not like the beliefs, practices, and testimonies of Quakers, which they thought were weird, and that was one of the reasons for the prejudices against them. Accordingly, many Quakers were in precarious circumstances and sufferings among them were many. Remedies sought by Quakers against these conditions included appeals to

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the government and the public for a better understanding of their beliefs, practices, and testimonies, and more kindly treatment of them. Additional suggestions were for non-confinement of Quakers for minor transgressions and a better attitude toward them if they happened to be arrested. The severity of the punishments meted out to Quakers was also of concern, and it was suggested that they should be in proportion to the transgressions. Confiscation of the properties of Quakers was to stop, and their trials in courts were to be fair and for good reasons only. Penn and others wrote about the circumstances of Quakers and suggested their ameliorations. They also suggested that a distinction be made between Quaker prisoners and ordinary prisoners, and severe punishments should be reserved for the latter category when they engaged in heinous doings. They also pointed out that prisons were not to be places for only meting out punishments, but also for reforming the prisoners. Education of prisoners was one issue, and their job training was another so that after their jail terms they might gain employment and become normal citizens. Programs in these areas were to be created. They also suggested that prisoners were human beings too, just like other people, no matter what their transgression or crimes were. Therefore, they needed to be treated kindly and with due respect. Inactivity, boredom, and deterioration of the physical and mental health of prisoners were also issues, and they were to be satisfactorily handled by the authorities. The living circumstances in prisons were to improve and the safety of the prisoners was to be assured. That applied particularly to women, children, sick people, old people, and other vulnerable prisoners. Finally, the penal code, which was old and prescribed capital punishment for over one hundred and fifty big and small crimes, was to be revised. There were other suggestions too.6 In addition, it should be noted that protests against prison conditions had started early and, in 1652, a commission was established by Parliament to look into the matter. Upon its recommendation, only murder retained the death penalty; all other crimes were assigned lesser punishments. The Court of Chancery, notorious for its partial decisions favoring influential people, was abolished. Monarchy, in the meantime, was restored and most things fell back to their earlier states. Nevertheless, protests against prison conditions continued and people wrote widely about the needed reforms and the need for revisions in the penal code. Suggestions included people not being sent to jail for minor transgressions, and there should be classifications of the prisoners according to the severity of their crimes. Convicts should be separated according to whether they were hardened or ordinary criminals. Men, women, mentally ill people, sick people, old people, and those who had been tried or not

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tried should receive separate quarters. Prisoners should receive better clothing, food, medical facilities, and more attention should be paid to their health and mental health issues. Useful work should be found for the prisoners to keep them occupied. There should be education, training, and skills development which should be essential parts of the daily routines of the prisoners; these were important for their sustenance, self-reliance, and later gainful employment. The use of chains and shackles should be abandoned and more freedom was to be accorded to the prisoners for communicating with one another, and with outside people. Sanitation and lighting were to be better, the use of solitary cells was to stop, cases were not to drag on in the courts, and children were to receive special care. All these suggestions were floated.7 In the meantime, prison conditions continued to deteriorate and Parliament had to pass two laws. First, when a prisoner could not be prosecuted in a reasonable time he or she was to be released irrespective of the owed fees or charges. Second, justices of the peace were to supervise the sanitary conditions in the prisons. The first law helped to free many prisoners who were in prisons for minor offenses and were without means. The second law helped to improve the health conditions of prisoners and thus saved many lives. The idea of the reform of prisoners had not yet been accepted by the government as it was busy dealing with other issues. Moreover, extirpation of the prisoners seemed a cheaper solution, rather than spending money and resources on trying to reform them. Accordingly, prisoners were sorted into three categories: serious criminals, ordinary criminals, and debtors. Serious criminals were to meet with capital punishment, ordinary prisoners were to stay in prisons for long periods, and debtors were to be released sooner or later. At around the beginning of the eighteenth century, prisoners had also started complaining about prison conditions and the high-handed behaviors of the jailers. In response, The Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline was formed and jail inspections started. These inspections confirmed that prisoners’ grievances had substance, but few corrective actions were taken. Later that task was taken up by a prominent person, John Howard, who was a sheriff. He was born in 1726 into a well-to-do merchant family, was educated, and served as the High Sheriff of Bedford. He was familiar with prison conditions and also with the ills among the prisoners and in society. Accordingly, he was interested in bringing changes to the prisons and started by employing paid jailers. He made many other changes, and his efforts were noticed by Parliament. In 1774, he was invited to present his ideas on prison reforms before the whole body. Based on his recommendations several laws were passed, but their implementation remained poor. John, however, continued

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his efforts and became one of the first to bring about significant changes in prison conditions. That work was taken up later by Thomas Shillitoe, although his primary interest was the spiritual welfare of prisoners. The task was huge and the results that came forth were not spectacular. Next, Elizabeth came on the scene to take up that work.8

Newgate Prison Newgate prison, where much of Elizabeth’s reform activity took place and for which she became world-famous, was like any other prison in England. It was burned down by the rioters in 1780 and rebuilt on the same spot without much improvement. There were no windows in the building, and men and women prisoners were kept in two yards. There they spent their daytime, but at night were confined to rooms where they slept on floors. The whole place was crowded and foul smelling. Boredom, nervousness, depression, and uncertainty were common. Along with the women, there were also children who did not have much to do and remained idle. The women themselves did not engage in any productive chores and whiled away their time. The jailers were all men and they controlled the yards for both sexes. Those facing the death sentence were kept separate. Food and some provisions were available on a ration basis to the prisoners but they were not sufficient for their needs. Additional provisions were available and could be bought if they had the money, or someone from the outside could donate to them. Alcoholic drinks and beer were available, and these too could be bought. There was a chapel in the facility, and religious participation of the prisoners was recommended, but not required. Therefore, attendance at the chapel was low. However, on a day when a prisoner was to face the death sentence and a “condemned sermon” was to be delivered, almost all prisoners attended the service. In that prison, Elizabeth tried her innovative and daring ideas of reform, particularly as they related to the conditions and circumstances of women prisoners. Her efforts were noticed by others and she won wide acclaim for it, becoming a role model for many others who desired to follow in her footsteps in bringing improvements in the prison conditions and altering the lot of the prisoners.9

Newgate Experiment Elizabeth was inspired by Stephen Grellet and William Forster in taking up the prison work. The year was 1813 and Elizabeth was thirtythree years old; already busy taking care of the needs of the poor, needy,

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and distressed populations. In those days, problems existing among the population were many, and reformers were at a loss as to where to start and how to find remedies. Elizabeth thought that all the prevailing problems belonged to Parliament, and that body had to remedy or resolve the issues through legislative measures. Her personal concerns were the rising crime rates in the country, the horrors prevailing in prisons, and the right and wrong of capital punishment. She visited Newgate prison in 1813, in the company of her sister Anna Buxton, with the limited purpose of assessing the conditions of the women prisoners and their children and providing them some immediate relief in the form of food, clothes, and other supplies. The idea of choosing a life-long career in prison reform, with a focus on the needs of women prisoners, had not yet occurred to her.10 Crime rates at that time were very high and prison populations were exceeding their capacities. Newgate prison had over three hundred women prisoners crammed into narrow quarters. Among them were children too. All prisoners slept on bare floors, cooked and washed in narrow spaces, and met other needs there. Brutality, disease, obscenity, and mental tortures were rampant, and the women prisoners had mostly nonproductive activities to engage in. Their children remained idle too. Boredom, fighting, drunkenness, and hopelessness were also common. In 1815, some members of the Jail Committee of London Corporation paid a visit to the prison and suggested some improvements. As a result, separate living quarters were assigned to men and women prisoners, and women prisoners and their children got straw mats to sleep on. Besides that, not much had happened by way of significant change. Elizabeth and her sister witnessed the horrible conditions of women in Newgate prison and the gloom, desperation, misery, and hopelessness that loomed large there. The next day they returned to the prison and provided the women prisoners and their children with some food, clothes, and other supplies. Three years passed 11, and, in 1816, Elizabeth returned again to Newgate prison; this time with the intention of helping women prisoners in ameliorating their conditions and circumstances. Sitting in a chair in the yard she listened to their terrible stories for hours; how they lived, how they were treated, and what kind of problems and issues they faced. After listening to these problems and issues Elizabeth, as a first step, suggested to the women prisoners the idea of starting a school for the children to keep them busy and give them something to do. She also shared that idea with the jail authorities, but the anticipated support did not come forth from them. Elizabeth suggested that the women prisoners should find a teacher for the children from among themselves, or from those people who regularly

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visited the prison from outside. The women prisoners took the advice of Elizabeth seriously and, when she returned to the prison the next time, she was surprised to see that the women prisoners had already chosen a fairly educated schoolmistress for the children from among themselves. Prison officials had also cooperated and they had designated a small, infrequently used room in the prison as a separate facility for the school. This is how the school was started, and it met with great success. After that, the women prisoners felt happier and encouraged, and developed a hope that changes were possible for them and their children even within the confines of the prison.12 Elizabeth had visited other prisons, asylums, and hospitals between 1813 and 1816 to better understand the conditions and circumstances of women prisoners. Accordingly, in 1817, she suggested to the women prisoners of Newgate prison that they form an association of their own to bring improvements in their conditions. Three goals were established: 1) greater discipline among themselves, 2) taking care of their own needs and the needs of their children, and 3) making preparations for employment outside, after their jail terms. This is how the first Association for the Improvement of Women Prisoners came into being. The advisory committee consisted of Elizabeth, the wife of the prison priest, and eleven members of the Society of Friends in that area. The committee helped women prisoners set up their own standards, expectations, and modes of operation. Self-reliance was a key factor and a core consideration which was to be applied in all areas of functioning. Other stipulations were that: 1) a female matron be appointed for the supervision of the women prisoners; 2) women prisoners be engaged in activities that were productive, with examples like knitting, needlework, patchwork, and quiltmaking; 3) there be no begging, swearing, or quarreling among the women prisoners; 4) all improper reading materials belonging to the women prisoners be removed and any defaults reported to the prison matron; 5) a yard-keeper be engaged to control and facilitate proper contacts of the women prisoners with the outside; 6) women prisoners be divided into classes according to the severity of the crimes, and a monitor be appointed for each class who would watch and report the conduct of the women prisoners to the prison matron; 7) all monitors were also to watch and report on the conduct of the women prisoners from other classes; 8) monitors were also to oversee the cleanliness and orderliness of the women prisoners at all times; 9) any monitor not performing the prescribed duties was to be dismissed and replaced with another more suitable monitor; and 10) the prison matron was to keep accounts of the activities and productivity of the women prisoners, suggest measures for

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improvements, and recommend rewards where suitable. These stipulations proved to be very helpful for the women prisoners, and also for the jail officials who now knew how to positively impact the lives and conduct of the women prisoners.13 Next was the issue of productive work for women prisoners. A few London firms cooperated in that and set up cloth manufacturing facilities within the prison. Women prisoners started producing cloth of different types which was sold outside in retail or in bulk. To that activity was added training in the use of tools to prepare the women prisoners for outside work after their jail terms and become economically selfdependent. That project also met with success. Then knitting, needlework, patchwork, and quilt-making were added to the women prisoners’ activities. Some members of the Corporations of London visited the production facilities at Newgate prison and were surprised to see that the achieved success there was beyond their wildest imagination. This led to the Newgate prison experiment being replicated in other prisons, with similar outcomes. Elizabeth’s reputation spread far and wide and private donations started pouring in. The innovations made at Newgate prison were also adopted by the City Corporation of London and success came there too. As new problems and issues emerged Elizabeth kept on coming up with innovative ideas, and changes or improvements were made. Newspapers and magazines commented on her accomplishments and authorities talked about them. This led to even further progress in the prison activities and more work became available for women prisoners. Money for the sustenance and continuation of the activities was no longer an issue. Like John Howard’s efforts, Elizabeth’s efforts were also noticed by Parliament and, in 1818, she too was invited to share her ideas and views for bringing in improvements in prison conditions. That gave her work further publicity and many important personalities and representatives of different ranks started visiting Newgate prison. Among them was Frederick Williams IV of Prussia who visited Newgate prison during one of his official visits to Great Britain. Robert Peel was an admirer of Elizabeth and he encouraged Parliament to pass several laws relating to the prison conditions, among them the Gaols Act of 1823. The Lord Mayor of London was an admirer of Elizabeth and, after her death, he established an asylum for prisoners in her memory. Queen Victoria also appreciated the work of Elizabeth and granted her several audiences before she ascended the throne. She also contributed financially to her cause. The list of admirers and supporters went on and on.14

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More Relief Work After release from prison, women prisoners were not allowed to resettle locally for fear of spreading bad influences there, and so they were shipped to far-off places in what were known as “convict ships.” The women prisoners knew nothing of these places and had no familiarity with them. No prior arrangements were made for their work or living; they had no sustenance money with them, did not know anybody at their destination, and usually ended up as servants or bonded laborers. For loading into the ships, they were carried in open wagons during the daytime when rowdy crowds followed them, yelled at them, cursed them, and even pelted them with stones. Their journeys were long, and boredom was a common problem with them and their children. To deal with these issues, Elizabeth first negotiated with the jail authorities and got approval for the use of covered wagons for the transportation of women prisoners to the ships, and the times were chosen such that curious spectators could not follow them. Then she collected private donations so that each woman prisoner could have some money as a start-up resource upon landing at her destination. She requested that the Women’s Associations provide the women prisoners with raw materials for knitting, needlework, patchwork, and quilt-making so that on their journeys they could make products and then sell them upon landing for additional money. Matrons were arranged to accompany women prisoners on the ships for safety reasons, and for providing them and their children with needed guidance. The matrons were also to make arrangements for the education of the children accompanying women prisoners. “Houses of refuge” were built at the destinations for the temporary stay of women prisoners until they were able to make more permanent arrangements for living. Finally, Elizabeth requested that the jail authorities stop the practice of shipping women prisoners to far-off places, and she succeeded in that in 1837; although, unofficially, women prisoners continued to be shipped off to far-off places for a little longer.15

Other Concerns The harsh treatment of women prisoners was always an issue; Elizabeth pleaded with the authorities to be more lenient and humane with them, and work toward their rehabilitation. The rights of women prisoners were also to be considered and preserved. With these objectives in mind, Elizabeth established The British Ladies’ Society for Promoting the Reformation of Female Prisoners in 1821, and from 1827 traveled to

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Ireland, Scotland, and France to be more aware of the prison conditions there, and be more aware of the needs of women prisoners in England. For that, she spent one night each in several prisons. In the meantime, her brother-in-law, Thomas Fowell Buxton, was elected to Parliament and he tried to help Elizabeth in her cause by bringing the problems and issues of women prisoners before his colleagues.16 Elizabeth also tried to handle the issue of homeless girls, who often turned to crime but were too young to be handled by the prison system. For them, she helped establish a “School of Discipline” in Chelsea, and attempts were made to open similar facilities in other places. The idea was to take care of young girls early on and prevent them from becoming criminals. Some other organizations were trying to handle that problem and were engaged in similar efforts. The Society for Lessening the Causes of Juvenile Delinquency was one of them and its goals were: 1) to study the causes of the increase in juvenile crime in England; 2) to explore means that would offset harmful influences on young girls; 3) to support young girls who were released from prisons and desired to live normal lives; and 4) to prevent poverty, hunger, and related problems among young girls. Elizabeth also got involved in these efforts and had similar goals.17

Further Efforts Elizabeth’s efforts, and the increasing pressure of ongoing agitations against prison conditions, brought some results with matrons being appointed in 1824. Prison overseers surfaced in 1835, but for the rest not much happened. In the meantime, other countries in Europe had done much better with their emphasis on preventive and supportive measures. Crime rates there had declined, recidivism was reduced, and many convicts had started living normal lives. Drunkenness, prostitution, lack of housing, lack of education, and lack of care both during and after prison terms had been addressed, and asylums and transitional housing facilities had been built. Agricultural colonies had been established to give work to convicts, and philanthropists were filling any remaining gaps as best as they could. The goal there was “not punishment of the criminal, but prevention of the crime.” Elizabeth was watching all that and she continued to make further suggestions for improvements in prison conditions and greater welfare of women prisoners. She also recommended that “ladies committees” be established to visit prisons on a regular basis and help the women prisoners and the officials with their further needs. For that, she even wrote a seventy-page guide for them. She also suggested that only female officers be appointed to supervise the women prisoners

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and that they be classified into four categories: 1) prisoners of previous good character and guilty of minor crimes. They were to be allowed to dress better and be subjected to lighter punishments. From among their ranks were to be chosen supervision officers with monetary rewards attached to their positions; 2) prisoners guilty of more serious crimes. They were to be treated more strictly and subjected to heavier punishments, but with good behavior and conduct could rise to rank one; 3) prisoners with still more serious crimes and they were to be subjected to still further heavier punishments and reduced privileges, but with the possibility of promotion to rank two; and 4) hardened criminals with very serious crimes and they were to be treated much more harshly and subjected to even more severe hardships. Badges with these classifications were to be worn by the women prisoners, and their behaviors were to be recorded by the prison matron who would also provide evaluations, suggestions, and recommendations for each woman prisoner. Inspections of prisons were to be routine matters, work was to be compulsory for each woman prisoner, and proper attention was to be paid to their diet, clothing, medical needs, and relaxation. Separate women's prisons, asylums, workhouses, and hospitals were to be built; and it was on these that Elizabeth continued her efforts until her death in 1845. In her later years, Elizabeth had suggested the formation of more “collateral organizations” for the remaining issues of women prisoners, based on the existing patterns of the British Ladies’ Society for Promoting the Reformation of Female Prisoners, the Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline and Reformation of Juvenile Offenders, the Convict Ships Committee, and others. Elizabeth was also active in the anti-slavery and universal education causes and founded a school for training nurses from which Florence Nightingale chose some for her healing work of soldiers in the Crimean War.18

Capital Punishment Elizabeth also paid attention to the problem of capital punishment which had been a horrible menace during her times. Over one hundred and fifty minor and major crimes were labeled for the application of capital punishment and every day four or five people were hanged in the open amidst the assembled cheering crowds. Elizabeth was very disturbed by that. She felt that the practice was totally barbaric and did not provide any deterrent to the occurring criminal activities in society. It also merely destroyed lives rather than preserve them. Many other people thought likewise and were interested in the issue. Accordingly, an Association for

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the Abolition of Capital Punishment was formed in 1808 with both Quakers and non-Quakers as its members. The goals were: 1) to publicize the cruel nature of capital punishment; 2) to point out that the law relating to capital punishment was vague, as it applied to all sorts of major and minor crimes; 3) to emphasize that the law was ineffective in controlling or reducing rising crimes rates; and 4) to cite examples of other nations where the law had been abolished, but where crime rates did not rise. Elizabeth thought likewise and she continued her efforts along the same lines by suggesting the abolition of capital punishment for any major or minor crime.19

Closing Remarks Elizabeth died on October 12, 1845, in Ramsgate from a stroke and was buried in the Friends’ Burial Ground at Barking. The seamen of Ramsgate Coast Guard flew their flag at half-mast, and more than a thousand people who attended the burial stood in silence. The life of a brave and daring pioneer woman who devoted her whole life to the problems and issues of women prisoners, and other needy people, came to a close.20 For Elizabeth’s contributions to women prisoners and other needy people it needs to be noted that prisons in her days were dreary places, and convicts were brought there for five reasons: 1) to keep them away from normal people, 2) to punish them for their offenses and crimes, 3) to make them repent for their offenses and crimes and suffer as much as possible, 4) to make them never engage in offensive and criminal activities again, and 5) to make them meet with the death sentence if that applied to them. As mentioned before the conditions and circumstances in prisons were really depressing and prisoners of different ages, offenses, and crimes lived together in filthy spaces without proper separation. Guards were from the low strata of society and were corrupt. They also had a free hand in running the prisons without any accountability. Obscenity, ugliness, fights, and crimes were common in prisons, and other irregularities and improprieties also prevailed. Elizabeth tried to change all that and bring reforms among the prison population, in the prison system, and in the penal code. Her focus was on who was taken to prison and who was not, the daily lives and routines of the prisoners, the ways they were handled and treated, and the skills and resources given to them to allow them to reenter society for a normal life once their jail terms were over. Elizabeth was imaginative, thoughtful, empathetic, persistent, and determined; she tried to correct these conditions and circumstances and became

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instrumental in bringing many reforms in the overall fields of criminal justice and criminology, just as her predecessors had done in the areas of their interests. Thanks to her efforts the prison populations felt better in terms of their living and the treatment they received from the jail authorities and the public. Both became more humane and compassionate. They were also better equipped with the knowledge and skills needed for living normal lives outside prison. The rules and regulations of jail functioning were changed, and so were the classifications of the prisoners and their prescribed punishments as per the severity of the committed offenses and crimes. For all that, Elizabeth sought and got the cooperation of the prison populations, the prison authorities, and the general public. Many other people noticed her accomplishments and took her as an example and role model for those who desired to follow in her footsteps. Her seeds and saplings of reform were used by future generations and so her hard work proved to be seminal and productive with similar results. Elizabeth’s advice was that problems and issues must not be ignored at any time and at any level, but ought to be noticed and worked on in all sincerity, to the best of the capacities. She also suggested that even though culprits, criminals were people too and deserved the rights of courtesy, dignity, respect, and care as human beings. They also deserved another opportunity for a reformed life after they had paid the price for their offenses and crimes. Today we come across many features in present-day prisons around the world, the origins of which go back to the daring efforts of Elizabeth. The planners, policy-makers, and activists need to take note of that and benefit from the contributions that Elizabeth made. How much change a single person can bring to society is also well demonstrated by the example of Elizabeth’s life and labor.

CHAPTER FOUR MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT A FIRST FEMINIST, PHILOSOPHER, ACTIVIST, AND EDUCATIONAL MORAL REFORMER

Introduction The earlier two chapters focused on the life, endeavors, reform efforts, and contributions of two pioneer women of the Quaker faith who were from England and contributed much to their respective areas of social reform. One case in point was that of Margaret Fell who came from the nobility of England, and her main contributions were in the areas of feminism, advocacy, and religious-political reform. The other case was that of Elizabeth Fry who also belonged to the affluent social class of England, and her main contributions were in the areas of prison reform and related relief work. In comparison, Mary Wollstonecraft came from a much more humble background, and yet she contributed much to the feminist, moral, political, and social causes; and inspired many future reformers and activists like Margaret Fuller, George Elliot, Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and others. She also inspired the development of the women’s rights movement in America which occurred in the middle of the nineteenth century, and some cues for the demands there came from her writings and suggestions. Mary was a simple, sincere, passionate, and, to an extent, naive person, who tried to take care of all those who were related or acquainted with her; and for that, she paid a heavy price. Twice she tried to commit suicide, but that was not acceptable to providence, and both the times she survived. Mary was a radical person from the beginning and her behaviors and actions were unconventional; this did not fit with the norms of society. Accordingly, she remained in controversy her whole life, but was a brilliant writer, scholar, translator, and reviewer. In her short lifetime of thirty-eight years, she wrote two novels, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, a children’s book, and several reviews,

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treaties, and translations.1 The best known of her writings were A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman published respectively in 1790 and 1792, and these two works put Mary on the map among some of the most prominent authors of the times. Mary was also a pioneer feminist, philosopher, activist, and educational moral reformer; her writings, convictions, behaviors, and actions left much for others to ponder and act upon. Her main contributions were in the areas of morality, liberalism, republicanism, rationality, restructuring of society, educational reforms, political reforms, moral reforms, and social reforms. Mary also advocated equality between men and women, and pointed out that women looked inferior to men, not because of any natural deficiencies in them, but because men exploited them, denied them suitable education, and kept them away from socio-political opportunities.2 Here we present the case study of this prominent and brilliant woman with a focus on her life, endeavors, struggles, reform efforts, and contributions. The lessons learned will be indicated later in the conclusion chapter.

Life of Mary Mary was born in Spitalfields, London, England on April 27, 1759, and was the second of the seven children of Edward John Wollstonecraft and Elizabeth Dixon. Her grandfather was a well-known master weaver and he had left considerable financial resources for the family. But her father was a spendthrift and he squandered all these resources in order to establish himself as a gentleman farmer. As time passed his financial situation went from bad to worse and, at one point, he even forced Mary to give up the share of the inheritance which she would have received upon reaching adulthood. The family were in dire straits for most of Mary’s early life and had to move a lot. Mary’s father was also a heavy drinker and, in states of intoxication, turned violent toward Mary’s mother and her siblings. Mary, in these circumstances, protected her mother and siblings and occasionally slept in front of their bedroom to intercede between them and her father. This went on for quite some time until Mary could bear it no more. Exhausted and frustrated with the family situation, she left home in 1778 at the age of nineteen and took the job of a lady companion to a widow, Sarah Dawson, who lived in Bath. Her relationship with that lady did not turn out to be amicable and Mary found it difficult to adjust there. Then in 1780 news came that her mother was sick and dying. Mary took leave from her employment and went back home to take care of her mother. Her mother did not survive and died in 1782. Instead of returning

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to her employment with Sarah Dawson, Mary chose to join the family of her friend, Fanny Blood, and stayed there for eighteen months. In 1783, she discovered that something was not right with the marriage of her sister Eliza. She decided to go there and, in January 1784, encouraged her to give up her marital relationship and her baby as well. After that, the two sisters went into hiding for some time. The baby died in August 1784, and Mary’s sister remained in a poor condition and remained unmarried for the rest of her life.3 By 1784, Mary, her sister Eliza, and her friend Fanny Blood were thinking of opening a school for children. Mary’s other sister, Everina, joined in that venture later. At first, the preferred site for the school was in Islington, but later it was changed to one in Newington Green. Thus, the school was opened; but soon Fanny got engaged, was married, and the couple decided to move to Lisbon, Portugal. Fanny kept delicate health and, after her first pregnancy, her health deteriorated further. Mary decided to take leave from the school and moved to Lisbon to take care of her dear friend. Fanny did not survive and died in 1785. That devastated Mary both physically and emotionally. Later, she would put these experiences in her first novel Mary: A Fiction published in 1788.4 After that, Mary returned to London and found that her school was in dire financial distress. At that time, she was working on her first book entitled Thoughts on the Education of Daughters: with Reflections on Female Conduct in the More Important Duties of Life5 which was based on her experiences with the school and other related observations of society. Joseph Johnson was a liberal publisher and a member of the Dissenting group in London. Mary was acquainted with him and he kindly extended an advance to her on the promise that she would allow him to publish the work when it was finished. That way, Mary was able to handle the financial situation, at least partially.6 At about that time, some of Mary’s friends helped her obtain the position of governess to the daughters of the Kingsborough family in Ireland. There, too, Mary had difficulties in making the necessary adjustments, but the children were enthusiastic and inspiring. Mary would later include her experiences there in her children’s book Original Stories from Real Life published in 1788.7

Early Influences Alongside the negative experiences in her family and employment situations, Mary also had some positive influences on her early life. Two of these influences were through her friendships with Jane Arden of Beverley and Fanny Blood (mentioned earlier), introduced to Mary by the

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Clares. Mary was very attached to Jane and mentioned in one place, “I have formed romantic notions of friendship… I must have the first place or none.” The two friends spent much time together, read books together, and attended lectures offered by Jane’s father. Mary was impressed by the intellectual atmosphere of Jane’s family and she valued her friendship with Jane to the point of over-possession. The other influence on Mary was that of Fanny Blood and her family. Fanny’s family was poor, and yet quite satisfied and contented. While living with the family, Mary learned that people do not need many resources in order to be satisfied and successful. Fanny and Mary also made plans to rent rooms together, live together, and support each other emotionally and financially. However, practical difficulties got in the way and their plan could not be put into practice. Reverend Richard Price, an elderly priest belonging to the Unitarian faith, was also one of Mary’s early acquaintances whom she met in Newington Green. He belonged to the Dissenting group in London and was an impressive moral and political thinker. Mary heard him speak and felt quite impressed by him. Through him, she came to know Joseph Johnson (mentioned earlier) who also belonged to the Dissenting group, and who would later help Mary in her times of need. He also became her employer, patron, benefactor, friend, and publisher.8

Start of a Career After doing the job of governess for one year, Mary felt frustrated and decided not to work for others in the future. Instead, she wanted to pursue a career in writing. That was a bold decision on her part because, in those days, men occupied the most rewarding positions, and job options available to “respectable, but poor women” were limited. Mary’s formal education consisted of several years of schooling at the Yorkshire County school, and the sharing of lessons given by Jane’s father to Jane and her. But she had continued to pursue informal studies by taking suggestions from her acquaintances. Thus, she had developed a considerable knowledge of some ancient and modern philosophers and had a good command of the contents of the Bible. Having decided not to be subservient to others, she returned to London to make a living. Joseph Johnson had recently started a periodical, The Analytical Review, in collaboration with Thomas Christie in May 1788, and he was on the lookout for some editorial and translation assistance. Having published Mary’s Thoughts on the Education of Daughters in 1787, he employed Mary as a reviewer for the periodical and also made arrangements for her living. Mary had finished her first novel, Mary, A Fiction, during her stay

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in Ireland and had also started The Cave of Fancy, A Tale which she would never complete. The same year she also finished writing Original Stories from Real Life. Joseph Johnson published both of these completed works in 1788, and two further editions of the later work appeared in 1791 and 1796. Later, Mary would also write an anthology, The Female Reader,9 based on excerpts from the Bible, Shakespeare, Voltaire, Steele, C. Smith, and Madame de Genlis. However, her main job at The Analytical Review remained that of an editorial assistant where she reviewed novels, poetry, travel accounts, educational works, collected sermons, biographies, natural histories, political essays, and treatises on different subjects. Mary also learned French, German, and Dutch while doing this job and started translating works like Of the Importance of Religious Opinions by Jacques Necker from French, Elements of Morality for the Use of Children by Christian Gotthilf Salzmann from German, and Young Grandison by Madame de Cambon from Dutch.10 She also regularly attended literary dinners, organized by Joseph Johnson, where many well-known thinkers, philosophers, poets, and authors came together to socialize and participate. There she met William Godwin who later became her husband and was also inadvertently responsible for the neglect of her works by the intellectuals and the public for over a century.11

In London and Paris Mary was twenty-eight years old and unmarried when she was working with Joseph Johnson. Mary’s first romantic affair occurred in London with an artist, Henry Fuseli, who was already married. She mentioned that she felt enraptured by his genius, grandeur of soul, quickness of comprehension, and lovely sympathy, and desired to live with him. She proposed that idea to him, but Fuseli’s wife did not agree to the suggestion and the relationship ended there. Feeling humiliated, Mary decided to leave England for a time and go to France. The French Revolution was taking place at that time and Mary wanted to witness it firsthand. Therefore, in December 1792, she went to Paris even though her friends and acquaintances advised her not to take the risk. Upon arriving in Paris, Mary discovered that the conditions there were really bad. People were trying to get rid of the monarchy and war with England loomed large. Four parties; Jacobins, Girondins, Feuillants, and Cordeliers, were trying to guide the revolution in their own ways. Mary’s sympathies were with the Girondins whom she thought were more liberal. Earlier, in her A Vindication of the Rights of Men,12 she had sided with the Girondins and had indicated that French Revolution was good for the people as it

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presented to them “a glorious chance to obtain more virtue and happiness that hitherto blessed our globe.” One month after Mary’s arrival in Paris, Louis XVI was tried and beheaded. Thereafter the crisis deepened. In February 1793, France declared war on England and all foreigners came under surveillance. At that time, Mary tried to leave France and travel to Switzerland but permission was denied to her. As she was a sympathizer of the revolutionary people, going back to England was not an option either. In March 1793, the Jacobins came to power and imposed a totalitarian rule over the country to mobilize all resources in their “total war” effort with England. Foreigners came under further scrutiny and were required to have permits in order to continue to live in France. On April 12, 1793, all foreigners were completely forbidden to leave the country. That put Mary under further risk of going to prison, and even losing her life, in spite of the fact that she was a sympathizer of the occurring revolution.13 Not all people felt satisfied with the way the revolution was occurring. One concern was of the rights of the people, and another was of the status and position of women in society. Not much was changing in these areas. On October 31, 1793, the Jacobins guillotined many opposition leaders and their sympathizers. Mary was also at risk as she sympathized and communicated with the Girondins. She was also from the country with which France was at war. Accordingly, she was in dire need of help for some security. Mary had earlier met an American merchant, Gilbert Imlay, and was presently living with him. He came to her rescue and declared in writing in the United States Embassy in Paris that she was his wife; although the two were not married. In her A Vindication of the Rights of Woman14 Mary had declared that women should stay away from their passions so that men did not have a chance to exploit them. On this occasion, she failed to follow her own advice and fell in love with Gilbert. She even started sleeping with him and became pregnant. That resulted in the birth of her first daughter, Fanny, on May 14, 1794, whom she named after her dear friend Fanny Blood. All that Mary did was considered unconventional and scandalous; an unmarried woman sleeping with someone, and even giving birth to a baby. That was not what was expected of a “respectable British woman.”15 Conditions in France went from bad to worse. The war effort intensified and social unrest was common. There were shortages of all kinds, particularly of food, fuel, and other commodities. The winters were harsh and political uncertainty was everywhere. Hunger, starvation, and death loomed large for much of the population. People were dissatisfied with the new regime and criticized it for being slavish to those who held

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wealth and power. Mary, too, was dismayed and thought that the Jacobins had failed to deliver to the people their expected rights, or improve their living conditions. A “reign of terror” prevailed and, daily, people were being arrested and executed. No one felt safe under these circumstances. Mary was under the suspicion of the authorities and taken as one of the “enemies of the republic.” However, in July 1794, the regime of the Jacobins collapsed and people felt relieved. Mary was happy because that meant a freer environment for her and a little more breathing room for everyone. Mary, in the meanwhile, had been taking notes on all that had been happening and recording her own experiences of the occurring revolution. That resulted in her An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution published in December 1794.16 But the next edition of that work did not come forth until 1889 because the focus of the public had shifted from her works to her unconventional character and life.17

Rejection by Gilbert Gilbert, in the meantime, had been feeling disenchanted with his relationship with Mary and, in August 1794, decided to move to England, promising her that he would return soon. Time went by and that did not happen, in spite of the pleas from Mary to him, through letters, to return to France. That made Mary very sad and depressed. The winter of 1794 was harsh, and there were all kinds of other difficulties. Mary and her daughter were having a rough time. Therefore, Mary continued to write to Gilbert asking that he return to France, explaining that she could not come to England because the British government had been cracking down on people who sympathized with the French Revolution. In April 1795, however, Mary dared to take the risk and returned to London. There she sought out Gilbert, but he rejected her outright. As a result, in May 1795, Mary tried to commit suicide by taking poison, but Gilbert saved her. After that, Mary tried to please Gilbert by offering him help in his stuck business dealings. For that, she traveled to Scandinavia on his behalf. Only her daughter and a maid were with her. What Mary did there, and how she lived, was later documented in her Letters written during a short residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark published in 1796.18 After her return to London, Mary discovered that her relationship with Gilbert was all but over and she made another attempt at suicide by jumping into the River Thames. Someone saw her doing that and saved her. Mary now realized that she was being saved again and again for some reason, and started keeping herself busy in the literary circle of Joseph Johnson. She also started dating William Godwin whom she knew already. The year was

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1796 and Mary’s relationship with William changed into a love affair. She soon became pregnant with his baby but the two were not yet married. In order to save the situation, and give the coming baby a legitimate father’s name, Mary and William decided to marry. That marriage turned out to be stable, successful, loving, and respectful. The baby was born on August 30, 1797, and was named Mary.

Lost Glory Everything seemed to be going well after the delivery but soon Mary developed childbed fever, which was common in those days. Mary died of that ailment on September 10, 1797, and was buried at Old Saint Pancras Churchyard. The tombstone at her grave read: “MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT GODWIN, Author of A Vindication of the rights of Woman: Born 27th April 1759: Died 10th September 1797.”19 The matters, however, did not end there. William had read Mary’s Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark and felt that the work needed to be appreciated by more people. Therefore, in January 1798, he published his version of the Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman,20 and revealed in it all of the sensitive and non-sensitive aspects of Mary’s life in great clarity, including her odd relationships with women, love affairs, illegitimate children, attempts at suicide, and the rest. That publication, though not intended to be that way, significantly diminished Mary’s pioneer contributions and a refocus on them only occurred a century later, during the start of the women’s rights movement in America, in the middle of the nineteenth century when the feminists of the time paid attention to her seminal beginnings on the rights and position of women in the society. That revived some of her lost glory and legacy, but the gain back was never total.21

Thematic Debate England had taken a new turn in 1688 with the occurrence of the Glorious Revolution when the authority of the monarchy was curbed. That gave a boost to enlightenment ideas, and people were desirous of bringing about more changes in society. Discussions were also taking place about the rights of the people, their duties as citizens, human equality, separation of religious and state affairs, the role of the authorities in meeting the needs of the people, egalitarianism, and representative government. Later, all these themes became a part of the French Revolution, on which opinions wavered on both sides.22

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Richard Price, the elderly Unitarian priest in Newington Green, was a moral-political philosopher and belonged to the Dissident group. On November 4, 1789, he gave a speech before the Society for the Commemorating of the Revolution of Great Britain; the topic was A Discourse on the Love of our Country.23 This was held at the Meeting House in Old Jewry. In his speech, Richard compared the occurring French Revolution to the earlier Glorious Revolution of a century before and expressed that the “love of one’s country” did not necessarily mean a love of one’s rulers, and even the physical territory they ruled. It was a love of the people and the communities, as per the Christian prescription, and the ideals, principles, standards, ambitions, and aspirations flowing from it which made a country good and great. Additionally, the love of one’s country was patriotism, which was the result of reason and not of any undirected impulse. It was not a blind following of the rulers and their reasonable and unreasonable desires, ambitions, and demands. The aim of patriotism was to keep the rulers fair, just, and responsible. If the rulers wanted to conquer other lands or became tyrants, patriotism demanded they be checked and even overthrown if necessary. Patriotism also meant bringing enlightenment to the people and encouraging them to stay on the right path. Liberty of the people was also a part of patriotism and an essential element in the love of one’s country which led to the prosperity of the whole nation. That prosperity was to be sought deliberately because it did not occur automatically. It was also to be defended against internal and external threats. The natural rights of the people went with patriotism and the love of one’s country. The main ones being: 1) the right of liberty of conscience, 2) the right to resist power when it was abusive, 3) the right to choose the rulers, and 4) the right to change the rulers in case their conduct became miscreant. Traditions and customs were also not to be followed blindly, but were to be tested for fairness and rationality. That included the British hierarchy and its ruling practices. Richard also proclaimed that political settlements during the Glorious Revolution did not fully achieve people’s representation or liberty, and that task was left up to future generations. There was also a further need to end despotism and oppression in society. In his speech, he appreciated the American revolution which, in his opinion, bestowed upon the people a free spirit, and he said that the aims of the French Revolution were similar.24 Mary positively reviewed Richard’s speech in The Analytical Review, but many people were against the opinions expressed by him. Among them was Edmund Burke, an Irish member of the House of Commons of the British Parliament and a member of the Whig party. He wrote a pamphlet in response to Richard’s speech entitled Reflection on the

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Revolution in France and on the Proceedings in Certain Societies in London Relative to that Event which was published in 1790.25 In that pamphlet he opposed the French Revolution, indicating that it was unwarranted and was likely to bring disaster to the whole nation. People, he said, were wrong in overthrowing a legitimate government that was a part of the tradition. Civilizations, he said, came from the consensus of the people, and served a prominent purpose in society. If an effort was made to change them abruptly anarchy would be the result. Changes, he said, had to be gradual and constitutional, and not radical. That way Edmund defended the British monarchy, hierarchy, tradition, the Church of England, ownership of property, hereditary succession, and loyalty to rulers, and he pointed out that freedom and equality were not the same. Freedom, he said, had to occur within the confines of the law, and the rights of the people had to come from their duties based on specific qualifications. Lastly, he said that people could not behave like God, and when they did so they ended up behaving like devils. Other arguments in the document were that the French Revolution, and the people guiding it, ignored prevalent complexities in human nature and in society, and went for ideals in finding solutions to the problems and issues, ignoring the practicalities. He repudiated the belief in the divinity of the monarchy and its functioning and was against an oppressive government. He declared that people had a right to depose such a government. He wanted the government to have a “human heart,” but was wary of the notions of enlightenment, abstract conceptions of liberty and human rights, and values and practices that were untaught and irrational. But he was fine with the inheritance rights of people, and values and practices that came from the wisdom of the ages. He predicted that the French Revolution would give rise to a military dictatorship that, instead of protecting the rights of the people, would turn corrupt, bring a reign of terror, and become more incompetent and heartless than the existing aristocracy. He had earlier spoken in favor of constitutional limitations on the monarchy, denounced the religious persecution of Catholics in Ireland, lent voice against the British colonies in America, and pursued the impeachment of Warren Hastings for his abuses of power in India. Therefore, friends and foes alike were surprised when he opposed the French Revolution and declared that it would bring harm to the whole nation. His document, accordingly, received many reactions and started a pamphlet war which lasted until 1795. Many British citizens were in favor of slow and gradual changes in society, and they concurred with Edmund’s arguments. But others criticized his parochial treatment of the monarchy, the ruling class, and the Church of England, and the first of these criticisms was from Mary

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in a matter of six weeks entitled A Vindication of the Rights of Men also published in 1790.26

Mary’s Stand Mary suggested that the rights of the people could not be fixed, or based solely on existing traditions, but were to be rational and reviewed periodically for fairness and justice. The French Revolution, she said, occurred because of some economic, social, and political conditions in society that left no other choice to the people but to revolt, and bring bread and food to their families. Wrongs done by the monarchy and the ruling class were also a reason for the occurrence of the French Revolution, as they brought an unfair culture with people suffering a lot from it. More vulnerable in that regard were the women who were treated like property, and their functions were set at the bearing of children, taking care of family members, and providing other services to the family and others. Women had no independent standing or rights of their own and were dependent on their husbands, fathers, or older sons for the satisfaction of their needs. All these conditions demeaned women and made them slaves to men in most areas of functioning. The focus of the culture was on the bodies of women, and they were trained to stay attractive to men. That way not enough attention was paid to their intellects or capabilities and women failed to realize their full potential. Mary, accordingly, felt that the way out of all these adverse circumstances for women was their proper education, so that they would develop knowledge of themselves and of society, and participate positively in the socio-political functioning. By doing that, she said, they also became better wives, mothers, partners, workers, and citizens, and benefited the whole social order. Mary also suggested that an agrarian base for society was better for the people as it stressed mutual cooperation, altruistic virtues, religious toleration, and individual liberties. Mary further expanded these ideas in her A Vindication of the Rights of Woman published in 1792. With regard to some other contentions of Edmund, Mary suggested that his conceptions of civil society and political power were flawed as he was too much infatuated with authority, rank, monarchy, constitution, and tradition, and did not properly factor in other aspects of the society in which poverty, distress, and injustice ran rampant. She also suggested that the confiscation of property of the church did not mean a disregard of all property rights, and man was certainly not the cause of all evils in society. It was true, she said, that the rights of the people were natural and God-given, but reason and rationality were also to be applied to them to ensure they stayed

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equitable, fair, and just, as per the current conditions. In relation to the French Revolution, Mary’s feelings were similar to those of Richard, and she attacked the monarchy, the ruling class, and the Church of England for their corrupt practices and unlawfully seizing power from the people. She also attacked the existing traditions like class-based hierarchy, hereditary inheritance, privileges and positions based on these, paternalism, and the expected unconditional loyalty to the rulers. Edmond had suggested that equality among the people was to be within certain structural and cultural restraints. Mary criticized that idea. She also rebuked Edmond for resisting the notions of enlightenment, progress, and change, as per the current needs in society. In lieu of all that, Mary’s suggestions were for morality, liberalism, republicanism, rationality, middle-class ethos, individualized living, promotion of the rights of the people, elimination of vice-ridden codes and manners, and equality between men and women. The British government was worried about an uprising in the nation, similar to the one occurring in France, and it undertook drastic measures to quash any radical elements in the country. These included political arrests, the banning and confiscation of reformist literature, spying on people, checking the mail of suspected dissidents, attacking and destroying liberal presses, and trying people for treason. These measures proved effective and most radical elements were muted by the early 1800s. Mary’s works also fell in the radical category as they had created a sensation, at least for a while, although they were unable to produce any lasting results. One reason for that was the publication of Memoirs of the Author of a Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1797 by her husband which, as earlier mentioned, took the attention of the public away from her works and onto her character and romances.27

Gender, Sensibility, Sexuality, and Feminism Edmund, in his A Philosophical Enquiry into Our Idea of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757),28 had associated the “beautiful”, with femininity taken as weakness and the “sublime”, and with masculinity taken as strength. Mary indicated that such meanings of these concepts were harmful as they belittled women, downplayed their strengths, and hindered their participation in society. These concepts also imparted to women a sense of inferiority and uselessness. Merits and virtues, she said, belonged to men as well as women, and both needed to be judged alike based on those standards, not on some artificial stipulations. A nation’s strength, she said, depended on the capacities of all people, and men and women both

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needed to be treated equally and offered similar opportunities to participate in the affairs of society.29 Sensibility was another important theme during the eighteenth century and was taken to be a physical phenomenon belonging to the nerves of the people. The idea was that the more sensitive a person’s nerves were, the more that person was affected in terms of feelings and emotions, and the more the impact was of the surroundings on that person. Women were considered to have keener nerves than men and therefore they were supposed to get hurt more easily and suffer more by these circumstances. It was also argued that the excess of sensibility in women clouded their minds, affected their thinking, and shook their balance in difficult situations. But excessive sensibility in women also worked positively for them and they were more likely to be sympathetic, compassionate, helpful, humanitarian, and possess more fellow-feelings. Mary, however, warned against such suggestions and declared that they made men and women unequal, and harmed them and civilization. She also indicated that sensibility and non-sensibility were present in men as well as women, and these elements were not independent. They informed each other and left marks on people in terms of their feelings and emotions. Accordingly, they were to be taken in unison. The negative effects of excessive sensibility were to be watched by all and at all levels. Mary repeated these themes again and again in her works, and particular examples were Mary: A Fiction (1788), Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman (1798), and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792).30 Sexuality was another important theme of the times and Mary connected that with the sensibility in people, particularly in the cases of women. She warned women to be careful about their sensibility which affected their sexual desires, noting that women who succumbed to their sexual desires were “blown about by every momentary gust of feeling.” She further reiterated that until women transcended their fleshly desires, they were likely to remain slaves of their bodies and susceptible to domination by men.31 The term “feminism” had not yet been coined in Mary’s times,32 but overall equality between men and women was being suggested. In Mary’s case, that equality was to be in the moral, social, political, and educational spheres, and was to be a top priority for society. But instead of advocating unequivocal equality between men and women in terms of the same rights and privileges, Mary assigned that equality “in the eyes of God” and “in most areas of life.” In her writings she also: 1) admitted that men’s masculine strength was superior to women’s feminine strength; 2) called upon men, instead of women, to initiate and implement the needed

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changes in society; and 3) requested men to come to the aid of women in cases of need, because women were uneducated and could not alter their situations. She also admitted that women did have a great many faults which needed to be addressed, but in doing so they needed to be treated as normal human beings, and more attention was to be given to middle-class women who were likely to benefit more from the sought changes. Poor women, she said, were courageous and strong but lacked the circumstances to benefit from the changes. Rich women were already corrupted and beyond the possibility of redemption. These ideas and stipulations would get changed, modified, and expanded later by the future generations of feminists.33 Thus, what Mary tried to suggest through her taken positions was that both men and women were equal and were to be subjected to the same laws and standards, were to respect the sanctity of marriage, were to subscribe to the same sexual mores, and were to follow the same societal norms. During her times these were very bold propositions.

Tradition and Change Tradition and change was another theme on which Mary commented. The debate at the time was whether society should remain anchored in its traditions and experience slow and gradual changes, or should rationality prevail as per the needs of the people where abrupt and radical changes were necessary. Edmund was in favor of the first position and suggested a continuation of the tradition, with slow and gradual changes. But Mary was in favor of the second possibility, suggesting that traditions, institutions, standards, and practices were products of historical circumstances, and as these circumstances changed, the traditions, institutions, standards, and practices should also change, sometimes gradually and at other times radically. Moreover, she said there was a need to review traditions, institutions, standards, and practices with regard to their relevance, fairness, and justice for the people, and changes were to be made accordingly. These changes could be slow and gradual, or rapid and radical, depending upon the exigencies and needs of the people. Mary also differed with Edmund relating to his conceptions of civil society, government, and their functioning as per the needs of the people. At the core of Mary’s ideas of citizenship and society was virtue, which was less traditional or hereditary and more individualistic and moralistic. Formation of that virtue began at home in the family environment where it flourished as love, cohesion, bonding, other-orientation, loyalty, performance of duties, and patriotism. That helped family ties and family functioning as well, and gave members

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a sense of independence, self-sufficiency, and responsibility for others. A sense of natural rights also developed in the family environment, and morality too was first learned there. The family environment taught dynamics in relationships, living, adjustments, and the proper upbringing of both sexes. Mary, thus, idealized family and family relationships, and suggested that these flourished and functioned best in a small community setting. Mary also preferred middle-class values rather than aristocratic values, but she did not correspondingly sympathize with poor people. Core values there were morality, self-discipline, frugality, and hard work. What mattered in the cases of middle-class people were not the circumstances of their birth, but what these people did, and their goals and aspirations. Vices of rich people like insincerity, hypocrisy, and lack of affection, did not touch middle-class people, and they were more likely to follow the call of reason and possess liberty, a strong mind, a desire for free discussion, benevolence, orientation to the present and the future, and rejection of power and riches. They did not possess inherited wealth but carried a desire to create their own through their own labors and efforts. Mary also pointed out that Britain’s problems were rooted in its existing traditions, inequality, and wrong distribution of resources, and British people were more prone to engage in selfish actions than to go for fairness and reason.34

Monarchy, Republicanism, and Class The monarchy was an established institution during Mary’s times, along with its hierarchy, ruling class, and hereditary practices. All of these had become corrupted over time, and the needs of the common people were not being suitably met. There were also no checks and balances, no restraints on the powers of the monarchy and the aristocracy, and they were squeezing from the people almost everything they could to fulfill their ambitions and desires. Oppression was prevalent widely. The notion of the divinity of the monarchy and the aristocracy was also there, and that had assumed an institutional form. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 did curb some of the powers and privileges of the monarchy and the aristocracy, but problems and issues remained. Edmund favored the existing political structure, including the monarchy and the aristocracy, though earlier he had suggested that they operate within the boundaries of a constitution. Mary had a different position on the matter and suggested “republicanism” as the modus vivendi for the operation of the social and political structures, where both men and women participated in their respective roles, and brought welfare and happiness at the individual and

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at other levels, but not necessarily “the greatest good of the greatest number” or “the greatest good of the propertied people.” Reform was to occur at the individual level, though later Mary admitted that some situations required reform at other societal levels. In the absence of republicanism, she suggested, there was going to be more of the same slavish, oppressive, and distressing conditions; particularly for women and children. Thus, Mary’s idea of republicanism was of representative societal participation and, in suggesting that, she was probably trying to bring back the commonwealth notion of the seventeenth century without the collapse of the male and female roles. Republicanism, for her, also included the leveling down of society and the eventual elimination of the British hierarchy and its hereditary practices, including the offering of titles, distinctions, and privileges. Republicanism was to be practiced first at the family level, in its different operations, relations, and discharge of duties, and then at other levels. The practice of republicanism produced loyalty, cohesion, and a sense of responsibility among the population.35 Class was also a factor in Mary’s proposed functioning of society and core to that were middle-class values and virtues, which she said should also be adopted by the rest of society in upper and lower ranks. Modesty, industry, and straight-forward manners were part of the middle-class values and virtues, and Mary criticized the wealthy for their artificial living, fake refinements, vanity, lack of affections, and immorality. She also pointed out that the wealthy were corrupt and, intentionally or unintentionally, spread that corruption throughout society. Mary, instead, glorified the poverty and meekness of poor people which, in her opinion, saved them from falling prey to idleness and vices. Mary was also against the idea of charity for the poor and suggested that it ultimately brought negative consequences, though it did make the wealthy look virtuous and generous.36

Education of Boys and Girls The education of boys and girls was another important theme in Mary’s writings and examples of that were The Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787), Original Stories from Real Life (1788), The Female Reader (1789), and some translations she did of other people’s works.37 The main idea was of the similar growth and development of boys and girls, and bringing improvements in their enlightenment, discipline, honesty, frugality, working skills. contentment, and satisfaction in life. All that depended on their rational and appropriate education, which had been denied to them by the current system of education. Mary also advocated

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the education of adult women which was quite a radical idea at that time. The immediate context for Mary’s observations on education was a report by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord submitted to the French National Assembly in 1791. Therein he had recommended that women did not need education and, if at all, they could receive domestic education or education that enhanced the pleasures of men. An idea was also floating that women were incapable of thinking broadly and abstractly, and therefore could not have an education. Mary contradicted these ideas, though she admitted that women at that time were caught up in the web of false notions and superstitions, and were not able to perform their duties suitably. She did, however, suggest that the situation could be overcome through proper education, so that women became more rational and independent, and their sense of self came not from outside training, but from inside knowledge and commands. Mary also admonished the educational philosophers and conduct book writers for suggesting that women were suitable for domestic duties only, for which no education was needed. She asserted that women needed education as much as men did, and they were indeed capable of accomplishing that. That education had to be the same for boys and girls, and girls could also enter into occupations and professions which men currently occupied. That included their participation in social and political affairs. Based on these observations and her experiences, Mary suggested a system of national education which was oriented to the training of the body, mind, and heart, and which provided knowledge, virtues, and self-supporting skills. That education was to be co-educational and rooted more in reason and rationality than in faith and tradition. Part of the education was to be accomplished at home and the other part in established educational institutions which provided free education to the age of nine. Mary suggested that education at home was important to cultivate bonding, loyalty, and rationally among boys and girls early on, and which further guided their instincts, gave them virtues, strengthened their character, helped them explore inner resources, developed their abilities and capacities, made them independent, eased their paths to duties and responsibilities, and saved them from going wild, vain, and self-centered. Reason and rationality were to reign in other areas of life as well, and the responsibility for doing that fell first on the parents and then on the teachers. Mary suggested that if parents and teachers did not do all of that, and if girls were not properly educated, then virtue and knowledge in society would stagnate as mothers were the first educators and guides of young children. Mary, in her educational system, also retained the idea of a hierarchy where differences in goals and potential at the individual level were important. Brighter students were to be separated

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from less bright students, and sent to schools with higher levels of curriculum. This also applied to those boys and girls who wanted to pursue higher occupations and professions rather than those who merely aimed at gaining skills for survival level occupations.38

Equality of Rights The equal rights of men and women was another important theme in Mary’s writings. These rights were God-given and natural to men and women. The denying of these rights by men to women was not only unfair but was also a sin. These rights carried corresponding duties that were incumbent upon each and every member of society. However, along with the performance of duties went certain rights. When these rights were disrespected or denied, then the corresponding duties were also no longer applicable. Accordingly, Mary defended women’s rights, and they were to be the same as those of men as per their respective positions in society. She also suggested that people were people irrespective of their ranks and positions and, accordingly, Edmund’s downplaying of common people by calling them the “swinish multitude” was unfair and unjustified. She also admonished Edmund for unfairly siding with the elite in terms of their rights and privileges, and claimed that common people too, including women, ought to have similar rights; and these rights were to be fair, just, and rational. England’s customs, she pointed out, were rooted in historical circumstances, and were traditional and hereditary. Times had changed and the customs also needed to change, after reviews for relevance, fairness, and justice. These customs needed to correspond to God’s natural laws and be rational. The same was true of the judicial and administrative institutions, and they also needed to be reviewed for relevance, fairness, and justice. Mary warned common people against the artificial politeness of the rulers, the administrators, and the aristocracy, behind which, she said, were hidden their egotism, greed, and hypocrisy. On that she also warned against the excessive authority of the parents, and suggested that they needed to be more understanding and not exercise excessive pressures on their children; particularly in cases of their arranged marriages, late marriages, and marriages of convenience. Mothers also needed to be “good mothers” and bring up their children properly. They were particularly not to raise “empty-headed girls” that made the whole future generation incompetent and dysfunctional.39

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Other Notions Two more important sources of information on Mary, and her views on the different happenings in France and England, were her two writings An Historical and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution and the Effect It Has Produced in Europe (1794) and Letters written during a short residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark (1796). In the first piece, Mary tried to assess the historical and moral causes of the French Revolution by taking note of the merits and demerits of the progression of humanity in Europe, and the development of despotism in France. Her final assessment was that, with the passage of time, France had become morally and politically degenerated, and that ultimately caused the occurrence of the French Revolution. The published letters written by Mary in Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, were twenty-five in number and were deeply personal. They touched upon many diverse subjects, and there was a lot of self-exploration of Mary in them. After facing all kinds of problems and difficulties in Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, Mary was now able to see the world in a different light and discovered that the relationship between feelings, passions, reason, and rationality was not as simple as she had earlier imagined. She also realized that commercial wealth, with which she felt fine before, had its own flaws and could cause more inequality and tyranny in society than the rank and privilege factors. With these changes in her views, she now became softer in her attacks against Edmund, but fundamental differences between her and Edmund remained.40

Closing Remarks Mary’s case study was included in this work for three reasons: 1) she was a bold and unconventional personality who lived her whole life on her own terms, disregarding the socio-cultural environment around; 2) she was a brilliant thinker and writer who had a lot to say on the subjects and issues of her times; and 3) she was a pioneer feminist, philosopher, activist, and educational moral reformer. As a child, she challenged the authority of her father and protected her mother and siblings from his violent moods. Then at the age of nineteen, she left home to establish herself independently, which certainly was daring, and not easy or conventional during her times. Once out of her home she struggled, suffered a lot, and went through horrendous difficulties, but she did not swerve or give up. Mary was unorthodox in her choice of friendships, acquaintances, and romances. To these, she was sincere, loyal, and fully

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committed to the point of sacrificing a lot. Twice she tried to commit suicide but was saved both times. Out of her romantic relationships, she also had two female children and, in both cases, she was not yet married. That led to much controversy about her which lasted her whole life. Mary’s main contributions were as a writer, and they pertained to different subjects. She was not educated much but had continued to engage in informal learning by taking cues, advice, and guidance from other people. Through that, she was able to establish herself as a great writer, critic, and translator, and in the short span of the thirty-eight years of her life produced twenty pieces in all. Of these her A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman became the most famous and were positively reviewed by many prominent magazines of her day. But then appeared the Memoirs and Posthumous Works of Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, published by her husband William Godwin, and that changed everything. The attention of the public now shifted from her works to her personal life and character, and that diminished her glory and reputation for almost a century. She became an object of ridicule, and negative characters were modeled after her in novels, dramas, and other literary works. That continued till the mid-nineteenth century when some feminists took note of her views and writings and were inspired to start the women’s rights movement in 1848. After that, Mary’s glory and reputation revived somewhat, but never to the extent she deserved. Then came the 1960s when feminism became a common topic in academia and among the public. That again generated interest in Mary, and several biographies of her appeared, indicating who she really was, what she was about, what she stood for, and what her accomplishments were. Mary, in her writings, touched upon many subjects; among them were gender, sensibility, sexuality, feminism, tradition, change, monarchy, republicanism, class, values, education, male-female equality, and the rights of men and women. She also contributed much in the area of rationality, moral theory, political theory, and societal change. In these and related areas Mary influenced many activists, reformers, and intellectuals of future generations, and continues to do so to the present time. However, all about Mary did not sit well with some people. First, they opined that her personal life and character were scandalous by the standards of her times, and were a bad example for others. Another criticism was that her exclusive emphasis in writings was on middle-class values, and she did not balance these by incorporating the values of other classes. Some people also thought that her criticism of the monarchy and the aristocracy was excessive, to the point of declaring them useless and harmful to society. In the eyes of several others, Mary did not pay enough attention to

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the conditions, problems, and issues of poor people with a view to ameliorating their conditions and circumstances, except that they were better off where they were. Lastly, the male-female equality sought by Mary was not ideal for some people as it was God-ordained and rational, but not man-made and complete. However, even with these possible flaws in Mary’s views and writings, she was still a unique personality; bold and courageous enough to tackle the issues of morality, feminism, political change. male-female equality, and educational imbalances of her days.

