Early Farming in South Bulgaria from the VI to the III Millennia B.C. 9780860540212, 9781407347455

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Early Farming in South Bulgaria from the VI to the III Millennia B.C.

Robin Dennell

BAR International Series (Supplementary) 41

1978

British Archaeological Reports 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS

A. C. C. Brodribb, M.A. Mrs. Y. M. Hands

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. International Series (Supplementary) 45, 1978: South Bulgaria from the VI to the ill Millennia B. C." ©

''Early Farming in

Robin Dennen, 1978

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540212 paperback ISBN 9781407347455 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540212 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTE NTS

P reface L ist o f T ab les L ist o f F igures

v i x i i

Chapter 1 : S um mary o f S ou th Bu lgar ian P reh istory , S ixth t o Th ird M il lenn iu m B .C. Chapter 2 :

1 5

The S tudy o f Preh istor ic P lan t Husbandry Chapter 3 :

3 2

The S tudy o f P reh istor ic C rop S yste ms Chap ter 4 :

4 4

The Use o f S ite Catchmen t a nd Terr itor ia l Ana lys is Chap ter 5 :

5 9

The Env ironmen t a nd Rura l Econo my o f Modern Bu lgar ia Chapter 6 :

7 6

P reh istor ic S et t le men t a nd S ubs istence i n t he ee lope 6Reg ion Chap ter 7 :

9 9

The S ubs istence Econo my o f Chevdar Chapter 8 :

1 12

The S ubs istence Econo my o f K azan luk Mog ila Chap ter 9 :

1 31

N eo l ith ic a nd Bronze Age S et t le men t i n t he Nova Z agora Reg ion Chap ter 1 0 :

1 42

The P lan t a nd An i ma l Husbandry o f t he N ova Z agora Reg ion d ur ing t he N eo l ith ic a nd Bronze Ages Chap ter 1 1:

1 52

The Reg iona l Con tex t o f S outh Bu lgar ian S ubs istence f ro m t he S ix th t o Th ird M i l lenn ium B .0 C . B ib l iography

1 69

Tables

1 84

F igures

3 05

PREFACE Th is v o lume i s as hortened a nd s ubstan t ia l ly r ewr it ten v ers ion o f my Ph .D. d isser tat ion o n t he s ubs istence e conom ies o f S . Bu lgar ia f rom t he s ix th t o t h ird m il lenn ium b .c.

Most o f t he d a ta i n t h is s tudy was o b ta ined d ur ing e leven

mon ths ' f i eldwork f ro m 1 970-1972 wh ich w as u ndertaken a s p art o f t he r esearch o f t he Br it ish Acade my Ear ly H istory o f Agr icul ture Pro ject , d irec ted b y t he l ate E r ic H iggs. The c on ten ts o f t h is work a re c en tred a round t wo r elated t hemes, b oth o f wh ich s hou ld b e r egarded i n t he c on tex t o f t he ir t ime. The f i rst c oncern w as t he t ypes o f s ubs istence e conom ies p ract ised i n S outh Bu lgar ia f rom t he Ear ly N eo l ith ic t o t he Early Bronze Age. There w ere i n it ia l ly t wo ma in r easons why t he s ubs istence o f t h is p er iod a nd a rea w ere c hosen f or i nvest igat ion .

The f i rst w as t hat S outh Bu lgar ia i s a n a rea o f o bv ious impor tance

t o s tud ies o f European p reh istory.

Excavat ions a t s et t le men ts s uch a s K aranovo

( Georg iev , 1 961) a nd Az mak ( Georg iev , 1 965 ) h ave i nd icated t hat t h is r eg ion c on ta ins s o me o f t he e arl iest a gr icu l tura l c ommun it ies i n Europe , a nd w as o ccup ied f rom t he s ix th t o l a te f our th m il lenn ium b .c. i n ar e markably s tab le a nd c on t inuous manner. As i n many a reas o f t he N ear East , b u t u n l ike much o f t empera te Europe , t el ls w ere a ma jor s et t le men t t ype f rom t he N eo l ith ic t o Bronze A ge.

The s ize a nd l ongev ity o f t hese s et t le men ts , a s w e ll a s t he s oph is-

t i cat ion o f much o f t he ir a rt , p ot tery a nd o ther a spec ts o f t he ir mater ia l c u lture , h ave a t tracted much a t ten t ion ( e .g. Georg iev , 1 961;

T r ingha m , 1 971).

I n

r ecen t y ears, i n terest i nt he p reh istory o ft h is r eg ion h as b een h eigh tened b y t he p oss ib il ity t ha t meta l lurgy w as p ract ised b y t he e arly f ourth mil lenn iu m b .c., i ndependen t ly o f N ear E astern d evelopmen ts ( Ren frew , 1 969 ). Desp ite t he v o lu me o f p ost-war r esearch , Bu lgar ia w as

v ery much a t erra

i ncogn ita s o f ar a s o ur k now ledge o f i t s s ubs istence f rom t he s ixth t o t h ird mi l lenn iu m b .c. w as c oncerned. A s i n o ther a reas o f t he Balkans , t he e arly h istory o f a gr icu lture h ad n o tb een a n impor tan t a spect o f p reh istor ic r esearch . Ev idence o n t he p lan t a nd a n i ma l h usbandry o f t he e ar l ies t a gr icu l tura l s et t lemen ts i nt h is r eg ion w as v irtua l ly n on-ex isten t i n 1 970 a nd w as b ased u pon a f ew smal l s a mp les , n one o f w h ich h ad b een c o l lected i n as yste mat ic manner. N oth ing w as k nown a bou t t he f ac tors wh ich may h ave i nf luenced t he l ocat ion o f t hese s et t le men ts a nd t he ir p roduct iv ity.

The s ubs istence b as is o f s et t le men ts

o ccup ied o ver t he s ubsequen t t hree m il lenn ia w as a lso v ery p oor ly d ocu men ted a nd t he d ata a l lowed n one b u t t he b roadest o f g enera l isat ions. I tw as h igh ly i ron ic a nd e qua l ly u nsat isfactory t hat a l most n o th ing w as k nown o f t he e ar ly h istory o f a gr icu l ture i n ar eg ion w h ich d er ives much o f i t s i mpor tance i n p reh istor ic a rchaeo logy f rom c on ta in ing wha t a re s upposed ly s ome o f t he e arl iest a gr icu ltura l s et t le men ts i n Europe.

The f i e ldwork i n Bu lgar ia w as c onsequen t ly

i n tended t o p rov ide a b ody o fb as ic d a ta o n t he l ocat ion , c rop a gr icu l ture a nd a n i ma l l usbandry o f e arly n eo l ith ic a nd l a ter s et t le men ts. The s econd r eason why S outh Bu lgar ia was c hosen a s a n a rea f or f i e ldwork w as f rank ly o pportun ist ic.

A lthough s o me w estern s cho lars h ad u ndertaken

s tudy t ours o f Bu lgar ian museu m c o l lect ions a nd v is ited s ome o f t he ma jor

s i tes, n o West European a rchaeo log ist h ad b een a b le t o u ndertake f i eldwork a nd e xcavat ion i n Bu lgar ia s ince t he l a te 1 930s , w hen Garrod ( 1939 ) e xcavated t he p a laeo l ith ic c ave o f Bacho K iro a nd Gau l ( 1948 ) c omp leted h is s urvey o f n eo l ith ic a nd b ronze a ge s ett le men ts. The c hance i n 1 970 o f p art ic ipat ing i n t he e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t b y t he Bu lgar ian Archaeo log ica l I nst itute a t Chevd ar , K azan luk a nd E zero p rov ided a n e xcel len t o pportun ity o f work ing i n a r eg ion l ong-recogn ised a s e x tre mely i mportan t a nd o n at op ic wh ich h ad b een s ore ly n eg lected. The s econd c oncern o f t h is s tudy was t he w ay t he s ubs istence o f p reh istor ic a gr icu l tura l s et t le men ts c ou ld b e s tud ied. When t h is f i eldwork w as u ndertaken , t he Early H istory o f Agr icu l ture P ro ject w as d eve lop ing t hree f i eld t echn iques, e ach o f w h ich n eeded f urther t est ing a nd d evelopmen t.

These were :

( i ) f roth f l o tat ion ( Jar man e t a l., 1 972 ) P roto-types o f t he f ro th f l o ta t ion u n i t were b u i l t i n 1 969 a nd t es ted t he s a me s u m mer o n e xcavat ions i n N orth I t a ly a nd I srae l ; Iwas f ortunate i n b e ing a b le t o f am i l iar ise mysel f w ith b oth u n its t ha t y ear. These t r ia ls s howed t hat t he f l o tat ion machines c ou ld w ork w el l i n t he f i e ld , a nd l ed t o t he p roduct ion o f more d urab le a nd e f f ic ien t u n its i n t he f o l low ing y ear. What was n ot k nown i n 1 970 w as whether f ro th f l o tat ion u n its c ou ld b e u sed s i mp ly t o r ecover more b o tan ica l d ata t han w as p rev iously f eas ib le , o r t o a nswer d i fferen t q uest ions a bou t p reh istor ic c rop a gr icu lture f ro m t hose n or ma l ly a sked. S a mp les o f macroscop ic p lan t r e ma ins w ere l ong u sed t o i nd icate mere ly t he r ange a nd t ypes o fp lants a ssoc iated w i th a p reh istor ic c om mun ity , a nd l i t t le a t tent ion h ad b een p a id t o s tudy ing t he importance o f e ach w ith in t he o veral l p lan t h usb andry o f as et t le men t . T hose a t te mp ts wh ich h ad b een made t o e s t i ma te t he impor tance o f e ach p lan t r esource h ad u sual ly d one s o b y a ssu m ing t ha t s a mp les o f p lan t r e ma ins w ere r ando m i n c ompos i t ion a nd t hus p rov ided a n a ccura te a ccoun t o f t he p reva il ing p lan t h usbandry . Both t he c oarseness o f r etr ieva l t echn iques a nd t he s carc ity o f d a ta h ad h indered s tud ies o f b o th p lan t f ood p roduct ion away f rom a s et t le men t , a nd f ood c onsu mpt ion w ith in i t . L it t le w as k nown o f t he t ypes o f c rop p rocess ing a ct iv it ies p erfor med o n a s et t lemen t ; t he w ays t hese migh t h ave a f fected t he c ompos it ion o f as amp le; t he p ur ity o f e ach c rop ;

o r t he t ype o f c rop s yste m t o wh ich e ach c rop b e longed.

I n s hort , t he f i eldwork i n Bu lgar ia p resen ted e xce l len t o pportun it ies f or e xp lori ng t he p o ten t ia l o f f roth f l o tat ion a nd a rchaeobo tan ica l d ata a s w el l a s o b ta in ing d ata o n t he p reh istor ic p lan t h usbandry o f t hat r eg ion. ( i i )

s iev ing ( e .g . Payne , 1 972a ) A lthough s iev ing t echn iques h ad b een u sed s porad ica l ly o n e xcavat ions f or

o ver t h irty y ears, t hey w ere e ven l ess a f eature o f e xcava t ions i n 1 970 t han n ow . What s ee med e spec ia l ly impor tan t a t t he t ime o f t h is f i eldwork was t hat a s h igh a p roport ion a s p oss ib le o f f auna l ma ter ia l s hou ld b e r ecovered f ro m e xcavated d epos its i n o rder t o p rov ide a n a ccura te a ccoun t o f t he p reva il ing a n i ma l h usbandry.

I ta lso s ee med worthwh ile t o d e mon strate t he e f f ic iency o f

s iev ing b y c on tro l led e xper i men ts , e spec ia l ly i n c on junct ion w ith a f lo tat ion u n it.

( i i i )

s i te c atch men t a na lys is ( V ita-Finz i a nd H iggs , 1 970 ;

H iggs a nd V ita-

F inzi , 1 972 ) Th is i s p erhaps t he most c on trovers ia l o f t he t hree f i e ld t echn iques t hen b e ing d eve loped b y t he Br it ish Acade my P ro ject.

The ma in a dvan tage o f t h is

t echn ique w as t hat i tf ocused a tten t ion u pon t he l oca t ion a nd s urround ings o f p reh is tor ic s et t le men ts a nd s o emphas ised t he u n ique a spec ts o f as ite 's l ocat ion i nstead o f t he more g enera l f eatures o f t he e cozone i n wh ich i tl ay .

I t

a lso p rov ided a b as is f or e st ima t ing t he a va ilab i l ity o f r esources p o ten t ia l ly a ccess ib le t o ac om mun ity , a nd t he r elat ive importance o f p lan t t o a n i ma l r esources.

On t he o ther h and , i ts ee med d oubt fu l t hat i tw as e qua l ly a pp l ic-

a ble t o a l l p reh istor ic s ubs istence c om mun it ies , o r t hat s ome o f i t s p re m ises w ere w ho l ly s ound. A t t he t ime o f t he f i eldwork i n S outh Bu lgar ia , t hese i nnovat ions h ad r arely b een u sed i na n i n tegra ted manner.

For e xa mp le, t he i nvest igat ions a t Can

Hasan I I ( French e t a l., 1 972 ) h ad emp loyed s iev ing a nd f l o tat ion , b u t n ot s i te c atchmen t a nalys is ;

c atchmen t a na lys is h as b een u sed w ith l i tt le o r e ven n o

s upport f rom r el iab ly e xcavated d ata ( e .g. J ar man , 1 972a , Barker, 1 975 ). A l l t hree t echn iques h ad b een u sed a t N aha l Oren ( see V ita-Finz i a nd H iggs , 1 970 ; L egge , 1 972; L egge a nd Denne l l , 1 973 ) b ut i n as i tuat ion where t he r o le o f p lan t r esources may h ave b een n eg l ig ible. I n t he c ase o f S outh Bu lgar ia , i ts eemed a r easonab le e xpectat ion t hat p lan t r esources w ere o f ma jor i mport ance.

What s ee med n ecessary w as t o d ev ise w ays o f i n tegra t ing t he u se o f

c a tchmen t a na lys is , f lo tat ion u n its a nd s iev ing a pparatus s o t hat t he a n i ma l a nd p lan th usbandry o f as et t lemen t c ou ld b e a ssessed i n r elat ion t o t he r esource p oten t ia l o f t he a rea h ab itua l ly u sed f rom a s et t le men t. The emphas is i n t h is s tudy o n t he e cono m ic p reh istory o f ap art icu lar p er iod a nd a rea , a nd o nt hese f i eld t echn iques i s r ef lected i n i t s s tructure.

The f i rst

c hap ter c o mpr ises a r ev iew o fS ou th Bu lgar ian p reh istory f rom t he s ix th t o t h ird m il lenn iu m b. c., i n w h ich t he ma in f eatures a nd i nadequac ies o f t he p resen t d ata a re c ons idered.

The n ex t f our c hapters d iscuss s ome p rob le ms a r is ing

f rom t he s tudy o f a rchaeobo tan ica l mater ia l , t he u se o f s ite c atchmen t a nalys is a nd t he r elevance o f c o mparat ive d a ta o n r ecen t Bu lgar ia t o s ubs istence e conom ies n ow s evera l t housand y ears e x t inct.

Thereaf ter, t he r e ma inder o f t he

s tudy i s c oncerned w ith t he f i e ld d a ta f rom S ou th Bu lgar ia , a nd i t s i nterpretat i on . The f ina l c hap ter p laces t h is d ata w ith in t he b roader c on tex t o f European a nd N ear Eastern p reh istory. As t h is f ie ldwork w as s tar ted e igh t y ears a go , ar etrospect ive n ote i s t imely , p art icu larly s ince t he Early H istory o f Agr icu lture h as n ow r un i t s c ourse.

The

f i e ldwork a nd s ubsequen t a na lyses h ad many s hortcom ings, s o me o f w h ich a re c learer n ow t han t hey w ere a t t he t ime; i n s ome r espects, t h is s tudy i s a lready o u tdated.

I t wou ld h ave b een p referable t o h ave e xcavated a t more s et t le ment s,

o r a t l east t o h ave e xcava ted l arger a reas o f t he s et t le men ts wh ich w ere s a mp led. The f or mer c ourse w as n o t f eas ib le b ecause o f t he n ecess ity t o p art ic ipate i n c urren t e xcava t ions , a nd t he l at ter l argely e xcluded b y c onstra in ts o f money a nd t ime. G ran ts f or f i e ldwork o ver t hree s easons t o ta l led o n ly £ 1500 , a n amoun t wh ich h ad t o c over a lso t he c ost o f av eh icle a nd t ransport b etween England a nd Bu lgar ia e ach y ear.

The e f f ic iency o f t he f l otat ion u n it w as a lso

g rea t ly u nderest i mated a t t he t ime, s ince t he ma jor c onstra in t i n t ime w as n ot

i n t he f i e ld s o much a s b ack i n t he l abora tory. S ort ing t he ma ter ia l c o l lected b y f ro th f l otat ion i n 1 970-71 t ook t he b es t p ar t o f t hree y ears , a nd i ti s u n l ike ly t hat t here w ou ld h ave b een s u f f ic ien t t ime t o e xam ine a l arger v o lume o f mater ia l . What i s s ore ly n eeded i s s ome mechan ica l d ev ice wh ich c an s ort c arbon ised ma ter ia l q u ick ly a nd e f f ic ien t ly s o t ha t f l o ta t ion u n its c an b e u sed a tf u l l c apac ity . I n r e trospec t , i ts eems a f a ir c la im t ha t f ro th f l otat ion a nd s iev ing r ecover ah igh p roport ion o f t he mater ia l c on ta ined i n a n e xcava ted d epos it .

T he i ssue

w h ich n ow s ee ms o f g reater i mportance i s h ow b es t t hey s hou ld b e u sed. I f t he p o in t c an b e p u t s omewha tp erverse ly , f l o ta t ion u n i ts a nd s iev ing a pparatus c an b e e x treme ly e f fect ive w ays o f r ecover ing h igh ly b iased s amp les , s imp ly b ecause t hey may r ecover a v ery h igh p roport ion o fb otan ica l a nd f auna l mater ia l f rom a v ery sma l l p roport ion o f as e tt le men t . A s a mp le f rom a s ound ing 2 m s q , h owever c arefu l ly i nvest iga ted , i s u n l ike ly t o p rov ide a n a dequa te a ccoun t o f t he p opu lat ion f rom w h ich i tw as d rawn o ver t he w ho le s et t le men t . I n o ther w ords , t hese t echn iques a re l ike ly t o b e who l ly e f fect ive o n ly when a w ide v ar iety o f c on tex ts a re s amp led f rom e ach o ccupa t ion p hase. Wh ilst i t may s eem mu tua l ly c onven ien t f or t he l arge-sca le e xcavat ion o f a rtefactua l a nd a rch itec tura l r ema ins t o b e c onducted s epara te ly f ro m sma l l-sca le e xcava t ions f or p lan ta nd a n i ma l r e ma ins, t h is s t rategy i s n o t n ecessar ily t he most p roducti ve. Th is p o in t i s e v iden t i nt h is s tudy : t he b o tan ica l d a ta f rom t he s ound ing a tE zero w as g enera l ly l ess i n for mat ive t han t he d ata f rom Chevdar a nd e ar ly n eo l ith ic K azan iuk w h ich w as o b ta ined f rom s amp l ing s evera l c on te mporaneous c on tex ts o ver a w ide a rea. S i te c a tchmen t a na lys is i s p erhaps more d i f f icu l t t o e va lua te. On t he o ne h and , i ts eems u sefu l f or s tudy ing t he s ubs istence o f ap reh istor ic a gr icu ltura l s et t lemen t i ft he e x ten t o fp o ten t ia l ly a rab le l and c an b e d ef ined w ith a f a ir d egree o f c on f idence, a nd i ft here i s s at is fac tory s upport ing b o tan ical a nd f auna l d ata o n t he p lan t a nd a n i ma l h usbandry.

These c ond it ions w ere g enera l ly

( t hough n o t w ho l ly ) s at is f ied i n t he c ase o f t he ü e lopee a nd N ova Z agora r eg ion s. On t he o ther h and , t he i n it ia l f ormu lat ion o f t h is t echn ique s ee ms t enuous i n p laces , a nd i t s u t i l ity i s a t p resen t i mpeded b y i t s i nab i l ity t o r egard p reh istor ic c o mmun it ies a s o pen s ystems , a nd t o q uan t ify a ccura te ly t he r esources o f a p a laeo-env ironmen t . These p rob lems n eed c arefu l c ons idera t ion i nf u ture i f a n o therw ise u sefu l t echn ique i s n o t t o d egenera te i nto a p ure ly mechan ica l e xerc ise a nd a s ubst itute f or e xcava t ion . T here a re t wo o bv ious s hortcom ings t o t h is s tudy , b o th o f w h ich l ay o u ts ide my c on tro l. The f i rst w as t ha t t he r esource p o ten t ia l o f t he a reas a ssoc iated w ith p reh istor ic s et t lemen ts i n v ar ious a reas o f S outh Bu lgar ia w as mode l led i n ah igh ly s pecu la t ive manner i nt he a bsence o f r e levan t p a laeoenv iro runen ta l d ata.

Un fortuna te ly , t h is s tate o f a f fa irs must p reva i l u n t i l more i s k nown o f

t he s o i ls , v ege tat ion a nd c l ima te i n t h is r eg ion f ro m 5 000-2000 b .c.

N ever-

t heless , t he s can ty p a lyno log ica l d a ta a va ilab le f rom S ou th Bu lgar ia s ince t h is f i e ldwork e nded d oes n o t c on trad ict my r econstruct ions. The s econd w eakness o f t h is s tudy i s t hat s et t le men ts s uch a s Chevdar a nd K azan luk a re r egarded a s s el f-suff ic ien t c ommun it ies whose s ubs istence w as n ot i nf luenced b y p eop le e lsewhere.

Th is a ssu mp t ion w as h eur ist ica l ly u sefu l b u t may s eem u nsound

w hen a rtefactua l d a ta f rom S outh Bu lgar ia i s more i n forma t ive t han a t p resen t a bout t he t ype a nd e x ten t o f i n teract ions b etween s et t lemen ts f rom t he N eol i th ic t o t he B ronze Age.

AC KNO WLEDGE ME NTS T h is s tudy w as u ndertaken wh i lst Iw as a me mber o f t he B rit ish Acade my Ma jor Research P ro ject ( t he Early H istory o f Agr icu l ture i n Europe ), Facu lty o f Archaeo logy a nd An thropo logy , Cambr idge.

The f i eldwork i n Bu lgar ia was

a rranged a nd s upported b y t he B r it ish Counc il a nd Bu lgar ian Acade my o f S c iences , b o th o f w h ich w ere most h e lp fu l i n a l low ing me t o c onduct f i eldwork d ur ing t he s u m mers o f 1 970-2.

The Br it ish Un ivers ity S tuden ts ' T ravel

Assoc iat ion a nd t he Crow ther-Beynon Fund , Ca mbr idge , a lso p rov ided f inanc ial s upport. To a l l t hese b od ies , Iam e x tre mely g ra tefu l. Iowe a n im mense d eb t o f g ra t itude t o s evera l p eop le b oth i n Eng land a nd Bu lgar ia.

Ch ief o f t hese i s t he l ate E r ic H iggs , Manag ing D irector o f t he

Br it ish Acade my Ma jor Research Pro ject ; h e h ad t he s trongest i n f luence o n my r esearch , a nd w as a lways a nu n fa il ing s ource o f h eady e ncourage men t a nd s t r ingen t c r it ic is m. Iam a lso e x tre mely g ra tefu l t o Pro f. G . I . Georg iev , D irec tor o f t he Bu lgar ian Archaeo log ica l I ns t i tu te , S o f ia , f or a l lowing me e very f ac il ity when p art ic ipat ing i n h is e xcavat ions, a s w e l l a s s har ing w ith me h is k now ledge o f Bu lgar ian p reh is tory . For s im ilar r easons , Iw ish t o t hank P rof . N . I . Merpert , o f t he A rchaeo log ica l I nst itu te, Moscow . The h e lp o f Dr. R . K at incherov a nd Dr. K . Kunchev o f t he Bu lgar ian Archaeo log ical I nst itu te, Dr. K . Kunchev o f t he N ova Z agora Museu m a nd Mr. D . Webley o f t he M in istry o f Agr icu l ture Research S tat ion , Bangor must a lso b e a cknowl edged .

I n Ca mbr idge ,I owe a n e spec ia l d ebt t o Mrs. D . G . Wi lson , o f t he

S ub-Dept . o f Quaternary Research , who t aught me much a bou t s eed morpho logy a nd t he p rob le ms i nvo lved i n i den t ify ing macroscop ic p lan t r e ma ins. Iw ou ld l ike a lso t o t hank t he f o l low ing me mbers o f g overnmen ta l o rgan isat ions f or t he ir a ss istance i n my w ork : S ir W. Harpha m a nd Ms. D . Berry o f t he Great Br ita in/East Europe C en tre;

Ms. B . Tho mpson o f t he Br it ish Counc il ;

Ms. X . Radeva o f t he Bu lgar ian Acade my o f S c iences; Ms. A . Ew ing o f t he Br it ish Embassy , S of ia.

Mr. A . Burner a nd

The o ther p eop le who d eserve t hanks a re t oo n umerous t o men t ion . They i nclude h owever t he u ndergraduates who a ss isted my f i eldwork , o f ten u nder v ery s partan c ond it ions, t he n umerous p easan ts a nd workers who h elped me i n Bu lgar ia , a nd a l l t hose i n C a mbr idge a nd S hef f ie ld who h ave a ss isted me i n t h is w ork .

F ina l ly , t hanks a re d ue t o Ms. V . S helton-Bunn f or h e lp w ith

t he p reparat ion o f t he manuscr ip t , a nd t o t he e d itor ia l a nd t yp ing s taf f a t B .A.R. f or t he ir p at ience a nd c o-opera t ion .

L IST OF TABLES ( a l l measuremen ts a re i n mm u n less o therw ise s tated )

Page

Table 1

Rad io-carbon d eter m inat ions f rom Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic t o b ronze a ge s et t le men ts, i n u nca l ibra ted y ears b .c.

2

Co mpos it ion o f p lan t s a mp les f rom e arly n eo l ith ic Bu lgar ian s ites.

3

Co mpos it ion o f p lan t s a mp les f rom m idd le n eo l ith ic Bu lgar ian s ites.

4

Co mpos it ion o f p lan t s a mp les f rom e neo l ith ic Bu lgar ian s i tes.

5

Gra in a nd s eed i mpress ions f rom Go l jano De ldevo.

6

Co mpos it ion o f s a mp les f ro m b ronze a ge Bu lgar ian s ites.

7

Measure men ts o f e inkorn g ra ins f rom Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic t o b ronze a ge s i tes.

8

Measure men ts o f em mer g ra ins f rom Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic t o b ronze a ge s i tes.

9

Measure men ts o fb read/c lub-wheat g ra ins f rom Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic t o b ronze a ge s i tes.

1 0

Measure men ts o f b arley g ra ins f rom Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic t o b ronze a ge s i tes.

1

Measure men ts o f l egumes f rom Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic t o b ronze a ge s i tes.

1 2

An i ma ls r epresen ted o n Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic t o b ronze a ge s i tes.

1 3

Quan t it ies o f n it rogen , p otass iu m a nd p hosphorus r e moved b y wheat c rops a t Ro tha mpsted u nder d if feren t c ond it ions o f manage men t , 1 966-7.

1 4

E ffect o f c rop c u l t ivat ion u pon s o i l s tructure.

1 5

Assoc iat ion o f w eeds w ith wheat a nd b arley c rops a t Woburn , i n d ecreas ing o rder o f f requency w ith whea t.

1 6

Man/hours p er h ectare e xpended i n sw idden c u l t ivat ion b y t he Hanu moo o f t he Ph il ipp ines a nd I ban o f S arawak .

1 7

Mean wheat y ields u nder f a l low ing ( 1 935-64 ) c ompared w i th mean y ields u nder c on t inuous c ropp ing a t Rotha mpsted.

1 85 f

Tab le 1 8

Co mpar ison o f t he e f fects o f f a l low ing a nd c on t inuous c u l t ivat ion o n c ompos it ion o f w eed f lora a t Rotha mpsted.

1 9

E f fect o f f a l low ing t ime u pon w eed f lora a t Ro tha mpsted.

2 0

Man/days p er h ectare e xpended i n c erea l c u l t ivat ion i n f a l low c ropp ing.

2 1

N u mbers o f w eed s eeds p er a cre a t h arvest ing.

2 2

Mon th ly t e mperatures ( C ) i n Bu lgar ia f rom 1 896 t o 1 925.

2 3

Mon thly p rec ip i tat ion ( mm ) i n Bu lgar ia f rom 1 896 t o 1 925.

2 4

Mean n u mber o f d ays e ach mon th w ith r a in i n Bu lgar ia f rom 1 896 t o 1 925.

2 5

Pattern o f l and t enure i n Bu lgar ia i n 1 939.

2 6

Chang ing p at tern o f l and t enure i n Bu lgar ia f rom 1 948 t o 1 967.

2 7

P ercen tage o f a gr icu ltura l p roduce o bta ined f rom p r ivate l and i n Bu lgar ia i n 1 956 a nd 1 967.

2 8

Crop p roduct ion i n Bu lgar ia , 1 913-1967 , i n t housands o f metr ic t ons.

2 9

Agr icu l tura l p roduc t iv ity i n Bu lgar ia i n 1 939 a nd 1 967.

3 0

Numbers o f l ivestock a nd i nhab i tan ts i n Bu lgar ia f rom 1 887 t o 1 970.

3 1

Crop y ie lds i n l bs/acre f rom C lass ica l t o r ecen t t imes.

3 2

Food v a lues o f f ood-st if fs : i n gms.

3 3

N utr it ive v a lue o f f ood-stu f fs f or l ivestock .

3 4

Relat ion b etween r a in fa l l i n tens ity , s o il e ros ion a nd

c on ten t p er k g o f e d ib le p ort ion

v egetat iona l c over. 3 5

Co mpos it ion a nd c on tex t o f Type 1 s a mp les f rom Chevdar.

3 6

Co mpos it ion a nd c on tex t o f Type 2 s amp les f rom Chevdar.

3 7

S ize o fg ra in i n Type 1a nd 2 s a mp les f rom Chevdar.

3 8

Resu lts f rom s iev ing modern g ra in t hrough a mesh o f 3 .35 m m 2 .

3 9

N u mbers o f w eed s eeds i n Type 1a nd Type 2 s a mp les f rom Chevdar.

4 0

D ist r ibu t ion o f w eed s pec ies a ccord ing t o c on tex t a t Chevdar.

4 1

Co mpos it ion o f Type 3 s a mp les f rom o ccupa t iona l d epos its a t Chevdar.

4 2

Co mpos it ion o f Type 3 s a mp les f rom r iver ine d epos its a t Chevdar.

Tab le 4 3

Econom ic i mportance o ft he p lan ts r epresen ted a t Chevdar i nt er ms o f ( A ) t he ir d ietary p o ten t ia l a nd ( 3 ) t he ir a rchaeo log ica l r epresen tat ion .

4 4

Measure men ts o f Bos b ones f rom Chevdar.

4 5

Measure men ts o f c aprov ine b ones f rom Chevdar.

4 6

Teeth measure men ts f rom Chevdar.

4 7

N u mbers o f b ones a nd t eeth o fu ngu la tes f rom l arge-scale e xcavat ions a t Chevdar.

4 8

N umbers o fb ones a nd t eeth o f e ach a n i ma l r ecovered i n t rench , d ry-s ieves a nd w e t-s ieves f rom t he s ound ing a t Chevdar.

4 9

Recovery o f v ar ious a na to m ica l p arts o fu ngu la tes i n t rench , d ry-s ieves a nd w e t-s ieves f rom t he s ound ing a t Chevdar.

5 0

P roport ions o f l imb-bones t o p ha langes , c arpa ls a nd t arsa ls a t Chevdar a ccord ing t o d if feren t r ecovery p rocesses.

5 1

Re lat ive a bundance o f u ngu lates f rom s ound ing a t Chevdar o nb as is o f s elected a na tom ica l p arts.

5 2

Re lat ive a bundance o fu ngu la tes f rom s ound ing a t Chevdar o nb as is o f n umbers o f i nd iv idua ls r epresen ted i n s trat ig raph ica l ly d ist inct d epos its.

5 3

Re lat ive i mportance o fu ngu la tes f rom s ound ing a t Chevdar i nt er ms o f mea t w e igh ts , c alculated f rom n umbers o f i nd iv idual a n i ma ls.

5 4

Feed ing r equ ire men ts ( i n l bs ) o f s heep .

5 5

Feed ing r equ ire men ts ( i n l bs ) o f c at t le.

5 6

Est i mated s ources a nd i n take o f mea t a t Chevdar i n k g p er a nnum.

5 7

Co mpos it ion a nd c on tex t o f Type 2 s amp les f rom e arly n eo l ith ic K a ,zan iuk .

5 8

Compos it ion a nd c on tex t o f Type 5 s a mp les f rom e arly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

5 9

Co mpos it ion a nd c on tex t o f Type 6 s a mp les ( exc lud ing c om mensa ls ) f rom e arly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

6 0

Co mmensa l p lan ts r epresen ted i n Type 6 s a mp les f rom e ar ly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

6 1

6 2

S ize o f g ra in i n Type 2 , 5a nd 6 s a mp les f rom e arly n eo l ith ic K azan luk. D istr ibu t ion o f w eed s pec ies a ccord ing t o s amp le t ype a nd c on tex t a t e ar ly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

T able 6 3

Econom ic importance o f p lan ts r epresen ted a t e arly n eo l ith ic K azan luk i nt er ms o f ( A ) t he ir d ie tary p oten t ia l a nd ( B ) t he ir a rchaeo log ica l r epresen tat ion .

6 4

Co mpos it ion o f p lan t s a mp les f rom m idd le a nd l a te n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

6 5

N u mbers o fb ones a nd t eeth o f e ach a n i ma l r ecovered i n t rench , d ry-s ieves a nd w e t-s ieves a t K azan luk .

6 6

N u mbers o f c a tt le a nd r ed d eer b ones r ecovered i n t rench , d ry-s ieves a nd w e t-s ieves a t K azan luk .

6 7

6 8

N u mbers o f r oe d eer a nd c aprov ine b ones r ecovered i n t rench , d ry-s ieves a nd w et-s ieves a t K azan luk . N u mbers o fp ig b ones r ecovered i n t rench , d ry-s ieves a nd w et-s ieves a t K azan luk .

6 9

D if feren t ia l r ecovery o f l ong-bones a nd p ha langes, c arpa ls a nd t arsa ls o fu ngu lates i n t rench , d ry-s ieves a nd w et-s ieves a t K azan luk .

7 0

D if ferent ia l r ecovery o f d ec iduous a nd p er manen t t eeth o f u ngu lates i n t rench , d ry-s ieves a nd w e t-s ieves a t K azan luk .

7 1

N u mbers o fb ones o f e ach a n i ma l f rom e ach c on tex t t ype a t e arly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

7 2

N u mbers o f b ones o f e ach a n i ma l f rom e ach c on tex t t ype a t m idd le n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

7 3

N u mbers o fb ones o f e ach a n i ma l f rom e ach c on tex t t ype a t l a te n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

7 4

N u mbers o fb ones a nd t eeth o f e ach a n i ma l f rom e arly , m idd le a nd l ate n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

7 5

Measure men ts o f Bos b ones f rom K azan luk .

7 6

Measure men ts o f S us b ones f rom K azan luk .

7 7

Measuremen ts o f d eer b ones f rom K azan luk .

7 8

Measure men ts o f c aprov ine b ones f rom K azan luk .

7 9

T eeth measure men ts f rom K azan luk .

8 0

N u mbers o f s elected a nato m ica l p arts o f u ngu la tes f rom e ar ly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

8 1

N u mbers o f s elected a na to m ica l p arts o fu ngu la tes f rom m idd le n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

8 2

N u mbers o f s e lec ted a na tom ica l p arts o fu ngu la tes f rom l a te n eo l ith ic

8 3

H e igh t a nd e st i ma ted d at ing o f s i tes i n t he N ova Z agora r eg ion .

Tab le 8 4

f l and u se c ategor ies w ith in P ercen tage r epresen ta t ion o i th g rea ter t han 5 0 p er c en t 2 km r ad ius o f s i te : s i tes w a rab le.

8 5

f l and u se c ategor ies w ith in Percen tage r epresen tat ion o ith 2 5-50 p er c en t a rab le. 2 km r ad ius o f s i te : s i tes w

8 6

f l and u se c ategor ies w ith in Percen tage r epresen tat ion o ith l ess t han 2 5 p er c en t 2 km r ad ius o f s i te : s i tes w a rab le.

8 7

Co mpos it ion o f s a mp les o f p lan t r ema ins f rom E zero ( exc lud ing w eeds ).

8 8

Weed s eeds r epresen ted a t E zero.

8 9

Measure men ts o fT . d icoccum g ra ins f rom E zero.

9 0

Measure men ts o f T . monococcum g ra ins f rom E zero.

9 1

Measure men ts o fH . h exast ichum g ra ins f rom E zero.

9 2

Gra in s ize o f T . d icoccu m f rom Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic a nd b ronze a ge s ites.

9 3

Gra in s ize o f T . monococcu m f rom Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic a nd b ronze a ge s i tes.

9 4

Gra in s ize o f H . h exast ichu m f rom Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic a nd b ronze a ge s i tes.

9 5

Measure men ts o fV it is p ips f rom s amp le Da l a t E zero a nd S itagro i I V.

9 6

Co mpos it ion o f f auna l s a mp les f ro m l arge-sca le a nd s ondage e xcavat ions a t E zero.

9 7

Co mpos it ion o f f auna l s amp les f rom l arge-sca le a nd s ondage e xcava t ions a t E zero i n t erms o f p ercen tage o f t o ta l n umbers o f a n i ma ls a nd c arcass w e igh ts.

9 8

P r inc ip le p lan ts r epresen ted o n e arly n eo l ith ic s i tes i n w estern Turkey a nd S outh-East Europe.

9 9

Pr inc ip le a n i ma ls r epresen ted o n e arly n eo l ith ic s ites i n w estern Turkey a nd S outh-East Europe.

1 00

S ize o f c a t t le b ones f rom e arly n eo l ith ic s i tes i n w estern Turkey a nd S ou th-East Europe.

1 01

S ize o f sw ine b ones f rom e arly n eo l ith ic s i tes i n S outh-East Europe.

1 02

T eeth measure men ts o f c at t le , sw ine , d og a nd c at f rom e arly n eo l ith ic s i tes i n S outh-East Europe a nd e lsewhere.

1 03

An i mals r epresen ted i n L ate P le istocene s i tes i n Bu lgar ia a nd Franch th i , G reece.

T ables 1 04 1 05

S ize o f modern a nd p reh istor ic s eeds o f L . c f b ienne. Co mpos it ion o f p reh istor ic c rops f rom Bu lgar ia a nd G reece.

1 06

Assoc iat ion o f c rops a nd c om mensa ls f rom t he N ear East .

1 07

Assoc iat ions o f c rops a nd c om mensa ls f rom De ir A lla -.

1 08

Assoc iat ions o f c rops a nd c om mensa ls f rom Hungary.

1 09

Assoc iat ions o f c rops a nd c om mensa ls f ro m Br ita in .

10

Assoc iat ions o f c rops a nd c om mensa ls f rom S cand inav ia.

L IST OF F IGURES

F igure

Page

1

Rel ief , d ra inage a nd modern s ett le men t i n Bu lgar ia.

2

S uggested r e lat ionsh ips b etween t he e conom ic s tatus o f ap lan t , i t s c on tex t a nd s a mp le c ompos it ion .

3

Crop y ie lds u nder d if fer ing c ond it ions o f c u lt ivat ion .

4

Rel ief , d ra inage a nd s o i ls o f t he

3 05 f

e lope 6r eg ion .

5

N or th s ec t ion o f t he s ound ing a t C hevdar .

6

S ou th s ec t ion o f t he s ound ing a t C hevdar .