CHAPTER FIVE LUCRETIA MOTT A QUAKER, ABOLITIONIST, FEMINIST, TEMPERANCE WORKER, RELIGIONIST, REFORMER, PACIFIST, AND MINISTER

Introduction In the long line of early social reformers, Lucretia Mott stood tall as one of the most prominent personalities of the century; busy with the causes of abolition, feminism, temperance, pacifism, religious change, and the alleviation of other problems and issues facing society. She was a powerful speaker, much in demand, and was an ordained minister in the Quaker tradition at a time when women were not supposed to participate in public activities. Her contributions in her chosen areas of engagement were enormous, and she also served as a role model for many other prominent personalities like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, and more. Her husband, James Mott, was also an abolitionist and a reformer who always stood by her side, encouraged her in her endeavors, and remained a great source of inspiration to her throughout her life. The problems and issues during Lucretia’s times were many, and she tried to tackle them to the best of her abilities with unusual determination and willpower. The times, conditions, and circumstances may have changed, but personal, social, and societal struggles have not changed; and the same problems and issues appear again and again with a greater vengeance, demanding similar reform efforts by the reformers and activists as during Lucretia’s times. Accordingly, Lucretia’s life, endeavors, works, and contributions remain relevant, and a source of inspiration and guidance to all new generations of reformers and activists in terms of discerning, handling, and dealing with problems and issues.1 This chapter overviews and elucidates the life, endeavors, reform efforts, and contributions of Lucretia Mott with a particular focus on her

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activities in the areas of the abolition of slavery and the bringing of equal rights to women. The lessons learned will be stated in the conclusion chapter.

Quakerism and Quakers Information on the early stage and shape of Quakerism has been provided in Chapter 2 and it is conceived that a little more information on the topic will serve in a better understanding of the life, endeavors, and reform efforts of Lucretia Mott. It was indicated previously that Quakerism was born during the middle of the seventeenth century when Europe was going through unsettled times, and conditions and circumstances on the continent were rough. Famines, diseases, disasters, wars, epidemics, and dynastic struggles were common, population declines and economic downturns were frequent, and religious rivalries were rampant. Peasant uprisings had begun, shortages of necessities were regular, and religious diversification was occurring. New religious orders like the Cluny, Cistercians, Templars, and Premonstratensians had emerged, conflicts between the state and the church were ongoing, and the power of the Catholic Church was declining.2 The Protestant Reformation was asking people to change their affiliations and practices, and Puritans were trying to bring Christianity to its earlier glory. Populist trends had emerged and democratic tendencies were becoming stronger. Ordinary people were taking advantage of these conditions and were asserting their rights to seek “Truth” and “God” in their own ways. That led to the birth of many new religious sects; among them were the “Diggers,” “Levelers,” “Ranters,” “Muggletonians,” “Brownists,” “Familists,” “Fifth Monarchists,” “Mennonites,” and “Quakers.” All these sects challenged the orthodoxies and created their own religious practices. But most of these sects disappeared as quickly as they had appeared. Only Mennonites and Quakers survived to future times.3 The core belief in Quakerism was that life was meant to serve God, who resided in every person in the form of the “Holy Spirit.” That Holy Spirit provided all the knowledge, guidance, and direction that a person needed for living, functioning, and handling problems and issues. To receive that knowledge and guidance they had to look inward, listen to the “inner voice,” pay attention to the revelations, and abide by them. That was to be the sole basis of knowing, decision-making, and acting; though a consensus among the people about their revelations was also necessary. An additional notion was that the Holy Spirit was in every person; everyone had the capacity for revelations and to know God and Truth, and

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thereby fulfill the callings of the revelations. This led the Quakers to believe that people were equal spiritually, everyone was worthy, and all deserved liberation. That applied to men and women, rich and poor people, and locals and strangers. Accordingly, all people were to be treated the same, and that was a fundamental requirement of the faith. Thus, from the start, Quaker women had received respect and reverence from men, enjoyed equality with them in living and functioning, and were allowed to take part in the activities of the movement on an equal footing as workers, preachers, reformers, and leaders. The same applied to the home, business, worship, and community activities where Quaker women were able to act freely and contribute much.4 Collective living was advised in Quakerism, and it was emphasized that group settings helped merge the hearts of people, created a common consciousness among them, and extended the love of God to all. Service to others was essential and, no matter how busy they were, every Quaker was expected to find time for rendering services to others. Humility was another important virtue and an important characteristic of every Quaker. Every member subscribed to that value sincerely and genuinely. Lastly, all people were taken to be fallible at one time or another and, accordingly, reform was essential. That applied to their own people and to other people. Thus, Quakers lived conscientiously under self-imposed principles which kept their civic and moral strengths high. Their motto was that life was to be lived in a way that it “spoke for itself” and served as an example to others. Conditions kept on changing and so did Quakerism. Ultimately the sect broke into three main traditions: 1) Conservative Quakers - who stuck to the original beliefs and practices; 2) Liberal Quakers - who adjusted their beliefs and practices according to changing circumstances; and 3) Evangelical Quakers - who took their beliefs and practices back to the form from which the sect had originally parted. But in the three traditions, many commonalities remained.5

Other Premises Besides information on Quakerism and Quakers, several other premises also guided the content and direction of this case study, and that was applicable to most other case studies included in this work. First, for the most part of human history, men controlled the functioning of societies by keeping the lucrative and powerful roles for themselves, while delegating to women the less attractive and less influential roles. Second, that many of the earlier male-female inequalities continued over time, in spite of the headways made by women in different areas of functioning,

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and they still had a long way to go to attain the desired equality with men. Third, that in spite of the posed handicaps, restrictions, and bottlenecks, women exhibited remarkable resilience and, through their extraordinary talents and ingenuities, contributed a lot to the welfare and development of societies.6 Fourth, that those societies which embraced fairness and justice in relation to different ranks of people, including women, flourished over time, and those which did not could not prosper. Fifth, that intimate connections existed all along among the conceptions and operations of peace, pacifism, welfare, fairness, and justice, in societies of which personal and social reforms had been integral parts. Sixth, that imperfections and failings were natural to people and societies, and they needed remedial and reformative solutions on an ongoing basis. Seventh, that for the permanent elimination of problems and issues, social reform had to take a priority over remedial work, even though some people suggested otherwise. Eighth, that people and societies were connected temporally and space-wise, and occurrences and happenings of the past influenced future problems and issues. Wise people took note of this and strategized solutions to eliminate problems and issues. That way they led people and societies to a better present and an even brighter future.7

Life of Lucretia Mott Lucretia Mott was born on January 3, 1793, on an island called Nantucket,8 thirty miles south of Cape Cod, in north-east America. Her family belonged to the original settlers of the island and had arrived there in 1659. Whaling was the mainstay of living, Quakerism was the faith, and the economy was not connected to slavery at all. Her father was Thomas Coffin, who was the captain of his privately owned ship. Her mother was Anna Folger Coffin, who ran a shop. The couple married in January 1790 and Lucretia was the second of eight children. The island culture was strong in her, and it permeated her personality; she was a free, independent, and elated spirit. That remained a defining characteristic of her personality throughout her life. The times were exciting in several ways. The Constitution of America had been ratified in 1788, with the core values of freedom, liberty, and the happiness of all people. The French Revolution had started in 1789, and it too emphasized freedom, equality, and grace among the people. Benjamin Franklin had been lobbying in the United States Congress against slavery, and Mary Wollstonecraft of England had come up with her seminal book A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792.9 The Revolutionary War had ended but Nantucket was still trying to recover from its impacts. Beyond the Quaker community, social, political,

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and moral conditions were different. Men still dominated outside activities, while women remained busy with chores at home and the raising of children. Some women ran shops or small businesses too. Men carried the authority and they decided what women and children were to do or not to do.10 Property also belonged to men; they decided whether or not to bring forth a divorce, and after divorce the children and belongings were normally turned over to them. Women were to stay subservient and meek, and happily fulfill the needs of their husbands and other male members of the family. Thus, the whole system was tilted in favor of men, and women, for the most part, were treated as second-class citizens. Under these circumstances, expecting male-female equality was a far-fetched proposition.11 Parallel to the problems of women was the menace of slavery in the nation which demanded attention. Slaves, too, were helpless people, with no rights of their own and, in many ways, their conditions were worse than those of women. The Constitution of America and the government supported slavery and protected the rights of the slaveholders in all possible ways. The church, too, was on the side of the slaveholders. Other issues during Lucretia’s times were temperance, the issues of mentally-ill people, the need for prison reforms, better treatment of foreigners, proper support of poor and weak people, and equal educational opportunities for boys and girls. Religious bigotry and narrowness also presented concerns. Lucretia was aware of these circumstances from an early age.12 The main influences on Lucretia’s life and views were her family, relatives, friends, and community members. The Quaker meetings she had regularly attended since childhood were also a factor in her living and undertakings. Her father was an adventurous man and he stayed away from home for long periods. Her mother, in the meantime, managed the home affairs and ran the shop. Both parents were of a noble nature and that impacted Lucretia. At the age of four, she began her studies in a Quaker grammar school while also attending Quaker meetings with her family. There she developed an awareness of God, and a desire to obey Him. She also decided to take all guidance from Him in matters of living and doing. At that time, she was aware of the plight of the slaves, having heard about the atrocities wrought upon them and the hard labor they were made to do against their will. She had also heard about how members of the slave families were separated, and cruel treatments meted out to them when they were shipped from one place to another. At the same time, she had also heard about the appeals made by Thomas Clarkson and others to treat slaves more kindly and end slavery in America. Later she would read

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Priscilla Wakefield’s Mental Improvement which eloquently recounted the horrors of slavery in America.13 As a young girl, Lucretia had witnessed a woman being flogged in public. That had made her very angry at the time and, seventy-five years later, she would describe that event to her grandchildren and greatgrandchildren. However, overall awareness of women’s issues came slowly to her as she was born and raised in a Quaker environment where women were treated with respect and a sense of equality prevailed between men and women. She witnessed this in worship meetings, in business settings, in community affairs, and in town surroundings. Only later would she realize how things were different outside of the Quaker environment, where women faced all kinds of handicaps, restrictions, and issues with regard to their functioning and position in society. Other issues with which Lucretia later became familiar were the bigotry and narrowness of the church, the unfairness and arrogance of the government, and ongoing violence in society.14

Change in Circumstances In 1802, Thomas Coffin’s ship was seized by a Spanish man-of-war, following which he tried to start a business. For that, the family moved to Boston, in 1804, just before Lucretia turned twelve years old. At the age of thirteen, Lucretia started attending Nine Partners, a Quaker boarding school in Dutchess County, New York, later known as Millbrook. There she completed her studies, became a teacher’s assistant, and then a teacher. She noticed that male teacher’s assistants and male teachers there were earning almost three times the salaries of their female counterparts, and that fact greatly shocked her; it sowed in her the seeds of a lifelong struggle for the equality of women with men. At Nine Partners she met another teacher, James Mott, who was the grandson of the superintendent of the school. Lucretia and James courted for a while, fell in love, and got married in 1811. Later they would have six children together, five of whom survived to adulthood. Lucretia had strong feelings for reform efforts from early on and James realized that. Therefore, by and by he became Lucretia’s friend and also her supporter, guide, and well-wisher in all her undertakings. It was during her school teaching days that Lucretia became a “Hicksite”,15 and also an abolitionist.16 In 1809 the Coffin family moved from Boston to Philadelphia in pursuit of new business interests; shortly after Lucretia moved there to join the family. Later, James also went to Philadelphia and boarded with the family. There he did several job searches before eventually becoming a

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partner in Lucretia’s father’s business. In 1815, Lucretia’s father died and left a heavy debt for the family to pay off. Help from James’s family was expected, but it had also fallen on hard times and that help was not possible. Thus, Lucretia’s mother restarted the shop, and Lucretia started teaching in a school. James had earlier worked at his uncle’s cotton mill, then sold plows, and then worked as a clerk in a bank. Now he started a cotton business in order to help with the situation. Anti-slavery sentiments were strong at the time and abolitionists were suggesting the boycotting of all products made through slave labor. That included cane-sugar, tobacco, indigo, and cotton. James, accordingly, quit his well-running cotton business and started a wool business. At about that time, he also further organized his life as an abolitionist, and Lucretia joined him in that.17

A Preaching Career Women had been preaching alongside men from the beginning of the Quaker tradition and the “Valiant Sixty”18 were examples of that. However, ordained ministry for women was rare. Lucretia’s three-year-old son died in 1817. One year after that she started speaking forcefully in Quaker meetings and, in 1821, was ordained as a Quaker minister. Thus began her lifelong career of spreading Quaker messages far and wide, and providing leadership in that area. Her husband, James, also supported her in that. Other reform ideas were always on her mind, and so her sermons started carrying the messages of anti-slavery, women’s rights, male-female equality, temperance, nonviolence, peace, and respect for the human spirit. She spoke about the fixations in her own and other religions and, in that, her position remained Hicksite. She also spoke to male and female audiences which was quite unconventional at that time. Accordingly, controversies arose about her sermons, and opposition to her came from many sides. At times she was labeled as a heretic and a non-Christian, and efforts were made to remove her from the ministry. But Lucretia held firm, survived the opposition, and kept on performing her duties as usual.19

Slavery in America Slavery in America was already two hundred years old when Lucretia, James, and many others started pitching in their efforts toward the abolition of the institution. The seeds of slavery had first appeared in Jamestown, Virginia in 1619, but formally the institution began in 1640 when one runaway black servant was sentenced to mandatory work for his whole life. Protests against slavery began early; firstly by slaves

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themselves before others joined in. The treatment of slaves was cruel and many tried to escape their masters. Others started helping them and, gradually, “Underground Railroad” systems developed whereby runaway slaves were safely moved from one place to another. Harsh laws followed and helping or sympathizing with escaped slaves was made a criminal offense, punishable by heavy fines or worse. Movements for the abolition of slavery came into existence and “abolition societies” cropped up in different places. Their numbers kept on increasing. The “Fugitive Slave Act” was passed by Congress in 1793 whereby runaway slaves were to be returned to their rightful owners and no one was allowed to help them. But slaves continued to escape, and the number of sympathizers kept on growing. Accordingly, in 1850, another “Fugitive Slave Act” was passed, with harsher penalties for those who helped runaway slaves. Now, even freed blacks, their wives, and their children began to be hunted and turned into slaves on one excuse or another. Many slaves fled America to escape these conditions. Like other abolitionists, James and Lucretia also tried to help. James retired from his wool business in 1851, and the prevailing conditions gave Lucretia another strong reason to fight to pursue her social reforms agenda more forcefully. Thus, women’s issues and the abolition of slavery became the two crucial targets of her reform efforts and always stayed in her mind; even preaching took second place on many occasions. James and Lucretia now opened their home to all kinds of fairness and justice activities which included the abolition of slavery and fighting for women’s rights. Later, Lucretia would develop friendships with other reformers like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Lucy Stone; these friendships would help her carry the causes of reform much further.20

Approaches to Reform During Lucretia’s days, three different approaches to reform were being suggested to handle and resolve problems and issues, including the abolition of slavery and taking care of women’s problems. These approaches were the gradualist approach, the radical approach, and the moralist approach. Those in favor of the gradualist approach suggested that incremental changes to the traditions, customs, organizations, institutions, behaviors, and actions were needed to tackle problems and issues. That meant identifying the problems and issues, then making the public aware of them, and then asking the public, the institutions, and the organizations for cooperation in the handling and tackling of these problems and issues. Publicity of the problems and issues was also necessary, and legislatures

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and administrators were to be asked to take suitable actions toward the elimination of them. The ultimate aim was the complete elimination of these problems and issues but some grassroots efforts were also necessary. Most Quakers were in favor of the gradualist approach because that was consistent with their long-standing tradition of peace and pacifism and, accordingly, they recommended the use of dialogues, negotiations, mediations, and compromises to bring the needed changes to the conditions. One additional notion, among some of them, was that once the slaves were freed it would be appropriate to send them back to their native lands for resettlement. For that, they were trying to convince the slaveholders and the government to free the slaves, because it was the right thing to do. The same gradualist approach was being suggested toward the elimination of women’s problems and issues. The leaders of that approach were John Wolman, Anthony Benezet, and John Churchman; and they were urging Quakers and others to end slavery and resolve women’s issues that way. The differences were in terms of the timeframes and the specific steps to be taken to achieve the ends.21 Those favoring the radical approach argued that the gradualist approach was too narrow in scope, slow in producing results, and peaceful dialogues, negotiations, mediations, and compromises were difficult to achieve when power stayed one-sided. Doubts were also expressed about the long-term effectiveness of the gradualist approach, as problems and issues continued to accumulate; new issues kept coming up and people and communities kept on suffering. Also, the constitution, the government, and the church were in favor of keeping the status quo and sided with men and the slaveholders. The “Slave Fugitive Acts,” existing traditions, and the majority of public opinion also favored men and the slaveholders, and these factors complicated matters further. The radical group was in favor of swift actions for the elimination of slavery and women’s issues through radical, and even violent, means when needed. They argued that merely passing laws was an ineffective way to eliminate the problems and issues, and that was true in view of the past history of America and the corrective measures created so far. Therefore, they recommended more radical actions toward the elimination of the problems and issues, and staged protests, held rallies, delivered speeches, wrote in newspapers and magazines, petitioned the slaveholders, the government, and the churches, and urged people to fight forcefully against current conditions. In most instances, their activities stayed calm and nonviolent but at times violence erupted and, in some cases, it was of the extreme kind.22 The third group favored the moralist approach, where appeals were made to the conscience of the people, the slaveholders, the government,

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and the churches, with the added emphasis of either the gradualist approach or the radical approach. Lucretia and James belonged to that group and recommended peaceful means for the elimination of the problems and issues, and the use of any violence was condemned by them.23 The young abolitionist, William Lloyd Garrison,24 was a friend of James and Lucretia. In 1830, he visited them at their home and shared with them some of his anti-slavery views. He tried to impress upon them that the gradual approach to the removal of slavery was not a workable proposition, and neither was the idea of the resettlement of freed slaves in far-off countries. James and Lucretia listened to him intently and were convinced by his arguments. Thus, they also decided to work along these lines in the anti-slavery and women’s causes. In 1833, Garrison founded the American Anti-Slavery Society, and James and Lucretia helped him in doing that. But they noticed that, after the creation of the society, all the significant positions were filled by men. Women could attend the meetings but they could not express their opinions during the proceedings or vote on matters brought to the floor.25 That they thought was unfair. Therefore, with the help of some other women leaders, Lucretia and James founded a separate Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society in December of the same year. That society was inter-racial and inter-denominational. Its goals were not just to get rid of slavery, but all inequalities among people, including racial and gender inequalities. The members of that society developed close relationships with the minority populations and participated with them freely and openly. Lucretia walked hand-in-hand with the minority women and preached in black, as well as white, parishes. Her sister-in-law and brother-in-law, in the meanwhile, founded another antislavery organization called the Rochester Anti-Slavery Society which Lucretia also participated in. Other ways Lucretia participated in the antislavery cause were: 1) donating resources and money to abolition-related charities, 2) extending hospitality to abolitionist speakers by allowing them to stay in her home, 3) helping fugitive slaves and providing them shelter and protection, and 4) participating in the “Underground Railroad” activities.26 For these purposes Lucretia also organized fairs, with the help of other ladies, to collect funds and create a wider awareness of the slavery issues in the area. Lucretia’s approach to all these efforts remained radical and that did not sit well with some people. They did not like what she was trying to do and the ways she did it. Complaints and protests about her became common, and one such complaint was drafted at the Congregational Church General Assembly. That letter warned Lucretia about her

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misplaced activities; two specific points in it were her speaking in public and her addressing of male and female audiences.27

Bringing of Change There were many prevalent problems and issues during Lucretia’s time and they demanded attention in many areas, but the number of reformers was small. The traditions, customs, institutions, and organizations also needed to changed and, accordingly, it was difficult to decide which problems and issues to focus on first and which could be attended to later. In this regard, slavery, temperance, and women’s issues were at the forefront. Powerful people, mostly men, were already in privileged positions and they were not willing to give up their advantageous situations. Thus, no help could be expected from them and, for the most part, the fight of the reformers was an uphill task. The Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society was engaged in its anti-slavery propaganda, but that was not enough and more was needed. In 1837, Lucretia and some other abolitionist ladies decided to organize a convention of the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society in New York City; it was the first of its kind and later became an annual undertaking. At that and other conventions, Lucretia spoke forcefully in favor of the abolition of slavery and the equal rights of women with men. Her unconventional speeches attracted huge audiences. Some other themes in her speeches were temperance, religious openness, and other prevailing issues in society. Not everyone appreciated what she had to say. Quakers objected to her speeches because they felt that she was too liberal in her views about Quakerism, and non-Quakers objected to them because they thought the speeches went against the very grain of conventional Christianity. Some people thought that she was trying to break current racial boundaries and was a “racial amalgamator.” On these and other counts, Lucretia regularly received threats of violence against her and, in 1838, a mob actually stopped her from speaking at an anti-slavery meeting in Philadelphia. She only escaped from getting hurt through the help of some kind people. The plan of the mob was to vandalize her home, but that did not happen as some people directed the mob to the wrong street. The mob, however, did later burn down Pennsylvania Hall and some black houses and churches. Even amidst all that turmoil, Lucretia kept calm and advised people to only use peaceful means to fight against evils and evil-doers.28 In 1840, the “woman’s question”29 had divided the American AntiSlavery Society into two factions. One faction was in favor of retaining traditional roles for women in their participation in civic and political

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realms. But the other faction allowed women full participation rights in all activities at all levels. A World Anti-Slavery Convention was to be held in London the same year with delegates invited from all over the world. The two factions of the American Anti-Slavery Society selected their respective delegates and, among the delegates of the second faction, were some women.30 At the convention in London a question arose regarding the participation of female delegates from America; by a vote of nine to one it was decided that they could only participate as “visitors”, and not as “regular delegates.” That meant they could not take part in the proceedings, could not express their views on any raised issues, and could not vote on matters brought to the floor. They could not sit alongside the male delegates in the same room and so they were assigned a separate space to observe the proceedings. That infuriated all of the delegates from America, and so the men decided to sit with the women in the assigned area. What happened after that has been described adequately in Chapter 1. That incident made Lucretia and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who were both at the convention, determined to fight for the equal rights of women upon their return to America; it also became a factor in the organization of the Woman’s Rights Convention in Seneca Fall, New York, in 1848 (see Chapter 1). From that point onward, Lucretia took more interest in women’s issues and fought concurrently for the abolition of slavery, the gaining of women’s rights, and the removal of other evils in society.31

Civil War and Slavery The Civil War in America was an important historical event, second only to the American Revolution. Slavery was the main issue, and regional conflicts had been going on for decades. The North was in favor of getting rid of slavery and the South was in favor of keeping it. Therefore, clashes between the anti-slavery and pro-slavery forces were frequent, and civil war would have erupted much earlier if it was not for some interim compromises.32 Abraham Lincoln was elected as the President of America in 1860 and he was known for his anti-slavery stand. Accordingly, secessions started happening from the Union, with the first to secede being South Carolina in 1860. In 1861 more secessions occurred and the Union was in jeopardy. President James Buchanan tried to deal with the situation as best as he could, but he did not succeed. Thereafter the Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, came under attack. Many people thought that the situation would soon be under control, but it was not. The war lasted until 1865 with the victory of the North over the South, and with that slavery in America came

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to end when “The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution” was passed, though most slaves in the rebel territories had already been freed through the passage of the “Emancipation Proclamation Act” in 1863.33

Other Issues While the Civil War was going on, all reformers were busy taking care of its needs; other social issues, including women’s issues, were put on the back burner. The Civil War changed the priorities of the country and a preference was now being expressed for the needs of the slaves, such as their education, employment, resettlement, voting rights, and bringing them on a par with other citizens in terms of status and position in society. This hampered progress on other issues and diminished the possibility of their resolution. Lucretia, James, and others again became busy trying to convince people to not sideline other reform needs. For that, Lucretia pushed on with her sermons, speeches, and other activities, and tried to encourage people to continue to fight against social evils in society, including women’s problems and issues. Her religious endeavors went on side-by-side, where she was trying to promote Hicksite positions on issues and clarifying them for the public. There were other advocacy and reform needs too; among them was the gaining of religious openness. For these needs, Lucretia traveled far and wide, while also talking to people about the role and status of women in society, and the need for them to be on a par with men in different spheres of living. Temperance was a constant theme in her sermons and speeches. She tried to deliver these messages to the government and other organizations; indicating to them what the possible short-term and long-term solutions could be.34 Lucretia was influenced by the Unitarian and Transcendentalist thoughts of the times, in addition to her Quaker background, and the most influential for her were the views and opinions of such dignitaries as Theodore Parker, William Ellery Channing, William Penn, Rabbi Isaac Mayer, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Thomas Wentworth Higginson. She wanted to incorporate their ideas into her reform efforts, and also into Quakerism. Accordingly, her sermons, speeches, and other activities changed and became more diversified and radical. That did not sit well with her Quaker or her non-Quaker audiences who started labeling her a heretic. Lucretia did not pay much attention to that and continued to pursue her preferred path. In 1866, she established the American Equal Rights Association, with the help of Stanton, Anthony, Stone, and others. In 1867 this organization became active in Kansas, where black suffrage

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and women’s voting rights were to be decided by a popular vote. In 1867, she founded the Free Religious Association with the help of some likeminded thinkers and preachers. James died in 1868 and then, in 1869, Lucretia was elected president of the American Equal Rights Association. But in this organization differences of opinion existed with regard to the participatory and voting positions of women. Since these differences could not be resolved, Lucretia resigned from her position. Thereafter she helped found the National Woman Suffrage Association, again with help of Stanton, Anthony, Stone, and others. One of the main goals of that organization was to seek an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to allow women to vote. But that was a long struggle as the priority at the time was for blacks to gain voting rights first. In the meantime, Lucretia kept herself busy with other activities, like further strengthening the Hicksite positions on a variety of matters. In 1869, she helped found a Quaker Institute of Higher Learning in Philadelphia. This institute was coeducational and later became known as Swarthmore College. It has survived to the present times and is still considered one of the top liberal arts colleges in the nation.35 With a smaller load of other undertakings, Lucretia now started paying attention to the issues she had been involved in earlier. Since the 1830s, she had been active in several pacifist associations and decided to devote more time to them. The Universal Peace Union was one such association; the goal of this association was to urge nations to end violence and wars in their territories and resolve all issues through peaceful means only. Starting in 1866, she became a leading voice for that organization. Relief work was another passion of hers and, in 1846, she had helped found the Northern Association for the Relief and Employment of Poor Women in Philadelphia. Now she became more active there. Lucretia also thought that problems and issues in societies were interrelated and were there for multiple reasons. Therefore, successful solutions to these problems and issues had to be multi-dimensional and comprehensive. She also thought that when one problem was solved successfully it impacted the achieving of solutions to other problems. Accordingly, she recommended that social reformers take note of this and seek solutions to problems and issues which were not segmental but were interrelated and comprehensive. They also needed to note that, besides physical resources being put toward solutions to problems and issues, mental, social, and human resources were also essential and adequate attention needed to be paid to them. Women were to be sufficiently involved in the reform efforts, and they were to play important roles there as they better understood the problems and issues at home, in the neighborhood, and in the community. Existing

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laws presented impediments to the reform efforts and they also needed to be changed. This action, she said, was likely to empower women better, and make them more involved in the social functioning of society. Attention was also to be paid to the minority populations such as blacks, immigrants, foreigners, vulnerable people, and others; and these groups were to be brought into the reform efforts and into the mainstream functioning of society. They were to be accorded suitable responsibilities, rights, and privileges, as available to other citizens. To all these positions Lucretia gave a religious tinge to make them more morally binding.36

Thoughts on Women Lucretia expressed her thoughts on all kinds of subjects through her sermons, speeches, letters, and writings, and included in them were her thoughts on women. In these she sounded like her earlier predecessors, Margaret Fell and Mary Wollstonecraft;37 one example was the speech she delivered at the Assembly Buildings on December 17, 1849, in response to another speaker who had belittled the status and social needs of women.38 She started her speech with the idea that nothing was more important than the well-being of men and women in a society in which the proper position of women was recognized. That subject, she said, was on her mind for many years, and she wanted women to have a more elevated status than the custom allowed them. She regretted that many people did not want that to happen and actually wanted to stop the progress women were making in that direction. She went on to state that flattering appeals to the fancy of women by men might be pleasing in the short term but, in the long term, women needed a more elevated recognition of their status, rights, duties, and responsibilities. Attention was to be given to female education, and a higher estimation of women in society was needed. Women were to be ennobled and dignified more, and a free discussion on that subject should take place. Going back to the earlier times, Lucretia recalled that, in the beginning, man and woman were made as equals by the Creator. He gave domination to both over the lower creatures, but not of one over the other. Accordingly, the subjection of women by men was a disobedience of the command of God. Likewise, she mentioned, the laws given on Mount Sinai also made man and woman equal, and no distinction should be made between the two. It was later theological and ecclesiastical renderings that made this distinction and made man superior to woman. She also noted that, throughout Christian history, women had played important roles in society on a par with men, and some Biblical examples of that were Miriam, Deborah, Huldah, Anna, and other honorable women. These

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women were allowed to prophesy, preach, and speak in public; if the scriptures were read correctly one could see that those earlier women exerted the same influence on the welfare of fellow-beings as men did. But that fact had gone out of sight. Lucretia went on to say that times were changing and women were trying to gain their rightful place in society. For that mercy, benevolence, and justice in society were on the rise and reforms were being taken more kindly. Women were becoming increasingly qualified, so why should they not seek their rightful place in society and be reformers, professionals, and so forth? However, for that they were to act as equals to men, but not like men. They were also not to accept the supremacy of men and not impose their own supremacy on men. All religious and civil disabilities, disadvantages, and impediments were to go, but the relationship between man and woman was to stay the same. Man was to stay man-like and woman was to stay woman-like. Both were to keep their grace and dignity as appropriate for the sexes. Woman also had to stop being a plaything of man and not be content with outward flattery and adulations. True, woman was different from man in configuration, physical strength, and in other respects, but that was not to prohibit her from engaging in gainful pursuits and vocations from which she had been discouraged, and for that had been bearing all kinds of burdens for her “lord and master.” Women were also to come in grips with their powers and put them to use, as earlier appealed by Catharine Beecher who encouraged women for higher pursuits and cultivation of their noblest powers. The focus was not to be the physical force, but on the influences that the mind could exert. Training was also important and educated women were not to be satisfied with low-end ambitions and simple activities like sewing, reading, and the performance of domestic duties. Opportunities for women were on the rise and women were to take more interest in them and achieve higher goals. Lyceums were helping in that regard too. Lucretia further indicated that, even with all the changed circumstances, women were still fulfilling their duties and responsibilities as wives, mothers, and daughters, and that enhanced their respect and dignity. Lucretia went on to describe the ways in which women were deprived, and what needed to be done to correct the situation. She said that nothing was needed by women as a matter of favor, but it was all to be done as a matter of right. To begin with, women were to be recognized as responsible beings, were not to be governed by laws in which they had no role in the making, and were to have suitable rights in civil society. In the religious realm, disabilities imposed on them which retarded their progress and development were to go. Women were not to be the subjects of discipline by men, and the assumed superiority of men and the admitted

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promise of women to obey also had to go. There were to be no lordly assumptions in marriage and no humiliating concessions on the part of the wife. Women did not have to compromise their dignity and self-respect, and they were to enter marriage on equal grounds with men. There was to be no assumption of authority on the part of one party and no authority on the part of the other. In her speech, Lucretia also talked about the freedom of women and their socio-political rights. In these regards, she mentioned that the earlier crushing influences around women had paralyzed their minds, and they did not properly appreciate their chances for freedom and possible rights. That was to change; if women had pursued freedom, had political rights, and actively took part in governmental affairs, things may have turned out differently and for the better. Women were to be encouraged to take part in the socio-political activities of society, in the formation of the government, and possibly also hold positions in it. Lastly, when women paid taxes they should also have been eligible to have a voice in everything, including the right to vote.39 Lucretia addressed marital laws in her speech and, for her, that was another area for change. She pointed out that the current laws pertaining to husband and wife, where the husband was the lord and the wife was a slave, were a disgrace for any civilized nation. After marriage, she had to lose all her identity, merge herself with her husband, and even change her name. That was emblematic of her fate in the legal and social areas as well. But there was really no reason for that. All that had to change and the legal and social identity of women was to be restored. That was also the law of the Creator. Moreover, created laws ought to uniformly apply to the whole of mankind, not some to men and some to women. Men were not born to command nor women to obey. At the death of the husband, everything changed for his wife. Her household was broken and she lost all that she had earned throughout her lifetime. But not much changed for the man upon the death of his wife. That was not fair. Profitable employment of women was also a topic discussed by Lucretia in her speech; she said this was to be open to women and attention was to be given to their success and respectability. In that regard, their talents and energies were to be recognized and called forth, their powers were to be used, they were to take up any profession or business they chose, and they were to be able to carry on their profession or business after the deaths of their husbands. Another topic touched upon by Lucretia in her speech was education when she indicated that the curriculum for boys and girls should not be different, though girls were also to be prepared for their domestic roles. Salaries of male and female teachers were not to be different and girls were to be admitted to higher educational institutions, as boys were.

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All that needed to happen, not as a favor to women, but as a matter of right.40

Final Years Lucretia fought all her life to rid society of different problems and issues, and to bring in the needed reforms. During her final years her health kept on deteriorating and she became more and more frail. But her reform activities never slowed down, and she continued to travel, speak, and engage in a wide variety of endeavors to her last days. Her enthusiasm always remained high and she stayed unbending in her positions and views. She continued to serve as vice president of the Universal Peace Union to the end; in 1870 she became President of the Pennsylvania Peace Society, in 1876 she presided over the National Woman Suffrage Association in Philadelphia, two years later at the age of eighty-five she attended the thirteenth anniversary of the First Woman’s Rights Convention in Seneca Fall, New York, and in May 1880 addressed a Friends’ Annual Meeting. She died on November 11, 1880, in Cheltenham, Pennsylvania; and thus ended the life journey of a brave, gentle, and courageous pioneer woman devoted totally to her many causes.41

A Closing Remark This chapter has elucidated the life, endeavors, efforts, and contributions of Lucretia Mott; a pioneer Quaker abolitionist, feminist, religionist, reformer, and minister who was a great visionary of her times and whose contributions in different areas of social reform were extraordinary. She wanted people to live peacefully and problem free by adopting higher social, moral, and spiritual standards, and by shedding their prejudices and judgmental attitudes. She also wanted them to create and nourish tolerant and inclusive orientations and institutions that provided dignity and respect to all people, helped with their welfare and empowered them to feel significant and important. She remained meek and humble throughout her life, but her reform efforts spoke volumes and, in that respect, she showed others what boldness and courage were, and what commitment was. Even when her health started failing, she continued with her reform efforts and did not swerve. She was truly a one-person force against inequality, unfairness, and injustice in society, and showed to all how much change a single person could bring if they were determined, devoted, sincere, and persistent in their undertaken causes. Social reformers could

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learn much from Lucretia’s life example, and they should also pay attention to her used strategies and functioning.

CHAPTER SIX DOROTHEA LYNDE DIX A PIONEER TEACHER, REFORMER, HEALER, HUMANIST, AND INTERNATIONALIST

Introduction In the earlier chapters, we presented four case studies of early pioneer women who took a dare and tried to change the fate of the needy population through the examples of their lives, endeavors, reform efforts, and contributions in multiple domains. Here, in this chapter, we present the case study of another brave, but gentle, early pioneer woman, Dorothea Lynde Dix, who selflessly helped mentally ill people nationally and internationally, and started a revolution in that area all over the world. It was not that a similar thought had not occurred to other people, as the beginnings of the movement had already been made in France and England through the efforts of Philippe Pinel, a doctor from Paris, and William Tuke, a merchant and humanist from England; they both belonged to the Quaker faith. Through his writings, Pinel had emphasized that the age-old conception that insane people were possessed by evil spirits was wrong, and so being beaten, whipped, and tortured to drive the evil spirits out of them was not the only treatment. He emphasized that insane people were not sub-human, or dangerous animals, and like other people, they too had needs, emotions, feelings, and could experience hurt from the horrible treatments. What was wrong with them was that they were “ill” mentally and could not watch for themselves, function properly, or keep themselves safe. This situation could be corrected with proper methods and resources, and insane people could be brought back to normality, rationality, proper behaviors, and personal accountability. Accordingly, instead of beating, whipping, and torturing, what they needed was proper understanding, kindness, love, and sympathy; and these treatments could go a long way toward making them normal people again. Thus, the chains with which they were tied and the iron cages in which

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they were kept were to go, and the horrible conditions in which they were made to live and survive were to disappear. That way the soundness of their minds, which had been lost for one reason or another, would return, and they would be able to take proper responsibility for themselves. Pinel’s message was loud and clear, and the authorities paid attention to it. Accordingly, he was allowed to start an experiment of better treatment and care for mentally ill people, and the results of that appeared shortly after. Thus, Pinel was able to prove that what he suggested was right, and others throughout the ages had been treading the wrong path. The year in which Pinel conducted his experiment was 1792. Four years later, in 1796, Tuke conducted a similar experiment and, with his own money, established a “Retreat for the Insane” at York, England, where mentally ill people were kept kindly and treated as brethren. The results of that experiment were similar to that of Pinel’s experiment, and new beginnings appeared in the Western world for the better treatment of mentally ill people which emphasized kindness, love, understanding, and compassion for them, and their due consideration was on a par with other people. Dorothea also later became a part of that movement and spread the message of the better keeping and treating of mentally ill people all over the world.1 In this chapter, we present the life, endeavors, reform efforts, and contributions of Dorothea Lynde Dix. The lessons learned will be presented in the conclusion chapter.

Family Background Dorothea’s folks were early settlers of New England and her grandfather, Elijah Dix, was born on August 24, 1747, in Watertown, Massachusetts. He was an influential, self-made, and ambitious man, brought up in Worcester, Massachusetts. He wanted to become a doctor but lacked the financial resources needed to enter a medical college. Accordingly, he apprenticed himself under Dr. John Greene of Worcester for three years, and then under a druggist, Dr. William Greenleaf of Boston, for one year. He then entered into medical practice with Dr. Sylvester Gardner in Worcester. He was a smart and business-savvy man and, besides his medical practice, started several businesses, including the buying and selling of real estate, dispensing of drugs, and supplying purified camphor and sulfur. By 1795, at the age of fifty-eight, he was living in a big mansion in Boston called Orange Court, also known as “Dix Mansion.” On October 1, 1777, he married Dorothy Lynde, one of the seventeen children of wealthy Harvard graduate, Joseph Lynde. Elijah

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and Dorothy had eight children; seven sons and one daughter. Dorothea’s father, Joseph, was one of them.2 Dorothea’s father was born in 1778 and, from the beginning, was frail, moody, of a wandering nature, and suffered from an inferiority complex. He, too, wanted to become a doctor and, at the age of seventeen, was admitted into Harvard College to accomplish that objective. But during the first year of his education, he fell in love with Mary Bigelow who was eighteen years older than him and was also of a sickly and fretful disposition. The two lovers married the next year against the wishes of Joseph’s father who was not in favor of that union. In those days, Harvard College had a rule that married people could not continue their education there, and so Joseph was expelled from the college. Thereafter his father sent the couple to the far-off Hampden3 in Maine, partly out of his anger and partly to punish Joseph and Mary. Joseph was expected to manage land deals for his father, but he found that work hard and complicated. In the meantime, he had moved away from his family’s Calvinist values under the influence of a preacher named Charles Wesley and had started drinking heavily. In that condition, he turned himself into a wandering priest with an uncertain future and could not lend any support to his family. That situation later would impact Joseph’s whole family in terms of its mutual relationships and functionality. At that time, Joseph had started writing some religious tracts which Dorothea would later read and try to organize.4

Early Life Dorothea was born in Hampden on April 4, 1802, and was the first child of Joseph and Mary. Later, two more siblings would be added to the family. Throughout, Joseph’s income remained irregular and uncertain, and therefore the family was mostly in dire straits. That affected the care and upbringing of Dorothea and the other children, and it was difficult to create a supportive environment. Mary, being a sickly person and of a depressed nature, could not provide proper nurturing to the children. The attitude of the grandparents toward Joseph and Mary remained disrespectful, though both carried much fascination for Dorothea and showered love and affection upon her whenever she visited Orange Court. The grandfather, in particular, would spend much time with her and take her in a carriage for sightseeing around the city. He also shared with her anecdotes about his rapid success. Accordingly, Dorothea had positive impressions of her grandparents, and particularly about the grandmother; she mentioned that her grandmother influenced her greatly in developing

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an appreciation for beauty, neatness, perfection, and good house management. Dorothea’s grandfather died on June 7, 1809, during a visit to Dixmont Center, Maine, and was buried there. Dorothea was seven years old at the time. After her husband’s death, the grandmother5 felt lonely and, after consulting with Judge Bangs and her sister, Sarah Duncan, she brought the three grandchildren to Orange Court. Later, she would also make living arrangements for Joseph and Mary in Worcester where her sister lived. Dorothea was then twelve years old, and her grandmother was seventy years old.6 Dorothea had grown up in the simple environment of Hampden and so her manners and disposition were rustic. She could only read the Bible and her father’s religious tracks. Her grandmother decided that changes were needed; Dorothea was to get a more formal education and more “woman’s graces.” Beginnings in these areas were made, and a dance teacher and a seamstress were arranged for her. Dorothea was not interested in that and felt that, suddenly, too much change was being imposed upon her. But gradually she adjusted to the circumstances and particularly liked the formal education part. She became interested in many subjects and wanted to become a teacher. However, her grandmother was against that idea as she wanted Dorothea to marry and become a housewife which, in those days, was a normal course of action for young girls.7

Opening a School At the age of fourteen, Dorothea was sent to Worcester to live with her grandmother’s sister, Sarah. That was relaxing and invigorating for her as Sarah was an easy-going and considerate person, and not as strict in disposition as her sister. Dorothea lived there for four years. There she nursed the idea of opening a private school for children and, in one of the parties in the town, shared that idea with her second-cousin Edward Bangs.8 From him she received much encouragement, and he also promised that he would help her find a place for the school and bring some prospective pupils to enroll. The public schools in Massachusetts in those days did not admit children who could not read and write, and private schools were in demand to fill that gap. Thus, in the autumn of 1816, Dorothea opened her first school with six girls and three boys in a room above a bookstore. She was fourteen years old then. In the school, besides her teaching responsibility, she used to engage the students in conversations on topics like the wonders of nature, the formation and shaping of rocks, how flowers grew, how light came to earth, and more. She also used to

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keep notes on these conversations and they would later become a publication for her entitled Common Things, Conversations.9

Three More Schools The available information is not solid as to why Dorothea closed, or had to close, the first school; one explanation seems to be her moving back to Orange Court after her stay with Sarah. At that point, her desire to remain a teacher stayed strong and she wanted to open another school for children. But, knowing how her grandmother would feel about it, she was hesitant to ask her for permission directly. Therefore, she chose to make that request through a letter, and the permission came forth readily. Thus, Dorothea opened another school for children, this time in Orange Court. This school was also meant for those children whose parents could afford to pay the fees. The year of the opening of the school was 1821 when Dorothea was nineteen years old.10 Not content with the opening of that school, Dorothea wanted to open another school for those children whose parents could not afford to pay the fees. This school she opened in a room next to the stable in Orange Court. Now she was running and managing two schools and, in addition, attended to church duties, managed home life, paid attention to the education of her siblings, fulfilled other responsibilities, and still found some time to socialize with her acquaintances and friends. At about that time she started writing, and finished Common Things, Conversations in 1824; this covered more than 300 subjects, requiring intense research, and went through sixty editions by 1869. In 1825 she completed composing Hymns for Children. Also in 1825, she published a poem in Christian Register, and in 1826 published a devotional book called Evening Hours. In running the two schools Dorothea was laboring hard, day and night, without respite. She got up before sunrise and did not go to bed until midnight. That daily routine started having adverse effects on her health and she developed “rheumatism of the lungs.” Her doctor advised that she needed complete rest for a long time and should start taking everything in life in slow strides. That included her teaching responsibility and, accordingly, after successfully operating for five years, the two schools for children had to be closed.11 In 1827, William Channing invited Dorothea to come to his summer home on the island of Portsmouth, in the state of Rhode Island, to relax, recover, and tutor his two daughters in her spare time. She accepted the offer and very much enjoyed her time there. During the next few winters, Dorothea made up her mind to skip the winters of New England, due to

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her pulmonary problem, and stayed in Philadelphia for some time before moving to Alexandria, Virginia. There she again started writing and, in 1827-28, finished Ten Short Stories for Children with moral lessons. In 1828 she published Meditations for Private Hours, and in 1829 wrote The Garland of Flora, and The Pearl, or Affection’s Gift: A Christmas and New Year’s Present. In 1831, she opened another school for children; this time it was a combination of a day school and a boarding school. However, in 1836, she had another physical and mental meltdown; her doctor felt that she should move away from Boston and, for a while perhaps, should go overseas to Europe. By that time Dorothea had enough means for this through her earnings from teaching, and through the property and resources left to her by her grandfather. Accordingly, she arranged to leave the school under the care of George Barrell Emerson, the principal of a well-known girls’ school in Boston, and started making preparations for sailing abroad.12

Voyage to England Dorothea started her voyage to England from New York on April 22, 1836, in the company of some friends of William Channing; namely Mr. and Mrs. Frank Schroder, and Mr. and Mrs. Ferrar. To facilitate her stay in England, Channing gave her several letters of introduction to different people, including Mr. and Mrs. William Rathbone in Liverpool. Mr. Rathbone was a prominent businessman and a well-known reformer. Dorothea initially stayed with that family. Her intention was to spend a week or two there and then move on to some other place. But she ended up staying with the family for the entire duration of her eighteen months in England. It was Mr. Rathbone who had first inspired Dorothea to work in the service of poor and needy people when, one day, he took her to have a glimpse of a slum. He also indicated to her that he regularly donated a large sum of money, out of his income, for their welfare. It was there that Dorothea got the news that her mother had died in Fitzwilliam, New Hampshire, at the age of seventy-six; a little later she also got the news of her grandmother’s death at the age of ninety-one. Overall, however, she had a great time with the Rathbone family and was recovering nicely by that time. 13 When Dorothea was to depart for America, Mr. Rathbone gave her a book by Dr. Philippe Pinel containing his writings on insane people and his plea that they should be kept and treated more humanely. That book sowed an important seed in the mind of Dorothea which later compelled her to devote her whole life to the cause of mentally ill people. Another

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important seed in that regard came from William Channing; he had also made Dorothea aware of the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people and had inspired her to do something about these unfortunate people. From Dr. Pinel’s book, Dorothea learned that, in those days, only four facilities existed in America for the care of mentally ill people. The first facility was opened in Philadelphia in 1752 by Quakers and it was private. The second opened in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1773 and it was state-owned. The third opened in New York in 1791 and it was private. The fourth opened in Baltimore in 1797 and this was also private. Later, Dorothea also learned that the first hospital for mentally ill people was opened in Philadelphia by Quakers in 1817. One year later, the McLean Asylum opened in Belmont, a Retreat opened in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1824, and a State Hospital opened in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1830.14

Back in America After her return to America, Dorothea felt very lonely and was wondering what to do with her life. That answer would come to her in 1841. At this time there was no point in her continuing to live alone in a big mansion. Therefore, in the autumn of 1837, she closed Orange Court and spent part of the winter of 1838 in Washington. William Channing died in 1841; he had urged Dorothea to do something about the most illtreated people, the mentally ill, who by law were kept separate from the general public so that they do not negatively impact the people. Accordingly, they were held in jails, asylums, and poorhouses, under horrible conditions, and were mistreated and disrespected. That fact was partially known to Dorothea through her conversations with William Channing, and from Dr. Pinel’s book, but it got her further attention when on March 28, 1841, she was coming back home from a church service and heard two men talking behind her. They were speaking about the miserable conditions in which mentally ill people were kept and how unkind that was. On that day a further desire arose in her to do something about this undesirable situation. At that time John T. G. Nichols, a student at the Harvard Divinity School, was visiting East Cambridge Jail every Sunday and preaching to women inmates to live in a moral way. But the women were not paying proper attention to his sermons and he felt that a woman teacher might do better. Accordingly, one day he approached Dorothea with that proposal and she accepted it readily. On the following Sunday she showed up at East Cambridge Jail and, after preaching, started talking to some of the women about their conditions. Later she also took a tour of the jail and discovered that many of the women inmates were

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mentally ill. That fact was known to the jail authorities but they had simply ignored it. She also noticed that the living conditions of the women were very poor, and they were cramped together in small quarters which were damp, cold, and unlit. Provisions and facilities for the women were also very inadequate. Dorothea brought these conditions to the attention of the jail authorities, but to no avail. Accordingly, she decided to pursue the matter further.15

Start of a Crusade Having failed to receive the necessary response from the authorities of East Cambridge Jail, Dorothea decided to take the matter to East Cambridge Court which was in session at that time. Besides presenting the facts of the situation there, she also enrolled several prominent men of Boston16 as witnesses to the conditions of mentally ill people in the jail. But the court refused to entertain her plea for action. Thereupon, she took the matter to the media and published the issues in several newspapers to mobilize public opinion; again, success did not come forth and the public dismissed the matter by saying that mentally ill people deserved no better. Not discouraged by this, Dorothea discussed the matter with the Boston Prison Discipline Society members and shared with them the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people and the challenges they faced on a daily basis. But the results were not positive there either. Thereafter, she decided to start a fact-finding mission state wide to know more about the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people in different situations. Friends and others advised her that the effort was going to be enormous, time-consuming, and, besides physical difficulties, there might be other dangers too. But she did not mind that and made up her mind to go ahead with the project. For this, she traveled all over the state for two years to collect information; she visited jails, asylums, poorhouses, hospitals, dwellings, and other institutions where mentally ill people were kept. Everywhere she went, she asked questions about the conditions of mentally ill people and recorded the answers faithfully. Thus, she came up with a document called a “memorial”, meaning a written statement of the facts on the matter, in the form of a petition to be presented to a legislative body for action. That document revealed that mentally ill people were actually mishandled and mistreated all over the state and they lived their lives in horrible conditions. The document also revealed that these conditions and circumstances were the same everywhere, and so were the challenges of mentally ill people. The document further suggested the worst and the best ways of dealing with the situation and mediating the

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conditions, circumstances, and challenges of mentally ill people. In addition, the document also reflected upon the origins and stages of mental illness, its impacts on the body and the mind, how it changed people’s lives, other related social, moral, and legal concerns, and possible remedies of the disease. For that part of the information, Dorothea also visited libraries, studied literature, talked to professionals, and consulted with common people. Thus, the document was a comprehensive treatise on the origins, nature, impacts, occurrence, prevalence, practices, and treatment of mental illness.17 The legislature of Massachusetts was to meet in January 1843 and Dorothea thought it wise to align some powerful legislators on her side before the submission of her memorial to it. Among these legislators was Samuel Gridley Howe who was a humanist and a reformer in his own right. Upon opening the session, he presented the memorial to the legislature, but its response turned out to be negative, which Dorothea and others did not expect. With time, however, the tide started changing and people started taking an interest in the facts presented in the document. That changed the stand of the legislature and a committee, headed by Samuel Gridley Howe, was established to consider the document and make a recommendation. This recommendation was positive and a plan was advanced for the establishment of a new facility in Massachusetts for the better care of mentally ill people. In time, that plan became a reality and Dorothea closed her chapter on Massachusetts for the time being.18

Efforts in Other States After experiencing success in Massachusetts, Dorothea felt that the same effort should be extended to other states as well as the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people were no different there. The next challenge she undertook was in New York State. Just as before, in Massachusetts, she started with a fact-finding mission and prepared a comprehensive report in the form of a memorial. She presented this memorial to the New York Legislature, and her demand was for four to six new facilities for mentally ill people in that state. But what she got out of her effort was an extension of one existing hospital facility at Utica. Though not enough, that was a success nevertheless, and a new beginning was made for the better care of mentally ill people in the state.19 The next challenge Dorothea undertook was Rhode Island. In that state, it was not the state government but local entities who had been given the charge of taking care of mentally ill people. They had few resources or facilities and the desire to meet their responsibility was meager. Also, the

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legislature did not pay attention to the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people. Dorothea, again, started her fact-finding mission and prepared a memorial for that state. However, there she decided to depend more on private resources than state money to bring improvements in the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people. Nicholas Brown was a wealthy person from Rhode Island and had earlier established Brown University in the state. He was also interested in taking care of needy people, including those with mental illnesses. Dorothea approached him and he endowed $30,000 toward establishing a facility for mentally ill people. However, he died in 1843 before any further help could come from him. In 1844, Dorothea approached the Rhode Island legislature and it planned to issue a charter for building an asylum for mentally ill people. Some legislatures were in favor of the charter, but others were opposed to it for fear of having to raise taxes on the citizens. Dorothea badly wanted the new facility and someone suggested to her the name of Cyrus Butler for help. She met him and he promised to donate $40,000 for the facility, but with the condition that another matching $40,000 be raised during the next six months. Dorothea started appealing to prominent people of Rhode Island for donations, and she made a similar appeal to common citizens as well. In the meantime, she appeared before the legislature and impressed upon it the need to better take care of mentally ill people. Success came to her on both fronts. Enough money was raised in six months for the facility, and the legislature also established a committee to investigate the matter. Thus, a new facility was established in Rhode Island for the better care of mentally ill people.20 After Rhode Island, Dorothea traveled to Vermont and New Hampshire and discovered that these states were already taking good care of their mentally ill people. Accordingly, she next decided to visit New Jersey and Pennsylvania. In New Jersey, she found that the state had little to no provision for the care of mentally ill people. Accordingly, she started her effort once more and her method of operation was the same. She visited the asylums, hospitals, poorhouses, dwellings, and other institutions where mentally ill people were kept, assessed their conditions and circumstances, and noted down the facts. For that, she also talked to people, professionals, and family members. Thus, a memorial was prepared for the state and it was shared with influential social and political people for information and for their input. Then she assessed who was in favor of changing the situation and who was not in favor or did not care. Thus, she knew who to ask for further help and who needed further lobbying. She also did this among the members of the legislature. The media and public opinion were important to her and she worked on these too. After all that exploration

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and assessment, she decided which people should bring the memorial before the legislature, help in its discussion and the formation of a bill, and then give it the final push for its passage through the legislature. Her final concern was to see to it that the bill, once passed, became reality and that a facility was actually established in the state. Thus, in New Jersey, the memorial was presented to the legislature by Joseph S. Dodd on January 23, 1845. It was adopted by both the houses on February 25, 1835,21 and thereafter the facility “New Jersey Lunatic Asylum” was soon established. This was another success story for Dorothea.22 Next for Dorothea was Pennsylvania. She followed the same routine there too, and her memorial was presented to the legislature on February 3, 1845. That state already had some facilities for mentally ill people. Accordingly, the effort there aimed at improving these facilities and, if possible, establishing another facility in the state. As Dorothea’s plea was based on collected facts, success came easily. The state also established a new facility for mentally ill people in Harrisburg, named “Pennsylvania State Lunatic Hospital.”23

Expanding the Mission So far, Dorothea had been successful in her missions in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; she had accomplished all that in just two years. That was truly amazing given the fact that, in those days, traveling from one state to another was not easy, the collection of facts on mentally ill people from multiple sources was even more difficult, and people and legislatures were not yet oriented to taking care of the needs and challenges of mentally ill people. Then there was the issue of Dorothea’s health and the advice of the doctors that she should not engage in strenuous activities. In spite of all that Dorothea did stick to her mission and did what she thought had to be done. Others, including authorities, people, media, and organizations, appreciated her effort, but she felt that more was needed. That contention was based on three facts: 1) as she was collecting facts on the needs and challenges of mentally ill people she felt that the penal code and current prison operations were acting as barriers to her full realization of the mission; 2) improving and establishing facilities for mentally ill people was one thing, but their continued proper running was another which needed ongoing money and resources; and 3) in addition to mentally ill people there were other needy and vulnerable populations that needed similar attention, as well as the help of the authorities and the people. From that point onward Dorothea added these ends to her future efforts and her routine of fact-finding expanded. Thus,

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she was able to make the following three suggestions to the prison authorities based on her collected broader information: 1) it was true that disciplining prisoners was one important function of the prison operations, but that must also be accompanied by some clearly defined social and moral goals for the prisoners; 2) religious education was important for the prisoners as it was the backbone of their character and an important factor in their proper readjustment in society after the completion of their sentences; and 3) juvenile prisoners should be paid more attention, kept separate from the older prisoners, and more should be done for their subsequent rehabilitation and readjustment in society. She further elaborated on these three points, explaining and illustrating them for the prison authorities. In addition, she put emphasis on some formal education for the prisoners, so that after their prison terms they could qualify for gainful employment to make a living. Dorothea also made suggestions for a revision of the penal code and for taking care of other needy and vulnerable populations.24

Collapse and More Dorothea next proceeded to Kentucky, Ohio, Louisiana, and Georgia, after the completion of her mission in Pennsylvania. By that time her reputation was soaring high and her job was getting easier. Her enthusiasm, dedication, and winning attitude for the cause were also factors in that. The routine remained the same. First, she collected information on the conditions and challenges of mentally ill people and prepared a memorial. Then she sought input and support of prominent people and legislatures and presented the memorial to the legislature for action. Finally, she saw to it that the bill was passed and the facilities were actually established or improved. All that work was arduous and thus, while visiting Columbus, Ohio, in 1846, Dorothea collapsed of fatigue and exhaustion. Luckily, she recovered and, by December 1846, was traveling again. Again, she traveled from one state to another and fulfilled her mission in other states like Missouri, Alabama, Tennessee, South Caroline, North Carolina, and others. People and legislatures were taking her seriously now and she was able to improve the lot of mentally ill people all over the country.25

Land Deal During Dorothea’s times, the states and the localities in the United States had considerable flexibility in running their social and political

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affairs, including taking care of mentally ill people and other needy populations. Some states had adequate resources for that and others did not. Dorothea felt that the federal government also had some responsibility in taking care of the needy and less fortunate people, including the mentally ill, and should pitch in its share of resources for running facilities for them. With that view, she prepared another memorial based on the gathered facts, this time for the federal government, and her intent was to submit it to the United States Congress for action. Her request was for the allocation of 5 million acres of public land to take care of the needs and challenges of mentally ill people, but her intent was to make a similar request later for another 2 million acres of public land for the needs and challenges of blind, dumb, and deaf people. The value of public land at that time was $1 to $1.50 per acre and therefore her request amounted to an assignment of between $5 million and $7.5 million for mentally ill people. Dorothea knew that, earlier, the federal government had engaged in similar allocations of public land for the establishment of land-grant education systems, the improvement of internal infrastructure, and the building of railroads. Therefore, she was hopeful that her request for the mentally ill would also meet with approval.26 At that time, according to Dorothea’s surveys, there were some 22,000 mentally ill people in the United States out of which only 3,700 were being cared for. Dorothea made 5,000 copies of her memorial for distribution among the congressmen, senators, and other prominent people, and she also tried to explain to them personally what the request was, what it entailed, what it was intended to do, and what its likely benefits were for mentally ill people. Many members of Congress, prominent people, and organizations felt convinced by the details presented by her and felt that the measure would pass easily without much additional effort. Thus, the memorial was submitted to the United States Congress by Senator John A. Dix on June 27, 1848, with an additional explanation of what Dorothea had already accomplished in different states, and how valuable her work was in taking care of the needs and challenges of mentally ill people. Examples of the current hardships of mentally ill people were also cited, and it was suggested that, after the passage of the measure, Dorothea should be allowed to select a committee of congressmen to implement the measure and deal with the problem further. Finally, it was made clear that the proceeds of the measure would get distributed among the thirty states comprising the Union in proportion to the population size of each state.27 A bill was framed and presented to Congress for action, but it was deferred to the next session. The reasons were: 1) some other organizations and institutions were also requesting the allotment of public lands for their

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specific purposes, 2) citizens and affluent people were not in favor of establishing asylums for mentally ill people in their localities as they did not want to live next to “madhouses,” and 3) the political climate was not favorable for the effort as President Polk was not willing to sign any bill related to the allotment of public lands to organizations and institutions. Accordingly, no action took place on the bill up to the spring of 1849. In December 1849 a new Congress came on board but, by that time, Dorothea had also changed her request from the allotment of 5,000,000 acres of public land to 12,225,000 acres; 10,000,000 acres for the needs and challenges of mentally ill people and the other 2,225,000 acres for the needs and challenges of blind, deaf, and dumb people. Senator John Pierce of Maryland introduced the revised measure in the Senate, and Senator John Fremont of California supported it. Support for the measure was also there from many churches, mental health institutions, and prominent social and political leaders. A committee was formed to consider the measure and a positive recommendation came from it. All thought that the matter would soon end fruitfully without any additional effort, but that was not to be and the bill was deferred again. The bill again came up for a vote in February 1851 and this time it was passed by the Senate with a vote of 36 to 16. But that time it got stalled in the House, and Congress adjourned without passing the bill.28 The year now was 1852 and Dorothea was back again fighting for the cause of mentally ill people. But this time she also brought an additional request for $100,000 to build a hospital for mentally ill people in the army and the navy. Her request was granted by Congress and soon the House also passed her earlier request for 12,225,000 acres of public land to meet the needs and challenges of mentally ill, blind, deaf, and dumb people. Now the Senate was required to act, but Dorothea felt that the political climate was not right and that the matter should be brought to Congress later when conditions were right. After reaching that decision, Dorothea proceeded to the Northeast and the Midwest of America, and also to Canada, to work further on the needs and requirements of mentally ill people there.29 When Congress convened again in 1854 Dorothea thought that the political winds were favorable for her cause and, accordingly, another 5,000 copies of her memorial were produced and distributed for information, comment, and the input of congressmen, senators, and other prominent social and political people and organizations. This time the bill came before the Senate on March 9, 1854, for the fifth time and was passed by a large majority. Then, in August 1854, the House also passed the bill, so now it only required the signature of President Pierce to become

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operational. But President Pierce objected to it, indicating that Congress only had the authority to grant public land for promoting education in schools and colleges, building and expanding the railroads, and projects of internal improvement, but not for helping vulnerable populations like mentally ill, blind, deaf, and dumb people. Thus, the bill was vetoed and sent back to Congress where there were not enough votes to override the President’s veto. Accordingly, the matter ended there and six years of hard labor on the parts of many people and organizations were wasted.30

To Europe Again Much frustrated by the veto of President Pierce, Dorothea decided to skip the situation for a while and go to Europe to unwind and recuperate. Accordingly, she sailed for England in September 1854 and stayed for the first six weeks with the Rathbones in Liverpool. But her mind was still fixed on the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people and she was curious to know under what conditions and circumstances they lived in England, and what was being done there to look after them and meet their needs and challenges. Thus, she soon began excursions into the country and started visiting institutions serving mentally ill people and talking to the caregivers there. Her overall objectives were: 1) to share with these institutions and caregivers the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people in America, and the modalities of care and resources for them there; 2) to have knowledge and experiences of the same in England and in other European countries; 3) to take that knowledge to America to further meet the needs and challenges of mentally ill people there; 4) to do her own investigations of the conditions, circumstances, modalities of care, functioning, and resources for mentally ill people in England and in other European countries; and 5) if possible, help the institutions and caregivers in England and in other European countries to improve upon the care, conditions, and resources for mentally ill people. Her goal now was not just to help mentally ill people in America, but also in Europe and beyond.31 Dorothea’s first stop for that intensive effort of investigation and reform was Scotland; she arrived there on February 26, 1855. She soon started visiting the institutions for mentally ill people and consulting with the caregivers. She discovered that the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people in Scotland were no different to those in America, and much effort was needed to bring about the required improvements. Thus, once more she engaged in her fact-finding routine and realized that the key person to talk to was the Home Secretary, Sir George Grey, in London.

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She made an appointment with him and, based on her fact-finding, tried to make him aware of the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people in Scotland. She also made a recommendation to him for the establishment of a commission to look into the matter and suggest corrective measures. That commission was formed and it also met with the approval of Queen Victoria. The commission took almost two years to finish its work and make a report to the Parliament of England, indicating that the conditions and circumstances of the mentally ill people were really horrible and that drastic measures were required to bring about the necessary improvements. Parliament acted on that report on August 23, 1857, and, as a result of its legislative action, more asylums were established in different parts of the country. Also, more humane treatment was suggested in the upkeep, care, and meeting of the needs and challenges of mentally ill people. Dorothea’s efforts were much appreciated by all.32 In July 1855 Dorothea visited the islands of Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, in the British channel. She studied the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people there and made recommendations to the authorities and the caregivers for meeting their needs and challenges better. As a result of that effort, a hospital was established for mentally ill people on the island of Jersey. From there Dorothea wanted to travel to other countries to understand the conditions and circumstances of their mentally ill people, learn what was being done by way of their treatment and care, share that information with the authorities and caregivers along with her own assessments and, if possible, make recommendations for their better treatment, care, and the meeting of their needs and challenges. With these objectives she traveled to France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Russia, Germany, Norway, Holland, the Netherlands, Palestine, and Constantinople; in Italy, she met with Pope Pius IX. She also visited Hungary, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, and Belgium. Wherever she went her goal was to visit the asylums, hospitals, poorhouses, and prisons to know the conditions and circumstances in which mentally ill people were kept and treated. She used this information to make recommendations to the authorities and the caregivers for bringing in improvements to the existing strategies and modalities of care and support of mentally ill people. After doing all that work Dorothea returned to Liverpool and sailed for New York on September 16, 1856, where she felt much work awaited her. She was now a recognized expert in the field of mental illness and was in much demand for advice and consultation.33 Upon reaching America, Dorothea chose Washington to live in and also made it the headquarter for her activities. Again, she started traveling to different places to continue her work, and her focus was still was on the

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facilities and resources for mentally ill people and their proper running and management. Public opinion and the attitudes of the authorities regarding mentally ill people were also to be mended. Five more years passed before the clouds of civil war appeared and Dorothea’s career was to change one more time.34

War Times Slavery was the main issue for the Civil War in America. The North was in favor of its abolition but the South was against it. The struggle started on April 12, 1861, and Dorothea’s state, Massachusetts, was one of the first to offer soldiers to the cause of the North. On April 19, 1861, the Sixth Massachusetts Regiment was passing through Baltimore on a train when it was attacked by mobsters. Several soldiers were hurt and news of it appeared in the newspapers. Dorothea saw this and proceeded to Baltimore to help, but by then the situation had dissipated. Thereafter, Dorothea went to the Department of War in Washington and offered her services for any wounded soldiers. Her request was accepted and, on June 10, 1861, she was given the title of “Superintendent of the United States Nurses”; it was a role without remuneration. Her job was to provide help in the recruitment of nurses for the war effort, assign them to different hospitals on army bases and on the front line, and to keep a check on the equipment, resources, materials, and provisions. At one point around 180 nurses worked under her, and she also supervised the work of volunteers who wanted to render their support in the war effort. But Dorothea and the Medical Bureau in which she was working were always at odds with each other, so when the bureau was reorganized on October 29, 1963, her position was eliminated. Accordingly, she was relieved of her duties, but she still continued to work and help to the final days of the war which ended on April 9, 1865.35 After the end of the war, Dorothea stayed in Washington for some time to provide aftercare to the soldiers and their families. She also worked on tracking down missing soldiers and providing information to their loved ones. Many nurses and soldiers needed help in enrolling for their pensions and completing other paperwork. She lent a hand with that too. She did this work for the next eighteen months and then returned to New England. She was now sixty-five years old, weaker than before, but still with considerable energy. Accordingly, she again started traveling and visiting asylums, hospitals, poorhouses, and jails. By then the numbers of mentally ill people had swelled but the corresponding facilities for them had remained about the same. Moreover, the war had depleted much of the

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country’s resources and charity monies had dried up. Thus, many facilities for mentally ill people were under financial stress and some had already closed down. This situation was challenging for Dorothea and she again started traveling to encourage the asylums, hospitals, poorhouses, and jails to survive by finding the needed resources for their proper operation and management. She did this work for the next fifteen years until she reached the age of eighty. During these times her focus was also on the conditions and circumstances of criminals and poor people, and the laws and policies which impacted them.36

Closing of the Curtain Dorothea had suffered from Malaria in 1870 and this had slowed her down a little in terms of travels and activities, but she had still kept up with her work. Her death came on July 18, 1887, when she was eighty-five years old; she was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge. By then she had covered a lot of ground, nationally and internationally, in helping mentally ill people and other needy populations, and she was shining like the zenith star as a celebrity.37

A Closing Remark In this chapter we have presented the case study of another brave and dedicated earlier pioneer woman; Dorothea Lynde Dix who, in her own lifetime, changed the fate of mentally ill people all over the world in terms of their treatment, care, respect, and equality with other human beings. Her beginnings were humble except for the fact that she was the granddaughter of a very successful couple in Boston who invited her to come and live with them. That move created a big turn in her life and, instead of following the usual route of marriage and having a family, which was prescribed for women in those days, she wanted to become an exemplary teacher. Accordingly, she opened several schools and was quite successful in these ventures. But providence wanted to take her in a different direction. That happened when she visited some women prisoners in East Cambridge Jail who were ill-kept, ill-treated, and ill-cared for, and many of whom were mentally ill. That situation moved her so much that she instantly decided to change their lives for the better and bring about significant changes in their conditions and circumstances. She devoted her whole life to that mission, and also to helping other mentally ill people, criminals, poor people, and desperate people. To fulfill her mission Dorothea kept on traveling far and wide her whole life, both nationally and

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internationally, and what she created was no less than a miracle. Thanks to her efforts the lives of the mentally ill and other needy people became much improved, and their whole world changed for the better. In addition to being helpful to others, Dorothea was also patriotic and, when the need arose during the Civil War, she did not hesitate to offer her services and also did that job with full devotion and dedication. Through these efforts, Dorothea learned a lot about the needs and challenges of vulnerable people, and how to satisfy these needs and challenges at optimal levels. In turn, she passed on that knowledge and experience to others and taught them what “concern” was, what “compassion” was, what “dedication” was, what “care” was, and how to help and serve people selflessly. In the end, her efforts brought her much fame and acclaim from all over the world, but she remained humble and meek and was fully satisfied with her life. By way of an example of her accomplishments, when Dorothea started her work in 1841 with mentally ill women in East Cambridge Jail there were six facilities for mentally ill people in America; in 1843 that number increased to 13, and by 1880 that number stood at 123. Churches, counties, municipalities, state governments, corporations, and the federal government were all participants in that effort. The training of people who wanted to work with the mentally ill and other needy populations was another area of accomplishment for Dorothea. By the time of her death, three states were already offering formal training to such workers, and more states were thinking of doing the same. Thus, in the fields of helping and caring for the mentally ill and other needy populations, Dorothea was an institution and a suitable role model for many others who wanted to follow her. She wanted to take away the pain and suffering of all people, at great personal cost, and it did not matter to her who these people were, where they came from, or whether they deserved the help. In that way, she was truly an incomparable compassionate lady and a great human being.

CHAPTER SEVEN MARGARET FULLER A PIONEER JOURNALIST, CRITIC, ACTIVIST, TRANSCENDENTALIST, AND FEMINIST

Introduction Earlier in Chapter 4 we presented a case study of Mary Wollstonecraft who was a native of England, belonged to the mid-eighteenth century, and was a philosopher, radical, activist, educational moral reformer, and one of the first feminists. She came from humble beginnings, faced difficult circumstances and, in spite of the fact that her formal education was low, contributed much to the moral, political, social, and feminist causes at a level which would become an inspiration for future reformers like George Elliot, Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Margaret Fuller. She also inspired the women’s rights movement in America in the midnineteenth century and many demands of that movement came from her views and writings. As a person, Mary was simple, sincere, and passionate, but she was naïve to the workings of the world. She was also a selfsacrificing person who took care of all those acquainted or associated with her. On these two counts, she suffered a lot and paid a heavy price. She was unconventional in her behaviors and actions and she remained a controversial figure. But she was a brilliant writer, translator, and reviewer, and was counted among the best of the time. Her two main works; A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 1 were trailblazers, and they inspired many future activists and reformers. Her main concerns were morality, liberalism, republicanism, rationality, the restructuring of society, educational reforms, political reforms, and social reforms, and she advocated equality between men and women. She also stressed that women appeared inferior to men not because of any lacking on their part, but because men exploited women, denied them suitable education, and kept them away from socio-political opportunities. Mary also advocated freedom and liberty for all, egalitarianism,

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and preferred a representative government. The enlightenment of both men and women and their empowerment through education were also her concerns. She stressed that the rights of people were to be preserved, and mutual respect and goodwill were to prevail among them. She died at the very young age of thirty-eight.2 Margaret Fuller, whose case study we present here, was much like Mary Wollstonecraft in spite of the differences in their formal education and societal standings. Both had difficult childhoods and were struggling to find their identities. Both turned out to be prominent radicals, activists, feminists, and educational moral reformers, and both were great writers, critics, and translators who created their places in an area dominated by men. Both advised women to be independent, socially, morally, and spiritually strong, and both left indelible marks on the canvas of their societies in terms of fair, equal, and respectful relations among men and women. Both contributed to the occurrence of the women’s rights movement in America in 1848, and both emphasized that education was a key factor for the enlightenment and empowerment of all. Both wanted societies to be egalitarian and both preferred representative governments. Both remained unlucky in their romances, and both died at the young ages of thirty-eight and forty respectively.3 Here, we present the life, endeavors, reform efforts, and contributions of Margaret Fuller. The lessons learned will be shared in the conclusion chapter.

Ancestral and Family Background Margaret’s ancestors were from England and her great-greatgrandfather, Thomas Fuller, was one of the first to come to America out of mere curiosity about the new land. He had heard the sermon of the liberal preacher, Rev. Thomas Shepherd, in Cambridgeport, Massachusetts; he liked it and decided to settle there. By profession, he was a blacksmith but, in due course, gathered a fortune and became an influential person. He married Elizabeth Tidd of Woburn and had seven children with her; six sons and one daughter. A great-grandson of his was Timothy Fuller; he graduated from Harvard College in 1760 and became a liberal clergyman and politician. He used to stress pacifism in his preaching, but the culture of the time was different and people did not like it. Accordingly, he was dismissed from the ministry. He had five sons and five daughters. All of his sons became attorneys and Margaret’s father, also named Timothy Fuller, was one of them.4

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Timothy, Margaret’s father, was a “typical man” of the times; assertive, arrogant, proud, and strong-willed. He believed that the husband was to provide for the family and the wife was to produce children, manage home affairs, and serve the husband in all possible manners. Everyone in the family, including the wife and children, was to respect and obey the man who was the ruler of the home. Any demonstration of affection or softness on the part of the man toward his wife or children was a weakness, and that sort of thing belonged only to women and children. He believed in continuous learning, the expansion of the faculties, and had a living faith in God. He also believed in patriotism toward one’s country and man’s duty to serve the state. He voted in elections for the first time in 1801 and graduated from Harvard College the same year. He married Margaret Crane, the daughter of Peter Crane of Canton, and the first child of this couple was Sarah Margaret Fuller, born on May 23, 1810, and later known simply as Margaret Fuller.5

Socio-Cultural Milieu At the time that Margaret was being raised there were many transformations occurring in New England in the economic, social, cultural, political, and religious realms; they were affected by rapid population growth, increased physical mobility, and more commercialization, urbanization, and industrialization. These changes were impacting all aspects of people’s lives and earlier customs, traditions, and relations were under stress. The lives at home and outside of the home were being differentiated further, and men were increasingly engaged in outside jobs, in the marketplace, and they participated more in the wealth, power, and political institutions. The activities of women were still confined to home chores and taking care of their husbands and children. Private and public spheres were also becoming different, and women were losing ground on both fronts. Virtue, sincerity, and informality were on the decline, but corruption, greed, and temptation were on the rise. Religion was still oppressive, for the most part, in spite of the new developments of Unitarianism and Transcendentalism, and was particularistic toward men, elites, and the government. It was especially oppressive toward women, slaves, minorities, and immigrants, and denied them their fundamental rights. Women, additionally, were being denied their rights to higher education, outside participation, and were kept busy with their home responsibilities.6 Men and women were also seen as different breeds that needed a separate upbringing, different socialization, and different assignment of

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roles, responsibilities, and functions. They were assigned a separate education in order for boys to take on outside jobs, professions, and careers, and for girls to be ready to take on household functions.7 Boys were also prepared to assume leadership positions in the social, economic, political, and religious institutions where courage, creativity, and enthusiasm were needed to meet the expectations and challenges. That was not supposed to be necessary for girls and, instead, they were raised to be caring, compassionate, loyal, sincere, docile, self-effacing, and loving, which was considered suitable for their orientations and responsibilities. Thus, boys were directed toward the study of classics, mathematics, sciences, history, and theology whereas girls were guided toward the study of arts, literature, music, dance, and languages. Only boys went to colleges for higher education; girls were put in boarding schools and seminaries. There were also other ways in which the growth, freedom, and public participation of girls were curtailed and they were denied the rights to property, wages, children, independent standing, and giving divorce to the husband. After marriage, things became worse for women and they further lost their rights. All major decisions were taken by the husband or other male members of the family, and a woman was supposed to get their approval to do anything significant. Challenging these assumptions, stipulations, and practices was out of the question for a woman and, if she did, it was declared that her grace, purity, gentleness, kindness, modesty, constancy, sincerity, resignation, and meekness were at risk and she became weak morally and spiritually.8

Early Years Margaret’s father was an ambitious man who recognized early on that she was an intelligent child and therefore he wanted her to excel at the topmost level. Margaret later recalled him to be a man of intellect, interested in business and literature and devoted to his country. He was matter-of-fact in orientation and did not show much emotion or affection toward his wife or children. He pursued his legal career with enthusiasm and was elected four times as a congressman to the United States House of Representatives. During that period, he spent at least six months out of each year in Washington, D.C. and could not properly pay attention to his family responsibilities. This gap was filled by Margaret’s mother, whom she knew to be graceful, peaceful, modest, sweet, playful, humorous, and devoted to her husband, but also docile and meek. Both parents had a considerable impact on Margaret’s personality. Her father made her stern

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and matter-of-fact from the outside, and her mother instilled in her the qualities of tenderness, sweetness, care, and self-giving.10 Margaret was homeschooled early on by her father with this education starting at the age of three. The initial focus was on learning the alphabet and describing the things around. To that, he soon added reading and writing, and later other subjects like Latin, Greek, classics, grammar, history, mathematics, and sciences were added. The study routine was rigorous and left little time for Margaret to play with boys and girls, or pursue other interests. The remedies sought were long walks, spending lots of time in the family garden, and reading lighter books of interest. But Margaret felt alone for most of the time and she was gloomy. By the age of six, she felt quite comfortable with all the subjects of her studies and could talk and converse about them easily. The classics particularly excited her and, in Roman heroes, she saw bravery; they also carried the qualities of chivalry, determination, singleness of purpose, risk-taking, having self-command, and using force wisely when needed. Greeks, to her, had lofty thoughts and they also appreciated beauty, tenderness, moderation, grace, sweetness, and quiet contemplation. All of these qualities impacted Margaret and shaped her personality further. Later these factors also made her choose a future course of life that took her to Europe.11 Margaret was not allowed “Etiquette” or “sentimental” books.12 The stress of studies was always there and she did not interact much with others except for the family members. This situation later led her to develop some psycho-social problems with self-perception, identity, seeking and maintaining relationships, and what to expect or not to expect from others. For these reasons she also could not properly develop her feminine side or reconcile her inner and outer leanings. She always remained confused about herself, her relationships, her interactions with others, her prescribed limits in them, and could not carry on romances except for the one with her husband. Frustration and bafflement were integral parts of Margaret’s life, and she was mostly in turmoil, both internally and externally. But there were many people who appreciated her exceptional character and qualities and they admired her many accomplishments.13

Age Seven and Onward When Margaret was seven years old her father was elected to the United States House of Representatives and had to be away from home for long periods. Accordingly, he could not directly supervise the studies of

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Margaret and a tutor was arranged. But even with that, he kept on sending instructions from a distance as to what Margaret was supposed to accomplish within specific time blocks. The study routine remained rigorous and the only free time for Margaret was Sundays when she did not have to engage in her studies. On those days she attended the church, but found the sermons boring; she engaged herself in imaginations, fantasies, and day-dreaming about herself, her circumstances, and her heroes. She was also craving the attention of others, particularly her family and friends. Her environment remained cold and gloomy and time moved on. When Margaret was nine years old her father felt that a structured environment would be better for her, in order for her to develop and progress faster. Accordingly, she was put into a top-class school run by Dr. Park.14 Having been homeschooled so far, Margaret found it difficult to adjust there and felt uneasy. She also had a low opinion of the other boys and girls in the school and felt that they were not good enough for short-term or long-term companionships. Other boys and girls felt likewise and thought that Margaret was too proud and difficult to get along with. Margaret’s father, in addition to his intellectual ambitions for her, also wanted her to excel socially. Accordingly, Margaret was encouraged to give parties to other boys and girls, and she attended their parties. But, in these situations, she felt uncomfortable and lacked the necessary skills and tactics for relating to others. She was too frank in expressing her views and could not come forth with a womanly touch when needed. Thus, there too the conditions were unsatisfactory, and Margaret felt quite frustrated.15 When still attending Dr. Park’s school, Margaret met an Englishwoman who was in Cambridgeport for a few months. She liked her, and the two spent a lot of time together. When that Englishwoman went back to England, Margaret felt sad and fell ill. In the circumstances, her father thought that perhaps Margaret needed a change to her environment and put her into a boarding school in Groton, run by Mrs. Prescott. That school had strict discipline and Margaret did not like it. But she found some relief by joining the theoretical offerings of the school. In the meantime, her father came back home after finishing his terms in the United States House of Representatives and again took charge of her studies. Accordingly, at the age of sixteen, Margaret left Mrs. Prescott’s school.16

A Kinder Spirit A seventh child came into the family, and Margaret’s father shifted their residence to Dana House, on Dana Hill, near Harvard College. Margaret was still busy with her study routines, but slowly the burden of

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tutoring her siblings also came upon her. That left little time for her to engage in other interests or seek better relationships with boys and girls. She was a young woman now; she wanted to explore romantic interactions with boys and wondered what was in store for her in the future. That was also the time when Margaret started noticing the existing inequalities between males and females more sharply and began to wonder why men and boys could do anything they liked, yet women and girls could not.17 Margaret was eighteen years old now and deserved to be playful and light-hearted, but stresses and worries were still part of her life. A ninth child had come to the family, and her mother felt totally spent. Margaret, therefore, had to take charge of the family and family affairs. That made her still more stressed, but now she was a kinder person, more balanced in her attitudes, behaviors, orientations, and actions, and more thoughtful, prudent, focused, understanding, and accommodating. She was ready to help anyone who came her way, whether they were family members or not. Transcendental thoughts started coming to her; she realized that human life was both inside and outside, and changes and adjustments had to occur along these dimensions in order to be a better person. She had to accept joys and sorrows and live with accomplishments and failures. Petty thoughts, behaviors, and actions were to be avoided, and grandeurs of all sorts were to be instilled inside and outside. Relationships and intimacies were to be permanent, and her expectations of them were to be solid. Margaret was already quite stringent in the choice of her relationships, but these thoughts made her even more so, and she started putting excessive expectations on friends and relations that were difficult to meet. One such case was that of James Freeman Clarke. He had graduated from Harvard College in 1829, with a batch of other boys, and liked Margaret because of her personality and knowledge. The two developed a close relationship and started walking together, reading books together, and listening to music together. The two also wrote to each other. But in due course, James was unable to meet all of the expectations of Margaret and the relationship fizzled out, in spite of the fact that Margaret felt quite excited about him.18

A Crisis and a Vision The year was 1831 and Margaret was now twenty-one years old. Loneliness and frustration were still parts of her life, and the factors for this were her study routines, her family responsibilities, and the ongoing inner-outer struggle that pressed her down. Her friends were getting married or moving out of the town for different reasons, and that created an emotional vacuum for her. Furthermore, her father had sold the family

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home in August 1831, without consulting the family, and decided to move to the countryside to write a memoir of his experiences of the history of the country.19 That meant that Margaret had to be away from the city environment and the many emotional and intellectual excitements provided by the libraries, museums, concerts, and other sources. In the summer of 1831, Margaret had a meltdown which took several months to recover from. She had a vision that helped her recover. That vision began gradually and, in November, helped her reconcile her inner-outer struggle. She also realized that a person could transcend all affairs and become neutral to everything happening around them, be they joys, sorrows, miseries, or jubilations. With that consciousness, she felt that a unity had come to her body and soul which was not possible through the church doctrines and its practices. She described that state as “pure” and felt that it lasted even after one’s death.20 The vision also brought to Margaret a greater sense of spirituality and a feeling of underlying unity among all different forms. That also applied to males and females and their roles and responsibilities. Thus, she declared that people were males and females at the same time, and so was God too. Accordingly, their roles and responsibilities were also to be masculine and feminine. Margaret expressed her belief in divine intuition and suggested that those who had it rose higher than those who did not. But no matter how much Margaret became aware of her spirituality, she kept her faith in human beings and human relationships. She wrote: “I can pray, I can learn, I can constantly immerse myself in the Divine Beauty. But I also need to love my fellow-men, and to meet the responsive glance of my spiritual kindred… For only the development of the individual and relationships among men and women could begin to realize the divine on earth.”21 After having the spiritual vision, Margaret started associating more with young Unitarians and Transcendentalists in the Boston area who were dissatisfied with their lives and wanted to seek a new meaning for it. Among these people were Ralph Waldo Emerson,22 Bronson Alcott, George Ripley, and Henry David Thoreau. In their search for a more meaningful life, they had moved away from the scriptural dictums toward a self-culture that emphasized personal perfection and the nobility of the self by following the laws of nature. Vices and superficialities were to be abandoned, and a simple life was to be lived. Margaret, too, was dissatisfied with her circumstances and the way the world operated around her. She shared with the Unitarians and the Transcendentalists her crisis of faith in the institutions, authorities, and forms. She was also bothered by materialism which was tearing apart the social fiber of society. Relationships

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and living were also her concerns and, in her estimation, these were moving in the wrong direction. Accordingly, Margaret had a lot of empathy with the Unitarians and the Transcendentalists and wanted to join them in their rebellion against the present culture, life, and developing trends.23

Death of Father The year was 1834, and Margaret was getting impatient about her future and what she wanted to do in life. She also was eager to meet people in Europe. By that time, she had done some writing, but nothing of consequence had happened other than the publication of a reaction in the Boston Daily Advertiser to the article “Slavery in Rome” by George Bancroft which had appeared in North American Review. In 1835, Frederic Henry Hedge and James Freeman Clarke had asked Margaret to contribute to their journals and, in the same year, Clarke had helped her publish a literary review of the biographies of George Crabbe and Hannah More in Western Messenger. But Margaret sought more. At about that time, she expressed to her parents her desire to go to Europe for some time, as she was hoping to write a biography of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe for which that travel was necessary. Permission was granted, and preparations for the voyage were started. But soon Margaret’s father got sick with cholera and, within three days, he died suddenly on October 1, 1835. That was a bolt from the blue for the family, and everyone felt distressed. The family was in a dire economic situation as family expenses were to be met and loans were to be repaid. This, Margaret had to earn money; but work in those days was hard to come by for women. As time passed, Margaret somehow managed the situation. In July 1836, she met Ralph Waldo Emerson, a young Unitarian priest, and developed a friendship with him. Occasionally she stayed with his family and spent some time with them. It was Emerson who had told her of an opening for an assistant in Bronson Alcott’s Temple School; she got that job when, upon Emerson’s urging, Alcott himself visited her. She started working in the school in December 1836 and liked what she saw there. Alcott had kept communication with the students totally open, which resulted in the free exchange of ideas back and forth between the students and the teachers. But Margaret felt that such communication also needed some disciplinary boundaries. She also felt that other changes were necessary and she created a blueprint of selfculture for the students and the teachers. Margaret taught in that school until April 1837; her subjects were French, German, Italian, and conversations around the Gospels. Alcott was controversial and people did not like him

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teaching their children unconventional ideas. They protested, and the number of students in the school dropped down from forty to ten. The school came under great financial stress, but Alcott resisted the closing of the school. Ultimately, however, the school had to fold.24 At about that time, George Ripley was trying to start a publication on foreign literature and he asked Margaret to be responsible for Goethe. Even though she was already planning to write a biography of him, she realized that there was no promise of money and the work would have consumed many hours. She needed money badly but she did not accept that offer. In the meantime, a new Greene School had opened in Providence, Rhode Island, and Margaret was offered a job there with the high salary of $1,000 a year. She started teaching at that school in June 1837 and had sixty students of all ages assigned to her. There, too, she kept the communication channels with the students open so that the exchange of ideas could occur freely. She also urged the students to develop activity of mind, accuracy of process, and to look for principles and search for the good and beautiful. The subjects taught were rhetoric, philosophy, poetry, history, natural history, Latin, French, Italian, and ethics. Self-discipline and intellectual independence were emphasized in all areas of study, and Margaret gave particular attention to girls; she asked to think first and then study, talk, and recite. Nothing was to pass by them without proper understanding, and there was to be no shame in asking questions. Gender expectations were to be considered with caution and challenged if necessary. Simultaneous empathy and critique were to be used, as they gave rise to “active learning,” “intellectual independence,” and “self-culture.” Personal and spiritual growth were also to be their goals, and effort and reflection were important in the achieving of them.25

Leaving Greene School Margaret’s main ambition was writing and publishing but the job at Greene School left little time for this. Therefore, in December 1838, she left the job after eighteen months of service and returned to Boston. Her first attempt at writing was a literary criticism, where she applied empathy and criticism as the modes of her writing. She first tried to enter into the spirit of the work, noted its central vision, and judged its overall value. In that, she also focused on the power of the description, the formal skills in the writing, and the energy, weight, and breadth of the vision. Then she pointed out the overall worth and promise of the work using prevalent intrinsic and extrinsic standards of writing, and any available perspectives that could be applied to the work. But the final conclusion about the work

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was left up to the readers. That was an innovative approach, and the readers liked that. One such piece which Margaret developed was about the life and literary works of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832).26 Earlier reviews had focused more on the personal life of Goethe, and diminished the value of his work. Margaret suggested that it should not have been that way, as more attention should have been paid to the worth of his work and less to his personal flaws. In that, she added that her own intellectual accomplishment, spiritual development, and self-culture had come forth partially through the influences of Goethe.27

Turn of the Tide The year 1839 was very fruitful for Margaret and three things happened for her during that year: 1) her significant publications started; 2) she started her “conversations” group with some ladies in Boston; and 3) she assumed the responsibility of the first editor of the Transcendentalist magazine, The Dial. Margaret had already finished a translation of Eckermann’s Conversations with Goethe, and she had started working on Goethe’s biography. Her mother, in the meanwhile, had sold the family farm at Groton, and Margaret moved to Boston where she rented a house at Jamaica Plain. On a visit to Concord, she shared with Emerson an idea for establishing a conversation group for ladies to talk about subjects like art, nature, history, mythology, literature, the characters of great men, and the like. Her intention was to compensate women for their lack of education through discussions and debates on these topics where they would define, state, question, examine themes, and form opinions about themselves as to what they were, what they were born to do, and what their ultimate fate was. Margaret had expected that her Transcendentalist friends would help her in that venture but, after initial promises, little help came from them. Therefore, in November 1839, Margaret started the project with the help of Elizabeth Peabody. A group of twenty-five ladies volunteered for the program and among them were some prominent women. The group started meeting once a month in Elizabeth Peabody’s home where everyone was expected to get to the bottom of the themes and sort out their overt and covert content and application. That, Margaret believed, would also bring out more individuality and character among the ladies and give them greater confidence. The group functioned for five years and had some memorable moments. It was wrapped up in April 1844.28

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With The Dial Harvard College was celebrating two hundred years of its founding and, in a meeting room, four young Unitarians (Ralph Waldo Emerson, George Ripley, Frederick Henry Hedge, and George Putman) were having a discussion about excessive conservatism in the church, and what to do about it. In order to extend that conversation, the group met again at Emerson’s home where James Freeman Clarke, Bronson Alcott, Convers Francis, Margaret Fuller, and Elizabeth Peabody were also present. That group subsequently established a “Symposium Club” which outsiders started calling the “Transcendentalists’ Club.” The group met every month in different member’s homes, and the topics of discussion were of a large variety. The idea of a literary magazine for the group was floated, and it continued to surface from time to time. Therefore, in October 1839, a magazine called The Dial was started and Margaret was coaxed into being its first editor, with an annual salary of $200.29 Emerson and Ripley were also to help her in her work. Margaret immediately started seeking appropriate publishing materials from known and unknown authors, and Emerson and Ripley helped her in that. Finally, the first issue of the magazine came out in July 1840 with entries in the form of poems, essays, critiques, and opinions. Opinions about the magazine varied, on both sides of the spectrum, and there were some negative comments due to the fact that a young woman was at the helm of the affairs of the magazine. In choosing the publication materials, Margaret again applied empathy and criticism in the selection process, and the authors were both established and not so established. Everyone was free to present materials from any stance as long as the accuracy of the information and its originality, vigor, and individuality of character were kept in view. Revisions sought were frequent, and it did not matter who had submitted the manuscript. Many Transcendentalists published in the magazine, including Margaret.30 Not all Transcendentalists were comfortable with the workings of the group. Some of them felt that the discussions should also have some practical ends, and that thought must be followed by actions toward remolding the lives of the participants. That way, self-culture and selfaction were to be reexamined and reshaped. Among those who were dissatisfied with the group’s activities were George and Sophia Ripley. The couple decided to buy a farm of 170 acres in the Boston area and started encouraging families to live there in a communal way, away from the pressures and lures of city life. Life in the commune was to be selfsupporting, self-reflective, and devoted to the higher ends of life. There were several physical structures on the farm for living and more buildings

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were subsequently added, including a school for the children. Fifteen families initially volunteered to live on the farm and there were several frequent visitors, including Emerson, Alcott, Channing, Elizabeth Peabody, and Margaret. Margaret never became an insider of that group, though the experiences gained by her at the commune remained an integral part of her life.31

Quitting The Dial By 1842 Margaret was still working with The Dial, but the continuous stress was taking its toll and she felt exhausted. Family responsibilities and other activities were also there, and these were putting pressure on her. Therefore, in March 1842, Margaret decided to resign from the editorship of The Dial and Emerson took over her responsibilities. Freed from that responsibility, Margaret went to Canton to rest and think about her future plans for writing. She was already translating letters between Bettina von Arnim and her friend, Karoline von Günderode. Once she finished translating the letters only a quarter of them would get published. The “conversations” group was still active. A suggestion came that men should also be involved in that group and, thus, invitations were sent to people like George Ripley, Henry Hedge, Stearns Wheeler, James Freeman Clarke, Jones Very, Bronson Alcott, and Ralph Emerson; these people did join the group. But soon after their interest in the activities of the group started to wane and, one by one, they dropped out of the group with one excuse or another. The group, however, continued to function.32

The Great Lawsuit In 1843, Margaret started publishing The Great Lawsuit: Man versus Men and Woman versus Women in The Dial in serial form. The core theme was that the association of empathy with women and judgment with men was artificial and ought to be abandoned. The roles and responsibilities of women and men were customary and they could be crossed over through self-quest and self-culture. Thus, one could be a father and a mother at the same time, and also a lover of a female and a male concurrently. Women, in these regards, needed to be independent and could ignore the boundaries prescribed by gender. They also needed to take charge of their personal, social, intellectual, and spiritual development, and for that, they needed some time away from domestic duties as was deemed possible in the “conversations” group. Interactions with other men and women were important, and self-exploration was to be done in that respect. Margaret, in

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addition, suggested self-responsibility by men and women for everything, but particularly in conducting their lives. The reasons for that were to be internal, and not external. The current social order was to be changed, not through a patchwork approach but through comprehensive transformations of attitudes, conduct, and practices. Men and women were to experience equality, mutual respect, and live in harmony.33

Trip to the Great Lakes In the summer of 1843, James Freeman Clarke, his sister Sarah, and his brother William were planning a trip to the Great Lakes where they planned to visit Chicago, Milwaukee, Niagara Falls, Buffalo, and New York. They suggested that Margaret should also join them, which she did. The trip started at Niagara Falls. They then went as far north as Mackinac Island and as far west as Pawpaw. They were interested in watching how the new settlers and the Native Indians were doing there. Margaret’s observation was that, except for some material gains, the conditions of the new settlers were no better than before, and the circumstances of their women were even worse. But she felt that the Native Indians living in these territories, even though dispossessed of their land, belongings, and culture, were still living noble lives and still respected their trees, brooks, rivers, hills, and other parts of nature. They also focused on their spiritual growth and not just on material possessions. Margaret talked to them freely and tried to learn more about their attitudes, values, beliefs, religious practices, preferences, and aims in life. On these and other topics she kept notes and, upon going back in September 1843, decided to write a book of her experiences on the trip. For cross-referencing she needed some resources and therefore sought permission from the Harvard College library to use their facilities. That permission was granted and she became the first woman ever to use the facility. The book came out in the spring of 1844 entitled Summer on the Lakes.34 In that book she talked about the patience, nobility, and serenity of the Native Indians, and the avarice on the part of the white settlers. She also pointed out that the church was hypocritical as it was preaching a noble path to the same people it had plundered earlier. She recommended changes in the conditions of the Native Indians, not through mere talks but through practical actions. Travel books were popular in those days and, accordingly, Margaret’s book sold well and won much acclaim. The comments were that it was bold, brilliant, and ahead of its time.35

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Male-Female Duality In the meantime, Margaret had been revising and enlarging The Great Lawsuit: Man versus Men, Woman versus Women, which she had earlier published in The Dial and wherein she had compared men’s identity and circumstances with women’s identity and circumstances. There she had also pointed to the problems, issues, frustrations, disappointments, and handicaps of women, though the tone was kept positive, and women were not depicted as oppressed victims of the patriarchal system. The aim of this work was to enlarge and further clarify different themes, for which she composed more than thirty long poems between April and November of 1844. That work came out in 1845 under the title Woman in the Nineteenth Century.36 One central argument in the work was that the lives of both men and women suffered for two reasons: 1) the existence of duality in their status, role, and functioning; and 2) inhibition in the progress and development of women for which the whole of society paid a price. The solution was to remove that duality and thereby bring greater commonality, solidarity, and cooperation between men and women. Margaret also pointed out that persistence, courage, and creativity were not exclusive strengths of men, and nurturing and self-sacrifice were not exclusive qualities of women. Both men and women possessed these attributes and if they were allowed to develop and function freely both sexes would feel liberated. Their mutual frustrations would diminish and their intra and inter conflicts would disappear. More harmony would prevail between them and gender domination would end. That way, strife and contention in society would end and peace would prevail. Along these lines, Margaret also envisioned a new form of marriage, devoid of unequal powers, and which assisted the partners in mutual respect, nurturing, and the sharing of joys and sorrows as per their respective capacities. For that, some institutional transformations and deep inner changes were also necessary, and opportunities for women were to be opened in all fields of functioning.37

To New York Horace Greeley was the owner and publisher of the progressive newspaper, New York Daily Tribune, and he was in need of some assistance. He had noticed Margaret’s writings and was impressed by the fact that she was trying to combine the ascetic and social concerns in society. He offered Margaret the position of a journalist and literary reviewer with a good salary and boarding with the family. Many things

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were still happening for Margaret on the home front and the offer was great. Therefore, she accepted the job and moved to New York. She started working with the newspaper in December 1844 and that made her the first female member of the press, and the first journalist and literary reviewer of a leading newspaper in America. Her columns started appearing regularly on the front page of the newspaper and, in all, she published almost 250 such columns in a short time span. She also published translations and reviews of domestic and foreign works. As her conclusions were not always conventional, some people liked her writings and others did not. For example, while reviewing the conditions of prostitutes in New York, Margaret suggested that these women had no other alternative under the circumstances but to engage in the profession. She also suggested that the institutions which were designed to help the poor actually deepened their poverty because preventive measures like education and job training were not part of the programs. The prison system also failed to rehabilitate the prisoners and, as a result, these victims of circumstance came back to the system again and again. The laws for bringing liberty to the people also failed, and examples were those of women and slaves. Other gender and racial injustices also existed and they too begged attention. Thus, the subjects of Margaret’s writings were many; prominent among them were prison conditions, hospitals, almshouses, asylums, mistreatment of immigrants, gender inequalities, class and race relations, slavery, prostitution, poverty, and slums. Again, she applied empathy and criticism as the modes of her observation, and judged the situations and works on their own merits. Her voice was independent and bold, and people paid attention to her. During her tenure with the newspaper, she translated or reviewed the works of such established writers as George Sand, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Thomas Carlyle, but the beneficiaries of her magnanimity were also budding authors and poets like Edgar Allan Poe, Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Elizabeth Barrett, Robert Browning, and Alfred Tennyson.38 Margaret felt satisfied with her job and Greeley was happy with her work. The readers also held her in high regard as they felt that her analyses were open, frank, and penetrating, although unconventional. But Margaret was not happy. She felt lonely, isolated, repressed, and longed for something great to happen in her life. She had already given much to her family and she felt exhausted. There were other paradoxes too; for example, there was her uncertain love affair with James Nathan, a Jew from Hamburg, who was a few years younger than her. He was a sensitive and charming young man and Margaret loved him abundantly, unselfishly,

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and unconditionally. But he was non-committal and, to an extent, selfish and opportunist too.39 Finally, in 1845, he left for Europe to engage in adventure and do some sightseeing. That made Margaret sad. She tried to remain in touch with him through letters, but his responses were cold, factual, and sporadic. At times, Margaret did not hear from him for months. Finally, while in Europe, he married another girl and the romance ended.40

To Europe Margaret’s childhood fascination with Roman and Greek heroes was still there and she also wanted to meet some prominent literary figures in Europe. Accordingly, she was hoping for an opportunity to go abroad in order to give her fantasies and desires a practical shape. Marcus and Rebecca Spring were planning a trip to Europe and they invited Margaret to join them, free of charge, as long as she would tutor their twelve-yearold son on the way. This was an attractive offer for Margaret and she accepted it. The ship was the Cambria and it was to sail from Boston to Liverpool in August 1846. Margaret, in the meanwhile, kept on working with the New York Daily Tribune and was also writing her Miscellanies. Finally, the day came and Margaret was ready to sail. She had several letters of introduction from Emerson and the President of Harvard College, Mr. Everett, for several prominent people in England. The voyage started, but Margaret did not feel comfortable on the sea voyage. She wanted to reach England as early as possible. Finally, that day arrived and the ship reached England. Margaret’s Miscellanies and Woman in the Nineteenth Century had already been well received in England. Therefore, she had no difficulty getting into the intellectual circles there. Prominent people like Thomas Carlyle, William Wordsworth, and George Sand invited her into their homes and arranged parties in her honor. They remarked that she was a good soul, high-soaring, and with a sharp intellect. During her sojourns through the country, Margaret met other well-known personalities and visited prisons, slums, factories, and coal mines. She reported on these subjects back to her newspaper, of which she was now a “special foreign correspondent.” She also reported to her newspaper on the conditions of unemployment, famine, social unrest, and corruption which were widely prevalent in the country at that time.41

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Meeting Mazzini While Margaret was still absorbing the excitement of her experiences in England, conditions were ripe for revolutions in other parts of Europe, including Italy. The main reasons were conservative governments, rising inequalities, widespread unemployment, rampant corruption, extensive food shortages, frequent famines, and the poor conditions of farmers and workers. Wars were common, and these were causing severe economic depressions. Enlightenment ideas had come on board, and these were inspiring people to not bear with the existing circumstances any longer. At that time, the Italian peninsula was not a unified country but was an amalgamation of many states, such as the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Republic of San Marco, the Roman Republic, and more. The northern states were ruled by the Austrian Empire; the influence of that empire was immense in the rest of the land, where princes and dukes were in charge of their small states. Intellectuals wanted to free the peninsula from foreign influences and establish a unified country. They also desired a liberal government which would take care of the needs of the people and, for that, they were writing against the current governments and agitations by the people .42 Giuseppe Mazzini was one such intellectual and a foremost leader of the Revolutionary Party; he had been in exile from his native Genoa in Italy since 1837 for his revolutionary activities. He was now living in England and teaching in a school for poor Italian boys. Margaret was aware of his work and also the fact that, while in Italy, he was not able to publish his ideas.43 She met him at one of the dinner parties arranged by the Carlyles. He was sitting at a table, calm and silent, and appeared to Margaret like a saint whose main goal was to free his people from foreign and domestic tyranny. For that, he had been put in prison in Savona was exiled after his prison term was over. From Italy, he had gone to France, then to Switzerland, and then to England. There he again started sending his fiery messages to the Italian people, urging them to throw away the yokes of foreign and domestic oppression. He had also written a “Manifesto of Young Italy” for that. Margaret talked to him briefly and shared with him that she wanted to go to Italy. She also invited him to visit her at her place of residence. He accepted the invitation and soon showed up at her place. There he talked to her at length about his hopes of a “United Italy” and what he wanted to do for the people there. Margaret shared with him that she wanted to help him in his mission and, in saying that, she sounded enthusiastic and sincere. In return, Mazzini said that he would refer her to his revolutionary friends in Italy, and would share with her the whole agenda of the party. At the dinner, Margaret also met Adam

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Mickiewicz whose goals and missions were similar to those of Mazzini and, in the presence of these two giants, she felt that she had found her spiritual mission for the future.44

To Italy From England, Margaret briefly went to Paris and met several important people like Lamennais and the poet, Beranger. From there she went to Rome, Italy, where in April 1847 she met Giovanni Angelo Ossoli, a nobleman who had turned revolutionary and who had deep commitments to the Revolutionary Party. He was ten years younger than Margaret and was not well educated. But he was a man of integrity and character. Thus, though not a match for Margaret in terms of learning and scholarship, she liked him and felt captivated by him. Ossoli also felt attracted to Margaret and, in a few meetings, told her all about himself, his family, and his other circumstances. One day he suddenly proposed to Margaret for marriage. The move was unexpected and Margaret was not ready for it. Therefore, she refused the proposal, although she felt for him and was sympathetic toward his revolutionary cause. To ponder on the matter, she decided to go to Florence for a while and, upon return, felt relieved. But still, a few things were bothering her and she was not sure which way her decision ought to go. Her main confusions were that Ossoli was much younger than her and was not very educated. He was a Catholic and she was a Protestant so marriage between the two was difficult and, even if it happened, the Catholic Church would not recognize it. Ossoli was constantly at risk as an officer in the Roman Revolutionary Party and something could happen to him at any time. He also had a coming inheritance and his marriage with her could jeopardize that chance. Lastly, as and when the revolutionary cause was settled, it would be difficult for him to support a family because he did not possess any skills for a gainful job. All these thoughts kept on coming to Margaret, but, at the same time, she also liked Ossoli and knew that he adored her like a goddess. Finally, one day she suddenly told Ossoli that she was ready to marry him. But she also thought that the marriage should remain a secret, for the sake of both of them, until the conditions in Italy improved. Thus, an informal marriage between Margaret and Ossoli possibly did take place on April 4, 1848, although that cannot be said with certainty. However, the two did start living together.45 Margaret soon became pregnant with Ossoli’s baby and she was happy. But because the marriage was kept a secret, she could not share that news with anyone else. Another factor in that was Ossoli’s revolutionary

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activities as these could put Margaret and the baby at risk. The pregnancy progressed well and when Margaret was three months away from delivering the baby they decided that it was time for Margaret to leave Rome and go to the mountains of Abruzzi to complete the rest of the pregnancy. So, a place was rented in Rieti and Margaret settled there to live and to write about her experiences of the occurring revolution in Italy. The days, however, dragged for Margaret and writing was difficult. Her health and financial reasons also played a part in that. But she managed and her dispatches to her newspaper in America remained regular. Finally, the baby was born on September 5, 1848; a son named Eugenio Filippo Ossoli. Margaret wanted to return to Ossoli with the baby, but he advised her that the baby should be left behind, at least for a while, and so a wetnurse was arranged for his nurture. Once that arrangement was made Margaret came back to Rome in November 1848. She was thirty-eight years old then.46

Failed Efforts Efforts to free the Italian peninsula from foreign influences and internal repression began in 1815 and the struggle intensified in 1848. On March 18, 1845, people presented a petition to the Austrian GovernorGeneral in Milan for some liberal reforms in the land, but that did not happen. On March 23, 1848, King Charles Albert sent troops to engage Austria in a battle but the effort did not succeed. On August 1, 1848, the Bologna workers revolted against Pope Pius IX and they too were put down by the Papal forces. On the same day, King Charles Albert’s soldiers were defeated at Custoza and the King was forced to go back to Turin. In view of these and other revolutionary activities, Pope Pius IX on September 1, 1848, appointed Count Pellegrino Rossi as the head of the liberal government in the Papal States, but he was assassinated on November 15, 1848. Thus, the struggle was failing constantly and people were eager to give a final push to the Austrian Empire in order to create a “United Italy” which was compassionate and liberal in its policies, programs, and functioning.47 Mazzini was watching all these developments while in exile and realized that it was time for him to return to Italy to pitch in his efforts in the ongoing revolution. Milan and Messina were hot spots but the war had spread all over Italy. The revolutionary forces were in a strong position and city after city was coming under their control. Finally, the news came that Pope Pius IX had been deposed and Italy was free. At that time, Mazzini was in Lugano after seventeen years of exile and his name was

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being suggested as the leader of the new republic which was about to be born. That happened on February 9, 1849, at a time when Pope Pius IX was in captivity. But he escaped with the help of two friends from France and Bavaria, and things changed again. On March 1, 1849, Radetzky defeated the Piedmontese Army at Novara and, on April 1, 1849, the Austrian Army attacked Venice. Finally, when Mazzini was about to become president of the young republic, Louis Napoleon decided to side with Pope Pius IX and attacked Rome on June 1, 1849. His intention was to reinstall the Pope to his earlier position. Thus, Rome was besieged on June 3, 1849, and the fighting was fierce. Margaret, at that time, took charge of the services to the wounded soldiers coming to Fate-Bene Hospital. On July 1, 1849, the Constitutional Assembly in Rome surrendered to the French forces and, subsequently, the Venetian government also fell on August 22, 1849, after a blockade. The Italian revolution was over and, on April 1, 1850, Pope Pius IX returned to Rome after an exile of one year in Naples.48

Desperation and End With the failure of Mazzini and the falling of Rome, Margaret was in a desperate situation. She had much to think about. Ossoli’s family was conservative and appalled about his revolutionary activities. He also had an association with a foreigner which could mean the withholding of the inheritance expected to come to him. Margaret, Ossoli, and the child were at risk in Rome and therefore, in July 1849, the family moved to Rieti, and then to Florence in September 1849 where intense surveillance was kept on the family. There, however, Margaret started writing about the history of the Italian revolution and finished it. As usual, she also kept on sending dispatches to her newspaper in America about what was happening in Italy and in Europe.49 Finally, Margaret became eager to return to America to be with her family, friends, and other people, but was not sure what kind of reception they would receive there. Nevertheless, she made plans to go to America on the Elizabeth, a merchant ship which was to sail from Leghorn, France, on May 17, 1850. For that voyage, she borrowed the sum of £336 from a bank in England with the security provided by Marcus Spring. After that, with anticipation and excitement, the family boarded the ship and started the voyage. The voyage was to take sixty days to reach the shores of New York with the anticipated date of arrival being July 15, 1850. A few days into the voyage the captain of the ship took ill and the second officer had to take over the command. Things went well after that. The weather had been fine for the first few days but when the ship was

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close to reaching New York it was caught in a hurricane and, in spite of the best efforts of the second officer, it wrecked against some sandbars on July 19, 1850, when the shore was already in sight. After that water started coming into the ship and then it was everywhere. Calls were made for lifeboats, but there was no response. Finally, people started jumping into the water to save their lives by swimming to the shore. Many passengers did that but Margaret, Ossoli, and their son Angelo were not able to leave the ship and perished. After a few days, the body of Angelo was tossed up onto the shore, but the bodies of Margaret and Ossoli were never found. Thus ended the life of an unusually great woman who wrote her name in bold letters in the history of America through her significant contributions in many reform areas.50

A Closing Remark This chapter has shared a case study of Margaret Fuller; a young teacher, journalist, critic, reviewer, translator, writer, and feminist who became one of the most famous women of her time. She was also a loving and loyal daughter, sister, friend, wife, mother, and was very bright from the beginning. That fact was recognized by her father and, accordingly, her childhood experiences were not like those of other children because heavy expectations were put upon her to become one of the most influential intellectuals of America. Margaret did not fail at that. After the death of her father she took on the burden of supporting her mother and siblings; one reason for that was that she was the eldest child of the family. Another reason was her loyalty, sincerity, and self-giving nature for which she paid a heavy price throughout her whole life. More often than not she gave too much of herself to others and expected the same in return. But other people were not like her, and her expectations were rarely met by others. In that were included her family members, friends, lovers, and acquaintances, and that frustrated her a lot. A sense of adventure was part of her personality and that eventually took her to Europe. What happened there and the kind of experiences she had have been adequately described in this chapter. Margaret was full of paradoxes and that applied to her personality, life, and dealings with others, and they brought her both pain and pleasure.51 She was concerned about the rigidities and dualities in society and challenged them strongly. Included in those were gender, race, ethnicity, class, and national bias. She also favored universalities, and that applied to attitudes, behaviors, customs, traditions, and social order. Humanistic orientations in everything were also her preference, and she tried to bring

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these to the lives of other people. Justice and fairness in the human condition and in society were also her passions and she tried to contribute to that area too. Margaret was always frank and outspoken. Some people liked that and they became her ardent admirers. Other people did not like it and they became her opponents. Margaret also believed that life was divine, and it was to be spent usefully and in reverence. It had inner and outer dimensions, both of which needed to be cherished and developed. People were womanly, manly, and childlike at the same time, and that stand also shaped her own personally. Margaret tried to combine physical with spiritual, ordinary with intellectual, empathy with judgment, freedom with discipline, and thought with action. They, in her opinion, were to be the basis of individual and social consciousness and would lead to self-culture in people and in society. In these and many other respects, Margaret was a path setter for others and influenced many people, both during and after her lifetime. Like Mary Wollstonecraft of England, she contributed to the occurrence of the Woman’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848, and that fact was acknowledged by the organizers of the convention. Finally, Margaret was a feminist of the first order. She believed in the abilities of women and vouched for their personal, social, educational, occupational, and political rights. She warned women to be careful in their dealings with men and in their marriages, and not depend on them too much. She also advocated individual and social reforms at all levels of society and better living conditions for all people, including prostitutes, prisoners, and homeless people. She said that Native Americans were a part of the country’s heritage and deserved better treatment. She was also in favor of the abolition of slavery and expressed concern for the slaves. Margaret, indeed, was an exceptional woman and a true inspiration to many.52

CHAPTER EIGHT ELIZABETH CADY STANTON A REFORMER, ACTIVIST, ABOLITIONIST, FEMINIST, HISTORIAN, AND PHILOSOPHER

Introduction Elizabeth Cady Stanton stood tall as a nineteenth-century reformer, activist, abolitionist, feminist, historian, and philosopher. She was interested in other areas too and became a self-taught homeopathy doctor, counselor, youth guide, and midwife. She pursued these interests her whole life and felt satisfied at the end. Many other people recognized her accomplishments and commemorated her in different ways. She became an example and a role model for those who wanted to engage in similar reform and developmental activities. Her main interests were women’s issues, the abolition of slavery, temperance, and religious openness in churches, and for these causes, she devoted her whole life to bring in needed changes in society. In this chapter we focus on the life, endeavors, reform efforts, and contributions of Elizabeth. The lessons learned will be shared in the conclusion chapter.