7

S ect ion a cross c en tra l p art o f Chevdar.

8

S cat ter d iagram o f g ra in i n Type 1a nd Type 2 s a mp les f rom Chevdar.

9

E f fect o f s iev ing a s a mp le o f modern emmer w ith e inkorn a nd w eed s eeds t hrough a 3 .35 m m mesh.

1 0

Model o f t he c rop p rocess ing a ct iv it ies r epresen ted a t C hevdar.

1

Assoc ia t ions b etween c rops , c om mensals a nd w eeds i n T ype 1 s a mp les f rom Chevdar.

1 2

Assoc iat ions b etween c rops , c om mensa ls a nd w eeds i n Type 2 s a mp les a t Chevdar.

1 3

S cat ter d iagra m o f c aprov ine metapod ia ls f ro m Chevdar , K azan luk a nd N ea N iko med ia.

1 4

S cat ter d iagra m o f c aprov ine metapod ia ls f rom Chevdar , K azan luk a nd modern s pec i mens.

1 5

Bone f us ion a nd t ooth w ear d ata o n c aprov ines f rom Chevdar.

1 6

Bone f us ion a nd t ooth w ear d ata o n sw ine f rom Chevdar.

1 7

Model o f t he r elat ionsh ips b etween t he p r inc ip le c o mponent s o f t he s ubs istence e cono my a t Chevdar.

1 8

N umbers o f s heep/goa t a nd c at t le a t Chevdar u nder d if feren t f eed ing r eg i mes.

1 9

Quan t if ied mode l o f t he p r inc ip le c omponen ts o f t he s ubs istence e conomy a t Chevdar.

2 0

S o ils , r e l ief a nd d ra inage o f t he K azan luk r eg ion .

F igure 2 1

East s ect ion o f t he s ound ing a t K azan luk .

2 2

F low d iagra m o f e xcavat ion p rocedure a t K azan luk .

2 3

S cat ter d iagra m o fg ra in i n Type 2 a nd Type 5 s amp les f rom K azan luk .

2 4

Model o f t he c rop p rocess ing a ct iv it ies r epresen ted a t e arly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

2 5

Bone f us ion d a ta o n c aprov ines f rom e ar ly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

2 6

Den ta l d ata o n c aprov ines f rom e arly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

2 7

Bone f us ion d a ta o n c aprov ines f rom m idd le n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

2 8

D en ta l d a ta o n c aprov ines f rom m idd le n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

2 9

Den ta l d a ta o n c aprov ines f rom l ate n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

3 0

Bone f us ion d ata o n sw ine f rom e arly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

3 1

D en ta l d a ta o n sw ine f rom e arly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

3 2

Den ta l d a ta o n sw ine f rom midd le a nd l ate n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

3 3

D en ta l d a ta o n c at t le f rom K azan luk .

3 4

D en ta l d a ta o n r ed d eer f ro m K azan luk .

3 5

Den ta l d a ta o n r oe d eer f rom e arly n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

3 6

Den ta l d a ta o n r oe d eer f rom l ate n eo l ith ic K azan luk .

3 7

Re l ief , d ra inage a nd modern s et t le men t i n t he N ova Z agora r eg ion.

3 8

N eo l ith ic a nd e neo l ith ic s e t t le men ts a nd s o ils i n t he N ova Z agora r eg ion .

3 9

Early b ronze a ge s e t t le men ts a nd s o ils i n t he N ova Z agora r eg ion .

4 0

S che mat ic v iew o f t he g eomorpho logy o f t he N ova Z agora r eg ion p r ior t o a nd d ur ing t he N eo l ith ic.

4 1

S che mat ic v iew o f t he g eomorpho logy o f t he N ova Z agora r eg ion d ur ing t he Early Bronze Age.

4 2

N eo l ith ic a nd e neo l ith ic s i te t err itor ies ( om it t ing o verlaps ) i n t he Nova Z agora r eg ion .

4 3

Early b ronze a ge t err itor ies ( om it t ing o verlaps ) i n t he N ova Z agora r eg ion .

4 4

N orth s ect ion o f s ound ing a t E zero.

4 5

West s ect ion o f s ound ing a t E zero.

4 6

P lan o f f eatures i nd epos its 3 07 i n s ound ing a t E zero.

F igure 4 7

P lan o f f eatures i n d epos its 3 08 i n s ound ing a t E zero.

4 8

P lan o f f ea tures i n d epos its 3 09 i n s ound ing a t E zero.

4 9

Map o f e arly a gr icu ltura l s ett le men ts i n G reece , Bu lgar ia a nd w estern Turkey.

5 0

S ize o f p reh istor ic c at t le i n S ou th-East Europe a nd w estern Turkey.

5 1

E f f ic iency o f d iferen t r ecovery p rocesses a t K azan luk .

Ded icated t o Er ic H iggs, 1 908-1976

CHAPTER 1 SUM MARY OF SOUTH BULGARIAN PREH ISTORY , S IXTH TO TH IRD MILLENN IUM B . 0 .

I ti s a ppropr iate t o b eg in t h is s tudy b y s ummar is ing o ur p resen t k now ledge o f S ou th Bu lgar ian p reh istory f ro m t he s ix th t o t h ird m il lenn ium b .c. As w i l l b ecome e v iden t , a l most a l l o ur e v idence f or t h is p er iod h as b een c o l lected t o f or m a c hrono log ica l f ra mework b ased o n a rtefact t ypes. A lthough much i s k nown a bou t t he mater ia l c u lture, v ery l i t t le i s u nderstood a bou t t he s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic o rgan isat ion o f s et t le men ts, t he ir s ubs istence a nd e nv ironmen ta l s et t ing. The most impor tan t r eason f or o ur i gnorance o f t hese t op ics i s t hat t he c hrono logy o ft h is p er iod h as o n ly r ecen t ly b een p laced o n as ecure f oo t ing. As e lsewhere t he p resence o r a bsence o f me ta l-work ing p rov ided a c onveni en tb as is f or i n it ia l ly d iv id ing t h is p er iod i n to a N eo l ith ic a nd a Bronze Age. A l though Ch ilde ( 1929 ) w as o ne o ft he f i rst t o d raw a tten t ion t o t he i mportance o f t he N eo l ith ic i n Bu lgar ia w ith in t he b roader c on tex t o f European p reh istory , h e was u nab le t o o b ta in more t han a t an ta l is ing a nd n ebu lous impress ion o f i t s c o mponen ts, d eve lop men ta nd r eg iona l v ar iat ions g iven t he a bsence o f r el iab le s trat igraph ic s equences.

I n t he 1 930s Gau l ( 1948 ) d id much t o

p roduce a r easonab ly c oheren t c hrono log ica l a nd s pa t ia l f ramework f or t he N eo l i th ic a nd Bronze Age b y s ubd iv id ing e ach p er iod o n t he b as is o f p ot tery t ypes a nd n ot ing r eg iona l d if ferences i n ma ter ial c u lture w ith in Bu lgaria. F iner a nd more r e l iab le s ubd iv is ions o f t he N eo l ith ic a nd Bronze Age w ere n o t p oss ible, h owever, u n t il t he 1 950s, when t he Bu lgar ian Archaeol og ica l I nst itu te i n it iated a n amb it ious p rogra m me o f e xcavat ion w ith t he s pec if ic o b ject ive o f i so lat ing r eg iona l a nd c hrono log ica l v ar ia t ions. Th is p rogra m me r esu l ted i n t he e xcava t ion o f s evera l l arge , mu l t i-per iod s i tes s uch a s Ruse ( Georg iev a nd Angelov , 1 957 ), Yassatepe ( Detev , 1 960 ), K aranovo a nd K re m ikovc i ( Georg iev , 1 961), Az mak ( Georg iev , 1 963, 1 965 , 1 969 ), E zero ( Georg iev a nd Merpert , 1 965 , 1 966 ) a nd Raskopan itza ( Detev , 1 971 ), a l l o f wh ich w ere i nvest igated t o o bta in t ypo log ica l s equences o f a rtef act t ypes. The p rogra m me i s s t il l b e ing c on t inued b y t he e xcavat ion o f s ites s uch a s Chevdar, K azan luk a nd S igans ld Mog ila , wh ich w i l l b e d iscussed l a ter i n t h is s tudy. These e xcavat ions h ave d e mons trated r eg iona l d if ferences i n t he a sse mb lages f ro m North , S ou th a nd West Bu lgar ia t hroughou t much o f t he N eo l ith ic. Chrono log ica l s ubd iv is ions o f t he N eo l ith ic i n e ach r eg ion c ou ld a lso b e i dent if ied. I n S ou th Bu lgar ia t he N eo l ith ic c ou ld b e s ubd iv ided i n to t hree p er iods , e ach c o mpr is ing t wo s uccess ive c u ltures o n t he b as is o f t he k ey s ect ion f ro m Karanovo. ' Thus t he Early N eo l ith ic c o mpr ised t he K aranovo Ia nd I c u l tures;

t he M idd le N eo l ith ic, t he K aranovo I I a nd I V ;

1

a nd t he

L a te N eo l ith ic o r Eneo l ith ic, t he K aranovo V a nd V I c u ltures.

The Early

Bronze Age h as b een s ubd iv ided i n to f our p hases, l argely o n t he b as is o f t he c era m ics f ro m E zerovo a nd n o l ess t han e leven s uccess ive E . B. A. l eve ls a t E zero ( Ren frew , C ., 1 969 ). I ti s h igh ly f ortuna te f or u s t ha t many o f t hese c hrono log ica l s ubd iv is ions o f b o th t he N eo l ith ic a nd Ear ly B ronze Age h ave n ow b een d ated b y C 14. As Tab le 1 s hows, t he c hrono log ica l f ra mework o f h uman s et t le men t i n Bu lgar ia f ro m 5 500-2500 b .c. n ow r ests o na n impress ive s er ies o f r ad io-carbon d eter m inat ions. These d ates a re a l l t he more u sefu l i n t ha t t hey a l low u s t o c ons ider t he mer its o f ac hrono log ica l f ra mework b ased l argely o n a rtefact , a nd e spec ia l ly p ot tery , t ypes.

I n t wo importan t r espects t h is t ype o f f ra mework h as o u t-

l i ved i t s u sefu lness. I n t he f i rst p lace, t he c oncep ts o f aN eo l ith ic a nd Bronze Age h ave b eco me e xceed ing ly i mprec ise n ow t ha t meta l lurgy i s k nown t o h ave b een p ract ised d uring t he Eneo l ith ic f or a t l east a t housand y ears b efore t he b eg inn ing o f t he Ear ly Bronze Age ( Ren frew , 1 969 ).

S econd ly , i th as b eco me

i ncreas ing ly a pparent t hat s et t le men ts i n S . Bu lgar ia s how f ar more c on t inu i ty i n t rad it ion s a nd o ccupa t ion f ro m 5 -3000 b .c. t han i s s uggested b y d iv id ing i t i n to s ix p hases o n t he b as is o f o f ten m inor c hanges i n t he s hape a nd d ecora t ion o f s o me p ot tery t ypes. For o ur p urposes i ti s s u ff ic ien t t o d iv ide h uman s et t le men t a nd e conomy i n S ou th Bu lgar ia i n to t hree p er iods. The f i rst i s d ef ined b y t he a ppearance o f a gr icu ltura l c om mun it ies i n t he l a tter p art o f t he s ix th mi l lenn ium b .c., a nd i s f o l lowed b y al ong p er iod , l ast ing t wo m il lenn ia , o f g radua l a nd u n in terr up ted s oc ia l , e cono m ic a nd t echno log ica l d eve lopmen t. The t h ird a nd f i na l p er iod i s marked b y t he e ven ts o ft he e ar ly t h ird m il lenn ium b .c. wh ich e nded t he c u ltura l t rad it ions a nd s e t t le men t p at terns o f t he p rev ious t wo m il lenn ia. 1 .

P er iod 1 ( 55-5000 b .c.) :

t he a ppearance o f a gr icu ltura l c o mmun it ies

As Tab le 1 i nd icates, t he e ar l iest s et t le ments a t s i tes s uch a s K aranovo a nd Az mak w ere f ounded i n t he l at ter h a lf o f t he s ix th m i llenn ium b .c. a nd a re c haracter ised b y K aranovo Ia sse mb lages. S ites w i th s im i lar a sse mb lages a re f ourd f ro m t he n or thern e dge o f t he Rhodopes t o t he S tara P lan ina , a nd f rom t he B lack S ea t o t he e astern e dge o f t he S of ia b asin ( see F ig. 1 ) . These a sse mb lages h ave b een d escr ibed i n d eta i l e lsewhere ( Georg iev , 1 961, 1 971;

Tr ingha m , 1 971) a nd n eed n ot c oncern u s t oo g rea t ly h ere.

g enera l p o int s a re a ppropr iate, h owever.

Two

The f i rst i s t hat K aranovo Ia s-

s e mb lages h ave n o a n teceden ts w i th in Bu lgar ia a nd h ave n ever b een f ound immed ia te ly o ver ly ing e ar l ier a sse mb lages. Consequen t ly , i ti s a ssu med t ha t c om mun it ies s uch a s K aranovo a nd Az mak w ere f ounded b y imm igran ts f rom As ia Minor o r e lsewhere.

Th is i ssue w i l l b e d iscussed a t g reater

l eng th i nt he f ina l p art o ft h is s tudy. S econd ly , K aranovo Ia sse mblages a re r egarded a s b road ly r elated t o o ther e arly n eo l ith ic Ba lkan a sse mb lages wh ich h ave b een g rouped i n to t he K re m ikovc i, S tar &vo , S tar6evo-Körös , K örös a nd C r i2 c u l tures. Tr ingha m ( 1971:78 ) h as s uggested t ha t ' Genera l ly t hese c u l tura l n ames c orrespond t o av ar iat ion i n s et t le men t t ype a nd l ocat ion a nd b as is o f e cono my. Much l ess v ar iety i s a pparen t i n t he ma ter ia l c u lture '.

2

However, v ery l i t t le i s k nown a t p resen t a bou t t he e cono m ic b as is o f s et t lemen ts w i th in a ny o f t hese c u ltura l g roups ( Barker, 1 975 ).

As w e s ha l l s ee ,

t h is o bservat ion i s e spec ia l ly t rue o f s et t le men ts w ith K aranovo Ia sse mb lages. I ti s c onven ien t t o d iscuss s et t le ments o f t h is p er iod u nder g enera l h eadi ngs o f t echno logy , s oc ia l/econo m ic o rgan isat ion a nd s ubs istence. i ) t echno logy D irect a nd i nd irec t e v idence f ro m t h is p er iod s how t hat wood, c lay , s tone a nd b one w ere u sed i n mak ing a w ide r ange o f a rtefacts, e ither s ing ly o r i n c on junct ion w ith e ach o ther. Bu ild ings were r ectangu lar o r s quare ( 2..8 m x 4 m t o 8m x 8m ) a nd made f ro m a t imber f ra me w h ich was c overed w ith t h ick l ayers o f c lay a nd c haf f .

As c lay models o f h ouses f ro m l ater n eo l ith ic s e tt le men ts i n S outh

Bu lgar ia h ave g ab led r oo fs , i ti s a ssu med t hat b u ild ings o f t he s ixth m i l lenn ium b .c. a lso h ad t h is t ype o f r oof .

F loors w ere u sua l ly o f b ea ten c lay.

C lay w as a lso u sed f or mak ing a v ar iety o f f i ct iles s uch a s o vens, l a mps, s p ind le-wor ls a nd a n thropo morph ic f igur ines a s wel l a s p ot tery.

The c o m mon-

e st t ype o ft h ick-bod ied g lobular p ots , c . 5 0 cm h igh , w ith s hort c y l indr ical n ecks a nd a f l at o r s l igh t ly r ounded b ase , made f ro m a c oarse c haf f-te mpered ware.

Sma l ler v essels u sua l ly h ad a f i ner f abr ic c on ta in ing l ess o rgan ic

mater ia l a nd were more e ven ly f i red.

These were o f ten h em ispher ica l o r

t hree-quarter s pher ica l b ow ls w ith a p edes ta l , f lat o r r ounded b ase, o r s o met i mes s tand ing o n f our l egs.

The s urface was o f ten c overed w ith a s elf-

s l ip a nd t hen b urn ished o r p o l ished.

Ta l l t u l ip-shaped v essels w ith a p edes ta l

b ase a nd made f ro m a v ery f ine f abr ic w ith n o o rgan ic i nclus ions h ave a lso b een f ound s porad ica l ly o n most o f t he s i tes c on ta in ing K aranovo Ia sse mb lages. Th is u nusua l

t ype o f c on ta iner was c overed w ith a r ed o r wh ite s l ip wh ich

was p a in ted i n wh ite , r ed o r b lack b efore f i r ing.

Af terwards t he s urface was

p o l ished. L it t le i s k nown a bou t t he v ar ia t ion i n s hape, s ize, d ecora t ion a nd f abr ic o f t hese c era m ic t ypes.

Even l ess c an b e s a id a bou t t he ir f unct ion u n t i l t he

r elat ions b etween t he s hape, s ize , f abr ic a nd c on tex t o f e ach t ype a re e xp lored. The most f requen t t ypes o f p o l ished s tone a rtefacts a re s add le-querns a nd r ubbers , u sual ly made f ro m s andstone.

Sma l l p o l ished g reenstone " axes" ,

l ess t han 1 5 cm l ong , h ave a lso b een f ound.

The ir f unc t ion i s e n ig mat ic :

t hey a re t oo sma l l t o b e u sed a s a xes f or c hopp ing d own t rees, a nd s ee m t oo c arefu l ly made f or mere ly w h it t l ing o r s crap ing wood.

As t hey a re of ten

f ound w ith l i t t le s ign o f d a mage, i ti s t e mpt ing t o t h ink t ha t t hey w ere n ot u sed i n e veryday d o mest ic a nd s ubs istence a c t iv it ies. Ch ipped s tone a rtefacts w ere n or ma l ly made f ro m t h in b lades o f f l in t. Wear a nalys is i nd icates t ha t many were u sed f or c u t t ing , s crap ing , s aw ing a nd d r il l ing ( Tr ingha m , 1 971:75 ).

S o me were u ndoubted ly u sed a s s ick les

a s t hey h ave b een f ound w ith s ick le-g loss o n t he ir s urface a nd h af ted i n a n t ler h and les.

P resu mab ly wood was u sed f or h af t ing o ther t oo ls.

Bone was u sed f or mak ing a v ar iety o f t oo ls.

Aw ls a nd p o in ts w ere o f ten

made f ro m metapod ia , a nd r ibs w ere u sed f or mak ing s poons a nd s pa tu lae.

3

I ti s h igh ly l ikely t hat s k ins a nd wood w ere importan t r aw ma ter ia ls b u t h ave n o t s urv ived i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord.

Ev idence f ro m çata l Hüyük

( Mel laart , 1 965 ) i nd icates t ha t aw ide r ange o f wooden a rtefacts w ere made d ur ing t he s ix th m i l lenn iu m , a nd t hat p o t tery a sse mb lages r epresen t o n ly a p art ia l a ccoun t o f t he r ange o f c on ta iners made a t t h is t ime.

As t he l argest

p o ts i n S ou th Bu lgar ian s et t le men ts o f t h is p er iod a re t oo sma l l f or b u lk s torage , a nd a s n o s torage p its h ave b een f ound , i ti s p robab le t ha t g ra in was s tored i n s k in o r wooden c on ta iners.

L eather a nd p oss ib ly a n i ma l o r v ege-

t ab le f i bres wou ld a lso h ave b een u sed f or c lo th ing , a nd wood f or a v ar iety o f h ouseho ld a nd a gr icu l tura l imp le men ts. i )

s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic o rgan isa t ion

Regret tab ly l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t he s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic o rgan isat ion o f t hese s et t le men ts o nb o th t he i n tra- a nd i n ter-s ite l evel.

A lthough l arge

a reas o f t he e ar l iest s et t le men ts a t K aranovo , Az mak , K azan luk a nd Chevdar h ave b een e xcavated , t here a re a s y e t n o d eta i led p lans o f t he d istr ibu t ion o f a rtefac ts a nd o ther r e ma ins i n r ela t ion t o e ach ' o ther a nd e ach b u ild ing.

I t

i s a lso h igh ly u n for tuna te t hat we h ave n o i nven tor ies o f t he c on ten ts o f e ach b u i ld ing f ro m t hese s e t t le men ts. Our ma in i n for ma t ion o n t he o rgan isat ion o f t hese s e t t le men ts c oncerns t he ir o vera l l l ay-out a nd s ize.

A t K aranovo a nd A z mak b u ild ings were c ons-

t ructed i n p ara l lel r ows ( Georg iev , 1 961, 1 965 ) s epara ted b y as tree t wh ich , a t K aranovo , may h ave b een l a id w ith t imber ( Georg iev , 1 961:62 ).

The

e arl iest s et t le men t a t K aranovo i s t hough t t o h ave c on ta ined 6 0 b u i ld ings. On t he a ssu mp t ions t hat e ach c on ta ined a n uc lear f am ily o f 5p eop le a nd t ha t a ll b u ild ings w ere o ccup ied s i mu l taneously , P iggo t t ( 1965 :47 ) h as s uggested t hat c . 3 00 p eop le l ived i n t he v i l lage.

However , n e ither o f t hese a ssu mp t ions

c an b e v er if ied a t p resen t. The b u ild ings t he mse lves p rov ide l i t t le i ns igh t i n to t he way t he c o m mun ity was o rgan ised.

A l though t he ir s ize i s f a ir ly u n ifor m , t h is f act c anno t b e

t aken a s a n i nd ica t ion t ha t t here were f ew d if ferences i n t he wea l th a nd s ta tus o f t he i nhab itan ts u n t il t he f unct ion o f e ach b u i ld ing i s k nown. b u i ld ings c on ta in o vens a nd h earths, o thers d o n o t ; a lso f ound o u ts ide b u ild ings.

A lthough s o me

h earths a nd o vens a re

A t K aranovo , i n terna l wal ls were s o met i mes

p a in ted i n r ed a nd wh ite ( Tr ingha m , 1 971:86 ), b u t i ti s imposs ib le a t p resen t t o i n terpret t h is p ract ice i n t er ms o f d if feren t ia l s oc ia l s tatus. As most o f t he a rtefactua l d a ta h as b een d iscussed o u t o f i t s o r ig ina l c ont ex t , i ti s a lso o f l i t t le u se i n i nd icat ing c raf t s pec ial isa t ion o r d if ferences i n p ersona l s tatus.

C lay f igur ines, g reenstone a xes a nd t u l ip-shaped v essels

a re c ases i n p o in t.

I n t er ms o f t he ir a ppearance a nd t he amoun t o f c are a nd

l abour t aken i n t heir p roduct ion , t hey a re t he most d if f icu l t t o i n terpre t i n t er ms o f d ay-to-day s ubs istence a ct iv it ies.

However, i n t he a bsence o f

i n for mat ion o n t he ir c on tex t , a ssoc iat ion w ith o ther o b jects a nd c urat ion , i t i s n o t p oss ible t o d iscuss t he m i n r eference t o t he i n terna l o rgan isa t ion o f t he c o m mun ity. Regret tab ly l i t t le c an b e s a id a bou t t he s oc ial a nd e cono m ic o rgan isat ion o f c o m mun it ies o n t he i n ter-s ite l evel , b o th w ith in a nd o u ts ide t he d istr ibu t ion o f K aranovo Ia sse mb lages.

The a pparen t—though u nquan t if ied —ho mogene ity

4

o f K aranovo Ia sse mblages, i nc lud ing h igh ly i d iosyncrat ic a nd r are c omponen ts s uch a s c lay f igur ines, g reenstone a xes a nd t u l ip-vessels , imp l ies c on tacts a nd p oss ib ly e xchanges b e tween s et t le ments. However, a s i ti s n o t k nown w he ther a l l o r o n ly s o me a rtefact t ypes w ere p roduced l oca l ly o r i n a sma l l n umber o f c en tres, i ti s n ot p oss ib le t o t ranslate t hese i n ter-s ite s im ilar it ies i n to n etworks o f d istr ibu t ion a nd r ec iproc ity .

S im i lar ly t he u n ifor m ity i n

a rtefact t ypes a nd e ven a t tr ibu tes —such a s r ectangu lar t imber-framed h ouses, a n thropo morph ic c lay f i gur ines, c oarse p o t tery t ypes, c lay l a mps a nd b one s patu lae —throughou t t he e arly n eo l ith ic a sse mb lages o f t he Ba lkans i nd icate a t l east a c o m mon h istor ica l b ackground , a nd p oss ib ly s ubsequen t i n terac t ion. P rec ise ly what f or m o f c on tacts o ccurred , a nd h ow t hey w ere ma in ta ined a re t op ics t hat must awa it f urther i nvest iga t ion . i i )

s ubs istence

Desp ite t he amoun t o f i n terest s hown i n t hese s et t le men ts, r e markab ly l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t he ir p lan t a nd a n i ma l h usbandry o r a bou t t he f actors a f fect ing t he l oca t ion o f s et t le men ts.

Ou x e v idence f or t he p lan th usbandry

o f t h is p er iod i s b ased l argely u pon s a mp les o f c arbon ised s eeds a nd g ra ins f rom K aranovo , Az mak ( Arnaudov , 1 947/8;

Ren frew , 1 969a, 1 969b ;

Hop f ,

1 973 ) a nd Chevdar ( Hop f , 1 973 ). The c on ten ts o f t hese s a mp les a re s hown i n Tab le 2 a nd t he s ize p ara meters o f e ach s pec ies a re s um mar ised i n Tab les 7 -11. Two p o in ts a re worth mak ing a bou t t he c on ten ts o f t hese s a mp les. The f i rst i s t ha t t he p resence o fb ar ley i n t he sma l l s a mp le f rom Chevdar a nd i n t wo s a mp les f ro m Az mak ( Hop f , 1 973:4, 7 -8 ) i nva l idates p rev ious s uggest ions ( e .g. Tr ingha m , 1 971:90 ) t hat b ar ley was n ot c u l t ivated i n t h is r eg ion u n t i l l a ter.

S econd ly , t he p resence o f ah exap lo id whea t i n t he e ar l iest l eve ls a t

Az mak was f irst h in ted a t b y Hop f ( i n K oh l a nd Qu it ta , 1 966 :32-33 ) ad ecade a go , b u t h as n o tb een more amp ly d ocu men ted ( Hop f , 1 973 :6-7 ). Th is f ind , a long w ith t hose f ro m Can Hasan I I ( French e t a l., 1 972 ) a nd a cera m ic Knossos ( Evans , 1 968 ) wou ld s ee m t o i nd ica te t hat b read-wheat was u t i l ised i nt he e arl iest n eo l ith ic o ver l arge a reas o f S ou th-East Europe a nd w estern Turkey , e ven i fo n wha t may h ave b een a sma l l a nd s porad ic s ca le. Most o f t he b o tan ica l s a mp les f ro m Bu lgar ia a re sma l l , a nd n one w as c o l lected i n as yste mat ic manner d ur ing t he e xcava t ions. Consequen t ly , i t i s b y n o means c lear whether e ach c u l t igen was c ropped s epara te ly ; n or i s t here a ny means o f e stab l ish ing t he e x ten tt o wh ich e ach s a mp le r epresen ts t he p reva i l ing c rop e cono my.

Data f ro m Chevdar a nd t he e ar l iest l evels a t

K azan luk p resented l a ter i n t h is s tudy w il l h opefu l ly c lar ify s ome o f t hese i ssues. O ur e v idence f or t he a n i ma l h usbandry o f t h is p er iod i s e ven more meagre t han t ha t f or t he p lan t h usbandry. As y et n o d eta ils h ave b een p ub l ished o f t he f auna l r e ma ins f ro m t el l e xcavat ions, a nd o ur e v idence i s a t p resen t i nd irec t i n t he f or m o f s p ind le-worls wh ich imp ly t he u se o f woo l. As Tab le 1 2 s hows , most o f t he e v idence o n t he a n i ma l h usbandry o f t h is p er iod i s d er ived f ro m c ave e xcavat ions. However, n one o f t hese b ones w as c o l lected i n a manner wh ich m igh t y ie ld r el iab le i n for ma t ion o n t he a ge o r s ex s tructure o ft he a n i ma ls a ssoc iated w ith e ach c om mun ity , o r t he ir r ela t ive i mpor tance t o t he e cono my.

5

The f actors a f fect ing t he l ocat ion o f Bu lgar ian s et t le ments o f t h is p er iod h ave n o t y et b een s tud ied. I th as b een s uggested t hat ' t he c ho ice o f l oca t ion o f t he s ett le men ts i nS ou th Bu lgar ia away f rom r ivers i n t he m iddle o f t he f ert ile p la in o r a t t he s pr ing-l ine may i nd icate a l ack o f impor tance o f h un t ing a ct iv it ies ' ( Tr ingha m , 1 971:90 ) o nt he p erhaps q uest ionab le g rounds t hat a gr icu l tura l c o m mun it ies wou ld s e t t le i n t he c en tre r ather t han a t t he p er ip hery o f m icro-eco log ica l z ones.

The s uggest ion h as a lso b een made t ha t

c aves s uch a s Deve tak i P eshtera ( M ikov a nd Dza mbazov , 1 960 ) c on ta in ing K aranovo Ia rtefacts ' were s um mer s et t le ments o fh erders f rom t he p la ins who p ract ised a f or m o f t ranshumance ' ( Tr ingha m , 1 971:90 ).

S o me d ata o n

t he f actors wh ich a ppear t o h ave a f fected t he l oca t ion o f n eo l ith ic s i tes i n s ou thern Bu lgar ia w i l l b e p resen ted i n t he s econd p art o f t h is s tudy. 2 .

Per iod 2 ( 5-3000 b .c . ) :

t he d evelopmen t o f a gr icu l tura l c o m mun it ies

Th is p er iod , e nco mpass ing t he K aranovo I-V I c u l tures, c an b e s ummari sed a s o ne o fp rofound s tab il ity a nd c on t inu ity. Many o f t he t echno log ica l a nd s ty l ist ic t rad i t ions wh ich emerged i n t he p reced ing s hort a nd i nnovat ive p er iod c an b e s een o n ly s l ight ly mod if ied t wo mi l lenn ia l ater.

Developmen ts

t ended t o b e g radua l r ather t han s udden ; i nnova t ions r are a nd of ten h eav i ly r el ian t u pon a nd s upp le men tary t o e x ist ing t echno log ies a nd t rad it ions. There a re s evera l i nd icat ions o f c on t inu ity i n s ett le men t a nd t rad it ion d ur ing t hese t wo m il lenn ia. One o f t he most s tr ik ing i s t he c on t inu ity i n t he o ccupat ion o f many s et t le men ts.

Yassatepe ( De tev , 1 960 ), Az mak ( Georg iev ,

1 965 ) a nd K azan luk ( Georg iev , p ers. c om m ) —the p r inc ipa l mu l t i-phase e ar ly n eo l ith ic s i tes s o f ar i nvest igated i n S ou th Bu lgar ia—con t inued t o b e o ccup ied d ur ing t he t rans it ion f ro m Early t o Midd le N eo l ith ic. K aranovo n ow s ee ms a typ ica l i n t hat t he K aranovo I a nd I I a sse mb lages w ere s eparated f rom e ach o ther b y as ter ile l ayer ( Georg iev , 1 961 ). Even t h is, h owever, m ight merely i nd icate a c hange i n t he u se o fp art o f t he s ett le men t r ather t han a p er iod when t he s ite was d eserted. There i s c lear e v idence f or s ubsequen t c on t inu ity i n o ccupa t ion i nt hat a l l e xcava ted s et t le men ts w i th K aranovo I I a sse mb lages a re c overed b y K aranovo V/V I l eve ls. Dur ing t he f ourth m i l lenn ium b .c ., s ett le men ts i nS ou th Bu lgar ia a re c haracter ised b y K aranovo V a nd V I a sse mb lages a nd s how ' con t inuous o ccupa t ion ... w ith a n i ncrease i n t he s ize o f s ett le men t a nd i n t he r ate o f d epos it ion o f t he o ccupa t ion d ebr is ' ( Tr ingha m , 1 971:156 ).

K aranovo c on ta ined n o l ess t han 1 6 s uccess ive e neo l ith ic o ccupa t ion

l ayers ( Georg iev , 1 961). There was l i t t le c hange i n t he f or m o r c onstruct ion o f b u ild ings , a l though g radua l ly t hey b eca me more e laborate. S o me K aranovo I I b u i ld ings a t K aranovo a nd Az mak ( Georg iev , 1 961, 1 965 ) c on ta ined a n a n te-roo m a nd e ven t hree r oo ms; c om mon.

b y t he L ate N eo l ith ic, t h is t ype o f c onstruct ion h ad b ecome

As i nt he s ixth m il lenn ium b .c., t he i n terna l wa l ls o f s ome l ate

e neo l ith ic b u i ld ings —for e xa mp le , a t Az mak—were p a in ted i n r ed a nd wh ite. Even t hough t he c hrono log ica l s ubd iv is ions o f t he N eo l ith ic i n S ou th Bu lgar ia h ave b een b ased l argely u pon p ot tery s ty les ( Georg iev , 1 961; T r ingha m, 1 971:109 ), t he c era m ics t hroughou t t h is p er iod n evertheless d isp lay a l arge amoun t o f c on t inu ity i n f abr ic a nd s hape. Th is p o int i s w e l l i l lustra ted b y t he f act t ha t t he c oarse, u ndecora ted wares wh ich f or m t he b u lk o f t he c era m ic a sse mb lages a re g enera l ly u nd iagnost ic . Consequen t ly , 6

a rchaeo log ists h ave f ound i t more p rof itab le t o c oncen tra te u pon t he c hanges wh ich a f fected o n ly a sma l l r ange o f c era m ics. I nt he Midd le N eo l ith ic, f or i nstance, t he d ecorat ion o f f i ne wares i s n o l onger p a in ted b u t i nc ised a nd c hanne l led , a nd t u l ip-vesse ls were r ep laced b y c y l indr ica l o r p ir ifor m b eakers w ith f l a tb ases o r c y l indr ica l l egs ( Tr ingha m , 1 971:109 ).

However, t he b u lk

o f t he m idd le n eo l ith ic a sse mb lages c an b e d er ived d irect ly f rom t he i nd igenous e arly n eo l ith ic b ackground. I ti s l ess e asy t o t race c on t inu it ies i n a rtefact t ypes a nd s ty les f rom t he K aranovo I I/ IV t o V/V I c u l tures, f or many e le men ts o f t he l ater c u l tures i n S . Bu lgar ia w ere p robab ly d eve loped i n t he Danube v a l ley ( Ren frew , 1 969 :22 ). Even s o , t he t ype o fb u ild ings a nd many o f t he c era m ics, a s w el l a s t he c ont inu ity o f s ett le men t h ab ita t ion i nd ica te a h igh d egree o f l oca l c on t inu ity f ro m t he f i f th t o f ourth m il lenn ium b .c. i n S ou th Bu lgar ia. Wi th t h is u nderly ing t echno log ica l a nd a r t ist ic c on t inu ity i n m ind , w e c an n ow s um mar ise t he ma in f ea tures o f t he t echno logy , s oc ia l a nd e conom ic o rgan isat ion a nd s ubs istence o f t hese s e tt lemen ts. i ) t echno logy The most impor tan t t echno log ica l i nnova t ion d ur ing t h is p er iod was c opperw ork ing . A s econd i nven t ion , t he u se o fg raph ite f or p a in ted p o t tery , may s ee m t r iv ia l a t f i rst s igh tb u t i s n everthe less importan t i n ad iscuss ion o f e arly meta l lurgy i n S ou th Bu lgar ia a nd Ba lkan Europe.

I ti s n o t a ppropr iate

h ere t o c ons ider t he c la i ms f or o r a ga inst t he i ndependen t i nven t ion o f meta ll urgy i n Ba lkan Europe d ur ing t he f ourth m i l lenn ium b .c.: i n a ny c ase, s uch d iscuss ion i s p re ma ture u n t il more i s k nown o f c on te mporaneous d eve lop men ts i n N .W . Anato l ia. The e arl iest European meta l f inds a re a t p resen t f rom C ern ica i n Rou man ia , where sma l l c opper b eads made f ro m n at ive c opper h ave b een f ound i n g raves o f t he B o ian c u lture, c . 3 900 b .c. Copper aw ls a nd f i sh-hooks h ave b een f ound i n s l igh t ly l a ter c on tex ts, c . 3 8-3700 b .c., a t s evera l s i tes f rom t he R iver Dnes iter i n Russ ia t o t he Drava i n Yugoslav ia , a nd f ro m t he Mar itsa i n S ou th Bu lgar ia t o S ou th Po land. These o b jects w ere a pparen t ly made b y t he s i mp le p rocess o fh a m mer ing a nd a nnea l ing ; a na lys is o f ac opper f i sh-hook f ro m S o loncene i nd icated t hat t e mperatures o f o n ly 3 00°C w ere n eeded ( Tr ingha m , 1 971:197 ). By 3 600 b .c. c opper was p roduced b y t he sme lt ing o f o res, f or wh ich t emperatures o f c . 8 00°C w ere r equ ired , b u t worked a s b efore b y a nneal ing a nd h a m mer ing. C h isels , aw ls, f i sh-hooks a nd t r inke ts w ere t he ma in a r tefacts p roduced f rom c opper a t t h is t ime a nd h ave b een f ound i n s i tes w ith l ate Bo ian , Proto-Cucu ten i a nd Tr ip° lye A a sse mb lages. As t he a rea c overed b y t hese c u ltures l acks c opper o res, c opper w as p robably smel ted e lsewhere a nd p oss ib ly d istr ibu ted a s i ngo ts. A f ter 3 600 b .c., s haf t-ho le a xes a re f ound t hroughou t much o f S .E. Europe. These i mp le men ts a re importan t i nt hat t hey w ere c ast a nd t hus i nd icate a s ubstan t ia lly more s oph ist icated r efractory t echno logy t han b efore.

As c opper

d oes n o t mel t u n t i l 1 083°C, c ast ing r equ ires t he a b i l ity t o s usta in h igh t e mpera tures, p referab ly u nder a r educ ing a tmosphere. I t i s a tt h is s tage t hat w e s hou ld c ons ider g raph ite-pa in ted p o t tery wh ich i s a n e spec ia l ly d iagnost ic c era m ic i n t he Gumeln itsa a sse mblages o f S ou th 7

Bu lgar ia.

I t w as i n it ia l ly t hough t ( Fr ier man , 1 969 ) t ha t i n o rder t o make

g raph ite f use t o t he p ot tery i t was n ecessary t o f i re t he p ot tery i n a n o x id is ing a t mosphere t o 6 00°C a nd t hen t o 1 050 °C u nder a c arefu l ly r educed a tmosphere. I ft h is w as a ch ieved , t he p ot tery was f i red u n ifor m ly t o ad ark e ven g rey , a nd t he g raph ite f used t o t he s urface a nd a ppeared s i lvery . I ft h is was t he c ase , i t was l og ica l t o s uppose t ha t t he c ast ing o f c opper imp le men ts o ccurred i n t he s a me a rea a s t he p roduct ion o f g raph ite-pa in ted wares, s ince b o th r equ ired a lmost i den t ica l t echno log ies ( see Renfrew , 19 69 : 3 8;

Tr ingha m , 1 971:201).

Further more, t he G umeln itsa c u l ture l ay n ear

c opper o res a nd a bundan t f uel , a nd s us ta ined a s table f ood-produc ing e conomy wh ich c ou ld s upport s pec ia l ist c raf ts men a nd p rov ide a d istr ibu t ion n etwork . I n s hort , i t was a ssu med t o h ave t he means, mo t ive a nd o pportun ity t o u ndert ake c opper c ast ing. However , s uch c la i ms h ave b een i nva l idated b y ar e-analys is o f t he c ond it ions u nder wh ich g raph ite-pa in ted p o ttery w as f i red.

I tn ow s ee ms t hat

t hese v esse ls were f ired a t o n ly c . 7 00°C, a nd •no t a t 1 050 0C a s p rev iously t hough t.