Times and Issues Even though people still struggled with many problems and issues, the nineteenth century was an exciting time in America. People in the colonies had won their freedom from British rule and there was a new atmosphere of enthusiasm and hope in the country. People felt free and inspired, and they were eager to engage in new innovations and adventures. The industrial revolution had set forth many changes in society and the lives of people were changing fast. A sense of fairness and justice was on the rise and many reforms were being envisioned. In that environment of hope and

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excitement there were new expectations on the parts of women. They were anticipating that their lives would change for the better, and their problems and issues would be resolved. Accordingly, they were expecting more freedom, respect, dignity, and equality in society on a par with men. However, time passed and this did not happen. Thus, a struggle on their part became necessary in order to achieve their goals of fairness and justice in living and functioning. Temperance and abolition movements were already active and attention was being paid to them. Attention was also being paid to the needs and challenges of poor, needy, and insane people. Only the rights of women were not in the picture; the need for which had been well demonstrated by the struggles of several women during the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries.1 Thus began the women’s rights movement in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848, the main goal of which was to change the status, position, and responsibilities of women and bring them on a par with men. Elizabeth was one of the main organizers of that movement and it was one to which she devoted her total life. In addition, she also worked for other causes as will become clear in the sections to follow.2

Life of Elizabeth Elizabeth’s parents were Daniel Cady and Margaret Livingston who were married in 1801. Daniel was twenty-eight years old and Margaret was sixteen. Children followed in quick succession. There were ten in all but only six survived to adulthood. One of them was a boy, Eleazer, nine years older than Elizabeth, and his death at a young age would cause lot of distress in the family and change its functioning for all time to come. Elizabeth was born on November 12, 1815, in Johnstown, New York. Her older sisters were Tryphena and Harriet, and her younger sisters were Margaret and Katherine. The family’s religion was Old Calvinist Presbyterianism which they followed strictly. In it were the conceptions of predestination, the depravity of man, and the existence of hell and heaven. These conceptions would later impact Elizabeth a lot, to the point of making her almost insane. She also often dreamed of funerals where the priest recounted the sins and flaws of people, and she shivered alone on the staircase of her home with the hope that someone would come and comfort her. These circumstances made Elizabeth a morbid, introspective, and scared person from the inside, though on the outside she remained a warm, fun-loving, and witty person.3 Elizabeth’s father was the son of a farmer and had worked as a blacksmith. From that humble beginning he raised himself to be a

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prominent lawyer in New York and in 1847 he became a justice of the New York State Supreme Court. He also served in the New York Assembly and for one term in the United States House of Representatives. Elizabeth’s mother belonged to one of the most influential families of New York and was a lady of poise. Both parents were very conservative and, to their children, they emphasized duty, submission, order, self-control, and respect for their parents and elders. Time, in their view, was precious and was to be regimented. Showy and boisterous behaviors were undesirable. In terms of political orientation, Elizabeth’s father was a Federalist. He believed that opportunities to rise were there for everyone in society; they only had to make the effort to use them properly. Wealthy and powerful people were also to be responsible citizens and they were to keep their behaviors and actions in line with the best interests of society. Her mother believed that a woman’s place was at home. Boys were to be raised to do well in politics, business, or professions, and carry the family fortunes forward. Girls were to be trained in domestic chores appropriate to being good wives of the gentry.4 Sexual bias in favor of boys was strong in the family and, whenever there was an occasion, Elizabeth’s father used to tell her, “Oh, my daughter, it is a pity you were not a boy.” That, however, was not an unusual remark for the times as the phrase was repeated frequently by fathers, mothers, relatives, and friends all over the country. The reasons for that varied, but the consequences of it for girls were horrendous. Thus, the interests of boys were watched carefully in terms of their growth, development, and settling in life. But girls’ interests were ignored and they were assigned inferior chores at home and outside. Hurdles were placed in their paths to success and, accordingly, they rarely realized their full potential. This situation continued when girls became wives and mothers, and then entered old age. Elizabeth’s situation was no different, and she too was a victim of these conditions and circumstances.5

Early Influences Elizabeth was born and raised in Johnstown and, in addition to the family and religious circumstances, it was also a source of influence to her. It was a small conservative community where Calvinist values were noticeable all over and practiced at home and outside. Elizabeth and her sisters did not like this and they tried to find ways out of them. They also did not like their mother saying “no” to everything joyful and interesting. The training routine at home was elaborate, and Elizabeth and the sisters did not like this either. The courtroom and Judge Daniel Cady’s law office

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were near their home and Elizabeth visited both frequently, listening to the legal arguments there. Many lawyers visited her father’s office and discussed the problems and issues of their clients with him. Elizabeth listened to these arguments intently. Then, several interns were working under her father and he had allowed Elizabeth to have legal discussions with them. In her spare time, Elizabeth explored the stack of law books in her father’s office and was able to get answers from him to any questions. That way she acquired a good amount of legal knowledge and, later, indicated that much of her initial awareness of the discriminative practices against women came from these readings, consultations, and discussions with her father, his colleagues, and his students. A case in point was that of Flora Campbell who supplied farm produce to the family. She had purchased a farm with her money but her deceased husband had willed it to a provident son. Flora wanted to recover the farm, but Judge Cady told her that the law was against her as, at the time of marriage, a woman and her possessions became the property of the husband. After that she had no property rights and could not buy or sell property. Even children and the earned wages of the wife belonged to the husband. Women, in that regard, had no alternative legal recourse and could not sue their husbands in courts. They could also not testify against them. Corporal punishment could be expected if they did that. Elizabeth felt that the whole situation was very unfair to women and had to change. She also realized that the discrepancies against women were not merely in the law books, but also in the minds of people and in the customs and traditions of society. These circumstances also were to be attended to.6

Peterboro Another source of influence on Elizabeth’s personality was a small liberal town of about 1,000 inhabitants called Peterboro, in the state of New York.7 Elizabeth’s cousin, Gerrit Smith, lived there. Elizabeth and her family visited that place every year, even though it was several days journey by carriage from Johnstown. Elizabeth enjoyed the atmosphere there and felt free to do anything, like listening to music, playing games, engaging in merrymaking, and having fun with boys. The family sympathized with all sorts of oppressed people and suggested reforms ranging from religious benevolence to temperance to the abolition of slavery. All controversial topics could be freely discussed there, but the family had not yet paid much attention to women’s issues. The goal in all other cases was to study the problems and try to find the best possible solutions in order to serve humanity. The family also ran an “Underground

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Railroad”, and fugitive slaves needing assistance could be frequently seen there. Elizabeth felt very excited about this, and mentioned later that her initial awareness of many reform issues came from that place; these experiences were much different to the ones provided by Johnstown. Elizabeth also mentioned of Peter Teabout, a black servant in her family. He was like a buddy to her and used to take her to church. Both used to sit in the back seats instead of the front seats because of the color of Peter. Elizabeth also made a mention of Rev. Simon Hosack who encouraged her ambitions, taught her Greek, and was like a father figure to her when Judge Cady was away on long tours.8

A Tragedy Elizabeth’s elder brother, Eleazer, died in 1826, two months after graduating from Union College. Elizabeth was eleven years old at the time. Both her mother and father were overwhelmed with grief; particularly the father who, in desperation, used to throw himself on the grave of his son and lament. Elizabeth tried to console him in all possible ways, but he would always remark that he wished she was a boy and not a girl. That frustrated Elizabeth and she realized that, no matter what girls tried to do for the family, they were not likely to be treated on a par with the boys. She resolved then and there that she would accomplish all that her brother was expected to accomplish, and prove to all that girls were in no way inferior to boys.9

Early Education Elizabeth started attending Johnstown Academy with a class of boys and girls, and also started learning Greek and horse riding. She excelled at both and even won a prize in Greek. No college admitted girls at that time, therefore Elizabeth’s male classmates went to nearby Union College and she attended Emma Willard’s Female Seminary in Troy, New York, between 1830 and 1833. That seminary was a boarding school for girls and catered primarily to wealthy families. The subjects were music, French, and manners suitable for the domestic needs of women, but independence and self-reliance were also stressed. A teacher training program was available too. Another strong factor there was the preaching of Rev. Charles G. Finney. He was an Evangelist-Calvinist,and used vivid imagery to describe the sins of people and their damnation to hell if the prescribed norms were not followed. That scared Elizabeth and impacted her immensely. As a result, she developed neurotic fears and fell into a

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deep depression. She almost went insane and would not have recovered if the family had not helped her. Elizabeth did not appreciate that kind of religious teaching and never went back to an organized religion. She was also critical of the church’s sexual and segregationist policies: she felt that religion ought to unite people and should be fair and just to all. Coeducation of boys and girls was a preference of hers, and she felt that the practice was healthy for both sexes. Sexual education was also important, and she felt that sexual topics ought to be addressed freely and openly. Later she also advocated the sexual liberation of women. Overall, she felt that the courses at the seminary could be more advanced and rigorous.10

On the Way to a Reformist Career After graduating from Emma Willard’s Female Seminary, Elizabeth fell back into to her normal routine which was suitable for wealthy upperclass women. She spent her time reading, horse riding, visiting friends and relatives, and occasionally helping with the house work. She also liked sleeping late. In 1839, she visited Peterboro and met an attractive young man called Henry Brewster Stanton. He was an abolitionist and an executive of the American Anti-Slavery Society. Earlier, he had worked as a government official and as a reporter in the Rochester area. He was a great conversationalist and Elizabeth felt very attracted to him even though he was ten years her senior. After a brief courtship he proposed to Elizabeth for marriage and, in a month’s time, the two were engaged. That did not sit well with Elizabeth’s family and they put pressure on her to break the engagement. The main reason was that Henry was an abolitionist. Under her family’s pressure Elizabeth initially broke the engagement, but then reconsidered her decision and revived it. She appreciated the fact that, like her father, Henry was also a self-made man and had supported his two brothers in their education. The marriage took place on May 11, 1840; it was hasty as Elizabeth had agreed to it only one day before. It was a simple wedding attended by a few friends and by Elizabeth’s sister, Margaret. The honeymoon was to be through several European cities, including London where a World Anti-Slavery Convention was to be held in June 1840. Henry was a delegate to it and was also to serve as its secretary. It so happened that upon reaching London, Henry and Elizabeth settled in the same boarding house where several female delegates of the American Anti-Slavery Society11 were also boarding. Among them were Ann Green Phillips, Lydia Maria Child, Angelina Grimke, Sarah Grimke, and Lucretia Mott. All the delegates took their meals together and Elizabeth happened to meet Lucretia Mott who

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was an ordained Quaker priest from Philadelphia, and was twenty years older than her. She was also an abolitionist and delivered sermons to mixed audiences of men and women about the abolition of slavery, equal rights for women, temperance, the openness of religion, and the removal of questionable dogmas and creeds in society. Elizabeth often sought her out and the two ladies talked about many social, religious, and political issues at length. Both also attended the convention, and what happened on the first day has been described at length in Chapter 1. It was decided there that, by a negative vote, the female delegates were debarred from participation in the proceedings of the convention and were made to sit separate from the male delegates. That had much agitated the female delegates and Lucretia and Elizabeth had decided to do something about the issue upon returning to America. But after returning, the two ladies became busy with their routines. Elizabeth was busy taking care of her three sons, born in quick succession, and other family affairs. She was also supporting her husband in his budding law career12, and his ambition to get elected to a political position. She, in addition, was studying theology, law, and history, as these pertained to women’s issues. From 1843 onward she was also attending temperance, peace, prison, and anti-slavery conventions in the area, and had collected signatures for the anti-slavery petitions. Lucretia, in the meantime, was busy with her speaking engagements and travels. She was also trying to mediate several factional issues within the Quaker organization. But the two ladies kept contact with each other with the thought that they would do something about the woman’s issues in the future.13

Personal Issues Elizabeth was already involved in the temperance movement and had made her first speech on the subject in 1842 in Johnstown. But she was still trying to discover herself in relation to the needed reforms. On one side were her ambitions to pursue these reforms, and on the other side were the ambitions of her husband for a lofty legal and political career. Accordingly, she did not want to do anything controversial locally which might spoil his chances, such as making sharp comparisons between slavery and woman’s issues, or developing close associations with the abolitionists. Away from home, however, she felt more free and kept on providing help to the abolitionist and women’s causes through signature campaigns and the circulation of petitions.14 In 1847, Henry and Elizabeth moved from Boston to Seneca Falls, New York, mainly due to Henry’s poor health. There were other reasons

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such as the inability of Henry to win an elected position after several attempts15 and his dissatisfaction with his law partner. Henry was happy in Seneca Falls, but Elizabeth was not. She missed the big city environment and complained about almost everything at home, in the neighborhood, in the community, and about the small-town environment which she said was insufficient for her personal and social needs. Henry was also set in his ways and Elizabeth resented that. He, as a man, could move around and travel at will, while she remained stuck with managing home affairs and fulfilling other duties as a wife, mother, cook, nurse, and more. That was a source of frustration to her. There were other reasons for Elizabeth’s frustration and she felt that Henry paid less attention to her at a time when she wanted more attention. She also wanted a more lavish living which Henry’s limited income could not afford. Henry’s views on slavery and woman’s issues were also strong and, at times, clashed with Elizabeth’s views. The sexual life of the couple was not entirely satisfactory, and Elizabeth complained about women not having control over the birth of children. Later she would advocate more sexual freedom for women and the greater availability to them of birth control methods. Divorce laws also had to be more liberal for Elizabeth. Henry, on the other hand, was not an entirely unsatisfactory husband. To his credit, he was very understanding of Elizabeth and had let her make changes in the marriage vows, keep her last name, and was supportive of her reform activities. He also helped Elizabeth in the drafting of the Seneca Falls resolutions and, as a New York state senator, helped the introduction of several petitions favoring women’s rights. He also remained understanding of Elizabeth when she was away from home for long periods on her speaking tours. However, tensions between the couple were continuous, and they kept on creeping up in their personal and reformist lives.16

Woman’s Rights Struggle As indicated before, the struggle for women’s rights formally began with the convention in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 (see: Chapter 1 and Appendix A), and the two main catalysts of that convention were Elizabeth and Lucretia Mott. Lucretia’s sister, Martha Wright, lived in Auburn, down the road from Seneca Falls, and a large community of Quakers lived in the nearby town of Waterloo. Lucretia used to visit her sister every year and also attended a regional meeting of the Quakers in Waterloo. In 1848, Martha informed Elizabeth of her sister’s imminent visit and she invited Elizabeth to be there for a day. Jane Hunt and Mary McClintock were also there. By then, eight years had passed since the

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World Anti-Slavery Convention in London and not much had been done by way of bringing the promised equality between women and men. The five ladies discussed this matter and decided to hold a women’s rights convention the same year. That convention was held over two days in the Wesleyan Chapel in Seneca Falls in July. About 300 people attended the convention; among them were members of the Quaker community in Waterloo, members of the Rochester reform community, some aggrieved women factory workers, and some curious town people. Personalities like Frederick Douglas and James Mott were also there, with James Mott chairing the convention. A statement of eighteen grievances entitled “The Declaration of Sentiments” was read there; it was drafted by Elizabeth and others and was modeled after the earlier “The Declaration of Independence”. Several resolutions were also passed. These resolutions included some of the feminist fundamentals suggested in such works as Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women, de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex, de Gouges’s Declaration of the Rights of Women and of the Citizen, Sarah Girmke’s Letters on the Equality of Sexes, and Margaret Fuller’s Woman in the Nineteenth Century. Among the issues presented at the convention were the lack of rights of married women to own property,17 the inability of women to keep their own earnings from jobs, taxation of women without representation, the lack of rights for women to keep children in cases of divorce, unequal divorce laws that favored men, the inability of women to testify in courts against their husbands, the lack of rights of women to vote, lesser wages for women doing the same jobs, double sex standards, the lack of access for women to higher education,18 and the nonavailability of professional opportunities to women except in areas like teaching and writing. Other issues highlighted at the convention were the unequal rights of women in trades, political affairs, and religious activities, the lack of rights for women to enter into contracts on their own, the lack of rights of women to sue and be sued, the lack of rights of women to serve as witnesses in courts, inequality in marriage, and the lack of personal freedom of women on a par with men.19 At the start, Lucretia explained the purpose of the convention to the attendees, and the first day was filled with speeches. On the second day, Elizabeth read “The Declaration of Sentiments” which partly stated, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men and women are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” The Declaration also pointed out that “The history of mankind is a history of repeated injustices and usurpations on the part of man toward woman, having a direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over her.

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To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world.”20 After these opening remarks, demands were presented and resolutions were passed to suggest the removal of the grievances and were aimed at ushering in equality between men and women. One demand was about women’s right to vote which was controversial at the time. Even Elizabeth’s husband, Henry, was against that demand, and Lucretia and some other ladies were also hesitant to bring it forth. Lucretia pointed out that the business and political worlds belonged to men. Accordingly, the resolution would appear outlandish to most people and would make them look ridiculous. But Elizabeth, Susan B. Anthony, and several other ladies insisted that the right to vote was fundamental to the gaining of the equality of women with men, though at the time it appeared radical like the earlier suggestions for birth control and reforms in divorce laws. The speeches and the passed resolutions mostly blamed men for the problems and issues of women and for keeping them ignorant and uneducated. For example, it was stated that “he has endeavored, in every way that he could, to destroy her confidence in her own power, to lessen her self-respect, and make her willing to lead a dependent and abject life.” 21 Accordingly, pleas were made for changing that pattern and ending all the repressive and discriminative practices which held women back. Toward the end of the convention it was declared that a speedy success for gaining women’s rights needed a zealous and untiring effort, where men’s cooperation was also welcome. The overall reaction to the convention and the passed resolutions was negative on the parts of the press, the authorities, and a large part of the public. Only the North Star and a few other liberal magazines came out on the side of women and supported their stand through editorials. But still the convention was a historical moment for women, and a start of their long struggle to resolve the problems and issues in times to come. It should also be noted that if the Woman’s Rights Convention had not taken place in Seneca Falls it would have soon occurred somewhere else, like in Ohio or in Massachusetts, where the conditions were becoming ripe and some kind of similar activity was being planned. But the fact remains that Seneca Falls was the place where the first women’s rights convention was held and “The Declaration of Sentiments” was read, which was a powerful statement of the problems and issues of women. After that event a wave of feminist activities started all over America, but still the Seneca Falls convention was the one which got the most attention of the public and the authorities when compared to all the subsequent events related to the women’s rights struggle. It was also the event which marked the start of Elizabeth’s reformist career in a major way.22

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Following On Earlier, testimonies had been presented before the governmental and non-governmental bodies on issues like temperance, slavery, mental illness, and poverty, but the Seneca Falls convention was the one where women themselves presented their problems and issues, and in a public setting. The sought solutions were daring and were expressed in a forceful manner. Once that happened the earlier silence of women was broken and the paths were now clear for similar future efforts relating to the problems and issues of women. No other event had done that before with so much force and conviction. Accordingly, the participating women felt satisfied with their efforts, and the event also brought out the biases of the government, the church, the press, and the public against women’s problems and issues. The convention gave the participating women a chance to organize themselves, resulting in confidence for other similar activities in the future. Thus, a new chapter was being written by the participating women in the history of America which was still dominated by men.23 To achieve the stated goals of the Seneca Falls convention, another convention was held in Rochester, New York, within a month on August 2, 1848. That convention also turned out to be a success, and thereafter women’s rights conventions became an annual feature. Similar conventions were also envisioned at the state and other levels. Elizabeth was now feeling that the tide was turning in favor of women and she felt elacted with that thought. Her earlier depression had gone and her energy was slowly returning. It did no longer bothered her that she and the children attended the Episcopal Church whereas Henry attended Presbyterian Church. Her doubts about religion were still there but she was not processing them anymore and had moved on to “religious liberalism.” Some other factors still bothered her, such as Henry’s long absences from home, pressures coming from family members in Johnstown, and the burden of raising children without outside help. These factors did restrict her full participation in the reform efforts, but she was now also considering other reform issues like the balanced development of youth. Accordingly, in her barn she opened a gymnasium for the neighborhood children to exercise and play there. She opened her house to other people for fun and gossip, and the generation of reform ideas. She also started a conversation group24 where men and women could converse together by taking turns in each other’s homes. The topics were varied and not necessarily woman’s problems and issues. Music and dancing were also part of these meetings. Elizabeth counseled troubled youths and older

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people, taught herself herbal and homeopathic treatments, solved medical issues of others, and gave financial, legal, personal, and marital help to women who faced problems. She even helped to deliver babies and suggested better child rearing methods where permissiveness took the place of excessive authority, discipline, and the fear of God. Children were encouraged to stay away from guilt and anxiety, and develop selfconfidence, self-reflection, self-discipline, self-reliance, self-sufficiency, and independence. Even with all that, Elizabeth still remained active with women’s problems and issues and wrote articles on the subject in newspapers and magazines. She spoke at churches and lyceums, helped people write petitions, lent her name to announcements of different events, and refused to pay taxes without representation. She also continued to fight against slavery, excessive drinking, and other social evils which bore on the lives of women and their families. Elizabeth did all that while also playing the roles of a wife, mother, writer, and leader.25

Co-workers While working on women’s and anti-slavery causes, Elizabeth attracted several close co-workers. Lucretia Mott was one of them, and the other three significant ones were Lucy Stone, Antoinette Brown, and Susan B. Anthony. Lucy and Antoinette were graduates of Oberlin College and were great speakers and leaders. Antoinette was also an ordained minister. Susan was a resident of Rochester, New York, and was five years younger than Elizabeth. She was the daughter of a farmer and had worked as a school teacher for fifteen years. But she had quit her teaching career in order to help her father and to contribute to the temperance cause. She also had anti-slavery ambitions and noticed that Friends in her town did not pay the needed respect to blacks. She wrote: “The people about here are antiabolitionist and anti-everything else that is good…What a lack of Christianity is this!”26 Susan was also interested in freedom and fairness for all, in the work and wage issues of women, and in their other problems. She was introduced to Elizabeth in early 1851, on a street corner, by Amelia Bloomer, the publisher of a new woman’s temperance journal called The Lily.27 At that time Elizabeth was preoccupied with other thoughts and did not pay much attention to her. Later the same year, however, Lucy, Susan, Elizabeth, and some other ladies happened to meet at Elizabeth’s home to discuss starting a new progressive college in the area. That plan did not work but, in the process, Elizabeth did gain a close friendship with Susan which lasted close to half a century.28

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Women’s Temperance Society After the Seneca Falls convention, Elizabeth only attended other conventions in nearby areas but kept on supporting the women’s rights conventions through open letters and other means. The impacts, however, were not the same, and the women’s rights movement seemed to be slowing down. Elizabeth tried to build an alliance with the local temperance forces in the hope that they would also take an interest in women’s issues. But that plan did not work. Women were now paying more attention to less controversial issues, like temperance; an issue in which men had been active since the 1820s but women only came on board later because they thought that it was mainly a “male issue” to be dealt with by men only. Elizabeth, however, pointed out that this was not so and the issue concerned all men, women, and families. Accordingly, comprehensive solutions were needed to handle the problem and all-round changes were required.29 In 1852, the New York Men’s State Temperance Society was going to hold its annual meeting in Albany with delegates invited from various women’s organizations. However, just as in the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, they were only given “observer” status and were not allowed to take part in the proceedings of the meeting. Outraged at this, Susan tried to speak on the floor but she was declared out of order and hushed down. Susan then suggested to other female delegates that they should form a separate women’s temperance society, but only a few delegates liked the idea and others were not in favor of it. At that, Susan left the meeting along with her supporters. In April 1852, however, the idea of a separate women’s temperance society came back when Susan, Elizabeth, Lucy Stone, Lucretia Mott, Martha Wright, Ernestine Rose, and some other ladies, met in Rochester and founded the New York Women’s Temperance Society. Elizabeth was elected as its president, and Susan as its secretary. Elizabeth was aware that the membership of the society consisted of liberal as well as conservative ladies. Therefore, in her first presidential speech she tried to connect with both and recommended only modest changes like religious benevolence toward poor and needy people, which also included oppressed women. That, she said, was more important than sending bibles and missionaries to the heathens. But, in her speech she also recommended the ending of prostitution, the removing of ills in marriage, the elimination of the dependence of women on men, the removal of the barriers of false socialization, customs, and habits obstructing women, and attending to other issues of women’s rights. Marital relationships between men and women were to improve and

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divorce was to be allowed in difficult situations, such as excessive drunkenness of the husbands. In that regard, she remarked that “no woman should remain in the relationship of a wife with a confirmed drunkard.” Earlier, divorce had been allowed in cases of desertion and extreme cruelty, but divorce for excessive drunkenness of husbands was an unthinkable idea to many women. Even Antoinette and some other ladies were opposed to the suggestion. Elizabeth, in her speech, also attacked child custody laws and urged women with property to not pay taxes without representation. Later, in 1856 and 1860, she would also point out “how could women endure a marriage where their health and happiness were at risk” and “marriage was for mutual happiness and women did not have to sacrifice all to be good wives and mothers.”30 In the 1853 election of the New York Women’s Temperance Society, Elizabeth was defeated for the position of president and it frustrated her a lot. From thereon she decided to work with the radical forces only. Things were also not going well with the women’s rights movement. However, Elizabeth tried to keep her spirits up and, in 1854, addressed the Joint Judiciary Committee, and then, in 1860, spoke before the joint session of the legislature on women’s issues. During that period. petitions were also submitted to the legislature which resulted, in 1860, in the allowing of married women the right to keep their own earnings and have equal custody of their children with their husbands. In 1854, a women’s rights organization had been formed which met in Albany each year and coordinated with the legislative sessions of the New York State Legislature.31

Advocacy Tour Not satisfied with the progress of the women’s rights movement, Elizabeth embarked on an extensive advocacy tour in 1861; her main concerns were the laws relating to marriage and divorce, and woman’s issues versus slavery issues. Elizabeth started suggesting that instead of treating marriage as sacred and inviolable it should be taken as a civil contract; easily dissolvable with the consent of concerned parties. So far, desertion, cruelty, and in some cases adultery and alcoholism, were permissible grounds for divorce. Therefore, the idea of divorce for other reasons, as suggested by Elizabeth, was seen as very radical and unacceptable, even to personalities like Antoinette Brown, Lucy Stone, Wendell Phillips, and William Lloyd Garrison. Accordingly, it created lot of controversy among men as well as women, and was defeated when introduced in the form of a resolution in the Tenth National Woman’s

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Rights Convention. The other point of contention was whether anti-slavery and women’s causes were similar and could be pursued in unison, whether these different, and therefore needed separated campaigns. Elizabeth and Susan were of the opinion that the circumstances of slaves and women were similar as both had been oppressed for long and both had a right to be free from these conditions. Most abolitionists, and some women, disagreed with that idea and argued that the circumstances of slaves were more severe and ought to be dealt with first as a priority. They were suggesting that it was “Negro’s hour” now, and the women’s struggle could certainly wait for a while.32

Feminist Thinking Elizabeth’s feminist thinking came from her personal circumstances, her observations of the conditions around her, and her reading of some feminist works which have been mentioned earlier. In turn, she conveyed her own thinking to others in her speeches, presentations, and writings, especially in History of Woman’s Suffrage, The Woman’s Bible, Eighty Years and More: Reminiscences, and other articles and letters.33 Foremost to Elizabeth was the idea that women’s issues were more grave and pressing than those pertaining to slavery and she wrote, “the prejudice against sex is more deeply rooted and more unreasonably maintained than that against color.”34 Central issues for her were the attitudes of men and women toward women, marriage and divorce laws, customs and conditions that obstructed women, and the education of women. She frequently touched upon these topics in her speeches, writings, and letters, and recommended changes. The voting rights of women was another important concern of hers.35 During the 1860s, Elizabeth started suggesting that women were morally superior to men and were more capable in handling tasks and issues. The differences between men and women, she said, were due to cultural conditioning and, in her support, she cited the examples of Tarter, Croatian, and Wallachian women from earlier times who had exceeded men in most areas. She also pointed out that there was no justification for differentiation between men and women, or in denying freedoms and rights to them that were available to men. “Aristocracy of Sex” was another conception offered by Elizabeth and meant that the aristocracy enjoyed by men was based solely on the sex factor; this was more damaging to women than all other hierarchies based on race, ethnicity, family, class, color, and wealth. It gave men a sense of superiority and domination over women. It also created many disruptive practices against

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women in social, political, religious, and legal realms, and these practices persisted generation after generation. The impacted areas were work, wages, dealings, status, and interactions of women in society. Wifebeating, rape, prostitution, and poverty of women were also the results of these disruptive practices and so women were demeaned, depreciated, and made objects of men’s lust. Reforms were needed in all these areas through individual and collective efforts; also important were contemplation, self-knowledge, moral uplifting, balancing of rights and responsibilities, and the equality of law. State, society, customs, and traditions were to change as “we are all what law, custom, and public sentiment have made us” and “it is not in conventions… that our best work begins, the radical reform must start in our homes, in our nurseries, and in ourselves.”36 Elizabeth was critical of the religious and political systems and suggested that they had not handled the problems of temperance, slavery, and women’s issues properly. Accordingly, people were to take these issues in hand; an early awareness of them was a key factor, when the young were still pliable and their minds were not yet corrupted. Coeducation was an important factor where boys and girl engaged in similar tasks, learned mutual respect, and developed relationships based on a sense of equality. The full equality of men and women was to occur and, in her speech before the judiciary committee of the New York State Legislature in 1854, Elizabeth expressed surprise that the body which was committed to democracy let the “aristocracy of sex” prevail, flourish, and bring upon women oppression and the status of slaves. It also allowed husbands to beat their wives, drag them into courts, and humiliate them in other ways. Only later did Elizabeth realize that men and women were different too, and their relationship could also be complimentary.37 In 1860, Susan accepted a job from William Lloyd Garrison to promote an anti-slavery sentiment in New York State and asked Elizabeth to join her. She did, and from there on the two were taken as Garrisonians. But Elizabeth’s primary concern remained women’s issues, and she was convinced that marriage, family, and education were central to women’s welfare and to the overall progress of the human race. She stated that property laws might be changed and voting rights might be attained, but this would not mean much if marriage and family were not transformed.38 Also, marriage had to be fulfilling to both men and women and unsuccessful unions should be dissolved. For that, divorce laws must be changed. Women also had to become more enlightened, and their attitudes and perceptions should change.39

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Civil War The Civil War in America started in 1861 and lasted until 1865. The South had a pro-slavery stance and it was pitched against the North which wanted to get rid of slavery. The majority of men joined one of the two armies so women took over their jobs to fill the gaps in functioning. In addition, they also established service organizations and raised funds for the war effort. The whole country was focused on the war effort and therefore women’s problems and issues receded into the background. The recommendations were that women should slow down their campaign, and even abandon some activities for the time-being, in order to focus exclusively on the needs of the nation during that critical hour. Such suggestions were particularly coming from conservative men who were heading the war efforts. The result of that was that women’s activities tapered off and many women’s organizations were disbanded. The price to the women’s cause proved to be heavy because, once slowed down, it was difficult to gain the same momentum again. This situation also gave the conservatives more time to push back some of the gains already made by women. An example of this was the rescinding of several provisions of the 1860 Married Women’s Property Act by the New York State Legislature. Elizabeth and Susan were aware of the situation and, between 1863 and 1869, they tried to put the women’s rights movement back on track. In the meantime, in 1863 they created the Women's National Loyal League, in 1866 the American Equal Rights Association, in 1868 the Working Women’s Association, and in 1869 the National Woman Suffrage Association. But the momentum for the women’s rights movement was not returning as the focus of the public was now on the recovery effort and the reconstruction of the nation. Elizabeth and Susan pleaded that the gaining of women’s rights was also important and needed to be pursued along with other reconstruction projects. But not even all the activists agreed with that suggestion and there were differences of opinion. Even earlier, Susan and Elizabeth had differences regarding the slowing down of the women’s rights activities. Susan was against it, but Elizabeth thought otherwise, only to realize later that her friend’s stance was correct. There were other differences of opinion between Susan and Elizabeth; Susan wanted focused work on the voting rights of women, but Elizabeth was more in favor of overall transformations in the situation, which included the gaining of voting rights for women. Nevertheless, both ladies were under the impression that once black men’s rights were achieved then women would gain similar rights. For that reason, they remained in alliance with the anti-slavery cause and collected signatures statewide to

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promote it. But they were wrong as the abolitionists and the Republicans did not stay loyal to the women’s cause.40

Voting Rights In 1854 Elizabeth had advocated for voting rights for women before the New York legislature pointing out that “We have every qualification required by the Constitution, necessary to the legal voter, but the one of sex: we are moral, virtuous, and intelligent, and in all respects quite equal to the proud white man himself, and yet by your laws are classed with idiots, lunatics, and negroes.”41 However, that plea of Elizabeth fell on deaf years. In 1865, the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution was being drafted and it aimed to provide more civil and political rights to black males, including their voting rights. Elizabeth and Susan pleaded to the legislature that the term “male” be removed from the draft so that provisions of the amendment could apply to all; males and females alike. That did not happen and it was suggested that anti-slavery issues and women’s issues were different and so had to be dealt with separately. Some legislatures also suggested that women were not oppressed at all, and these were only a few notorious women who were bent on making women’s rights an issue. Still others suggested that the political platform was no place for intelligent and refined women, who already had substantial moral power over men, to suggest issues like that. The voting rights of women, they said, would bear negatively on marital relations between husbands and wives, and also make family life a hell. The sanctions from God, they said, had made man and woman one, and there was no need for separate voting rights for women. Elizabeth and Susan, however, kept the cause of woman’s suffrage tied to black males’ suffrage with the hope that the favor would be reciprocated to women. But that strategy did not work either. In 1867, therefore, Elizabeth and Susan turned to the New York State Constitutional Convention to plead for women’s voting rights, but that convention also refused to entertain the issue.42 In 1867, the legislature of Kansas passed two amendments; one enfranchising women, and the other enfranchising black males. Both of these measures needed ratifications by the voters. Elizabeth and Susan enlisted the help of Lucy Stone and her husband to attain a positive outcome, and they widely campaigned throughout the state until May 1867. By August 1867, however, the situation had changed as Republicans felt that ratifications of both the measures was unlikely, and they opted for the enfranchisement of black males. Elizabeth and Susan continued to

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campaign; Susan in the role of an organizer and Elizabeth in the role of a speaker. Both were feeling exhausted and they decided to take the help of a shady character, George Francis Train, who was an investor and had presidential aspirations of own. He was sympathetic to the women’s cause, but had questionable attitudes toward blacks, farmers, and frontier men. He started financing Elizabeth’s and Susan’s travels, and also gave them the opportunity to advertise women’s causes in his journal. Many coworkers of Elizabeth and Susan did not appreciate that and cooled down their relations with them.43 In the meantime, a magazine named The Revolution appeared in 1868 and it became another means of promoting the women’s cause. That magazine was largely financed by Train. Elizabeth and Parker Pillsbury were the co-editors of the magazine, and Susan was its administrator and financial officer. The magazine brought to light various issues faced by women and advocated for their voting rights. Reports were also made on topics like prostitution, rape, wife-beating, infanticide, and discriminative practices against women. Sex education and the reproductive rights of women were also topics. The price of the magazine was kept low so that its circulation would be wide but, in spite of that, the readership remained low in numbers as the topics covered were not very interesting to the public; so the overall impact of the magazine on the women’s rights movement stayed small. The acceptance of advertising in it was on a selective basis. Accordingly, the magazine soon started facing financial difficulties and was discontinued in 1872, after Train withdrew his financial support to it in 1870. The heavy debt left was slowly paid by Susan from her own personal resources.44

Continuing On Women’s suffrage associations existed in many parts of the country, but during the Civil War they had fallen into disarray. Elizabeth and Susan tried hard to mend that situation, and also established the Woman’s Suffrage Association of America in July 1868. Elizabeth and Susan had earlier worked closely with the anti-slavery organizations and had mentioned the plight of women, and women workers, in their conventions. But these organizations had done nothing about it and had not actively recruited women workers for their campaigns. In 1868, therefore, Elizabeth and Susan established the Working Women’s Association. The intention was to establish similar associations in different trades and industries and draw from that pool of working women for the reform efforts, including the gaining of voting rights for women. Elizabeth and

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Susan also wanted to establish a People’s Party in addition to the already existing National Labor Union which had been established in 1866. But that plan did not work as conceived. The National Labor Union refused to lend its support to the Working Women’s Association, and women workers were more interested in their specific issues of higher wages, shorter hours, better work conditions, and more job security. They were also afraid of their supervisors, who were mostly male, and did not want to alienate them for any reason. Some women’s jobs were seasonal and that too was a factor in their not lending support to the Working Women’s Association. Thus, even after promising to join the Working Women’s Association, many women workers ended up joining the male-dominated unions. All that was enough to bring about the demise of the Working Women’s Association.45

Organizational Split Differences existed in the opinions of the participating women in the women’s rights movement, and that was also true of Elizabeth and Susan. Elizabeth had the mind of a philosopher, and her leanings were more toward the generation of new ideas and giving them a written expression. Susan, on the other hand, had a more practical mind and was more prone to implementing the ideas and taking care of their details. Elizabeth was also interested in issues like women’s sexuality, the better raising of children, the health of the newborn babies, the availability of contraceptives to women, more abortion clinics, and a greater restraint by women on their sexual desires. For Susan, all these goals were extraneous to the women’s rights movement, and she felt that these issues needed to be dealt with separately. Thus, there was a clash between Elizabeth and Susan, but in overall terms the two ladies agreed on the issues faced by women and the strategies to deal with them. Starting in the late 1860s, however, the differences between Elizabeth and Susan magnified. The reasons for this were the discontinuation of The Revolution magazine and the shifting of its debt burden to Susan alone, the demise of the Working Women’s Association, and the less than glaring success of the women’s rights movement so far. Susan was suggesting that a single goal of the women’s rights movement ought to be achieving voting rights for women. Once these were achieved, she said, most other problems and issues of women would resolve themselves. But Elizabeth was insisting that all matters relating to women’s problems and issues should be pursued, and the strategies and transformations should be comprehensive. More female reformers tended to agree with Susan. That cut into the popularity and

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power of Elizabeth and she felt alienated. From thereon she started taking less interest in the activities of the women’s rights movement.46 The strategies so far for gaining suffrage and other rights of women were: 1) to present petitions to the legislature to include women’s issues in its platforms, 2) to bring a Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on women’s suffrage before Congress,47 3) to shift the lobbying place from New York to Washington D.C. in order to be closer to the legislature, and 4) to hold the women’s rights conventions in January to coincide with the congressional sessions. Elizabeth and Susan were working hard on the suffrage issue, but Elizabeth was also being increasingly criticized by others for her radical views and approaches. In May 1869, the National Equal Rights Association met in New York City for its annual meeting and Elizabeth and Susan were in attendance. There, both ladies criticized the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution because it did not include any women’s issues. Abolitionists at the meeting did not like that as, for them, the anti-slavery issue was top priority. Accordingly, they thought that Elizabeth’s and Susan’s criticism of the Fifteenth Amendment was inappropriate and was counterproductive to their efforts. They were also aware of Elizabeth’s radical views on issues like free love, birth control, easy divorce, and the total sovereignty of women, which they thought were a handicap in winning both the antislavery and the women’s rights causes. Thus, they asked Elizabeth and Susan to leave the meeting. At that, without any further ado, Elizabeth and Susan decided to form their own National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and in response Lucy Stone and other ladies formed a rival organization named American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). These two associations worked independently for the next twenty-one years, NWSA more at the federal level and AWSA more at the state level. Ultimately, these associations united again in 1890, overcoming both the personalities and the political barriers to the union.48

1870s and 1880s The 1870s and 1880s were testing times for Elizabeth. Her energies were getting low but still she continued to deliver her messages to the public on different subjects, emphasizing the need for a conscientious stand on women’s issues. Traveling was getting harder for her, but she persevered and even talked to passers-by and passengers en route to her destinations about the reforms needed to deal with the situation of women. She also spoke at churches, lyceums, and other public platforms on topics like sexual life, sexual liberation, birth control, healthy maternity, satisfying

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motherhood, the good raising of children, harmonious home life, easy divorce, co-education, self-control by women, equality of the sexes, and the elimination of prostitution. The presidential election was to be held in 1872, with the candidates being the incumbent Ulysses S. Grant and the challenger Horace Greely. The Republican platform had favorably mentioned women’s issues and Susan, Lucy Stone, and her husband were trying to support Grant in his effort for reelection. They approached Elizabeth and asked her to do the same. Elizabeth was not crazy about either of the candidates, and yet she agreed to canvass for Grant in the hope that it may result in the reunion of the two rival suffrage associations. That, however, did not happen.49 In the meanwhile, things were slowing down for NWSA. Victoria Woodhull, a radical who supported the woman’s cause, suggested that the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had already granted voting rights to women without referencing sex. Therefore, there should be no need for a Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and all women had to do was to register and vote. Susan took this opinion of Woodhull seriously, registered, and voted. But her action was declared a violation of the law and she was brought to trial, found guilty, and fined. Prompted by Susan’s example some other women also did the same. They also registered, voted, and were found in violation of the law. These activities caused a lot of stir all over the nation and Susan became a celebrity overnight. However, Elizabeth’s response to Susan’s action was unenthusiastic and from that point onward she tried to keep herself away from any controversial activity.50 In 1876, centennial celebrations of the American Revolution were to be held in Philadelphia and events were being planned for it. Women’s issues were not included in these events and so NWSA decided to have its own demonstration in the downtown area, where they were also planning to celebrate the Fourth of July. Elizabeth, however, wrote a declaration for the centennial celebrations where she cited the discrepancies and injustices faced by women, and also decried their dependence on men which she indicated was a barrier to their growth and progress. Thus, she was urging women to become independent, enlightened, and support freedom and justice in all areas of living. Elizabeth and others tried to give that document to the centennial organizers for inclusion in the celebrations, but they refused to accept it. Thereafter Susan read the document outside the Independence Hall to a gathered crowd, and Elizabeth later read it to an indoor rally.51

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Sixteenth Amendment In 1875, the Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had not enfranchised women and, accordingly, the plan for the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution52 was revived and a new petition campaign was started. Senator Aaron Sargent of California promised that he would introduce the amendment to Congress once it was ready. Elizabeth wrote that amendment and, between 1876 and 1890, NWSA lobbied hard for its passage through Congress. Both Elizabeth and Susan were at the center of that effort; Elizabeth more from behind the scenes and Susan more in the forefront. From time to time, both ladies presented testimonies before the congressional committees and sent delegations to different professional gatherings and conventions to bring more awareness of women’s issues. But the desired result did not come forth. This discouraged Elizabeth and she became confused about the progress of the women’s rights movement. At times she took pride in her efforts and felt that the women’s rights movement had done a lot of good for women who were now getting into professions, had better social and legal rights, and were better off overall. But on other occasions she felt that not much had changed, and that women were still under the same bondages of their husbands, families, church, state, customs, and traditions. Elizabeth also noticed that the younger women in the women’s rights movement did not feel the same sense of urgency about the faced problems and issues, because they had not experienced similar circumstances to the older generation of women. Susan’s greater popularity in the women’s movement also bothered her, and she was feeling more and more uncomfortable about that too. Then there were other factors. Elizabeth wanted comprehensive solutions to women’s problems and issues, but others seemed satisfied with partial and more immediate solutions. The situational environment was changing and the conservative wave was on the rise, causing women’s issues to recede into the background. Public apathy about women’s issues was also increasing. Labor unions were on the decline and business leaders were taking control of important positions in society. Congress and the courts were ruling against the rights of minorities and stricter moral standards were being suggested for them. Moderate women’s organizations, like the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and the New York City’s Sorosis, were on the rise; they seemed to be less interested in women’s problems and issues and more in the post-war building projects. With all that Elizabeth was feeling sad and, in 1892, she resigned from the presidency of NWSA to focus more on other interests.53

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Literary Efforts During the later stages of her life, the most satisfying endeavors for Elizabeth were her literary writings. Earlier she had penned The Declaration of Sentiments and several other pieces which were relevant to women’s problems and issues. Then there were her many letters, declarations, and presentations before Congress and other bodies between 1848 and 1880. Now she wanted to engage in further writing and included in her plan was a History of Woman Suffrage which she finished in the 1880s in three volumes; later her friends expanded that to six volumes. There was also The Woman’s Bible in two volumes, an autobiography entitled Eighty Years and More: Reminiscences 1815-1897, and Solitude of Self.54 Both Elizabeth and Susan wanted to write a history of the women’s suffrage movement and, for that, Susan had been collecting information for quite some time. In 1876, Elizabeth began writing with the intent of producing a document of about one hundred pages highlighting only the significant points of the women’s suffrage struggle. But as more and more information became available it became clear that a one-hundred-page document would not suffice and a bigger document would be needed. That required more time, energy, and resources which, at that time, were not available. Therefore, the writing was suspended but the collection of information continued. In 1880, Elizabeth and Susan had more time available and so the idea of writing that work was revived. As always, Susan took the role of researcher and Elizabeth took the role of writer. To be more available to Elizabeth, Susan also started living in her home and the first volume of the work containing 871 pages came forth in seven months, in 1881. Later, two more volumes were completed and the set of three volumes presented the major points of the women’s suffrage struggle. The work also included brief histories of the NWSA, AWSA, and NAWSA. Thus, what started as a modest project became a huge one to which substantial resources were applied. Susan had invested $25,000 of her own money in the project and, later, she also bought out Elizabeth’s share of the investment so that the work could be distributed more freely to different organizations, libraries, influential people, and the public. Elizabeth stayed with the project until 1886, but Susan and other ladies continued on until the work had expanded to six volumes.55 Since 1878, Elizabeth had been seeking the cooperation of NWSA in condemning anti-feminism in the Bible and in the preaching of religious leaders. But that help had not come forth. In 1882, therefore, she started forming a committee of women scholars to help her write another version of the Bible, and for that she even devised a grace which went like this,

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“Heavenly Father and Mother, make us thankful for all the blessings of this life and ever mindful of the patient hands that oft in weariness set our tables and prepared our food. For humanity’s sake. Amen.”56 But the fervor at that time was in favor of traditional Christianity and even earlier dissidents were coming back into its fold. Elizabeth felt that there was no basis for anti-feminism as it appeared in the Bible and in the preaching of the clergy. She also felt that it was unfair for the clergy to have so much swaying power over the lives of people. New Christian organizations, like Sunday Schools and YMCAs, were appearing and they gave the clergy some additional power and sway. Christian sects, except Protestants, Unitarians, Universalists, and Liberal Quakers, were resisting paying attention to women’s issues and their equal participation in the social and religious realms of society. Thus, Elizabeth felt that the church was more responsible for the oppression of women and for their unequal status with men than the state or the political system. Accordingly, she wanted to attack the church. In 1885 she wrote, “What power is it that makes the Hindu woman burn herself on the funeral pyre of her husband? Her religion. What holds the Turkish woman in the Harem? Her religion. By what power do the Mormons perpetuate their system of polygamy? By their religion. Man, of himself, could not do this: but when he declares, ‘Thus said the Lord,’ of course he can do it. So long as ministers stand up and tell us that as Christ is the head of the church, so is man the head of the woman, how are we to break the chains which have held women down through the ages?”57 Other members of the women’s rights movement were not in favor of Elizabeth’s plan to write a new version of the Bible, and Susan thought that Elizabeth was not thinking right. She recalled how earlier attacks on the church and the clergy had harmed the anti-slavery movement, and the same could happen to the women’s rights movement. Moreover, she felt that the approach would alienate religious women who were in favor of the woman’s cause but also supported the church and the clergy wholeheartedly. Some ladies, like Matilda Jocelyn Gage and Clara Berwick Colby, did not agree with the arguments of Susan and felt that a female version of the Bible was needed to guide women in their mission, particularly those who desired to preach.58 For a new version of the Bible considerable resources, time, and support were needed, and also needed was a knowledge of Hebrew and Greek which was hard to find. Accordingly, the goal of the work was kept humble and consisted of critical commentaries on those portions of the Bible that related to the conditions and circumstances of women. A committee of twenty-five women was established and the work began in 1895. Most of the writing was done by Elizabeth and, instead of a

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scholarly approach, she adopted a socio-political approach to keep the work appealing to public. The work indicated that the scriptures and the Old Testament were a narration of the history and the theology of the Jewish people. Jesus was a great radical of the time but was not divine, and his mother was not a virgin. Men and women depicted in the Bible were of the worst kind and represented bad traits in human nature, and the Hebrew nation supported wars, violence, corruption, rapine, and lust. Its God was a jealous and vengeful one. Masculinity in the Bible was of the repellent kind and women were treated as chattels of their fathers and husbands, just like women in the nineteenth century. They, too, lacked independence and raised funds for male charities. Polygamy and prostitution also prevailed at the time and, accordingly, the Bible was not an exemplary book to follow or use as a guide for social reform. In view of all that content of the work, it was understandable that The Woman’s Bible was not received positively by the church, the clergy, and the public. Even Elizabeth’s own organization, NAWSA, refused to own the work. All that discouraged Elizabeth and she decided to go back to her earlier interests, like the issues of marriage, divorce, co-education, suffrage, penal code revisions, and prison reforms. Poverty, class relations, growing social and economic dislocations, wealth disparities, strikes, and disorder in society also remained concerns to be pursued by her, the reformers, and the public.59

Final Efforts The final efforts on the parts of Elizabeth and Susan related to the founding of an international women’s organization to promote the women’s cause. In 1882, after finishing the second volume of History of Woman Suffrage, Elizabeth paid a visit to Europe to see her two children, Theodore and Harriot, and Susan joined her there in 1883. Together they discussed the idea of pursuing women’s issues on an international level by forming an international women’s organization. A planning committee for that was established before Elizabeth and Susan headed back to America, but things did not move forward for a number of years. In 1888, the Fortieth Anniversary of the Seneca Falls Convention was to be celebrated and the unity of the women’s suffrage movement was to be displayed.60 Feminists from many countries attended that event and included in them were those from England, France, Norway, Denmark, Finland, and India. Representatives from American women’s organizations were also there, like Jane Cunningham Croly from Sorosis, Frances Willard from WCTU, and Leonora Barry from Knights of Labor. The circumstances were perfect

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to once again discuss the formation of an international body to address women’s issues, and this time the efforts bore fruit. Thus, the International Council of Women and the National Council of Women of the United States were formed. There are high hopes for the achievements of these two organizations, but not much happened and the goal of the women’s suffrage movement remained unfulfilled for a long time to come. The only major accomplishment of the period was the merger of NWSA and AWSA in 1890; this resulted in the formation of NAWSA 1890, of which Elizabeth became the first president. But the two camps still differed on many issues, particularly on the direction in which the women’s rights movement was to move.61

Death of Elizabeth During her last years, Elizabeth lived with her son, Robert, and widowed daughter, Margaret, in New York. She also remained close to Susan. The health of Elizabeth was getting poorer and she found it difficult to travel. Accordingly, she did not attend any conventions or functions. Her eyesight was becoming poor and by the time of her death she was totally blind. Yet she remained active to the end. One week before her death she had published an article in New York American and was negotiating a contract to publish a volume of her speeches. Her death came peacefully among her family members on October 26, 1902.62

A Closing Remark This chapter has presented a case study of another very powerful early pioneer woman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who devoted her whole life to the women’s cause and became one of the most prominent women in America; perhaps only second to Lucretia Mott. She was born into the well-to-do family of a judge who also served in the New York Assembly and the United States House of Representatives. But in orientation the family was conservative and sexual bias in favor of boys loomed large there. Thus, Elizabeth learned early on that girls were not the same as boys and they were raised, oriented, treated, educated, and socialized differently. She also got that sense from the law office of her father where she explored his law books, listened to the visiting attorneys, and had conversations with the interns. Her only different experience at that time was in Peterboro, where her cousin’s sister lived, and where the atmosphere was full of freedom and liberalism, except with respect to the problems and issues of women. The early religious experiences of Elizabeth were

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not favorable and they caused her a lot of agony and concern, to the point where she developed an aversion toward organized religion and became a religious liberal. Thus, she developed two prominent goals for her life’s mission; overcoming the problems and issues of women, and the liberation of people from organized religion and its practices. She also had several other reform interests. Elizabeth struggled hard her whole life to achieve her established goals, but the success that came to her remained partial, and she certainly deserved more success. In addition to that, Elizabeth had a different kind of personality which was an open book to some people, and very intriguing to others. Having a philosophical mind, she was not satisfied with partial or short-term solutions to problems and issues, instead wanting them to be holistic and long-lasting. Many of her co-workers and colleagues had different mindsets and could live with partial and shortterm solutions. That put Elizabeth at odds with them and it was a source of irritation to her. Then there were her family and other relationships which were not very satisfactory to her. That applied to her father, mother, siblings, husband, colleagues, and the rest. That situation also caused some level of discontent in her for her whole life. The main accomplishment of Elizabeth was in the area of starting a women’s rights movement in America with the goal of gaining the equality of women with men in all areas of functioning. Her concerns were dignity, respect, position, and the participation of women in society, and their education, job, wages, possessions, and functioning needs. Marriage, divorce, child custody, moral standards, religious standing, and the right to vote were also concerns. In these and related areas Elizabeth contributed a lot, and always tried to apply feminist-friendly approaches and strategies to find the needed remedies and solutions. She penned History of Woman’s Suffrage Struggle, The Woman’s Bible, her autobiography, and several other literary pieces. She was indeed a unique person, and a stalwart reformer, activist, abolitionist, feminist, historian, and philosopher. Social reformers of the present and the future can certainly learn a lot from her life, endeavors, actions, experiences, and contributions.

CHAPTER NINE JANE ADDAMS A PIONEER THINKER, WRITER, SOCIAL WORKER, COMMUNITY ORGANIZER, REFORMER, PACIFIST, FEMINIST, AND INTERNATIONALIST

Introduction In this chapter, we present the case study of another early pioneer woman, Jane Addams, whose life, endeavors, and reform efforts were so vast and diverse that no single attempt could capture it all. Leonard Levy and Alfred Young, in their foreword to Christopher Lasch’s The Social Thought of Jane Addams, wrote, “But Jane Addams was more than a practical activist, more than a great spirit. She was more than the sum of her achievements or of her extraordinary diverse interests, which ranged from child-labor legislation, tenement reform, and public health to pacifism, internationalism, and feminism.”1 Jane belonged to an uppermiddle-class family and was always interested in doing something for poor and needy people. She was interested in creating a better social, political, work, and living environment for them in any way possible. For this, she assessed the problems and issues of children, youth, old people, women, and immigrants, and tried to bring some positive changes in their living conditions through the creation of suitable facilities and programs, and making the needed advocacy, policy, and legislative efforts. She was a thinker, a well-known writer, and was feminist and pacifist to the core. She fought against violence and war at all levels, nationally and internationally, and brought in peace and harmony among people and societies. These and other similar efforts of hers were noticed by others, and the proof of this was her winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931, which she shared with Nicholas Murray Butler, President of Columbia University in America.

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Jane also won many other commendations, felicitations, and awards during her lifetime and afterward.2 Here we share the life, endeavors, reform efforts, and contributions of Jane. The lessons learned will be indicated in the conclusion chapter.

Early Life Born in Cedarville, Illinois, on September 6, 1860, Jane Addams was the youngest of the eight children of a prosperous family of EnglishAmerican descent. Her family belonged to a group of Quakers who had come to America in 1675 and founded colonies in West Jersey, Burlington, and Salem. In 1781, William Penn obtained a large piece of land from King Charles II, which was south of New York, west of New Jersey, and north of Maryland. There he established the colony called Pennsylvania. That territory later became famous for its “holy experiment.”3 Jane’s father, John Addams, was born in Sinking Springs, Pennsylvania, in 1822 and subsequently married Sarah Weber Addams. She was a devoted wife and mother, and very interested in charitable work. Jane’s orientations to help poor and needy people came partially from the influences of her mother .4 Jane was two years old when her mother died while pregnant with her ninth child. After that, the burden of taking care of Jane fell upon the older sisters. By the time Jane was eight years old, one of her sisters had died at the age of sixteen, and three other siblings had died in infancy. Thus, only four children, including Jane, grew up to maturity. In 1868, John married Anna Hostetter Haldeman, the widow of Freeport Miller, who had two children already. After that marriage, John moved to Cedarville, Illinois, where he became a successful businessman and an influential politician. At his peak, he possessed large stacks of timber, cattle, and agricultural belongings, and also owned a flour mill and a wool factory. He was one of the founding members of the Illinois Republican Party and was an Illinois state senator from 1855 to 1870. He was also friends with Abraham Lincoln and supported him in his candidacies for state senator in 1854 and for the presidency of the United States in 1860. He was very interested in the improvement of the local community and tried to help it as much as possible. Later, Jane would also reveal all these attributes and characteristics of her father in her endeavors of social, political, legislative, and community reform at different levels.5

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Education and Ambition Jane attended the local village school from early on until the age of seventeen, and there she showed much interest in Latin and English literature. After graduating from this school she wanted to attend Smith College in Massachusetts, but her father suggested that she should pursue her further studies in the local area only. Accordingly, in 1877, Jane joined the Rockford Female Seminary, of which her father was a trustee. Organization, discipline, and purpose were emphasized at the seminary and, later, Jane also revealed all these attributes and orientations in her pursuits and activities. There were about fifty students at the seminary when Jane was enrolled there, and one of them was Ellen Gates Starr from Durand, Illinois. She later became a life-long friend and partner of Jane and helped her in her endeavors and pursuits. The courses of study at the seminary were in Greek, Latin, natural science, ancient history, and French, but mathematics and music programs were also available and Jane took advantage of these. She also took part in theater and debate activities at the seminary which helped her in later life. Literary writing was one of Jane’s interests and, in her senior year, she became the editor-in-chief of the Rockford Seminary Magazine. Seventeen students graduated from the seminary in 1881 and Jane was top of them all. Thus, she also had the privilege of delivering the valedictorian speech to the graduating class of that year.6 Jane desired a specific purpose in life and wanted to do something for others. Accordingly, she decided to become a medical doctor and live among the poor and the needy to serve them. But her father died in 1881 after a brief illness and her whole home situation changed. Her father had been a person of means and Jane received approximately $50,000 as her share of the inheritance. That sum was a huge amount in those days, and so Jane did not have to worry about her financial situation or change her plan of becoming a doctor. In the fall of 1881, she traveled to Philadelphia with her sister, her sister’s husband, and her step-mother, and she enrolled in the Women’s Medical College to pursue her medical education. The study routine was rigorous and Jane’s health was precarious. After seven months, health issues started surfacing due to the strain upon Jane. When Jane was four years old she had contracted cancer which had curved her spine. This problem became more acute and a spinal operation had to be performed. But that operation turned out to be only partially successful. Over and above that Jane also suffered a nervous breakdown, and the advice to her was that she should rest and stay in a light mood through travels or other means. All these factors led Jane to decide to give up the

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idea of becoming a doctor. Accordingly, she packed up and returned to Cedarville in late 1882.7 After returning to Cedarville, Jane remained in bed for six months but recovered slowly. Phases of depression were still coming to her. Therefore, along with her step-mother, she decided to travel to Europe. Her first intended destination was England and the two ladies reached there in the later part of 1883. Jane visited places of interest there, talked to people, and then traveled to Holland, Germany, Austria, Italy, Greece, Switzerland, and France. She and her step-mother returned to America in 1885. After reaching home, Jane started spending part of her time in Cedarville but also spent part of her time in Baltimore where her stepbrother was attending John Hopkins University and where her step-mother spent the winters. A lack of purpose in her life was still bothering Jane so, in 1885, she turned to religion and joined the Presbyterian Church. Occasionally she also attended the Congregational Church. Her aim in doing this was not to follow any religious dogmas or practices, but to find a direction that was humanitarian and could touch upon the lives of people. Poverty and the needs of people again came to her mind and she decided to alleviate those problems to the best of her ability. This was now her single purpose in life; the question was how and where to fulfill that newfound but persistent ambition.8

Settlement Notion In the summer of 1887, Jane was reading about the idea of “settlement” in a magazine. This was being described as a physical space where people belonging to different ethnicities, cultures, ideologies, communities, and classes came together, interacted, learned from one another, and found a common ground for collective action. Instrumental in that for Jane was the idea of moral living offered by Tolstoy in his My Religion, the idea of democracy and the duties of man by Giuseppe Mazzini in his Duties of Man, and the circumstances and conditions of poor people described by Charles Dickens in his different novels. Jane, in addition, was impressed by the idea of the subjection of women offered by John Stuart Mill in his On the Subjection of Women, suggesting that women’s place was not merely at home around their husbands and the family, but also outside in society. These factors influenced Jane and she wanted to explore further the notions of settlement, free-living, and the equal activities of men and women.9

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Toynbee Hall Henrietta and Samuel Barnett had founded a settlement named “Toynbee Hall” 10 in the east part of London in 1884; it was one of a kind, designed to make rich and poor people come together in an effort to bridge the gaps between them and learn more from one another. In those days, the East End of London was an economically depressed and socially backward area, and the goal of the facility was to uplift people by providing them with economic, legal, and social help as well as other needed resources and services such as debt advice. The focus was especially on children, youths, women, and elderly people. The facility presented an opportunity for community engagement to the students of Oxford University and Cambridge University; each year more than 400 students participated in the project in various capacities. Some members of staff also lived in the slums to assess the needs of people and match them with the available resources. Later, that project took the form of a movement and spread to different nations. By 1900 there were over 100 such facilities in the United States and the United Kingdom alone. In America, that number swelled to almost 500 by 1920 and, by the 1980s, there were more than 800 such settlements, neighborhood houses, and community centers coordinated by the National Federation of Settlement and Neighborhood Centers from their headquarters in New York City.11

Hull House In 1887, Ellen Gates Starr was planning to travel to Europe and she asked Jane to join her. Thus, Jane set off from Hoboken, New Jersey, on December 14 and joined Ellen in Munich, Germany. From there the two ladies traveled together and visited different places. At the back of their minds were also the conditions and circumstances in which poor and needy people lived in those countries, and what was being done to improve their lot. In the process, Jane and Ellen visited Toynbee Hall in London and were impressed by the novelty of its mission, facility, and activities created to help poor and needy people in the area. They thought that a need for a similar mission existed in America and that the project could be suitably replicated there. Thus, upon their return to America in the summer of 1888, the two ladies started thinking of a place where the project could be started. They chose a poor neighborhood on the west side of Chicago where the urgency of help and services seemed to be great. Charles J. Hull had built a two-story house at 335 South Halsted in 1856 when the neighborhood was young, but that building was now in a run-

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down condition. Jane and Ellen acquired the building for the project and, after some renovations, moved there with their housekeeper, Mary Keyser, on September 18, 1889.12 Up to that point, all expenditures were borne by Jane but soon short-term help started coming during the first year of the project. This reduced the financial burden on Jane. Later, long-term help also started coming. Among the major donors were ladies like Helen Culver, Louise DeKoven Bowen, Mary Rozet Smith, and Mary Wilmarth.13 The neighborhood in which Hull House was located was comprised of recent immigrants from different European countries who faced problems of living, adjustment, and integration into the new culture. Accordingly, the first activity organized by Ellen, only a few weeks of moving into the building, was “a reading party” for the young women of the neighborhood. At first, these women were suspicious of her motives and were hesitant to come, but once they realized that she was not trying to change their religion or ways of life they started coming willingly and participated enthusiastically in the weekly sessions.14 That move was later expanded to incorporate formal classes for the young women in the areas of history, culture, literature, art, domestic activities, and more. Jane, in the meanwhile, started visiting women in their homes and talking to them about their conditions, circumstances, problems, issues, and aspirations. This effort later expanded and took the form of formal research using advanced methodologies. Jane frequently used the results of that research for her advocacy, policy-making, and legislative reform endeavors. Attention was also given to the problems and issues of young children and, for them, a kindergarten school and a day nursery were started. This move helped working and other mothers to better discharge their duties and responsibilities. The move also brought together parents of different ethnic backgrounds, classes, and nationalities, and helped lessen their hesitations, prejudices, and biases. A gymnasium was built for the youths to encourage them to come to the facility and to keep them away from crime and other vices. Later, a coffeehouse was also built for them, where they could come, interact, and socialize. For the youths, they also arranged clubs around science, sports, painting, art, and current affairs, and they were divided into interest groups as per their preferences for participation and learning. Other educational classes were also started for them. In time, these activities grew to a level where a separate five-story building had to be built just for that purpose.15 For the older population, a public kitchen, a public lunchroom, and a public bath were built, to which were later added a theater, a drama group, some meeting rooms for discussions, a training facility for employment, an employment bureau, a library, a dispensary, and classes on bookkeeping

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and bookbinding. Medical help was arranged for those who could not afford it and services for facilitating the delivery of babies were also made available. Young girls in the neighborhood worked outside but some of them had no place to go to after work. For them, a cooperative boarding facility called the “Jane Club” was created and, later, refuge, guidance, counseling, and material help facilities were made available to other people. Jane believed that art was an important part of culture and society, and it was also a significant medium for expression, change, and growth. Therefore, a donation of $5,000 was sought from Edward Butler, a Chicago merchant, and an art gallery and museum were added to the facility. Later, music and art lessons were started through these facilities. Lastly, the facility added a public playground and a summer camp, and started the “Old Settlers Party” where current and previous residents of the neighborhood came together annually, renewed their contacts, shared their experiences, and in some cases developed endeavors of mutual help and cooperation. Thus, what started with two residents and a few simple activities mushroomed into many staff members and volunteers offering a whole set of services to the residents of the neighborhood and operated from thirteen buildings at the facility.16 Outside people were noticing the operations and activities of Hull House from the beginning and appreciated what it was trying to do for the needy people of the neighborhood. Gradually its reputation spread all over the country and similar facilities started to appear in many other places. But these facilities were not as comprehensive in their orientation or services as Hull House. For example, some facilities catered their services to male populations only, some to female populations only, and some others had religious ends attached to the services. Hull House was the only facility that provided comprehensive services to both male and female populations, and it remained secular all along. It also covered the full spectrums of life; from childhood to youth to old age. It also provided services to immigrants according to their needs and aspirations.17

Health and Other Issues While working at Hull House, Jane and her staff realized that the maximum results of their efforts could not be attained without paying attention to the physical and psychological environment in which the residents of the neighborhood were living. The first thing that occurred to them in that regard was the dirt and filth all over the neighborhood which reflected the behavioral and mental condition of the residents and posed health risks to them. Accordingly, a cleanliness campaign was started with

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the first item of action being the suitable disposal of garbage. That effort of Jane was noticed by the local municipality and, in 1895, she was appointed Garbage Inspector of Ward 19 with an annual salary of $1,000. That was the only paid position Jane held in her whole life. The better management of garbage also improved the health conditions of the population there.18 Poverty, hunger, long hours of work, low wages, poor working conditions, and uncertainties associated with their jobs were some of the other issues facing the residents of the neighborhood. Women and children were working to augment incomes so that the needs of their families could be met. Jane and her co-workers noticed these problems and, as a first step, got the number of working hours of women reduced so that they may find more time to attend to their families and take better care of their children. Low wages, poor working conditions, and uncertainties associated with their jobs were also dealt with and, in this regard, Jane worked hard to get the wages raised, bring improvements in the working environment, and seek new provisions for unemployment support. Worker’s compensation, pension plans, and better labor laws were also sought, particularly for child workers, and the minimum age at which children could work was raised to fourteen. That provided some incentive to the parents to send their younger children to schools and make them get the education they needed. Delinquency of children was also an issue because when not getting an education or being engaged in productive work they often fell victim to vices and committed crimes. Once in that situation, they were dealt with through harsh laws and were subjected to the same kinds of punishments as adult deviants and criminals. There were no separate jails for children and the idea of a detention center had not yet come about. Therefore, after detention or incarceration, children were lumped in with hardcore men and women criminals at great personal risk of mistreatment. There were no separate courts for children to question or try them, and the penal code applicable to them was the same as for adults. Jane thought that all this was unfair as children were not yet mature enough to fully understand what they were doing and what the consequences of their actions were in the short-term and long-term. Accordingly, she sought separate juvenile laws and a separate juvenile court to question or to try them. The emphasis of these facilities was more on rehabilitation and less on punishment. All if this was new in Jane’s day but, with time, these moves became “child welfare laws and codes” and eventually the “juvenile justice system.” In 1901, Jane created an organization for the better treatment of juvenile children and that became the Juvenile Protective Association with appointed probation officers who handled the

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affairs of the children. The last group to receive Jane’s attention were immigrants who faced issues of mistreatment, discrimination, and adjustment. For them, Jane had policies, services, and resources created so that they may be suitably integrated into society.19

Progressive Thinking One intention of Jane in establishing Hull House was to make educated and upper-middle-class women aware of the conditions and circumstances in a poor neighborhood and make the residents of the neighborhood aware of the values and living conditions of upper-middle-class people. At the same time, her intention was also for the residents of the neighborhood to be made aware that improvements in their conditions were possible if they made efforts and if outside assistance was made available. That, in Jane’s estimation, was progressive thinking which could be translated into positive actions. Thus, Jane called upon some college-educated uppermiddle-class women to engage themselves in what she called “civic housekeeping”, in addition to their “own housekeeping”, if they had the time, energy, resources, and will. The starting point was Jane and Ellen themselves but, subsequently, other women also joined the effort and, in the process, several of them distinguished themselves. The initial goals were the cultural, educational, and recreational engagement of the residents of the neighborhood but, as time went by, other needs of the residents also came to the forefront which the staff of Hull House could not set aside. Therefore, the provision of services at a certain level was made for these needs, and later these services also became a part of the activities of the staff and the conception of progressive thinking. Jane realized that the services and facilities which were being provided to the residents of the neighborhood were also needed by the rest of the city population, and also at state and national levels. That way, advocacy of the services and facilities at other levels also became a part of the conception of progressive thinking, followed by suitable civic and political actions to implement them. Later, the idea of progressive thinking also came to entail: 1) the practice of cooperation, 2) the practice of democracy, 3) working across class and regional lines, and 4) teaching other people these principles by example. Comprehensive cultural, educational, recreational, investigative, and reformative goals were added to them, and these too became a part of the notion of progressive thinking. Public welfare was at the core of progressive thinking where sensitivity to gender, ethnicity, location, and social standing were emphasized. Lastly, the conception of progressive thinking also came to include wider education and learning,

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pacifist orientations, and peaceful strategies of functioning and problemsolving. Jane applied that conception of progressive thinking to all activities at Hull House, in the neighborhood services, and in her ward responsibilities. Based on that line of thought a new political organization named the Progressive Party was formed in 1912 and Theodore Roosevelt fought his presidential election through its platform. Jane helped him in getting nominated and also campaigned for him widely.20

Feminism Feminism was a strong interest of Jane, and she had shown that inclination since her days at Rockford Female Seminary. Feminism, for her, was a biological, cultural, and historical concept that cut across the circumstances and conditions of women in two ways. The first way was that it made women similar to men, in that men were affected by similar biological, cultural, and historical factors, and shared with women both masculine and feminine characteristics. Because of that way, there was no inherent reason for society to treat women differently in terms of their roles, responsibilities, rights, and privileges. The second way was that, following Mead’s lead,21 Jane also felt that women were different from men in terms of their nature, temperament, interests, needs, and aspirations which made them a special social class with their own conditions, circumstances, issues, and difficulties. With these conditions, circumstances, issues, and difficulties, Jane opined, men could not properly comprehend or empathize with women, just as the bourgeoisie could not suitably comprehend and empathize with the problems and issues of the proletariat. Accordingly, some cooperation toward the solutions of their problems and issues could be expected by women from men but, for the most part, they had to assess their own needs, discern their own problems and issues, fight their own battles, and bring in their own results. That was not easy because, unlike the proletariat, women were not a uniform and united group, and their responses to the problems and issues were influenced by factors such as class, education, ethnicity, subculture, and location. But uniformity and unity among them had to be created somehow, and selfdependence among them was to be brought about in order for them to find their own course of action and handle their problems and issues.21 With regard to her conception of feminism, Jane also discussed different stages of girlhood, wifehood, and motherhood with their different roles and the common thread of sexuality in them. She suggested that the aspect of sexuality in life was to be channeled in proper ways, and women were to stay away from the issues of sex slavery, prostitution, and other

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abnormal sexual behaviors. However, she also admitted that these sexual issues did occur in society, particularly among working-class women, and were to be remedied. But instead of blaming women for these problems, structural factors, of which women were the victims, were to be attended to. Jane also talked about the traditional roles of women where they mediated and resolved problems and issues of their family members on a daily basis. She claimed that with these experiences, accompanied by a perceptive and emphatic nature, women were helpful in solving problems and issues at all levels. She also pointed out that, for the same reasons, women were more suited than men to work in the professions of social work, social welfare, social reform, and crime prevention.22 With regard to practical matters, Jane suggested that women were not meant to be confined to their homes, busy in the discharge of their duties of managing family affairs, but were also to participate outside and play roles in the economic, social, political, and professional institutions as workers and leaders. For that, they were also to receive the appropriate education and training suitable to their occupations and professions. The voting rights of women were also an issue and, in other ways, women were to gain equality with men by overcoming the hurdles and barriers placed in their way.23

Democratic Functioning Democracy and democratic functioning were two other interests expressed by Jane, and they were also part of her progressive thinking. Democratic functioning, she said, was to be based on broader education and not just the formal instruction received in schools, colleges, and universities. That broader education was to include practical experiences as well as real-life situations and the process was to continue throughout the whole of people’s lives. Broader education entailed a two-way process whereby teachers were to learn from students and students were to learn from teachers, parents were to learn from children and children were to learn from parents, social workers were to learn from clients and clients were to learn from social workers, and politicians were to learn from the public and the public were to learn from politicians. In her own case, Jane shared that when she started working at Hull House she knew nothing of the problems and issues of the residents of the neighborhood, but gradually gained that knowledge from the residents themselves and, in turn, was able to provide to them the needed help, services, and resources. Pragmatism and civic activism were also parts of the conceptions of democracy and democratic functioning, and again the focus was two-way where more

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emphasis was to be put on duties and responsibilities and less on rights and privileges. That requirement was to apply to all fields of living and functioning. Further, in the conceptions of democracy and democratic functioning, the individual needs and outlooks of people should be considered, as well as the social needs and outlooks of society. Proper relations among people were important and the worth of each individual was to be recognized, regardless of the factors of background, class, occupation, and location. Humanistic considerations were essential and were to be practiced earnestly. Each person was to feel that he or she was a part of the social order, and that the social order belonged to him or her. The welfare of citizens was a consideration which was to be promoted by parents and children, teachers and students, employers and workers, and political bosses and reformers. There should be no conflicts; they should be avoided at all costs. Thus, democracy and democratic functioning were comprehensive, pragmatic, and inclusive conceptions for Jane and also entailed two-way processes of learning and functioning.24

Peace and Pacifism Peace and pacifism were integral parts of the progressive thinking of Jane and one influence on her, in that regard, was her Quaker background, even though she had not practiced the faith from the time when her father disregarded it. The life and teachings of Jesus were also an influence, and she believed that Christians should get more involved in the problems and issues people faced and try to bring more peace and pacifism to society. Then there were the factors of her beliefs in the internal goodness of people, their inclination to help one another, and her own ideas of nonimperialism and non-interventionism by the powers. Visionaries like Ruskin, Tolstoy, and Gandhi also influenced her but, unlike them, her conceptions of peace and pacifism were less idealist and more pragmatic. She reasoned that all conflicts and wars were ultimately inefficient, wasteful, destructive, and inexcusable, and they created more problems and issues than they resolved. She stressed that people and nations were to try to find real-time solutions to problems and issues in ways that also brought forth more empathetic understanding, cooperation, and harmony among them. The welfare of people and nations was a consideration, and responsible for that were the people, their families, and their leaders. But organizations were also essential, and they were to put pressure on the governments and institutions to stay on the path to peace and pacifism. The conceptions of peace and pacifism were to be comprehensive and exhaustive, and the mere absence of conflicts and wars was not enough.

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Further, peace and pacifism were to bring with them justice, and encourage people and nations toward more freedom and democratic functioning. Jane suggested that these factors were interrelated and reinforced one another. The achievement of any one of them was difficult without a simultaneous focus on the other factors as well. Jane remained optimistic and, even in the face of conflicts and wars, never lost faith in the inner goodness of people or their inclination to help one another. She believed that, in spite of the obstacles, humanity always moved forward and people always reached new heights of progress. Thus, whenever she talked about problems and issues among people or nations, she also tried to suggest possible solutions to keep people positive. During World War I, many pacifists had abandoned their peaceful positions and rationalized within themselves that it was the “war to end all future wars.” But Jane stuck to her original position and consistently reiterated that, no matter what, all conflicts and wars were inherently harmful and destructive for people and nations, with further long-term consequences. Through these adopted positions Jane exerted a considerable impact on the world scene and encouraged people and nations to find solutions to problems and issues that were peaceful, exhaustive, just, and also laced with more freedom and democratic functioning.25

Activism The root of Jane’s activism lay in her search for a purpose in life in order to serve others and that stayed with her consistently during the early years. Later, that search was also evident during her Rockford Female Seminary days, but it took a more pronounced form when she and Ellen founded Hull House in 1889 and started its educational, recreational, economic, and artistic programs and services. Social services for the improved living and work conditions of residents in the neighborhood were later added to these programs and services. Next, attention was paid to the sanitation and health conditions in the neighborhood, and then the needs of recent immigrants came into view. Jane also remained active outside of Hull House and the neighborhood. She served on the Chicago School Board from 1905 to 1909, was a delegate and a featured speaker for the first National Peace Congress in 1907, and was a delegate and platform committee member to the Progressive National Convention in 1912.26 In 1896, Jane traveled to England, and then on to Russia where she met Leo Tolstoy. She felt fascinated by the man who, even though born and raised in the ranks of nobility, had taken a vow to live like a peasant. The

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two conversed and Jane respected his thoughts and views on bringing equality, justice, and peace to Russia through the raised moral living of people, and offering “passive resistance” to the unjust policies and practices of those in power. However, she felt that these approaches may not be enough to bring equality, justice, and peace in other societies, and that some more potent measures were also needed to force governments and institutions to pay attention to the needed changes and reforms. Accordingly, when America acquired the Philippine Islands in 1898, Jane protested, joined the Anti-Imperial League, and recommended nonimperialism, non-interventionism, and non-expansionism to all concerned parties. For that and other needed changes she preferred to mostly work behind the scenes, but did not hesitate to come to the forefront when the situation demanded it. She preferred non-partisan approaches and solutions to problems and issues, and she felt that middle-ground solutions through compromise and conciliation were best for all.27 Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the threat of an international war loomed large in Europe. Accordingly, several world leaders arranged a peace conference in The Hague in 1899 to assess the situation and make recommendations, to the agitated nations and others, to preserve peace on the continent. This conference was followed by a second peace conference in 1907, with a third scheduled for 1914. Unfortunately, before that conference could take place, war broke out on July 28, 1914, and the conference had to be canceled. However, instead of the world leaders meeting for a conference, the International Congress of Women decided to fill the gap and scheduled its own meeting for 1915 in The Hague. It would discuss peace possibilities among the warring nations and other neutral nations who might later get involved in the war. About 1,200 delegates from 12 nations committed to attend that conference. In the meanwhile, protests against the war had started in America in the form of parades and rallies. Through that momentum, some 3,000 women from different ranks met on January 10, 1915, in the ballroom of the New Willard Hotel in Washington, D.C., to make peace efforts in that country and abroad. Thus was born the Woman’s Peace Party. Jane was chosen as its chairperson as, at that time, she was the most well-known woman in the nation for peace and social reform activities. The members of the new party met, deliberated on the circumstances, and came up with an action plan with eleven planks. The preamble to these planks was written by Anna Garland Spencer. The action plan urged the warring and neutral nations to hold an immediate convention to explore the possibility of an early end to the war, indicating that all wars undermined human kindness, destroyed solidarity, diminished civic friendships, and caused families to

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suffer. The media ignored that convention and its recommendations, mentioning, “Look, women are trying to bring an end to the war!”28

Peace Work Even though the women’s convention and its recommendations were mockingly received by the media, some peace activists in Europe were watching what was happening in America. Accordingly, through Jane, they sent an invitation to the Woman’s Peace Party to send its delegates to a convention to be held in The Hague from April 28 to May 1, 1915. Forty-two delegates were selected for that convention29 and five more were to join them from Europe. Jane was asked to preside over the convention and it turned out to be quite successful. The convention passed several resolutions, and these messages were to be carried to the warring and neutral nations. A commission headed by Jane was established along with two sub-committees; one to visit the warring nations and the other to visit the neutral nations. Jane and Aletta Jacobs were the official delegates to visit the warring nations and were joined by Alice Hamilton and Frau van Wulfften Palthe as unofficial delegates. That group visited London, Berlin, Vienna, Budapest, Rome, Berne, and Paris; they went back and forth talking to the governments, civic organizations, and citizens groups there, in attempts to make the warring nations settle their differences and bring an early end to the war. But their efforts did not succeed as planned and the war continued. However, as a positive outcome of these activities, the participating delegates established another peace organization called the International Committee of Women for a Permanent Peace which held its first convention in 1919, and later became the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom. Jane presided over that organization for a while and traveled throughout Europe to promote mediation and conciliation processes among the nations.30 After her peace assignments in Europe, Jane came back to America on May 5, 1915, amidst mixed reactions from the media and the public for her peace efforts abroad. In 1917, she became a member of the Fellowship of Reconciliation USA which was a branch of the International Fellowship Reconciliation; it was the same year that America entered the war. That move, on the part of America, changed the whole climate in the country and the emphasis changed from accepting peace and pacifism to the necessity of war for “a just cause.” In the light of that, most pacifists changed their earlier stands on peace and aligned themselves with the offered rationale for the war. But Jane stuck to her earlier position and kept on advocating for peace and pacifism. For that, she was labeled

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unpatriotic by many and she paid the price. However, she did not mind this and started traveling again, far and wide, meeting diplomats and civic leaders and pleading with them to bring back peace to the nations. Later, for these and other peace efforts, she would receive the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931; the proceeds of which she donated to the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom.31 World War I ended on November 11, 1918, but scars of the war were there on the warring and neutral nations. Accordingly, the need was there for healing and rehabilitation, and the bringing of permanent peace to the nations. For that, an inquiry was needed into the causes and consequences of conflicts and wars, and how nations could avoid them. The need was also there for linking peace with justice at all levels, and more familiarity with the mediation and the reconciliation processes on the parts of the nations. The Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom became busy with these efforts and held its second convention in 1919 in Zurich. Jane presided over the meetings again, and also toured post-war nations to promote calm and peace in them. She visited France, Holland, Germany, and other nations. The third convention of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom was held in Vienna in 1921, and then in 1923 Jane again traveled to different nations to promote the bases and the causes of peace. The fourth and the fifth conventions of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom were held in 1924 in Washington, D.C., and in 1926 in Dublin, with the sixth convention being held Prague in 1929. By that time, Jane’s health had become delicate and she resigned from the presidency of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom. In recognition of her services, the organization elected her “honorary president” for life.32

Continued Reforms After her return from foreign travels, Jane again resumed her educational, social, and political reform work in the 1920s and traveled widely to advocate for the needs of the weak and vulnerable populations. She continued that work to the end of her life. Jane’s lecturing schedule was always heavy, and she also offered extension courses to college students for their enhanced educational and training capacities. She was a charter member of the American Sociological Society, attended its meetings as and when she could, presented papers based on her research, and published that research in its journal from time to time. She was also a charter member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and stressed that race, ethnicity, gender, class,

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and religion were not to be impediments in the lives and progress of people, and that these factors were not to interfere with the policies, planning, resource allocation, and delivery of services to them. Jane also paid attention to the needs of immigrants and founded the Immigrants’ Protective League, as well as helping pass laws favoring their conditions. Overall freedom of the people was Jane’s concern and, for that purpose, she helped found the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) in 1920. She was the first woman president of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, which later became the National Conference of Social Welfare. She also made speeches and wrote letters suggesting the creation of a League of Nations which would discuss contentious issues among nations, avoid wars, and maintain peace in the world.33 The needs of women and children were of special interest to Jane, and she wanted women to get become more educated, more enlightened, and gain more equality with men in all spheres of life. For that, she helped pass several laws that were designed to improve their living, working, and functioning conditions. For the children, she helped pass several labor laws, encouraged educational opportunities for them, and established the Juvenile Protective Association, Juvenile Psychopathic Clinic, and Juvenile Court to address their problems and issues. She suggested that planning, problem-solving, and the delivery of services to needy populations ought to be based on assessments of their needs, and a mapping of social illnesses was necessary for bringing effective reforms. She also said that both individual and institutional approaches ought to be applied to decipher the problems and issues, the focus of their resolutions ought to be at personal and organizational levels, and both individuals and organizations were responsible for bringing about the needed changes and reforms in society. These were not just physical needs; the intellectual, social, and emotional needs of people and communities also needed to be attended to. Poor people, she said, bore much of the brunt of the problems and issues in society, and that became even more acute through prevalent political corruption and business avarice. Accordingly, poor people were to be protected more and provided with greater fairness and justice in living, working, and functioning conditions. Women managed family emergencies on a daily basis, took care of problems and issues, and mediated these among the family members. Accordingly, they were more qualified to do the same at higher levels through their insights and experiences at the family level. That way they also could contribute more to welfare, pacifism, and peace in society.34

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Passing Away On May 18, 1935, Jane underwent an intestinal operation and, during that procedure, it was discovered that she had cancer. She died three days later on May 21, 1935, in Passavant Hospital and was buried in her home place, Cedarville.35

A Closing Remark This chapter has presented a case study of another great early pioneer woman, Jane Addams, who was a thinker, writer, social worker, community organizer, reformer, pacifist, feminist, and internationalist. Her contributions in these areas were huge, and she set guiding paths for many more generations of social reformers to come. Jane was born during exciting times in a well-to-do upper-middle-class family, but she always wanted to do something for poor and needy people. Her health condition was poor from the beginning, but she did not let it slow her down or interfere in the achievement of her goals.36 Her life started changing when she visited Toynbee Hall in England, which was the first settlement experiment for poor and needy people in a neighborhood. Taking clues from that, Jane, with the help of her friend Ellen, opened a similar settlement facility in Chicago where the need for help and guidance seemed to be greater. What happened at Hull House over the years has been well described in this chapter, and the accomplishments were in the educational, recreational, developmental, cultural, artistic, social, psychological, counseling, and work-related areas. Later, that experiment was copied in many other places and took the form of a settlement movement all over America, with byproducts like community organization, community development, urban planning, health and sanitation services, social welfare services, social work, and juvenile studies. In addition, Jane was interested in work-related issues of the residents of the neighborhood and thus came about their lower work hours, better work environment, greater job security, higher wages, better monetary compensations, and improved retirement and pension schemes. These provisions later matured into what we now know as “labor laws”, and more welfare schemes came about for the workers. Attention was also given to the living and working conditions of youths and children, and the treatment of the juveniles and criminals among them. Thus came about “child welfare laws” and, for the delinquent youths and children, better handling with more emphasis on their rehabilitation than on their punishment. Along with that idea came “detention centers,” “juvenile courts,” and “probation offices.” Thus, a new area of services

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cropped up called the “juvenile justice system.” Immigrants were also of interest to Jane and she worked hard for their betterment in order to give them a better status and position in society, more fit in the institutional systems, and greater equality with others in terms of acceptance, treatment, rights, privileges, and responsibilities. She also did the same for women. Peace and pacifism were passions of Jane and what she accomplished in that area has been indicated in this chapter; a result of which was her receiving world-wide recognition, including honorary degrees from Yale University, University of Chicago, and Smith College, a listing as “one of the twelve greatest living women in America,” and the Nobel Peace Prize. In addition, Jane was a solid scholar and contributed much to the fields of sociology, political science, feminist studies, social welfare, social work, peace and pacifism studies, and other related fields like social thought and philosophy. She did this by redefining or expanding such conceptions as progressive thinking, feminism, democratic functioning, activism, peace, pacifism, mediation, and reconciliation. She was a great researcher and, in that field, suggested some advanced methodologies like social mapping and needs assessment. She was a great activist and was one of the founding members of the Progressive Party, was a charter member of the American Sociological Society, and was a charter member of the NAACP. She also helped found the ACLU and thereby contributed much in the area of civil liberties. Jane was a unique and unparalleled personality of her times, and it is difficult to gauge all her endeavors, achievement, accomplishments, and contributions in a single attempt.37

CHAPTER TEN CONCLUSION

In this work, the author has pursued his earlier research interests focusing on the foundations of welfare, peace, and pacifism in society, with special attention paid to the problems and issues of women. For centuries, women had been burdened with many adverse circumstances; biases, prejudices, and discriminations of all kinds existed against them which diminished their status, role, and functioning both at home and outside in society. That situation reduced them to be equal with other household possessions like children and property. But women kept on bearing all that with remarkable patience; sometimes due to their naturally kind nature, and at other times in the interests of the reputation of their family members like husbands, fathers, and children. Thus, innumerable injustices and tyrannies were wrought upon them; the strange part of that was that these conditions and circumstances were not brought about by strangers, but more often than not by their own people and the institutions which were supposed to take care of them, support them, protect them, and nurture them. In other words, the culprits were the male members of their own families, communities, employment places, and institutions like the state and the church. Traditions, customs, hegemonies, and other cultural factors also played parts in that, alongside factors such as historical times, economic conditions, political environment, religious ponderings, demographics, population shifts, wars, and violence. Education and social class were also factors, and these also made the lives of women hard. With the background of those conditions and circumstances, this work has presented the case studies of eight early pioneer women from the midseventh century through to early modern times, with varied reform interests. Three of these early pioneer women were from England, with the other five being from America. These early pioneer women were Margaret Fell (1614-1702), Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845), Mary Wollstonecraft (17591797), Lucretia Mott (1793-1880), Dorothea Lynde Dix (1802-1887), Margaret Fuller (1810-1850), Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902), and Jane Addams (1860-1935). In terms of their multi-tasking interests, they were social, political, and educational activists, religious and moral

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reformers, social advocates, community organizers, abolitionists, suffragists, feminists, social workers, journalists, critics, writers, philosophers, historians, prison reformers, mental health workers, transcendentalists, pacifists, humanists, and internationalists. This work was prompted by the disparities between men and women in terms of their status, position, role, functions, authority, power, rights, privileges, and standing that existed through much of human history, in spite of the fact that both the sexes had been life givers of the future progenies and responsible for their nurturing, growth, development, and progress. That fact was lost somewhere in the hoary past, and men started assuming more importance over women; at first, slowly in some areas of living and in small amounts, but then that trend picked up momentum, assumed wider proportions, and spread into all areas of living and functioning. So started the domination of men over women, and that trend continued, causing numerous problems and issues for women. These have been summarized in Chapter 1 with the examples of the Indian, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Israeli cultures. Later, what had happened in the ancient cultures also occurred in modern societies and, in that regard, the problems and issues of women in Europe and America have been indicated in Chapter 1 along with the start of the efforts to remedy the circumstances. Another related issue that prompted the undertaking of this work was the lack of acknowledgment of the efforts and contributions of women toward the functioning, growth, and development of society, including the elimination of the prevalent problems and issues in them through social actions and reforms. The contributions of women, in these respects, were tremendous, but men overshadowed that fact and, without any shame, took the credit for themselves. This situation in the history of humankind also needed to be highlighted. Thus, one goal of this work was to bring to light the lives, endeavors, reform efforts, and contributions of the early pioneer women, and show in what circumstances they lived, what they stood for, what they envisioned for the future, what their efforts were, what their sacrifices were, what they accomplished, and what their contributions were to society in different realms. Another goal of this work was to share with the future generations of activists and reformers the lessons which the lives, endeavors, reform efforts, and contributions of the early pioneer women provided in specific and overall terms. There was a long list of early pioneer women from all over the world who could be case studied for this work, but the focus here was specifically on England and America, and the chosen time periods were the seventeenth century to early modern times. The selection criteria were the levels of the reform efforts of the early pioneer women and the

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recognition and prominence they gained. The data collection was difficult for this research for these reasons: 1) the time lag between the reform efforts of the early pioneer women and the timing of this research effort; 2) the gaps and inconsistencies in the information which needed to be resolved; 3) the fact that it was mostly men who wrote about the activities and accomplishments of the earlier pioneer women, but the women themselves wrote very little about their own activities and accomplishments; and 4) the presence of a general male bias in the cultures which exalted and glorified the activities and accomplishments of men, yet diminished and undermined the same for women. Below is an overview of the case studies of the early pioneer women, and the lessons learned from them.

Overview and Lessons Margaret Fell The first case study included in this work was that of Margaret Fell who was a key figure in feminism, advocacy, and religious-political reform, and a role model for many future generations of social activists and reformers. She was also an inspiration for the start of the women’s rights movement in America in 1848. Margaret was born in 1614 (died in 1702) into the nobility of England and was also married into nobility. That gave her a good status and position in society and easy access to the authorities, including the King. Religious leanings during her times were strong; the church and the state were the most powerful institutions which dominated almost all aspects of people’s living, and the whole world seemed to belong to men. Men occupied all the important positions in society, particularly in the political and religious realms, and decided what women and children were to do or not to do. Conservatism loomed large everywhere and women had no identity or rights of their own. They were expected to marry, manage home affairs, raise children, and refrain from any outside activity, including speaking in public. Tradition, custom, hegemony, and the church made sure that things stayed that way, and any violation of the norms carried dire consequences. Times were tough; marked by social, political, and religious upheavals that brought confusion, uncertainty, and unsettled feelings among the public. Shortages, downturns, diseases, calamities, population shifts, and social unrest also existed. Values, opinions, and behaviors were changing fast, and new sects were forming. Margaret lived and functioned under these circumstances and would later fight against the

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conditions and practices which she felt were unfair, and try to bring to them some revolutionary changes. Margaret was raised in England and her father made it certain that she (and her sister) received a good education suitable for the nobility. Her husband was also an influential man who rose to the rank of judge, and was a kind, caring, conscientious, and religious person who was devoted to the family. Thus, the couple lived together happily for the first twenty years surrounded by their children, servants, and other workers. One day in 1652 the founder of Quakerism, George Fox, happened to show up at Swarthmoor Hall which was the residence of the Fell family. He sought permission for a temporary stay there which was granted. It was usual for Fox to talk about Quakerism wherever he went, so he started talking about that subject, including God, the soul, inner revelations, and salvation. Margaret and the rest of the family listened to him intently, were convinced that he spoke from his heart based on inner experiences and that he was showing a real path to God and Truth. The whole family converted to Quakerism, except for Margaret’s husband who, at the time, was away on one of his regular tours. Thereafter Margaret became a different person altogether and dedicated herself totally to the promotion of the Quaker movement for the rest of her life, to the point of losing everything except her residence, Swarthmoor Hall. After Margaret’s conversion to Quakerism, Swarthmoor Hall became the headquarters of all Quaker activities and further movements were launched and promoted from there. Margaret was at the helm of the affairs and assumed all kinds of responsibilities. She organized, planned, served, administered, counseled, directed, helped, advocated, reformed, and advised. All preachers and workers reported to her, and she advised them, counseled them, and resolved their problems and issues. Much of her time was also spent advocating for imprisoned Quakers (including Fox) and she urged the King and the authorities to be more understanding of them and be more lenient in handing down punishments to them. For that purpose, she made many trips to London to meet with the King and the authorities. Then there were the families of imprisoned Quakers and Quakers who were facing trials in courts. These families also needed help which she arranged, and also collected funds for them. Legal help was also needed. Traveling preachers needed help in terms of money and advice which she provided through the Kendal Fund and other means. In her spare time, she also preached and, for that, she traveled both locally and further afield. She carried a huge burden of correspondence with Quakers and nonQuakers and advised and exhorted them. In addition, she wrote epistles and pamphlets to clarify various positions of the Quaker faith on issues,

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and to explore the place of women in the scriptures. The church had imposed an injunction upon women to not preach or speak in public. She also tried to resolve that issue.1 Finally there were ongoing controversies within the Quaker movement and she tried to take care of that too, in cooperation with Fox and others. Even before her conversion to Quakerism, Margaret was well respected by the public and the authorities because she was educated, intelligent, capable, caring, devoted, and sincere; a compassionate lady who belonged to the nobility and was the wife of a judge. In addition, she also had religious leanings, believed in the spiritual equality of men and women, and was eager to know God and Truth. But after her service and activities at Swarthmoor Hall, she endeared herself even more to Quakers as well as non-Quakers. She had an unshakable faith in Fox and in Christian teachings, had a great zeal to promote the Quaker movement and its practices, and was eager to participate in its ministry. She wanted to bring a fresh look to the scriptures, particularly in relation to the status and rights of women in society and tried to make religion more equal and flexible for all. She was a lady who broke the ice on many problems and issues faced by women and thus paved a path for them to fight even more to get rid of their barriers, problems, and issues in an effort to gain equality with men. Margaret tried to bring reforms to the state and church functioning and tried to make them more responsible in their policies and practices. Through all these efforts, endeavors, reform initiatives, and contributions she stood like a star in her own lifetime and was widely known. Both men and women revered her and appreciated her sacrifices. Indeed, Margaret was a unique personality and a strong pillar of the Quaker and the feminist movements. She was also a first in bringing about some religious and political reforms as they pertained to women. Margaret proved to all that no matter how strong the counter-currents were they were not invincible and could be overcome through proper efforts, strategies, dedication, devotion, steadfastness, and sacrifices. She proved to all that women were no less than men, that they could do what men could do and maybe even more. Thus, Margaret was a great example of an early pioneer woman who was daring, dedicated, persistent, and focused on her undertaken causes. She would be a great role model for future generations of social reformers and activists, and a great illustration of humility and humbleness that is so essential in reform efforts. In closing, it seems essential to mention that for any battle or fight, whether it is physical, social, cultural, political, or religious, the initial moves are of extreme importance and determine if the efforts would be a success or a failure in the long run. Margaret, in that respect, was a hero

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and a pioneer in the real sense. She was also a hero and a pioneer in the Quaker movement through her services, efforts, and activities, and stood second only to Fox whom she helped to put the movement on a solid footing when he most needed that help. She also openly and loudly raised her voice, when needed, against all undesirable and unfair conceptions and practices of the government, the church, and other organizations during the times when women were not even allowed to speak or participate in public. Finally, it should be added that all social reform efforts ought to be longitudinal in their perspectives, approaches, strategies, and outcomes because the achieved successes are rarely one hundred percent and new problems and issues get added needing further efforts, strategies, resources, and sacrifices. That way all reform efforts need to be constant and continuous to be effective.

Elizabeth Fry The second case study included in this work was that of Elizabeth Fry who was also from England, was a Quaker, and was an early pioneer woman in prison reform and relief work. She was born in 1780 (died in 1845) to a well-to-do family and was kind and brave. Like Margaret Fell, she was also a star of her times when women were confined to their homes, not treated well, and suffered from all kinds of handicaps and inequalities. Reform ideas were within Elizabeth’s family, and the main issues of interest for Elizabeth were the increasing crime in the country, horror in the prisons, the rights and wrongs of capital punishment, and the vagrancy of boys. She was encouraged by her brother-in-law to visit some prisons, asylums, and hospitals which she did between 1813 and 1815; she was shocked to see the conditions and circumstances there. Prisons, particularly in those days, were horrible places; dark, damp, dungeon-like, filthy, unhealthy, unventilated, crowded, and located in run-down buildings. All kinds of prisoners were kept in close proximity; among them were men, women, and children, those with minor transgressions and serious crimes, old and young prisoners, healthy and unhealthy prisoners, mentally ill and mentally sound prisoners, dangerous and ordinary prisoners, and those confined for both short terms and long terms. They all faced many problems and issues; the main ones being acquiring enough provisions to meet their daily needs, health issues, handling of emergencies, cooking, washing and sleeping in narrow spaces, squabbles, fighting, crimes, excessive drinking among the prisoners, and the treatment prisoners received from the jailors. These jailors were from low ranks of the society, their wages were low, and even those were not paid

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regularly. Their positions were of low prestige and many corrupt practices prevailed among them, like the selling of liquor and beer to the prisoners, taking bribes from them for small favors, and stealing from jail provisions. There was little law and order in the prisons and there were no inspections of how the prisons were run or how the prisoners were treated. On all these matters there was apathy on the parts of the government and the public, and inactivity, boredom, depression, insanity, and other ills were common in the prisons. The conditions of women and child prisoners were horrible.2 Protests against the prison conditions had started as early as 1652 when a commission was formed by Parliament to look into the matter and, upon its recommendation, several prison reforms were made. But conditions and circumstances did not improve much and, as a result, The Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline was established. This society tried to bring some changes in prison conditions and circumstances. Later John Howard (born in 1726), Head Sheriff of Bedford, took over the task and, based on his recommendations, several more reform measures were instituted. But the implementation of these measures remained poor. That was the entry point for Elizabeth who tried to take the prison reforms a little further; her battleground was Newgate Prison. Elizabeth had first visited Newgate Prison in 1813 at the age of thirtythree. She was with her sister, Anna Buxton, when she had talked to the women prisoners about their problems and issues, delivered some food, clothes, and other supplies to them, and then returned home. However, in 1816 she returned to the prison with the intent of bringing about some significant changes in the conditions and circumstances of the women prisoners. She sat in a chair and intently listened to the women. Many issues came up; among them were inactivity and boredom of the women and their children, and their low confidence about the future of their lives. Therefore, the first thing Elizabeth suggested to them was the opening of a school for the children to keep them busy and to impart to them some education. Elizabeth could easily do that on her own, but she put the responsibility on the prison women and asked them to find a teacher from among themselves or from the regular visitors to the prison. When she next returned to the prison, she was surprised to see that the women had found a teacher from among themselves, and even the prison authorities had cooperated and had allocated an unused room for the school. Thus, the women prisoners had met the challenge and this success boosted their confidence for other similar activities. For the social activists and reformers, some lessons were: 1) that instead of ideal approaches, social activism and reform efforts worked better if they were based on fact-

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finding about the problems and issues; 2) those with problems and issues were encouraged to improve their conditions on their own through selfhelp measures; 3) initially and during the reform process some outside encouragement and help might also be needed; 4) success in one problem area could boost the confidence of the participants in other problem areas too; and 5) when people started working on their own problems and issues others joined in and cooperated toward the resolution of those problems and issues. Next, Elizabeth suggested that the women prisoners form an association of their own with three objectives: 1) to develop greater discipline among themselves, 2) to meet their own needs in self-supporting ways, and 3) to prepare themselves for employment when their jail terms were over. Thus, the Association for the Improvement of Women Prisoners was formed with thirteen members of the advisory committee being from the outside, including Elizabeth. That committee helped the women prisoners come up with their own standards, expectations, and modes of operation. Additional stipulations were: 1) that a female matron be appointed for the supervision of the women prisoners; 2) the women prisoners be engaged in productive activities like knitting, stitch-work, needlework, patchwork, and quilt-making which would keep them occupied and later would provide them means of sustenance; 3) there would be no begging, swearing, or fighting among the women prisoners; 4) women prisoners would get rid of any improper reading materials; 5) a yard-keeper would watch outside contacts of the women prisoners; 6) women prisoners would be divided into groups according to the severity of their crimes; 7) a monitor would be selected from within each group to keep an eye on the conduct of the women prisoners; 8) the monitors would keep an eye on the conduct of the women prisoners in other groups; 9) the monitors would also keep an eye on the cleanliness and orderliness of the women prisoners; 10) any monitor not performing their duties would be dismissed and another monitor would be appointed; and 11) the matron would keep an account of the activities and productivity of the women prisoners, suggest to them ways to improve, and recommend punishments and rewards for the women prisoners. It is probable that not all of these suggestions came from the women prisoners themselves, and that members of the advisory committee must have helped. But the important point for the social activists and reformers was that these suggestions were based on the problems and issues pointed out by the women prisoners and came up through their active participation in the process. To implement the plan, Elizabeth contacted some local manufacturing firms in London and they were willing to help. Thus, a cloth manufacturing

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facility was established within the prison where fine cloth was produced and sold locally, both in bulk and retail. That activity imparted to the women prisoners some skills and also gave them sustenance money. To the cloth producing activity were added training in the use of tools, knitting, stitch-work, needlework, patchwork, and quilt-making. All these activities kept the women occupied and helped them in attaining more survival skills. The experiment was very successful and was replicated in other prisons with equal success. It also brought name and fame to Elizabeth, and to Newgate Prison, and changed the whole working environment of the prison. As new problems and issues kept on coming forth Elizabeth kept on devising innovative solutions. One such case was that of the shipping of women prisoners to far-off destinations after their jail terms were over so that they did not spread bad influences among the local population. The means to do that were “convict ships” and far-off places that were unknown to the women prisoners. No pre-arrangements were made for them to work or stay in the new places, they had no money with them, and they did not know anybody whom they could ask for help. The voyages were long and there was nothing for them or their children to do on the way. Open wagons were arranged to transport the women to the convict ships in the daylight, and wild crowds followed them, cursed them, and even pelted them with stones. Elizabeth felt that all this was very inhumane and unfair to the women. Accordingly, she discussed the matter with the authorities and had some changes made. Henceforth the women prisoners were carried to the convict ships in closed wagons, the times were such that curious crowds could not follow them and, on the ships, matrons were arranged to accompany the women prisoners, guide and counsel them, keep them safe, and also educate their children. Raw materials were arranged for the women prisoners so that they could make products out of them, using the skills acquired in prison, and sell them at their destinations for some start-up money. In addition, places of refuge were built for them at the destinations for temporary stays until the women were able to make more permanent arrangements. This changed the whole situation of women prisoners. Throughout her life, Elizabeth continued to fight for better conditions for women prisoners suggesting that, like other people, they should have some rights and that the focus of their confinement should be more on their rehabilitation than on their punishment. She also suggested, “not punishment of the criminals, but prevention of the crimes.” Elizabeth, in addition, recommended regular inspections of the prisons and the ways the convicts were kept and treated in them. These inspections, she said, should be aided by the citizens’ committees. Young and homeless girls came into

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her focus as they often took to delinquency and crime. For them she suggested: 1) finding out the reasons for the delinquency and crime among them, 2) finding ways in which this could be prevented from happening, and 3) the prevention of poverty and hunger among them. Capital punishment also remained a focus of Elizabeth and she continued to fight against that horrible practice too.

Mary Wollstonecraft The third case study included in this work was that of Mary Wollstonecraft who also came from England and came from a very humble and poorly placed family. She was not educated much but had taught herself to a level where she came to be counted among the topmost writers, scholars, and thinkers of her times, and thus became an inspiration to woman social reformers like Margaret Fuller, George Elliot, Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Lucy Stone. Like Margaret Fell, she also inspired the occurrence of the women’s rights movement in America in 1848. Mary was born in 1759 (died in 1797) in Spitalfields, London. Her father was John Wollstonecraft and her mother was Elizabeth Dixon. She was the second child of the couple and was simple, sincere, kind, caring, passionate, giving, and a little naïve. Because of these attributes, she suffered her whole life and twice tried to commit suicide. But providence wanted her to live, and both the times she was saved. Mary was radical and unconventional by nature in her attitudes and behaviors, and remained a controversial figure her whole life, to the point where people focused more on her character than on her works and accomplishments. But she was a brilliant writer and, in her short life of thirty-eight years, wrote a lot based on her real-life experiences and observations.3 She was a great translator and reviewer too and could handle works in several languages. In addition, she was an activist, feminist, philosopher, and educational moral reformer, and she contributed a lot in these areas. She also advocated for the rights of women and recommended equality between men and women, regretting that women in the past had not got enough educational and socio-political opportunities. Her famous works in that regard were A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. A summary content of the latter work has been added in Appendix C.4 Distressed by the spendthrift and alcoholic habits of her father, and his abuse of the family, Mary left her home at the age of nineteen to find an independent living for herself. First, she became the lady companion of a

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widow, but that experience did not turn out to be positive. Thereafter she opened a school with the help of her friend, Fanny Blood, and her sister, Everina. The school ran well but Mary took a long leave of absence from it in order to help her friend, Fanny, who needed that assistance badly. For a while, she also worked as the governess to a girl, but that experience was not great. Mary’s real break came from Joseph Johnson, a liberal publisher and member of the Dissident group of England. He gave her the job of reviewer and translator, and was also instrumental in getting her works published. Joseph Johnson used to hold literary dinners at his home where well-known thinkers, philosophers, poets, and authors socialized and participated. Mary also participated in these literary dinners and it was there that she first met William Godwin who later became her husband. Mary was very happy with her job but her personal life was a shambles, mainly due to her failed romances. Her first such encounter was with Henry Fuseli, an artist in London who Mary thought was a genius, carried grandeur of soul, was quick in compression, and possessed lovely sympathy. She wanted to live with him, but Fuseli’s wife was in the way and that idea could not come to fruition. Frustrated, Mary decided to go to Paris and watch the occurring French revolution firsthand at a time when a “reign of terror” prevailed. Mary’s sympathies were with the revolutionaries, and particularly with the Girondins. Accordingly, she became a suspect and taken as a threat to the monarchy and the ruling class, both in France and in England. Her life was in danger and she was at the risk of being arrested, prosecuted, and even executed. At that point, Gilbert Imlay, a merchant from America, came to her rescue. He gave a statement in writing that Mary was his wife, even though the two were only living together and were not married. Later, Mary had a baby girl with him but, after a while, he lost interest in Mary and fled to England. As Chapter 4 has indicated, no amount of effort on Mary’s part could bring him back. The third romance of Mary was with William Godwin and with whom she also had a baby girl. He married her and was sincere, loyal, loving, respectful, and faithful to her. However, shortly after giving birth to the baby, Mary developed childbed fever and died on September 20, 1797. Mary’s life, endeavors, works, and writings left many lessons for social activists and reformers. Some of these lessons were through her life example in terms of her personality, orientations, family, and other circumstances. Some were where she started, where she ended, and what she accomplished in a very short life. Other lessons were through the many odds, barriers, and handicaps she faced, and how she ended up overcoming these hurdles, mostly through self-efforts. Other lessons were by way of her writings which were path-breaking and original in many

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ways to many people. All these topics have been addressed in Chapter 4 and Appendix C, and there seems to be no need to repeat that information here, except for briefly mentioning some of Mary’s thoughts at that time. Only seventy years before Mary’s birth, the Glorious Revolution had occurred in England which undermined the traditional authority and customs and laid the path for the equal rights of the people vis-à-vis those of the elite and the authorities. In that vein, Richard Price, an elderly Unitarian priest, had delivered a lecture entitled A Discourse on the Love of our Country. In that lecture, he had expressed his views on patriotism for one’s country when he spoke against the monarchy and the ruling class and favored the rights of the people. In addition, he also spoke of ending despotism and oppression in society and a reexamination of old traditions and customs for their suitability and efficacy, making changes where necessary. That exposition by Richard Price started a debate, and thinkers argued on both sides. Mary was on the side of Richard Price and also used that opportunity to advocate for the status, position, rights, and accomplishments of women through the mediums of their better education and active socio-political participation in organizational and institutional structures. She reflected on the themes of gender, sensibility, sexuality, and feminism, and pointed out that merits, virtues, strengths, and weaknesses belonged to both men and women and, accordingly, both sexes needed to be subjected to the same laws, standards, mores, and expectations. She criticized hereditary positions, privileges, and practices, and advocated for middle-class values and standards all over. She was also against excessive commercial wealth. These were the arguments of Mary according to her assessments of the conditions and societal needs at the time. Each future generation, however, would have to do own similar assessments as per the conditions, times, and people’s needs, and decide on the direction of the changes and modifications that should occur.