As T üngery a nd Fr ier man ( 1974 :204 ) c onc lude ' Wh ile i t may b e t rue

t hat t he me lt ing a nd sme l t ing o f c opper was a r esu lt o f t he d eve lop men t o f k ilns f or f i r ing p ot tery , t he a nc ien t f i r ing t e mperature o f t h is s herd p rov ides n o e v idence t o s upport t ha t o p in ion '.

I t s hou ld a lso b e a dded t hat t here i s

n o e v idence f or s pec ia l ised sm iths i n t he Gu me ln itsa s et t le men ts o f S outh Bu lgar ia , a nd t ha t o re a nd f uel were d oubt less a va ilab le e lsewhere.

As t he

p lace o f manu facture o f t hese c ast c opper o b jects i s n ow u nclear , t he i nhab it an ts o f t he l ate f ourth m il lenn iu m s et t le men ts i n S ou th Bu lgar ia c ou ld a s e as ily h ave b een t he c onsumers a s t he p roducers. B ecause t he o r ig ins o f me ta l-cast ing i n t he Ba lkans a re n ow b ack i n t he me lt ing-pot , i ti s d if f icu l t t o a ssess t he e co log ical c onsequences o f smelt ing o n t he l andscape o fS ou th Bu lgar ia i n t he f ourth m i l lenn iu m b .c.

A s sme l t ing

r equ ires l arge amoun ts o f f uel , t hese c ou ld h ave b een c ons iderab le.

Pre-

c ise e st i mates o f t he f uel r equ ire men ts o f p reindustr ia l metal-s m iths a re d if f icu lt t o o bta in , b u t s ilver sm iths i n S ou th I ran t h is c en tury u sed 3 5 k g o f c harcoa l f or a d ay 's sme l t ing ( Spooner, 1 977 :29 ).

I fd e mands o f t h is k ind

w ere s usta ined o ver s evera l c en tur ies, t here c ou ld w e l l h ave b een s ubstan t ia l c onsequences o nb o th v egeta t iona l a nd s o il s tab il ity.

( Th is i ssue w il l b e e x-

p lored more f u l ly i n Chapter 5 .) On t he o ther h and , e ar ly meta l lurgy i n t he Ba lkans s ee ms t o h ave b een a sma l l-sca le e n terpr ise.

Even t he f a mous K arbuna h oard , c on ta in ing 4 43

o b jects a nd f ound i n a Tr ipo lye A/B1 c on tex t , f i t ted c o mfortab ly i n to a j ar l ess t han 3 0 cm h igh ( Tr ingha m , 1 971:203 ).

I ti s a lso s ign if ican t t hat meta l-

work ing h ad l i t t le e f fec t u pon e x ist ing t echno log ies.

Most o f t he i mp le men ts

—such a s aw ls a nd c h isels —wou ld h ave b een l i t t le more e f fect ive t han e x isti ng b one a nd s tone t oo ls.

Because s haf t-ho le a xes w ere made o f p ure c opper

a nd n ot a l loyed w ith t in t o make b ronze , t hey wou ld h ave b een t oo s o ft t o c o mpete s uccessfu l ly w ith s tone v ers ions.

I ti s a lso n o teworthy t ha t s ick les ,

k n ives, p lough/ard s hares were among a w ide r ange o f a gr icu l tura l e qu ip men t wh ich w as n o t p roduced i n me ta l a t t h is t ime.

8

i ) s oc ial a nd e cono m ic o rgan isat ion As i n t he p rev ious p er iod , l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t he i n terna l s oc ia l a nd e conom ic o rgan isa t ion o f s e tt le men ts d ur ing t hese t wo mi l lenn ia.

However,

t he g enera l s im ilar ity i n t he l ay-ou t a nd t ype o fb u ild ings, a nd t he t ypes o f a r tefacts p erhaps i nd ica te t hat l i t t le c hange h ad o ccurred. The ma in h in t o f c hange i n t he o rgan isat ion -o ft hese s et t le men ts l i es i n e v idence f or c raf t s pec ia l isat ion . I n t he K aranovo V I s et t le men t a t K aranovo ( c _ . 3 500 b .c . ) , o ver 1 00 p ots w ere f ound i n o ne b u ild ing , a nd t h is f ind h as b een t aken a s e v id ence f or s pec ia l ised p ot ters. C on tacts a nd e xchange b etween S ou th Bu lgar ia a nd o ther a reas a re e v idenced b y t he s im i lar it ies i n many a r tefact t ypes a nd s ty les ( see Georg iev , 1 961 , 1 971; Tr ingha m , 1 971) a nd a lso b y t he d istr ibu t ion o f o b jects b eyond t he ir s ource.

I n a dd it ion t o t he d is tr ibu t ion o f v ar ious t ypes o f h a mmered a nd c ast

meta l-ob jec ts o ver S .E .Europe ( Tr ingha m , 1 971:Fig. 3 7 ), c ross-cu l tura l c on tac ts a re i nd icated b y t he w idespread d istr ibu t ion o f Madara f l in t f ro m Bu lgar ia ( Georg iev , 1 959 ) a nd s hel l b racelets o fS pondy lus g aederopus f ro m t he Aegean . Wh ilst w e c an a ssume t ha t t he e neo l ith ic c u ltures o f S .E.Europe w ere i n c ont act w ith e ach o ther , t he i mpor tance, f requency a nd f or m o f s uch e xchanges u n fortuna tely r e ma in e lus ive. i i ) s ubs istence I ti s t e mpt ing t o s uppose t hat t he c on t inu ity i n t he h ab itat ion o f many t el l s et t le men ts i n S ou th Bu lgar ia d ur ing t h is p er iod i nd ica tes l i t t le r ad ical c hange i nt he means o f o bta in ing s ubs istence.

Tr ingha m ( 1971:156 ) h as s uggested

t ha t ' an i ncrease i n t he l eng th o f t he d ura t ion o f t he s et t le men ts a nd a g reater s tab il ity a nd c on t inu ity o f t he ir o ccupa t ion t han i n t he e arl ier n eo l ith ic p er iods ' may h ave r esu lted f ro m ' improve men t i nt he t echn iques o f a gr icu l ture a nd r ear ing d o mest icated a n i ma ls '.

Ren frew ( 1969 :37 ) h as a lso s uggested t hat

s ome k ind o f c rop r ota t ion may h ave b een p rac t ised b y t h is t ime. I n t he c ont ex t o fb oth s uggest ions, i ti sp erhaps s ign if ican t t hat f rag men ts o f wha t h ave b een r egarded a s a rd-shares h ave b een f ound i n Gumeln itsa c on tex ts a t C asc ioare le i n S ou th Rou man ia ( Du m itrescu a nd Banateanu , 1 965 ) a nd i n S outh Bu lgar ia ( Detev , 1 968 ). Ev idence f or t he p lan t h usbandry d ur ing t he e arl ier p art o f t h is p er iod i s s can ty , a nd i s s um mar ised i n Tab les 3 , 7 -11. Because t hese s a mp les o f c arbon ised p lan t r e ma ins a re b o th sma l l a nd f ew , t here a re n o g rounds f or s uppos ing t ha t t he p lan t r esources d iffered f rom t hose i n t he p reced ing p er iod. The f i nd o f Hordeum d ist ichon f ro m Yassa tepe i s o f i n terest i n t wo ways. F irst , i tc an b e c o mpared w ith a s im ilar b u tb ronze a ge f ind f ro m E zerovo I ( see Tab le 6 ) , a nd might i nd icate t hat t h is t ype o fb arley was c ropped o n a m inor s ca le d ur ing t he N eo l ith ic. S econd ly , i ts ee ms t o h ave b een h arvested b efore a l l t he g ra in h ad f u l ly r ipened ( Renfrew , 1 969b :287 ), f or r easons wh ich s ee m o bscure. The b o tan ica l d ata f ro m t he f ourth m il lenn ium b .c. i s s ubs tan t ia l a nd c ompr ises s evera l , o f ten mass ive , s a mp les f ro m n umerous s et t le men ts. The c on ten ts o ft hese s a mp les a re s hown i n Tab le 4 a nd t he s ize o f s eeds a nd g ra ins i n Tab les 7 -11.

9

Most o ft h is e v idence h as c ome t o l i ght s ince 1 945, b u t t here a re s ome e ar l ier f inds.

S o me d ate f ro m t he e arly d ays o f Bu lgar ian a rchaeo logy a nd

a re n ow o f l i t t le u se;

f or e xa mp le, f inds o f ' wheat ' were made a t Monast irska

Mog ila n ear K ost ievo ( 13 km n orth-east o fP lovd iv ) i n 1 903 ( Gau l , 1 948 :

i n

Ren frew , 1 969b :298 ), a nd a lso a t Te l l R atev , 2 km n or th-east o f J ambo l i n 1 901 ( Gau l , 1 948 :160 ).

There a re a lso t wo r eports o f T .vu lgare ;

t he f i rst

was a t S vet i K ir ilovo , 1 1 km s ou th o fS tara Z agora , where i t was f ound m ixed w ith s eeds o f Agroste m ma g ithago ( Kazarow , 1 914; i n Ren frew , 1 969b : 2 98 ), wh i lst t he s econd was a t K arnobat , where a h and led b ow l was f ound c ont a in ing what may h ave b een T .v u lgare ( Gau l ,

1 948 :148 ).

Barley was f ound

a t Z agortsky , s ou th-west o fB ikovo ( Arnaudov , 1 948/9; i n Ren frew , 1 969b : 2 98 ). Arnaudov ( 1948/9, i n Ren frew , 1 973:205 ) a lso f ound f l ax s eeds f rom t he Gu meln itza l eve ls o f K ap itan D im itr ievo I I. These f i nds f ro m S outh Bu lgar ia c an b e c omp le men ted b y o thers f rom t he n orthern p art o f t he c oun try .

S a mp les o f " whea t" w ere f ound a t J anka K ubrat ,

n ear t he Rouman ian f ron t ier ( Gau l , 1 948, i nR en frew , 1 969b :301), a nd a lso a t K od jader men n ear S chu men ; t h is p art icu lar f i nd c on ta ined o ver 6 00 s eeds o f L ithospernum o f f ic ina le wh ich Gau l ( 1948 :133 ) s uggested may h ave b een p erforated a nd u sed a s b eads. Two a sse mb lages o fg ra in a nd s eed impress ions f rom e neo l ith ic s i tes a re a lso worth men t ion ing. The f i rst ( Hop f , 1 973 :31 ) c o mes f ro m Go l ja mo DeMevo , n ear S l iven , where 1 2 e neo l ith ic h or izons h ave b een e xp lored.

T he

impress ions f ro m t h is s i te w ere f ound i n t he c lay d aub o f s o me o f t he h ouses, a nd a re s um mar ised i n Tab le 5 .

A lthough i ti s e x tre mely d if f icu l t t o a scerta in

t he e cono m ic i mportance o f p lan ts r epresented a s impress ions i n c lay f i ct i les ( see Denne l l , 1 976 ), i tn evertheless s ee ms t hat e inkorn , emmer a nd b arley a re c o m mon , a nd v etch l ess s o. The p resence o f a corns n t h is s i te c an b e ma tched w ith t he f inds f ro m K r ivodo l ( Tab le 6 ) . A t S adove6, n ear P leven , g ra in impress ions o f e inkorn , em mer a nd s ixr ow b ar ley w ere f ound o n s ix e neo l ith ic s herds ( Hopf , 1 973 :36 ), a nd a dd l i tt le t o o ur p icture o f e neo l ith ic c rop h usbandry . I ti s h owever t o b e h oped t hat more e v idence o ft h is k ind w i l l c o me t o l igh t. I ti s e v iden t f ro m t hese f inds t hat t he p lan t h usbandry o f e neo l ith ic Bu lgar ia was b ased u pon a w ide r ange o f c erea ls a nd l egumes. The f act t ha t many o f t hese s a mp les a re l arge a nd h omogeneous i s p robab ly a r el iab le i nd ica t ion t hat c rop s pec ies were c u l t ivated a s s eparate c rops. The a bundance o f e v idence f ro m t h is p er iod c ompared w ith t hat f ro m t he p reced ing p er iods may b e d ue t o s evera l f actors.

I ti s t e mpt ing t o a t tr ibu te

t he i ncrease i n t he amoun t o f e v idence a t o ur d isposa l t o a n i n tens if icat ion_ a nd e xpans ion o f c rop a gr icu l ture d ur ing t h is t ime. Y et a rchaeobotan ica l d ata m ight p rov ide a more a ccura te i nd icat ion o fh uman w aste t han o f c rop

p roduct iv ity , a nd i t may b e a rgued t hat o ur d a ta i nd ica tes mere ly a more c arel ess t echno logy , o r ag reater t o lerance o f t he a cc iden ta l d estruct ion o f c rop ma ter ia l t han b efore. ( So f ar a s t he f or mer s uggest ion i s c oncerned , i ti s i n terest ing t hat s o me h ave a ttr ibu ted t he f i res w h ich a ppear t o h ave b roken o u t a t many e neo l ith ic s et t le men ts t o t he b urs t ing o f o vens d ur ing a t te mpts t o r each h igh t e mperatures i n o rder t o f use g raph ite-pa in ted p o t tery o r smel t

1 0

c opper.

S o me e xper i men ta l a rchaeo logy o n e neo l ith ic o ven w eaknesses u nder

h igh t e mperatures wou ld b e u sefu l , i fh azardous.) The e v idence o nt he a n i ma l h usbandry o f t he f i f th a nd f ourth m il lenn ia b .c. i n S ou th Bu lgar ia i s e xceed ing ly s parse , g eneral ly u n in for ma t ive, a nd i s s ummar ised i n Tab le 1 2. 3 .

P er iod 3 ( 3-2000 b .c.) :

t he u pheava ls o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium b .c.

The b eg inn ing o ft h is p er iod i s marked b y t he d em ise a nd d isappearance o f t he e neo l ith ic s oc iet ies o f t he f ourth m il lenn ium b .c.

Many t e l l s et t le men ts,

s o me o f wh ich h ad b een o ccup ied f or a l most t wo m il lenn ia , w ere a bandoned a nd o f ten n ever r eoccup ied. The p roduct ion o f s evera l t ypes o f a rtefacts, s uch a s c lay s ta mp s ea ls a nd f igur ines, g raph ite-pa in ted p ot tery a nd c ast c opper o b jects, a lso c eased a t t h is t ime.

I n t he words o f G i mbu ta ,s ( 1972a :

8 9 ), t he Bu lgar ian e neo l ith ic c u ltures ' d is in tegrated d ur ing t he l at ter p art o f t he f ourth m i l lenn ium B .C., l eav ing l i t t le c u ltura l t race '. S ubsequen t e ven ts a re s t il l o bscure. As r ecen t ly a s 1 960, Mel laart ( 1960 :276 ) c ou ld s tate w ith f a irness t hat ' No th ing y et h as b een r ecogn ised t hat c ou ld f i l l t he g ap i n Bu lgar ia b etween K aranovo V a nd t he L ate B ronze Age '. Today , C 14 d at ing a nd s o me ma jor e xcavat ions h ave s ucceeded i n c lar ify ing s o me o f t he c hrono log ica l f eatures o f t h is murky e p isode i n Ba lkan p reh istory. I ti s n ow c lear t ha t t he c o l lapse o f e neo l ith ic s et t le ment i n Bu lgar ia i s f o l lowed b y a' h itherto u nrecogn ised p er iod wh ich e v iden t ly l asted f ive c ent ur ies ' ( Ren frew , 1 971:279 ) a nd e nded w ith t he a ppearance o f t he Ear ly B ronze Age E zero c u lture. As Tab le 1 s hows, t h is h iatus—or a s s omet i mes t er med Übergangsze it—fa l ls b etween c . 3 000 b .c . , a tt he e nd o f K aranovo V I , a nd 2 500 b .c. when t he e arl ies t d ates f or t he Ezero c u l ture a ppear.

A t p resen t

t here i s s can t d ata f or h uman o ccupat ion d ur ing t h is p er iod. S o me r elevan t mater ia l , s um mar ised b y Ren frew ( 1969 :24 ), h as b een r ecovered f rom t he s i te o fE zerovo , i nt he l ake o f Varna i n n orth-eastern Bu lgar ia.

The E zerovo

Ia sse mb lage c on ta ins s i mp le j ugs a nd a lso h o le- mou thed a nd b road-necked j ars. S o me o f t hese a re c ons idered s im ilar i n s hape b u t n o t d ecorat ion t o Kurgan I I a nd I V p ot tery f rom S . Russ ia;

t hese a na log ies h ave p layed a n

impor tan t p art i n i n terpre ta t ions o ft he e ven ts d ur ing t h is p er iod ( see b elow ). Overa l l , h owever, t he e ar l iest p ot tery f ro m E zerovo i s b el ieved t o b e s im il ar t o t hat f ro m t he Ear ly B ronze Age i n t he Rouman ian Dobrud ja. As l igh t ly l ater a sse mb lage f ro m Ezerovo I i s s im ilar t o t he more f u l ly d ocumen ted a nd b et ter s tra t if ied mater ia l f ro m E zero wh ich f or ms t he b as is f or t he Bu lgar ian Early Bronze Age. A t t h is s i te, t he e neo l ith ic s et t le men t was o verla in b y 4m o f e ar ly b ronze a ge d epos its. These c on ta ined n ine l eve ls , e ach o f wh ich c onst i tu ted a s epara te s et t le men t a nd wh ich t ogether c ompr ise t he Ezero c u l ture. As Tab le 1 s hows, t he e ar ly b ronze a ge s et t lemen t was l ong-l ived a nd l as ted b etween c . 2 500 a nd 2 000 B .C.; t hat i s t o s ay , i tw as r ough ly c on te mporaneous w ith t he Baden c u lture i n Hungary , a nd Ear ly Bronze Age Ia nd T roy Ii n S ou th Greece a nd t he Aegean ( Renfrew , C . 1 971:281 ).

An i ncon trovert ib le f eature o ft he c eram ics f rom E .B.A. E zero

i s t ha t t hey a re t o ta l ly u n l ike t hose f ro m S . Bu lgar ian s et t le men ts o f t he f our th m il lenn ium b .c.

S ome o f t he p o t tery , n o tab ly b ow ls w ith i n turned 1 1 .

r i ms a nd h igh h and les , a nd j ugs w ith k nobbed h and les, a re s im ilar t o t hose i n t he a sse mb lage f ro m Troy I ; c lay ' anchors ' f rom t he E zero c u l ture a nd Troy Ia re a lso e x tre mely a l ike ( Georg iev a nd Merpert , 1 966 :34; Ren frew , 1 969 :25 ). These s im ilar it ies c an b e c i ted a s e v idence f or c on tacts b etween Bu lgar ia a nd t he Aegean a t t h is t ime. On t he o ther h and , s im ilar it ies b et ween s o me w ares f rom E zero a nd c on te mporaneous t ypes f rom t he B aden c u lture i n Hungary ( Georg iev a nd Merpert , 1 966 :34 ) s uggest s o me k ind o f c on tact b etween Bu lgar ia a nd C en tral Europe d ur ing t h is p er iod. L it t le i s k nown a bou t t he e conomy p ract ised i n S ou th Bu lgar ia a f ter t he e nd o f t he Eneo l ith ic. The meagre d a ta s o f ar o b ta ined o n t he a n i ma l h usbandry ( Tab le 1 2 ) merely i nd icates t hat s heep/goat , c a t t le a nd p ig c on t inued t o b e t he ma in a n i ma l r esources i n t h is p er iod.

The p r inc ipa l e v idence o n t he p lan t

h usbandry o ft h is p er iod i s s um mar ised i n Tab le 6 ; t he s ize p ara meters o f t he s eeds a nd g ra ins a re s hown i n Tab les 7 -11.

S o me o f t he mater ia l p resen-

t ed b y Arnaudov ( 1936 , 1 939 , 1 940/1 ) i s wor thy o f men t ion ;

a t T irnovo-

S e i men , c . 2 000 B .C., e inkorn , b read-wheat a nd p robab ly emmer w ere f ound ; A t Mecku—r a nd K ost ievo , a lso c . 2 000 B .C., ( Arnaudov , 1 936; 1 939 ) , e ink orn , b read-whea t a nd l arge q uan t it ies o f w alnu ts w ere r epresen ted. A t t he s l ight ly l ater s i te o f Pazardzh ik , c . 1 8-1200 B .C., t he f o l low ing s pec ies w ere r epresen ted : e inkorn , em mer, b read-wheat , s ix-row b arley , v etch , g rass-pea a s w e l l a s Agroste m ma g i thago , Tr ifo l iu m c f . r epens a nd B ro mus c f. a rvens is ( Arnaudov , 1 940/1). The s i te o fA zapk jo i n ear J a mbo l p roduced q uan t it ies o f e inkorn , emmer, v etch a nd o ne o f t he f ew f inds made s o f ar o f w ild e inkorn , Tr it icu m a eg ilopo ides ( Arnaudov , 1 936 ). H . v u lgare p o lyst ichum was r epresen ted i n al ayer a t S vet i K ir i lovo , d ated t o c . 1 7-1500 B .C. ( Arnaud ov , 1 939 ). The b ronze a ge l eve ls a t K aranovo a lso p roduced q uan t it ies o f e inkorn , e rn mer , p ea ( E. c f. a rvense ) a s w e l l a s Ech iu m v u lgare, Po lygonu m c onvo lvu lus, Ga l iu m c f a par ine a nd L ithospernum a rvense. a re c onven ien t ly s um mar ised b y Hop f ( 1973 :1-2 ).

A l l t hese f i nds

I ti s t hus e v iden t t hat d esp ite t he magn itude a nd c o mp lex ity o f s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c hanges a t t h is t ime , t he c rop r esources were s im ilar t o t hose i n p rev ious p er iods. Further d a ta w il l b e p resen ted a t al a ter s tage ( Chapter 1 0 ). There h as b een a c ons iderable amoun t o f s pecu lat ion o n t he c auses u nderl y ing b o th t he e nd o f t he Eneo l ith ic a nd t he a dven t o f t he Early Bronze A ge i n Bu lgar ia a nd a lso Ba lkan Europe g enera l ly.

Most i n terpretat ions h ave s o f ar

t ended .to e xp la in t hese c hanges b y p ostu lat ing a s er ies o f m igrat ions o r i nvas ions f ro m n e ighbour ing a reas. The most v oc iferous p roponen t o f s uch v iews i s G i mbu tas, who h as a rgued t hat a n i ncurs ion o f w arr iors f rom Russ ia b urst i n to Ba lkan Europe a t t he e nd o ft he Eneo l ith ic : ' At t h is t ime e le men ts o f t he Kurgan , p robably P ro toIndo-European , p eop le a ppeared f ro m t he s teppe a nd t he ir p ostu lated i nvas ion i s t he most c onv inc ing e xp lanat ion o f t h is c u l tura l d iscon t inu ity i nt he East Ba lkan s. "Morgen land"

S ic t rans it t he g lory o f t he European

( G i mbu tas , 1 972a :49 ).

A s im i lar v iew i s e xpressed b y

Garasan in ( 1971:9-10 ) : ' I t s ee ms t oday a n a ccomp l ished f act t hat t he u pheav a ls a nd c hanges i n q uest ion a re d ue i n t he f i rst p lace t o move men ts o f p ast ora l p eop les o f t he s teppes t owards t he L ower Danube, Pannon ia a nd t he Ba lkan P en insu la...The f act i s i ncon testab ly p roven b y a rchaeo log ica l o bse rva t ions s how ing t he e x istence o f n umerous o r ig ina l s teppe e le men ts w h ich ..expanded t owards t he West i n l eav ing t he a rea o f t he Pont ic s teppes ' [ my

1 2

t ransla t ion ].

O ther s cho lars h ave p ostu lated s im ilar e thn ic move men ts ,

a l though f ro m a n o ppos ite d irec t ion , t o a ccoun t f or t hese c hanges a t t he e nd o f t he Eneo l ith ic.

Me l laar t ( 1960 :275 ) f or e xa mp le h as p roposed t hat ' Turk ish

Thrace i sp robab ly a lso t he b as is f ro m wh ich t he K aranovo V -Ezero c u lture s pread i n to e astern Bu lgar ia t o r ep lace Gumeln itsa ' , o n t he g rounds t ha t t he T roy Ia nd Ezero a sse mb lages a re s im i lar a nd t hat Anato l ia w as more a dv anced a tt he t ime t han i t s n or thern n e ighbour.

An a lternat ive a pproach h as

b een t aken b y Ren frew ( 1969 :27 ) who p oses t he r hetor ica l q uest ion ' I s t here p erhaps ap oss ib i l ity t hat t he Gu meln itsa/Cernovoda-Ezero h ia tus w as n e ither d irect ly c aused b y a Tro jan i rrupt ion , n or b y t he a rr iva l o f K urgan p eop les? ' , a nd a rgues i nstead t hat w e m igh t more p rof itab ly e xa m ine l oca l c ircumstances. Th is a pproach i s d eve loped more f u l ly i n as ubsequen t a rt icle ( Ren frew , C . 1 971:280-1) i n wh ich h e s uggests t ha t i nvas ion h ypotheses a re n o t u sefu l h ist or ica l e xp lanat ions u n t i l t he c hrono log ica l f ea tures o f t h is p er iod a re b etter d ocumen ted. I n t he f ina l a na lys is, t he e ven ts o f t he e arly t h ird m il lenn ium b .c. i n S ou th B u lgar ia a re n o t s at isfactor ily e xp la ined b y r ecourse t o i nvas ions a nd m igra t ions.

Whether o r n o t p eop les m igra ted i n to o r i nvaded S outh Bu lgar ia

f ro m n or th o r s ou th d oes n o t a ccoun t f or why s uch move men ts o ccurred o r why t hey w ere s o s uccessfu l i n d isrupt ing i nd igenous s oc iet ies a nd s e tt le men ts. Un t i l w e k now more a bou t t he l and u se a nd s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic c ond it ions wh ich p reva i led i n S outh Bu lgar ia a t t he e nd o f t he f ourth m il lenn ium b .c., t he u se o f i nvas ions t o e xp la in s ubsequen t c hanges i s o n ly a c onven ien t d eus e x mach ina. A l though t h is t ype o f e xp lana t ion h as b een a t rad it iona l d ev ice i n p reh istor ic s tud ies ( and i s a t tract ive i n t ha t i ts h if ts t he b urden o f e xp lana t ion f rom o ne c oun try t o a no t her ) ,i ts ee ms more worthwh ile t o c ons ider o ther l oca l f actors. One s uch a t te mpt w il l b e made i n al ater p ar t o f t h is s tudy ( see Chap ter 9 ). D iscuss ion I ti s c lear f rom t he f orego ing a ccoun t t ha t p reh istor ic r esearch i n Bu lgar ia i s i nt he p rocess o f c o mp let ing t he f i rst s tage o f e nqu iry b y p rov id ing a s ound c hrono log ica l f ra mework f or t he ma in e ven ts f ro m t he s ix th t o t he t h ird m ill enn ium b .c. The s econd s tage o f e nqu iry i n to why t hese e ven ts o ccurred i s o n ly j us t b eg inn ing. I n p ar t icu lar , w e h ave y et t o e xp la in why h uman s et t lemen t i nS ou th Bu lgar ia w as s o s tab le a nd c on t inuous f ro m t he l ate s ixth t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth mi l lenn iu m b .c .; a nd why t h is t rad it ion d is integrated i n t he e ar ly t h ird m il lenn ium b .c. O ur p resen t e v idence i s c learly u nequa l t o s uch t asks.

F irst , w e k now

a lmost n o th ing a bou t t he w ays i nd iv idua l s ett le men ts w ere o rgan ised , o r a bou t t he s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic r elat ionsh ips b etween s et t le men ts i n S ou th Bu lgar ia. S t il l l ess i s k nown o f t he t ypes o f r e la t ionsh ips wh ich c onnected S . Bu lgar ia t o o ther r eg ions.

S econd ly , a l l t he s et t le men ts s o f ar i nvest iga-

t ed h ave b een s tud ied i n t ota l i so lat ion f ro m t he ir p hys ica l s urround ings. Consequen t ly we h ave a l most n o i dea o fh ow t hese c o mmun it ies o bta ined t he ir d a i ly s ubs istence, o f h ow t hey mod if ied t he ir e nv ironmen ts ( and v ice v ersa ), o r o f t he e nv ironmen ta l f actors t hat a ided o r impeded t he ir d eve lopment . Wh i lst o ne s tudy c anno t h ope t o o verco me a l l t hese d ef ic ienc ies, t here i s o bv ious ly a n e nor mous n eed f or p r i mary d ata o n t he s ubs istence o f S outh Bu lgar ian c o m mun it ies f rom 5 5-2000 b .c. N o f aunal a sse mblages f ro m s ix th 1 3

m i l lenn iu m b .c. t el l s ett le men ts i n t h is a rea h ave y et b een a na lysed , o r e ven c o l lected i n a manner wh ich a l lows t he c u l l ing p a ttern o r importance o f e ach a n i ma l r esource t o b e a ssessed.

The a n i ma l h usbandry o f t he s ucceed ing

t wo m il lenn ia i s a l most a s p oor ly d ocu men ted.

The p lan t h usbandry o f t he

N eo l ith ic t o B ronze Age i n S ou th Bu lgar ia i s a lso k nown i n o u t l ine o n ly. A l though w e h ave n ow a l i st o f t he ma in p lan t r esources, t here i s l i t t le d ata o n wh ich w ere t he most importan t , wh ich w ere c u l t ivated , o r o n t he t ypes o f c rop s yste ms wh ich w ere emp loyed . There i s a lso a p ress ing n eed f or i n format ion o n t he l ocat ion o f s et t le ments i n r ela t ion t o e ach o ther a nd a ccess ib le r esource z ones. Most importan t ly , t here i s an eed n o t o n ly t o o b ta in p r i mary d a ta o f t h is k ind o n t he a n i ma l a nd p lan t h usbandry a nd t he l oca t ion o f s ett le men ts, b u t t o p resen t i ti n a n i n tegrated manner wh ich wou ld a l low u s t o s tudy t he r e lat ions h ips b etween t he p hys ica l s ett ing o f ac o m mun ity , i t s t echno logy , p opu lat ion a nd a n i ma l a nd p lan t h usbandry .

On ly t hen c an w e b eg in t o i nvest iga te t he

r easons b eh ind t he c on t inuous p a t tern o f s et t le men t f ro m t he s ix th t o t he l ate f ourth m il lenn iu m b. c. i n S ou th Bu lgar ia , t he e f fect man h ad o n t he l andscape d ur ing t h is t ime , a nd l oca l r easons f or t he u pheava ls o f t he e ar ly t h ird mill enn ium b .c.

1 4

CHAPTER 2 THE STUDY OF PREHISTOR IC PLANT HUSBANDRY

I ti s o bv ious f rom t he p reced ing c hap ter t hat t here i s a n u rgen t n eed f or s a mp les o f f auna l a nd b otan ica l r e ma ins f rom S ou th Bu lgar ian s et t le men ts o f t he s ix th t o t h ird m i l lenn ium b .c. I n t h is c hap ter w e s ha l l d iscuss s ome o f t he p rob le ms o fu s ing c arbon ised s eed a nd g ra in s a mp les t o o bta in a r e l iab le a nd i n for ma t ive a ccoun t o f t he p reva il ing c rop e conomy.

These p rob le ms

n eed t o b e d iscussed a t g rea ter l ength t han i s n ecessary f or o ther k inds o f b ioarchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l. For e xa mp le, t he p rob le ms o f c o l lect ing a nd i n terpret ing f auna l a sse mb lages f rom a rchaeo log ica l s i tes h ave r ece ived c ons iderab le a t tent ion i n r ecen t y ears, a nd r esu lted i n ar ap id i ncrease o f s u itab ly c o l lected f auna l d a ta a nd a g rea t many p ub l icat ions o n t he methodo logy o f f auna l a na lys is ( e .g. H igha m , 1 968; Payne, 1 972a , 1 972b ; U erpmann , 1 973 ; C lason , 1 975 ). Because o f t hese d eve lop men ts t he a n i ma l h usbandry o f p reh istor ic s et t le men ts c an n ow b e r econstructed w ith s ome c on f idence. S uch d eve lop men ts h ave s o f ar h ad l i t t le e f fec t u pon s tud ies o f p reh istor ic p lan th usbandry. I n many r espects t he o b ject ives o f a rchaeobotan ica l r esearch a nd t he t ype o f i n for mat ion o bta ined f ro m a rchaeobo tan ica l s a mp les h ave r ema ined a l most u na l tered f or o ver a c en tury. Most a rchaeobo t an ica l i nvest igat ions h ave c oncerned t he mse lves w ith t rac ing t he o r ig in a nd d ispersa l o f c u lt ivated p lan ts; i n terest i n t he p lan t h usbandry o f ap reh istor ic s et t le men t h as r are ly e x tended b eyond a s imp le l i st ing o f t he p lan t s pec ies a ssoc iated w ith a n o ccupa t iona l l ayer. These p o ints a re r ead ily a pparen t f ro m a b r ief s urvey o f a rchaeobo tan ica l r esearch o ver t he l ast c en tury.

The p ioneer ing work o f

O swa ld Heer i n t he 1 850s ( Kel ler , 1 878 ) o n t he p lan t r e ma ins f ro m t he Sw iss L ake Dwel l ings i s ac onven ien t s tart ing p o in t.

Th is c lass ic work , w h ich

' s t il l t owers a s a monu men t o f morpho log ica l s k il l a nd s p ir itua l d ash ' ( He lbaek , 1 960 :99 ), was d om inated b yt wo q uest ions : f i rst , what p lan ts were u sed b y t he i nhab itan ts? a nd s econd ly , w ere t hese p lant s pec ies d if feren t f rom t hose u sed e lsewhere a nd i n o ther p er iods?

A l though b o th q uest ions w ere ( and s t il l

a re ) u sefu l , t hey h ad a n u nfortuna te e f fect i n d ivert ing a t ten t ion f rom a more d e ta i led e xa m ina t ion o f t he p lan t h usbandry o f p reh istor ic s et t le men ts. L it t le a t tent ion w as p a id t o t he e cono m ic importance o f e ach p lan t r esource, t o t he ways t hey w ere c ropped a nd t o t he ways t he p lant h usbandry r e lated t o o ther a spects o f t he e conomy. The t ype o f work p ioneered b y Heer i n t he 1 850s was c on t inued w ith l i t t le a ltera t ion b y d e Cando l le i n t he 1 880s.

I n h is c lass ic work The o r ig in o f

c u l t ivated p lan ts p ub l ished i n Eng l ish i n 1 884, h e o pened h is e nqu iry w ith t he a x iomat ic s tate men t ' The k now ledge o ft he o r ig in [ my i t a l ics ] o f c u l t ivated p lan ts i s i n terest ing t o a gr icu ltura l ists, t o b otan ists, a nd e ven t o h istor ians a nd p h ilosophers c oncerned w ith t he d awn ings o f c iv il isat ion ' ( 1884 :v ).

1 5

H is

i nvest igat ions w ere i n tended t o ' e stab l ish t he n u mber o f c en tur ies o r t housands o f y ears d ur ing wh ich e ach s pec ies h as b een i n c u l t iva t ion , a nd h ow i t s c u lture s pread i n d if feren t d irect ions a t s uccess ive e pochs ' ( 1884 : v i ).

For s uch a

s tudy , a rchaeo logy p rov ided a u n ique s ource o f e v idence , f or ' t he most d irec t p roo f wh ich c an b e c once ived o f t he a nc ien t e x istence o f as pec ies i n ag iven c oun try i s t o s ee i t s r ecogn izab le f rag men ts i n o ld b u ild ings o r d epos its o f a more o r l ess c erta in d a te ' ( 1884 :15 ).

C learly a rchaeo log ica l s i tes w ere b e ing

u sed b y t he a rchaeobo tan ist i n much t he s a me way a s ag eo log ist m igh t u se a s er ies o f d r i l l-ho les t o g auge t he e x ten t o f ag eo log ica l f or mat ion. The p ers istence o f t h is a pproach i s e v idenced b y much o f t he a rchaeob o tan ica l r esearch u ndertaken w ith in t he p ast t h irty y ears o r s o.

The e x-

t re mely u sefu l c o mpend ium G esch ich te u nserer Ku lturpf lanzen b y B ertsch a nd Bertsch ( 1949 ) i s i n many r espects a n u pdated G er man v ers ion o f d e Cando l le ' s L 'or ig ine d es p lan tes c u lt ivees, wr it ten s o me s ix ty y ears p rev ious ly , a nd r ef lects t he s a me d om inan t c oncern w ith mapp ing t he d istr ibu t ion o f p reh istor ic p lant r esources.

A s im i lar emphas is w ith p lan t p hy logeny i s e v iden t

i n many o f He lbaek 's ma jor p ub l ica t ions s uch a s t hose o n p reh istor ic c rop a gr icu lture i n s outhern Eng land ( 1952a ), i ron a ge c rop a gr icu l ture a t V a lhagar ( 1955 ), n eo l ith ic c rop a gr icu l ture i n t he N ear E ast ( 1960 ) o r a t Hac i lar ( 1970 ), a s w el l a s t hose b y o ther a u thor it ies s uch a s Hop f ( 1957, 1 962, 1 973 ) a nd J . Ren frew ( 1969a ) . N evertheless, r ecen t y ears h ave w itnessed a n ot iceab le s h if t o f emphas is i n s tud ies o f p reh istor ic p lan t h usbandry f ro m p hy logenet ic t o e conom ic g oa ls. More impor tance i s n ow a scr ibed t o e va luat ing t he e cono m ic impor tance o f e ach p lan t r esource r epresen ted o n a n a rchaeo log ica l s et t le men t , a nd t he ways p lan t h usbandry o perated w ith in t he o vera l l s ubs istence e cono my o f t he c o mmun ity .

Th is c hange o f a t t itude i s we l l e xe mp l if ied b y c on trast ing t he f i eld-

work b y B ra idwood a nd Howe ( 1960 ) i n I raq i K urd istan w ith t ha t b y Ho le, F lannery a nd N eely ( 1969 ) i n K huz istan .

A lthough b oth p ro jects s tud ied t he

s a me k ind o f s et t le men ts a nd e ven e ngaged t he s a me a rchaeobotan ist , t he l at ter s tudy p a id more a t ten t ion t o t he e cono m ic i mportance o f e ach f ood p lan t t han t o i t s p hy logenet ic s tatus. Th is c hange o f emphas is i n a rchaeobotan ica l r esearch h as o ccas ioned a nd b een f urther e ncouraged b y a marked improve men t i n t he t echn iques u sed t o r ecover c arbon ised p lan t r e ma ins f ro m e xcava t ions.

As a r esu l t o f

t hese i nnovat ions, i ti s n ow p oss ib le t o r ecover wha t Ren frew ( 1973:15 ) h as r igh t ly c a l led ' an embarrass ing q uan t ity ' o f b o tan ica l mater ial.

N ever the less ,

i t wou ld b e p re mature t o c onc lude t hat r ecen t c hanges i n r esearch o b jec t ives o r r ecovery t echn iques a re e i ther w el l e stab l ished o r h ave t ota l ly d isp laced l onger e stab l ished v iews a nd p ract ices.

The o b ject ives o f a rchaeobo tan ica l

r esearch i n p a laeoeconom ic i nvest iga t ions h ave s e ldo m b een f or mu la ted b y e ither b o tan ists o r a rchaeo log ists , a nd many o f t he a ssump t ions a nd p roced ures h ave n o t b een a l tered t o s u it a d if feren t u se o f t he mater ial.

I ft he

s tudy o f p reh is tor ic p lan t h usbandry i s t o b eco me a n i n tegra l p art o f p a laeoe cono m ic s tud ies, i t wou ld s ee m w orthwh i le t o d ef ine o ur o b ject ives a nd r ea ssess o ur me thodo logy . The a i ms o f a rchaeobo tan ica l r esearch , i n o rder o f i ncreas ing d if f icu l ty a nd s ign if icance, m ight b e d ef ined a s f o l lows :

1 6

1 . 2 .

wha t p lan ts were u t i l ised b y ap reh istor ic s oc iety? wh ich p lan ts w ere most i mportan t t o t he e cono my o f t hat s oc ie ty?

3 .

h ow d id t he u se o f e ach p lan t r esource i n teract w ith o ther p lan t

4 .

r esources? h ow impor tan t was t he p lan t h usbandry t o t he t o ta l e cono m ic s yste m

5 .

o f t ha t c o m mun ity? wha t was t he l ong-ter m e f fect o f ag iven p a t tern o f p lan t e xp lo itat ion

6 .

u pon t he e nv ironmen t? wha t was t he l ong-term e f fec t o f t he e xp lo itat ion o f ap lan t s pec ies u pon i t s e vo lu t ion?

A t p resen t we c an b e f a irly c on f iden t o f t he r ange o f p lan ts a va i lab le t o ap reh istor ic c o m mun ity p rov id ing i tl ay w ith in E urope o r t he N ear East a nd w as n ot e ar l ier t han t he N eo l ith ic. Even s o , t he q ua l ity o f e v idence w ith in s uch t e mpora l a nd s pa t ia l l im its i s s t i l l v ery u neven. Our k now ledge o f p lan t h usbandry d ur ing t he N eo l ith ic i s b et ter t han t ha t o f , f or e xamp le, t he B ronze Age, a nd p reh istor ic N orth- West Europe i s g enera l ly b et ter d ocumented t han t he s ou th-eastern p art o ft he c on t inen t. The s econd o f t he q uest ions p osed a bove c an a t p resen t b e a nswered w ith f ar l ess c er ta in ty t han t he f i rst . As w e s ha l l s ee s hort ly t here h ave b een f ew a t te mpts t o e st i ma te t he e cono m ic i mportance o f t he p lan ts r epresen ted o n a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te, a nd most o f t hese h ave b een b ased u pon t he q uest iona b le a ssumpt ion t ha t s a mp les o f c arbon ised p lan t r e ma ins a re r epresen ta t ive o f t he p reva il ing p lan t e conomy. The r e ma in ing q uest ions h ave s e ldom b een a sked , a nd s t il l l ess a nswered. A l though i t wou ld b e p resump tuous t o p resume t hat o ne s ing le s tudy c ou ld t ack le a l l t hese i ssues, a n e xp loratory a t te mpt migh t a t l east i nd icate o r e l im ina te s o me p oss ible a venues f or s ubsequen t e xp lorat ion . No s tudy o f t he p lant h usbandry o f ap reh istor ic s et t le men t c an a dvance f ar u n less w e c an a ssess t he importance o f e ach p lan t r esource t o t he s ubs ist ence a nd t echno logy o f t he i nhab itan ts.

I ti s t hus a ppropr iate t o c ons ider t h is

p rob le m b efore more c o mp lex i ssues. 1 .

The e st i mat ion o f t he e cono m ic i mpor tance o f t he p lan ts r epresen ted o n a n a rchaeo log ica l s et t le men t

Th is p rob le m w il l b e d iscussed i n t hree s ect ions. The f i rst w il l c ons ider s o me f actors wh ich a f fect t he c ompos it ion o f s amp les o f c arbon ised s eeds a nd g ra ins f ro m a rchaeo log ica l s ites. I n t he s econd s ect ion w e s ha l l d iscuss h ow t he e cono m ic v a lue o f p reh istor ic p lan t r esources h as s o f ar b een e va luat ed b y o ther i nvest iga tors. The t h ird s ect ion w i l l c on ta in a n a lternat ive p roposa l f or a pproach ing t h is p rob le m. i ) f actors a f fec t ing t he p reserva t ion a nd c ompos it ion o f macroscop ic p lan t r e ma ins o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes We s hou ld c ons ider f i rs t , t he p rob le ms o f d if feren t ia l p reservat ion a nd s econd ly , t he c ircu mstances u nder wh ich s a mp les o f p lan t r e ma ins w ere p reserved.

1 7

a ) d ifferen t ia l p reservat ion :

A l though a l l p lan t r e ma ins f ro m a rchaeo-

l og ica l s i tes a re p reserved b y a cc iden t , s o me p lan ts a re more l ikely t o b e p reserved t han o thers.

I n g enera l most o f o ur e v idence f or t he p lan t h usbandry

o f ap reh istor ic c o m mun ity w il l c oncern o n ly t hose p lan ts u sed b y t he h uman i nhab itan ts.

B ecause p lan ts e aten b y l ivestock a re e ither c onsumed away

f ro m a s et t le men t o r e aten a s f odder, t hey a re u n l ike ly t o b e p reserved e i ther a s c arbon ised r e ma ins o r a s impress ions i n p o t tery o r o ther c lay f ic t i les. Fodder p lan ts r equ ire l i t t le p repara t ion a nd a re u n l ike ly t o b e c arbon ised u n less, f or e xa mp le, a s tab le o r b yre was b urn t d own . b een r ecorded , t hough r arely ;

S uch i nstances h ave

a t Thayngen We ier ( Guyan , 1 954 ) c arbon ised

l eaves a nd f ronds w ere f ound i n as tructure i n terpreted a s ab yre.

Overa l l

h owever , o ur k now ledge o f p reh istor ic f odder c rops i s p oor, d esp ite t he ir o bv ious e cono m ic importance.

I n s o me c ases, s tudy o f t he e nv ironmen t o f

as et t le men t m ight s uggest t hat f odder c rops w ere u sed , e ven i fn o t race o f t he m w ere f ound o n e xcava t ion .

For e xa mp le, a n a lp ine s et t le men t migh t

l i e i n a n a rea where h ay b u t n o t c ereals c ou ld h ave b een c u lt ivated. The p reservat ion o f t he p lan ts e aten b y t he h u man i nhab itan ts o f as et t lemen t w i l l g reat ly d epend u pon t he p arts o f t he p lan t w h ich a re e aten.

As

l eaves, r oots a nd s ta lks a re p oor ly a nd o n ly e xcept iona l ly p reserved i n a rchae o log ica l c on tex ts, p lan ts o f wh ich o n ly t hose p arts w ere e aten a re u n l ikely t o b e r epresented.

Because o f t h is, t he e arly h istory o f r oo t a nd l eaf c rops

i s v ery p oor ly d ocu men ted , a nd a l most a l l o ur e v idence o n p reh istor ic p lan t f oods c oncerns t hose p lan ts o f wh ich t he s eeds , g ra ins a nd k erne ls w ere e aten . a b ly .

Even s o , t he p reservat ion o f s eed a nd g ra in c rops w il l v ary c ons iderB ecause c erea ls s uch a s e inkorn , em mer o r s pel t n eed p arch ing t o

f ree t he g ra ins f ro m t he ir s p ike lets ( He lbaek , 1 952a :201 ), t hey a re more l ikely t o b e a cc iden ta l ly c arbon ised t han f ree-thresh ing c ereals s uch a s b read whea t. For s im ilar r easons , n aked b arley i s l ess l ikely t o b e p reserved t han t he h u l led f or m.

As l arge-seeded l egu mes d o n o t r equ ire p arch ing b efore t hey

c an b e e aten , t hey a re un l ikely t o b e p reserved i n l arge q uan t it ies u n less t hey were c arbon ised i n a n a cc iden ta l c on f lagra t ion .

On t he o ther h and , sma l l-

s eeded l egumes a re o f ten p resen t a s w eeds i n c erea l c rops , a nd c ou ld t hus b e a cc iden ta l ly p reserved i fp art o f ac erea l c rop w ere c arbon ised.

They

a re a lso , b ecause o f t he ir s ize, more l ike ly t o b e p reserved t han l arge-seeded l egu mes a s impress ions i n p ot tery o r o ther f i e t iles.

For e xa mp le , t he sma l l-

s eeded V ic ia t etrasper ma was t he o n ly l egume r epresen ted i n p ot tery impress ions i n Helbaek 's ( 1952a ) s tudy o f p reh istor ic c rop c u l t ivat ion i n s ou thern Br ita in , a l though t he l arge-seeded V . f aba was t he c o m monest l egu me i n i n c arbon ised s a mp les. The p reserva t ion o f f ru its d epends g rea t ly u pon t he n u mber o f s eeds p er f ru it a nd t he s ize o f t he s eeds.

S o me f ru its, s uch a s f i g o r r aspberry , c on-

t a in s evera l h undred s eeds p er f ru it a nd may t hus b e r epresen ted b y l arge n umbers o f s eeds.

Th is wou ld h appen e spec ia l ly i f c opro l i tes w ere f ound

i n a n a rchaeo log ica l h or izon . O ld Wor ld s i tes :

S uch o ccurrences a re u n fortunately r are i n

h owever, a t Mu ldb jerg ( Troe ls-S m ith , 1 960 :591 ), r aspberry

a nd s trawberry s eeds w ere r ecovered f ro m w hat w ere p robably h uman

c op-

r ol ites, a nd a t P lymou th , Dennel l ( 1970 :154 ) f ound l arge n u mbers o f f ig s eeds i n a med ieva l s ewer wh ich c on ta ined h igh ly d egraded f aeca l ma ter ia l.

S o me-

t imes t he s eeds o f sma l l-seeded f ru its a re e xpec torated a nd l ater b urn t a s

1 8

refuse; in such instances, they can be scattered and preserved in small numbers. The seeds of large- and single-seeded fruits or drupes such as plum, Cornelian cherry and olive, and the shells of nuts are less likely to be pre­ served in large numbers than those of small-seeded fruits such as we have just conside ed. Nor, on 'lccount of their size, are they likely to be present in coprolites. Occasionally however, large finds of a large-seeded fruit or a nut are encountered. AtSesklo, for example, (Renfrew, J. M., 1973:28), large numbers of acorns were found in one deposit; or in a shipwreck off Kyrenia in Cyprus a cache of almonds was recovered (Renfrew, J. M • , 1973.17). The uses made of a plant will clearly affect its chances of preservation. For example, there need be little or no evidence for plants such as grape, apple or plum if they were crushed for their juice. Such plants are more likely to be preserved if they were dried and then stored. Such finds occur sporadically: at Bornholm, for e ample, a cachP of d ·e app es was found (Helbaek, 1952b), and at Rachmani, a deposit of dried figs (Renfrew, J. M., 1973:28). As there is such wide variation in the ,ypes an uses of fruits and nuts, their value in the total plant diet is difficult to stimate from the evidence obtained by exc vati o • The same considerations might apply to other cultigens. A cereal such as barley is more likely to be preserved if it were used for bread-making than for brewing. In this context, the explanation offered by Helbaek (1952a: 214) for the lack of barley finds m Roman B�itain is of interest: 'it should be pointed out that th cereal may have been grown much more frequently than appears to be the case from the finds. If barley was not used for bread corn by the Rom�.ns they would not have troubled about drying it, and then we have only minor o portunities for encountering it. It may have been used principally for fodder or brewing, in which case it either needs no drying or must not be dried. When on the other hand it occurs so abundantly in the Early Iron Age deposits this may be explained by the fact, that even if barley is easily thres e witho.t dryine; � a much more clean threshing would be attainable when it was dried, since the internodes and bases and tips of the pales would become more fragile. This result was most desirable if the grain was used for human food' . The extent to which a sample of plant remains is biased by the character­ istics of the plants it contains has important implications for diachronic studies of p b·ctn -� font usbandry. This is b c�uQ� cha11ges in the fre­ quency with which a plant is represented on an archaeological site might indicate only that the usage but not the relative importance of that plant had changed. The quotation from Helbaek in the previous paragraph provides one example which could be relevant to other finds. For example, an increase in the number of Chenopodium or Rumax seeds could result from the seeds, as well as or ins+.ead of the leaves, being eaten. Conversely, a decrease in the number of fruit seeds might result from using the juice rather than the fruit. It would thus seem essential when considering changes in the fre­ quency of a plant to consider other sources of data, such as artefactual evidence and the possibility that the use but not the importance of a plant may have changed • 0

13

19

We should also consider the possibility that a change in the representation of a plant in an archaeological sequence resulted from changes in the technology used for food processing. For example, the adoption of scythes instead of sickles for reaping could cause changes in the type and frequency of weeds in samples of cereal crops. As the latter tool cuts the straw nearer the ground, one might expect an increase in the proportion of low weeds such as couch grass (Agropyron repens) or creeping bent (Agrostis stolonifera). It would clearly be erroneous in such cases to attribute such changes to environmental rather than technological factors. Similarly, a change in the methods of corn drying or parching could create the impression that the crop husbandry, rather than its associated technology had changed. If, for example, larger and more robust ovens were used in the later phases of a settlement for corn drying, it is not unlikely that grain would occasionally be carbonised in large amounts. However, such finds would not be evidence that a larger amount of grain relative to other crops was being cultivated. b) circumstances of preservation: The pr�servation of macroscopic plant remains is likely to have resulted from specific human activities which will vary according to the type of plant and its intended usage. In the case of food plants and especially cereal crops, two types of activities can be distinguished. The first are those activities which alter the state but not the composition of a crop. Threshing for example will comminute a crop but not alter its composition; grain parching or fruit drying will affect only the moisture con­ tent of the crop. The second type of processing activities are those which alter the composition of the crop which is being prepared for consumption. This type of activity is especially associated with cereal crops which need several processes of this kind to remove the straw, weeds and husks before the grain can be stored or eaten. Winnowing removes most of the straw and some of the weeds; during grain cleaning, weed seeds and other impurities are separared from the crop. Crops-or residues removed from them-could be carbonised or otherwise preserved at any stage of these processes. Several samples of plant remains, each of a different composition, could therefore be recovered from one arch­ aeological horizon and yet be part of the same crop at different stages of preparation. This point has two important implications for diachronic studies of prehistoric plant husbandry. First, changes in the composition of samples from a stratified sequence could represent a series of different crop proces­ sing activities performed on the same type of crop. Conclusions on changes in the importance of each plant resource would be dubious unless the effects of such activities on sample composition were considered. Secondly, changes in the size of grains in samples from a stratified sequence need not indicate that the size of grains in the crops themselves had changed. An alternative possibility is that the samples represent the residues of different crop pro­ cessing activities, each of which removed different size classes of grain. If grain was cleaned by using a sieve, for example, only the smaller of the grains would be found in the residue, whereas the cleaned crop would tend to consist predominantly of the larger grains • Unless the same crop processing activity were performed at the same place on a settlement throughout its occupation, the excavated samples of

20

p lan t r e ma ins f ro m a s trat if ied c o lu mn a re l ikely t o s how o n ly a s uccess ion o f d if feren t c rop p rocess ing o r r e lated a ct iv it ies.

I n ad iachron ic s tudy , i t

i s t hus e ssen t ia l t o c o mpare o n ly t hose s a mp les wh ich r esu lted f ro m s im i lar a ct iv it ies p erfor med o n s im i lar c rops b efore d raw ing c onclus ions o n c hanges i n e ither t he r ela t ive impor tance o f e ach p lan t o r t he s ize o f g ra in d ur ing t he o ccupat ion o f as et t le men t o r a rea. Th is p o in t h igh l igh ts t he n eed t o r ecover p lan t s a mp les f ro m a s l arge a n a rea o f e ach o ccupa t iona l p hase a s p oss ib le.

A lthough i ti s c learly imprac-

t i ca l—even w ith modern f l o tat ion t echn iques —to p rocess e very s ing le d epos it f or p lan t r e ma ins f ro m a l arge-sca le e xcavat ion w h ich may u ncover s evera l t housand s quare metres , i ts hou ld b e p oss ib le t o d ev ise a s a mpl ing s tra tegy wh ich e nsured t hat a t l east p art o f e very d epos it , o r a l l t he we l l-preserved d o mest ic f eatures ( e .g. f l oors, m iddens, h earths ) w ere e xa m ined.

E ither

c ourse o f a ct ion wou ld r econc ile t he n eed f or t he l arge-sca le e xcava t ion o f f eatures w ith t he i n tens ive e xa m ina t ion o f d epos its f or p lan t r e ma ins, b u t would a lso r equ ire b oth t he e xcavator a nd a rchaeobo tan ist t o h ave a v ery c lear u nderstand ing o f e ach o thers ' n eeds a nd p rob le ms. O ur a rgu men t t ha t s a mp les o f p lan t r e ma ins f ro m a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te a re n ot r ando m i n c o mpos it ion a nd d o n o t t herefore p rov ide a r epresen tat ive p icture o f t he p reva i l ing c rop e cono my f inds s upport i n t he a rchaeobotan ica l l i terature.

I n e ach o f t he f o l low ing e xa mp les, c ons iderab le v ar ia t ion i n

s a mp le c ompos it ion was o bserved a nd n o a t te mp t was made t o e st i ma te t he impor tance o f e ach p lan t. A c en tury a go , Heer ( 1878 :518 ) o bserved t ha t t he c o mpos it ion o f s a mp les o f p lan t r e ma ins f ro m n eo l ith ic l ake dwel l ings i n Sw itzer land v ar ied c ons ide rab ly w i th in e ach s i te a ccord ing t o t he ir c ontex t , f or ' S tones a nd p ot tery , d o mest ic imp le men ts a nd c harcoa l a shes, g ra ins o f c orn a nd b ones, l i e t og ether i n ac on fused mass :

a nd y et t hey a re b y n o means s pread r egu lar ly

o ver t he b o t to m , b u t a re f requen t ly f ound i n p a tches '. o f t h is v ar ia t ion t o s pec if ic c rop p rocess ing a ct iv it ies.

Heer a ttr ibu ted much When c o m men t ing ,

f or e xa mp le, o n t he n u mbers o f weed s eeds i n s o me s a mp les , h e c onc luded t hat ' The s traw must h ave b een t aken u p w ith i t [ t he g ra in ], o therw ise t here w ou ld n o t h ave b een t he s eeds o f s o many w eeds w ith t he c orn...So me a re c harred , a nd most u nquest ionab ly w ere mixed w ith t he c orn when i tw as b urn t '.

S ome s a mp les were c o mposed a l most e n t ire ly o f weed s eeds, h ow-

e ver , a nd i n h is o p in ion r esu l ted f ro m g ra in c lean ing :

' O thers a re f ound i n

g reat a bundance i n t he mud , a nd when t he wheat h ad b een c leaned , h ad b een t hrown i n to t he l ake a s r efuse ' ( Heer , 1 878 :521). A t Hap i lar ( He lbaek , 1 970 ), a l arge amoun t o f c arbon ised p lan t ma ter ia l was r ecovered f ro m a v ar iety o f c on tex ts, c h ief ly s torage b ins a nd f loor d ep os its.

The c o mpos it ion o f e ach s a mp le d iffered w ide ly f ro m t he o thers, a

f ea ture wh ich Helbaek ( 1970 :196 ) i n terpreted a s ' Represen t ing d if feren t h u man a ct iv it ies '.

One d epos it o f whea t i n h ouse Q .5, f or e xa mp le, a ppeared

t o h ave b een t hreshed ;

n earby i n t he s a me b u ild ing , a no ther s a mp le o f

g ra in was f ound wh ich ' was u n threshed , a s i s p roved b y t he t ens o f t housands o f s p ike f rag men ts ' ( Helbaek , 1 970 :199 ). F ina l ly , a t 9ayönü Tepes i , v an Z e ist ( 1972 :5-6 ) n oted t hat ' t he s eeds a re n o t e ven ly d is tr ibuted t hroughou t t he mound ' , f or o ne a rea w as ' co mpara t ive ly 2 1

r ich i nb o tan ica l ma ter ia l , wherea .s f ro m o ther s quares o n ly i ns ign if ican t n u mbers o f s eeds were r ecovered '.

He t herefore c onc luded t hat ' The u neven

d istr ibu t ion o f p lan t r e ma ins i s u ndoub ted ly r e lated t o d if ferences i n f unct ion o f t he a reas c oncerned o f t he p reh istor ic v i l lage '. i ) c urren t t echn iques f or e st i ma t ing t he impor tance o f p lan ts r epresen ted o n a rchaeo log ica l s et t le ments I n v iew o f t he d iscuss ion s o f ar, t here i s c lear ly l i t t le mer it i n a t te mp t ing t o e st i mate t he impor tance o f a n a rchaeo log ica l p lan t r esource b y a ssum ing t hat s a mp les o f p lan t r e ma ins f ro m a s et t le men t a re r ando m i n c o mpos it ion. As e lect ion p und its h ave f ound t o t he ir c ost , sma l l s a mp les d rawn f ro m a h igh ly h eterogeneous p opu la t ion a re n o tor iously u nrel iab le.

We s hou ld t here-

f ore b e h igh ly wary o f s uggest ions t hat , f or e xamp le , t he i nhab itan ts o f e arly n eo l ith ic Be idha c u lt iva ted w i ld b arley a s t he ir ma in c rop ( Helbaek , 1 966 ), o r t ha t t he e arl iest s et t lers a t A l i K osh i ndu lged i n t he i n tens ive a nd s yste ma t ic c o l lect ion o f sma l l-seeded w ild l egu mes ( He lbaek , 1 969;

s ee Denne l l , 1 972 :

1 57-9 ). There a re a t p resen t t wo t echn iques f or e st i ma t ing t he i mpor tance o f a rchaeo log ica l p lan t r esources w h ich a t t he s a me t ime t ry t o t ake a ccoun t o f t he f ac tors t ha t a f fect s a mp le c o mpos it ion . J ane Renfrew.

The f i rst w as p roposed b y Dr.

As s he h as s tated e lsewhere ( Ren frew , 1 973 :21) ' Sa mp les o f

c arbon ised g ra in c anno t b e c ons idered a s t ru ly " rando m" ' ,f or ' t hey h ave b eco me c arbon ised d ue t o s o me a cc iden t i n p reh istory—be ing s corched i n a p arch ing o ven , s p il led b y t he h earth o r s inged i n t he c on f lagra t ion o f p art o f ab u i ld ing —and a re t hus o n ly i nd icat ive o f t he ir own im med iate c ircu mstances, a nd n ot e ven o f t he e n t ire h arvest o f t ha t s eason '.

I n o rder t o c o mpensate f or

t he b iases i nheren t i n a ny p art icu lar s a mp le f ro m e ach p hase o f t he s i te o f S i tagro i i n n orthern Greece, t he impor tance o f e ach p lan t f ood was e st i mated f rom t he p ercen tage o f s a mp les i n wh ich i tw as t he d om inan t p lan t. Thus em mer was e st i mated a s c o mpr is ing c . 5 0% o f t he p lan t f oods r epresen ted i n t he e ar l iest s et t le men t a t S i tagroi o n t he b as is t ha t i t was t he c o m monest p lan t i n 1 7 o u t o f 3 2 s a mp les. Th is method i s c o m mendab le i n t hat i tr ecogn ises t hat s a mp les o f p lan t r e ma ins a re b iased i n t he ir c o mpos it ion a nd s hou ld n o t t herefore b e r egarded a s p rov id ing a n a ccura te p icture o f t he p reva i l ing c rop e cono my.

U nfor tun-

a tely , Dr. Renfrew h as n o t y et b een a b le t o d e monstrate t h is method i n d e ta il , f or s o f ar o n ly a s hort a ccoun t o f i t s r esu l ts h ave b een p ub l ished ( Renfrew , C . 1 974 :274-8 ).

However , t here a re a n u mber o f r easons why i t

m igh t n o t p rov ide a n a ccura te a ccoun t o f t he i mportance o f e ach r esource. The f i rst i s t hat a p lan t wou ld n o t b e c oun ted a s ar esource u n less i th appened t o b e t he c o m monest p lan t r epresen ted i n a t l east o ne s a mp le.

That i s t o

s ay , ap lan t t hat w as u sed a s af ood r esource b u t wh ich was c ons isten t ly t he s econd c o mmonest p lan t r epresen ted i n e ach s a mp le wou ld n o t b e i ncorporat ed i n t he e st i mates.

We c an imag ine f or e xa mp le a s i tuat ion where f our

s a mp les , e ach o f 1 50 s eeds o r g ra ins , were r ecovered f ro m a s et t le men t : t he f i rs t c on ta ined 1 00 s eeds o f p ea , t he s econd , 1 00 o f l ent i l , t he t h ird , 1 00 g ra ins o fb arley a nd t he f ourth , 1 00 o f emmer. 5 0 g ra ins o f e inkorn.

Each s a mp le a lso c on ta ined

Accord ing t o t h is me thod , p ea , l ent il , b ar ley a nd

2 2

em mer wou ld e ach b e v a lued a t 2 5% o f t he t o ta l p lan t f ood ;

a lthough e inkorn

was o vera l l t he c o m monest p lan t r epresen ted i n t hese s a mp les, i tw ou ld n ot b e c oun ted a s ar esource.

I f , o n t he o ther h and , o ne f urther s a mp le o f o n ly

3g ra ins w ere f ound , a nd t wo o f t hose h appened t o b e o f e inkorn , i t s e cono m ic v a lue wou ld t hen b e r eckoned a t 2 0% o f t he t o ta l o n t he g rounds t hat i t was d om inan t i n o ne

o f t he f ive s a mp les.

We c ou ld i ndeed e nv isage s o me c ur ious

r esu lts i ft h is me thod were u sed c ons isten t ly.

I ff or e xa mp le a s a mp le o f

a mixed c rop o f b eans a nd w heat w ere f ound , t he m inor c o mponen t wou ld n o t b e c oun ted a s ar esource u n less i th appened t o b e d om inan t i n a t l east o ne o ther s a mp le. S o me f urther p rob le ms e ncoun tered b y t he u se o f t h is t echn ique c an b e e nv isaged i fw e c ons ider t he p lan t s a mp les f ro m a h ypo thet ica l s et t le men t w ith t hree p hases o f o ccupat ion , e ach o f wh ich y ie lded p lan t s a mp les f ro m av ar iety o f d if feren t c on texts.

We c an s uppose t hat em mer w as t he most

impor tan t c rop d ur ing t he e arl iest p hase o f t he s et t le men t , a nd t ha t t he s a mp les o f p lan t r e ma ins w ere r ecovered ,f ro m f l oors where em mer c rops h ad b een c leaned.

I ft hese c rops h ad b een v ery weedy a nd t he g ra in-clean ing

v ery e f f ic ien t , t he d etr itus f ro m c lean ing t he c rops wou ld c onta in a h igh p roport ion o f w eed s eeds a nd o n ly a sma l l p roport ion o f t he c rop i t se lf .

I t

i s n o t imposs ib le t hat s o me o f t hese weeds were e d ib le—s ma l l-seeded l egu mes a re o n ly o ne e xa mp le f ro m many wh ich c ou ld b e c hosen .

I ft he d om inan t

p lan t f ood was a ssumed t o b e t he o ne mos t c o m mon ly f ound i n e ach s a mp le , we m igh t w e l l c onclude t ha t a weed s uch a s a sma l l-seeded l egu me was t he ma in c rop when i n f ac t i tw as em mer. Dur ing t he s econd p hase o f t h is s et t le men t , em mer was s t il l t he p r inc ipa l c rop , b u t s o me b ar ley was a lso g rown o n a sma l l s ca le.

For t he s ake o f

a rgumen t , we c an a lso s uppose t hat t he p lan t s a mp les were r e tr ieved f ro m a b u i ld ing u sed f or s tor ing b ar ley.

S ince t h is c u lt igen wou ld b e d om inan t i n

a l l t he s a mp les, i tw ou ld o bv iously—al though w rong ly—e merge a s t he p r inc ip a l f ood c rop. I n t he l ast p hase o f t h is h ypothet ica l s ite , t he s e t t le men t h ad b eco me i nc orporated i n to a market e cono my a nd h ad l arge ly r ep laced g ra in c u lt iva t ion w ith v it icu l ture f or w ine p roduct ion .

A sma l l amoun t o f em mer w as a lso

g rown a s as ubs id iary c rop . For r easons w e h ave a lready men t ioned , em mer i s more l ike ly t o b e p reserved t han g rape , p ar t icu larly i ft he l at ter p lan t w as c rushed a nd u sed f or i t s j u ice.

I ft he s a mp les f ro m t h is p hase were t aken

f ro m h earths a nd f ac il it ies f or s tor ing g ra in , w e m igh t r ead ily c onc lude f ro m a p ercen tage c oun t o f t he s a mp les i n wh ich a p lan t was d om inan t t ha t em mer a nd n o t g rape was t he ma in c u l t igen . I n t h is p ar t icu lar s itua t ion , t he u se o f t h is method wou ld s uggest t ha t t he s equence o f p r inc ipa l c rops h ad b een sma l l-seeded l egu mes —bar ley— em mer, when i n f act i t was em mer —e m mer —grape. Th is h ypo thet ica l e xa mp le i s u sefu l i n t hat i th igh l igh ts t he p roble ms o f d ea l ing w ith h igh ly h eterogeneous a sse mb lages o f p lan t s a mp les .

The d a ta .

i n t he f i rst e xa mp le r epresented t he u nwan ted p ort ion o f ac rop b u t n o t t he c rop i t se lf , a nd i nd ica tes t he n ecess ity o f d ist ingu ish ing d el iberate f ro m a cc iden ta l waste i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord.

2 3

The s econd i l lustrat ion

s howed t he p rob le ms a r is ing f ro m l atera l v ar iat ion i n a ct iv i ty a reas, s ince i nt h is i nstance t he e xcava t ion h ad u ncovered a n a typ ica l p art o f t he s et t le men t. The f ina l e xa mp le was o ne o fd if feren t ia l p reservat ion , a nd r em inds u s a ga in t ha t s i mp ly b ecause a p lan t i s c o m mon ly p reserved , t here i s n o g uaran tee t hat i tw as e x tens ively c u lt ivated. The me thod s uggested b y J ane Ren frew f or e st i mat ing c rop impor tance d oes n o t a dequa tely d ea l w ith t hese p rob le ms a t p resen t , l argely b ecause i t d oes n ot t ake s uf f ic ien t a ccoun t o ft he c haracter ist ics o f e ach i nd iv idua l s a mp le. I ti s t e mp t ing , b u t i naccura te, t o s uggest t hat t hese p rob le ms c ou ld b e o verco me b y s i mp ly i ncreas ing t he n umber o f s a mp les f ro m e ach p hase. A lthough t he u se o f i n tens ive f l o ta t ion t echn iques m ight r esu lt i nt he r ecovery , o f , f or e xa mp le , 1 00 i nstead o f 1 0 s a mp les f rom a s ound ing , t he p rob le ms o f l atera l v ar iat ion i n a ct iv ity a reas, d if feren t ia l p reserva t ion , a nd o f d ist ingu ishi ng w aste f ro m t he wan ted p ort ions o f c rops s t i l l r e ma in . N or w ou ld t he r ec overy o fp lan t s a mp les f rom a l arge a rea o f as e t t le men t b e p ro f itab le u n less e ach s a mp le was c ons idered i n t er ms o f t he t ype o f f eatures f rom wh ich i t was d rawn , o r t he a ct iv it ies a nd c ircu mstances w h ich r esu lted i n i t s p reservat ion . I ti s n o t a n i ncrease i n t he n umber o f s amp les f rom e ach p hase t hat i s n eeded , b u t i nstead a n i ncrease i n t he v ar iety a nd n umber o f f ea tures w h ich a re s a mp led f or p lan t r e ma ins.

Bo tan ica l d a ta i s l ike ly t o b e more i n for ma-

t ive i fo b ta ined f ro m , f or e xa mp le , f loors, i n iddens, p i ts, h earths, o vens a nd s torage c on ta iners t han i ff ro m o n ly o ne o f t hese c on tex ts :

t en s a mp les f rom

t en f l oors a re p robab ly more i n for ma t ive t han t en s a mp les f rom o n ly o ne f l oor. The p rob le ms r a ised b y o ur e xa mp le o f ah ypo the t ica l s et t le men t c ou ld b e o verco me b y f i rst r ecover ing s a mp les o f p lan t r e ma ins f rom a s many d if fere n t t ypes o f c on tex ts a s p oss ib le a nd s econd ly , b y c o mpar ing d iscrete a sse mb lages o f s a mp les wh ich were r ecovered f ro m s im ilar t ypes o f c on tex ts a nd wh ich p referab ly r esu l ted f rom s im ilar t ypes o f a ct iv it ies. The s econd t echn ique wh ich h as b een u sed t o e st i mate t he i mportance o f p reh istor ic p lan t f oods i s t ha t o f p resence-ana lys is ( Hubbard , 1 976:160 ). Th is t echn ique a t te mp ts t o d ea l w ith t he p rob le ms r a ised b y ah igh ly h eterog eneous mass o fp ub l ished ma ter ial b y e st i mat ing t he importance o f ap lan t f ood ' a s t he p roport ion o f t he s a mp les f rom t he c hrono log ica l o r c u l tura l g roup u nder e xa m ina t ion i n wh ich t hat t axon o ccurs ' ( Hubbard , 1 976 :160 ). I n o ther words, i f ap lan t s pec ies i s r epresen ted i n a l l s amp les f rom a s ite , i ti s a ss igned av a lue o f 1 00% ; 5 0%.

i fp resen t i n o n ly 2 0 o f 4 0 s a mp les, o ne o f

The mer it o f t h is t echn ique l i es i n i t s a pp l icab il ity , s ince i tc an b e

u sed o np ub l ished mater ia l ; a nd i nsofar a s q uan t ita t ive d ata i s c urren t ly f ash ionable , i ta lso a ppears a t tract ive.

However, t here a re a n umber o f

r easons why i ti s as pur ious d ev ice f or e st i ma t ing p reh istor ic c rop i mportance. Th is i s l arge ly b ecause p resence-ana lys is i s b ased u pon n or mat ive , r ather t han b ehav ioura l p r inc ip les; i n o ther words , a rchaeobo tan ica l e v idence i s s een a s d irect ly r epresen ta t ive o f p reh istor ic c rop e cono m ies.

I ft h is v iew

i s ma in ta ined , i ti s t hen r easonab le t o a ssume t ha t ' t he f requency w ith wh ich ap lan t i s e ncoun tered i n ag roup o f s a mp les w il l b e p roport iona l t o t he f req uency o f i t s u se ' ( Hubbard , 1 975 :198 ).

Th is a ssump t ion , h owever , i s

s er ious ly e ndangered i fa rchaeobo tan ica l s amp les a re s een i n b ehav ioura l t er ms;

i n o ther words, a s r epresen tat ive o f p reh istor ic a ct ions a nd c ircums-

t ances, wh ich n eed n o t p resen t ad irect i nd ica t ion o f t he p reva il ing e conomy. 2 4

Thus t he a bundance o f ap lan t s pec ies i n ag roup o f s a mp les n eed i nd ica te o n ly t ha t i tw as, f or v ar ious r easons , c ommon ly p reserved ; c onverse ly , p lan t r esources w h ich w ere n ot p laced n ear p o t tery w hen i tw as b e ing p roduced , o r n ear f i res wou ld b e r are a rchaeo log ical ly , b u t c ou ld n ever the less h ave b een impor tan t c omponen ts o ft he e conomy. I nt h is r espect , s amp les o f c arbon ised p lan t r ema ins r esemb le a ssemb lages o f s tone t oo ls, i n t hat t he a rchaeo log ist i s u sua l ly c on fron ted w ith a r tefac ts t ha t w ere e i ther l ost a cc iden ta l ly o r d isc arded w hen n o l onger r equ ired : t here n eed b e l i t t le r eason f or s uppos ing t ha t t h is p roport ion w ou ld c orrespond o n ao ne-to-one b as is w ith t he t oo ls t ha t w ere a ctua l ly i nu se a t a ny o ne t ime o r p lace. I n t he n or ma l d ay-to-day l i fe o f ap reh istor ic c o mmun i ty , w e c an s afe ly s uppose t hat man , l i vestock o r p est s wou ld h ave c onsumed most o f t he p lan t f ood , e xcep t f or a p roport ion t ha t w as r eserved a s s eed f or t he f o l low ing y ear , o r a cc iden ta l ly d estroyed. Fortuna tely f or t he a rchaeo log ist , t ru ly e f f ic ien t p reh is tor ic s oc iet ies w h ich n ever c rea ted i nadver ten t w aste d o n ot s eem t o h ave e x isted , a nd c onsequen t ly t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i s ac omb ina t ion o f i n ten t iona l a nd a cc iden ta l w aste. I ti s i mportan t t o s tress t ha t i ti s o n ly t he o ccurrence , b u t n o t t he c onsequences o f s uch a cc iden ts, w h ich i s r andom : K ing A lfred may h ave u n in ten t iona l ly c aused a n a cc iden tb y c arbon is ing a b un , b u t h e h ard ly c rea ted a r andom s a mp le o f t he p reva il ing e conomy . I ft h is a rgumen t i s a ccep ted , w e c an c r it ic ise t he c on ten t ion t ha t ' The n umer ica l c o mpos i t ion o f s amp les o f c arbon ised s eeds...is l arge ly a cc iden ta l a nd u sua l ly mean ing less ' ( Hubbard , 1 976 :160 ). I n s o f ar a s p reh istor ic g ra in s a mp les w ere n o t c rea ted o r p reserved w ith t he a rchaeo log ist i n m ind , Hubbard i s c orrec t. However, t he a sser t ion t ha t t he n umer ica l c ompos it ion o f c arb on ised g ra in a nd s eed s amp les i s ' u sua l ly mean ing less ' i s ad irect c onsequence o f v iew ing a rchaeobo tan ica l d a ta w ith in a n or ma t ive f ramework w h ich i s u nab le t o v iew s uch e v idence i n t erms o f i nd iv idua l a c t ions o r c ircums tances w ithou t l os ing i t s v a l id ity . O bv ious ly , o nce i ti s a dm it ted t ha t t he a rchaeobo tan ica l r ecord i sb iased b ys uch f ac tors a s d i f feren t ia l p reservat ion o r t he c ircumst ances o f p reserva t ion , t hen w e c an n o l onger a ssume —as p resence-ana lys is must— tha t t he a bundance o f ap lan t i n ag roup o f s amp les i s ad irect i nd ica t ion o f i t s i mportance. Af ur ther s hortcom ing o f p resence-ana lys is i s t ha t i tp rov ides n o w ay o f d ist ingu ish ing a ctua l f rom p o ten t ia l p lan t f oods, u n less o ne a ss igns a w ho l ly a rb i trary l evel a t w h ich a p lan t m igh t c ross a c r it ica l t hresho ld o n to a p reh istor ic menu. We c an , f or e xamp le , e nv isage a h arvest o f as ing le-spec ies c rop c on ta in ing a n umber o f w eeds, i n t he s ense t ha t t hey w ere n e ither d e l ibe rate ly s own n or h arvested. T hese w ou ld h ave b een b rough t o n to t he s et t lemen t a long w ith t he h arvested c u l t igen , b u t t hen r e moved b y s ubsequen t c rop p rocess ing a c t iv it ies. Wh i lst t hese w eeds m ight h ave s ome p o ten t ia l f ood v a lue , a nd e ven b e u b iqu i tous i na l l s amp les, i tw ou ld b e e rroneous t o c lass ify t he m a s h av ing a n e conom ic v a lue e qua l t o t he c rop i t se l f . I tm igh tb e o b jected t ha t t here i s l i t t le d anger o f c on fus ing a w eed w ith a c rop , o r v ice v ersa , i n t he a rchaeobo tan ica l r ecord ; y e t we s hou ld n o te t ha t c u l t igens s uch a s o a ts , r ye , f l ax a nd b i t ter v e tch may w e l l h ave b een c o mmensa ls o f o ther c rops b e fore t hey w ere c u l t ivated i n t he ir own r igh t . Moreover , many p lan ts n ow r egarded a s w eeds h ave c ons iderab le d ietary

2 5

p oten t ia l , a nd may h ave b een c u l t ivated i n p reh istory , b u t l a ter a bandoned i n f avour o f o ther c rop p lan ts.