Lucretia Mott The fourth case study included in this work was that of Lucretia Mott who was also a Quaker, abolitionist, feminist, temperance worker, religionist, reformer, pacifist, and ordained minister. Born and raised during the times when women were not expected to take part in social, political, and religious affairs, she broke these barriers and thus became a role model for eminent personalities like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Lucy Stone. Lucretia was also a major force in the starting of the women’s rights movement in America, where the gaining of women’s suffrage became one of the main activities of the movement.

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There were other problems and issues in those days. Slavery was one issue, and then there were the problems of male-female inequality, the ill treatment of native people, immigrants and foreigners, temperance issues, poor living conditions of mentally ill people, bad treatment of prisoners, the bigotry and arrogance of the church and the government, inflexibility in the social and political institutions, violence in society, disrespect of the human spirit, and more. Hunger, poverty, disease, displacements, and uncertainties were also common, and inequalities existed with regard to education, roles, earnings, and status enhancement opportunities, particularly for women. Lucretia tried to deal with these problems and issues in a bold manner and fought against them her whole life. She was born and raised in an open and liberal Quaker environment, where people treated one another with dignity, respect, and a sense of equality and where women, like men, participated in all aspects of social functioning. Accordingly, it took her a while to grasp these problems and issues in the wider environment although she was dimly aware of them since her childhood. Lucretia was the second of the eight children of Thomas Coffin, a ship’s captain, and Anna Folger, who ran a shop. She was born in 1793 (died in 1880) on an island called Nantucket, near Cape Cod in north-east America. Her folks were among the original settlers of the island, whaling was their mainstay of living, and Quakerism was their faith. A free and liberal spirit prevailed among them, hard work was their main value, and independence was their passion. These attributes were in Lucretia in abundance and she was not afraid of tackling any problem or issue for fear of the consequences. The start of Lucretia’s career was as a preacher. In those days, women in the Quaker tradition preached alongside men but ordained ministry was rare for them. Lucretia, however, was ordained as a minister at the young age of twenty-eight. Reform ideas of all kinds were already in her head and so, besides the religious content, her sermons started carrying reform messages too. She also spoke of the bigotry, narrowness, and hypocrisy of the church and the government, and the need for changes in them as well as in the Quaker traditions and practices. Thus, she became a target of attacks by both Quakers and non-Quakers. Quakers felt that her views about Quakerism were too liberal, and non-Quakers thought that she went against the very grain of Christianity and was a heretic. They also objected to her addressing mixed male and female audiences which was unconventional in those days, and labeled her a “racial amalgamator.” Lucretia did not mind the criticism and opposition and went along her preferred path in accordance with her beliefs and convictions.

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Lucretia’s main efforts remained focused on slavery, women’s issues, temperance, and relief work, while she also devoted time to her preaching responsibilities. In the process, she either organized or helped to organize several local and national associations such as the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, the American Equal Rights Association, the National Women’s Suffrage Association, and the Northern Association for the Relief and Employment of Poor Women in Philadelphia. She also established the Quaker Institute of Higher Learning which later became Swarthmore College. Since the 1930s, Lucretia had been actively participating in several pacifist organizations; one example being the Universal Peace Union. After the Civil War took away the attention of the public from women’s issues, she participated in these organizations even more while still pursuing her other interests. Lessons from Lucretia’s life, endeavors, works, and reform efforts were many and, with regard to dealing with general problems and issues, they were: 1) that instead of focusing on just one or two, all problems and issues needed to be discerned and brought into focus; 2) the approach to the solutions to these problems and issues was to be moralist, along with either a gradualist or a radical bent; 3) most problems were multidimensional and, accordingly, their solutions also needed to be multidimensional; 4) success in one area of social reform prompted success in other areas of social reform; 5) holistic, rather than piecemeal, solutions were needed to all problems and issues; 6) women were to be involved in all areas of social reform and be accorded active participation; 7) in some areas of social reform women could perform better than men because they had more knowledge and experience of the problems and issues at the family, neighborhood, and community levels; 8) many existing traditions, customs, and laws posed impediments to the social reform efforts and were to be reexamined and changed; 9) people were to be involved in the changing of traditions, customs, and laws, and, in return, that involvement also empowered people; 10) more attention was to be paid to the problems and issues of weak and vulnerable populations, and that included women and children; 11) action, not mere talk, was needed in the social reform efforts; and 12) all that was to be done, not as a favor, but because it was the right and noble thing to do. Lucretia made some recommendations for women as follows: 1) women were to be taken as responsible beings; 2) the estimation of women in the society was to increase, and they were to be assigned better status, position, duties, and responsibilities; 3) real concern, rather than flattery or appreciation, was to be expressed for the problems and issues of women, and impediments in their welfare, growth, development, and progress were

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to be removed; 4) women were to have better rights and privileges; 5) women were to get more education and be involved more in societal activities; 6) more nobility and dignity was to be created around women; 7) there was to be no disciplining, domination, or suppression of women; 8) lordly notions of men were to disappear, and women were not to sacrifice their dignity, pride, and self-respect for any reason; 9) women were to live and operate under same laws as men did; 10) women were to participate in the framing of laws; 11) all past and present contributions of women were to be recognized; 12) both men and women were to realize that they were different, but not unequal; 13) both men and women were to live and function with the same self-respect, and neither sex was to be a plaything of the other sex; 14) both men and women were to engage in meaningful activities beyond mere low-end jobs; 15) all social, political, and religious disadvantages against the two sexes were to go, and their common welfare was to be assured; 16) for that to happen more education and training were needed, and new orientations were to develop; and 17) for that, more social, political, and religious openness and a new ethos were also necessary. Lucretia suggested that times were changing already and women were becoming cognizant of their problems and issues. They were also seeking solutions to these problems and issues through more education, better entries into the professions and occupations, and more participation in the socio-political processes. Yet much more was still needed in order for women to be on a par with men and have an equal footing with them. All that information should be of great help to the endeavors of social activists and reformers.

Dorothea Lynde Dix The fifth case study included in this work was that of Dorothea Lynde Dix who was a pioneer teacher, reformer, healer, humanist, and internationalist. In many ways, her reform efforts were similar to those of Elizabeth Fry in England in relation to the conditions and circumstances of women prisoners, but Dorothea’s primary focus was on mentally ill people, and her accomplishments in that area reached a level which started a revolution worldwide. The initial leads to her work came from Dr. Philippe Pinel in France, William Tuke in England, and William Channing in America and, like them, she too came to realize that mentally ill people were not sub-humans and there was no reason to treat them so badly. Accordingly, their physical, mental, and social circumstances were to change, and their harsh treatments in terms of beating, whipping, torturing, and chaining were to stop. Like her predecessors, she was also of the

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opinion that with more empathy, concern, resources, and suitable methods, the conditions and circumstances of mentally ill people could improve and, like other citizens, they too could start living normal and responsible lives. Dorothea’s personal beginnings were very humble even though her grandfather was an influential, ambitious, and self-made man who, by the age of fifty-eight, had started living in a mansion in Boston called Orange Court, also known as “Dix Mansion.” Her own father, Joseph Dix, born in 1778, was sent to Harvard College at the age of seventeen to become a doctor, but during his first year happened to marry Mary Bigelow who was eighteen years his senior. He did that against the wishes of his father and, accordingly, his father’s wrath fell upon him; he and Mary were sent to the far-off Hampden in Maine as a punishment. There Joseph looked after his father’s business interests, but did not find them interesting and became a wandering preacher with no regular income to support the family. Dorothea was born in Hampden in 1802 (died in 1887) and was mostly homeschooled. Her luck changed when her grandfather died in 1809 and her grandmother decided to bring her three grandchildren to Boston to live in Orange Court. There, arrangements were made for Dorothea’s formal education and also for her gaining of “woman’s graces.” Initially, she found these tasks cumbersome, but later adjusted and also nursed an ambition of becoming a teacher. Subsequently, she would open four successful schools where she devoted long hours to fulfilling her duties. Her methods of teaching were unconventional and the parents of her pupils liked that. Many of her earlier writings came from these experiences, practices, and observations. But her health was always delicate and the hard work she was constantly doing was taking its toll. Finally, her health failed to the point where she had to take a long leave of absence from her school and went to England in 1836 to recover. In England, Dorothea stayed for eighteen months with the Rathbone family, who were friends of William Channing and his family. It was in the company of Mr. Rathbone that she first noticed the conditions and circumstances of poor people living in a slum and thought about doing something to help them. When she returned to America, Mr. Rathbone gave her a book by Dr. Pinel detailing his experimental work with mentally ill people in France. That book changed Dorothea much and she decided to render some service to those unfortunate people too.5 But her real work started when she happened to visit East Cambridge Jail in Massachusetts; there saw the conditions and circumstances of the women prisoners who faced many problems and issues. Many of them were mentally unstable; a fact which was known to the jail authorities although

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nothing was being done about it. As a start, Dorothea tried to bring these conditions and circumstances to the attention of the jail authorities with the hope that they would do something about it. But all her urgings fell on deaf ears. Then she tried to bring the matter to the attention of the East Cambridge Court which was in session. Nothing happened there either. Next, she tried to bring the matter before the Boston Prison Discipline Society; again, the results were not positive. Dorothea had tried to stir the matter by moving public opinion through pointing out, in magazines and newspapers, the problems and issues of mentally ill people in prisons. But this strategy also did not work. Thus, no positive results were coming from any of these efforts. Finally, Dorothea decided to change her strategy and started collecting facts about the problems and issues of mentally ill people. For that, she traveled statewide for two years visiting jails, asylums, poorhouses, hospitals, dwellings, and other places where mentally ill people could be found. To them, and about them, she asked questions and recorded the answers faithfully. Thus, she came up with a document called a “memorial”6 for the whole state of Massachusetts. That document revealed that the problems and issues of mentally ill people were indeed severe and statewide. The document also indicated better and worse ways to deal with the problems and issues, and their origins, nature, stages, impacts, prevalence, and related other social, moral, and legal concerns. The legislature was to meet in January 1843; prior to that Dorothea aligned several powerful legislators on her side. Thus, the Memorial was presented to the legislature for action but the response turned out to be negative; this was something nobody had anticipated. Then, somehow, the tide changed and a committee was formed to consider the memorial. This committee passed the measure and a new facility was opened in Massachusetts for mentally ill people. Happy with her success in Massachusetts, Dorothea next repeated that experiment in the states of New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. She got similar positive results from these efforts. After that, she covered the whole of America and even parts of Europe, Asia, and the Middle-East where she established similar facilities for mentally ill people. Her methods remained the same and she also tried to learn from the methods and procedures of overseas caretakers with the intent of using that knowledge to better serve mentally ill people in America. She also did her own information collection, shared that knowledge with the caretakers overseas, and even made various suggestions to them. While doing that she also thought of rendering her services to other needy populations, with prisoners being one example. For them, she suggested changes in the penal code, laws, and policies. She also

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suggested better operation of the prison facilities, and a greater input of money and resources. She also suggested that, besides disciplining, other social and moral goals should be there for the prisoners; their religious education was important, and juvenile offenders needed special attention and better care. With these and other focuses, Dorothea’s fact-finding activities and mission expanded, requiring even further efforts on her part. The Civil War started in America and Dorothea offered her services to the North. There she assumed the role of “Superintendent of the United States Nurses” and, in that capacity, recruited and supervised the work of some 180 nurses. In addition, she took care of the supplies, equipment, and other materials facilities. Later she helped the soldiers in registering for their pensions and with other paperwork. She also kept track of soldiers missing in action and kept their families informed of their status. When needed, she consoled and counseled the soldiers and their families. When all that was done, she returned to her old work and her mission with mentally ill people. Thus, Dorothea was a great role model for other social activists and reformers in terms of illustrating to them what drive was, what passion was, and how to follow a cause with full sincerity. She was also an example to others by showing empathy, sympathy, and kindness to those whom she was trying to help and serve. Coming up with imaginative solutions to problems and issues, designing effective strategies to fulfill the missions, and gaining the needed cooperation of others to reach success for her causes were also her strong points. In that, she suggested that fact-finding was important and, with it, success came more easily and with certainty. Hard work, patience, persistence, and self-sacrifice were also important, and these further cemented the achieving of success for the causes. These and other lessons left by Dorothea for the future social activists and reformers were quite significant and impressive.

Margaret Fuller The sixth case study included in this work was that of Margaret Fuller who was a pioneer journalist, critic, translator, writer, activist, feminist, educational moral reformer, and philosopher. Her life was quite similar to that of Mary Wollstonecraft in England even though she was born into a relatively educated and well-off family whereas Mary was born into a comparatively poor and less educated family. Both had very difficult childhoods, both remained lonely and frustrated throughout life, both had difficulty finding their own identities, and both were unlucky in their love affairs. Both gave a lot to others and did not receive enough in return. And

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both died at a young age; forty and thirty-eight years respectively. Both advised women to be strong socially, morally, and spiritually, be independent and self-supporting, and gain fair, equal, and respectful status opposite men. Both also inspired the occurrence of the women’s rights movement in America in the middle of the nineteenth century. Margaret’s folks came to America from England; her great-greatgrandfather being the first to migrate. Margaret was born in 1810 (died in 1850) to Timothy Fuller, a typical man of those days, and Margaret Crane from Canton. She was their first child. Margaret’s father had realized early on that she was an intelligent child and had considerable potential to grow and develop. Therefore, he started homeschooling her at the age of three in order to make her a topmost intellectual. Her study routines were kept rigorous and long, the subjects she studied were advanced for her age, and there were very few breaks. Accordingly, there was almost no time left for other activities or to socialize properly with other boys and girls. Thus, she often felt lonely, frustrated, and gloomy. But academically she developed quickly and also developed an interest in Roman heroes and Greek romantics through the study of the classics. These two fascinations of hers impacted her personality a lot and she developed problems of selfperception, identity, maintaining relationships with others, and keeping proper boundaries in her expectations of relationships. For these issues of perceptions, feelings, and decision-making she paid a heavy price throughout her whole life and often felt baffled. Margaret suffered from a major mental meltdown in 1831 when she was twenty-one years old but recovered through a spiritual vision. Four years later, in 1835, her father died; this changed her and her family’s lives a lot. Her working career started by taking two teaching jobs; first in the experimental school founded and run by Bronson Alcott and then in Greene School in Boston. Although things went well in both places, and people appreciated her work, she was not happy because her heart lay in writing and her school duties did not leave enough time or energy for that. Therefore, she quit teaching in Greene School. In 1839 three things happened for her: 1) her writing started making significant progress, 2) she started a ladies “conversations” group7 to compensate women for their lack of education and exposure to outside events, and 3) she assumed the responsibilities of editing the Transcendentalist magazine The Dial8 as its first editor. It was mostly members of the Transcendental group that published in this magazine, and Margaret also published in it from time to time. Her most significant publication in that respect was a long essay, The Great Lawsuit: Man versus Men and Woman versus Women, which was published in serial form.9 In this essay she suggested that the association

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of empathy and other similar attributes with women, and of judgment with men, was arbitrary and artificial and needed to be abandoned; these attributes and qualities were common to both men and women, and so not exclusive. Thus, a person could be a mother and father at the same time, and also a lover of a female and a male. The roles and responsibilities of men and women did not have to be different; such duality inhibited the progress of men and women and hurt society. Self-quest was essential in these regards and a self-culture was to be developed. Attitudes, conduct, and practices were to change and a sense of equality, respect, solidarity, cooperation, and harmony was to prevail. Not just women, but men were also to be liberated, and for that gender boundaries could be ignored by both men and women. In 1843, Margaret took a trip to the Great Lakes in the company of some friends; their goal was to see how new settlers and Native Indians were doing there. She was disappointed to see that, besides some material gains, the lives of new settlers were not much better, although Native Indians were still living noble lives. Based on these observations she would later write her book entitled Summer on the Lakes (1844). The real break for Margaret came in December 1844 when the owner and publisher of the liberal newspaper New York Daily Tribune offered her the job of reviewer and translator and asked her to move to New York. She did that and accepted the job. From there on, her column started appearing daily in the newspaper, dealing with many subjects and issues of the times. People appreciated her open, frank, penetrating, and straightforward expressions, although at times she took a stand against prevailing popular opinions. She still felt lonely and frustrated, and one reason for that was her unpredictable love affair with a young man called James Nathan. In 1846, Margaret went to England as a “special foreign correspondent” of her newspaper. Her two works, Miscellanies and Woman in the Nineteenth Century, had already been well received there and she received the welcome of a hero by prominent literary figures of the land. In England, she met Giuseppe Mazzini, an intellectual and a foremost leader of the revolutionary party in Italy who had been exiled from his native country since 1837. Under his influence, she too decided to lend a helping hand in the ongoing revolutionary activities in Italy and moved there. There, in 1847, she met a nobleman and a member of the revolutionary party named Giovanni Angelo Ossoli who was ten years younger than her. The two fell in love, married, and had a baby girl together. But the lives of both remained tough. Ultimately, the revolution in Italy failed and Margaret and her husband had to escape. First, they settled in England but

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then decided to return to America. However, the ship was wrecked very close to the American shore and they died on July 19, 1850. Just as Mary Wollstonecraft and Margaret had similarities in their lives, endeavors, works, and efforts, Margaret also left similar lessons for social activists and reformers as Mary did before her. These pertained mainly to the realms of feminism, socio-political change, educational moral reform, and the status and position of women vis-à-vis of men.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton The seventh case study included in this work was that of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, whose name in social reform terms cannot be taken without mentioning the names of her co-workers: Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, and Antoinette Brown. Like others, Elizabeth was also a pioneer reformer, activist, abolitionist, feminist, historian, and philosopher, and she was also a self-taught homeopathy doctor, counselor, youth guide, and midwife. In addition, she was one of the main founders of the women’s rights movement in America and struggled her whole life for the feminist, abolition, temperance, and religious openness causes. Her story was one of courage, dedication, hard work, and devotion, and she was a great example and role model for many others who wanted to tread similar paths. Elizabeth was born in 1815 (died in 1902) in Johnstown to parents Judge Daniel Cady and Margaret Livingston. The only boy in the family was Eleazer, nine years older than Elizabeth, who died at an early age and caused havoc for the family. The religion of the family was Calvinism; both parents were very conservative and wanted the children to focus on duties, discipline, submissiveness, orderliness, self-control, and respect for their elders. There was little fun or merry-making in the family and a serious environment prevailed at all times. Boys were preferred over girls and they were properly attended to. They were encouraged to have a good education and sound professional or business careers, but the opportunities for girls to have a good education and for having a career were neglected. In fact, they were expected to develop home-making skills, marry, have children, and be good wives to their husbands. Elizabeth resisted this kind of culture and environment in the family. She experienced a different kind of environment in Peterboro where her cousin’s sister lived; that family was open, fun-loving, and devoted to all kinds of socio-political causes including temperance, abolition, and religious openness. That gave Elizabeth another perspective on living and helped her gain a more balanced personality. She also gained an early awareness of the social

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issues of the time; this partly happened through her frequent visits to her father’s law office where her father, his interns, and other lawyers discussed the problems and issues of their clients. Elizabeth’s early education occurred at Johnstown Academy and then in Emma Willard’s Seminary in Troy, New York. In Emma Willard’s Seminary, an Evangelical-Calvinist priest, Rev. Charles G. Finney, delivered his sermons focused on the sins of people and how they would be made to suffer in hell. That, combined with the conservative environment of her family and the town, created major psychological issues for Elizabeth which could only be resolved through enormous help from her family members. The life of reform for Elizabeth started when she married abolitionist Henry Brewster Stanton who was a member of the American Anti-Slavery Society and was ten years older than her. For their honeymoon, the couple visited some European cities and also attended a World Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840. What happened at the convention to the women delegates from America, how they were humiliated and insulted at the first meeting, and how that humiliation and insult became a seed for the women’s rights movement in America has been described in Chapters 1, 5, and Appendix A. How the Woman’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, New York, started, how it attacked the problems and issues faced by women, and how the struggle continued with some occasional gains has also been described. Elizabeth’s role remained prominent in all these areas and she continued to fight for the undertaken causes to the end of her life. Elizabeth’s feminist thinking came from her own family and town environments, her experiences of the events around her, and her reading of several feminist books. In turn, she extended her own feminist thinking, primarily in her History of Woman’s Suffrage, The Woman’s Bible, and her autobiography Eighty Years and More. She opined that women faced many problems, just as the slaves did, but their issues were more severe and had lasted for centuries. Accordingly, their problems needed to be attended to more urgently, and it was not only slaves but they too who needed to be liberated. Thus, Elizabeth made a plea for the rights of women and their equal status with men. Like others, she suggested that in certain respects women were superior to men and could handle problems of society more efficiently. In that, she gave the examples of Tarter, Croatian, and Wallachian women from the past. Like Mary Wollstonecraft and Margaret Fuller, she suggested that there was no justification to make distinctions between men and women which denied women their freedoms and equal status with men. Similar differences based on race, ethnicity, family, class, color, and wealth were also harmful, and so were the

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hierarchies. All these were to go as these created discriminative practices against women and hindered their growth and progress. How these problems could be discerned and dealt with was also elaborated upon by Elizabeth. She was critical of the political and religious systems, which she said did not suitably deal with the problems of slavery and women’s issues and even brainwashed people into keeping the traditional practices. She also talked about the “aristocracy of sex” where men automatically got better treatment and more privileges vis-à-vis women. That “aristocracy of sex” was also to be abandoned. With the starting of the Civil War, more attention was being paid to the slavery cause and women’s issues were put on the back burner. The argument was that the interest of the country was more important than the concerns of women. That caused a further split in the ongoing women’s movement. Some participants suggested that the movement must continue, but some others suggested that the women’s cause could wait. That split ultimately slowed down the women’s movement and its earlier momentum could not be regained in spite of the best efforts of Elizabeth and others. During the 1870s and 1880s, Elizabeth’s energy was falling low, but she continued to make her best efforts for the women’s cause and continued with her mission by delivering messages in different forms. Her view was that comprehensive transformations were needed in society to eliminate women’s issues permanently, but others thought success in one area would also lead to successes in other areas and their focus was on first gaining the voting rights of women. During her last years, Elizabeth lived with her son Robert and widowed daughter Margaret in New York. Her health and eyesight were becoming even poorer, yet she continued with her activities to the end. Her contributions remained enormous, even in her later days, and social activists and reformers can learn a lot from her life, endeavors, works, writings, and other contributions. Some lessons were that early family and other circumstances, including surroundings, were important for the future growth and progress of people, and so were their early leanings, experiences, and observations. Another lesson was that problems and issues were always there in society in one form or another, but not all people cared to deal with them. There were only a few daring ones who choose to take up the task, bare the risks, and make the necessary sacrifices to accomplish their missions. The next lesson was that even when a reform movement started, privileged people and institutions resisted it in fear of possible changes in their own privileges and positions. Governments and churches were also in that category. Times and chances were also factors, and so were the will and determination of the social activists and reformers. Co-workers, their personalities, their preferences,

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and their modes of functioning also mattered. Outside help rarely came in the initial stages of a movement and social activists and reformers needed to remain ready for that. But, if the cause was just and the intentions sincere, help eventually did come forth. Lastly, it took a lot of time, energy, and resources to bring in the needed changes, and even then the problems and issues did not get totally resolved. Thus, there was always a need for the continuation of effort, and the coming in of new generations of social activists and reformers made that possible.

Jane Addams The eighth and last case study included in this work was that of Jane Addams; also a pioneer thinker, writer, social worker, community organizer, reformer, pacifist, feminist, and internationalist. Like most other social reformers of the times, she belonged to an upper-middle-class family and was always interested in doing something for others. She was also interested in peace and pacifism issues, not just locally but nationally and internationally as well. Jane’s folks came to America from England and they were Quakers, but her father had stopped practicing the faith. He married Sarah Weber, and Jane was born in 1860 (died in 1935) among other siblings. Her mother died two years after her birth and the burden of her care shifted to her older sisters. In 1868, her father married another lady, Anna Hostettler Haldeman, who already had two children. After this, the family moved to Cedarville, Illinois. There her father became a successful businessman, an influential figure in the area, and had a friendship with Abraham Lincoln who later became president of America. Her father had also served as an Illinois state senator from 1855 to 1870. To serve others, Jane first tried to become a medical doctor and enrolled in a medical college in Pennsylvania. But her health was always delicate and the study routine was so harsh that her body could not withstand it. Therefore, she quit medical education after one year and returned to Cedarville, Illinois. Then she tried to turn to religion, but there too things did not work out and she was still in search of a purpose in life. One such opportunity came to her when, in 1887, she traveled to England in the company of her friend Ellen Gates Starr and visited Toynbee Hall founded by Henrietta and Samuel Barnett in 1884. That visit changed her life and she decided to establish a similar facility in America after returning to the country. That she did in cooperation with her friend Ellen, and thus was founded Hull House, in Chicago in 1888, in a poor neighborhood on the west side. Over the next forty to fifty years what that

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facility achieved was a star-studded accomplishment and it helped spread the settlement movement, not only all over America but in other parts of the world as well. The lessons left by Hull House for social activists and reformers were many, as the facility attended to the needs of the population in the neighborhood. For example, for the very young the facility created a nursery and a kindergarten so that mothers could have some free time, work better at their places of employment, and try to bring in more wages. The nursery and the kindergarten also provided opportunities for parents from different ethnicities and backgrounds to meet one another and thereby have a better mutual understanding. For the youth, the facility established a gymnasium to keep them busy and also develop better health. In addition, they were encouraged to participate in educational, sports, arts, handicrafts, and other groups, and become more enlightened and productive. For the ladies, the facility started a “reading group” to draw them toward the planned activities of Hull House, and then formal educational classes were started for them. Home visits were made to gather information on the conditions and circumstances of families and this was used for advocacy, policy-making, and legislative reform purposes. A boarding facility was created for young working girls who had no other place to go. For older people, a public kitchen, a lunchroom, a public bath, a theater, some meeting rooms, and an art gallery were created. An employment bureau was established for the residents of the neighborhood where occupational training was also provided. A library, a dispensary, and a playground were also established for the neighborhood, and meetings were arranged for old and new residents to meet, share common experiences, and develop projects of mutual cooperation. All these activities of Hull House resulted in revolutionary changes in the neighborhood which were noticed by others and similar facilities started popping up all over the country. Most of these facilities were sectarian or religious in functioning, but Hull House remained non-sectarian, nonreligious, and open to all kinds of people. Hull House also attended to the cleanliness and sanitation needs of the neighborhood in order to create a better physical and psychological environment for the residents. Poverty, hunger, long working hours, low wages, poor working conditions, and uncertainty in employment were also attended to which brought improvements to these areas. Unemployment support, workers’ compensation, and pension plans were also created. Efforts were made to change the work laws and, for young delinquents, separate living arrangements, separate juvenile laws, and separate juvenile courts were recommended and created. The emphasis for them was to be

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on rehabilitation; proper services, policies, and programs were to be created for that. Jane, in addition, contributed much to the conceptual aspects of social reform efforts and what she accomplished at Hull House was simply labeled as “progressive thinking.” Her initial idea was that educated and upper-middle-class women should be aware of the conditions and circumstances of poor people, and poor people ought to be aware of the values and living styles of upper-middle-class people. She felt that poor people should also know that opportunities for improvement in their conditions and circumstances were there if they tried, and for that outside help was also possible.10 To the conception of “progressive thinking” she added the ideas of cultural, educational, and recreational change. She also added the requirements of mutual understanding, cooperation, broader education, democratic functioning, activism, working across class and regional lines, teaching by example, pacifist orientations, peaceful strategies to solve problems and issues, and the bringing of social justice at all levels.11 She also emphasized that the conception of “progressive thinking” would be complete only with all these factors, and anything less than that was not progressive thinking. Feminism was a part of the conception of “progressive thinking” and Jane suggested that gender was a biological, cultural, and historical fact which made men and women similar, as well as different. But these differences were not such that different roles, responsibilities, rights, and privileges had to be assigned to men and women. She suggested self-help to women in solving their problems and issues, mentioning that some help in that regard may also come from men. She suggested that women had to overcome their class, education, ethnicity, subculture, location, and other differences in order to act in unity and solve their problems and issues. More education and training were also suggested, and advocacy for more facilities and services was essential too. Thus, Jane left many lessons for social activists and reformers, and her ideas enhanced the fields of social work, social welfare, community organization, activism, pacifism, feminism, and internationalism. She also contributed to educational, moral, and political thought.

APPENDIX A1 DECLARATION OF SENTIMENTS AND RESOLUTIONS, WOMAN’S RIGHTS CONVENTION, HELD IN SENECA FALLS, NEW YORK, JULY 19-20, 1848

Introductory Note The first convention on the rights of women in America was held over two days in Seneca Falls, New York, and the main objective was to spread the word about women’s issues in the surrounding areas. The “Declaration of Sentiments” was modeled after the “Declaration of Independence” of 1776 and was drafted by Elizabeth Cady Stanton with the help of several other activists, including Lucretia Mott. The document was read and adopted at the convention and several resolutions were also passed. The texts of these documents were as follows.

Declaration of Sentiments When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one portion of the family of man to assume among the people of the earth a position different from that which they have hitherto occupied, but one to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes that impel them to such a course. We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights governments are instituted, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. Whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of those who

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suffer from it to refuse allegiance to it, and to insist upon the institution of a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their duty to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of the women under this government, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to demand the equal station to which they are entitled. The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on the part of man toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over her. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. x x x x x x x

x

He (Man) has never permitted her to exercise her inalienable right to the elective franchise. He has compelled her to submit to laws, in the formation of which she had no voice. He has withheld from her rights which are given to the most ignorant and degraded men—both natives and foreigners. Having deprived her of this first right of a citizen, the elective franchise, thereby leaving her without representation in the halls of legislation, he has oppressed her on all sides. He has made her, if married, in the eye of the law, civilly dead. He has taken from her all right in property, even to the wages she earns. He has made her, morally, an irresponsible being, as she can commit many crimes with impunity, provided they be done in the presence of her husband. In the covenant of marriage, she is compelled to promise obedience to her husband, he becoming, to all intents and purposes, her master—the law giving him power to deprive her of her liberty, and to administer chastisement. He has so framed the laws of divorce, as to what shall be the proper causes of divorce; in case of separation, to whom the guardianship of the children shall be given; as to be wholly regardless of the happiness of women—the law, in all cases, going

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x

x x x x

x

x x

upon the false supposition of the supremacy of man, and giving all power into his hands. After depriving her of all rights as a married woman, if single and the owner of property, he has taxed her to support a government which recognizes her only when her property can be made profitable to it. He has monopolized nearly all the profitable employments, and from those she is permitted to follow, she receives but a scanty remuneration. He closes against her all the avenues to wealth and distinction, which he considers most honorable to himself. As a teacher of theology, medicine, or law, she is not known. He has denied her the facilities for obtaining a thorough education—all colleges being closed against her. He allows her in Church as well as State, but a subordinate position, claiming Apostolic authority for her exclusion from the ministry, and, with some exceptions, from any public participation in the affairs of the Church. He has created a false public sentiment, by giving to the world a different code of morals for men and women, by which moral delinquencies which exclude women from society, are not only tolerated but deemed of little account in man. He has usurped the prerogative of Jehovah himself, claiming it as his right to assign for her a sphere of action, when that belongs to her conscience and her God. He has endeavored, in every way that he could to destroy her confidence in her own powers, to lessen her self-respect, and to make her willing to lead a dependent and abject life.

Now, in view of this entire disfranchisement of one-half the people of this country, their social and religious degradation,—in view of the unjust laws above mentioned, and because women do feel themselves aggrieved, oppressed, and fraudulently deprived of their most sacred rights, we insist that they have immediate admission to all the rights and privileges which belong to them as citizens of these United States. In entering upon the great work before us, we anticipate no small amount of misconception, misrepresentation, and ridicule; but we shall use every instrumentality within our power to affect our object. We shall employ agents, circulate tracts, petition the State and national Legislatures, and endeavor to enlist the pulpit and the press in our behalf. We hope this

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Convention will be followed by a series of Conventions, embracing every part of the country. Firmly relying upon the final triumph of the Right and the True, we do this day affix our signatures to this declaration. After the “Declaration of Sentiments” was adopted and signatures of the participants willing to sign it were affixed, Lucretia Mott offered and spoke of the following resolution: Resolved, That the speedy success of our cause depends upon the zealous and untiring efforts of both men and women, for the overthrow of the monopoly of the pulpit, and for the securing to woman an equal participation with men in the various trades, professions and commerce. That resolution was adopted.

Other Resolutions Other resolutions read and adopted at the convention were as follows: Whereas, the great precept of nature is conceded to be, "that man shall pursue his own true and substantial happiness," Blackstone, in his Commentaries, remarks, that this law of Nature being coeval with mankind, and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times; no human laws are of any validity if contrary to this, and such of them as are valid, derive all their force, and all their validity, and all their authority, mediately and immediately, from this original; Therefore, Resolved, That such laws as conflict, in any way, with the true and substantial happiness of woman, are contrary to the great precept of nature, and of no validity; for this is "superior in obligation to any other.” Resolved, That all laws which prevent woman from occupying such a station in society as her conscience shall dictate, or which place her in a position inferior to that of man, are contrary to the great precept of nature, and therefore of no force or authority. Resolved, That woman is man's equal—was intended to be so by the Creator, and the highest good of the race demands that she should be recognized as such. Resolved, That the women of this country ought to be enlightened in regard to the laws under which they -live, that they may no longer publish their degradation, by declaring themselves satisfied with their present position, nor their ignorance, by asserting that they have all the rights they want. Resolved, That inasmuch as man, while claiming for himself intellectual superiority, does accord to woman moral superiority, it is pre-eminently

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his duty to encourage her to speak, and teach, as she has an opportunity, in all religious assemblies. Resolved, That the same amount of virtue, delicacy, and refinement of behavior, that is required of woman in the social state, should also be required of man, and the same transgressions should be visited with equal severity on both man and woman. Resolved, That the objection of indelicacy and impropriety, which is so often brought against woman when she addresses a public audience, comes with a very ill grace from those who encourage, by their attendance, her appearance on the stage, in the concert, or in the feats of the circus. Resolved, That woman has too long rested satisfied in the circumscribed limits which corrupt customs and a perverted application of the Scriptures have marked out for her, and that it is time she should move in the enlarged sphere which her great Creator has assigned her. Resolved, That it is the duty of the women of this country to secure to themselves their sacred right to the elective franchise. Resolved, That the equality of human rights results necessarily from the fact of the identity of the race in capabilities and responsibilities. Resolved, therefore, That, being invested by the Creator with the same capabilities, and the same consciousness of responsibility for their exercise, it is demonstrably the right and duty of woman, equally with man, to promote every righteous cause, by every righteous means; and especially in regard to the great subjects of morals and religion, it is selfevidently her right to participate with her brother in teaching them, both in private and in public, by writing and by speaking, by any instrumentalities proper to be used, and in any assemblies proper to be held; and this being a self-evident truth, growing out of the divinely implanted principles of human nature, any custom or authority adverse to it, whether modern or wearing the hoary sanction of antiquity, is to be regarded as self-evident falsehood, and at war with the interests of mankind.

Endnote On the part of the public, the media, the religious organizations, and the political establishment, the response to the convention and its resolutions was very critical and what took place there was shocking to all. However, some people in the audience understood what the women were trying to do and what their goal was. Accordingly, they stood in sympathy with them. Efforts toward the amelioration of women’s conditions had been occurring before, but the convention in Seneca Falls, New York, is generally taken as the starting point of the women’s rights movement in America.

APPENDIX B1 MARGARET FELL’S WRITINGS

1660 Letter to King James II We who are the people of God called Quakers, who are hated and despised, and every where spoken against, as people not fit to live, as they were that went before us, who were of the same spirit, power, and life, and were as we are, in that they were accounted as the off-scouring of all things, by that spirit and nature that is of the world; and so the scripture is fulfilled, "He that is born of the flesh persecuteth him that is born of the spirit." We have been a suffering people, under every power and change, and under every profession of religion that hath been, and borne the outward power in the nation these twelve years, since we were a people, and being that, through the old enemy which hath continually appeared against us, not only in the profane people of the nation, but also in the highest profession of sorts and sects of religion, we have suffered under, and been persecuted by them all: some even persecuted and imprisoned till death; others their bodies bruised till death, stigmatized, bored through the tongue, gagged in the mouth, stocked, and whipped through towns and cities; our goods spoiled, our bodies two or three years imprisoned; with much more that might be said, which is well known to the actors thereof. And this done not for the wronging of any man, nor for the breach of any just law of the nation, nor for evil doing, nor desiring any evil, or wishing any hurt to any man, but for conscience sake towards God, because we could not bow to their worship, and because we could not maintain a ministry, which ministry we could not join with nor own. So we look upon it to be unjust to maintain them we receive nothing from, nor cannot trust our souls under their teaching, who "teach for hire, and divine for money," which the prophets of the Lord cried woe against. And Christ said, a hireling was a thief and a robber, and would fly because he was a hireling. And they are maintained by tithes, contrary to Christ and the apostles' doctrine, who said the priesthood was changed that took tithes, and the law also that gave them, and who witnessed Christ Jesus to be the everlasting offering once for all, Who saith, "Such an high-priest hath become us,

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which is holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from Sinners, and made higher than the heavens who in the days of his flesh, when he had offered up prayers and supplications, with strong cries and tears, unto him that was able to save him from death and was heard in that he feared: though he was a son yet learned he obedience by the things which he suffered, and being made perfect became the author of eternal salvation unto all them that obey him."And for obedience to him and his commands do we suffer, who hath said, "Swear not at all." And he said, "Call no man master upon earth, for ye have one master in heaven." And who hath said, "How can you believe that seek honour one of another, and not the honour that comes from God only." And who hath said "Let your yea be; yea, and your nay, nay, for whatsoever is more than this, cometh of evil." And because we cannot respect persons, which is contrary to the apostle's doctrine and practice, who hath said, "Of a truth God is no respecter of persons, but in every nation he that feareth God, and worketh righteousness, is accepted of him." And the apostle James exhorted his brethren not to have "the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ with respect of persons, for if you respect persons you commit sin, and are convinced of the law as transgressors." And contrary to this faith and doctrine we are made transgressors by the powers of the earth, because we cannot respect persons, and commit sin, and be made transgressors of the law of God. And this hath been the only ground and cause of our sufferings, because we obeyed the command of Christ, the author of our eternal salvation, and observed the apostles' doctrine and practice; and not for any other cause or end have our sufferings been, but for conscience sake, because we cannot bow to men's wills and worships contrary to the command of Christ Jesus our everlasting priest, king, and prophet, whom we serve with our spirits, and worship in that which the world calls heresy. And now because that several of you, who are most concerned in this government, are not acquainted with our principles and practices, neither have known our innocency and sufferings, and the old enemy, by whom we have suffered, at this time being ready to incense and instigate, and infuse secretly into the minds of them who are strangers to us, against whom we have not transgressed, neither do we desire to give any just occasion of offense to these present governors who yet have not done us much wrong, in making any law against us, that we know of; and we do believe would not, if ye did rightly understand our innocency and integrity, nakedness and singleness in our carriage towards all men upon the face of the earth, and if ye would but examine, and search out our carriage and behaviour towards all men's persons, souls, and estates - if these things were searched and examined through the nations, and that no

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prejudice were let into your minds from others' words, which proceed from secret envy, malice , and hatred, and not from any just ground they have against us, but, as it is, from a contrary spirit and mind, as it was in the Jews against Christ, and in all others against the apostles, so it is the same now against us; but this we commit to the Lord, who will plead our cause, and clear our innocency, who hath said "Vengeance is mine, and I will repay it." And now that they know we cannot swear, nor take an oath, for conscience sake, but have suffered because we could not take them now do the magistrates of several counties of the nation, through the suggestion, of the priests' envy, which is inveterate against us, tender us; an oath, which they call the oath of allegiance, with several other engagements, what their own wills can invent, on purpose to ensnare us, that upon the denial thereof they may cast us into prison, and have already cast several of us into prison at their own pleasure. We do therefore declare, to take off all jealousies, fears, and suspicions of our truth and fidelity to the king, and these present governors, that our intentions and endeavours are and shall be good, true, honest, and peaceable towards them, and that we do love, own, and honour .the king and these present governors, so far as they do rule for God and his truth, and do not impose any thing upon people's consciences, but let the gospel have its free passage through the consciences of men, which we do not know that they have, by any law, as yet imposed. And if they grant liberty of conscience towards God and towards man, then we know that God will bless them. For want of which hath been the overthrow of all that went before them. We do not desire any liberty that may justly offend any one's conscience, but the liberty we do desire is, that we may keep our consciences clear and void of offense towards God and towards men, and that we may enjoy our civil rights and liberties of subjects, as freeborn Englishmen. And this we do in the Presence of the Lord declare, not in flattering titles, but in reality and truth of our hearts, and shall manifest the same. Now, that we may be clear in the presence of the living God, and of all just and moderate men, that they may not have their hands in blood and persecution, as those have had that are gone before, and that they may not be ignorant of us, anti of our principles and practice, and so receive information again signs from other's envy, which may be contrary to our very principle, and the truth as it is in Jesus; and that we may be free from the blood of all men, and that they may not have a hand in persecuting and oppressing the innocent, whose cause God hath pleaded and will plead; we do therefore inform the governors of this nation, high and low, that we are a people that desire the good of all people, and their peace, and desire that all may be saved, and come to the knowledge of the truth, the way, and the

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life, which is Christ Jesus, the everlasting covenant, which is given for a light to the Gentiles, and to be the salvation to the ends of the earth. And all the nations that are saved must walk in this light of the glorious gospels which hath shined in our hearts, and given us the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ. And to this light we direct people's minds, that every one in particular may have a teacher and testimony according to the righteousness of faith, which speaketh on this wise: "The word is very nigh, in the heart and in the mouth." And if every one would come to this, there would be a feeling of God's justice and righteousness, and our intents to be just, innocent, and righteous, who hath said, "I will come near to judgment, and be a swift witness against the sorcerer, and adulterer, and false sweater." Now, if every one would turn to this witness in their own consciences, this would keep them from oppressing and persecuting of others without cause, for God is coming to teach his people himself, by his own light and spirit, who hath said, "It is written in your law, you shall be all taught of God;" which many of us now do witness; for which cause are we persecuted. The children of the Lord are taught of the Lord, and are established in righteousness, and are far from oppression. The testimony that we have borne hath been chiefly against priests, teachers, and professors of these nations, that are out of the life and power; for when it pleased the Lord to reveal his Son in us, we saw them to be absolute deceivers of the people, and betrayers of their souls; for they lead them wholly from that of God in them to the letter of the scripture without them, and to their own inventions, and imaginations, and meanings, which they speak who are not taught of God themselves. For, for all their high profession, there is scarce one of them that dares say they have the infallible spirit of God, the same as the apostles had, that gave forth the scripture. The apostle saith, "that which may be known of God is manifested in them, for God shows it unto them." No people can retain God in their knowledge and worship him as God, but first they must come to that of God in them. But these teachers deny this doctrine, and have manifested themselves several ways to all sober-minded people, to be men not fearing God, and are not true to their principles; [for this must appear to all] who have minded them, and seen their carriage and behaviour in all these changes that have been these eight years, which have been many, as may be further manifest, for there have been changes of governments, of parliaments, and protectors, several in these eight years, and all these have been warned not to uphold these priests contrary to people's consciences , but that every one might have their liberty, - that they that would have them might maintain them and they that could not receive their doctrines,

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might not be forced to maintain them. But this would not satisfy their covetous practice, but they went on in the way of cruelty, persecuting and oppressing the innocent, and casting into prison, and took treble damages, and spoiled their goods, and made havoc of poor people's increase, and fruits of their labours. Neither would the magistrates hear, but suffered them to go on in their persecution, and upheld them by a law to the oppressing of the innocent, until the Lord, by his mighty power, overturned them, and broke them one after another. And those priests turned to every power, and every government, as it turned; and made petitions, and addresses, and acknowledgments to every change of government, and conformed to every power, and showed much love and zeal to every present power for their own ends. Though many of them were instruments to throw others out, yet through their deceit and subtitles, they have kept themselves in, in all these times and changes. Now, let any honest hearted people judge, whether these be sound principled men, that can turn, conform, and transform to every change according to the times? Whether these be fit men to teach people? But their fruits are manifest, and God doth discover them more and more, that they cannot proceed much longer. Their folly is so much made manifest, they have used their utmost endeavours to cause persecution to continue upon us: but the Lord hath seen it, and we commit to him, and can freely say, the Lord forgive them for what they have, done to us, but for the bearing our testimony against them for the deceiving and betraying of poor innocent people that are blind, and, led by them that are blind into the ditch, we cannot but in pity and love to people' souls, bear our testimony against them; therefore have our sufferings been because we desire the good of all people, and the salvation of their souls; and this is all we desire, and suffer for, that all might come to the knowledge of the Lord, who said , they should all know him, from the least to the greatest. We are a people that follow after those things that make for peace, love, and unity; it is our desire that others' feet may walk in the same, and do deny and bear our testimony against all strife, and wars, and contentions that come from the lusts that war in the members, that war against the soul, which we wait for and watch for in all people, and love and desire the good of all. For no other cause but love to the souls of all people, have our sufferings been, and therefore have we been "numbered amongst the transgressors," and been "accounted as sheep for the slaughter," as our Lord and Master was, who is the captain of our salvation who is gone before us, who, "though he was a son, yet learned he obedience, by the things-that the suffered;" Who said , "My kingdom is not of this world, if my kingdom were of this world, then would my

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servants fight, but my kingdom is not from hence." This is he that comes to save men's lives, and not to destroy them, and this is he that is our Lord and Master, whose testimony we must seal with our blood, if it be required of us. And our Weapons are not carnal but spiritual, who have given our backs, our cheeks, and our hair to all professions, out of the life and power, to be smitten; who have done it to purpose, which the Lord hath overturned, who were often warned by us, under whom we have undergone cruel sufferings. And now you are come up into the throne to be tried, we cannot but warn you in your day to do justly, and to love mercy .whereby the violence of the wicked might be stopped; which is for your own good and prosperity. And so we desire and also expect to have the liberty of our consciences and just rights, and outward liberties, as other people of the nation, which we have promise of from the word of a king, that we may not be made a prey upon by the profane, envious people and priests, against whose corruptions we have borne our testimony, who thirst not only after our estates and liberties, but our blood also; who have already begun to search our houses, and to apprehend our members, and cast them into Prison, there to be kept without bail or main prize, under pretense as if we were thieves, murderers, or traitors, who are enemies to no man's person upon the earth which they cannot lay to our charge , whereby they endeavour to take away our lives. Treason, treachery, and false dealing we do utterly deny; false dealing, surmizing, or plotting against any creature upon the face of the earth, and speak the truth in plainness and singleness of heart, and all our desire is your good, and peace, and love, and unity, and this may thousands will seal with their blood, who are ready not only to believe, but to suffer, but only that the blood of the innocent may not come upon yourselves through false informations. MARGARET FELL Given forth the 5th of the 4th month, 1660. We in the unity of the spirit, and members of Christ, do subscribe, and witness to the truth of this, and in the behalf of those in the same unity, George Fox, Richard Hubberthorne, Samuel Fisher, Joseph Fuce, Gobert Sikes (?), Amos Stodert, William Canton, Gerrard Roberts, John Stubbs, Thomas Coveny, Thomas Hart, James Strut, Ellis Hookes. And now I make here, to answer what can be objected against on, on the behalf of many thousands, who are baptized with one spirit into one body, to bear my testimony, and be offered up for the service of the faith, and to give an account of the hope, this is in me, to every one that asketh according to the scriptures; who was moved of the Lord to leave my house

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and family, and to come two hundred miles to lay these things before you; who to the will of the Lord is committed.

Women’s Speaking Justified, Proved, and Allowed of by the Scriptures, All such as speak by the Spirit and Power of the Lord Jesus And how Women were the first that Preached the Tidings of the Resurrection of Jesus, and were sent by Christ's own Command, before he Ascended to the Father, John 20. 17. Whereas it hath been an Objection in the Minds of many, and several times hath been objected by the Clergy, or Ministers and others, against Women's speaking in the Church; and so consequently may be taken, that they are condemned for medling in the things of God: The ground of which Objection is taken from the Apostle's Words, which he writ in his first Epistle to the Corinthians, Chap. 14. Vers. 34, 35. And also what he writ to Timothy in the first Epistle, Chap. 2. Vers. 11, 12. But how far they wrong the Apostle's Intentions in these Scriptures, we shall shew clearly when we come to them in their course and order. But first let me lay down how God himself hath manifested his Will and Mind concerning Women, and unto women. And first, when God created Man in his own Image, in the Image of God created he them, Male and Female; and God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful and multiply: And God said, Behold, I have given you of every Herb, &c. Gen. 1. Here God joyns them together in his own Image, and makes no such Distinctions and Differences as Men do; for though they be weak, he is strong; and as he said to the Apostle, His Grace is sufficient, and his Strength is made manifest in Weakness, 2 Cor. 12. 9. And such hath the Lord chosen, even the weak things of the World, to confound the things which are mighty; and things which are despised, hath God chosen, to bring to nought things that are, 1 Cor. 1. And God hath put no such difference between the Male and Female, as Men would make. It is true, The Serpent, that was more subtle than any other Beast of the Field, came unto the Woman with his Temptations, and with a Lye; his Subtlety discerning her to be the weaker Vessel, or more inclinable to hearken to him, when he said, If ye eat, your Eyes shall be opened; and the Woman saw, that the Fruit was good to make one wise: There the Temptation got into her, and she did eat, and gave to her Husband, and he did eat also; and so they were both tempted into the Transgression and Disobedience; and therefore God said unto Adam, (who hid himself when

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he heard his Voice) Hast thou eaten of the Tree, which I commanded thee that thou should'st not eat? And Adam said, The Woman which thou gavest me, she gave me of the Tree, and I did eat. And the Lord said unto the Woman, What is this that thou hast done? And the Woman said, The Serpent beguiled me, and I did eat. Here the Woman spoke the Truth unto the Lord. See what the Lord saith, ver. 15. after he had pronounced Sentence on the Serpent, I will put Enmity between thee and the Woman, and between thy Seed and her Seed; it shall bruise thy Head, and thou shalt bruise his Heel, Gen. 3. Let this Word of the Lord, which was from the beginning, stop the Mouths of all that oppose Women's Speaking in the Power of the Lord; for he hath put Enmity between the Woman and the Serpent; and if the Seed of the Woman speak not, the Seed of the Serpent speaks; for God hath put Enmity between the two Seeds; and it is manifest, that those that speak against the Woman and her Seed's Speaking, speak out of the Envy of the old Serpent's Seed. And God hath fulfilled his Word and his Promise, When the fulness of time was come, he sent forth his Son, made of a Woman, made under the Law, that we might receive the Adoption of Sons, Gal. 4. 4, 5. Moreover, the Lord is pleased, when he mentions his Church, to call her by the Name of Woman, by his Prophets, saying, I have called thee as a Woman forsaken, and grieved in Spirit, and as a Wife of Youth, Isai. 54. Again, How long wilt thou go about, thou back-sliding Daughter? For the Lord hath created a new thing in the Earth, a Woman shall compass a Man, Jer. 31. 22. And David, when he was speaking of Christ and his Church, he saith, The King's Daughter is all glorious within, her Cloathing is of wrought Gold, she shall be brought unto the King; with gladness and rejoycing shall they be brought; they shall enter into the King's Pallace, Psal. 45. And also King Solomon in his Song, where he speaks of Christ and his Church, where she is complaining and calling for Christ, he saith, If thou knowest not, O thou fairest among Women, go thy way by the Footsteps of the Flock, Cant. 1. 8. c. 5. 9. And John, when he saw the Wonder that was in Heaven, he saw a Woman cloathed with the Sun, and the Moon under her feet, and upon her Head a Crown of twelve Stars; and there appeared another Wonder in Heaven, a great red Dragon stood ready to devour her Child. Here appears the Envy of the Dragon, Rev. 12. Thus much may prove, that the Church of Christ is represented as a Woman; and those that speak against this Woman's speaking, speak against the Church of Christ, and the Seed of the Woman, which Seed is Christ; that is to say, Those that speak against the Power of the Lord, and the Spirit of the Lord speaking in a Woman, simply by reason of her Sex,

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or because she is a Woman, not regarding the Seed, and Spirit, and Power that speaks in her; such speak against Christ and his Church, and are of the Seed of the Serpent, wherein lodgeth Enmity. And as God the Father made no such difference in the first Creation, nor ever since between the Male and the Female, but always out of his Mercy and Loving-kindness, had regard unto the Weak. So also his Son, Christ Jesus, confirms the same thing; when the Pharisees came to him, and asked him, if it were lawful for a Man to put away his Wife? He answered and said unto them, Have you not read, That he that made them in the beginning, made them Male and Female; and said, For this Cause shall a Man leave Father and Mother, and shall cleave unto his Wife, and they twain shall be one Flesh; wherefore they are no more twain, but one Flesh? What therefore God hath joyned together, let no Man put asunder, Mat. 19. Again, Christ Jesus, when he came to the City of Samaria, where Jacob's Well was, where the Woman of Samaria was, you may read in John 4. how he was pleased to preach the Everlasting Gospel to her; and when the Woman said unto him, I know that when the Messiah cometh, (which is called Christ) when he cometh, he will tell us all things. Jesus saith unto her, I that speak unto thee am he. Also he said unto Martha, when she said, she knew that her Brother should rise again in the last day. Jesus said unto her, I am the Resurrection and the Life; he that believeth on me, though he were dead, yet should he live; and whosoever liveth and believeth, shall never die. Believest thou this? She answered, Yea, Lord, I believe thou art the Christ, the Son of God. Here she manifested her true and saving Faith, which few at that day believed so on him, John 11. 25, 26. Also that Woman, that came unto Jesus with an Alabaster Box of very precious Ointment, and poured it on his Head as he sat at meat; it is manifest that this Woman knew more of the secret Power and Wisdom of God, than his Disciples did, who were filled with Indignation against her; and therefore Jesus saith, Why do ye trouble the Woman, for she hath wrought a good Work upon me? Verily, I say unto you, Wheresoever this Gospel shall be preached in the whole World, there shall also this that this Woman hath done, be told for a Memorial of her, Mat. 26. Mark 14. 3. Luke saith farther, She was a Sinner, and that she stood at his Feet behind him weeping, and began to wash his Feet with her Tears, and did wipe them with the Hair of her Head, and kissed his Feet, and annointed them with Ointment. And when Jesus saw the Heart of the Pharisee that had bidden him to his House, he took occasion to speak unto Simon, as you may read in Luke 7. and he turned to the Woman, and said, Simon, seest thou this Woman? Thou gavest me no Water to my Feet; but she hath

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washed my Feet with Tears, and wiped them with the Hair of her Head: Thou gavest me no Kiss; but this Woman, since I came in, hath not ceased to kiss my Feet: My Head with Oil thou didst not annoint; but this Woman hath annointed my Feet with Ointment: Wherefore I say unto thee, her Sins, which are many, are forgiven her; for she hath loved much, Luke 7. 37. to the End. Also, there was many Women which followed Jesus from Galilee, ministring unto him, and stood afar off when he was Crucified, Mat. 28. 55. Mark 15. Yea even the Women of Jerusalem wept for him, insomuch that he said unto them, Weep not for me. ye Daughters of Jerusalem; but weep for your selves, and for your Children, Luke 23. 28. And certain Women which had been healed of Evil Spirits and Infirmities, Mary Magdalen, and Joanna the wife of Chuza, Herod's Steward's Wife; and many others which ministred unto him of their Substance, Luke 8. 2, 3. Thus we see that Jesus owned the Love and Grace that appeared in Women, and did not despise it: and by what is recorded in the Scriptures, he received as much Love, Kindness, Compassion, and tender Dealing towards him from Women, as he did from any others, both in his Life time, and also after they had exercised their Cruelty upon him; for Mary Magdalene, and Mary the Mother of James, beheld where he was laid; And when the Sabbath was past, Mary Magdalene, and Mary the Mother of James, and Salom, had brought sweet Spices, that they might annoint him: And very early in the Morning, the first Day of the Week, they came unto the Sepulchre at the rising of the Sun; and they said among themselves, Who shall roll us away the Stone from the Door of the Sepulchre? And when they looked the Stone was rolled away, for it was very great, Mark 16. 1, 2, 3, 4. Luke 24. 1, 2. and they went down into the Sepulchre, and as Matthew saith, The Angel rolled away the Stone, and he said unto the Women, Fear not, I know whom ye seek, Jesus which was Crucified: He is not here, he is risen, Mat. 28. Now Luke saith thus, That there stood two Men by them in shining Apparel, and as they were perplexed and afraid, the Men said unto them, He is not here, remember how he said unto you when he was in Galilee, That the Son of Man must be delivered into the Hands of sinful Men, and be Crucified, and the third Day rise again; and they remembred his Words, and return'd from the Sepulchre, and told all these things to the Eleven, and to all the rest. It was Mary Magdalene, and Joanna, and Mary the Mother of James, and the other Women that were with them, which told these things to the Apostles, and their Words seemed unto them as Idle Tales, and they believed them not. Mark this, ye despisers of the Weakness of Women,

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and look upon your selves to be so wise: But Christ Jesus doth not so; for he makes use of the weak: For when he met the Women after he was risen, he said unto them, All Hail! And they came and held him by the Feet, and worshipped him; then said Jesus unto them, Be not afraid, go tell my Brethren that they go into Galilee, and there they shall see me, Mat. 28. 10. Mark 16. 9. And John saith, when Mary was weeping at the Sepulchre, that Jesus said unto her, Woman, why weepest thou? what seekest thou? And when she supposed him to be the Gardner, Jesus said unto her, Mary; she turned her self, and said unto him, Rabboni, which is to say, Master; Jesus saith unto her, Touch me not, for I am not yet ascended to my Father; but go to my Brethren, and say unto them, I ascend unto my Father, and your Father, and to my God, and your God, John 20. 16, 17. Mark this, you that despise and oppose the Message of the Lord God that he sends by Women; What had become of the Redemption of the whole Body of Mankind, if they had not cause to believe the Message that the Lord Jesus sent by these Women, of and concerning his Resurrection? And if these Women had not thus, out of their Tenderness, and Bowels of Love, who had received Mercy, and Grace, and Forgiveness of Sins, and Vertue, and Healing from him; which many Men also had received the like, if their Hearts had not been so united and knit unto him in Love, that they could not depart as the Men did; but sat watching, and waiting, and weeping about the Sepulchre until the time of his Resurrection, and so were ready to carry his Message, as is manifested, else how should his Disciples have known, who were not there? Oh! Blessed and Glorified be the Glorious Lord; for this may all the whole Body of Mankind say, though the Wisdom of Man that never knew God, is always ready to except against the Weak; but the Weakness of God is stronger than Men, and the Foolishness of God is wiser than Men, 1 Cor. 1 25. And in Acts 18. you may read how Aquilla, and Priscilla, took unto them Apollos, and expounded unto him the way of God more perfectly, who was an Eloquent Man, and mighty in the Scriptures; yet we do not read that he despised what Priscilla said, because she was a Woman, as many now do. And now to the Apostle's Words, which is the Ground of the great Objection against Womens Speaking. And first, 1 Cor. 14. Let the Reader seriously peruse that Chapter, and see the end and drift of the Apostle in speaking these Words: For the Apostle is there exhorting the Corinthians unto Charity, and to desire Spiritual Gifts, and not to speak in an unknown Tongue; and not to be Children in Understanding, nor to be Children in Malice; but in Understanding to be Men. And that the Spirits of the

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Prophets, should be subject to the Prophets; for God is not the Author of Confusion, but of Peace: And then he saith, Let your Women keep Silence in the Church, &c. Where it doth plainly appear, that the Women, as well as some others that were among them, were in Confusion: For he saith, How is it Brethren? when ye come together, every one of you hath a Psalm, hath a Doctrine, hath a Tongue, hath a Revelation, hath an Interpretation? Let all Things be done to Edifying. Here is no Edifying, but Confusion speaking together: Therefore he saith, If any Man speak in an unknown Tongue, let it be by two, or at most by three, and that by course, and let one Interpret: But if there be no Interpreter, let him keep Silence in the Church. Here the Man is Commanded to keep Silence, as well as the Woman, when in Confusion and out of order. But the Apostle saith farther, They are commanded to be in Obedience, as also saith the Law; and if they will learn any thing, let them ask their Husbands at home; for it is a shame for a Woman, to speak in the Church. Here the Apostle clearly manifests his intent; for he speaks of Women that were under the Law, and in that Transgression as Eve was, and such as were to learn, and not to speak publickly, but they must first ask their Husbands at home; and it was a shame for such to speak in the Church: And it appears clearly, that such Women were speaking among the Corinthians, by the Apostles exhorting them from malice and strife, and confusion, and he preacheth the Law unto them, and he saith, in the Law it is written, With Men of other tongues, and other Lips, will I speak unto this People, Vers. 2. And what is all this to Women's Speaking? that have the everlasting Gospel to preach, and upon whom the Promise of the Lord is fulfilled, and his Spirit poured upon them according to his Word, Acts 2. 16, 17, 18. And if the Apostle would have stopped such as had the Spirit of the Lord poured upon them, why did he say just before, If any thing be revealed to another that sitteth by, let the first hold his peace, and you may all Prophesie one by one? Here he did not say, that such Women should not Prophesie as had the Revelation and Spirit of God poured upon them: But their Women that were under the Law, and in the Transgression, and were in Strife, Confusion and Malice; for if he had stop'd Womens Praying or Prophesying, why doth he say, Every Man Praying or Prophesying, having his Head covered, dishonoureth his Head; but every Woman that Prayeth or Prophesieth with her Head uncovered dishonoureth her Head? Judge in your selves, Is it comely that a Woman pray or prophesie uncovered? For the Woman is not without the Man, neither is the Man without the Woman in the Lord, 1 Cor. 11. 3, 4, 13.