Ch ickweed ( Chenopod ium a lbum ), k notweed

( Po lygonu m a v icu lare ) a nd n et t le ( Urt ica d o ica ) a re o n ly t hree e xa mp les o f p lan ts t ha t h ave n ow l apsed f ro m c ul t ivat ion ( Hedr ick , 1 972 ). Wh ilst i ts ee ms p referab le t hat w e s hould t race t he h istory o f t hose p lan ts n o l onger u nder c u l t iva t ion , a s w e l l a s o f t hose s t il l c ropped , p resence-ana lys is wou ld n ot s ee m s u f f ic ien t ly a ccurate f or t h is t ask . The u se o f Chenopod iu m a lbum i n i ron a ge Denmark i s ac onven ien t c ase i n p o in t .

The s ize a nd h omogene ity

o f many s a mp les , o f ten f ound i n s torage c on ta iners, l eave l i tt le r oom f or d oubt ing t hat i tw as u sed a s af ood p lan t i n i t s own r igh t. Chenopod ium i s a lso , h owever, a c o m mon weed a nd i s o f ten p resen t i n s a mp les o f g ra in . The u se o fp resence-ana lys is p rov ides n o way o f d ist ingu ish ing t he i n ten t iona l u se o f t h is t ype o f p lan t f ro m i t s a cc iden ta l ( and of t en u nwan ted ) i nclus ion i n o ther c rops. F ina l ly , w e c an c r it ic ise t he way p resence-ana lys is a tte mpts t o e va lua te t he impor tance o f ap reh istor ic p lan t f ood i n t er ms o f ap ercen tage v a lue. Th is p ract ice i s f raugh t w ith amb igu ity , s ince i ti s e x tre me ly u nclear h ow t he p ercen tage r ela tes t o t he p lan t h usbandry o f as et t le men t.

To s ay t hat

ap lan t h as a p resence-va lue o f 1 0% c ou ld mean t hat i tc onst itu ted t ha t p ercen ta ge o f t he t o ta l c a lor if ic, p ro te in o r c arbohydra te v alue o f t he p lan ts e a ten b y t he i nhab itan ts; o r b y t he m a nd t he ir l i vestock ; o r o f t he a rea u sed f or t he e xp lo ita t ion o f t ha t p lan t ; o r t he p roport ion o f t ime a nd e f fort e xpended i n i t s c u l t ivat ion ; o r e ven t he p roport ion b y w e ight o ft he t o ta l p lan t f ood e a ten e ach y ear b y t hat c o m mun ity . There i s n o r eason f or s uppos ing t ha t a ny o f t hese v a lues w il l b e r ef lected i n t he p roport ion o f s amp les i n wh ich a p lan t s pec ies i s r epresen ted. i i ) a n a lterna t ive method f or e st i mat ing t he e conom ic s tatus o f a p reh istor ic p lan t r esource As t he n umbers o f s eeds o r g ra ins b y wh ich a p lan t s pec ies i s r epresen ted o n a na rchaeo log ica l s i te c anno tb e u sed a s ab as is f or e st i ma t ing t he e cono m ic impor tance o f ap reh istor ic p lan t r esource , i ts ee ms e ssen t ia l t o t ake f u l l a ccoun t o f t hose f actors wh ich a f fec ted t he c ompos it ion o f e ach p lan t s a mp le. Part icu lar a t ten t ion s hou ld b e p a id t o d eter m in ing whether a p lan t s pec ies r epresen ts a c rop , o r ar es idue f ro m i t , a nd t he s tage o f p repara t ion a t wh ich e ither was c arbon ised o r o therw ise p reserved. The t wo s tat ist ica l t echn iques wh ich w ere c ons idered i n t he p rev ious s ect ion a lso s eem u nsa t isfactory , a nd must r a ise d oub ts a s t o whe ther a rchaeobo tan ica l d ata c an b e man ipu la ted t o p rov ide a p rec ise q uan t itat ive e st i mate o f t he v a lue o f ap reh istor ic p lan t r esource. B ecause o f t he c o mp lex it ies o f a rchaeobo tan ica l d a ta , i t may b e p rof itab le t o a ssess t he importance o f p reh istor ic p lan t r esources i n aq ua l i ta t ive manner. An i n it ia l a nd s i mp le a t te mp t t o d o t h is h as b een made b y H iggs a nd V ita-Finz i who h ave c lass if ied p reh istor ic f ood r esources a s e i ther s tap les , e ssen t ia l t o t he s urv iva l o f ag roup , o r i nc iden ta ls wh ich f or m o n ly a nu n i m-

( 1972 :29 ) ,

p ortan t p art o f t he t o ta l d ie t. I n s o me c ircums tances t hey s uggest t hat i t may b e n ecessary t o r ecogn ise emergency f oods wh ich may b e o f c r it ica l importance i fs tap le r esources f a iled b u t wh ich wou ld o therw ise f orm o n ly a sma l l p art o ft he t o ta l a nnua l d iet.

A f urther c a tegory o f c asua l f oods c an 2 6

a lso b e r ecogn ised :

t hese a re ' resources o ccas iona l ly u sed s uch a s med ic ines,

r el ishes a nd t he l ike ' ( V ita-Finz i a nd H iggs , 1 970 :36 ).

I n t he c ase o f c ereal-

b ased e cono m ies s uch a s t hose i n n eo l ith ic Bu lgar ia , t h is c lass c ou ld i nclude al arge r ange o f p lan ts , u sua l ly a ssoc iated w ith c erea l c rops, w h ich c ou ld h ave b een e aten b u t w h ich c ou ld e qua l ly w e l l h ave b een d iscarded. S upport f or t h is c lass if ica t ion c an b e f ound f rom a c ons iderab le b ody o f e thnograph ic d ata. I n a n e ar ly a nd c lass ic s tudy , Tho mpson ( 1939 ) s howed h ow a f ew s pec ies o fp lan ts w ere e ssen t ia l t o t he d iet o f t he Wik Monkan , a l though a w ide r ange o f s pec ies was e xp lo ited. L ee ( 1968, 1 969 ) h as d isc ussed h ow t he 1 Kung b ushmen e xp lo it 8 5 p lan t a nd 5 4 a n i ma l s pec ies , y et o b ta in h a lf t he ir f ood b y we igh t f ro m o ne s pec ies, t he mongongo n u t.

The

G/w i b ush men e xp lo it o n ly 1 3 s pec ies ' i n s u f f ic ien t amoun ts t o g ive t he m ma jor d ietary s ign if icance ' ( S i lberbauer , 1 972 :283 ), o r a t most , o ne t h ird o f t he t ota l n u mber o f p lan t s pec ies c ons idered e d ib le. Woodburn ( 1968 :51) n o ted o f t he Hadza t hat ' Although a l arge n umber o f s pec ies o f p lan t f ood a re e aten , o n ly a f ew a re s yste ma t ica l ly g athered a nd p rov ide importan t q uan t it i es o f f ood. The b u lk o f t he v ege tab le f ood e aten b y t he Hadza i s i n f act o bta ined f ro m o n ly t en s pec ies o f p lan t '. I fw e a ccep t t h is c lass if ica tory s yste m , t he p rob le m f ac ing t he a rchaeob o tan ist i s t o r ank t hose p lan t s r epresen ted o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n t er ms o f s tap le , i nciden ta l a nd c asua l f oods . A l though i ti s b y n ow o bv ious t ha t t he n u mer ica l r epresen ta t ion o f ap lan t c anno t b e u sed a s a n i nd ica t ion o f i t s impor tance , i t wou ld s ee m a r easonab le p ropos it ion t ha t i n s ome c ases t he e conom ic s tatus o f ap reh istor ic p lan t f ood s hou ld c orrespond t o t he r ange a nd t ype o f f ood p rocess ing a c t iv it ies t o wh ich i t was s ub jected. Th is i s b ecause many o f t hese a ct iv it ies a re i n tended t o i so late t hose p lan ts t ha t a re e conom ica l ly importan t f rom t hose t ha t a re n ot , a nd t o p repare t he ma jor f ood p lan ts f or s torage a nd c onsump t ion . Thus i n g enera l t er ms we m igh t e xpect t he most importan t p lan t r esources t o b e most c o m mon ly a ssoc ia ted w ith a ct iv it ies s uch a s f ood p reparat ion , c onsump t ion a nd s torage.

On t he

o ther h and , u n i mpor tan t p lan t r esources s hou ld t end t o b e a ssoc ia ted w ith a d if feren t r ange o f a ct iv it ies, s uch a s r efuse d isposa l , f ue l o r t e mper ing. Each o f t hese d if feren t a ct iv it ies wou ld p robab ly b e a ssoc iated w ith d ist incti ve a reas o f ap reh istor ic s et t le men t , a nd r esu lt i n d i f feren t k inds o f p lan t s a mp les. We migh t t herefore a ssu me a r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he e cono m ic s tatus o f ap reh istor ic p lan t r esource, t he k inds o f p rocess ing a ct iv it ies w ith wh ich i ti s a ssoc iated a nd i t s d o mest ic c on tex t. I fw e a ssu me t hat t he e cono m ic s tatus o f ap reh istor ic p lan t f ood s hou ld b e r ef lec ted t o s o me e x ten tb y t he k ind o f d omest ic p rocess ing a c t iv it ies p erfor med o n as et t le men t , i ti s e ssen t ia l t ha t t hese s hou ld b e i den t if iab le i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord.

Af ew a t te mp ts h ave b een made t o i den t ify c rop

p rocess ing a nd r ela ted a ct iv it ies f ro m s a mp les o f macroscop ic p lan t r ema ins r etr ieved b y e xcava t ion.

We h ave a lready n oted a n e arly e xa mp le b y Heer,

a nd a l ater o ne made b y Helbaek when i n terpret ing t he d a ta f rom H elar. I nb oth t hese c ases, t he ma in c r iter ion b y wh ich c rop p rocess ing a ct iv it ies w ere i den t if ied was t he c o mpos it ion o f t he s a mp les. I n s o me c ases, t he s ize o f g ra ins m ight a lso p rov ide c lues a bou t t he p rocess ing a ct iv i ty wh ich r esu lted i n t he c ompos it ion o f ap lan t s a mp le :

e xa mp les o f h ow t h is m igh t h ave

o ccurred w il l b e e ncoun tered i nt he d iscuss ion o f t he p lan t r e ma ins f rom Chevdar, K azan luk a nd Ezero l a ter i n t h is s tudy. 2 7

The e cono m ic s ta tus o f ap lan t r esource f rom a n a rchaeo log ica l s et t le men t s hou ld a lso b e i nd icated t o s o me e x ten t b y i t s c on tex t.

These c on tex ts , a s

e ncoun tered o n a rchaeo log ica l s et t lemen ts, c ou ld b e c lass if ied a s f o l lows : Type A :

S torage j ars, s i los a nd s torage p its

P lan t r e ma ins f ro m t hese c on tex ts a re l ike ly t o h ave b een s tored e ither a s s eed f or t he f o l low ing y ear o r f or c onsu mp t ion , b u t n eed n o t i nd icate t he a ctua l importance o f t he c rop t o t he e cono my. S a mp les f ro m t h is t ype o f c on text d o h owever s how t ha t ap lan t w as e xp lo i ted , a nd c an a lso , i fn o t s ubs equen t ly c on ta m inated , p rov ide a u sefu l i nd ica t ion o f t he q ual ity o f t he s tored c rops. Type B :

Ovens a nd h earths

Two k inds o f s a mp les o f p lan t r e ma ins m igh t b e r ecovered f ro m t h is t ype o f c on tex t.

Each c an b e c ons idered i n t urn .

i ) A s a mp le o f p lan t r e ma ins f ro m t h is t ype o f c on tex t c ou ld r epresen t p lan t ma ter ia l wh ich w as i n tended f or c onsu mp t ion .

I f s o , i ti s l i ke ly t o h ave

b een t aken f ro m a s torage p lace ( A c on tex t ) a nd b urn t wh i lst b e ing c ooked ; o r, i n t he c ase o f s o me c rops , c arbon ised w hen b e ing p arched.

Th is l at ter

c ircu mstance wou ld a pp ly e spec ia l ly t o c erea ls , o f wh ich t he g ra ins a re f req uen t ly r oasted t o f ac i l ita te mi l l ing ( Curwen a nd Hat t , 1 961:100 ) o r t o p reven t g er m ina t ion i n s torage ( Helbaek , 1 952a );

s a mp les o f t h is k ind a re l ike ly t o

c ons ist p redo m inan t ly o f o ne c u l t igen a nd c an p rov ide a m in i mu m e st i ma te o f t he p ur ity o f ac rop , a s i t may h ave b een c on ta m inated e ither b y o ther p lan ts a dded a s f ue l ( see i b e low ) o r b y o ther p lan t ma ter ia l a lready p resen t i n t he o ven o r h earth. i ) A s a mp le o f p lan t r e ma ins f ro m t h is t ype o f c on tex t c ou ld a lso r epresen t f ue l.

I fs o , t he p lan t r e ma ins i n s uch a s a mp le wou ld p robab ly c ons ist o f

t he waste ma ter ia l d er ived f ro m c rop p rocess ing o r o ther a c tiv i t ies . One would e xpect s uch a s a mp le t o c ons ist ma in ly o f t he s traw f ro m a c rop.

a nd w eeds

W ilson ( 1906:210 ) f or e xa mp le, n o ted t ha t i n Pa lest ine ' t he

c oarsest p art , c ons ist ing o f t he j o in ts, l ower p arts o f t he s te ms a nd r oo ts ' ( o f t he s traw )

i s u sed b y t he Fe l lahun f or h ea t ing t he ir o vens, a nd a bou t

Gaza t he p o t ters b uy i tt o b urn i n t he k i lns '. Type C :

F loor d epos its

P lan t mater ia l i n t h is t ype o f c on tex t i s l ike ly t o h ave r esu l ted f ro m a w ide r ange o f h u man a ct iv it ies.

I tm igh t b e f ound i n t h is c on text i n d ist inct

c oncen trat ions a nd r epresen t t he ' sp il l ' f ro m a s torage p lace ( A c on tex t ) o r o ven ( B c on tex t ).

I n t h is c ase, o ne wou ld e xpect t he c o mpos it ion o f t he

' sp il l ' t o b e s im i lar t o t hat i n t he s a mp le f rom w h ich i tw as d er ived.

On

t he o ther h and , p lan t mater ia l o n f loors c ou ld h ave r esu l ted f ro m a c rop p rocess ing a ct iv ity s uch a s g ra in c lean ing.

I fs o , t he p lan t mater ia l i s

l ike ly t o b e s cat tered , a nd t he s a mp le s hou ld d i f fer i n c ompos it ion , a nd p oss ib ly g ra in s ize, f ro m s a mp les i n s torage c on tex ts. Type D :

Middens a nd r ubb ish p its

Much o f t he p lan t mater ia l f ro m t h is t ype o f c on tex t i s p robab ly i n ten t iona l r efuse, d er ived f ro m a w ide r ange o f a ct iv it ies.

2 8

I t may t hus r epresen t t he

l east v a lued p arts o ft he d iet , a nd i s most u n l ike ly t o i nd icate t he r e la t ive impor tance o f t he c rops wh ich w ere g rown. M iddens a re a n i mportan t s ource o f e v idence, h owever, i n t ha t t hey c on ta in t hat p art o f t he p lan t f ood wh ich w as n o t e a ten : t h is p ort ion c ou ld p rov ide u sefu l d a ta o n t he p lan ts wh ich g rew among c rops, a nd o n t he ways p lan t mater ia l was p rocessed a nd u sed o n t he s et t le men t . The p art o f ac rop wh ich was d e l iberate ly d iscarded i s l ike ly t o d i f fer a ccord ing t o t he s tage o f p repara t ion a t wh ich i t was t hrown away. C erea l g ra ins i n s uch a c on tex t m igh t h ave b een d iscarded a f ter w innow ing , c lean ing o r p arch ing , f or e xamp le. Poss ib le w ays o f d e ter m in ing t h is w il l b e d iscussed l ater i n t h is s tudy . Type E :

Impress ions i n p o t tery , b urn t c lay , o r t auf

P lan t mater ia l i ncorpora ted i n to t hese s ubstances i s u n l ike ly t o p rov ide much i n for ma t ion o n t he p lan t h usbandry o f as et t le men t. As most o f s uch p lan t mater ia l wou ld h ave b een p resen t a s t e mper ing , i t s i nc lus ion w ou ld h ave d epended u pon a v ar iety o f f actors, s uch a s i t s u sefu lness a s t e mper, o r t he t ype a nd amoun t o f t e mper ing ma ter ia l a va ilab le a f ter o ther d e mands s uch a s f odder, b edd ing a nd f ue l h ad b een met. Th is i s c erta in ly t rue i nt he c ase o f o vens a nd o ther l arge c lay f i ct i les. On t he o ther h and , c ons isten t r esu lts h ave b een o bta ined f rom t he i den t if icat i on o f i mpress ions o n s herds ( Helbaek , 1 952a ). The i n terpretat ion o f s uch f inds c ou ld h owever b e s trong ly i n f luenced b y t he o r ig in o f t he p o t tery v essels, f or i ft he p ot tery w ere t ransported o ver a c ons iderab le d istance f ro m i t s p o in t o f manufac ture , a ny g ra in o r o ther impress ions o n s uch s herds wou ld n o t n o t r elate t o t he s i te i n q uest ion ( Dennel l , 1 976 ). Type F :

F i l l d epos its

Th is t er m , b eloved b y e xcava tors , i s u sed h ere t o d escr ibe a w ide r ange o fd epos its , f ro m t he d ebr is b e tween f eatures t o t he c on ten ts o f d itches, a nd i nc ludes p lan t ma ter ia l o f w h ich t he o r ig ina l c on tex t i s u nknown . Type G :

Faeca l d epos its

I n many r espects f aeca l r e ma ins a re a n a rchaeo log ica l p ot o f g o ld f ro m t he v iewpo in t o f t he a rchaeobo tan ist . Th is i s b ecause t hey p rov ide o ne o f t he mos t d irect s ources o f e v idence f or t he r ela t ive i mportance o f e ach p lan t i n t he d iet.

The p o ten t ia l o f t h is s ource o f e v idence h as b een d e monstrated

b y work i nt he Amer icas, e spec ia l ly t hat b y Ca l len ( 1969 ).

I ti s t hus u n for-

t una te t hat p reh istor ic f aecal r e ma ins a re r are i n t he O ld Wor ld , e xcep t f or o ccas iona l f inds s uch a s a t Mu ldb jerg ( Troe ls-S m ith , 1 960 ). There a re n umerous d if f icu lt ies i n i n terpret ing s uch f inds. F irst , t he i den t if ica t ion o f p lan t ma ter ia l i s o f ten e spec ia l ly d iff icu l t , p art icu larly i fp lan t f ood h ad b een g round , b o i led o r mast icated p r ior t o i ngest ion . He lbaek 's ( 1954;

I ti s n o sma l l t r ibu te t o

s ee b elow ) s k i l l t hat s o much o f t he ma ter ia l h e e xa m ined

f rom t h is t ype o f c on tex t c ou ld b e i den t if ied.

S econd , b ecause f aeces r esu l t

f rom f ood d igested o ver, a t most , af ew d ays ( excep t ing p ro longed c onst ipat i on ), t he ir c on ten ts c ou ld v ary c ons iderab ly a ccord ing t o t he s eason a t wh ich t hey w ere e xcreted. Th ird , d iet c ou ld v ary a ccord ing t o s oc ial s tatus o r c ircumstance , a nd t hus t he c on ten ts o f af aeces n eed n o t r epresen t t he d iet o f t he w ho le c o m mun ity.

Th is c ons iderat ion m ight a pp ly t o t he f a mous b og

b ur ia ls , s uch a s To l lund , G rauba l le a nd Borre mose ( He lbaek , 1 959 , 1 958 ), 2 9

i n t he s to machs a nd i n test ines o f wh ich l arge n umbers o f s pec ies s uch a s S pergu la , Rumex a nd Po lygonum w ere f ound. As t he b od ies i n w h ich t hese r e ma ins w ere f ound h ad d ied b y s trangu lat ion , a nd were t hen c ast i n to a b og , ( G lob , 1 971), i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he l ast mea l o f t hese u n fortunates w as a s a typ ica l a s t he manner o ft he ir d eath. The a bove c lass if icat ion i s a pp l icab le t o mos t o ccupat ion s i tes i n t he O ld Wor ld f ro m wh ich p lan t r e ma ins h ave s o f ar b een r ecovered. Doubt less , t he l i st o f c ategor ies c ou ld b e e x tended i fn ecessary t o i nclude o ther t ypes o f c on tex ts n ot d iscussed h ere.

A s eparate c ategory m igh t b e n eeded f or e x-

amp le f or v ot ive o r c ere mon ia l d epos its , i n wh ich t he f ood p reserved w as i n tended f or t he g ods r a ther t han t he i nhab itan ts. The d epos it ion o f p lan t r e ma ins i n e ach t ype o f c on tex t w il l c lear ly t ake p lace a t d if feren t r a tes. Thus t he g ra in i n as torage j ar w il l r epresen t t he a ct iv it ies o f as ing le y ear ;

t he f l oor u nder i t , p erhaps f i ve o r f i f ty y ears,

a nd t he d estruct ion l evel o ver i t , p erhaps l ess t han h a l f a nh our. These f actors w i l l u ndoubted ly a f fect t he t ypes o f p lan ts i n e ach t ype o f d epos it. A l though t he c on tex t o f ap lan t s a mp le c ou ld p rov ide a u sefu l i nd icat ion o f t he importance o f ap lan t r esource, i ts hou ld b e c ons idered i n r ela t ion t o t he c ompos it ion o f t he s a mp le a s we l l. Th is i sb ecause a s a mp le o f p lan t r e ma ins f rom s ome o ft hese c on tex ts c ou ld h ave r esu l ted f ro m more t han o ne a ct iv ity.

A r efuse p it c ou ld , f or e xa mp le , c on ta in p lan t mater ia l f rom

g ra in w innow ing a nd c lean ing , a s we l l a s mater ia l t hrown away af ter i th ad b een s tored o r c ooked. S im i larly a n o ven c ou ld c on ta in g ra in wh ich w as c arbon ised e ither wh ilst b e ing p arched p r ior t o s torage o r mi l l ing , o r w h i lst b e ing c ooked a f ter i th ad b een s tored.

Converse ly , d if feren t t ypes o f c on-

t ex ts c ou ld y ie ld p lan t s a mp les o f as im i lar c ompos it ion.

A s amp le o f g ra in ,

f or e xa mp le, wh ich h ad b een p arched a nd s tored wou ld b e s im ilar i n c ompos it ion t o ag ra in s a mp le wh ich w as c arbon ised w h ilst b e ing p arched. I tw ou ld s ee m d es irab le t o c ons ider e ach p lan t s a mp le i n r ela t ion t o o thers f ound f rom a n a rchaeo log ica l h or izon s o t hat t he d if ferences b etween t he m c an b e more a ccurately a ssessed. D iscuss ion By c ons ider ing t he c o mpos it ion a nd a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t o f e ach s amp le , a nd b y i den t ify ing t he s tage a t wh ich i tw as c arbon ised , i ts hou ld b e p oss ib le t o c lass ify e ach p lan t r epresen ted o n a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te i n t er ms o f i t s e cono m ic i mportance.

The r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he e cono m ic s tatus o f a

p lan t r epresen ted o n as i te , t he c o mpos it ion a nd t he c on tex t o f e ach s a mp le, i s s hown i n d iagra m ma t ic f or m i n F ig. 2 . The ma in a dvan tage o f t h is me thod i s t hat i tt akes f u l l a ccoun t o f t he f actors wh ich b ias t he c o mpos it ion o f e ach s amp le o f p lan t r e ma ins r epresent ed o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes; b iases.

i ndeed i td epends u pon

I tc an a lso b e t ested b y o ther t ypes o f d a ta.

r ather t han i gnores s uch One way c ou ld b e t o

c ons ider t he c lass if ica t ion r eached f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l s a mples i n t erms o f t he a ctua l e cono m ic p oten t ia l o f e ach p lan t r epresen ted i n t he s a mp les, i n t er ms o f , f or e xa mp le , i t s c a lor if ic a nd p ro te in v a lue , a va i lab i l ity a nd e ase o f e xp lo itat ion .

I ft he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence s uggests t hat t he ma in p lan t

r esource was a h igh ly u npa la tab le a nd t ime-consum ing p lan t , b oth t he d ata

3 0

a nd t h is method wou ld h ave t o b e r eassessed.

S econd ly , c onc lus ions d rawn

o n c rop i mportance f ro m b o tan ica l s a mp les c an b e c hecked t o s o me e xten t b y c ons ider ing t he t ype o f t erra in i n wh ich t he s ett le men t i s l ocated. T he p roposed method o f r ank ing t he e conom ic importance o f t he p lan ts r epresen ted o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes s uf fers f rom t wo l im ita t ions i nheren t i n a ny method b ased p r i mar i ly u pon macroscop ic p lan t s a mp les.

I n t he f i rst

p lace , t he b otan ica l e v idence w i l l b e b iased i n f avour o f t hose p lan ts wh ich were e a ten b y t he i nhab itan ts , a nd r equ ired c ook ing a nd o ther p reparatory a ct iv it ies. P lan ts e aten b y l i vestock o r r equ ir ing l i t t le p repara t ion a re l i kely t o b e u nder-represen ted s ince t hese p lan ts l eave s o l i t t le t race.

S econd ly ,

t he s amp les o f p lan t r e ma ins—or o ther t ypes o f a rchaeo log ica l d ata—from a n e xcava t ion w il l b e b iased b y s evera l c hance e f fec ts, s uch a s t he a rea s e lected f or e xcava t ion o r t he t ype o f p reservat ion o f e ach t ype o f a rchaeo log ica l d epos it . Any c onc lus ion may h ave t o b e mod if ied i n t he l i gh t o f l a ter d isc over ies.

3 1

CHAPTER 3 THE S TUDY OF PREHISTOR IC CROP SYSTE MS

I n t h is c hapter w e s ha l l e x tend t he s cope o f o ur e nqu iry i n to p reh istor ic p lan t h usbandry b y c ons ider ing h ow w e m igh t s tudy p reh istor ic c rop s yste ms —that i s , t he w ay a c erea l o r l egume c rop w as c u l t ivated t o p roduce t he g rea te st r eturns i n r e lat ion t o t he a va ilab le t echno logy a nd l abour w ith t he l east a dverse e f fect o n f u ture c rops. S tud ies o ft h is k ind d eserve more a t ten t ion t han t hey h ave s o f ar r ece ived f ro m p reh istor ians. A l though t he d ispersa l a nd s ubsequen t a dop t ion o f c rop c u l t iva t ion i s as ine q ua n on o f European a nd N ear Eastern p reh istory f rom t he N eo l ith ic o nwards, w e c an h ard ly u nders tand w hat f actors a ided o r i mpeded t he c u l tura l a nd e cono m ic d eve lop men t o f v ar ious a reas w i thou t r eference t o t he way c rop c u l t ivat ion p ers isted f or s o l ong a nd o ver s uch d iverse c ond it ions a s man ifested b y t he c on trast b etween f or e xa mp le J ordan a nd J u t land. A t p resen th owever o ur k now ledge o fp reh istor ic c rop s yste ms i s s hrouded i n a murky f og wh ich f ew p reh istor ians h ave a t te mpted t o p enetrate.

Th is i s p art ly

b ecause t here h as b een a t endency f or e ach t ype o f e v idence t o b e s tud ied b y ad if feren t d isc ip l ine w i th in a d if feren t f ra mework . Thus t he s tudy o f ap reh istor ic c rop s yste m , c ompr is ing a c o mp lex r e lat ionsh ip b e tween t he s o i l , a n i ma ls , p lan ts a nd t echno logy , h as b een d is membered i n to o f ten a rb itrary s eg men ts wh ich man ifest more t he s tate o f al ong-estab l ished s cho last ic t rad it ion t han t he s ub ject u nder s tudy.

The t ask o f s yn thes is i s l e ft t o t he p re-

h istor ian , whose t ra in ing of ten r enders h im a s much a s pec ial ist a s h is c o ll eagues f ro m o ther d isc ip l ines.

Of ten i ti s t he r eader, n ot t he w r iter, w ho

i s e xpected t o make t he n ecessary s yn thes is.

S im i lar s i tua t ions h ave p re-

v a iled i n o ther d isc ip l ines s uch a s e co logy ,o r s oc ia l a n thropo logy , b o th o f wh ich h ave p rof ited b y s tudy ing s yste ms i n t oto r ather t han c o mponen ts i n v acuo. A s im ilar t rend m igh t w e l l p ro f it t he s tudy o f p reh istor ic c rop e cono m ies. S tud ies o f p reh istor ic c rop s yste ms h ave c ur iously n eg lected o ne s ource o f p r i mary d a ta , n a me ly t he c rops t he mse lves.

T hese h ave b een s tud ied

o n ly t o i nd icate wha t c rops w ere g rown , b u t n ot h ow t hey w ere c u lt ivated , b y p reh istor ic c o m mun it ies.

Ev idence f or p reh istor ic c rop s yste ms h as o f ten

b een b ased ma in ly o n e thnograph ic o r h istor ica l s ources. Thus C lark ( 1952 ) r el ied h eav ily u pon a ccoun ts o f modern p ract ices b y F inno-Ugr ians, o r h istor ica l a ccoun ts f ro m C lass ica l a u thors , i nh is s yn thes is o f European p reh istor ic c rop a gr icu lture , i n w h ich h e p roposed a g enera l s uccess ion o f s lash-and-burn c u l t ivat ion , c erea l c u lt ivat ion u nder f a l low r eg i mes, a nd f i na l ly , at hree-course r o ta t ion o f c erea ls a nd l egumes. Th is f ra mework h as p roven a u sefu l w ay o fa ccom moda t ing a rchaeo log ica l d ata , whether o f f i e ld s yste ms, t echno logy o r c rops.

S ince h is s yn thes is, h owever , t he

3 2

amoun t o f i n for mat ion o f p reh istor ic c rop a gr icu l ture h as i ncreased c ons idera b ly , b ut l i t t le f urther p rogress h as b een made i n s tudy ing p reh istor ic c ropp ing s yste ms.

I t wou ld s ee m d es irab le t hat o ur e v idence o n t h is t op ic s hou ld b e

b ased p r i mar ily u pon a rchaeo log ica l d ata. The s amp les o f p reh istor ic c rops r ecovered b y e xcava t ion o f fer o ne d irect a nd t ang ib le s ource o f e v idence wh ich i s p o ten t ia l ly u sefu l. The s tudy o f t h is c lass o f d a ta p resen ts o bv ious p rob le ms h owever. I ti s e v iden t f rom t he p rev ious c hap ter t hat s a mp les o f p lan t r e ma ins f rom a rchaeol og ica l s i tes a re n ot r epresen ta t ive o f t he p reva i l ing c rop h usbandry , b u t a re b iased i nt he ir c o mpos it ion a s ar esu l t o f v ar ious c rop p rocess ing a nd o ther d o mest ic a ct iv it ies p erfor med o n t he s et t le men t . I fh owever w e c ou ld r ecogn ise t hese a ct iv i t ies, i ts hou ld b e p oss ib le t o t race t he s tages b y wh ich p reh istor ic c rops w ere p repared f or s torage o r c onsump t ion , a nd t o i den t ify t hose p arts o ft he h arvest wh ich w ere s epara ted f rom t he c rop i n t he c ourse o f t hose a ct iv it ies. Th is i n for mat ion wou ld p rov ide u s w ith s ome i nd icat ion o f t he ma in c onst ituen ts o f ac rop when i t was f i rst b rough t o n to a s et t le men t. The c o mpos i t ion o f ac rop a t t h is s tage c ou ld p rov ide s ome d irec t e v idence o f t he t ype o f a gr icu l tura l s yste ms w h ich p reva i led w ith in t he c atch men t a rea o f a s et t lemen t. When a c rop i s h arvested a nd b rough t o n to a s et t le men t i ti s l ike ly t o c ont a in t hree ma in c o mponen ts. The f i rst i s t he c u l t igen w h ich was i n ten t iona l ly c u l t iva ted i n t ha t y ear , a nd t he s econd i s w eeds wh ich g rew i n t he c rop a nd were a cc iden ta l ly r eaped. The t h ird c o mponen t i s c om mensa ls; t hat i s , p lan ts w h ich a re c u l t ivated b y ac om mun ity b u t w h ich a re p resen t i n a nother c rop a s aw eed.

An e xa mp le m ight b e whea t i n af i eld o f b ar ley , o r v ice v ersa.

I n t he c ourse o f t h is c hapter , w e s ha l l e xa m ine t he h ypo thes is t ha t t he t ype a nd p roport ion o f w eeds a nd c om mensa ls i n ac rop d i ffer a ccord ing t o t he t ype o f c ropp ing s yste m. Before we c an c ons ider t h is i ssue, we s hou ld f i rst r ev iew s o me e daph ic f actors c onstra in ing t he c u l t iva t ion o f c rops , a nd t he ways t hey c an b e t ack led i n s ubs istence a gr icu ltura l c o mmun it ies. 1 .

P rel im inary c ons idera t ions

I dea l ly t he p urpose o f c rop c u lt ivat ion i s t o ma in ta in a p lan t c o mmun ity c o mposed o n ly o f c u l t igens s o t hat t he g rea test y ields a re o b ta ined o ver a n i ndef in ite p er iod b y e xpend ing t he sma l lest amoun t o f l abour. Th is t ype o f p lan t c om mun ity i s i nheren t ly =stab le , h owever, a nd c annot b e ma in ta ined f or l ong w ithou t a dverse e f fec ts o nb oth s o i l a nd c rop.

The f o l low ing f actors

a re e spec ia l ly impor tan t i n c onstra in ing t he i ndef in ite c u l t iva t ion o f c rops. i ) s o i l f ert il ity I th as l ong b een r ecogn ised t hat a n u mber o f c he m ica ls a re e ssen t ia l f or t he c on t inued g row th a nd h ea l th o f ac u lt igen. Three o f t hese—n itrogen , p hosphorus a nd p o tass iu m—are r equ ired i n l arge amoun ts;

Tab le 1 3 s hows

t he amoun ts o f e ach r e moved b y wheat c rops u nder d if fer ing c ond it ions o f manage men t.

Bes ides t hese t hree n u tr ien ts , p lan ts a lso r equ ire moderate

amoun ts o f c a lc iu m , magnes ium a nd s u lphur, a nd m inu te q uan t it ies o f t he s o-ca l led ' t race e le men ts ' , i ron , manganese , b oron , c h lor ine, c opper, z inc, mo lybdenum a nd p oss ib ly v anad iu m ( Russel l , 1 957 :196 ).

With t he e xcep t ion

o f n i trogen , p otass ium a nd p hosphorus, most s o ils n or ma l ly c on ta in a dequa te

3 3

amoun ts o f t hese c he m ica ls f or c rop g row th , a nd i ts ee ms u n l ike ly t ha t s upp l ies o f t hese wou ld h ave b een s er ious f ac tors a f fect ing p reh istor ic c rop c u l t ivat ion . The n ecess ity o f r enew ing t he s upp l ies o f n i trogen , p hosphorus a nd p o tass ium t o ac rop i fy ields a re t o b e ma in ta ined h as l ong b een d e monstra ted f rom t he f i eld e xper i men ts a t Ro tha mpsted , s um mar ised i n F ig. 3 .

Whea t w as

g rown c on t inuous ly o n o ne p lot o f t he Broadba lk f i eld f rom 1 844 t o 1 925 w ithou t a ny p rov is ion o f manure o r o ther f ert il isers.

The f i rst c rop p roduced a y ield

o f 8 .2 cw t/acre, a l ow f i gure b ecause t he l and h ad j ust c arr ied f our c erea l c rops w ithout a ny manur ing ( Garner a nd Dyke , 1 969 :27 ). S im ilar y ie lds were o bta ined f or a f urther t wen ty y ears o r s o , b u t t hereaf ter d ecl ined t o c . 6 -7 cw t/ a cre.

As Ha l l ( 1917 :37 ) s tates ' t h is p lo t , wh ich h as b een w ithou t manure...

s ince 1 839, h as r eached a s ta t ionary c ond it ion , a nd...the a verage c rop o f t we lve a nd a h a lf b ushels p er a cre f or t he l ast f i f ty y ears w i l l i n f u ture d im ini sh v ery s low ly , i fa t a l l '. e xa m ine b e low.

Y ie lds d id i n f act d ec l ine, f or r easons w e s ha l l

S l igh t ly d if feren t r esu l ts w ere o bta ined f rom t he a d jacen t Hoos f i e ld , where b arley w as c u lt ivated c on t inuous ly w ithou t manure f ro m 1 852 o nwards. Un l ike w heat , b ar ley y ields d ecl ined s low ly b u t s tead ily t hroughou t t he n ex t s ix ty y ears , at rend wh ich ' wou ld s ee m t o s how a p rogress ive e xhaust ion o f t he s o i l , w itho u t r each ing t he c o mpara t ively s tab le c ond it ion o f t he c on t inuously u nmanured whea t p lot ' ( Ha l l , 1 917 :72 4 ). I fc rops w ere manured e ach y ear, c ons isten t ly h igher y ields c ou ld b e o bta ined a lmost i ndef in itely . F ig. 3 s hows t he e f fect o f a pp ly ing a d ress ing o f 1 4 t ons o f f ar myard manure ( FY M ) p er a cre e ach y ear t o whea t a nd b arley c rops ;

a s i s e v iden t , t hese y ie lds a re n o t s ign if ican t ly d if feren t f rom t hose

o b ta ined b y f a l low ing ( see b e low , 2 : i i ). I ti s , h owever , most improbab le t hat manure c ou ld h ave b een s upp l ied o n t h is s ca le t o a rab le l and i n p reh istor ic c om mun it ies.

I n t he med ieva l p er iod f or e xa mp le , t he s carc ity o f manure

was a s er ious f actor i n c rop a gr icu lture.

As T i tow ( 1972:30 ) s ta tes, w ith

r eference t o t he Winchester e sta tes i n t he 1 3th c en tury , ' The s upp ly o f manure, a s r epresen ted b y t he r at io o f a n i ma ls t o t he a rea u nder s eed , was s o l ow t hroughou t a s t o j ust ify t a lk ing i nt er ms o f. ac hron ic s tate o f u nder- manur ing a nd wou ld g o al ong way t owards e xp la in ing t he l ow l evel o f p roduct iv ity '. How l ow t h is l eve l o fp roduct iv ity was c an b e s een b y r eference t o med ieval c rop y ie lds s hown i n Tab le 3 1. Even i f ap reh is tor ic c o m mun ity h ad h ad a dequa te s upp l ies o f manure , t here a re o ther r easons why t he c on t inuous c u l t ivat ion o f c rops o n t he s a me l and wou ld n o t h ave b een f eas ib le o r d es irab le. i ) s o i l s tructure The l ong-ter m e f fects o f c rop c u l t ivat ion u pon s o i l s tructure h ave b een e x tens ively i nvest iga ted , p art icu lar ly i n au sefu l s er ies o f a rt ic les b y L ow ( 1955 , 1 972, 1 973 ), who c on trasted t he c ond it ion o f a rab le s o ils w ith t ha t o f s o i ls u nder g rass f or s evera l y ears. One o f t he most n ot iceab le e f fects o f c rop c u l t iva t ion u pon s o i l s tructure i s t ha t i tr educes t he n umber o f s o il a ggregates , c om mon ly r eferred t o a s t he ' c rumb s tructure '.