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Also that other Scripture, in 1 Tim. 2. where he is exhorting that Prayer and Supplication be made every where, lifting up Holy Hands without Wrath and Doubting; he saith in the like manner also, That Women must adorn themselves in modest Apparel, with Shamefacedness and Sobriety, not with broidered Hair, or Gold, or Pearl, or costly Array. He saith, Let Women learn in Silence with all Subjection; but I suffer not a Woman to Teach, nor to usurp Authority over the Man, but to be in Silence; for Adam was first formed, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived; but the Woman being deceived was in the Transgression. Here the Apostle speaks particularly to a Woman in relation to her Husband, to be in subjection to him, and not to Teach, nor usurp Authority over him, and therefore he mentions Adam and Eve: But let it be strained to the utmost, as the opposers of Womens Speaking would have it, that is, That they should not Preach nor Speak in the Church, of which there is nothing here: Yet the Apostle is speaking to such as he is teaching to wear their Apparel, what to wear, and what not to wear; such as were not come to wear modest Apparel, and such as were not come to Shamefacedness and Sobriety; but he was exhorting them from broidered Hair, Gold, and Pearls, and costly Array; and such are not to usurp Authority over the Man, but to learn in Silence with all Subjection, as it becometh Women professing Godliness with good Works. And what is all this to such as have the Power and Spirit of the Lord Jesus poured upon them, and have the Message of the Lord Jesus given unto them? Must not they speak the Word of the Lord, because of these undecent and unreverent Women, that the Apostle speaks of, and to, in these two Scriptures? And how are the Men of this Generation blinded, that bring these Scriptures, and pervert the Apostles Words, and corrupt his Intent in speaking of them? And by these Scriptures, endeavour to stop the Message and Word of the Lord God in Women, by contemning and despising of them. If the Apostle would have had Womens speaking stop'd, and did not allow of them; Why did he intreat his true Yoak-Fellow to help those Women who laboured with him in the Gospel? Phil. 4. 3. And why did the Apostles join together in Prayer and Supplication with the Women, and Mary the Mother of Jesus, and with his Brethren, Acts 1. 14. if they had not allowed, and had Union and Fellowship with the Spirit of God, where-ever it was revealed, in Women as well as others? But all this opposing, and gainsaying of Womens Speaking, hath risen out of the Bottomless Pit, and Spirit of Darkness, that hath spoken for these many Hundred Years together in this Night of Apostacy, since the Revelations have ceased and been hid. And so that Spirit hath limited and bound all up

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within its Bond and Compass; and so would suffer none to Speak; but such as that Spirit of Darkness approved of, Man or Woman. And so here hath been the Misery of these last Ages past, in the time of the Reign of the Beast, that John saw when he stood upon the Sand of the Sea, rising out of the Sea, and out of the Earth, having seven Heads and ten Horns, Rev. 13. In this great City of Babylon, which is the Woman that hath sitten so long upon the Scarlet colour'd Beast, full of Names of Blasphemy, having seven Heads and ten Horns. And this Woman hath been arrayed and decked with Gold, and Pearls, and precious Stones; and she hath had a Golden Cup in her Hand, full of Abominations; and hath made all Nations drunk with the Cup of her Fornication; and all the World hath wondred after the Beast, and hath worshipped the Dragon that gave Power to the Beast; and this Woman hath been drunk with the Blood of the Saints, and with the Blood of the Martyrs of Jesus. And this hath been the Woman, that hath been Speaking, and usurping Authority for many Hundred Years together: And let the Times and Ages past testifie how many have been murthered and slain, in Ages and Generations past; every Religion and Profession, (as it hath been called) killing and murthering one another, that would not join one with another: And thus the Spirit of Truth, and the Power of the Lord Jesus Christ, hath been quite lost among them that have done this. And this Mother of Harlots hath sitten as a Queen, and said, She should see no Sorrow: But though her Days have been long, even many Hundred of Years; for there was Power given unto the Beast to continue forty and two Months, and to make War with the Saints, and to overcome them: And all that have dwelt upon the Earth have worshipped him, whose Names are not written in the Book of the Life of the Lamb, slain from the Foundation of the World. But blessed be the Lord, his time is over, which was above Twelve hundred Years, and the Darkness is past, and the Night of Apostacy draws to an end, and the true Light now shines, the Morning Light, the bright Morning Star, the Root and Offspring of David, he is risen, he is risen, Glory to the Highest for evermore; and the Joy of the Morning is come, and the Bride, the Lamb's Wife, is making her self ready, as a Bride that is adorning for her Husband; and to her is granted, that she shall be arrayed in fine Linen, clean and white; and the fine Linen is the Righteousness of the Saints; the holy Jerusalem is descending out of Heaven from God, having the Glory of God; and her Light is like a Jasper Stone, clear as Chrystal. And this is that free Woman, that all the Children of the Promise are born of; not the Children of the Bond-woman, which is Hagar, which genders to Strife and to Bondage, and which answers to Jerusalem, which

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is in Bondage with her Children; but this is the Jerusalem which is free, Which is the Mother of us all. And so this Bond-woman and her Children, that are born after the Flesh, have persecuted them that are born after the Spirit, even until now: But now the Bond-woman and her Seed is to be cast out, that hath kept so long in Bondage and in Slavery, and under Limits; this Bond-woman and her Brood is to be cast out, and our holy City, the new Jerusalem, is coming down from Heaven, and her Light will shine throughout the whole Earth, even as a Jasper-Stone, clear as Chrystal, which brings Freedom and Liberty, and perfect Redemption to her whole Seed; and this is that Woman and Image of the Eternal God, that God hath owned, and doth own, and will own for evermore. More might be added to this purpose, both out of the Old Testament and New, where it is evident that God made no difference, but gave his good Spirit, as it pleased him, both to Man and Woman, as Deborah, Huldah, and Sarah. The Lord calls by his Prophet Isaiah, Hearken unto me, ye that follow after Righteousness, ye that seek the Lord; look unto the Rock from whence ye were hewn, and to the hole of the Pit from whence ye were digged; look unto Abraham your Father, and to Sarah that bare you; for the Lord will comfort Sion, &c. Isa. 5. And Anna the Prophetess, who was a Widow of Fourscore and Four Years of Age, which departed not from the Temple, but served God with Fastings and Prayers night and day; she coming in at that instant, (when old Simeon took the Child Jesus in his Arms) and she gave Thanks unto the Lord, and spake of him to all them who looked for Redemption in Jerusalem, Luke 2. 36, 37, 38. And Philip the Evangelist, into whose House the Apostle Paul entred, who was one of the Seven, Acts 6. 3. he had four Daughters which were Virgins, that did prophesie, Acts 21. And so let this serve to stop that opposing Spirit that would limit the Power and Spirit of the Lord Jesus, whose Spirit is poured upon all Flesh, both Sons and Daughters, now in his Resurrection; and since that the Lord God in the Creation, when he made Man in his own Image, he made them Male and Female; and since that Christ Jesus, as the Apostle saith, was made of a Woman, and the Power of the Highest overshadowed her, and the Holy Ghost came upon her, and the Holy Thing that was born of her, was called the Son of God; and when he was upon the Earth, he manifested his Love, and his Will, and his Mind, both to the Woman of Samaria, and Martha, and Mary her Sister, and several others, as hath been shewed; and after his Resurrection also, manifested himself unto them first of all, even before he ascended unto his Father: Now when Jesus was risen, the first Day of the Week, he appeared first unto Mary Magdalene, Mark 16. 9. And thus the Lord Jesus hath manifested himself

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and his Power, without Respect of Persons; and so let all Mouths be stopt that would limit him, whose Power and Spirit is infinite, who is pouring it upon all Flesh. And thus much in answer to these two Scriptures, which have been made such a Stumbling-block, that the Ministers of Darkness have made such a Mountain of: But the Lord is removing all this, and taking it out of the way. M. F. A further Addition, in Answer to the Objection concerning Women keeping silent in the Church: For it is not permitted for them to speak, but to be under Obedience; as also saith the Law, If they will learn any thing, let them ask their Husbands at home, for it is a shame for a Woman to speak in the Church: Now this as Paul writing in 1 Cor. 14. 34. is one with that of 1 Tim. 2. 11. Let Women learn in silence with all Subjection. To which I say, If you tie this to all outward Women, then there were many Women that were Widows, which had no Husbands to learn of; and many were Virgins, which had no Husbands; and Philip had four Daughters that were Prophetesses; such would be despised, which the Apostle did not forbid. And if it were to all Women, that no Women might speak, then Paul would have contradicted himself; but they were such Women that the Apostle mentions in Timothy, that grew wanton, and were Busie-bodies, and Tatlers, and kicked against Christ: For Christ in the Male and in the Female is one, and he is the Husband, and his Wife is the Church; and God hath said, that his Daughters should prophesie as well as his Sons: And where he hath poured forth his Spirit upon them, they must prophesie, though blind Priests say to the contrary, and will not permit holy Women to speak. And whereas it is said, I permit not a Woman to speak, as saith the Law: But where Women are led by the Spirit of God, they are not under the Law; for Christ in the Male and in the Female is one; and where he is made manifest in Male and Female, he may speak; for he is the end of the Law for Righteousness to all them that believe. So here you ought to make a Distinction what sort of Women are forbidden to speak; such as were under the Law, who were not come to Christ, nor to the Spirit of Prophecy: For Huldah, Miriam, and Hannah, were Prophetesses, who were not forbidden in the time of the Law, for they all prophesied in the time of the Law; as you may read in 2 Kings 22. what Huldah said unto the Priest, and to the Ambassadors that were sent to her from the King, Go, saith she, and

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tell the Man that sent you to me, Thus saith the Lord God of Israel, Behold, I will bring evil upon this place, and on the Inhabitants thereof, even all the Words of the Book which the King of Judah hath read; because they have forsaken me, and have burnt Incense to other Gods, to anger me with all the Works of their Hands: Therefore my Wrath shall be kindled against this place, and shall not be quenched. But to the King of Judah, that sent you to me to ask Counsel of the Lord, so shall you say to him, Thus saith the Lord God of Israel, Because thy Heart did melt, and thou humbledst thy self before the Lord, when thou heard'st what I spake against this place, and against the Inhabitants of the same, how they should be destroyed; Behold, I will receive thee to thy Father, and thou shalt be put into thy Grave in peace, and thine Eyes shall not see all the evil which I will bring upon this place. Now let us see if any of you, blind Priests, can speak after this manner, and see if it be not a better Sermon than any of you can make, who are against Women's Speaking. And Isaiah, that went to the Prophetess, did not forbid her Speaking or Prophesying, Isai. 8. And was it not prophesied in Joel 2. that Hand-maids should Prophesie? And are not Hand-maids Women? Consider this, ye that are against Women's Speaking, how in the Acts the Spirit of the Lord was poured forth upon Daughters as well as Sons. In the time of the Gospel, when Mary came to salute Elizabeth in the Hill-Country in Judea, and when Elizabeth heard the Salutation of Mary, the Babe leaped in her Womb, and she was filled with the Holy Spirit; and Elizabeth spoke with a loud Voice. Blessed art thou amongst Women, blessed is the Fruit of thy Womb. Whence is this to me, that the Mother of my Lord should come to me? For lo, as soon as thy Salutation came to my Ear, the Babe leaped in my Womb for Joy; for blessed is she that believes, for there shall be a Performance of those things which were told her from the Lord. And this was Elizabeth's Sermon concerning Christ, which at this day stands upon Record. And then Mary said, My Soul doth magnifie the Lord, and my Spirit rejoyceth in God my Saviour, for he hath regarded the low Estate of his Handmaid: For, behold, from henceforth all Generations shall call me blessed; for he that is mighty, hath done to me great things, and holy is his Name; and his Mercy is on them that fear him, from Generation to Generation; he hath shewed Strength with his Arm; he hath scattered the Proud in the Imaginations of their own Hearts; he hath put down the Mighty from their Seats, and exalted them of low degree; he hath filled the Hungry with good things, and the Rich he hath sent empty away: He hath holpen his Servant Israel, in remembrance of his Mercy, as he spake to his Father, to Abraham, and to his Seed for ever. Are you not

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here beholding to the Woman for her Sermon, to use her Words, to put into your Common Prayer? and yet you forbid Women's Speaking. Now here you may see how these two Women prophesied of Christ, and preached better than all the blind Priests did in that Age, and better than this Age also, who are beholding to Women to make use of their Words. And see in the Book of Ruth, how the Women blessed her in the Gate of the City, of whose Stock came Christ: The Lord make the Woman that is come into thy House like Rachel and Leah, which built the House of Israel; and that thou may'st do worthily in Ephrata, and be famous in Bethlehem, let thy House be like the House of Pharez, whom Tamar bare unto Judah, of the Seed which the Lord shall give thee of this young Woman. And blessed be the Lord, who hath not left thee this day without a Kinsman, and his Name shall be continued in Israel. And also see in the first Chapter of Samuel, how Hannah prayed and spake in the Temple of the Lord, O Lord of Hosts, if thou wilt look on the Trouble of thy Handmaid, and remember me, and not forget thy Hand-maid. And read in the second Chapter of Samuel, how she rejoyced in God, and said, My Heart rejoyceth in the Lord; my Horn is exalted in the Lord, and my Mouth is enlarged over my Enemies, because I rejoyce in thy Salvation; there is none holy as the Lord, yea, there is none besides thee; and there is no God like our God. Speak no more presumptuously; let not Arrogancy come out of your Mouths, for the Lord is a God of Knowledge, and by him Enterprizes are established; the Bow, and the mighty Men are broken, and the Weak hath girded to themselves Strength; they that were full, are hired forth for Bread, and the hungry are no more hired; so that the Barren hath born seven, and she that had many Children is feeble. The Lord killeth, and maketh alive; bringeth down to the Grave, and raiseth up; the Lord maketh poor, and maketh rich; bringeth low, and exalteth; he raiseth up the Poor out of the Dust, and lifteth up the Beggar from the Dunghil, to set them among Princes, to make them inherit the Seat of Glory: For the Pillars of the Earth are the Lord's, and he hath set the World upon them; he will keep the Feet of his Saints, and the Wicked shall keep silence in Darkness; for in his own Might shall no Man be strong: The Lord's Adversaries shall be destroyed, and out of Heaven shall he thunder upon them; the Lord shall judge the ends of the World, and shall give Power to his King, and exalt the Horn of his Anointed. Thus you may see what a Woman hath said, when old Eli the Priest thought she had been drunk; and see if any of you, blind Priests, that speak against Women's Speaking, can preach after this manner; who cannot make such a Sermon as this Woman did, and yet will make a Trade of this Woman and other Women's Words.

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And did not the Queen of Sheba speak, that came to Solomon, and received the Law of God, and preached it in her own Kingdom, and blessed the Lord God that loved Solomon, and set him on the Throne of Israel; because the Lord loved Israel for ever, and made the King to do Equity and Righteousness? And this was the Language of the Queen of Sheba. And see what glorious Expressions Queen Hester used to comfort the People of God, which was the Church of God, as you may read in the Book of Hester, which caused Joy and Gladness of Heart among all the Jews, who prayed and worshipped the Lord in all places; who jeoparded her Life contrary to the King's Command, went and spoke to the King, in the Wisdom and Fear of the Lord, by which means she saved the Lives of the People of God; and righteous Mordecai did not forbid her speaking, but said, If she held her Peace, her and her Father's House should be destroyed. And herein, you blind Priests, are contrary to righteous Mordecai. Likewise you may read how Judith spoke, and what noble Acts she did, and how she spoke to the Elders of Israel, and said, Dear Brethren, seeing ye are the Honourable and Elders of the People of God, call to Remembrance how our Fathers in time past were tempted, that they might be proved if they would worship God aright: They ought also to Remember how our Father Abraham, being try'd through manifold Tribulations, was found a Friend of God; so was Isaac, Jacob, and Moses, and all they pleased God, and were steadfast in Faith through manifold Troubles. And read also her Prayer in the Book of Judith, and how the Elders commended her, and said, All that thou speakest is true, and no Man can reprove thy Words; pray therefore for us, for thou art an holy Woman, and fearest God. So these Elders of Israel did not forbid her speaking, as you blind Priests do; yet you will make a Trade of Women's Words to get Money by, and take Texts, and preach Sermons upon Women's Words; and still cry out, Women must not speak, Women must be silent: So you are far from the Minds of the Elders of Israel, who praised God for a Woman's speaking. But the Jezabel, and the Woman, the false Church, the great Whore, and tatling and unlearned Women, and Busie-bodies, which are forbid to preach, which have a long time spoke and tatled, which are forbidden to speak by the true Church, which Christ is the Head of; such Women as were in Transgression under the Law, which are called a Woman in the Revelations. And see farther how the wise Woman cryed to Joab over the Wall, and saved the City of Abel, as you may read, 2 Sam. 20. how in her Wisdom she spoke to Joab, saying, I am one of them that are peaceable and faithful

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in Israel, and thou goest about to destroy a City and Mother in Israel: Why wilt thou destroy the Inheritance of the Lord? Then went the Woman to the People in her Wisdom, and smote off the Head of Sheba, that rose up against David, the Lord's Anointed: Then Joab blew the Trumpet, and all the People departed in Peace. And this Deliverance was by the means of a Woman's speaking. But Tatlers and Busie-Bodies are forbidden to preach by the true Woman, whom Christ is the Husband, to the Woman as well as the Man, all being comprehended to be the Church. And so in this true Church, Sons and Daughters do prophesie, Women labour in the Gospel: But the Apostle permits not Tatlers, Busie-bodies, and such as usurp Authority over the Man, who would not have Christ to reign, nor speak neither in the Male nor Female; such the Law permits not to speak; such must learn of their Husbands. But what Husbands have Widows to learn of, but Christ? And was not Christ the Husband of Philip's four Daughters? And may not they that are learned of their Husbands speak then? But Jezabel, and Tatlers, and the Whore, that deny Revelation and Prophecy, are not permitted, who will not learn of Christ; and they that are out of the Spirit and Power of Christ, that the Prophets were in, who are in the Transgression, are ignorant of the Scriptures; and such are against Women's Speaking, and Men's too, who preach that which they have received of the Lord God; but that which they have preached, and do preach, will come over all your Heads, yea, over the Head of the false Church, the Pope; for the Pope is the Head of the false Church, and the false Church is the Pope's Wife: And so he and they that be of him, and come from him, are against Women's Speaking in the true Church, when both he and the false Church are called Woman, in Rev. 17. and so are in the Transgression, that would usurp Authority over the Man Christ Jesus, and his Wife too, and would not have him to Reign; but the Judgment of the great Whore is come. But Christ, who is the Head of the Church, the true Woman, which is his Wife, in it do Daughters prophesie, who are above the Pope and his Wife, and a-top of them. And here Christ is the Head of the Male and Female, who may speak; and the Church is called a Royal Priesthood; so the Woman must offer as well as the Man. Rev. 22. 17. The Spirit saith, Come, and the Bride saith, Come; and so is not the Bride the Church? and doth the Church only consist of Men? You that deny Women's Speaking, answer: Doth it not consist of Women, as well as Men? Is not the Bride compared to the whole Church? And doth not the Bride say, Come? Doth not the Woman speak then, the Husband, Christ Jesus, the Amen? And doth not the false Church go about to stop the Bride's Mouth? But it is not possible; for the Bridegroom is with his Bride, and he opens her Mouth. Christ Jesus, who goes on Conquering, and to

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Conquer; who kills and slays with the Sword, which is the Word of his Mouth; the Lamb and the Saints shall have the Victory, the true Speakers of Men and Women over the false Speaker.

Pamphlets of Margaret Fell, M., 1655, False Prophets, Anticrists, Deceivers, Which are in the World, which John Prophesied of, which hath been long hid and Covered. But now is unmasked in these last dayes with the Eternal Light which is risen … by Margret Fell. London: Giles Calvert. Fell, M., 1656a, A Loving Salutation to The seed of Abraham among the Jewes: where ever they are scattered up and down upon the face of the earth. London: Thomas Simmons. Fell, M., 1656b, A Testimonie of the Touchstone, for all Professions, and all Forms, and Gathered Churches (as they call them) of what sort soever to try their ground and foundation by. And a Tryal by the Scriptures, who the False Prophets are, which are in the world, which John said should be in the last times by Margret Fell. Also, some of the Ranters Principles Answered. London: Thomas Simmons. Fell, M., 1656c, For Manasseth Ben Israel. The Call of the Jewes out of Babylon. Which is good tidings to the Meek, Liberty to the Captives, and for the opening of the Prison Doores, London: Giles Calvert. Fell, M., 1659a, To the General Councel, and Officers of the English Army, And to every Member in particular. London: Thomas Simmons. Fell, M., 1659b, To the General Council of Officers. The Representation of divers Citizens of London, and others Well-affected to the Peace and Tranquility of the Commonwealth. London: John Clowes. Fell, M., 1660a, The Citie of London Reproved For its Abominations, which doth concern all the Inhabitants thereof that are guilty. London: Robert Wilson. Fell, M., 1660b, A Declaration and an Information From us the People of God called Quakers, To the present Governors, the King and Both Houses of Parliament, and All whom it may Concern. This was Delivered into the Kings hand, the 22 day of the Fourth Moneth by M. F.. London: Thomas Simmons and Robert Wilson. Fell, M., 1660c, An Evident Demonstration to Gods Elect, Which clearly manifesteth to them, I. How necessary and expedient it is for them to come to witnesse true faith. II. That after they have attained to the faith, it must be tried as gold is tried in the fire. III. It shews how many have departed from the faith and denied it. IV. That the standing of the Saints is by faith in the Son of God. V. How strong Abraham was in the

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faith, and how all that believe are to look unto him. By Margret Fell. London: Thomas Simmons. Fell, M., 1660d, This is to the Clergy Who are the Men that goes about to settle Religion (As they say) according to the Church of England. Whether they be Bishops or Presbyters, or what Name soever they may go under. London: Robert Wilson. Fell, M., 1660e, This was given to Major Generall Harrison and the rest. Read this in the Fear of the Lord, and in the moderation of Your spirits, without prejudice. London: Thomas Simmons. Fell, M., 1660f, A True Testimony From the People of God: (Who by the world are called Quakers) of the Doctrines of the Prophets, Christ, and the Apostles; which is witnessed unto, by them who are now raised up by the same Power, and quickned by the same Spirit and Blood of the Everlasting Covenant, which brought again our Lord Jesus from the dead. London: Robert Wilson. Fell, M., 1664, To the Magistrates and People of England where this may come. London: n.p. Fell, M., 1665a, A Call to the Universall Seed of God, Throughout the whole World, to Come up to the Place of Publick Worship, which Christ Jesus the great Prophet hath set up, who took not upon Him the nature of Angels, but the seed of Abraham, whereby he comes to raise up Adams House and fallen State, into an Estate that shall never fall. London: n.p. Fell, M., 1665b, “John Wigan, this in Answer to part of thy Appendix,” in Thomas Curwen, et al., This is An Answer to John Wiggans Book, Spread up and down in Lancashire, Cheshire, and Wales, who is a Baptist & a Monarchy-man. London: n.p., pp. 86-122. Fell, M., 1666, A Letter Sent to the King From M. F. Here is also thereunto Annexed a Paper written unto the Magistrates in 1664, which was then Printed, and should have been dispersed, but was prevented by wicked hands. London: n.p. Fell, M., 1667a, The Standard of the Lord Revealed. By which He hath led and guided and preserved his people since Adam to this day, as is manifested through the Scriptures, and is shewed forth in this following Abstract…. Given forth at Lancaster Castle 11 month 1665/6. By M .F. a Prisoner of the Lord, London?: n.p. Fell, M., 1667b, A Touch-Stone, or, A Perfect Tryal by the Scriptures, of all the Priests, Bishops, and Ministers, who have called themselves, the Ministers of the Gospel … unto which is annexed Womens speaking justified etc. London: n.p.

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Fell, M., 1667c, Womens Speaking Justified, Proved and Allowed of by the Scriptures. All such as speak by the Spirit and Power of the Lord Jesus. And how Women were the first that preached the Tidings of the Resurrection of Jesus, and were sent by Christ's Own Command, before He ascended to the Father, John 20.17, second edition, London: n.p. Fell, M., 1668, A Call unto the Seed of Israel, That They may come out of Egypts Darkness, and House of Bondage, unto the Land of Rest. Also The Righteous Law of God Justified. With an Epistle to all those, whose desires are after the Truth as it is in Jesus where ever they are Scattered. Also Twenty five Queries to all the Worlds Priests and People that say, the Light of Christ is Natural, By M. F.. London: Robert Wilson. Fell, M., 1671, “A few Lines concerning Josiah Coale,” in The Books And Divers Epistles Of the Faithful Servant of the Lord Josiah Coale; Collected and Published, as it was desired by him the Day of his departure out of this Life. London: n.p., pp. 25–26. Fell, M., 1677, The Daughter of Sion Awakened, And putting on Strength: She is Arising and shaking her self out of the Dust, and putting on her Beautiful Garments, M. F.. London: n.p. Fell, M., 1679, “Friend, Whosoever thou art,” in S. Crisp, An Epistle to Friends Concerning the Present and Succeeding Times, third edition. London: n.p., pp. 3–6. Fell, M., 1690, “Margaret Fox's Testimony concerning dear William Carter,” in The Memory of That Faithful Servant of Christ William Carter, Late of Cumberland (Deceased,) Revived. In the Testimonies of Certain Faithful Friends given concerning him, his Faithful Ministry and Blessed End. London: Thomas Northcott, p. 7. Fell, M., 1694, “The Testimony of Margaret Fox Concerning her Late Husband, George Fox; together With a brief Account of some of his Travels, Sufferings and Hardships endured for the Truth's Sake,” in A Journal or Historical Account of the Life, Travels, Sufferings, Christian Experiences and Labour of Love in the Work of the Ministry, of that Ancient, Eminent and Faithful Servant of Jesus Christ, George Fox. London: Thomas Northcott, vol. I, pp. i–ix. Fell, M., 1710, A Brief Collection of Remarkable Passages and Occurrences Relating to the Birth, Education, Life, Conversion, Travels, Services and Deep Sufferings of that Ancient, Eminent, and Faithful Servant of the Lord, Margaret Fell; But by her Second Marriage, Margaret Fox. Together With Sundry of Her Epistles, Books, and Christian Testimonies to Friends and Others; and also to

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those in Supreme Authority, in the several late Revolutions of Government. London: J. Sowle. Fell, M., 1987, Spinoza's Earliest Publication? The Hebrew Translation of Margaret Fell's “A Loving Salutation to the Seed of Abraham among the Jews, wherever they are scattered up and down on the Face of the Earth”, ed. Richard H. Popkin and Michael A. Signer. Assen: Van Gorcum. Fell, M., and Fox, G., 1659, A Paper concerning such as are made Ministers by the will of man; and an exhortation to all sober minded people to come out from among them. London: M. W. Fell, M., and Fox, G., 1664, The Examination and Tryall of Margaret Fell and George Fox (at the severall Assizes held at Lancaster the 14th and 16th days of the First Moneth 1663. And the 29th of the 6th Moneth 1664.) For their Obedience to Christs Command who saith, Swear not at all. Also Something in Answear to Bishop Lancelot Andrews Sermon Concerning Swearing. London: n.p. Fell, M., and Parke, J., 1664, Two General Epistles To the Flock of God, where-ever they are dispersed on the Face of the Earth; who are gathered and separated from the World, and its Wayes and Worships, to bear Testimony for the Lord God against the Deceit and Deceivableness which the Worships of the World have lain in, in the dark Night of Apostacy … written by M. F. and J. P.. London: n.p.

APPENDIX C MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT’S WRITINGS AND SUMMARY CONTENT OF A VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMAN

I. Complete List of the Writings1 —. Thoughts on the Education of Daughters: With Reflections on Female Conduct, in the More Important Duties of Life. London: Joseph Johnson, 1787. —. Mary: A Fiction. London: Joseph Johnson, 1788. —. Original Stories from Real Life: With Conversations Calculated to Regulate the Affections and Form the Mind to Truth and Goodness. London: Joseph Johnson, 1788. Necker, Jacques. Of the Importance of Religious Opinions. Trans. Mary Wollstonecraft. London: Joseph Johnson, 1788. —. The Female Reader: Or, Miscellaneous Pieces, in Prose and Verse; selected from the best writers, and disposed under proper heads; for the improvement of young women. By Mr. Cresswick, teacher of elocution [Mary Wollstonecraft]. To which is prefixed a preface, containing some hints on female education. London: Joseph Johnson, 1789. de Cambon, Maria Geertruida van de Werken. Young Grandison. A Series of Letters from Young Persons to Their Friends. Trans. Mary Wollstonecraft. London: Joseph Johnson, 1790. Salzmann, Christian Gotthilf. Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children; with an introductory address to parents. Trans. Mary Wollstonecraft. London: Joseph Johnson, 1790. —. A Vindication of the Rights of Men, in a Letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke. London: Joseph Johnson, 1790. —. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman with Strictures on Moral and Political Subjects. London: Joseph Johnson, 1792.

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—. "On the Prevailing Opinion of a Sexual Character in Women, with Strictures on Dr. Gregory's Legacy to His Daughters". New Annual Register (1792): 457–466. —. An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution; and the Effect It Has produced in Europe. London: Joseph Johnson, 1794. —. Letters Written during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. London: Joseph Johnson, 1796. —. "On Poetry, and Our Relish for the Beauties of Nature". Monthly Magazine (April 1797). —. The Wrongs of Woman, or Maria. Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; unfinished] —. "The Cave of Fancy". Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; fragment written in 1787] —. "Letter on the Present Character of the French Nation". Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; written in 1793] —. "Fragment of Letters on the Management of Infants". Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; unfinished] —. "Lessons". Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; unfinished] —. "Hints". Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; notes on the second volume of Rights of Woman, not used for writing] —. Contributions to the Analytical Review (1788–1797) [published anonymously]

II. Summary Content of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman Mary’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written in response to Edmund Burke’s Reflection on the Revolution in France and on the Proceedings in Certain Societies in London Relative to that Event published in 1790, and the views of several political theorists, educational

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philosophers, and conduct-book writers on the status and education of women. The following was the main content of that work. The work began with the background of the ways in which women were mistreated, oppressed, and denied their rights at home and in society. The suggestion was that women needed to be aware of these conditions and should try to come out of them through social awareness and education. Chapter 1 focused on absolute and arbitrary power and their adverse effects, including vices associated with the aristocratic and hereditary hierarchies, and why reason and rationality were needed to establish knowledge and virtue in society. It was pointed out that hereditary power was the chief cause of misery prevailing in European countries and that power particularly oppressed poor and vulnerable people, including women and children. The chapter also pointed out that “natural rights” were bestowed upon men and women by God, and these were inalienable. Accordingly, it was wrong on the part of one section of society to deny them to the other section. Chapter 2 went over the arguments that women were different from men, were inferior to men, and the ways they were suppressed and made subordinate to men. Women were also made to believe that they were not to exercise reason, not remain independent, were to remain chaste, and that their physical beauty was of paramount importance for them. Mary argued against these positions but consented that, in some respects, women may have been different and inferior to men; but ignorance was the cause of that, not any inherent deficiencies in women. It was, therefore, wrong on the part of men to make a virtue of the current weaknesses in women which they could easily get rid of through suitable education. Mary also argued that virtue and manners were to be of concern to both men and women as both were created by God and were to live by the same guiding principles. These virtues and manners needed to be based on rationality and not on traditions and customs. The situation was bad in that regard and a revolution was needed in the thinking of men and women to remedy the situation. Mary also commented upon the opinions and arguments of several writers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Gregory on the status of women; she suggested that they had made a toy of woman and a slave of man. They had also enshrined her in the home and specified her main role be to provide services and pleasures to men. Women, in addition, were to stay modest, chaste, and loyal to men, but those requirements were not applied to men. Chapters 3-4 pursued the arguments in the earlier chapters and pointed out that, in the raising of girls, the emphasis was put on the strengthening of their emotions and sentiments and, in that way, they did not develop

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adequate reason or common sense. Young girls were taught to focus on their bodies and seek pleasures in life. That became problematic when they assumed the roles of wives, mothers, and citizens and became more vulnerable to the arbitrary and capricious treatments of men. Chapter 5 criticized those authors who wanted to keep women in the status-quo and limit their education. Mary did appreciate their political standings and revolutionary spirit but disagreed with their notions about the education of women. She suggested that women needed to be exposed to social learnings and that would bring much improvement in them. Chapter 6 went into the importance of early associations for girls for the development of their character and manners, and it pointed out that deficiencies accrued in this regard early on were difficult to overcome later. Mary also stated that, at the time, there were many problems associated with women and the conditions which gave rise to the issues which were still perpetuating them. Chapters 7-8 addressed the subjects of modesty and humility and indicated that these were not the same. Women who used more reason were more modest. Women’s modesty also increased with the strengthening of their bodies and the expansion of their minds. Keeping morality was the responsibility of both men and women, but men had put that burden solely on women. The chapters also discussed true and fake morality and sexual morality at some length. Chapter 9 discussed the discharge of duties by men and women, and the failures in that regard of British politicians, soldiers, men, and women. Another argument was that British politicians, soldiers, men, and women were being rewarded for wrong behaviors and that was not right. The chapter called for more financial independence of women and the need for them to participate in the public field. The chapter also indicated various pursuits women could undertake and the need for them to be good citizens. Chapters 10-13 addressed the topics of parenting and reform in the education system which was more favorable to women in order for them to be good mothers and citizens. The chapters also indicated the failure of the current education system and offered ideas for its improvement. Suggestions included a combination of public and private efforts, home as well as school education, coeducation, participatory education, and the same education for boys and girls. That education system was to be supported by the government in order for the teachers to stop their dependence on parents for salaries. More day schooling arrangements were to be made and children were to be encouraged to stay at home longer in order to gain more maturity and educational skills. Each student was to be allowed to move at their own speed in education as per their respective orientations

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and abilities. Respect for the community also was to be an important consideration in education. Lastly, the ways in which women indulged in silliness were pointed out, and it was suggested that both men and women had things in common that were necessary for successful marriages.2

APPENDIX D1 A SUMMARY VIEW OF MARGARET FULLER’S WOMAN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Introductory Note Next to Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), Margaret Fuller’s Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845) was perhaps the most influential work in the feminist history of America and also inspired the women’s rights movement in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. It looks like Margaret had started working on this project at about the time she took a tour of the Great Lakes and the Wisconsin territories in 1843, and the same year that she started publishing it in The Dial magazine in serial form. Later she expanded that work and published it as a book under the title Woman in the Nineteenth Century. In that, her friend and employer Horace Greeley, the owner and editor of the New York Daily Tribune, had also helped. Below is a brief summary of the work.

The Work Woman in the Nineteenth Century was a legendary piece and in it, Margaret refused to depict women as helpless victims of the patriarchal system in America. Instead, she pointed to the fact that gender characteristics were common to both men and women, and both possessed masculine and feminine orientations, attributes, and qualities to various degrees. Therefore, the assignment of strict gender roles to women was arbitrary, and women needed to take note of that. Further, both men and women possessed inadequacies, frailties, impurities, and other weaknesses, and both needed to work to free themselves of these. Both also had intellectual and spiritual needs to be satisfied, and their personalities needed to develop along these dimensions. Margaret, accordingly, suggested that there was a need for a fresh look at gender and gender roles, and any rigidity in that was unwarranted. Women, in addition, also needed to pay attention to their freedom and independence situations, and develop their

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intellectual and spiritual capacities further. By doing that they not only would help themselves but also help the whole of humanity. The fact also was that in spite of practically no significant differences between men and women, men had been exalted and were allowed to run the affairs of the society where problems and issues remained. Margaret opined that if, for once, women had been given a chance to run the affairs of society then the situation might have been different, and there might have been fewer problems and issues in society. Women’s problems and issues had not been taken seriously, in spite of the fact that America had been gaining in openness and liberality. An example of that was the attention society paid to the problems and issues of slaves. Much empathy and sympathy came forth on that accord, but the same did not happen in the case of the problems and issues of women. Women’s rights had not been properly attended to. In fact, the effort remained to undermine them by suggesting that if women were given more rights than they currently had then the institutions of marriage and family would suffer, and the welfare of the whole society would fall in jeopardy. The recommendation was that women should stay where they currently were, within their own sphere, and where they already felt happy and comfortable. The suggestion further was that if any further responsibility was put on women, or changes were made in their roles, that would alter the current balance of society and all people would pay the price for this. Thus, there was no need for women to go out, do jobs, vote, preach from the pulpit, or own individual property. That, too, would hurt the current balance and everyone would suffer. Finally, it was suggested that men and women were already connected. Men represented the head and women were the heart. The suggestion was to allow the head to continue to guide the heart, and that was good for all. In these, and many other ways, men had denied women their due rights and an equal status with them. That also impacted negatively their desires and personalities. Margaret pointed out that if women had been asked what they really wanted, what kind of role they wanted to play, and how they desired to live and function in society, then the answers might have been very different. Margaret pointed out that a new awareness was coming among women, and they had started realizing what they already had, what they did not have, and what they needed and wanted in the future. Men, in this regard, were oblivious, and they were not certain what women were up to and whether or not they had the capacities to bring in the needed changes in their current conditions. But women were more aware and knew that they faced a myriad of problems and issues which were intricate and difficult to handle. They knew, for example, that they currently did not

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have the right to possess property, or even the right to possess children in cases of divorce or dispute with the husbands. In many cases, they had to serve as a mother and a father of the family and support it because the husband was idle, ill, or deeply involved in bad habits like drunkenness or gambling. Their lodging and living conditions were not what they needed to be, and there were other issues that made women desperate and miserable. Thus, a dire need existed for bringing improvements in the conditions and circumstances of women in order to give them a legitimate hope of reasonable living and sustenance. For that, they could not depend on men who treated them as children and slaves and had low opinions of their capabilities. In addition, they also had an air of superiority about themselves. Under these circumstances, even if women tried to disclose their circumstances to them, they would not comprehend or care about their problems and issues. Moreover, men also had an opinion that what more was there to know about the problems and issues of women as, all along, they had been seeing and watching their mothers, sisters, wives, and other female relatives. Therefore, they had the knowledge and the capability of representing women, and women themselves did not have to do that. In allowing women to represent themselves men also feared that if they did, it would weaken the institutions of marriage and family, destroy the delicacy of sex, and present ugly scenes in public places and in courts. In this regard, men did not present the only problem; some women also corroborated with their opinions and opposed changes in their conditions and circumstances. They were also the women who opposed outside activities of females, like going to balls, theaters, revival meetings, casting votes, and the like. Margaret recommended that such opposition of women was to be overcome, and women in unison were to take their fate in their own hands and become their own champions. That way they could throw away the obstacles, barriers, and shackles imposed on them and make all available paths open to their freedom and progress. For that to happen it was not discord or collision which was needed, but cooperation and harmony; and all undertaken pursuits would come within reach. That would also make mankind happy, and both men and women would enjoy their rights, inner desires, and outer freedoms. No one would consider themselves as superior, no one would hold another in bondage, and no one would impose restrictions on others. All would live free and contented, unimpeded by rivalries and conflicts.

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Other Topics Margaret also alluded to other topics, one of which was love and marriage. She wrote that the union between man and woman could be of four types: 1) “household partnership” – where a woman looked for a smart and kind husband and a man looked for a capable and sweettempered wife. The man provided for the home and the woman ran it efficiently. The bond was of mutual esteem and co-dependence. The main activities were taking care of the daily business, mutual-affection, and mutual- kindness. Both men and women knew that life depended on these factors and both felt grateful for each other. 2) “intellectual companionship” – this was an added factor in the earlier type of union. Both the man and woman were also companions and confidants in thought and feelings, in addition to co-habitation. 3) “close ties” – this was still another factor in the union between man and woman which took the forms of mutual idolatry, intellectual companionship, or both. 4) “religious union” – here the association between man and woman took the form of a pilgrimage toward a common shrine. Both men and women assisted each other in that and it also included the earlier three forms of union. The growth and development of women was another topic discussed by Margaret. She pointed out that women had been getting into all kinds of professions, and that removed many of the earlier obstructions to their growth and development. But it was not important whether the gains were here or there, more important was the fact that women had the capacity and the intellect to make these gains. That capacity and intellect needed to be developed further, but men did not want that to happen because of their selfishness. Therefore, women had to act on their own. Further, that growth in the capacities and the intellect of women did not have to happen to make women better companions or mates of men, but for their own sake to become better souls. That way they would rise to any occasion and become fit for any relation. Self-dependence, fullness in living, and simplicity were also essential in that. Some other topics touched upon by Margaret were self and relationships, intuition and rationality, prostitution and chastity, and slavery and freedom. Both self and relationships were important, but of these self or soul was more important because, if a person did not stay in touch with self, his or her impulse was also lost. Regarding that Margaret particularly warned women that they needed to be careful, and stay in control of their thoughts and emotions when excited by men. Intuition and rationality were also topics. Intuition belonged to the heart, and it opened new, deeper, and purer sources of joys and inspirations. Rationality belonged to the head,

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and it created intellect. The predominance of one over the other was not good and a balance was to be struck between the two. Prostitution by women was degrading and the reasons for that were many. Women were to ponder over that issue and resolve it. For that, they also needed to keep their passions under control. Rationality, too, helped. Finally, slavery was a menace, and all women were to resist slavery. For that, they were to apply their total physical and moral strength that resided inside, and not outside, the person.

Some Overarching Thoughts Margaret, in addition, offered some overarching thoughts that could be summarized as follows: 1. Man and woman were intimately connected with nature, the earth was their school, their aspirations were for God, and activities of the self were the means. Many people had achieved these purposes only partially, and thus a further need existed for the progress and growth of the individuals. 2. The whole of humanity was embodied in one soul and one body. Injury or obstruction to any part of it affected the whole of humanity. With that, no one could be totally happy or considered virtuous. 3. Man and woman were partly animals and subjected to the laws of nature. But their souls carried their own destinies. 4. Man and woman were also masculine and feminine and their progress was to occur along these dimensions. The preponderance of one dimension over the other was not good and harmony was to be struck between the two. 5. Harmony between the masculine and feminine features occurred once in a while, and after long intervals. Man took advantage of that, corrupted himself, and stopped treating woman as his equal, or even with similar interests and needs. That situation lasted a long time and was to be corrected. A clearer vision was to develop and women were to play a major role in that. 6. Divine love was the source of bringing equality between man and woman. With that, both man and woman were elevated and a new awakening developed between them. That led to their sense of equality and treatment of each other with the same respect. 7. America did not treat people as equals because it inherited depravity from Europe. Thus, women, Native Americans, African

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Americans, and immigrants, were treated differently. To rectify that situation divine love again was to be created and practiced. 8. In America many people thought that man was superior to woman and should remain in dominance. That situation was to be addressed and the misunderstanding removed. Women were to play, here too, a major role that also brought fulfillment to the lives of men and women.

A Closing In closing, then, Margaret’s Woman in the Nineteenth Century was an innovative piece in the history of American feminism which was also imbued with some Transcendental thoughts, like further cultivation and enlightenment of the individual, his greater intellectual and spiritual strength, and the greater good of the whole mankind. Equality between man and woman was only a piece of that.

APPENDIX E1 MAIN WRITINGS OF JANE ADDAMS

J. Addams, “The Subjective Necessity for Social Settlements” and “The Objective Value of a Social Settlement.” In Philanthropy and Social Progress (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell and Company, 1893). J. Addams, “A Function of the Social Settlement,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 13, May 1899. J. Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1902). J. Addams, Newer Ideals of Peace (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1907). J. Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1909). J. Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1910). J. Addams, A New Conscience and An Ancient Evil (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1912). J. Addams, “A Modern Lear,” Survey, 29, November 2, 1912. J. Addams, “The Revolt Against War,” “Factors in Continuing the War,” and “Women and Internationalism,” in Women at The Hague: The International Congress of Women and Its Results (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1915). J. Addams, The Long Road of Woman’s Memory (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916). J. Addams, Peace and Bread in Time of War (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1922). J. Addams, The Second Twenty Years at Hull-House (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1930). J. Addams, The Excellent Becomes Permanent (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1932). J. Addams, My Friend, Julia Lathrop (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1935). J. Addams, Jane Addams: A Centennial Reader (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960).

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J. Addams, E. G. Batch, and A. Hamilton, Women at The Hague: The International Congress and Its Results (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1915).

NOTES AND REFERENCES

Preface 1. See: S. Sharma, Migratory Workers and Their Socio-Cultural Adjustment (Chandigarh: Panjab University, 1964). 2. See: S. Sharma, Modernism and Planned Social Change (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1982). 3. See: S. Sharma, Gandhi, Women, and Social Development (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1982). 4. Gandhi had made a mention of that in several of his speeches and addresses. 5. Gandhi had established that university as a part of his freedom movement in India in 1920. 6. See: S. Sharma, Gandhi’s Teachers: Rajchandra Ravjibhai Mehta (Ahmedabad: Gujarat Vidyapith, 2005); S. Sharma, Gandhi’s Teachers: Leo Tolstoy (Ahmedabad: Gujarat Vidyapith, 2009); S. Sharma, Gandhi’s Teachers: John Ruskin (Ahmedabad: Gujarat Vidyapith, 2011); S. Sharma, Gandhi’s Teachers: Henry David Thoreau. (Ahmedabad: Gujarat Vidyapith, 2013). 7. See: M. K. Gandhi, An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1927). It should be noted that Quakers won Nobel Peace Prize in 1947 for bringing peace and reconciliations internationally among different nations. 8. See: S. Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research (Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017).

Chapter One: Introduction 1. See: G. Duby and Others, A History of Women in the West (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2002); L. D. Eldridge, Women and Freedom in Early America (New York: New York University Press, 1997); C. G. Pestana, Inequality in Early America (Lebanon: Dartmouth College Press, 2015); S. Hermann, The Struggle for Equality: Women and Minorities in America (Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2006); P. Johnson, A History of American People (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1998); M. Porter and Others, Motherhood: Power and Oppression (Toronto: Women’s Press, 2006); S. Sharma, Gandhi, Women, and Social Development (Hong Kong: Asian Research Service, 1982). 2. That would be before 1000 B.C. 3. The goddess of boundless freedom. 4. The mother earth which creates and supports all life. 5. The goddess of knowledge, eloquence, rhetoric, and poetry.

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6. See: M. W. Pinkham, Women in the Sacred Scriptures of Hinduism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1941); A. T. Embree, The Hindu Tradition: Readings in Oriental Thought (New York: Vintage Books, 1972). 7. Moksha is soul liberation through human effort. 8. Rishis are self-realized holy people. 9. See: R. K. Mookerji, “Women in Ancient India,” in Government of India (ed.), Women of India (New Delhi: The Publications Division, 1958); C. Bader, Women in Ancient India (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co, 1925). 10. That would be about 1000 to 800 B.C. 11. See: Mookerji, “Women in Ancient India”; Bader, Women in Ancient India. Also see: S. Radhakrishnan and C. A. Moore, Indian Philosophy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957); N. N. Bhattacharya, Ancient Indian History and Civilization (Columbia, MO: South Asia Books, 1988). 12. That would be about 800 to 600 B. C. 13. Jainism and Buddhism appeared about 600 B.C. 14. Jain and Buddhist orders, for example, were open to both men and women and both could become monks. Women also enjoyed equality and freedoms in most other areas. 15. For example, Jainism and Buddhism allowed women equal access to education, self-culture, social service, and entry into the Bhikshuni-Sangha. See: Mookerji, “Women in Ancient India”; Bader, Women in Ancient India. Also see: Bhattacharya, Ancient Indian History and Civilization. 16. That would be the later B.C. centuries. 17. See: G. Buhler, The Laws of Manu (Oxford: Clarendon, 1896). 18. Ibid. Also see: A. C. Burnell and E. W. Hopkins, The Ordinances of Manu (London: Trubner, 1884); M. N. Dutt, Manu Smrti in Dharam Sastra (Calcutta: Elysium Press, 1908). 19. That would be the early A.D. centuries. 20. R. N. Sen, Brahma-Vaivarta Purana, Vol. I (Allahabad: Sudhindra Natha Vasu, 1920, 132-133). 21. S. Vijnanand, Devi Bhagavata (Allahabad: Sudhindra Natha Vasu, 1916, 17). 22. See: Mookerji, “Women in Ancient India”; Bader, Women in Ancient India. 23. M. N. Dutt, The Garuda Puranam (Calcutta: Elysium Press, 1908, 317). Also see: P. Bhattacharya, Ideals of Indian Womanhood (Calcutta: Goldquin, 1921). For a more detailed account of women in India and the Indian religious tradition, see: M. F. Billington, Women in India (London: Chapman and Hall, 1895); S. Sharma, “Development of Indian Religious Tradition and Popular Culture,” Asian Profile (32, 3) (2004). 24. That period started with the invasions of India by the Muslims in the seventh century A.D. and lasted up to the colonization of India by the British rulers. 25. V. D. Divekar and Others, Social Reform Movements in India (London: Sangam, 1993); J. Nag, Social Reform Movements in Nineteenth Century India (Jaipur: RBSA Publishers, 1988); M. K. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1928). Also see: Mookerji, “Women in Ancient India”; Bader, Women in Ancient India; A. De Souza,

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26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

34. 35. 36. 37.

38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43.

44. 45.

Notes and References Women in Contemporary India (New Delhi: Manohar, 1975); Government of India, Toward Equality: Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India (New Delhi: The Publications Division, 1974); B. R. Nanda, Indian Women: From Purdah to Modernity (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1976). See: K. L. King, Women and Goddess Tradition (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997). The goddess of magic and mysticism. The goddess of nourishment and love. The goddess who protected the homes. The goddess who caused wrath. G. Robins, “Women in Ancient Egypt,” in Women’s Role in Ancient Civilizations by B. Vivante (ed.) (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999). B. Watterson, Women in Ancient Egypt (Stroud, England: Amberley, 2013). S. L. Budin and J. M. Turfa, Women in Antiquity (New York: Routledge, 2016); H. C. Metz, Egypt: A Country Study (Washington, D.C.: National Government Publication, 1991); A. R. David, Voices of Ancient Egypt (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2014). Watterson, Women in Ancient Egypt; David, Voices of Ancient Egypt. The goddess of wisdom, intelligence, courage, and honor. Penelope from Homer’s Odyssey was often cited as one example of that. See: S. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1995); D. Nardo, Women in Ancient Greece (San Diego: Lucent Books, 2000); F. Macdonald, Women in Ancient Greece (London: Belitha, 2003). Women occasionally did get land as a gift or through inheritance when no male member was in the line to inherit. But even that land was controlled by the Kyrios and they could sell it. Macdonald, Women in Ancient Greece; S. B. Pomeroy, Spartan Women (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); M. Scott, “The Rise of Women in Ancient Greece,” History Today, (59, 11) (2009). Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece; Nardo, Women in Ancient Greece. Ibid. Ibid. For more information, see: F. Macdonald, Women in Ancient Rome; M. R. Lefkowitz and M. B. Fant, Women’s Life in Greece and Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016); R. de Vauz, Ancient Israel (New York: McGraw Hill, 1965); N. Naaman, Israel and Its Neighbors (Winona Lake, IN: Elsenbrauns, 2005-2008). See: B. S. Anderson and J. P. Zinsser, A History of Their Own (New York: Harper and Row, 1988); J. H. Tulloch, A Cultural History of Women in Antiquity (London: Bloomsbury, 2013). See: Z. M. Brooke, A History of Europe, 911-1198 (London: Methuen, 1962); C. Nugent and L. Brooke, Europe in Central Middle Ages, 962–1154 (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1964); J. H. Mundy, High Middle Ages, 1150-1309 (London: Folio Society, 1998); J. Payne, A New and Complete

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47.

48. 49.

50.

51.

52.