A l though t he p rocesses o f s o i l c ru mb f or mat ion a re s t i l l 3 4

i ncomp lete ly u nderstood , t he f or ma t ion o f i rregu lar b u t s tab le s o i l a ggregates f ac il ita te d ra inage a nd a ir c ircu la t ion a nd ' Under t hese c ircumstances s eeds c an g erm ina te we l l , t he s eed l ings p rosper a nd a g ood s ys te m o f w h ite f eed ing r oo ts c an d eve lop ' ( Russe l l , 1 957 :210 ). The d e ter iorat ion o f c rumb s truc ture u nder p ro longed a rab le c u l t ivat ion i s w el l i l lustrated b y Tab le 1 4 w h ich c ont ras ts t he c ond it ion o f g rassland a nd a rab le s o i ls. The d eter iorat ion o f c rumb s tructure h as o ther c onsequences. L ow ( 1972 ) n o ted t ha t t he n umber o f e arthwor ms p er h ectare o n o ld g rass land w as 6 t o 9t imes t ha t o n o ld a rab le s o i ls ; a f ter t hree y ears ' c u l t ivat ion , t he wor m d ens i ty o n g rassland w as h a lved. W ind- a nd w a ter-eros ion b ecame more p reva len t o na rab le s o i ls b ecause o f t he r educ t ion o f p art ic le s ize , t he l ack o f b ind ing p ropert ies a nd t he i ncreased v u lnerab i l ity o ft he s o i l t hrough l oss o f p lan t c over. Two s ta te men ts a re s uf f ic ien t t o s ummar ise t he e f fect o f c rop c u l t ivat ion o n s o i l s truc ture. L ow ( 1973 :249 ) c onc luded t ha t ' Where t he q uan t ity o f s o i l n u tr ien ts o r d isease w as n ot a l im it ing f actor , t he y ie lds o f c erea ls, p eas a nd r ed b ee t w ere r elated t o t he s tab il ity o f t he s tructure wh ich i nt urn d epended u pon t he n umber o fy ears t he s o i l h ad b een o u t o fg rass '. The r e-estab l ishmen t o f ag ood s o il s truc ture o n a rab le l and i s al ong p rocess; u nder a verage c ond it ions a nd w i th s o i ls r ang ing f rom s andy l a wns t o c lays , many y ears a re n ecessary t o r estore t o a n o ld a rab le t he p hys ica l c ond it ions o f o ld g rass land ' ( Low , 1 955 :192 ). B ecause o ft hese f actors n o s ubs istence c ommun i ty c ou ld r epea ted ly c rop t he s ame l and w ithou t e xper ienc ing a d rast ic w orsen ing o ft he c ond it ion o f t he s o i l. I f ap reh is tor ic s et t le men t w as r epeated ly o ccup ied f or s evera l g enerat i ons , s ome means o f c onserv ing a nd r estor ing s o i l s truc ture must h ave b een e f fec ted. i i ) w eed c on tro l A s e very f ar mer i s w e l l a ware , as uccessfu l c rop d epends g reat ly u pon e f fec t ive w eed c on tro l. The c onsequences o f u nchecked w eed g row th u pon c rop y ields c an b e e x tre me ly s er ious. Mar t in a nd L eonard ( 1967 ) c i te o ne i ns tance w here b ar ley y ie lds w ere r educed f rom 2 11 t o 7 1b ushe ls/acre b ecause o f c ompet it ion f rom P o lygonum c onvo lvu lus. The a dverse e f fects o f w eed g row th o n c rop y ie lds b ecome i ncreas ing ly s er ious t he l onger c rops a re c u l t iva ted o n t he s a me l and. The e xper i men ts c onducted o n t he B roadb a lk f i e ld t o i nves t iga te t he r e lat ionsh ip o f c rop y ields t o s o i l f er t i l ity e xper ienced c ons iderab le d if f icu l t ies i n c on t inuous ly c u l t iva t ing t he s a me c rop o nt he s ame l and i n t he f ace o f i ncreas ing w eed c ompe t it ion . A s Ha l l ( 1917 : 3 2 ) r e la tes ' The c h ie f d if f icu l ty e xper ienced i ng row ing w hea t c on t inuous ly i s t ha t o f k eep ing t he l and c lean ; n ot o n ly d oes t he c rop o ccupy t he g round f or t he g rea ter p art o ft he y ear , a nd s o l eave l i t t le o pportun ity f or c lean ing o pera t ions , b u t t he w eeds w hose h ab it o f g row th i s f avoured b yt he c rop t end t o a ccumu la te f rom y ear t o y ear '. B ecause o f t hese d i f f icu l t ies, t he f i e ld e xper i men ts a t Rotha mpsted w ere mod if ied. A f ter 1 889 , a l terna te r ows w ere s own t o make w eed ing a nd h oe ing e as ier ; e ven s o , o n ly h a l f t he Broadba lk f i e ld c ou ld b e c ropped i n 1 904-5 a nd 1 914-15 , a s t he o ther h a lf h ad t o b e f a l lowed t o k i l l w eeds ( Johnston a nd G arner , 1 969 :23 ).

3 5

I n 1 925

' t he w eed f l ora w as s o p ro l if ic a s t o b e as er ious menace t o t he whea t c rop ', a nd s o t he who le f i e ld was f a l lowed o ver t he n ex t f our y ears;

i n t he f o l low ing

y ear , as im ilar e xper i men ta l f i eld a t Woburn wh ich h ad c arr ied w hea t a nd b arley c on t inuously f ro m 1 877 o nwards was s o f ou led w ith weeds t ha t i t was a lso f a l lowed ( Brench ley a nd War ington , 1 933 :104 ). The i nab i l ity o f c rops t o f l our ish w ithou t i n tens ive w eed c on tro l i s s tr ik ing ly i l lustra ted b yt h is a ccoun t o f a n e ar ly e xper i men t a t Rotha mpsted : ' How l i t t le t he whea t p lan t i s a b le t o s urv ive when i n c ompet it ion w ith w eeds , may b e s een f ro m a p ort ion o f t he Broadba lk f i eld where t he wheat c rop o f 1 882 w as a l lowed t o s tand a nd s hed i t s s eed , t he s o i l n ot b e ing c u l t iva ted i n a ny way .

I n t he

f o l low ing s eason , af a ir whea t p lan t c a me u p a nd g ave a bou t h a l f ac rop , b u t a f ter i ts eeded t he weeds i ncreased t he ir h o ld u pon t he g round u n t i l i n t he f ourth s eason o n ly t wo o r t hree s tun ted wheat p lan ts c ou ld b e f ound , wh ich h ave n ever r e-appeared s ince '

1 917 :41).

I ti s , h owever, e x tre me ly d if f icu l t t o c on tro l weeds, p art icu larly a s t hey a re e x tre me ly w e l l a dapted t o t he c ond it ions c reated b y c rop a gr icu l ture. Many p ropaga te t he mselves v ege ta t ive ly a nd c an b e e x t irpated o n ly b y r oot ing o u t t he e n t ire p lan t. Those t hat d isperse b y s eed ing h ave d eve loped s evera l ways o f e nsur ing g er m ina t ion . S o me p roduce v ast n umbers o f s eeds; f or e xa mp le c h ickweed ( S tel lar ia med ia ) p roduces c . 2 200-2700 s eeds p er p lan t , i n i t se lf a l arge n u mber b u t i ns ign if ican t when c ompared t o t he o u tpu t o f 2 00,000-230 ,000 s eeds p er p lan t o f h ard r ush ( Jun .cus i n f lexus ) ( Sa l isbury , 1 961:22 ).

The means b y wh ich w eeds d isperse t he ir s eeds a re e x treme ly

v ar ied a nd c o m mon ly s uccessfu l ;

t hese mechan is ms h ave b een d escr ibed a t

l ength b y S a l isbury ( 1961:97-143 ). Once d ispersed , t he s eeds o f many w eed s pec ies a re v iab le f or many y ears a nd c an r e ma in d or man t u n t i l f avourab le c ond it ions a r ise f or g er m ina t ion.

A l though f ew p lan ts c an ma tch t he a b i l ity

o f t he Egyp t ian l otus ( Nelub ium s pec iosum ) t o p roduce s eeds, 8 0% o f w h ich a re s t il l v iab le a fter 1 000 y ears ( Sa l isbury , 1 961:323 ), many p roduce s eeds wh ich c an g er m inate t wen ty o r t h irty y ears af ter t hey w ere s hed. Once t he e nv iron men ta l c ond it ions b eco me s tab i l ised , d ist inc t ive t ypes o f weed c o m mun it ies b eco me e stab l ished. Thus c ha lk a nd s andy s o ils a re c haracter ized b y d if feren t t ypes o f w eed c om mun it ies , a s a re g rasslands a nd a rab le l and. S o f ar a s t he l ast- men t ioned i s c oncerned , s evera l c rops a re a ssoc ia ted w ith a d ist inct r ange o f weed s pec ies. S ome s uch a ssoc iat ions b etween c rops a nd weeds a re s hown i n Tab le 1 5. O f ten , t hese c ommun it i es b eco me more e stab l ished t he l onger t he s ame l and i s ma in ta ined u nder ar egu lar a gr icu l tura l r eg i me ; i ti s n oteworthy i nt h is c on text t ha t t he most d ist inct ive weed c o m mun it ies i n t hese t ab les a re t hose f rom p lots a t Ro thampsted wh ich c arr ied t he s a me c rops f or o ver f if ty y ears. The b ehav iour o f w eed p opu lat ions, e spec ia l ly u nder c rop c u l t iva t ion , i s c o mp lex a nd d yna m ic. Changes o ccur f ro m y ear t o y ear, a s wel l a s f rom p lace t o p lace. One s tudy c onduc ted a t Rotha mpsted s howed t hat 6 o u t o f 2 1 w eed s pec ies i ncreased t he ir n umbers b y more t han 5 0% d ur ing t hree y ears o f whea t c ropp ing , wh i lst 1 3 d ecl ined t o l ess t han h a l f t he ir o r ig ina l p opu lat ion .

These v ar ia t ions w ere a t tr ibu ted t o t he u nstab le c ircumstances c reated

b y a rab le l and , o n wh ich ' cond it ions wh ich e ncourage s ome s pec ies a nd l ead t o ah eavy i ncrease i n t he s eed p opu lat ion a re a dverse t o ot hers.

3 6

As t he

c ond it ions v ary f ro m y ear t o y ear , t he b a lance b etween t he s pec ies a l ters, a nd i n n o t wo s uccess ive s easons c an t he weed p opu la t ion b e e xpected t o p resen t as im ilar q uan t itat ive c ompos it ion ' ( Brench ley a nd War ing ton , 1 933: 1 18 ). L ong-ter m f luctua t ions i n w eed p opu lat ions a lso t ake p lace ; S al isbury ( 1961) a nd War ington ( 1958 ) h ave s hown h ow t he c ompos it ion o f o ur w eed f l ora , b o th n a t iona l ly a nd o nt he Broadba lk f i e ld a t Ro thampsted , h as a l tered o ver t he p ast f i f ty y ears. 2 .

Agr icu l tura l c ropp ing s yste ms From t he p rev ious s ect ion , i ti s c lear t ha t n o s ubs istence c o mmun i ty c ou ld

p rof itab ly e xp lo it t he s a me l and f or c ropp ing y ear a f ter y ear.

For t he p ur-

p oses o f t h is s tudy , t he ma jor ity o f c on te mporary a gr icu l tura l c ropp ing s yste ms c an b e g rouped w ith in t hree c ategor ies.

Each c an b e d iscussed i n t erms o f

t he ir e f fec ts o n s o il f ert il ity , c rop y ields a nd l abour r equ ire men ts. i ) s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion Th is t ype o f c u l t iva t ion i s k nown b y av ar iety o f t er ms s uch a s sw idden , s lash-and-burn c u lt ivat ion , l ong- o r f orest-fa l low. I t s most importan t f ea ture i s t ha t l and i s n o t u sed r epea ted ly f or c rop c u l t iva t ion f or more t han a f ew s easons, f or a s s oon a s c rop y ie lds c ease t o b e e cono m ic, a d if feren t a rea o f l and i s c leared a nd c ropped.

The ma in d if ference b etween t h is t ype o f c u l t iva-

t ion a nd f a l low ing l i es i nt he t ype o f v egeta t ion wh ich h as t o b e c leared b efore s ow ing. Under s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion t he l and h as t o b e c leared o f e i ther p r imary o r s econdary f orest , o r s avannah g rassland ;

u nder f a l low ing a rab le l and i s

n or ma l ly c leared o n ly o f w eeds wh ich h ave g rown s ince t he l ast c rop was h arvested. S h if t ing c u l t ivat ion i s s t il l w ide ly p ract ised i n many p arts o f t he world s uch a s A fr ica , S ou th-east As ia a nd L at in Amer ica , a nd a lso p ers isted i n p arts o f Sweden a nd F in land u n t i l t he e arly d ecades o f t h is c en tury. I ti s b e l ieved o n t he b as is o f p a lyno log ica l d ata , p art icu larly f ro m L andna m h or izons ( Godw in , 1 966 ) t ha t s h if t ing c u lt ivat ion h as b een p ract ised i n Europe s ince t he N eo l ith ic. There a re t wo ma in a dvan tages t o t h is method o f c u l t iva t ion . F irst , i t r equ ires o n ly a l ow i nput o f l abour t o o bta in a n e cono m ic c rop. Da ta o n t h is i ssue i s u nfortuna te ly s carce, b ut c ons isten t. The Be mba o f N orthern Rhodes ia worked a n a verage o f 3 60-720 man/hours p er a nnum , o r d ur ing t he b us iest t imes o f y ear , o n ly a n a verage o f 5h ours p er d ay ( Boserup , 1 965 :46 ). I n S ou th-east As ia sw idden c u l t ivators o f Borneo a nd S arawak work f or a n a verage o f 5 00-650 h ours p er a nnum ( Clark a nd Haswel l , 1 970 :51 ).

S o me d ata o n t he

way t h is l abour i s e xpended i nt er ms o f man/hours p er h ec tare i s s um mar ised i n Tab le 1 6.

I nb o th i nstances t he ma in c rop i s r ice, b u t t he Hanunoo a lso

c u lt ivate ma ize. As c an b e s een , much o f t he l abour i s e xpended i n c lear ing t he l and f or s ow ing , e spec ia l ly d ur ing t he f i rst y ear o f c learance. The d iff ic u l t ies o f c lear ing v egetat ion v ary c ons iderab ly a ccord ing t o t he t ype o f a rea. S o me e st i mates o f l abour r equ ire men ts a re g iven b y C lark a nd Haswe l l , ( 1970 : 3 8 ).

I n Denmark f or e xa mp le, e xper i men ts s howed t hat a n a verage o f 2 45

man/hours w ere n eeded t o c lear e ach h ectare o f f orest w ith i ron t oo ls ; o r a ssum ing a work ing d ay o f f i ve h ours , C . 5 0 man/days p er h ectare. I n Amer ica i n 1 860 a l abour r equ ire men t o f 8 0 man/days p er h ectare was n eeded t o c lear f orest b y h and.

Data f ro m A fr ica s hows t hat 5 0-75 man/days p er

3 7

h ectare a re n eeded t o c lear h eavy f ores t , b u t o n ly 2 5-37 man/days p er h ectare f or s econdary b ush.

Be tween 1 0 a nd 2 0 man/days a re n eeded t o c lear t he s ame

a rea o f s avannah g rassland. These e st i ma tes i nd ica te ah igher e xpend i ture o f l abour p er u n it a rea t han u nder f a l low c ropp ing , a l though t he a ctua l amoun t e xpended i n t er ms o f man/hours p er a nnum i s sma l ler. As C lark a nd H aswe l l ( 1970 :45 ) s ta te ' Even t ak ing a ccoun t o ft he h eavy i n i t ia l l abour r equ iremen ts f or f orest c lear ing , l abour i npu t p er w orker f or s h if t ing a gr icu l ture i s l ow a nd d iscon t inuous.

S o l ong a s l and i s a va i lab le , t he s h if t ing c u l t ivator f i nds t h is

me thod , p er k i logram o f g ra in p roduced , l ess d emand ing o f l abour t han i s s eden tary a gr icu l ture '. The s econd mer it o f s h if t ing c u l t ivat ion i s t ha t c rop y ie lds a re o f ten h igh , b oth i n r e la t ion t o t hose o b ta ined u nder f a l low c ropp ing a nd t o t he amoun t o f l abour e xpended. S o me o f t he h ighest y ie lds r ecorded f or t h is t ype o f c u l t ivat i on a ppear t o h ave b een o b ta ined b y s ome 1 7th c en tury N orth Amer ican I nd ian c o mmun it ies, w ho o bta ined c . 4-t ons o f ma ize p er h ec tare. Con te mporary Mex ican y ie lds u nder sw idden c ropp ing a verage 1 1 t ons/hec tare ( Clark a nd Haswel l , 1 970 :43 ). F or t he s ake o f c ompar ison , y ields o f ma ize c rops i n Bu lgar ia i n 1 963 a veraged 2 t ons p er h ectare u nder i n tens ive r o ta t iona l c ropp ing. S h if t ing c u l t ivat ion i s u sua l ly a ssoc ia ted w ith l ow p opu lat ion d ens it ies. C lark a nd Haswe l l ( 1970 :49-50 ) h ave s ummar ised s ome d a ta o n t h is t op ic. Curren t p opu lat ion d ens it ies o f s h if t ing c u l t iva tors r ange f ro m 5 -6 p ersons/ s q km i n S arawak o r 8p er s q km i n Z a mb ia t o a verages o f2 0 p er s q km i n Trop ica l A fr ica a nd b e tween 1 5 a nd 4 0 p ersons p er s q km i n S uma tra. Dens it i es o fu p t o 1 20 p ersons p er s q I an a re k nown , h owever. These f igures mean l i t t le b y t he mse lves s ince t hey r are ly i nd icate t he s ize o f t he a rea w h ich i s a c tua l ly c ropped. I t wou ld b e more s ign if ican t t ob ase p opu lat ion d ens i t ies u nder s h if t ing c u l t ivat ion o n t he amoun t o f l and w h ich e ach c o m mun ity e xp lo i ts d ur ing i t s c ropp ing c ycle. Un fortuna tely , d a ta o nt h is i ssue a ppears t o b e e x treme ly s carce. i ) g ra in c u l t iva t ion u nder s hor t-fa l low F a l low ing , o r s hort-fa l low , i s t he p rac t ice o f a l low ing l and w h ich i s r epea ted ly c ropped t o l i eu ncu l t iva ted p er iod ica l ly . I td i f fers f rom s h if t ing c u l t ivat ion i nt ha t f a l low l and i s u sua l ly o wned b y t hose w ho c rop i t . S omet imes s h if t ing a nd s hort-fa l low c ropp ing s ystems g rade i n to e ach o ther i n t er ms o f t he l eng th o ft ime b e tween e ach c rop a nd a re h ard t o s epara te. F or t he p urposes o f t h is s tudy , t he ma in d i f ference b etween l ong- a nd s hortf a l low s yste ms d oes n ot l i e p r i mar i ly i nt he l eng th o f t ime b etween c ropp ing , b u t i nt he t ype o f v ege ta t ion w h ich h as t o b e c leared a f ter f a l low ing. I n f a l low s yste ms o f t he k ind e ncoun tered i n most European , Med iterranean a nd N ear Eastern s ubs istence f ar m ing c ommun it ies , f a l low l and i s n or ma l ly c leared o f w eeds a nd g rasses r a ther t han s hrubs o r t rees. The b enef its o f f alow ing h ave l ong b een r ecogn ised b y f ar mers a nd i nvest i ga ted b y a gronom ists. I t s t wo ma in a dvan tages a re t ha t i ta l lows f i rst t he s o i l t o r ecuperate s ome o f t he f ert il i ty l ost b y c u l t ivat ion a nd s econd , t he f ar mer t o r educe w eed g row th.

3 8

a ) s o il r ecuperat ion a nd c rop y ie lds : On p art o f t he Hoos f i eld a t Rotha mps ted , w heat was g rown i na l terna t ion w ith f a l low , b u t w ithou t a ny manur ia l d ress ing , f ro m 1 856-1912.

Over t h is p er iod y ie lds a veraged 1 6.0 b ushels/

a cre p .a. c o mpared w ith 1 2.2 b ushe ls/acre p .a. f ro m l and wh ich was c on t inu ous ly c ropped ( Ha l l , 1 917 :62 ).

A lthough t he h igher y ie lds o bta ined b y f a l low-

i ng c ou ld t o s o me e x ten tb e a t tr ibu ted t o ag reater f reedom f rom w eeds, t hey were ' i n t he ma in...due t o t he p roduct ion o f n itra tes i n t he s o i l d ur ing t he s ummer when i ti s f a l low , ap rocess wh ich i s much s t i mu la ted b y t he s t irr ing a nd a era t ion t he s o il r ece ived ' ( Hal l , 1 917 :63 ).

The b enef its o f f a l low ing i n

t er ms o f t he amoun ts o f n i trogen , p hosphorus a nd p o tass ium e x tracted b y t he c rop a re q uan t if ied i n Tab le 1 3. The improved p erfor mance o f c rops a f ter f a l low ing may a lso b e d ue t o i mprove men ts i n t he s o il s tructure wh ich a l low t he r oo ts t o s earch b et ter f or n u tr ien ts i n t he s o il ( Johnston , 1 969 :52 ). Howe ver , t he b enef icia l e f fec ts o f af a l low u pon c rop y ields d ecrease a s s uccess ive c rops a re c u l t ivated. Th is p o in t i s made i n Tab le 1 7 wh ich c on trasts t he p erformance o f c rops i n af our-year f a l low ing c yc le w ith t hose i n c on t inuous c ropp ing :

b y t he f ourth y ear a f ter f a l low , t here i s l i tt le d if ference i n c rop

y ie lds b etween t he t wo s yste ms. b ) w eed c on tro l : The f a l low ing o f t he Broadba lk f i eld i n 1 925 b ecause o f weed i n festat ions p rov ided a n e xcel len t o pportun ity t o q uan t ify i t s e f fects u pon weed p opu lat ions; t he r esu l ts, p ub l ished b y Brench ley a nd War ing ton ( 1933, 1 936 ) , a re s u m mar ised i n Tab le 1 8.

There c an b e l i t t le d oub t t hat a o ne- o r

t wo-year f a l low c ons iderab ly r educes t he weed p opu la t ion o f a rab le l and.

I f

f a l low ing i s t o b e f u l ly efect ive h owever i ti s e ssen t ia l t ha t i ts hou ld b e u ndert aken a t t he most s u itab le t ime o fy ear.

Tab le 1 9 c on trasts t he d iffer ing

e f f icacy o f f a l low ing a t Rot ha mpsted i n 1 925-6 a nd 1 927-8. I n t he f or mer i nst ance , t he l and was p loughed i nt he a u tumn im med ia tely a f ter t he h arvest ; c onsequen t ly , many s eed l ings g er m inated a nd were l ater k i l led b y f rost , o r l ater d estroyed b efore s eed ing b y s pr ing c u l t iva t ion .

I n t he l a t ter i nstance

t he l and was n o t p loughed u n t il t he f o l low ing s pr ing , a nd f a l low ing p roved i nef fectua l i n s uppress ing w eed g row th ( Brench ley a nd War ing ton , 1 936 :480-1). C ) l abour r equ ire men ts : I t wou ld a ppear f ro m t he s carce d a ta a va ilab le t hat s hort-fa l low c ul t iva t ion r equ ires a g reater i npu t o f l abour t han i s n ecess ary f or s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion . F or o bv ious r easons , h owever , w e s hou ld b e wary o fu s ing a s ab as is f or c ompar ison t he l abour r equ ire men ts o f s hortf a l low a gr icu l ture i n Eu rope w ith s h if t ing c u lt ivat ion i n S .E . As ia. Y et t he 5 00-600 man/hours p .a. worked b y s h if t ing c u l t ivators i n S .E. As ia s ee ms f ar s hor t o f t he t o ta l man/hours worked e ach y ear u nder s hort-fa l low.

Wh ite

( 1965 :102 ) c ites Co lume l la 's e st i ma te t hat t he C lass ica l f ar m y ear amoun ted t o 2 50 d ays o f l abour p er p erson ;

as im i lar f igure o f 2 06 man-days p .a. i s

q uoted b y S l icher v an Bath ( 1963 :302 ) f or Eng l ish 1 8th c en tury p easan try . Even t he work ing d ay l asted o n ly f ive h ours, t he work ing y ear wou ld amoun t t o 1 000 man/hours p .a., a nd 2 000 man/hours p .a. i fw e a ssume a 1 0 h our work ing d ay. Wh ilst s h if t ing c u l t ivat ion r equ ires a v ery l arge i npu t o f l abour d ur ing t he p rel im inary p er iod o f c lear ing t he l and , s hort-fa l low c u l t iva t ion s ee ms more l abour-de mand ing w hen t he who le y ear 's a gr icu l tura l a ct iv i t ies a re t aken i n to a ccoun t ( see Tab le 2 0 ). A l though f a l low ing d oes p romo te h igher c rop y ie lds, a nd g reater r educt ion o f weed g row th , i t wou ld c lear ly b e d es irab le i fp oss ib le t o s horten o r s uppress 3 9

t he f a l low p er iod.

Th is i s c o m mon ly e f fected i n many s ubs istence a gr icu l tural

c o m mun it ies b y r ota t iona l c ropp ing. i i ) l egu m inous c rop r ota t ions

•

The p ract ice o f r ep lac ing o r s upp le men t ing f a l low b y l egu m inous c rops h as l ong b een r ecogn ised a s o ne o f t he most p roduct ive o f a gr icu ltura l s yst e ms.

N ot o n ly i s ac rop o b ta ined when t he l and wou ld o therw ise b e f a l low

b u t t he s o il i s r ep len ished w ith n i trogen b y t he n odu les o f Rh izob iu m r ad ico la o n r oot s o f l egumes t o t he b enef it o f s ubsequen t c rops.

F ig. 3 s hows h ow

c rop y ields u nder a l egu m inous c rop r otat ion c an b e c ons iderab ly h igher t han u nder o ther s yste ms.

For e xa mp le , wheat y ie lds a veraged 2 4.8 b ushe ls/acre

f or e ach y ear o f af our-course r o ta t ion w ith l egumes, b u t o n ly 1 6.9 b ushe ls/ a cre f ro m u n rnanured p lots i n wh ich wheat a lternated w ith f a l low.

Over t he

s a me p er iod , y ie lds o f w hea t g rown c on t inuous ly o n u nmanured l and a veraged o n ly 1 1.0 b ushels/acre ( Ha l l , 1 917 :194-5 ).

A f urther b enef it o f r otat ing

c erea l c rops w ith l egumes i s t ha t i th e lps c on tro l w eed g row th a nd a l lows a more e f fec t ive u sage o f t he s o il n u tr ien ts :

' Al though a r otat ion o f c rops, b y

a l terna t ing p lan ts o f d if feren t r equ ire men ts a nd d if feren t h ab its ( so me d eep a nd s o me s ha l low-root ing ), i s a b le t o u t il ise more t horough ly t he...in it ia l r esources o f t he s o i l.. . i ts v a lue l arge ly d epends u pon t he o pportun it ies i t a f fords f or c lean ing t he l and a nd ma inta in ing a p roper s yste m o f t i l lage ' ( Ha l l , 1 917 :192 ). One importan t a dvan tage o f ac rop r otat ion w h ich i ncorporates l egum inous c rops i s t ha t l abour i s more e f fect ively u sed t hroughou t t he y ear.

Under a

s i mp le s yste m o f g ra in a nd f al low , much o f t he a va ilab le man-power i s u nderu sed f or much o f t he t ime ;

Canad ian wheat f ar m ing , b ased l argely o n s uch

p r inc ip les, h as b een d escr ibed a s s ix- mon ths h ard l abour f o l lowed b y s ixmon ths i d leness ( Saunders, 1 939 :12 ).

Th is s ituat ion c an r esu l t i n al abour

s urp lus f or much o f t he y ear, b u t ac hron ic s hor tage o f l abour a t c r it ica l t imes s uch a s h arvest ing ( Clark a nd Haswel l , 1 970 :131-8 ).

The c u l t ivat ion

o f l egum inous c rops i s o ne p owerfu l w ay b oth o f r a is ing o vera l l a gr icu ltura l p roduct iv ity a nd emp loy ing l abour r esources more e f f ic ien t ly. The improve men ts i n a gr icu l tura l p roduct iv ity u nder t h is t ype o f r o tat ion a re s er ious ly o f f-set b y i t s h eavy d e mands o n l abour.

I ff a l low i s s uppressed

a nd r ep laced b y al egu m inous c rop , t he amoun t o f l abour wh ich h as t o b e e xpended i n t he f i e ld w il l c learly b e i ncreased b y ac ons iderab le amoun t.

I n

many c ases, t he i ncrease i n o u tpu t o f c rop p roduct ion may n ot b e s uf f ic ien t t o j ust i fy t he i ncrease i n l abour i npu t u n t i l al evel o f p opu lat ion i s r eached wh ich j ust if ies o r n ecess itates a g reat ly i ncreased e xpend iture o f l abour. Boserup ( 1965 :37-8 ) f or e xa mp le h as a rgued t hat t he w idespread a dop t ion o f l egum inous c rop r o tat ions i n med ieva l n orthern Europe s hou ld b e s een more a s ar esu l t o f ar ap id ly e xpand ing p opu lat ion t han t he i nnova t ion o f p art icu lar a gr icu ltura l t echn iques. 3 .

D iscuss ion I t s ee ms a r easonab le a ssu mp t ion t hat t he t hree a gr icu l tura l s yste ms

c ons idered a bove e nco mpass a w ide s pectru m o f t he c ropp ing s yste ms d etecta b le i n t he h istor ic, e thnograph ic a nd p robab ly t he p reh istor ic r ecord. With t he e v idence a t o ur d isposa l i ts hou ld b e p oss ib le t o i n fer t he t ype o f p lan t

4 0

c o mmun it ies, c ompr is ing c u lt igen , c o m mensa ls a nd weeds , c rea ted u nder e ach s yste m. I f s o , w e c ou ld t hen c ons ider t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he t ype o f c ropp ing s yste m p ract ised o u ts ide a p reh is tor ic s et t le men t m ight b e i nd icat ed b y o n-s ite b o tan ica l d ata. 1 ) e f fects o f c ropp ing s yste m u pon c rop c ompos it ion We c an u se t he s a me c ategor ies wh ich h ave a lready b een d escr ibed. a ) s h if t ing c u l t ivat ion :

I f ac rop was s own o n l and wh ich h ad r ecen t ly b een

c leared , i t wou ld n o t c on ta in a ny c o m men sals u n less a n impure s eed w ere s own .

I t migh t b e p oss ib le t o d educe f ro m a rchaeo log ica l d a ta t he p ur ity o f

s own c rops, a nd whether a ny c o m mensa ls w ere r e moved f rom a c rop b efore i t was r eady f or s torage o r c onsumpt ion . Relevan t d ata w i l l b e p resen ted i n t he s econd p art o f t h is s tudy . Under t h is s yste m o f a gr icul ture, t he w eed f l ora w il l p robab ly c ompr ise c o lon isers wh ich t ook a dvan tage o f t he o pen c ond it ions c rea ted b y c ropp ing. Consequen t ly t he d om inan t w eed s pec ies s hou ld b e t hose wh ich c haracter ise c leared a nd d isturbed l and r a ther t han a p art icu lar c rop.

I ti s i n terest ing

i n t h is c on tex t t hat a t Draved MOse ( I versen , 1 956 , S teensburg , 1 955 ), e xper i men ts i n s lash-and-burn c u l t ivat ion s howed t ha t t he c om monest w eeds w ere P lan tago l anceo lata , P . ma jor , Arte m is ia a nd v ar ious mosses.

These a re

n ot c ommon a ssoc iates o f c rops g rown o ver a l ong p er iod o n t he s a me l and. b ) g ra in c u lt ivat ion u nder s hort f a l low :

I fc erea ls w ere g rown i n a lterna-

t i on w ith f a l low , t he o n ly c ommensals w il l b e o ther c ereals. The ir p resence i n ac rop c ou ld r esu l t e ither f rom t he s ow ing o f a n impure c rop o r f rom r el icts o f p rev ious c rops.

We s hou ld c ons ider t h is l a tter p oss ib il ity a t g rea ter

l eng th. Under n or ma l c ircumstances p ar t o f ac rop i s l ost d ur ing h arvest b ecause t he g ra in o r s eed f a l ls t o t he g round.

A l though d a ta o n t he amoun t l ost i n t h is

manner i s s carce, i ti s p robab ly c ons iderab le.

I n med ieva l t imes i n N . Europe ,

g lean ings, o r t he f ract ion o f t he h arvest l ost d ur ing r eap ing , w ere f requen t ly c o l lected b y t he p oorer p easan try .

I ts ee ms d oubtfu l whether t h is p rac t ice

wou ld h ave r ecovered a l l t he s eed l ost d ur ing h arvest ing , h owever.

Much o f t he

g ra in l ost d ur ing h arvest ing may b e e xpected t o s eed a nd r eappear i n t he f o l lowi ng y ear. The f requency w ith w h ich t h is o ccurs h as i n f act c aused t he N at iona l I nst itu te o f Agr icu ltura l Botany i n i t s C ereal S eed S che me t o r equ ire t hat n o c erea l c rop s hou ld b e g rown o nl and w ith in t he S che me f or a t l east t wo y ears p r ior t o t he s ow ing o f a pproved s eed i n o rder t o e l im inate a ny c on tam inat ion f ro m p rev ious c rops ( Jar man , H . N ., 1 972 :23 ). These o bservat ion s c ou ld h ave impor tan t impl ica t ions i fw e a re t o a t te mp t ar econs truct ion o fp reh istor ic c rop r o tat ions f rom b otan ica l d a ta. I f ac u l t ig en wh ich w as g rown b y ac o m mun ity i s p resen t i n a nother c rop a s ac ommens a l , i ts ee ms a r easonab le a ssump t ion t hat i tw as p resen t b ecause e i ther a n impure s eed was s own , o r i tw as a r el ict o f af or mer c rop. I fi t s p resence was c aused b y t he l at ter c ircumstance, i t s n umbers wou ld u ndoubted ly d im in ish w ith e ach s ucceed ing c rop i n w h ich i t was a c om mensa l. Th is p ropos it ion c ou ld b e au sefu l way o f i den t ify ing t he c ropp ing s yste m t o wh ich p reh istor ic c rops b e longed , p rov id ing t ha t w e c ou ld e stab l ish whether c o mmensa ls w ere p resen t i n c rop s a mp les a s t he r esu l t o f s ow ing a n impure s eed , o r a s r el icts 4 1

o f p rev ious c rops.

Th is i ssue w il l b e e xa m ined a t g reater l eng th when t he

d a ta f ro m e xcavated Bu lgar ian p reh istor ic s et t le men ts i s e xa m ined i n t he s econd p art o f t h is s tudy. The w eed f l ora u nder f a l low ing s hou ld d i f fer f rom t ha t p reva il ing u nder s lash-and-burn c u l t iva t ion .

B ecause t he a gr icu l tura l c ond it ions a re more

s tab le u nder f a l low , r egu lar a ssoc iat ions b e tween c rop a nd weeds s hou ld b e c om mon , a s d escr ibed a bove. c ) l egum inous c rop r ota t ions, w ith o r w ithou t f a l low :

Under t h is c ropp ing

s yste m , c rops s hou ld c on ta in c o m mensa ls o f o ther c erea l a nd l egume c rops. Thus w hea t a nd b ar ley m igh t b e e xpected i n b ean c rops, o r b eans a nd w heat i nb ar ley c rops.

Each o f t hese c rops s hou ld b e a ssoc iated w ith i t s own

c haracter ist ic w eed f l ora. i ) t he e f fect o fh arvest ing u pon c rop c ompos it ion I ts ee ms a r easonab le a ssumpt ion t ha t t he p roport ion o f c o m mensa ls i s u n l ike ly t o d i f fer a pprec iab ly i n g ra in c rops b efore a nd a f ter t hey h ad b een r eaped. Th is i s b ecause t he h ab it a nd h e igh t o f most c om mensa ls l ike ly t o b e e ncoun tered w i l l n o t d if fer g reat ly f ro m t hat o f o ther c rops. Whea t a nd b arley f or e xa mp le a re s im i lar e nough i n a ppearance t o b e h arvested t ogether , a nd u n less a n u nusua l ly c onsc ious d egree o f s e lect ion was e xerc ised b y t he r eapers , b oth w ou ld p robab ly b e r eaped a t t he s a me r ate i fe ither w as a c om mensa l i nt he ot her. Th is c on ten t ion i s s uppor ted b y p resen t-day p roced ures o ft he N at iona l I nst itu te o f Agr icu l tura l B o tany C erea l S eed S che me. A s a way o f e st i mat ing c rop p ur ity f ro m p rocessed g ra in wh ich i s r eady f or c o mmerc ia l u se , %c oun ts a re made o f n u mbers o f o ther c rops i n s elected s a mp les. Th is e st i mate c an t hen b e c onverted d irect ly i n to a n e st i mate o f t he a ctual n u mber o f c o m mensa ls wh ich a re l ikely t o h ave g rown i n t he f i e ld. We c an t hus a ssume t ha t t he p roport ion o f c o m mensa ls i n c rops i s n ot r ad ica l ly a ltered b y r eap ing. I n t he c ase o f w eeds h owever, a d if feren t s i tua t ion i s l ikely t o p reva il. Th is i s b ecause t he w eeds a ssoc iated w ith c rops e xh ib it a n e nor mous v ar iety , i nh e igh t , h ab it , c o lour, s eed ing t ime a nd s o f or th. As a r esu lt , s ome w eeds a re l ike ly t o b e o ver-represen ted , a nd o thers u nder-represen ted b y h arvest ing.

The e x ten t t o w h ich t h is o ccurs c an b e g auged f ro m Tab le 2 1;

i ti s e v iden t t hat t he p roport ions o f w eeds w h ich a re h arvested p resen ts a v ery b iased s a mp le o f t he n u mbers i n t he c rop.

I ts hou ld b e n oted t hat t hese

s tat ist ics r elate t o mechan ica l h arvest ing , a nd t he b iases p resumab ly r ef lect o n ly t he s eed ing t ime o f t he w eed a nd i t s h e igh t. I fc rops were h arvested w ith a s ick le , i ti s l ikely t ha t o ther b iases m igh t b e i nvo lved i n t he a cc iden ta l r eap ing o f w eeds.

Co lour m ight f or e xamp le b e o ne s uch f actor :

b r igh t ly

c o loured w eeds s uch a s p oppy o r c orn-cock le m ight b e d el iberately om it ted b y ar eaper. Wh ilst s o me s uch a s d arnel ( Lo l iu m t e mu lentum ) a nd w ild o at ( Avena l udov ic iana ) a re s o s im i lar t o o ther c erea ls t hat t hey a re l i ke ly t o b e o ver-represen ted i n t he h arvest , o ther more o bv ious w eeds may wel l b e a vo ided. The l ikel ihood o f r econst ruct ing t he w eed f l ora f rom t he w eeds b rough t o n to a s et t le men t a fter r eap ing w ou ld t herefore s ee m t o b e s l igh t. On t he o ther h and , t he s ame f actors w h ich b ias t he r epresen tat ion o f w eeds i n h arvests m igh t h ave o pera ted i rrespect ive o f t he c rop b e ing r eaped. I f t h is w ere s o , i tm igh t b e p oss ib le t o a scerta in w hether d if feren t c rops w ere 4 2

a ssoc ia ted w ith d if feren t k inds o f weed f l ora.

A r egu lar a ssoc ia t ion o f a

weed w ith a c rop n eed n o t t herefore b e a ny i nd icat ion o f i t s a ctua l n umber i n t he c rop b efore h arvest ing , b u t i tc ou ld i nd icate t hat i tw as more c o mmon i n t ha t c rop t han i n o thers. I tm igh t b e o b jected t ha t t he p roposa ls f or r econstruct ing a p reh istor ic c rop s yste m e x tend b eyond t he c apab i l it ies o f t he d a ta. S uch a n o b jec t ion s eems p re mature a t p resen t , f or t he p oten t ia l o f b o tan ica l d ata a s au sefu l a d junc t t o p a laeoeconom ic e nqu ir ies h as y et t o b e f u l ly d emonstrated.

The

s uggested w ays o f u s ing b otan ica l e v idence t o r econstruct p reh istor ic c rop s ystems a re s im ilar t o t he u sage o f o ther c lasses o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta , whether o ff l in t , p o l len o r f auna l r e ma in s , e ach o f w h ich i ncur s im i lar p robl e ms o f e st i mat ing t he c haracter ist ics o f p opu lat ions f rom b iased o r i ncomp lete s a mp les. I fb o tan ica l d a ta w ere c o l lec ted s ystemat ica l ly f rom a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions , t here s ee ms l i t t le r eason w hy t he c rop p rocess ing a c t iv it ies p erformed o n as et t le men t s hou ld n o t b e i den t if ied a nd s ome i dea g a ined o f t he c ompos it ion o f e ach c rop a nd i t s a ssoc ia tes.

4 3

CHAPTER 4 THE U SE OF S ITE CATCH MENT AND TERR ITOR IAL ANALYS IS

I NTRODUCT ION I n t he c ourse o f t he l ast t wo c hap ters, w e d iscussed w ays o f e xa m in ing s a mp les o f p lan t r e ma ins r ecovered b y e xcavat ion t o i nvest iga te h ow p lan t f oods w ere p rocessed a nd c onsu med w ith in , a nd p roduced o u ts ide, a p reh istor ic s e tt le men t.

Th is c hap ter w il l e xtend t h is e nqu iry i n to p reh istor ic f ood

p roduc t ion b y c ons ider ing what w e c an l earn a bou t s ubs istence s trateg ies f ro m t he l oca l s urround ings o f as ett le men t.

I n r ecen t y ears, o f f-s ite d ata o n t he

r esources p otent ia l ly a va ilab le t o ap reh istor ic s ett le men t h as b eco me a n impor tan t s ource o f e v idence f or e va lua t ing t he t ype o f s ubs istence s tra teg ies u sed b y ac o m mun ity t hroughou t t he y ear, a nd t he r easons why p art icu lar l oca l it ies w ere p referred f or s ett le men t . These p rob le ms c an b e a pproached i n t wo w ays. The f i rst i s t o b eg in b y a ssess ing t he d istr ibu t ion a nd s easona l a bundance o f p lan t a nd a n i ma l r esources i n ar eg ion , a nd t hen t o p ostu la te t he most e f fect ive ways o f e xp lo it ing t hose r esources a t ag iven l evel o f t echno logy a s w e l l a s t he most f avourable l ocat ions f or s et t le men t .

I fo ccupa t ion s i tes a re s ubsequen t ly f ound i n t he p red icted

l ocat ions , t he h ypo theses f or med f ro m a r eg iona l s tudy wou ld t hen s ee m r easonab le.

Excavat ion o f s et t le men ts c an l a ter d e monstrate whether a

p reh istor ic g roup u sed t he r esources i n t he s a me way a s was p red icted f ro m t he i n it ia l r eg iona l s urvey.

The d rawback t o t h is a pproach i s t hat s e t t le men ts

may b e f ound i n t he ir p red icted l ocat ions o n ly b ecause t he a rchaeo log ist d ec ided t o l ook i n t hose p laces a nd n o t e lsewhere.

To t hat e x ten t , w ha t b egan

a s ac arefu l ly f or mu la ted a pproach c ou ld d egenera te i n to a s el f-fu lf il l ing p rophesy . An a l terna t ive a pproach i s t o b eg in b y s tudy ing t he s urround ings o f k nown s et t le ments b y t he t echn ique o f s ite c atch men t a na lys is ( V ita-Finzi a nd H iggs , 1 970 ).

Th is d a ta , s upp le men ted b y e xcavated b io log ica l a nd a rtefactua l ma te-

r ia l , c an t hen b e u sed t o i n fer t he s ubs istence s trategy o f ac o m mun i ty t hrougho u t t he y ear.

I ti s o n ly a t t h is s tage o f a na lys is t hat .w e c an c ons ider h ow a

r eg ion was u t il ised b y s evera l c o m mun it ies w h ich may h ave h ad d if feren t s ubs istence s trateg ies a nd a v ar iety o f s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic r ela t ionsh ips w ith e ach o ther. We c an b eg in b y c ons ider ing t he u se o f s i te c atch men t a na lys is f or e st i mat ing t he r esource p otent ia l o f t he a rea s urround ing a p reh istor ic s et t le men t . 1 .

S ite c atch men t a nalys is The a ssu mp t ions u nderly ing s ite c a tch men t a na lys is h ave b een p resen ted

e lsewhere ( H iggs a nd V ita-Finz i , 1 972;

4 4

J ar man , 1 972a ) a nd mer it f urther

d iscuss ion .

The most impor tan t p r inc ip le o f t h is t echn ique i s t hat h uman

g roups t end t o min im ise t he e f fort n eeded t o o bta in f ood b y r es id ing i n t he most a dvan tageous l oca t ions f or e xp lo it ing t he e nv ironmen t.

As J ar man ( 1972a :706 )

s tates ' There i s ac lose r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he a b il ity o f p opu lat ions t o e xp lo it a r esource p rof itab ly a nd t he e xpend iture o f e f fort n ecessary f or i t s e xp lo itat ion .. a s a n e xpress ion o f t h is p r inc ip le, h u man p opu lat ions a re g enera l ly o n ly a ble t o e xp lo it r esources t hat e x ist w ith in a c erta in d is tance o f t he ir o ccupa t ion s ite '.

I ti s t h is " certa in d istance" f ro m a s e t t le men t wh ich

d ef ines t he s ize o f ac atch men t a rea a nd wh ich d eserves s o me e xa m inat ion . i )s ize o f c atch men t a reas A l though h u man g roups wou ld p robab ly h ave a t te mp ted t o o b ta in t he ir s ubs istence f ro m a s sma l l a n a rea a s p ossib le , ' The p rec ise l im its o f t he p otent i a l e xp lo itat ion t err itory w i l l .. v ary g rea t ly w ith t he o pera t ion o f a who le c o mp lex o f f actors, i nclud ing t echno logy , p opu lat ion p ressure a nd t he p reva i li ng e cono m ic s yste m ' ( Jar man , 1 972a :706 ).

V ita-Finz i a nd H iggs ( 1970 )

a t te mpted t o u se t he d ata b y L ee ( 1968 ) a nd Ch isho lm ( 1968 ) t o e st i ma te t he c a tch men t a reas u sed b y d if feren t t ypes o f p reh istor ic g roups.

L ee ( 1968 :31 )

n oted t hat t he ! Kung b ush men s pen t most o f t he ir y ear b y w ater-ho les, e ach o f wh ich ' h as a h in ter land l y ing w ith in a s ix- m ile r ad ius wh ich i s r egu larly e xp lo ited f or v egetab le a nd a n i ma l f oods. t he z oo log ica l s ense.

These a reas a re n o t t err itor ies i n

Rather t hey c onst itu te t he r esources t hat l i e w ith in a

c onven ien t wa lk ing-d istance o f t he w ater-ho le '.

Ch isho lm (1968 :48 ), i n h is

s tudy o f s ubs istence a gr icul tura l c o m mun it ies i n v ar ious a reas o f t he wor ld , c oncluded t hat ' t he a verage d is tance t o t he c ult ivated l and i s c o m mon ly o f t he o rder o f 1 km o r more a nd v ery c o m mon ly r ises t o 3o r 41 cm 1; b eyond t h is d istance f ro m t he s et t le men t ' t he c osts o f o perat ion r ise s u f f ic ien t ly t o b e o ppress ive a nd s er iously d etr i men ta l ..

I ti s e xcep t iona l f or t hese d istances

g reat ly t o e xceed t h is l im it w ith a ny f requency '.

On t he b as is o f t h is d ata ,

H iggs a nd V ita-Finz i ( 1972 :31 ) s uggest t hat w e c an u se ' a r ad ius o f 5 km f or t he a na lys is o f s eden tary e xp lo i tat ion t err itor ies a nd 1 0 km f or mob ile e cono m ies '.

As t hey p o in t o u t , h owever , i ti s more u sefu l t o e xpress t hese

d istances i n t er ms o f t he t ime t aken t o c over t he m o n f oo t b ecause o f l oca l t opograph ic v ar iat ion .

The l i near d istances o f 5a nd 1 0 km s hou ld t hus b e

c onverted i n to t ime-d istances o f 1a nd 2 h rs o n f oo t. I n t he ma jor ity o f s tud ies w here t h is t echn ique h as b een u sed , i th as b een a ssu med t hat s eden tary s oc iet ies a re a gr icu l tura l , w hereas mob i le s oc ie t ies a ro b ased o n h un t ing a nd g ather ing.

I n o ther words ' A r ad ius measured b y

o ne h our 's wa lk i s u sed f or a gr icu ltura l s ites, a nd o ne e qu iva len t t o t wo h ours f or h un t ing a nd g ather ing ' ( H iggs, 1 975 :223 ).

Many o f t he s tud ies wh ich h ave

u sed s i te c atch men t a na lys is h ave a lso a ssu med t hat n eo l ith ic a nd l a ter s et t lemen ts a re a gr icu l tura l , a nd t hat p a laeo l ith ic a nd meso l ith ic s i tes r epresent h un ter-gatherers ( see e .g. V ita-Fin z i a nd H iggs , 1 970 ; 1 972;

Barker, 1 975 ;

J ar man , 1 972a ;

Web ley , 1 972;

H iggs a nd V ita-Finz i, J ar man a nd Web ley ,

. 1 975 ) We c an s u m mar ise t hese a ssu mp t ions a bou t t he s ize o f p reh istor ic c a tchmen t a reas i n t he f or m o f t he f o l low ing e qua t ions :

4 5

2h r c atchmen t r ad ius = mob i le e conom ies h un t ing/gather ing e cono m ies = p a laeo l ith ic/meso l ith ic c om mun it ies 1h r c atch ment r ad ius = s eden tary e cono my = a gr icu l tura l e cono m ies n eo l ith ic o r l a ter c om mun it ies I tw ou ld s ee m a ppropr ia te t o c ons ider t he v a l id ity o f e ach a ssumpt ion. a ) a ssumpt ion 1 :

t hat t he c atch men t a reas o fh un ter-ga therers a re l arger

t han t hose o f a gr icu l tura l ists. Wh i lst t he ! Kung b ush men t end t o e xp lo it a c atch men t a rea l arger t han t ha t o f Ch isho lm 's a gr icu ltura l s oc ie t ies, e thnograph ic d a ta i nd icates t hat t he s ize o f c a tch men t a reas v ar ies c ons iderab ly among b o th h un t ing/gather ing a nd a gr icu ltural s oc iet ies, a nd t o al arge e x ten t t hose o f o ne g roup o ver lap w ith t he o ther.

The s tate men tb y L ee ( 1968 :31 ) w i th r eference t o h is own s tudy h as

aw idespread v a l id ity :

' The i mportan t p o in t i s t ha t f ood i s ac onstan t , b u t

d istance t o r each f ood i s av ar iable '. The Mara a bor ig ines, f or e xa mp le, a ppear t o h ave o bta ined most o f t he ir f ood f ro m a sma l l a rea; a s H iat t ( 1968 :101 ) r ecords, t he ir ma in c a mp ' see ms t o h ave b een a b ase f ro m wh ich p eop le migh t r ange a nywhere o ver t he e n t ire Anbara r eg ion ( abou t t wen ty s quare m iles ) r eturn ing a t d usk w ith a d ay 's c atch '. Th is s tate men t i mp l ies t hat most f ood w as p rocured f rom w ith in 2 .5 m iles ( ç _ . 4 km ) o f t he c a mp. The Hadza o b ta ined t he ma jor ity o f t he ir f ood f ro m w ith in a s im ilar ly sma l l a rea ;

Woodburn ( 1968 :51 ) n oted t hat w hen wo men

w ere f ood-gather ing , t hey u sed t o ' make t he ir w ay l e isure ly t o t he p lace where t he v egetab le f ood i s t o b e f ound , wh ich i s u sua l ly w ith in a n h our 's wa lk o f t he c a mp '.

The B irhors o fC ent ra l I nd ia a lso u t i l ise t he r esources o f a sma l l

a rea a round t he ir s ites;

S inha ( 1972 :377 ) n o tes t hat t he ir g roups ' ca mp f ive

t o t en m a les a part a nd a lmost n ever t respass o n o ne a no ther 's t err itory '. Th is s trong ly imp l ies t hat t he ir e xp lo itat ive r ad ius i s o f t he o rder o f 2 .5 t o 5m iles f rom t he ir s et t le men ts. A inu s et t le men ts w ere b etween 1 . 1 a nd more t han 4 m iles a part , b u t o n a verage 2 1 t o 4m iles f rom e ach o ther ( Wa tanabe, 1 972 : 4 57 );

a long t he a x is o f s ett le men ts, t he c atchmen t a rea c ou ld n o t h ave e x tended

more t han 2 m i les f ro m a ny s i te. A l though Ch isho lm n oted a t endency among a gr icu l tura l ists t o e xp lo it l and w ith in 4 km o f t he ir s et t le men ts, h e c onceded t hat ' i t i s e asy t o c ite e x tre me c ases where p lo ts may b e 1 0 o r e ven 2 0 km f rom t he f ar mstead ' ( 1968 :46 ). I n s o me p arts o f Da l ma t ia p r ior t o 1 939 , f or e xa mp le, s ome f am il ies r es ided u p t o 1 2 m i les f ro m water ( Seton- Wa tson , 1 945 :90 ). The a rea o ver wh ich a g roup p rocures i t s f ood s upp ly v ar ies c ons iderab ly t hroughou t t he y ear i n s o me i ns tances. L ee ( 1 968 :59 ) n oted t hat a l though t he ! Kung ' prefer t o c o l lect a nd e at t he d es irab le f oods t ha t a re t he l east d istance f rom s tand ing w ater ' , t h is d istance d epends u pon t he a va ilab i l ity o f f oods a t a ny s eason .

Dur ing t he wet s eason f ro m N ove mber t o Apr il , t he a rea n eeded

t o s us ta in a g roup i s c ons iderab ly sma l ler t han t hat u sed b y t he e nd o f t he d ry s eason i n O ctober.

The c atch men t a reas o f G/w i b ushmen g roups f luctua te

i n as im ilar manner.

As S ilberbauer ( 1972:298 ) n o tes , ' The i n tensity o f

e xp lo i ta t ion o f r esources o bv iously v ar ies a ccord ing t o t he p at tern o f

4 6

o ccupa t ion , b ut i s a lso r estr icted b y s easona l v ar ia t ion i n t he d ens ity o f a va i la b le r esources...The s easona l v ar ia t ion i nt he n umber o f a va ilab le s uccu len t s pec ies h as a g reat e f fect , a nd t h is i s r ef lected i n t he s ize o f t he a rea t hat wo men c over wh ile g a ther ing '. Thus i nS epte mber , a t t he e nd o f t he d ry s eason when f ood was s carce, o ne g roup o b ta ined f ood f rom a f our m i le r ad ius f ro m t he ir c a mp , a t ar ate o f f i ve-s ix ths p ound o f f ood p er s quare m i le p er d ay . When f ood was most a bundan t , i n May , t he s a me g roup a nd a no ther v is it ing b and c ou ld o bta in a l l t he ir f ood f ro m w ith in a n a rea o f 1x 1 1 - m iles, a t a r ate o f 7 36 p ounds p er s quare m ile p er d ay ( S ilberbauer, 1 972:300 ). E thnograph ic d a ta t hus s hows c ons iderab le v ar ia t ion i n t he d istance o ver wh ich g roups o bta in t he ir f ood ; among b o th h un ter/gatherers a nd a gr icu l tura l ists , t he d istance a ppears t o v ary f ro m l ess t han 3 km t o t hree o r f our t imes t hat d istance. b ) a ssu mp t ion 2 :

t ha t h un ter/gatherers a re mob ile b u t a gr icu ltura l ists

a re s eden tary. Wh i lst t here i s a n o verwhelm ing t endency f or a gr icu ltura l ists t o b e s edent ary d ur ing t he y ear , t here i s l i t t le r eason t o s uppose t ha t a l l h un ter/gatherers a re mob i le i n t he c ourse o f t he ir a nnua l a ct iv it ies. The Kwak iu ta l ( Su tt les, 1 968 ) o r A inu . ( Watanabe , 1 972 ) a re o bv ious e xa mp les o f h un ter/ga therers who ma in ta in p er manen t s et t le men ts t hroughou t t he y ear. Most o ther c on te mporary h un ter/gatherers d isp lay v ary ing d egrees o f mob il ity.

The B irhors, f or

e xa mp le , ma in ta in c a mps f or a n a verage p er iod o f 1 8 mon ths ;

t he r ange o f

d urat ion o f a ny s ing le s et t le men t v ar ies f ro m t hree mon ths t o f our y ears ( S inha , 1 972:375 ). The ! Kung a nd G/w i b ush men s pend most o f t he ir a nnua l a ct iv it ies c onf ined t o t he v ic in i ty o f water-ho les; o n ly d ur ing t he wet s eason , w hen o ther s easona l water-ho les b eco me a va i lab le, d o s ome o f t he m move c a mp t o e xp lo it o ut ly ing a reas o fp lan t f ood. I nt h is r espect t he ! Kung a re a n u n fortuna te e xa mp le o f a mob ile e cono my , f or t he ir a nnua l move men ts s ee m i den t ica l i n k ind t o t hose o f many a gr icu l tura l ists who e xp lo it a reas o f s easona l g raz ing o r p asture. A d ist inct ion b etween mob ile a nd s eden tary e cono m ies i s i n a ny c ase s i mpl ist ic o nt wo g rounds.

F irst , t he mob il ity o f h uman g roups i s ac omp lex

n ot ion s ince i tc an r efer t o t he a ctua l d is tance c overed e ach y ear b y ag roup , t he n umber o f r es iden t ia l s h ifts i n o ne y ear , o r t he d urat ion o f o ccupat ion i n a ny o ne p lace.

S econd ly , d ata i nd icates a s teady g radat ion b etween t he

e xtre mes o f mob il ity a nd s eden tar is m among p resen t-day s oc iet ies.

As

Watanabe ( 1968 :69 ) c oncluded f ro m h is s tudy o f t he A inu , ' A s i mp le t ypo logy o f t hree t er ms ( no mad ic, s em i-nomad ic a nd s eden tary ) i s n ot s uf f ic ien t t o d escr ibe t he w ide v ar iety o bserved i n p a t terns o f r es iden t ia l s h if t ' , s ince ' t he r es iden t ia l s h if t p a t terns o ft hose p eop les t er med s em i-nomad ic a ctua l ly v ar ies a cross t he s pec tru m '.

A s im ilar g rada t ion o f mob i l ity p at terns i s

e v idenced i n t he s tudy o f p astora l ists, f or ' pastora l is m c an b e a ssoc ia ted w ith t he e n t ire r ange o f move men t , f rom n one a t a l l t o c ont inuous move men t ' ( Salz man , 1 9 72 :67 ). c ) a ssu mp t ion 3 :

t hat e thnograph ic d a ta o n h unter/ga therers i s r elevan t

t o a n i ma l-based e cono m ies We s hou ld n ote t hat when H iggs f or mu lated s ite c a tch men t a na lys is, h e c i ted t he d ata o f L ee a nd Ch isho lm t o d ist ingu ish mob ile , a n i ma l-based 4 7 .

e cono m ies f ro m t hose wh ich w ere s eden tary a nd b ased l argely o n p lan t f oods. The p o in t h as a lready b een made t hat t he ! K l ing b ush men a re p r i mar ily s edent ary a nd t hus a m islead ing i ns tance o f a mob i le e cono my.

The : Kung a re a lso

ap oor e xa mp le o f ah un t ing c o m mun ity s ince t hey o bta in most o f t he ir f oods f ro m p lan ts.

Hun t ing i s s oc ia l ly p rest ig ious a nd f or ms a w e lco me c hange t o

p lan t f oods , b u t i s f ar l ess i mportant t han g ather ing.

As L ee ( 1968 :33 ) n otes,

t hey a re more l ike a gr icu ltura l ists t han h un ters, s ince ' t he mongongo n u t , b ecause o f i t s a bundance a nd r el iab il ity , a lone a ccoun ts f or 5 0% o f t he v egetable d iet b y w e igh t.

I n t h is r espect i tr ese mb les a c u lt ivated c rop s uch a s ma ize

o r r ice '. The d a ta o f L ee a nd Ch isho lm s ee ms u sefu l t o s tud ies o f s ite c a tch men t a na lys is i n i nd ica t ing t he s ize o f a reas u sed b y c o m mun it ies wh ich a re p r i ma r ily d ependan t u pon p lan t f oods.

I t wou ld b e i nappropr iate, h owever, t o

g enera l ise f ro m L ee 's d ata o n t he ! Kung a bou t t he c atch ment a reas o f a n i malb ased e cono m ies.

The f act t hat t he 1 Kung o b ta in p lant f ood 1 0 l cm f ro m t he ir

b ase c a mps i n t he d ry s eason may b e s ign if ican t i n s how ing t he d istance o ver w h ich a p reh istor ic g roup d ependan t o n w idely s cat tered a nd n on l abouri nt ens ive p lant f oods may h ave f oraged.

Ch isho lm ' sd ata wou ld s ee m t o

i nd ica te t hat t he h usband ing o f c oncen trated , l abourintens ive p lan t f oods s uch a s c erea ls a nd l egu mes o ccurs w ith in a sma l ler a rea. The c atch men t a reas a ssoc ia ted w ith a n i ma l-dependan t s oc iet ies, whether d ef ined a s h un ters o r p astora l ists, a re l ike ly t o d iffer f rom t hose o f g a therers o r a gr icu ltura l ists.

S turdy ( 1972, 1 975 ) h as s uggested t hat t he c a tch men t

a reas o f s uch g roups t ends t o b e l arge e nough t o s at isfy t he im med iate n eeds o f t he g roup , b u t o u ts ide t he ma in a rea o f f u ture r esources.

A l though d e ta iled

d ata o n modern p astora l e cono m ies a re u n fortunately s carce , t he a va ilab le i n for ma t ion i nd ica tes t ha t t he c a tch ment a reas o f p astoral s et t le men ts v ar ies g reat ly a ccord ing t o t ime o f y ear a nd t ype o f g raz ing.

The K ar i mo jong ( Dyson-

Hudson , 1 972:32 ) g raze t he ir c at t le w ith in a n a verage d istance o f 6 .3 m i les f ro m a ny c a mp , b u t t h is d istance c an v ary c ons iderab ly ;

a t t imes t he c at t le

a re g razed im med ia te ly a d jacen t t o t he c a mps, b u t w hen p asturage b eco mes s carce t hey might b e s evera l mi les f ro m t he s et t le men t.

A s im ilar p at tern

h as b een o bserved among t he Yo mu t o f Centra l As ia ( I rons , 1 972 ) a nd B rahu i o f Ba luch istan ( Sw id ler , 1 972 );

i n t he w in ter , c a mp a nd h erd a re k ept c lose

t ogether, whereas i n s u mmer t he a n i ma ls m igh t g raze a t ac ons iderab le d ist ance f rom t he c a mps. d ) a ssu mp t ion 4 :

t ha t p reh istor ic e cono m ies a re b est c lassed a s e i ther

h un ter/gatherer o r a gr icu l tura l I fw e c lass ify p reh istor ic e cono m ies a s h un ter-ga therer a nd a gr icu ltural , w e h ave a lso t o a ccep t ad ist inct ion b etween w i ld a nd d o mest ic r esources. S ince H iggs a nd J ar man ( 1969;

1 972 ) h ave a rgued t hat w i ld a nd d o mes t ic

r esources c anno t b e d ist ingu ished a rchaeo log ica l ly o n t he b as is o f o n-s ite d ata s uch a s a rtefactua l , f auna l a nd b o tan ica l a sse mb lages, t hey c anno t l og ica l ly c lass ify p reh istor ic s et t le ments a s h un ter-ga therer a nd a gr icu l tura l when o b ta in ing o f f-s ite d a ta f ro m s ite c atch men t a na lys is.

I t s ee ms e spec ia l ly

i ron ic t hat t hose who h ave c r it ic ised most t he p ract ice o f i n ferr ing t he s ubs ist ence o f ap reh istor ic c o m mun ity f ro m i t s t echno logy s hou ld t hen a ssume i n s ite c atch men t a na lys is t ha t p a laeo l ith ic a nd meso l ith ic s oc ie t ies w ere h un ter-

4 8

s ite c a tch men t a na lys is t hat p a laeo l ith ic a nd meso l ith ic s oc iet ies w ere h un terg a therer , whereas n eo l ith ic a nd l ater o nes were a gr icu ltural. i ) r esource p oten t ia l o f c atch men t a reas The r esources c on ta ined w ith in a c atch ment a rea n eed t o b e c lass if ied , a nd a ssessed i n t er ms o f t he ir c on te mporane ity w ith a s ett le men t a nd t he ir p roducti v ity b efore i n ferences c an b e made o n t he ways t hey w ere e xp lo ited. a ) c lass if ica tory s yste ms i n c atch men t a na lys is :

The r esources i n ac a tch-

men t a rea c ou ld b e mapped i n s evera l ways i n t er ms o f , f or e xa mp le, modern l and u se, s o il t ypes, l andfor ms o r v egeta t iona l c o m mun it ies.

One im med iate

d anger t o n o te i s t hat c atch men t a reas s hou ld n ot b e mapped b y t he p art ia l u se o f t wo o r more c lass if ica tory s che mes.

There i s l i t t le p o in t i n c lass ify ing t he

p oten t ia l r esources o f as et t le men t a s , f or e xa mp le , a rab le l and , o ak f orest a nd a l luv ia l p la in :

t he r esu l t ing i n for mat ion p rov ides n o way o f d ec id ing whether

t he a reas o f o ak f orest a nd a l luv ia l p la in a re s u itable f or c u l t iva t ing. A n umber o f s tud ies h ave a t te mpted t o e va luate t he r esource p o tent ia l o f p reh is tor ic c a tch men t a reas i n t er ms o f modern l and u se.

J ar man ( 1972a ),

f or e xa mp le, u sed a s i mple c lass if ica t ion c o mpr is ing t hree c a tegor ies o f l and u se —arable/poten t ia l ly a rab le , r ough g raz ing a nd marsh —to a ssess n eo l ith ic a nd p a laeo l ith ic s ubs istence s trateg ies i n s outhern I ta ly.

The ma in a dvan tage

o f t h is t echn ique i s t ha t i ti s e asy t o u se i n t he f i e ld , f or e ven t he most u rban a nd u n tra ined a rchaeo log ica l s tuden t c an ( usua l ly ) d ist ingu ish f i rst c lass a rab le l and f ro m r ough g raz ing.

I n a reas where t here a re s harp d if ferences i n a l t i-

t ude, b ed-rock o r s o il t ype , p resen t-day l and u se c an a lso p rov ide a r easona bly a ccura te g u ide t o f or mer s ubs istence s trateg ies. P resen t-day l and u se i s r arely a s at isfactory g u ide t o t he r esource p o tent ia l o f ap reh istor ic s et t le men t b ecause t he modern i nhab itan ts u sua l ly h ave d ifferen t r esources, t echno log ies a nd p oss ib ly a t t itudes f ro m t he ir p reh istor ic c oun terparts.

I n a ny c ase , modern l and u se i s t he p roduct o f s evera l c entur ies

o f a dap tat ion a nd d evelop men t , i s r arely s tat ic , a nd h as o f ten c hanged e nor mo us ly w ith in t he l ast 3 0 y ears o r s o.

Recen t t echno log ica l d eve lop men ts —

n o tab ly mechan isat ion—have o f ten e x tended t he a rea o f a rable l and o n to s o ils wh ich c ou ld n ever h ave b een t i l led i n p reh istory .

Improved t ranspörtat ion a nd

marke t f ac i l it ies c an of ten make c ash c rops p rof itab le i n a reas where t hey wou ld p rev iously h ave b een u nsu itab le.

S hort-ter m e cono m ic p ressures c an

a lso h ave marked e f fects i n a l ter ing r at ios b e tween l ivestock a nd c rop p roduct ion , o r b etween o ne c rop a nd a no ther.

S o met i mes t hese d istort ing f actors c an b e

e as i ly i den t if ied i n t he f ield o r b y c heck ing l oca l h istor ies f or t he t ype o f l and u se 3 0 o r e ven 1 00 y ears a go b efore mechan isat ion a nd r ecen t s oc ia l a nd p ol it ica l c hanges h ad o ccurred. Modern l and u se i s ah azardous i nd ica tor o f p rev ious s et t le men t i n a no ther r espect.

We c an imag ine, f or i nstance, a s i tuat ion where a s ett le men t i s

s urrounded b y l abourin tens ive c rops , b eyond wh ich l ess d e mand ing c rops a re g rown .

I t m ight b e at e mp ta t ion t o c onc lude t hat t he s et t le men t was t herefore

l ocated i n t he most f avourab le p os it ion.

A l l t hat m ight b e h appen ing , h owever ,

i s t ha t d if feren t c rops w ere b e ing g rown o n i dent ica l s o ils , a nd t ha t t he p resen t i nhab itan ts were min im is ing t he ir work-load b y g row ing t he most d e mand ing c rops a s n ear t o t he ir s et t le men t a s p oss ible.

4 9

I n s o me c ases , az onat ion o f

c rops i n t er ms o f l abour r equ ire men ts a nd c ash v a lue c ou ld c ause l oca l s o il c hanges a s l abourin tens ive c rops n ear a s e tt le men t w il l b e more i n tens ive ly t i l led a nd f ert il ised t han t hose f urther d istan t.

A f i eld a rchaeo log ist m igh t

f ind i td if f icu l t t o d ec ide i n t h is i nstance whether t he modern s et t le men t w as l ocated o n t he b est t ype o f s o il i n t he a rea , o r w hether t he s o i l h ad b een i mp roved b ecause o f t he p rox im ity o f a modern s e t t le men t . L and-for ms a nd s o i l t ypes a re p robab ly more r el iab le g u ides t han modern l and u se t o t he r esource p o ten t ia l o f ap reh istor ic c atch men t a rea , a nd h ave b een u sed i n an umber o f c a tch men t a na lyses. Web ley ( 1972) a ssessed t he c atch men t a rea o f Bronze Age Gezer i n Pa lest ine b y f irst p lo t t ing t he d is tr ibut ion o f f our s o il t ypes a nd t hen e st i ma t ing t he ir most l ike ly a gr icu l tura l p roduct iv ity .

Th is p rocedure w as a lso f o l lowed b y J ar man a nd Web ley ( 1975 )

i n t he ir s tudy o f p reh istor ic l and u se i n Cap itanata , S ou th I ta ly ;

t hey d is t in-

g u ished s even s o i l t ypes i n f our ma jor g roups , a nd a ssessed t he e conom ic p o ten t ia l o f e ach i n t er ms o f i t s p hys ica l a nd c he m ical p ropert ies, modern u sage a nd t he e f f ic iency o f p reh istor ic a gr icu l tura l t echno log ies. Whatever method i s c hosen f or mapp ing t he r esource p o ten t ial o f ap reh ist or ic c a tch men t a rea l eaves u n touched t he s ubstan t ia l p rob le m t hat t he e nv ironmen t o f t he a rea may h ave c hanged af ter t he s i te was f ounded. b ) e nv ironmen ta l c hange a nd c atch men t a na lys is :

The n ecess ity o f r econs-

t ruct ing t he l oca l e nv ironmen t o f ap reh istor ic s e t t le men t i s s o e v iden t a s t o r equ ire l i t t le j ust if icat ion .

A r iver, f or e xa mp le, m ight h ave a l tered i t s

c ourse , s o i ls may h ave b een e roded away o r d epos ited , o r marshlands may h ave b een f or med o r d ra ined af ter a s ite was a bandoned ;

u n less s uch c hanges

a re i den t if ied , a ny c onclus ions d rawn o n t he r esource p oten t ia l o f t he c a tchmen t a rea w il l b e h igh ly e rroneous.

I n s o me c ases, i t may a lso b e n ecessary

t o i den t ify e nv ironmen ta l c hanges wh ich h ave o ccurred w e l l b eyond t he c atchmen t a rea o f as et t le men t .

For e xa mp le , g raz ing l and t hat might b e t oday a

v a luab le s easona l r esource a nd wh ich l i es s o me d istance f ro m t he p reh istor ic s ite u nder i nvest iga t ion m igh t n o t h ave e x isted w hen t he s et t le men t was o ccup ied ;

a l terna t ively , a n a rea wh ich was o r ig ina l ly u sed a s s easona l g raz ing

may s ubsequen t ly h ave b een c onverted i n to a rab le l and. I n s o me c ases, e nv ironmen ta l c hanges may h ave o ccurred w ith in t he c atchmen t a rea o f as et t le men t wh i lst i t was b e ing o ccup ied.

An e x tre me a nd t hus

o bv ious e xa mp le m igh t c oncern a c oasta l c ave wh ich was o ccup ied d ur ing t he t rans it ion f ro m L a te P le istocene t o Ho locene.

Env ironmen ta l c hanges d ur ing

t he o ccupa t ion o f as i te a re u sua l ly l ess d ra mat ic t han a 5 0 m r ise i n s ea l eve l , b u t c an n evertheless h ave f ar-reach ing e f fects.

I f , f or e xa mp le , a

s ubstan t ia l a rea o f marsh d eveloped w ith in t he c a tch men t a rea o f as et t le men t wh ich r el ied p redo m inan t ly u pon c rop c u l t ivat ion , t he s oc ial a nd e conom ic c onsequences u pon t hat c o m mun ity c ou ld h ave b een p ro found. Wh ilst d iscuss ing t he p rob le m o f e nv ironmen ta l c hanges d ur ing t he o ccupat ion o f ap reh istor ic s et t le men t , i ti s a ppropr iate t o c ons ider t he r o le o f t echno logy , p art icu lar ly t ha t wh ich may a l ter t he e nv iron men t wh ilst a s i te i s o ccup ied b u t wh ich may l eave l i t t le t race i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord. c ase i n p o in t c oncerns i rr igat ion .

A

Areas i n a r id l ands t hat m igh t e as i ly b e

c lassed a s l ow q ua l ity r ough g raz ing may i n f act h ave b een a reas o f h igh a gr ic u ltura l p roduct iv ity a s ar esu lt o f i rr igat ion . 5 0

I n many a reas, i rr iga t ion

f ac il it ies c ou ld h ave b een sma l l-sca le a nd l oca l , a nd n eed n o t l eave a ny s urv iv ing e v idence.

The ir u sage i n p reh istory m ight b e i n ferred , h owever , b y

c ons ider ing t he s ize a nd d istr ibu t ion o f s et t le men ts i n t he a rea, t he t ypes o f r esources , a nd t he l oca l t opography a nd h ydro logy.

The u se o f d ra inage b y

d itch ing p rov ides a s im ilar t ype o f e xa mp le wh ich i s more r elevan t t o t e mpera te z ones.

Areas o f marsh may b e c onverted i n to a reas o f p asture b y u se o f

smal l-sca le d ra inage f ac il it ies wh ich n eed l eave l i t t le a rchaeo log ical t race. Wh ilst p reh istor ians who u se s i te c atch men t a na lys is e ndeavour t o c ons ider t he l eve l o f t echno logy p reva i l ing a t t he t ime , i ti s a s we l l t o r e me mber t hat t he a rtefacts p reserved o n as e t t le men t may p rov ide o n ly a p art ia l v iew o f t he p reva il ing t echno logy . c ) t he a ssess men t o f s ubs istence s trateg ies f ro m t he r esource p o ten t ia l o f ac a tchmen t a rea :

A f ter t he r esource z ones w ith in a p reh istor ic c atch men t

a rea h ave b een mapped, a nd e nv ironmen ta l c hanges wh ich o ccurred d ur ing a nd a f ter t he o ccupat ion o f as ite h ave b een c ons idered , h ow i s t he p reh istor ian t o i n terpret t h is d ata? The f i rst p rob le m l i es i n c onvert ing a reas o f r esources i n to.q uan t it ies.

I f

a n a rea i s c lassed a s r ough g raz ing , h ow many s heep o r g oa t c ou ld i ts upport? O r i fi ti s a rab le l and , wha t c rop y ie lds s ee m r easo n able?

A t p resen t , t here

i s n o method o f e st i mat ing l and p roduct iv i ty d irect ly f ro m e xcavated a rchaeol og ica l d a ta , a nd t he p reh istor ian must r ely u pon e co log ica l , a gr icu ltura l a nd a n thropo log ica l s ources.

S o me a t te mpts h ave b een made t o e st i mate f ro m

modern i n for ma t ion t he amoun t o f s tap le a n i ma l r esources wh ich c ou ld b e s upported o n v ar ious t ypes o f l and.

V ita-Finzi a nd H iggs ( 1970 ), f or e xa mp le ,

s uggested t ha t t he d ens ity o f f a l low d eer i n e arly h o locene Pa lest ine m ight h ave b een o ft he o rder o f o ne p er 1 2-20 h a a nd u sed t hese f igures t o e st i ma te t he p robab le h uman p opu la t ion wh ich c ou ld h ave b een s usta ined b y t h is r esource. C lark ( 1972 ) a nd S turdy ( 1975 ) h ave a tte mpted s im i lar k inds o f e st i ma tes o f t he d ens i ty o f r ed d eer a nd r e indeer r espect ively.

An a lternat ive a pproach

w h ich h as n o t y et b een a t te mpted m igh t b e t o e st i mate t he d ietary r equ ire ments o f l ivestock a nd t o q uan t ify t he n u tr it ive v a lue a nd q uan t ity o f f eed a va ilab le t o t he m d ur ing t he l eanest s eason o f t he y ear. w il l b e p resented b e low ( see T ab le 3 3;

S o me i n for ma t ion o n t h is t op ic

c hap. 7 ) .

There s ee m t o b e t wo p r inc ipa l d angers i n u s ing t h is t ype o f d ata t o q uan t ify t he r esources w ith in t he c a tch men t a rea o f ap reh istor ic s et t le men t . i t may n o t b e a pp l icab le t o t he t ype o f a rea u nder c ons idera t ion.

F irst ,

For e xa mp le ,

e st i ma tes o f t he n umbers o f r ed d eer a va ilab le t o ap reh istor ic s et t le men t i n l ow land f orest wou ld b e u nrea l ist ic i ft hey w ere b ased o n t he d ens it ies o f modern d eer p opu lat ions i n a reas o f h igh land moor.

Even i fd a ta o n modern

r esource d ens it ies i s a va ilab le f or t he a rea u nder i nvest igat ion , t he i n for mat i on may s t i l l b e q uest ionab le. For e xa mp le, d ens it ies o f o ne r esource may b e u nu sua l ly h igh i fi t s p redators h ave b een r e moved ;

c onverse ly , i t may b e

u nusual ly s carce i fi th as b een o ver-cu l led i n r ecen t y ears. S econd ly , e st i mates o f p reh istor ic r esource d ens it ies b ased o n c oncep ts o f ' carry ing c apac ity ' a re o f ten i napp l icab le, p art icu lar ly i n t he c ase o f p ast ora l s oc iet ies, b ecause o f d if ferences i n t he d ef in it ion o f c arry ing c apac ity . Fro m t he v iewpo in t o f t he e co log ist ( or , f or t ha t mat ter, a s heep o r g oat ), c arry ing c apac ity r epresen ts t he p o in t b eyond wh ich e co log ica l e qu il ibr iu m

5 1

b etween a n i ma l , p lan t a nd s o il c anno tb e ma in ta ined.

A p astora l ist m igh t

d ef ine c arry ing c apac ity a s s i mp ly t he p o in t b eyond wh ich h is a n i ma ls d ie. Th is d iscrepancy i n o u t look i s g reatest when l i vestock i s ma in ta ined t o s at isfy l oca l p rest ige o r f ar-d istan t marke ts;

e ven i fo ver-graz ing a nd s o i l e ros ion

a re i nev itab le c onsequences, t he o p t i ma l h erd s ize i s s t il l o f ten r egarded a s t he l argest. A p reh istor ian c anno t a ssume t hat p reh istor ic s oc iet ies w ere a lways e ndeavour ing t o ma in ta in e co log ica l e qu il ibr ium ;

n or c an h e a ssu me

t ha t t hose who t respassed e co log ica l c o m mon-sense wou ld f ind n o p lace i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord. A f ur ther p rob le m wh ich mer its d iscuss ion i s h ow w e s hou ld r ela te sma l l a reas o fh igh p roduct iv ity w ith in a c a tch men t a rea t o l arger a reas o f l ower p roduct iv ity . Th is p o in t i s e spec ia l ly a pp l icab le t o s i tua t ions where p o ten t ia l ly a rab le l and i s v ery r estr icted , a nd h as b een w el l a rgued b y F lannery ( 1976 :93 ). As h e p o in ts o u t , t he f act t ha t t he c atch men t a rea w ith in f i ve km o f as et t lemen t may c o mpr ise, f or e xa mp le , 9 0% n on-arab le l and a nd o n ly 1 0% o f p otent i a l ly a rab le l and d oes n ot n ecessar ily j ust ify t he c onclus ion t hat t he i nhab itan ts w ere p r i mar ily n on-agr icu ltura l , p art icu lar ly i ft he p oten t ia l ly a rab le l and i s c lose t o t he s e tt le men t.