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History of Europe from the Earliest Ages Down to the Present Time (New York: Reprinted for the Author, 1810); J. Stevenson, The History of Europe (New York: Facts on File, 2002); J. M. Roberts, A History of Europe (New York: Allen Lane, 1997). See: P. J. Helm, History of Europe, 1450–1660 (New York: F. Ungar, 1961); B. V. Rao, History of Europe, 1450–1815 (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1988); D. Hay, Europe in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1966); D. Hay, The Age of Renaissance (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967); D. Hay, From Roman Empire to Renaissance Europe (London: Methuen, 1953). A. Woog, The Late Middle Ages (San Diego: ReferencePoint Press, 2012); N. Morris, Late Medieval Europe (Florence, Italy: Macrae Books, 2009); A. Dopsch, The Economic and Social Foundations of European Civilization (New York: H. Fertig, 1969); S. Epstein, An Economic and Social History of Later Medieval Europe, 1000–1500 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); H. Pierenne, Economic and Social History of Medieval Europe (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1937); A. G. Dickens, Reformation and Society in the Sixteenth Century Europe (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1966). H. E. Bourne and E. J. Benton, American History (Boston: D. C. Heath & Co, 1925); J. B. Sanders, Early American History: Political, Social, Economic (St Clair Shores, MI: Scholarly Press, 1970). See: Payne, A New and Complete History of Early Europe; Rao, History of Later Medieval Europe, 1450-1815; Epstein, An Economic and Social History of Later Medieval Europe, 1000-1500; C. H. Parker and J. H. Bentley, Between the Middle Ages and Modernity (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006); W. L. Katz, Early America, 1492-1812 (New York: Watts, 1974); B. Chapin, Early America (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: J. S. Ozer, 1984); Early American Society, Early American Life (Shaker Heights, OH: Firelands Media Group, 2010). R. Brown, Women’s Issues (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1993); M. E. Marty, Women and Women’s Issues (New York: K. G. Saur, 1993); N. Woloch, Women and the American Experience (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2006; J. Ciment, Social Issues in America: An Encyclopedia (Hoboken: Tyler and Francis, 2015). Some help here was also taken from Wikipedia. See: Ciment, Social Issues in America: An Encyclopedia; Marty, Women and Women’s Issues. For some conceptual positions on women’s issues, see: J. S., Mill, The Subjection of Women (Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Library, 1993); S. de Beauvoir, The Second Sex (London: Vintage Classics, 2015); M. Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ([S.I.]: Arctrus, 2017); J. R. Cole, Between the Queen and the Cabby; O. de Gouges Rights of Women (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2011). See: S. G. McMillen, Seneca Falls and the Origins of the Women’s Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008). Also see: R. Chandler, Public Opinion: Changing Attitudes on Contemporary Political and Social Issues (New York: R. R. Bowker, 1972); A. Ferguson, Social Democracy:

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57.

Notes and References Women, Oppression, and Revolution (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1991); A. L. Macdonald, Feminine Inequality: Women and Invention in America (New York: Ballantine Books, 1992). See: McMillen, Seneca Falls and the Origins of the Women’s Rights Movement. Also see: Appendix A. Ibid. For a long time, boys and girls studied in separate educational institutions. See: J. V. Matthews, The Rise of the New Woman: The Women’s Movement in America, 1875-1930 (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003); O. E. Coolidge, Women’s Rights: The Suffrage Movement in America, 1848-1920 (New York: Dutton, 1966); Ferguson, Social Democracy: Women, Oppression, and Revolution. N. McClung, Timeline of Suffrage Granted, by Country (www.ournellie.com/timeline-women-suffrage-country). Also see: Wikipedia.

Chapter Two: Margaret Fell 1. See: S. G. McMillen, Seneca Falls and the Origins of the Women’s Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008). Also see: Chapter 1 and Appendix A. 2. See: H. G. H. Crosfield, Margaret Fox of Swarthmoor Hall (London: Headley Bros., 1914). Also see: E. F. Glines, Undaunted Zeal: The Letters of Margaret Fell (Richmond, IN: Friends United Press, 2003); T. S. Wallace, A Sincere and Constant Love: An Introduction to the Work of Margaret Fell (Richmond, IN: Friends United Press, 1992). 3. See: I. Ross, Mother of Quakerism (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1949, v). 4. For information on these themes, see: J. Hayden, In Search of Margaret Fell (London: Quaker Books, 2002); C. Trevett, The Quaker Margaret Fell: Religion and Gender in the Seventeenth Century Dissenting Groups (London: The British Association of the Study of Religions, 1991); G. L. Huntoon, Margaret Fell Fox: A Leader of Quakerism (Brunswick, ME: Bowdoin College, 1983); B. Y. Kunze, Margaret Fell and the Rise of Quakerism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014). 5. See: Crosfield, Margaret Fox of Swarthmoor Hall; Ross, Mother of Quakerism; B. Y. Kunze, “The family, Social, and Religious Life of Margaret Fell,” Ph.D. Dissertation (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester, 1986). 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism, 6. 9. Ibid, 4. 10. See: S. Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research (Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017); P. Dandelion, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); E. Russell, The History of Quakerism (Richmond, IN: United Friends Press, 1979).

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11. See: Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research, 41. 12. See: H. L. Ingle, First Among Quakers: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); A. Benezet, A Short Account of the Religious Society of Friends Community Called Quakers (Philadelphia: Kimber and Conrad, 1814); G. T. Peck, What is Quakerism? (Willingford, PA: Pendle Hill, 1988); W. Penn, A Brief Account of the Rise and Progress of the People Called Quakers (Philadelphia: Solomon Conrad, 1803). Also see: H. Barbour and J. W. Frost, The Quakers (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988); D. N. Dalglish, People Called Quakers (New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1969); D. E. Trueblood, The People Called Quakers (Richmond, IN: Friends United Press, 1966); R. L. Smith, A Quaker Book of Wisdom (Eagle Brook, NY: William Morrow and Company, 1998). 13. See: Dandelion, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction. 14. See: Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research, 41. 15. See: Ingle, First Among Quakers: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism. 16. See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism, 11. It may be noted that visiting ministers came to Swarthmoor Hall earlier too, but Margaret was not satisfied with what they preached. Instead her doubts increased and she often feared if she was short of the “right way.” See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism, 7. 17. See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism, 11; T. D. Hamm, Quaker Writings: An Anthology, 1650-1920 (New York: Penguin Books, 45); 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid. 20. See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism. 21. Ibid, 13. 22. See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism; Crosfield, Margaret Fox of Swarthmoor Hall; Hamm, Quaker Writings: An Anthology, 1650-1920; Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research. 23. Much of Margaret’s correspondence, however, was addressed to some seventy to one hundred people in the north who counted themselves among the “First Publishers of Truth.” Among them were scholars, well-to-do landowners, farmers, schoolmasters, weavers, maid-servants, soldiers, former ministers, shopkeepers, craftsmen, and ploughmen. See: Glines, Undaunted Zeal: The Letters of Margaret Fell. 24: See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism; Crosfield, Margaret Fox of Swarthmoor Hall. 25. See: M. H. Bacon, Mothers of Feminism (Philadelphia: Friends General Conference, 1986, 10-12). 26. See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism; Crosfield, Margaret Fox of Swarthmoor Hall. Also see: S. Bruyneel, Margaret and The End of Time: The Theology of Mother of Quakerism (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2010). 27. See: Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research, Chapter 3, for more details on this subject.

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28. See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism; Crosfield, Margaret Fox of Swarthmoor Hall. Also see: Dandelion, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction. 29. Ibid. 30. A full version of the letter is available on internet on The Quaker Writings Homepage website. 31. Ibid. 32. See: M. Fell, A Declaration and an Information From Us, the People of God, called Quakers, to the Present Governors, the King, and Both Houses of the Parliament, and All Whom It May Concern (London: Thomas and Robert Wilson, 1660). 33. Full title of this document was A Declaration from the Harmless and Innocent People of God, Called Quakers, Against All Sedition, Plotters, and Fighters in the World: For Removing the Ground of Jealousy and Suspicion from Magistrates and People Concerning Wars and Fighting and it is available in Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research, Appendix B. Also see: Bicentenary Edition of Fox’s Journal (London: London Friends’ Tract Association, 1891) and www.qhpress.org/quakerpages/qwhp. 34. Ibid. 35. See: Huntoon, Margaret Fell Fox: A Leader of Quakerism; Ross, Mother of Quakerism; Crosfield, Margaret Fox of Swarthmoor Hall. 36. The “Valiant Sixty” preaching group was started in 1652 with ten Quaker missionaries who traveled distances within England and overseas to spread the messages of Quakerism. Their numbers subsequently increased to sixty or more and a majority of them were women. Ann Clayton was the first missionary member to leave for Barbados, Boston, and Rhode Island and for that daring act she spent 1654 and 1655 in jail. See: Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research; Russell, A History of Quakerism. 37. Margaret belonged to the nobility and she was a female, educated person, and wife of a powerful judge. Therefore, the authorities initially were hesitant to arrest her. But all that changed after the death of Judge Fell and she was arrested again and again and put in jail three times during her lifetimes. 38. www.ushistory.org/penn/margartet_fell.htm 39. Ibid. 40. Ibid. 41. See: J. H. Midgley, The Mother of Early Quaker Church (London: Hedley Brothers, 1916); Glines, Undaunted Zeal: The Letters of Margaret Fell; Wallace, A Sincere and Constant Love: An Introduction to the Work of Margaret Fell; Hamm, Quaker Writings: an Anthology, 1650-1920; H. Barbour and A. O. Roberts, Early Quaker Writings, 1650-1700 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973). 42. See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism, 214. 43. Due to her marriage with Fox Margaret lost her property at Swarthmoor Hall, but she continued to possess one-third of the property at her birth place Marsh Grange.

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44. See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism; Crosfield, Margaret Fox of Swarthmoor Hall. 45. The “Conventicle Acts” was finally repeated in 1689 after the “Toleration Act” was passed in 1686. 46. See: Ross, Mother of Quakerism; Crosfield, Margaret Fox of Swarthmoor Hall. 47. Ibid. Also see: W. K. Baker, George and Margaret Fox (London: G. Routledge and Sons, 1927). 48. See: Baker, George and Margaret Fox; Ross, Mother of Quakerism; Crosfield, Margaret Fox of Swarthmoor Hall. 49. Ibid. 50. Ibid. 51. Ibid. 52. www.qhpress.org/texts/fell html. 53. See: Wallace, A Sincere and Constant Love: An Introduction to the Work of Margaret Fell; Hamm, Quaker Writings: an Anthology, 1650-1920; Barbour and Roberts, Early Quaker Writings, 1650-1700. Also see: Appendix B. 54. Full version of this letter has been presented in Appendix B. 55. See: Appendix B. 56. Ibid. 57. See: M. Fell, Women’s Speaking Justified (1667) (Los Angeles: William Andrew Clark Memorial Library, 1979). Also see: Appendix B where full version of this document appears. 58. Ibid. 59. Ibid. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid.

Chapter Three: Elizabeth Fry 1. See: N. Morris and D. J. Rothman, The Oxford History of the Prison (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); A. Babington, The English Bastille: A History of Newgate Gaol and Prison Conditions in Britain, 1188-1902 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1972); J. Howard, An Account of the Present State of Prisons and Houses of Correction in Northern Circuit, (London: The Society, 1789); C. Banks, Women in Prison (Oxford, England: ABC-CLIO, 2003). 2. See: R. Barclay, Apology for True Christian Divinity (Glenside, Pennsylvania: Quaker Heritage Press, 2002). 3. See: E. Fry, Elizabeth Fry (London Religious Tract Society, 1925); J. Kent, Elizabeth Fry (London: B. T. Batsford, 1962); J. Rose, Elizabeth Fry (Stroud: Tempus, 2007). 4. See: K. Barne, Elizabeth Fry (London: Methuen, 1962); T. Barber, Elizabeth Fry (Edmonton: Grass Roots Press, 2008). 5. See: J. Whitney, Elizabeth Fry: Quaker Heroine (New York: Benjamin Blom Inc, 1972); E. R. Pitman, Elizabeth Fry (New York: Greenwood Press, 1969).

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6. For more information on Quakerism and the issues faced by Quakers, see: G. T. Peck, What is Quakerism? (Willingford, Pennsylvania: Pendle Hill, 1988); H. Barbour and J. W. Frost, The Quakers (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988); W. Penn, A Brief Account of the Rise and Progress of the People Called Quakers (Philadelphia: Solomon Conrad, 1803); E. Russell, The History of Quakerism (Richmond, Indiana: United Friends Press, 1979); P. Dandelion, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); D. N. Dalglish, People Called Quakers (Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1969); D. E. Trueblood, The People Called Quakers (Richmond, Indiana: Friends United Press, 1966). For information on the prison conditions of the times, see: Morris and Rothman, The Oxford History of the Prison; Howard, An Account of the Present State of Prisons and Houses of Correction in Northern Circuit. 7. See: Morris and Rothman, The Oxford History of the Prison; Babington, The English Bastille: A History of Newgate Gaol and Prison Conditions in Britain, 1188-1902. William Penn had tried many of these ideas in his “holy experiment” in Pennsylvania. 8. See: Babington, The English Bastille: A History of Newgate Gaol and Prison Conditions in Britain, 1188-1902; Howard, An Account of the Present State of Prisons and Houses of Correction in Northern Circuit. Also see: E. C. S. Gibson, John Howard (London: Methuen, 1901); W. H. Render, Through Prison Bars: The Lives of John Howard and Elizabeth Fry (London: Partridge, 1894). 9. See: K. Grovier, The Gaol: The Story of Newgate (London: John Murray, 2008); C. Jowett, The History of Newgate Prison (Barnsley: Period Sword History, 2017). 10. See: C. Northcott, Angle of the Prisons (Guildford: Lutterworth Press, 1959); J. Benge and G. Benge, Elizabeth Fry: Angel of Newgate (Lynnwood, WA: Emerald Books, 2015). Also see: T. Timpson, Memoirs of Mrs. Elizabeth Fry (New York: Stanford and Swords, 1847). 11. Part of the reasons for the delay of Elizabeth to revisit Newgate Prison was some family circumstances of Elizabeth and her husband. 12. See: Northcott, Angle of the Prisons; Benge and Benge, Elizabeth Fry: Angel of Newgate; Babington, The English Bastille: A History of Newgate Gaol and Prison Conditions in Britain, 1188-1902. Also see: Howard, An Account of the Present State of Prisons and Houses of Correction in Northern Circuit. 13. See: A. Jorns, The Quakers as Pioneers in Social Work (New York: The Macmillan, 1931). Whitney, Elizabeth Fry: Quaker Heroine, Benge and Benge, Elizabeth Fry: Angel of Newgate. Also see: Grovier, The Gaol: The Story of Newgate. 14. See: Jorns, The Quakers as Pioneers in Social; Also see: M. E. Tabor, Pioneer Women (London: Macmillan, 1925). 15. See: Jorns, The Quakers as Pioneers in Social Work. Also see: Banks, Women in Prison; Whitney, Elizabeth Fry: Quaker Heroine. 16. See: Jorns, The Quakers as Pioneers in Social Work. Also see: Grovier, The Gaol: The Story of Newgate; Pitman, Elizabeth Fry; Fry, Elizabeth Fry.

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17. See: Morris and Rothman, The Oxford History of the Prison; Babington, The English Bastille: A History of Newgate Gaol and Prison Conditions in Britain, 1188-1902. 18. See: Fry, Elizabeth Fry; Rose, Elizabeth Fry; Kent, Elizabeth Fry. 19. See: Jorns, The Quakers as Pioneers in Social Work. Also see: Whitney, Elizabeth Fry: Quaker Heroine; Pitman, Elizabeth Fry. 20. See: Morris and Rothman, The Oxford History of the Prison. Also see: Babington, The English Bastille: A History of Newgate Gaol and Prison Conditions in Britain, 1188-1902.

Chapter Four: Mary Wollstonecraft 1. See: M. J. Todd and M. Butler, The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft (London: William Pickering, 1989). Also see: Appendix C. 2. See: M. Ferguson and J. M. Todd, Mary Wollstonecraft (Boston: Twayne, 1984). Also see: D. L. Macdonald and K. Scherf, The Vindications: The Rights of Men and the Rights of Woman (Toronto: Broadview Literary Texts, 1997). Margaret Fell also made the same assertion drawing support and evidence from the scriptures. See: Chapter 2. 3. See: E. Flexner, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Biography (New York: CowardMcCann, 1972); J. Lorch, Mary Wollstonecraft: The Making of a Radical Feminist (New York: Berg, 1990); J. Todd, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Revolutionary Life (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000). 4. See: M. Wollstonecraft, Mary: A Fiction (London: Joseph Johnson, 1788). Also see: Todd and Butler, The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. 5. See: M. Wollstonecraft, Thoughts on the Education of Daughters: with Reflections on Female Conduct in the More Important Duties of Life (London: Joseph Johnson, 1787). Also see: Todd and Butler, The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. 6. The school eventually had to be closed. 7. See: M. Wollstonecraft, Original Stories from Real Life (London: Joseph Johnson, 1788). Also see: Todd and Butler, The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. 8. See: Flexner, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Biography; L. Gordon, Vindication: A Life of Mary Wollstonecraft (New York: HarperCollins, 2005). 9. See: M. Wollstonecraft, The Female Reader: or Miscellaneous Pieces, in Prose and Verse: Selected from the Best Writers, and Disposed under Proper Heads: for the Improvement of Young Women (London: Joseph Johnson, 1789). Also see: Todd and Butler, The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. 10. See: Appendix C for more information. 11. See: M. George, One Woman’s “Situation”: A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1970); Gordon, Vindication: A Life of Mary Wollstonecraft.

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12. See: M. Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Men (London: Joseph Johnson, 1790). Also see: Todd and Butler, The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. 13. See: D. Jacobs, Her Own Woman: The Life of Mary Wollstonecraft (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001); Lorch, Mary Wollstonecraft: The Making of a Radical Feminist. 14. See: M. Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (London: Joseph Johnson, 1792). Also see: Todd and Butler, The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. 15. See: K. Warnock, Mary Wollstonecraft (London: Hamilton, 1988); Ferguson and Todd, Mary Wollstonecraft. 16. See: M. Wollstonecraft, An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution; the Effect It Has Produced in Europe (London, Joseph Johnson, 1794). Also see: Todd and Butler, The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. 17. See: J. Moore, Mary Wollstonecraft (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); M. Broody, Mary Wollstonecraft (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012). Also see: W. Doyle, The French Revolution: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); L. Frey and M. Frey, The French Revolution (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004). 18. See: M. Wollstonecraft, Letters Written during A Short Residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark (London: Joseph Johnson, 1796). Also see: Todd and Butler, The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. 19. See: Flexner, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Biography; Gordon, Vindication: A Life of Mary Wollstonecraft; Todd, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Revolutionary Life. 20. See: M. Wollstonecraft and W. Godwin, Memoirs and Posthumous Works of Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (Dublin: Thomas Burnside for J. Rice, 1798). 21. See: E. Sunstein, A Different Face: The Life of Mary Wollstonecraft (New York: Harper and Row, 1975); B. Taylor, Mary Wollstonecraft and the Feminist Imagination (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); R. M. Wardle, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Critical Biography (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1951). 22. See: B. G. Johns, A Short and Simple History of England (London: Lockwood and Company, 1882). 23. See: R. Price, A Discourse on the Love of Our Country (Dublin: Printed for H. Chamberlain, 1790). 24. Ibid. 25. See Edmund Burke, Reflection on the Revolution in France and on the Proceedings in Certain Societies in London Relative to that Event (London: J. Dodsley, 1790). Another reason for writing this piece by Edmund Burke was a request from a French Aristocrat, Charles Jean Francois Depont, to him to pen down his impressions of the occurring French revolution. 26. Ibid. Also see: Macdonald and. Scherf, The Vindications: The Rights of Men and the Rights of Woman; H. Taine, Origins of Contemporary France (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974). 27. See: Ferguson and Todd, Mary Wollstonecraft; George, One Woman’s “Situation”: A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft. Also see: V. Sapiro, A Vindication

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28. 29. 30.

31. 32. 33.

34.

35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

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of the Political Virtue: The Political Theory of Mary Wollstonecraft (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Macdonald and. Scherf, The Vindications: The Rights of Men and the Rights of Woman. See: E. Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Idea of the Sublime and Beautiful (London: Printed for J. Dodsley & Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library, 1757). See: Macdonald and Scherf, The Vindications: The Rights of Men and the Rights of Woman. See: Wollstonecraft, Mary, A Fiction; Wollstonecraft, Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman; Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Also see: J. Todd, Sensibility: An Introduction (London: Methuen, 1986); G. J. BarkerBenfield, The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in Eighteenth Century England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). Ibid. For that Mary was later criticized by modern feminists in that she tried to deny women their natural sexual urges and thus tried to take away a part of their freedom and equality with men. The term “feminism” had appeared in the 1890s. See: Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Also see: M. J. Falco, Feminist Interpretations of Mary Wollstonecraft (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1996); G. Kelly, Revolutionary Feminism: The Mind and Career of Mary Wollstonecraft (New York: St. Martin’s, 1992). See: Wollstonecraft, An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution; the Effect It Has Produced in Europe; Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Man; Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Also see: Sapiro, A Vindication of the Political Virtue: The Political Theory of Mary Wollstonecraft. Ibid. Ibid. See: Wollstonecraft, The Thoughts on the Education of Daughter; Wollstonecraft, Original Stories from Real Life. Ibid. See: Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Men; Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. See: Wollstonecraft, An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution; the Effect It Has Produced in Europe; Wollstonecraft, Letters Written during A Short Residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.

Chapter Five: Lucretia Mott 1. For more information, see: M. H. Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott (New York: Walker and Company, 1980). 2. The tradition of Christianity in Europe already stood divided into Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Angelical Churches. See: S. Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research (Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017).

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3. For more information, see: H. L. Ingle, First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); P. Dandelion, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); E. Russell, The History of Quakerism (Richmond, Indiana: United Friends Press, 1979); A. C., Thomas, and R. H. Thomas, A History of Friends in America (Philadelphia: Winston, 1905). 4. See: A. Benezet, A Short Account of the Religious Society of Friends Community Called Quakers (Philadelphia: Kimber and Conrad, 1814); W. Penn, A Brief Account of the Rise and Progress of the People Called Quakers (Philadelphia: Solomon Conrad, 1803); H. Barbour. and J. W. Frost, The Quakers (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988); G. T. Peck, What is Quakerism? (Willingford, Pennsylvania: Pendle Hill, 1988); D. N. Dalglish, People Called Quakers (Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1969); D. E. Trueblood, The People Called Quakers (Richmond, Indiana: Friends United Press, 1966); M. L. Birkel, Silence and Witness (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2004); R. L. Smith, A Quaker Book of Wisdom (Eagle Brook, New York: William Morrow and Company, 1998). During their worship the members of the society shook visibly due to the presence of high emotions and accordingly the label of “Quakers” was applied to them sarcastically by Justice Bennet during George Fox’s trial in Derby, England in 1650. Following John 15:12-14 “This is my command that ye love one another as I have loved you… ye are my friends, if ye do whatsoever I command you” they also came to be known as “Friends.” Other names adopted by Quakers were “The Children of the Light” indicating that they were guided only by the “inner-light” and “The Publishers of Truth” meaning that only their ways and mission represented God’s true calling. George Fox was the father of Quakerism and the sect was based initially on his revelations. 5. See: Footnote 3. 6. Historically that fact has generally been suppressed. Ganguli, however, pointed out: “In the human community in its most primitive forms we find that, while men hunt and carry on warlike activities and procure food, the woman cooks, looks after the fire, implements, and weapons and collects fuel and building materials. Where agriculture begins, the woman tills the land, she is also the earliest weaver and tanner. For all her drudgery, she finds time to draw the first crude pictures on clay, and on stone, and on bronze and iron implements. Engaged in the less strenuous pursuits, she has the leisure to develop the effective side of human nature of which she has more than man.” See: B. N. Ganguli, Ideal Social Order: Gandhi’s Vision (Hyderabad: Andhra Mahila Sabha, 1972, 23-24). 7. See: S. Sharma, “Social Reform by Quaker Women: A Case Study of Lucretia Mott, Indian Journal of Social Work, 77 (1), 2016. 8. For more information, see: S. F. Beegel, The Nantucket Reader (Nantucket, New York: Mill Hill Press, 2009). 9. See: M. Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (London: Joseph Johnson, 1792). Also, for more information, see: Chapter 4.

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10. The situation was different among Quaker communities where males and females enjoyed much more freedom and equality in all areas of functioning. 11 See: Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research, Chapter 2. Also see: Chapter 1. 12. See: S. Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Anti-slavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); J. O. Horton, and L. E. Horton, Slavery and the Making of America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); J. Levin, A Timeline of the Abolitionist Movement (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2004); Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research. 13. See: Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott; M. H. Bacon, Mothers of Feminism: The Story of Quaker Women in America (Philadelphia: Friends General Conference, 1986); P. Wakefield, Mental Improvement (Philadelphia: Benjamin Franklin, 1819; Also see: D. Faber and R. Hoover, Lucretia Mott: Foe of Slavery (Champaign, Illinois: Garrad Publishing Company, 1971). 14. See: G. DeAngelis, Lucretia Mott (Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2001); Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott; C. Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy: Abolition and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011). 15. In 1827 Quakerism split into “Hicksites” and “Gurneyites” (for more information, see: Dandelion, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction; Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research). James and Lucretia were both Hicksites and they promoted that cause throughout their lives. 16. See: Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott; DeAngelis, Lucretia Mott. 17. See: DeAngelis, Lucretia Mott; D. Sterling, Lucretia Mott: Gentle Warrior (New York: Doubleday; 1964). 18. “Valiant Sixty” refers to the earliest Quaker preachers who traveled to different places within America and abroad to spread the messages of Quakerism. Their numbers were more than sixty and majority of them were women. See: Dandelion, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction. 19. See: Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy: Abolition and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century America; Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott; Sterling, Lucretia Mott: Gentle Warrior. For information on the speeches and sermons of Lucretia, see: L, Mott and D. Greene, Lucretia Mott: Her Complete Speeches and Sermons (New York: E. Mellen Press, 1980). 20. See: Levin, A Timeline of the Abolitionist Movement; Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Anti-slavery; Horton, and Horton, Slavery and the Making of America; Faber and Hoover, Lucretia Mott: Foe of Slavery. 21. See: Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Anti-slavery; Horton, and Horton, Slavery and the Making of America. Also see: S. Sharma, Gandhi’s Teachers: Henry David Thoreau, Chapter 2 (Ahmedabad: Gujarat Vidyapith University, 2013).

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22. See: Sharma, Gandhi’s Teachers: Henry David Thoreau, Chapter 2; Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Anti-slavery; Horton, and Horton, Slavery and the Making of America. 23. Ibid. 24. William Lloyd Garrison was a well-known radical abolitionist who published The Liberator magazine. Most prominent personalities used to publish their views on slavery in that magazine. 25. That was more or less the norm in those days. Later not only that practice changed in the American Anti-Slavery Society, but gaining of women’s rights also became a part of its agenda. See: Chapter 1. Also see: Sharma, “Social Reform by Quaker Women: A Case Study of Lucretia Mott.” St. Paul had warned against the speaking of women in public. See: Chapter 2 and Appendix B for more information on this issue. 26. “Underground Railroad” was a well-developed system of helping fugitive slaves secretly move to free states and countries. Both blacks and whites participated in the effort. 27. See: Faber and Hoover, Lucretia Mott: Foe of Slavery; Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott; Sterling, Lucretia Mott: Gentle Warrior. DeAngelis, Lucretia Mott. 28. See: Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy: Abolition and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century America; Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott; Sterling, Lucretia Mott: Gentle Warrior; DeAngelis, Lucretia Mott. 29. For more information on the “woman’s question,” see: Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Anti-slavery; Faber and Hoover, Lucretia Mott: Foe of Slavery. 30. Besides Lucretia some other female delegates who attended the convention in London in 1840 were: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mary Ann McClintock, Jane Master Hunt, and Martha Wright. 31. All that has been explained in Chapter 1. Also see: Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott; DeAngelis, Lucretia Mott. 32. The three main compromises that had occurred were the Missouri Compromises of 1820, the Compromise of 1850, and the Kansan-Nebraska Act of 1854. 33. See: J. K. Hosmer, The American Civil War (New York: Harper & Sons, 1913); C. C. Kingseed, The American Civil War (Westport Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004); C. J. Olson, The American Civil War: A Hands-On History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2006). Also see: Sharma, Gandhi’s Teachers: Henry David Thoreau, Chapter 2. 34. For more information on Lucretia’s messages, see: Faber and Hoover, Lucretia Mott: Foe of Slavery; K. Marisco, Lucretia Mott: Abolitionist and Women’s Rights Leader (Edina, Minn.: ABDO Publishers, 2008); Mott and Greene, Lucretia Mott: Her Complete Speeches and Sermons. These messages Lucretia also conveyed to President John Tyler. 35. See: Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy: Abolition and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century America; Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott.

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36. See: L. Mott, Theology and Its Historical Context (Unknown: Edwin Mellen, 2016); M. G. Long, Christian Peace and Nonviolence (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2011); Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott; A. L. McPheeters, The Strength of a Lioness (New York: Phylon, 1960). 37. See: Chapters 2, 4, and Appendixes B and C. 38. See: Mott and Greene, Lucretia Mott: Her Complete Speeches and Sermons. Also see: L. Mott, Discourse on Women (Philadelphia: T. B. Peterson, 1850). 39. Ibid. 40. Ibid. For more information on Lucretia’s feminist thought, see: D. Greene, Quaker Feminism: The Case of Lucretia Mott (Publisher and Date Unknown); T. D. Hamm, Quaker Writings: An Anthology (New York: Penguin Books, 2010). 41. See: Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott; Bacon, Mothers of Feminism: The Story of Quaker Women in America.

Chapter Six: Dorothea Lynde Dix 1. See: C. Schlaifer and L. Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix (New York: Paragon House, 1991). It should also be noted that additional inspirations to Dorothea to do something about the horrible conditions of the mentally-ill people also came from her two life-long friends and benefactors William Rathbone in England and William Ellery Channing in America. 2. See: F. Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Dix (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Riverside Press, 1891); Schlaifer and Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix. 3. Hampden, in those days, was a small town of about one hundred and fifty inhabitants. 4. See: H. E. Marshall, Dorothea Lynde Dix: Forgotten Samaritan (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1937); Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Dix. 5. Dorothea’s grandmother survived her husband by twenty-eight years. She died at age ninety-one. 6. See: Marshall, Dorothea Lynde Dix: Forgotten Samaritan; Schlaifer and Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix. 7. See: Schlaifer and Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix; Marshall, Dorothea Lynde Dix: Forgotten Samaritan. 8. Edward Bangs was thirty-one years old then and Dorothea was only eighteen years old. Edward later proposed to Dorothea for marriage. At first, she rejected the proposal, then later hesitatingly accept it, and then rejected it again. That was the only thought of marriage that came to Dorothea in her total life. 9. See: H. Stroup, Social Welfare Pioneers (Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers, 1986); Marshall, Dorothea Lynde Dix: Forgotten Samaritan; Schlaifer and

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10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15.

16. 17.

18. 19.

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Notes and References Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix. Ibid. Ibid. See: Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Dix; C. Lowe, The Gentle Warrior: The Story of Dorothea Lynde Dix (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1948). See: Schlaifer and Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix; Stroup, Social Welfare Pioneers; Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Dix. Ibid. For general information on asylums, prisons, poorhouses, crimes, punishment, and social reforms in those days, see: D. L. Lighter, Asylum, Prison, Poorhouse: The Writings and Reform Work of Dorothea Dix in Illinois (Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 1999); L. A. Knafla, Crime, Punishment and Reform in Europe (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2003); H. S. Commager, The Era of Reform, 1830-1860 (Malabar, Florida: R.. E. Krieger Publishing Company, 1960). See: Lowe, The Gentle Warrior: The Story of Dorothea Lynde Dix; Stroup, Social Welfare Pioneers; Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Dix; Schlaifer and Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix Among those who were enlisted by Dorothea for that purpose were: R. C. Waterson, George Emerson, Charles Sumner, Samuel Gridley Howe, and others. See: P. Colman, Breaking the Chains: The Crusade of Dorothea Lynde Dix (Lincoln, Nebraska: Universe, 2007); A. P. Herstek, Dorothea Dix: Crusader for the Mentally Ill (Berkeley Heights, New Jersey: Enslow Publishers, 2001); M. Muckenhoupt, Dorothea Dix: Advocate for Mental Health Care (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003). Ibid. See: D. L. Gollaher, Voice for the Mad: The Life of Dorothea Dix (New York: The Free Press, 1996); S. Medvedeva, I. M. Tarbell, and E. Roosevelt, Ten Brave Women (Philadelphia: Lippencott, 1953); Stroup, Social Welfare Pioneers. Ibid. Also see: T. J. Brown, Dorothea Dix: New England Reformer (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998); B. Witteman, Dorothea Dix: Social Reformer (Mankato, Minn.: Bridgestone Books, 2003). For that Dorothea was in and out of New Jersey from 1843 to 1845. See: Gollaher, Voice for the Mad: The Life of Dorothea Dix; Brown, Dorothea Dix: New England Reformer; Witteman, Dorothea Dix: Social Reformer. Ibid. See: Brown, Dorothea Dix: New England Reformer; Witteman, Dorothea Dix: Social Reformer; Stroup, Social Welfare Pioneers. See: E. Schleichert and A. Castro, The life of Dorothea Dix (Frederick, Md.: Twenty First Century Books, 1992); Schlaifer and Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix; Stroup, Social Welfare Pioneers.

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26. See: Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Dix; Marshall, Dorothea Lynde Dix: Forgotten Samaritan; Schlaifer and Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix; Stroup, Social Welfare Pioneers. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid. 31. See: Schlaifer and Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix; Stroup, Social Welfare Pioneers; Gollaher, Voice for the Mad: The Life of Dorothea Dix. 32. Ibid. By that time Dorothea had already left for America on September 16, 1836. 33. See: Schlaifer and Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix; Stroup, Social Welfare Pioneers; Gollaher, Voice for the Mad: The Life of Dorothea Dix. 34. Ibid. 35. See: M. Phinnery and J. P. Munroe, An Army Nurse in Two Years (Bellevue: Big Byte Books, 2014); L. T. Frank, Women in the American Civil War (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2008). Also see: C .C. Kingseed, The American Civil War (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004); I. F. N. Beckett, The American Civil War (London: Grange Books, 1997). 36. See: Schlaifer and Freeman, Heart’s Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix; Stroup, Social Welfare Pioneers. 37. Ibid.

Chapter Seven: Margaret Fuller 1. See: D. L. Macdonald and K. Scherf, The Vindications: The Rights of Men and the Rights of Woman (Toronto: Broadview Literary Texts, 1997). 2. For more information on the subject, see: Chapter 4. 3. See: M. Ferguson and J. M. Todd, Mary Wollstonecraft (Boston: Twayne, 1984); E. Flexner, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Biography (New York: CowardMcCann, 1972); J. Todd, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Revolutionary Life (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000). M. Bell, Margaret Fuller (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1930); E. Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997). 4. See: Bell, Margaret Fuller; J. W. Howe, Margaret Fuller (London: W. H. Allen, 1889). 5. Ibid. 6. See: W. Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (London: John Hopkins University Press, 1996); Bell, Margaret Fuller. 7. Margaret Fuller had challenged that idea. 8. See: Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century; Bell, Margaret Fuller. Also see: J. Richardson, “Sermon on the Duty and Dignity of Woman,” delivered on April, 22, 1832. But to balance the picture it may be added that

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9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Notes and References during Margaret’s times some blending had already been occurring between the male and the female roles even though the gaps were still many. Margaret’s father had served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1817 to 1825. See: Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents; Bell, Margaret Fuller. Ibid. Occasionally Margaret did secretly read some light materials also. See: Howe, Margaret Fuller; A. W. Brown, Margaret Fuller (New York: Twayne Publications, 1964); Bell, Margaret Fuller. On the advice of her aunts and uncles Margaret had also attended the Boston Lyceum for Young Ladies in Groton from 1821 to 1822. Ibid. One person in these gatherings, Frederick Henry Hedge, did like Margaret. He thought that she was graceful and attractive. See: Bell, Margaret Fuller; Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents. Ibid. Ibid. For that purpose, Margaret’s father had bought a farm which was forty miles away from Boston. It was in a remote area and difficult to get in and out from there. See: J. Myerson, Margaret Fuller: A Descriptive Biography (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1978); M. B. Stern, The Life of Margaret Fuller (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991); Bell, Margaret Fuller. Ibid. Also see: Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents. 17. Margaret had developed family relations with Ralph Waldo Emerson and his wife. See: Bell, Margaret Fuller; Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents. See: Howe, Margaret Fuller; Bell, Margaret Fuller; Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents. Ibid. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was Germany’s one of the most prolific writers, playwrights, novelists, and poets, but had also some flaws in his personal life. See: Stern, The Life of Margaret Fuller; Howe, Margaret Fuller; Bell, Margaret Fuller. See: M. V. Allen, The Achievement of Margaret Fuller (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1979); M. Fuller, The Essential of Margaret Fuller (Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 2019). That salary, however, was never paid to Margaret because of the low income of the magazine. See: Bell, Margaret Fuller; Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents. Also see: P. F. Gura, American Transcendentalism: A History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007). Early examples of Margaret’s works published in the Dial were “Leila” in April 1841 and “Goethe” in July 1841.

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31. See: Bell, Margaret Fuller. Also see: L. Lindsay and H. B. Parks, Brook Farm (London: Forgotten Books, 2016). That experiment did not last long and the commune had to be folded due to financial and other reasons. 32. See: Bell, Margaret Fuller; Fuller, The Essential of Margaret Fuller; J. Matteson, The Lives of Margaret Fuller (New York: W. W. Norton, 2013); 33. Ibid. 34. See: M. Fuller, Summer on the Lakes (New York: Haskell House, 1970). 35. See: Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents. Also see: M. Fuller, R. W. Emerson, W. H. Channing, J. F. Clarke, Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli (New York: B. Franklin, 1972). 36. See: M. Fuller and A. B. Fuller, Woman in the Nineteenth Century and Kindred Papers relating to the Sphere, Condition, and Duties of Woman (California: Createspace Independent Learning Platform, 2017); M. Fuller and L. J. Reynolds, Woman in the Nineteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998). Margaret in that work had also condemned slavery, annexation of Texas, imperial foreign policy, double moral standards of men and women, and denial of property and voting rights to women. 37. Ibid. Also see: Appendix D. 38. See: Bell, Margaret Fuller; Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents. 39. Margaret had even helped him publish his observations and experiences in Europe in New York Daily Tribune under the title “Wayside Notes Abroad.” 40. See: Bell, Margaret Fuller; Howe, Margaret Fuller; Brown, Margaret Fuller; Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents. 41. See: Fuller, The Essential of Margaret Fuller; Bell, Margaret Fuller. Also see: Fuller, Emerson, Channing, Clarke, Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli. The first dispatch of Margaret from Europe was published in New York Daily Tribune on September 24, 1846. In total she made thirty-seven such reports during her stay of four years in Europe. She also sent back to her newspaper some interview reports on prominent people like Thomas Carlyle and George Sand. 42. For more information, see: H. Hearder, Europe in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Longman, 1988); G. W. Fasel, Europe in Upheaval: The Revolutions o f 1848 (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1970); D. Dowe, Europe in 1848: Revolution and Reform (New York: Berghahn Books, 2008); C. O’Clery, The History of Italian Revolution (London: R. Washbourne, 1876); M. Soresina, Italy before Italy (New York: Routledge, 2018). 43. For more information, see: G. Mazzini, The Duties of Man (Memphis, Tennessee: Rare Books Club, 2012). 44. See: Bell, Margaret Fuller; Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents. Also see: P. Blanchard, Margaret Fuller: From Transcendentalism to Revolution (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1987). 45. See: Matteson, The Lives of Margaret Fuller; Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents. After meeting Ossoli in Rome Margaret had traveled to northern Italy and Switzerland alone from June to October 1847.

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46. See: Fuller, The Essential of Margaret Fuller; Kornfeld, Margaret Fuller, A Brief Biography with Documents; Bell, Margaret Fuller. 47. See: O’Clery, The History of Italian Revolution. Also see: Fasel, Europe in Upheaval: The Revolutions of 1848. 48. Ibid. 49. The last dispatch of Margaret was published in New York Daily Times on February 13, 1850. 50. See: Howe, Margaret Fuller; Bell, Margaret Fuller. Also see: M. Fuller, Margaret Fuller, American Romantic (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, 1963). 51. See: M. Fuller and B. G. Chevigny, The Woman and the Myth: Margaret Fuller’s Life and Writings (Boston: Northwestern University Press, 1994). 52. For more information, see: Fuller, Margaret Fuller, American Romantic; Fuller, Emerson, Channing, Clarke, Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli.

Chapter Eight: Elizabeth Cady Stanton 1. Two examples of that have been provided in this work. See: Chapters 2 and 4. 2. For more information on the times and the issues, see: J. R. Howard, The Cutting Edge: Social Movements and Social Change in America (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1974); S. M. Valocchi, Social Movements and Activism in the USA (London: Routledge, 2010); S. Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research, Chapter 2 (Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017); J. D. Wells, The Rutledge History of Nineteenth Century America (New York: Rutledge, 2018). Also see: J. Krout, Origins of Prohibition (New York: Knopf, 1926); S. Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Anti-slavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); J. O. Horton, and L. E. Horton, Slavery and the Making of America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); J. Levin, A Timeline of the Abolitionist Movement (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2004); S. Sharma, Gandhi’s Teachers: Henry David Thoreau, Chapter 2 (Ahmedabad: Gujarat Vidyapith University, 2013); K. Melder, Beginnings of Sisterhood: The American Woman’s Rights Movement, 1800-1850 (New Yorker: Schocken, 1977). 3. See: L. W. Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights (Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1980); I. H. Harper, Elizabeth Cady Stanton (Toledo, Ohio: Great Neck Publishing, 2005). 4. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; P. Loos, Elizabeth Cady Stanton (Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishing, 2001). 5. See: M. A. B. Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton (Old Westbury, Long Island: The Feminist Press, 1972); Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights. 6. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; H. Moore, Elizabeth Cady Stanton (Chicago: Heinemann Library, 2004). 7. Peterboro was founded by Peter Smith, the husband of the sister of Elizabeth’s mother. That family moved away from Calvinism and became liberal Christians.

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8. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; Harper, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 9. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. It should be noted that in spite of the father’s preference for boys he did respect Elizabeth’s intelligence, but being a conservative, he could not appreciate her taking up the reform work. 10. See: A. Lutz, Created Equal: A Biography of Elizabeth Cady Stanton (New York: John Day, 1940); S. A. McGill, Elizabeth Cady Stanton (Toledo, Ohio: Great Neck Publishing, 2005). 11. The American Ant-Slavery Society was founded in 1833 and in 1839 it broke into two factions on the issue of women’s participation in it. The New York faction felt that anti-slavery and women’s issues were to be dealt with separately as not to under-cut the cause of slavery. However, the Boston and Philadelphia faction felt that the two issues were intertwined and should be dealt with together. The female delegates to the anti-slavery convention in London were from the second faction. 12. Henry had also been an apprentice with Elizabeth’s father and later he established his own law practice in Boston in 1842. He had lived with Elizabeth’s family from 1840 to 1842. 13. See: Chapter 1 and S. Sharma, “Social Reform by Quaker Women: A Case Study of Lucretia Mott,” Indian Journal of Social Work, 77, 1, 2016. 14. See: E. C. Stanton, T. Stanton, H. S. Blatch, Elizabeth Cady Stanton (New York: Arno, 1969); Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights. 15. Henry, however, was not without political accomplishments. He served two terms in the New York Senate, helped found the Anti-Slavery Liberty Party in 1840, and the Free-Soil Party in 1849. As time went by politics became more and more his passion and he stayed away from home for long periods on political trips. 16. See: Stanton, Stanton, Blatch, Elizabeth Cady Stanton; Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights. 17. Conditions in that regard had started changing already. In April 1848 the New York State had passed the Woman’s Property Act and several other states were trying to do the same. 18. At that time only Oberlin College admitted women for higher education. 19. For more information; see Chapter 1. 20. See: Appendix A and Chapter 1. Also see: S. G. McMillen, Seneca Falls and the Origins of the Women’s Rights Movement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). 21. Ibid. 22. See: E. Flexner, Century of Struggle (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1959); A. Sinclair, The Better Half: Emancipation of the American Women (New York: Harper and Row, 1965); Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton; Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights.

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24. Earlier Margaret Fuller had come up with this idea of “conversation group.” See: Chapter 7. 25. See: T. Stanton and H. S. Blatch, Elizabeth Cady Stanton as Revealed in Her Letters, Diary, and Reminiscences (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1922); Stanton, Stanton, Blatch, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 26. See: Harper, Elizabeth Cady Stanton Harper, 39. 27. The Lily was a temperance magazine which was read widely. Elizabeth started writing for it in the summer of 1849, but instead of just temperance issues she also addressed in it subjects like child care, female education, woman’s rights, and others. 28. See: Flexner, Century of Struggle; Sinclair, The Better Half: Emancipation of the American Women; P. G. Walters, American Reformers (New York: Hill and Wang, 1976). Though with similar reform interests, Elizabeth and Susan were very different personalities. Elizabeth was a fun-loving person, had a wonderful sense of humor, and was a great speaker and writer. But she was poor at organization and working out details of the issues. She also did not like doing factual research and was poor at collection of funds. Susan was stern, introvert, controlled, but unsure of her speaking and writing abilities. She was good at working out the details, organizing, doing factual research, and collection of funds. Abstract ideas bothered her and she responded better to practical details. The two ladies, thus, complimented each other and Susan also liked the radical nature of Elizabeth and her lack of fear to get into uncharted territories. For more information, see: P. Colman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2011); G. C. Ward and K. Burns, Not for Ourselves: The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony (New York: Alfred A. Knoff, 1999); E. C. Stanton, Eighty Years and More: Reminiscences, 1815-1897 (New York: T. Fisher Unwin, 1898). 29. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 30. In that, Elizabeth was influenced by the writings of Mary Wollstonecraft and Margaret Fuller. They both had suggested that differences between men and women were more cultural than innate and laws, customs, and public sentiment affected both men and women: “we are what law, custom, and public sentiment have made us.” See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights, 77. Also see, J. S. Mill, Three Essays: Liberty, Representative Government, On the Subjection of Women (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975). 31. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 32. See: Lutz, Created Equal: A Biography of Elizabeth Cady Stanton; Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; Flexner, Century of Struggle. Also see: B. G. Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana: Illinois University, 1978); J. B. Stewart, Holy Warriors: The Abolitionist and American Slavery (New York: Hill and Wang, 1976).

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33. See: E. C. Stanton and Others, History of Woman Suffrage, Vols. 1-6 (New York: Fowler and Wells, 1881-1922); E. C. Stanton, The Woman’s Bible, Vols. 1-2 (New York: European Publishing Company, 1895-1898); Stanton, Eighty Years and More: Reminiscences, 1815-1897; Stanton and Blatch, Elizabeth Cady Stanton as Revealed in Her Letters, Diary, and Reminiscences. 34. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights, 69. 35. See: H. B. Stanton, Random Recollections (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1887); Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights. Also see: R. E. Paulson, Women’s Suffrage and Prohibition: A Comparative Study of Equality and Social Control (Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman, 1973). 36. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights, 77, 75. 37. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 38. Susan and some other ladies had thought that if the voting rights of women were achieved, this would also help resolve many other issues faced by women. From the late 1860s onwards, accordingly, Susan and Elizabeth were at odds with each other with regard to the strategy of the women’s rights movement. But Susan always remained loyal to Elizabeth, while several other ladies had started criticizing her and her leadership. 39. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 40. Ibid. Also see: J. K. Hosmer, American Civil War (New York: Harper and Sons, 1913); C. Kingseed, The American Civil War (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004); C. J. Olson, The American Civil War: A Hands-On History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2006). 41. See: Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, 60. 42. See: Flexner, Century of Struggle; Stanton and Others, History of Woman Suffrage, Vols. 1-6. 43. Ibid. 44. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; McGill, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. The pending debt of The Revolution magazine was $10,000 which was a huge amount in those days. Susan paid it off slowly through her publication and lecture fees. 45. See: Moore, Elizabeth Cady Stanton; Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton; Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights. 46. See: Colman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. The membership of the women’s organizations was changing and younger women were taking on the leadership roles. They had not experienced the same oppression and difficult circumstances as the older generation had. 47. The Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was already before the Congress. 48. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; Moore, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Lucretia Mott, Martha Wright, and Ernestine Rose had remained with Elizabeth and Susan in NWSA. Also, in 1870 Theodore Tilton and Henry Ward had made an effort to reconcile the differences between NWSA and AWSA, but they could not succeed.

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49. See: Harper, Elizabeth Cady Stanton; McGill, Elizabeth Cady Stanton; Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights. 50. Ibid. 51. Ibid. 52. Susan B. Anthony was more in the forefront of the efforts and thus the amendment bore her name. 53. See: Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton; Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights. Partial successes did come forth. In 1882, for example, both the Houses of the congress established select committees to consider woman’s suffrage. In 1886 and 1891 the measure was brought to a vote, but it did not pass. After 1896, however, Congress stopped considering the woman’s measure and it took many more years for women to finally gain their voting rights. 54. See: Footnote 33. 55. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 56. Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights, 155. 57. Ibid, 157. 58. Recent moves on the parts of the conservatives were also responsible for the revival of the idea of coming up with a female version of the Bible. For more information, see: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights, 161-162. 59. See: Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights; Oakley, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 60. Overture by AWSA for unity with NWSA had already appeared in 1887. 61. See: Flexner, Century of Struggle; Stanton and Others, History of Woman Suffrage, Vols. 1-6; Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights. Additionally see: L. C. Bullard in E. S. Phelps and Others, Our Famous Women (Hartford: Hartford Publishing, 1888); J. Nies, Seven Women’s Portraits from the American Radical Tradition (New York: Viking, 1977); E. T. James and Others, Notable American Women (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press, 1971).

Chapter Nine: Jane Addams 1. See: L. Levy and A. Young, “Foreword.” In C. Lasch, The Social Thought of Jane Addams (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1965, vii). 2. See: A. F. Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973); J. W. Linn and A. F. Scott, Jane Addams (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1935). 3. For more information, see: S. Sharma, Quakerism, Its Legacy, and Its Relevance for Gandhian Research (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017). 4. See: L. W. Knight, Jane Addams: Spirit in Action (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011); Linn and Scott, Jane Addams.

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5. See: J. Hovde, Jane Addams (New York: Facts on File, 1989); M. Kittredge, Jane Addams (New York: Chelsea House, 1988). 6. See: Linn and Scott, Jane Addams; Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams; Knight, Jane Addams: Spirit in Action. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. See: Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams. Also see: L. Tolstoy, My Confession, My Religion, The Gospel in Brief (Memphis, TN: General Books, 2012); G. Mazzini, The Duties of Man (London: Chapman, 1862); J. S. Mill, On the Subjection of Woman (London: Hesperus, 2008). 10. “Toynbee Hall” was named after Arnold Toynbee the famous historian at Oxford University who was a friend and fellow-reformer of the founders. 11. See: W. R. V. Picht, Toynbee Hall and The English Settlement Movement (London: G. Bell and Sons, 1914). Also see: Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams. 12. At the peak of the project some twenty-five women lived in Hull House and participated in the delivery of services to the residents of the neighborhood. Many of them later distinguished themselves as reformers in their own right. 13. See: Linn and Scott, Jane Addams; Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams. The core of Hull House residents were well-educated women who were also committed to labor unions, suffrage movement, and National Consumer League. The facility was named “Hull House” after the name of the builder of the building. 14. During the first a few meetings the focus of the readings was on George Eliot’s Romola. 15. See: Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams; Linn and Scott, Jane Addams. The topics of research were diverse and examples were poverty, dependence, midwifery, housing, fatigue, tuberculosis, typhoid, infant nutrition, mortality, overcrowding, garbage collection, cocaine use, truancy, living experiences, and others. 16. See: H. S. Peterson and H. Hays, Jane Addams, Pioneer of Hull House (Champaign, IL: Garrad Publishing Company, 1965); Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams. Also see: J. Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1910). 17. See: Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams. Also see: D. Kent, Jane Addams and Hull House (Chicago: Children’s Press, 1992); T. L. Stone and K. Brown, The House that Jane Built: A Story About Jane Addams (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2015); E. J. Stebner, The Woman of Hull House (Albany, New York: State University of New York, 1997). It may also be noted that even before Hull House was established rudimentary forms of settlements were already coming up in America. Two examples of that were the Neighborhood Guild in New York and the College Settlement Association associated with the Smith College. 18. See: Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams; Linn and Scott, Jane Addams. Also see: Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House.

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19. See: Kent, Jane Addams and Hull House; Stone and Brown, The House that Jane Built: A Story About Jane Addams; Stebner, The Woman of Hull House; Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House. Jane remained “Head Resident” at Hull House till her death in 1935. 20. See: M. Tims, Jane Addams of Hull House (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1961); W. Wise, Jane Addams of Hull House (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1935). These ideas of Jane on progressive thinking echoed some of the ideas of Canon Barnett and John Ruskin in England and of Leo Tolstoy in Russia. For more information on Jane’s ideas of settlement and progressive thinking, see: J. Addams, “The Subjective Necessity for Social Settlements” and “The Objective Value of a Social Settlement.” In Philanthropy and Social Progress (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell and Company, 1893); J. Addams, “A Function of the Social Settlement,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 13, May 1899. 21. See: Lasch, The Social Thought of Jane Addams; M. Hamington, The Social Philosophy of Jane Addams (Urbana: University Illinois Press, 2009); H. Stroup, Social Welfare Pioneers (Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers, 1986); J. Addams, The Second Twenty House at Hull House (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1930). Also see: J. Addams, A New Conscience and An Ancient Evil (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1912); J. Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1909). 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid. 24. See: J. B. Fradlin and D. B. Fradlin, Jane Addams: Champion of Democracy (New York: Clarion Books, 2006); J. B. Elshtain, Jane Addams and the Dream of American Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 2002); M. Fischer and Others, Jane Addams and the Practice of Democracy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009); J. Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1902). Also see: V. Brown, The Education of Jane Addams (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). With regard to her own ideas on education Jane gave considerable credit to John Dewey through his experimental school at the University of Chicago and his School and Society. 25. For more information, see: P. Caravantes, Waging Peace: The Story of Jane Addams (Greensboro, North Carolina: Morgan Reynolds, 2004). Also see: J. Addams, Newer Ideals of Peace (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1907); J. Addams, Peace and Bread in Times of War (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1922); J. Addams, E. G. Batch, and A. Hamilton, Women at The Hague: The International Congress and Its Results (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916); J. Addams, Later Reflections on Peace (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1932); J. Addams, “The Revolt Against War,” “Factors in Continuing the War,” and “Women in Internationalism,” in Women at The Hague: The International Congress and Its Results. Newer Ideals of Peace was a revised version of a lecture by Jane at the University of Wisconsin in 1906.

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26. See: Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams; Linn and Scott, Jane Addams; Knight, Jane Addams: Spirit in Action. 27. Ibid. 28. See: Addams, Batch, and Hamilton, Women at The Hague: The International Congress and Its Results; Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams; Knight, Jane Addams: Spirit in Action. Also see: D. J. Murphy, World War I (San Diego, California: Greenhaven Press, 2002). 29. See: Addams, Batch, and Hamilton, Women at The Hague: The International Congress and Its Results; Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams; Knight, Jane Addams: Spirit in Action. Among that group were also reformers like Alice Hamilton, Lillian Wald, Florence Kelly, Emily Balch, and others. 30. Ibid. 31. See: Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams; Knight, Jane Addams: Spirit in Action; Linn and Scott, Jane Addams. 32. Ibid. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid. 35. See: Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams. 36. In her childhood Jane had developed a spinal problem that needed surgery and later she had a major typhoid attack in 1895, tuberculosis of the kidneys in 1916 when her one kidney was removed, and a heart attack in 1926. 37. See: Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams; Knight, Jane Addams: Spirit in Action; Linn and Scott, Jane Addams.

Chapter Ten: Conclusion 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

For more information on this subject, see: Chapter 2 and Appendix B. For more information, see: Chapter 3. For more information, see: Appendix C. Ibid. For more information, see: Chapter 6. William Tuke and William Channing were also factors in that. Memorial was a written statement of gathered facts in the form of a petition to be presented to a legislative body for action. That ladies’ “conversations” group functioned to 1844. The magazine mostly remained in financial trouble due low circulation. Margaret quit her job with the magazine in 1842 and Ralph Emerson took over the editorship. Margaret’s promised salary was never paid. Later that essay was revised and expanded by Margaret and published in the form of a book with the title Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845). This was the same as for “Toynbee Hall.” All these topics have been dealt with thoroughly in Chapter 9.

284

Notes and References

Appendix A 1. Source: A. D. Gordon, The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, Vol. 1 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers State University Press, 1997). Also see: www.qhpress.org/texts/fell html.

Appendix B 1. Source: The first document is available on The Quaker Writings Home Page, the second at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, and the second at www.qhpress.org/texts/fell html.

Appendix C 1. Source: Wikipedia. All works were authored by Mary Wollstonecraft unless otherwise specified. 2. M. Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman with Strictures on Moral and Political Subjects. London: Joseph Johnson, 1792.

Appendix D 1. Sources: E. Kornfeld, A Brief Biography with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997); M. Fuller and L. J. Reynolds, Woman in the Nineteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998).

Appendix E 1. Source: C. Lasch, The Social Thought of Jane Addams (Indianapolis: The Bobbs- Merrill Company, 1965).

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