Th is i s b ecause f i rst , t he amoun t o f p o ten t ial ly a rab le

l and w ith in t he c a tch men t a rea may s t il l b e s ign if ican t ly h igher t han f or t he e nt ire r eg ion ; i fi tw ere , t h is wou ld s uggest t hat p oten t ia l ly a rable l and was h igh ly f avoured b yt he i nhab itan ts. S econd ly , t he p roduct iv ity o f t he a rab le l and , a l though sma l l i n a rea , may h ave b een s u f f ic ien t t o ma in ta in t he n umber o f i nhab itan ts e st i mated f ro m t he s ize o f t he s e t t le men t. I tm igh tb e t hought i n v iew o f t he a bove c r it ic is ms t ha t s i te c atchmen t a na lys is was o f d ub ious v a lue t o s tud ies o f p reh istor ic s ubs istence. T h is c onc lus ion wou ld b e u n fa ir , h owever. S ite c atchmen t a na lys is , when u sed i n tel l igen t ly , c an p rov ide much u sefu l i n for ma t ion o n t he r esources a va i lab le t o ap reh istor ic c o m mun ity , a nd o n s o me o f t he f actors wh ich u nder l ie t he l ocat ion o f s et t le men ts. When f i rst d eveloped , s i te c atchmen t a na lys is d id h elp d raw t he a t ten t ion o fp reh istor ians t o t he i mpor tance o f s tudy ing s et t lemen ts w ith in t he ir l oca l c on tex t , a nd g ave t he m t he means t o d o s o.

N ow t hat

s uf f ic ien t e xp loratory work h as b een u ndertaken t o d e monstrate i t s mer its, i ts ee ms worthwh ile a nd p os it ive t o r ev iew s ome o f t he p rob le ms i nvo lved i n i t s f or mu la t ion a nd u sage.

We c an p roceed b y d iscuss ing t he r o le o f c atch men t

a na lys is i n s tud ies o f t err itor ia l a na lys is. 2 .

Terr itor ia l a na lys is

The a im o ft err itor ia l a na lys is i s t o i nd ica te t he p robab le a nnua l s ubs istence s trategy o f ac om mun ity b y i n tegra t ing o n-s ite d a ta o n t he s ize a nd t ype o f s et t le men ts, t he ir t echno logy a nd r esources w ith o ff-s ite d ata f ro m s i te c atchmen t a na lys is a nd o ther p a laeoenv iro runen ta l i nvest igat ions.

We s hou ld n o te

a n impor tan t d i f ference b e tween s i te c atchmen t a nd t err itor ia l a na lys is : w hereas t he f or mer i s emp ir ica l , t he l at ter r esu l ts i n h ypotheses o n t he most p laus ib le s ubs istence s trategy o f a n e x t inct c ommun ity . The d if ference b et ween t he t wo i s s im ilar t o t ha t b etween a s et t lemen t p at tern a nd a s et t le men t s yste m ; wh ilst t he f or mer i s s i mp ly a p roduc t o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a nd r epresen ts t he l ocat ion o f c on te mporaneous s i tes i n a n a rea , t he l a t ter i s ab ehav ioura l r econstruct ion o f t he s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic r ela t ionsh ips b etween s et t le men ts a nd o ther a ct iv ity a reas. Catch men t a na lys is b eg ins b y s tudy ing

5 2

as et t le men t p at tern ; a na lys is.

as et t le men t s yste m i s t he p roduc t o f t err itor ia l

Two o ther p o in ts s hou ld b e made a bou t t err itor ia l a na lys is. The f i rst i s t ha t t he t er m ' t err itory ' i nt h is c on tex t s hou ld n o t b e c onfused w ith z oo log ica l o r a n thropo log ica l d ef in it ions t ha t i mp ly a n a rea w h ich i s d efended.

A s h as

b een p o in ted o u t ( Jar man , 1 972a :707; H iggs a nd V ita-Finz i , 1 972:30 ), t he t erm h as a more g enera l mean ing a nd a pp l ies s i mp ly t o a reas h ab itua l ly a ssoc iated w ith h u man g roups. The s econd p o in t t o n ote i s t ha t t he c a tch men t a rea o f as et t le men t n eed n o t c on ta in a l l t he r esources u t il ised b y ap reh istor ic c o m mun ity , j ust a s o ne s et t le men t n eed n o t r epresen t t he p lace w here t he who le o f ac om mun ity l ived f or t he who le o f t he y ear.

B ecause o f s easona l f l uctua t ions i n t he t ype a nd

a bundance o f r esources, p reh istor ic g roups u ndoubted ly d ev ised e xp lo ita t ive s tra teg ies wh ich a vo ided s easona l s hor tages, a nd o p t im ised r esources when a nd w here t hey w ere most a bundan t.

Two methods o f o vercom ing s easona l

f luctua t ions i n r esources w h ich e nab le a c om mun ity t o i nhab it t he s a me s ett lemen t t hroughou t t he y ear a re b y s tor ing f ood i n a n t ic ipat ion o f t he l eanest s eason , a nd u t il is ing a s uccess ion o f r esources t hroughou t t he y ear. A t h ird a nd c o m mon w ay o f a vo id ing s easona l s hor tages i s t o e xp lo it r esources i n g eograph ica l ly s epara ted a reas a s a nd w hen t hey b ecome a va ilab le. I ti s when t h is t ype o f s ubs istence s tra tegy i s u sed t hat a s ing le s e t t le men t a nd i t s c atchmen t a rea n eed n o t r epresen t t he t o ta l s ubs istence a ct iv it ies o f ag roup. Exa mp les o f t h is t ype o f s ubs istence s trategy h ave b een p roposed i n a n umber o f r ecen t s tud ies, many o f wh ich c an b e t raced b ack t o a n e arly s tudy b y H iggs a nd V ita-Finzi ( 1967 ) o f t he L a te P le istocene o f Ep irus.

They s ug-

g es ted t ha t s easona l c hanges i n g razing w ou ld h ave f orced r ed d eer-the s tap le a n ima l r esource —to migrate f ro m t he c oasta l p la in i n w in ter t o t he P indhos moun ta ins i n s u mmer, a nd t hat h uman g roups w ou ld h ave moved i n as im i lar f ash ion .

The o ccupat ion o f t he p art ly c onte mporaneous s i tes o f K as tr itza a nd

Asprocha l iko were r egarded a s s easona l a nd c omp le mentary p arts o f as ing le e xp lo it ive s trategy w h ich e nsured a n e ven s upp ly o f f ood t hroughou t t he y ear. S ince t h is s tudy , many h ave s im ilar ly r e la ted t he d istr ibu t ion o f c on te mpora neous a rchaeo log ica l s ett le men ts t o t he p robab le move men ts o f s tap le a n i ma l r esources s uch a s r ed d eer, r e indeer a nd g azel le i n r esponse t o s easona l c hanges i n c l i mate a nd g raz ing ( see V ita-Finz i a nd H iggs, 1 970 ; C lark , 1 972; S turdy , 1 975 ). I n o rder t o c lass ify t he t ypes o f a reas, s et t lements a nd s i tes wh ich may h ave b een u t il ised b y ap reh istor ic g roup t hroughou t t he y ear , i ti s n ecessary t o d ef ine s o me t er ms c om mon ly u sed i n t err itor ia l a na lys is. a ) p referred s i te :

as i te ' pr i mar i ly c oncerned w ith t he e xp lo ita t ion o f a

s i te t err itory ' ( V ita-Finz i a nd H iggs, 1 970 :6 ) f or a l l o r p art o f t he y ear. b ) s i te e xp lo itat ion t err itory :

' t he t err itory s urround ing t he s i te wh ich i s

e xp lo ited h ab itua l ly b y t he i nhab itan ts o ft he s i te ' ( V ita-Finz i a nd H iggs, 1 970 :7 ). C ) s easona l t err itory : r ed s i te, b u t

a n a rea e xp lo ited f or p art o f t he y ear f rom a p refer-

w h ich l i es o u ts ide t he s i te e xp lo itat ion t err itory.

An e xa mp le o ft h is m igh tb e s easona l g raz ing wh ich i s u sed b y t he i nhab itan ts o f ap referred s i te. 5 3

d ) a nnua l t erri tory :

' The t o ta l a rea e xp lo ited b y ah uman g roup t hroughou t

t he y ear ' ( V ita-Finzi a nd H iggs , 1 970 :7 ). Th is may c on ta in o ne, o r s everal s i te e xp lo ita t ion t err itor ies, d epend ing u pon t he n u mber o f p referred s i tes t hat a re o ccup ied b y ag roup i n t he c ourse o f ay ear. I f , h owever, a p referred s i te i s o ccup ied a l l t he y ear r ound , a nd i ft he i nhab itan ts o bta ined a l l t he ir r esources f rom w ith in t he s ite e xp lo itat ion t err itory , t he a nnua l t erri tory may c o inc ide i n i t s e x ten t w ith t he s i te e xp lo it at ion t err itory .

On t he o ther h and , ap referred s i te c ou ld b e o ccup ied a l l t he

y ear r ound, b u t t he i nhab itan ts m igh t u t il ise a n a rea o f s easona l g raz ing o u ts ide t he s i te e xp lo ita t ion t err itory.

I fs o , t he a nnua l t err itory w il l c ompr ise

t he s ite e xp lo itat ion t err itory , t he s easona l t err itory a nd p oss ib ly a n a rea b etween t he t wo. e ) t rans itory s i te :

as i te f l eet ing ly o ccup ied.

Th is t er m c an i nclude a v ar iety o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes. One e xamp le c ou ld b e as i te wh ich i s u sed b r ief ly d ur ing move men ts b e tween t wo p referred s i tes;

o r a no ther , ab u tcher ing s i te wh ich w as o ccup ied o n ly wh ilst a n a n i ma l

was k i l led a nd d is me mbered.

S ites o f t h is k ind n eed n o t b e a ssoc ia ted w ith

a n e xp lo itat ion t err itory. f ) e x tended t err itory : a n a rea wh ich ' supports r esources u sed b y t he i nh ab itan ts , b u t t hat l i es o uts ide t he e xp lo ita t ion t err itory a nd i s s eldom i fe ver v isited b y man ' ( S turdy , 1 972 :164 ). Th is c oncerns o n ly t he u se o f mob i le r esources.

Exa mp les c an b e c i ted

f rom t wo s i tuat ions , o ne modern , t he o ther p reh istor ic, b oth o f w h ich w ere d escr ibed b y S turdy ( 1972, 1 975 ). I n G reen land , modern r e indeer t rapp ing s ta t ions a re l ocated o n t he e dge o ft he w in ter a nd s um mer t err itor ies o f t he h erds, w h ich a re l ef t u nmo lested i n t he ir e x tended t err itor ies u n t i l t hey l eave t he m a nd m igrate p ast t he h uman s et t le men ts.

I n l a te g lac ia l r e indeer

e conom ies, many o f t he s et t le men ts o ccup ied i n t he s um mer a ppear t o h ave b een a ssoc iated w ith a n e x tended t err itory wh ich c on ta ined r e indeer t ha t w ere n o t r equ ired f or i m med ia te s laugh ter. I n b o th i nstances, s et t le men ts a re l oca ted s o t hat t he a n i ma l r esource c ou ld r e ma in i n i t s e x tended t err i tory u nder t he max i mum o f o bservat ion b u t w ith t he m in i mum o f i n terference b y man. Terr itor ia l a na lys is e nab les t he p reh istor ian t o g roup c on te mporaneous s ites a nd t he ir c atch ment a reas i n to u n its o f a nnua l t err itor ies wh ich r epresen t h is mode l l ing o f t he a nnua l s ubs istence b ehav iour o f t he p reh istor ic g roups i n ar eg ion .

Th is t ype o f r econstruct ion i s c learly more c red ib le i fi tc an b e

t ested b y e xcavated d ata o n , f or e xa mp le, t he t ime o f y ear when s ett lemen ts w ere o ccup ied , t he t ypes a nd p roport ions o f a n i ma l a nd p lan t r esources , a nd t he t ype a nd s ize o f s et t le men ts.

O therw ise a nnua l t err itor ies may r ema in

a s s i mp ly d o t ted l i nes s urround ing a d jacen t s e t t le men ts. Wh i lst s uggest ions o nt he a nnua l t err itory o f o ne g roup a re u sefu l , i ti s c lear ly p referab le t o mode l t he a nnua l s ubs istence s tra teg ies o f a l l t he c o mmun it ies o ccupy ing a r eg ion .

I n t he f i rst p lace, t he r ange o f v aria t ion b etween

t he s ubsistence s tra teg ies o f g roups i n ar eg ion s hou ld b e e stab l ished.

Th is

i s e spec ia l ly n ecessary i n r eg ions c on ta in ing a v ar iety o f r esources z ones

5 4

wh ich c ou ld h ave b een u t il ised b y s evera l c o m mun it ies, e ach w ith i t s own s ubs istence s trategy . S econd ly , t he r e la t ionsh ips b etween c om mun it ies n eed a s much c ons idera t ion a s t he r ela t ionsh ip b etween i nd iv idua l g roups a nd t he ir p hys ica l s urround ings. S ubs istence i s o n ly p ar t o f ag roup 's b ehav iour , a nd o ther e cono m ic a s w el l a s s oc ial f actors h ave t o b e a ssessed b efore c onclus ions a re r eached o n t he r e lat ionsh ips b etween s et t le men t s ize a nd d istr ibu t ion , r esource u t il isat ion a nd t he p hys ica l e nv ironmen t.

These p o ints l ead u s t o

t hree a spects o f t err itor ia l a na lys is w h ich h ave y et t o b e f u l ly e xa m ined. i ) s ett le men t s ize One o f t he weaknesses o ft err itor ia l a na lys is i s t hat i tt rea ts t he p opu lat ion o f s et t le men ts a s a nu nd if feren t iated u n it. Thus a s et t le men t o f 1 0 p eop le i s t reated i n t he s a me w ay a s o ne o f 1 000. Th is p rob le m b eco mes a l l t he more s er ious when i ti s n ecessary t o c ons ider s et t le men t h ierarch ies i n wh ich l arger s et t lemen ts c o m mand o r a t l east s trong ly i n f luence t he f ood p roduct ion o f sma l ler s ubord inate c o m mun it ies.

A t p resen t , t err itor ia l a nalysis s ee ms

i nappropr ia te when d eal ing w ith e x tre mely l arge, a nd e spec ia l ly u rban , c o mmun it ies , o r w ith n etworks o f i n ter-related c o mmun it ies o f d if fer ing s izes a nd f unct ions. Even i n t he c ase o f smal ler a nd s i mp ler c om mun it ies , t he s ize o f s et t lemen ts p oses a n u mber o f p rob le ms f or t hose w ho u se t err itor ia l a na lys is. The f i rst i s t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he s ize o f as et t le men t i s d irect ly r ela ted t o t he r esources c on ta ined w ith in t he a nnua l t err itory. Wh ilst t here may o f ten b e a g enera l c orrelat ion b etween s et t le men t s ize a nd l oca l r esource p roduct iv ity ( see c hap. 9 ) , i tn eed n o t f o l low t hat t he s ize o f s et t le men ts i s d eter m ined s o le ly b y t he a va ilab il ity o f l oca l r esources. I n t he f i rst p lace, t rade c an h ave impor tan t c onsequences o n t he p opu lat ion s ize o f as et t le men t i n r a is ing i t a bove t he l evel wh ich c ou ld b e l oca l ly s upported.

Th is p o in t i s e spec ial ly

a pp l icab le t o l a ter p reh istor ic a nd e arly h istor ic c o m mun it ies, b u t s hou ld n ot b e d iscoun ted i n , f or e xa mp le , t he N eo l it h ic a nd B ronze Ages o f Te mpera te Europe. A s econd a nd more s er ious i ssue wh ich d irect ly c oncerns t he s tudy o f " si mp le" c o m mun it ies i s t he e x ten t t o w h ich t he s ubs istence b as is o f ac o mmun ity i s d eter m ined b y t he s oc ia l ly p referred l eve l o f p opu lat ion o r v ice v ersa. I n o ther words, d o c om mun it ies c onstra in t he ir s ubs istence p roducti v ity i n o rder t hat i ts hou ld ma in ta in w hat i s c ons idered t o b e ad es irab le n umber o f p eop le , o r a re

t he ir n umbers l im ited ma in ly b y t he a va ilab i l ity o f r esources?

A t p resen t , p roponen ts o f e ither v iew a re l ikely t o e ngender f i erce d ebate;

i t

i s i n tended h ere o n ly t o r a ise, b u t n ot a t te mp t t o a nswer , s ome o f t he i ssues i nvo lved. Those who a dvocate t ha t p reh istor ic p opu lat ions wou ld h ave r isen t o al eve l c om mensura te w ith t he r esources c on ta ined w ith in t he ir a nnua l t err itor ies wou ld a rgue t hat p opu lat ion a nd r esources wou ld h ave b een i n d irect e qu il ibr ium ( see e .g. S turdy , 1 975 :93 ), a nd t hat p opu lat ion p ressure w as a c onstan t s t i mu lus t o r a is ing t he l evel o f f ood p roduct ion . On t he o ther h and , w e s ha l l p resen t ly d iscuss ( see n ex t s ect ion ) s ome e v id ence w h ich s uggests t ha t s o me p reh istor ic f ar m ing c om mun it ies u t il ised a f ar sma l ler p roport ion o f t he ir r esources t han wou ld h ave b een t he c ase i f t he ir s i ze h ad b een g overned s o le ly b y t he p o ten t ia l a va i lab il ity o f r esources.

5 5

We c an a lso n ote t he e thnograph ic d ata o f L ee ( 1968 ) a nd S ah l ins ( 1974 ) w h ich i nd ica tes a l arge d iscrepancy b e tween t he a c tua l a nd p o ten t ia l s ize o f p r im it ive c o m mun i t ies. Th irdly , w e s hou ld c ons ider t he i mportance o f s oc ia l f ac tors i n l im it ing t he s ize o f as et t le men t. One o f t he most i mportan t o ft hese may b e t he n eed t o ma inta in i n terna l s oc ia l c ohes ion s ince t he e x ist ing s oc ia l f ra mework may b e u nab le t o c ope w ith a p opu lat ion b eyond a c er ta in s ize. i ) s et t le men t s pac ing Two o ther p rob le ms, r e lated t o t he i ssue o f p opu lat ion s ize, p resen t g rave d if f icu lt ies t o t err i tor ia l a na lys is.

The f i rst c oncerns t he f actors w h ich a f fec t

t he d istances b e tween n e ighbour ing s et t lemen ts. a ) c a tch men t a reas, e xp lo itat ion t err itor ies a nd s et t le men t s pac ing :

J ust

a s t err itor ia l a na lys is a ssu mes t hat t he p opu lat ion o f ac o m mun ity i s l argely d eter m ined b y t he a bundance o f r esources c on ta ined i n t he s ite c atchmen t a rea , s o i ta ssumes t ha t t he d istance b etween n e ighbour ing s ett le men ts i nd icates t he s ize o f c atch men t a rea n ecessary f or e ach g roup. I n o ther words, i fp referred s i tes o ccur a t r egu lar i n terva ls o f o n ly 4 km , i t wou ld b e c oncluded t ha t e ach s et t le men t n eeded a na rea o f r esources w ith in a r ad ius o f 2 km ; ac a tch men t a rea w ith a r ad ius o f 5 km wou ld b e i mp l ied i fs et t le men ts were 1 0 km a part. An a l terna t ive c ase w h ich may h ave w idespread r elevance h as b een a rgued b yF lannery ( 1976 :177-8 ) w ho n oted t ha t s et t le men ts d ated t o 1 000-850 B .0 . a long t he A toyac R iver i n O axaca w ere s paced a t e x tre me ly r egu lar i n terva ls o f c . 5 km. f i dence :

The s ize o f s et t le men ts c ou ld b e e st i ma ted w ith r easonab le c on-

t wo w ere p robab ly h am lets w ith o n ly e igh t h ouseho lds o r s o , wh i lst

at h ird was much l arger a nd may h ave c on ta ined 8 0-120 h ouseho lds. S hou ld w e a ssu me t hat t he s ize a nd s pac ing o f t hese s et t le men ts a re r e la ted t o t he p o ten t ia l r esources c on ta ined w ith in a c atch men t a rea o f 2 .5 km?

I t wou ld

s ee m n o t. F lannery c a lcu la ted t he ma ize y ie lds wh ich c ou ld h ave b een u t il ised. These e st imates i nd icated t ha t t he t wo sma l lest c o mmun it ies c ou ld h ave ma int a ined 1 20 h ouseho lds a nd t he l argest , 4 29.

I n o ther words, s et t le men ts c ou ld

h ave b een e ither much l arger , o r much c loser t ogether.

F lannery ( 1976 :178 )

i n terpreted t h is d ata a s s how ing t hat s ett le men ts ' were r egu lar ly s paced f or p redom inan t ly s oc ia l r easons, a nd t hat 5 km a pprox i ma tes s o me m in i ma l d istance —perhaps measured i n t rave l t ime —tha t was u sua l ly ma in ta ined b etween c o m mun i t ies '. What i s n ot c lear f ro m t h is e xa mp le a re t he f actors wh ich i n f luenced t he p rec ise l oca t ion o f e ach s et t le men t , f or i ti s p oss ib le t hat t he most d es irab le p laces f or s it ing s e tt le men ts w ere 5 km a par t. I ft h is were t he c ase , i t wou ld s ee m t ha t e ach c o m mun ity u sed a f ar sma l ler p ropor t ion o f t he ir p o ten t ia l ly a va ilab le r esources e ven t hough t he d istance b e tween s ett le men ts w as n ot p r imar ily d eter m ined b y s oc ia l f actors. I fw e a ccep t F lannery 's a rgumen t , i t wou ld s ee m i ncau t ious t o s uppose t ha t t he s ize o f as et t le men t w as l im ited o n ly b y t he p o ten t ia l a va ilab i l i ty o f r esources, o r t ha t s oc ia l f actors w ere u n i mportan t i n i n f luenc ing t he d istance b etween n e ighbour ing s i tes. b ) t err itor ia l a na lys is , a nd n uc leated v ersus d ispersed s et t le men t : Whether as et t le men t p at tern i s n uc leated o r d ispersed i s o ne a rea o f e nqu iry w here

5 6

t err i tor ia l a na lys is a ppears t o b e o f l im ited a pp l icab i l ity.

Th is i s l argely

b ecause i ti s d escr ip t ive r ather t han e xp lanatory , a nd s hows h ow a s et t le men t s yste m may h ave f unct ioned r a ther t han h ow i ta rose.

As a n e xa mp le , w e

c an e nv isage a r eg ion wh ich w as i n it ia l ly o ccup ied b y af ew l arge s ett le men ts b ut l a ter b y n umerous sma l ler o nes; f or t he s ake o f a rgumen t , t he s tap le r esources a nd l oca l e nv iron men t d id n ot c hange s ign if ican t ly i n o r b etween e ither p er iod.

Terr itor ia l a na lys is migh t i nd ica te h ow l and w as u sed d ur ing

e ach p er iod b u t wou ld b e u n l ike ly t o s how why a d ispersed p a ttern o f s et t le men t was more d es irab le o r e f fect ive i n o ne p er iod t han a nother. i i ) t err itor ia l h ierarch ies T err itor ia l a na lys is was o r ig ina l ly d ev ised t o s tudy t he s ubs istence s tra teg ies o f p reh istor ic c o mmun it ies b y r e lat ing t he s ize a nd l oca t ion o f a s et t lemen t t o t he p oten t ia l a va i lab i l ity o f p lan t a nd a n i ma l r esources w ith in t he a rea l ikely t o h ave b een h ab itua l ly u sed t hroughou t t he y ear. Annua l t err itor ies h ave u sua l ly b een r egarded a s c losed s yste ms, a nd c om mun it ies a s s elf-su f f ic ien t ( see e .g. V ita-Finz i a nd H iggs , 1 970 ; J ar man a nd Web ley , 1 975 ). Wh ilst t h is v iew may b e h eur ist ica l ly u sefu l , i ti s n evertheless h igh ly c on ten t ious.

I n t he f i rst p lace, c o m mun it ies a re r arely who l ly s elf-su f f ic ien t ,

n or d o t hey o perate i n t ota l i so lat ion f ro m o ther c om mun it ies.

S econd ly , t h is

a tt itude h as l ed t o aw ide g u lf b etween s tud ies o f p reh istor ic s ubs istence a nd c u l ture. On t he o ne h and , t err i tor ia l a na lys is i nd icates h ow c om mun it ies c ou ld h ave o bta ined t he ir s ubs istence a s s e lf-con ta ined u n its; o n t he o ther, t he h o mogene ity o f a rtefact t ypes a nd t ra its o ver l arge a reas imp l ies t hat c o m muni t ies a lso e x isted a s p art o f a n o pen s yste m. I s i tr easonable t o c la im t ha t e ither t he p resence o f , f or e xa mp le , t u l ip-vesse ls a nd g reenstone a xes o ver l arge a reas o fS . Bu lgar ia i nt he l a te s ix th m il lenn iu m b .c. ( see c hap. 1 ) i s u n importan t , o r t hat t err itor ia l a na lys is i s u nsound s ince i ti gnores e v idence wh ich s hows t hat c o m mun it ies were n o t s e lf-suf f ic ien t? T h is c on troversy l argely a r ises f ro m s tudy ing p reh istor ic c o m mun it ies a t d if feren t l evels o f s pace a nd a ct iv it ies. As c ommun it ies h ave a v ar ie ty o f n eeds a nd p r ior it ies, e ach h as t o b e c ons idered b o th s ing ly a nd i n r elat ion t o t he o thers.

S ubs istence i s o ne impor tan t a ct iv ity wh ich c an b e i nvest igated

o n al oca l s ca le a nd mapped i n t er ms o f e xp lo itat ion a nd a nnua l t err itor ies. S ome s oc ia l a nd o ther e cono m ic d e mands may b e s a t isf ied a t g reater d istances f rom a s et t le ment a nd b eyond t he a nnual s ubs istence t err itory. Raw mater ia ls a nd g oods may b e o bta ined a nd e xchanged, p eop le may move t he ir p lace o f r es idence;

of ten t hese t ransact ions a nd t ransloca t ions o ccur o ver c ons iderab le

d istances. However , b o th a rchaeo log ica l a nd e thnograph ic d ata i nd icate t hat t hey u sua l ly o ccur w ith in a d ef ined a rea a nd b etween a r estr icted r ange o f s et t lements.

I n t ha t s ense, t hese a reas a re h ab itua l ly u sed b y c o mmun it ies

a nd c an b e r egarded a s t err itor ies, e ven t hough t hey n eed n o t b e p r i mar ily r elated t o s ubs istence a ct iv it ies. T err itor ial a na lys is m igh t p rof it f ro m F lannery 's s uggest ion ( 1 976 :109 ) t ha t w e s hou ld e nv isage s et t le men ts a s b e ing s urrounded b y as er ies o f e verw iden ing r esource z ones.

Wh i lst s ubs istence may b e s a t isf ied w ith in a smal l

r ad ius f ro m a s et t le men t a nd b as ic r aw mater ia ls f rom w ith in a s l igh t ly g reater d istance , r are r aw mater ia ls a nd p rest ige i t ems may b e o bta ined f rom

5 7

p erhaps s evera l h undred k i lo metres away.

The p rocure men t o f e ach t ype o f

r esource —whether f ood , r aw mater ia ls o r e xot ic i t e ms — s hou ld n o t b e v iewed i n i so lat ion : t he d es irab i l ity o f f ar-d istan t e xo t ic i t e ms may d ivert a nd mod ify r esources f ro m t he s ubs istence b ase , a nd c onversely , t he p roduct iv ity o f r esources w il l g rea t ly a f fect t he t ype a nd s ca le o f c on tacts w ith o ther s e t t lemen ts a nd a reas. CONCLUS IONS Terr itor ia l a na lys is i s a n i mportan t c on tr ibu t ion t o t he s tudy o f p reh istor ic s ubs istence o n t he l eve l o f i nd iv idua l c ommun it ies w ith in t he ir l oca l c on tex t . Concep ts o f c atch men t a reas a nd a nnua l t err itor ies a re a lso u sefu l w ays o f s tudy ing a nd e nv isag ing p reh istor ic s ubs istence s tra teg ies, a nd d eserve a s ecure p lace i np reh istor ic a rchaeo logy. There a re c lear ly s evera l ma jor p rob le ms i n t err itor ia l a na lys is, s o me o f wh ich h ave b een t ouched u pon b u t h ave y et t o b e t ack led. The r e la t ionsh ips b etween s et t le men t s ize a nd r esource p roduct iv ity i s o ne ;

a no ther c oncerns

t he e f fec ts o f s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic r e la t ionsh ips b e tween c o m mun it ies o n i nd iv idua l s ubs istence s trateg ies.

I n s o me c on tex ts , p art icu larly w here c omp lex

n etworks o f c o m mun it ies a re c oncerned , t err itor ia l a na lys is i s a t p resen t i nappropr iate.

A l though s i te c a tch men t a nd t err itor ia l a na lys is c an b e c r it ic-

i sed a s b e ing s uspec t , i nadequa te o r i nappropr ia te , i tw ou ld b e u n fa ir t o d ismiss t he m e n t irely. The ir p opu lar ity i n r ecen t y ears i s c onv inc ing e v idence t hat t hey a re a t l east v a luab le s tart ing p o in ts f or i nvest igat ing a n umber o f c o mp lex i ssues wh ich n eed f urther f or mu lat ion .

5 8

CHAPTER 5 THE ENV IRONMENT AND RURAL ECONO MY OF MODERN BULGAR IA

Th is c hapter p resen ts s o me i n for ma t ion o n t he p hys ica l g eography , c l i ma te , s o i ls , v ege ta t ion a nd a gr icu l ture o f r ecen t a nd p resen t-day B u lgar ia , i n o rder t o f am i l iar ise t he r eader w i th s o me a spects o f modern Bu lgar ia a nd t o s erve a s ab as is f or a ssess ing s o me d om inan t f ac tors wh ich migh t h ave i n f luenced h u man s e t t le men t a nd e cono my f ro m t he s ix th t o t h ird mi l lenn iu m b .c. 1 .

The e nv ironmen t a nd e cono my o f modern B u lgar ia T he p resen t P eop les ' R epub l ic o f Bu lgar ia i s s l igh t ly sma l ler t han Eng land

a nd c on ta ined i n 1 968 a p opu la t ion o f 8 ,370 ,000 ( Dobr in , 1 973 :5 ) , s l igh t ly l ess t han t ha t o f Grea ter L ondon . i )

r e l ie f

As F ig . 1s how , much o f Bu lgar ia i s moun ta inous . The S tara P lan ina r ange e f fect ive ly d iv ides t he c oun try i n to a n or thern a nd s ou thern h al f . T h is c ha in o f moun ta ins i s a n e x tens ion o f t he D inar ic r ange wh ich s weeps s ou thwards f ro m S erv ia i n to Bu lgar ia b e fore e x tend ing e as twards f ro m t he r eg ion o f S o f ia .

A t i t s g rea tes t h e igh t t he S tara P lan ina r ises t o 2 376 m a .s.l. a t

Mt . B o tev , a nd f or ms a n impress ive moun ta in c ha in u p t o 8 0 km i n w id th . I n t he e as tern p ar t o f B u lgar ia t hese moun ta ins b eco me l ower a nd e ven tua l ly f or m o n ly a l ow r ange o f h i l ls n ear t he B lack S ea c oas t .

Para l lel t o , a nd

s ou th o f , t he S tara P lan ina i s a sma l ler r ange o f moun ta ins k nown a s t he S redna G ora .

Their h ighes t p eak , M t . B ogdan , r ises t o 1 604 m a. s.1., b ut

i n e as tern Bu lgar ia , t hey a re l ower a nd b eco me a n i ns ign i f ican t r ange o f h i l ls n ear t he c oas t .

T he s ou thern p ar t o f t he c oun try i s d om ina ted b y t he R hodope

Mass i f wh ich r eaches a max i mu m h e igh t i n Bu lgar ia o f 2 925 m a .s . 1 . a t Mt. Mursu la a nd e x tends wes twards i n to Yugos lav Macedon ia a nd s ou thwards i n to N or th G reece.

I n t he r eg ion o f S o f ia a l l t hree moun ta in r anges c onverge a nd

e nc lose t he S o f ia Bas in b y a n a l mos t c on t inuous wa l l o f moun ta ins , o f wh ich t he h ighes t , Mt . V i tosa , r ises t o 2 290 m

a. s. 1 .

B ecause o f t hese moun ta in f or ma t ions , t here a re c ons iderab le a l t i tud ina l d i f ferences w i th in sma l l a reas o f Bu lgar ia , wh ich o f ten h ave c ons iderab le e f fects o n t e mpera ture , p rec ip i ta t ion a nd h u man s e t t le men t .

T h is i s e specia l ly

e v iden t i n t he wes tern p ar t o f t he c oun try , where moun ta ins o f ten f a l l p recip i tous ly i n to l ow land v a l leys .

I n e as tern Bu lgar ia h owever , p ar t icu lar ly s ou th

o f t he S tara P lan ina , t he d is t inc t ion b e tween l ow land a nd h igh land i s l ess p ronounced ;

i n t he l ower p ar ts o f t he Tundza a nd Mar i tza v a l leys t he l andscape

g enera l ly c o mpr ises w ide , f l a t a nd o f ten mono tonous p la ins b ordered b y l ow r anges o f h i l ls .

Nor th a t t he S tara P lan ina t he c oun try i s c haracter ised b y

g en t ly u ndu la t ing p la ins wh ich g radua l ly f a l l i n h e igh t f ro m t he moun ta ins t o t he Danube . 5 9

i )

d ra inage

I ti s h ard ly s urpr is ing t ha t t he d irec t ion o f d ra inage i n Bu lgar ia i s s trong ly i n f luenced b y t he r e l ie f .

T hree p r inc ipa l d ra inage s ys te ms c an b e r ecogn ised .

T he f i rs t c o mpr ises t he D anube a nd a n u mber o f t r ibu tar ies s uch a s t he Ogos ta , I sker , O sse m a nd Y an tra wh ich f low n or thwards f ro m t he S tara P lan ina . S ou thern Bu lgar ia i s d om ina ted b y t wo ma in r iver s ys te ms , t he Mar i tza a nd t he Tundza .

T he f or mer r iver r ises i n t he R hodopes n or th o f M t . Mursa la

a nd t hen f lows e as tward i n to a n i ncreas ing ly w ide a nd f l a t p la in .

T he Mar i tza

h as a n umber o f impor tan t t r ibu tar ies s uch a s t he T opo ln i tza a nd A z mak wh ich f l ow s ou thwards f ro m t he S redna G ora , a nd t he Arda wh ich d ra ins a l arge a rea o f t he e as tern R hodopes .

A t E d irne i n T urkey t he Mar i tza f l ows s ou th-

wards a long t he p resen t G reek-Turk ish f ron t ier a nd t hen i n to t he Aegean a s t he Mar ica .

T he Tundza r ises i n t he S tara P lan ina a nd f lows a long t he Va l ley

o f t he R oses , i n wh ich K azan luk ( chap . 8 ) i s s i tua ted .

A t t he e as tern e nd o f

t he S redna G ora r ange i tt hen t urns s ou thwards a nd j o ins t he Mar i tza a t E d irne . The ma in r iver i n wes tern Bu lgar ia i s t he S truma wh ich r ises i n t he R hodopes s ou th o f t he S o f ia B as in a nd f lows s ou thwards i n to t he A egean a s t he S tr i mon . Approx i mate ly p ara l le l t o t he S tru ma i s t he Mes ta wh ich r uns o f f t he R hodopes s ou th o f Mt . Mursu la a nd t hen i n to t he Aegean a s t he N es tos . i i )

c l i ma te

The p resen t-day c l i ma te o f Bu lgar ia i s ' o f ac on t inen ta l t ype w i th h o t s u m mers a nd c o ld w in ters , a nd t he r a in fa l l , t hough h eav ies t i n s u m mer , i s d is tr ibu ted t hroughou t t he y ear ' ( Turr i l l , 1 929 :51 ) . S o me d a ta o n mon th ly t e mpera tures i n d i f feren t p ar ts o f Bu lgar ia i s s hown i n T ab le 2 2.

T he e f fec ts o f a l t i tude u pon mean t e mpera tures a re r ead i ly

a pparen t b y c on tras t ing t he w in ter a nd s u m mer t e mpera tures o f R i la , P e trohan o r S i tn iakovo w i th t hose a t P e tr i tsch a nd P lovd iv . S ea a lso a f fec ts mean t e mpera tures :

D is tance f ro m t he B lack

Varna a nd Burgas f or e xa mple h ave

war mer w in ters a nd s how a sma l ler r ange o f mean v a lues t han i n land s tat ions s uch a s P lovd iv .

Ano ther l oca l f ac tor o f s o me impor tance i s t he p rox im i ty

o f moun ta ins , wh ich c an h ave a marked c oo l ing e f fec t :

t hus G abrovo , a t t he

s a me a l t i tude a s K azan luk b u t e nc losed b y moun ta ins , h as n ot iceab ly c o lder w in ters a nd c oo ler s u m mers . As T ab le 2 2 s hows , t e mpera tures c an f luc tua te c ons ideFab ly f ro m t he mon th ly mean .

Among t he h ighes t t e mpera tures r ecorded i s o ne o f 3 8.3 °C

f or K jus tend i l , wh i ls t t e mpera tures h ave f a l len a s l ow a s -3 1.1 °C i n S of ia ( Turr i l l , 1 929 :51) .

I n t he h igher p eaks o f t he R hodopes a nd S tara P lan ina ,

t e mpera tures c an f a l l e ven l ower . i n d a i ly t e mpera tures .

There a re a lso c ons iderable v ar ia t ions

T hroughou t mos t o f B u lgar ia , mean mon th ly t e mpera-

t ures f a l l b e low f reezing f or o n ly o ne mon th o f t he y ear , b u t f ros t i s c o m mon b e tween N ove mber a nd Apr i l a nd o ccas iona l ly i n May , S epte mber a nd October . T he s a me l oca l i n f luences wh ich a f fec t mon th ly mean t e mpera tures a f fect a lso d a i ly f luc tua t ions i n t e mpera ture ;

t hus G abrovo e xper iences more f ros t t han

Kazan luk , a nd c oas ta l a reas l ess t han t hose i n land. S o me d ata o n p rec ip itat ion i n d ifferen t p ar ts o f Bu lgar ia t hroughou t t he y ear i s s hown i n Tab les 2 3 a nd 2 4. A lt itude i s t he d om inan t f actor a f fec t ing t he amoun t o f p rec ip itat ion i n Bu lgar ia.

Most a reas b e low 1 000 m a. s. 1 . r ece ive o n 6 0

a verage C . 5 00-700 m m p .a.,

b u t a t h igher a l t i tudes t here i s ac ons iderab ly

g rea ter amoun t o f p rec ip i ta t ion . I n g enera l , t he d r ies t mon ths a re J anuary a nd F ebruary , a nd t he we t tes t , May a nd J une .

Fro m N ove mber u n t i l March , a nd o ccas iona l ly o u ts ide t h is

p er iod , mos t o f t he p rec ip i ta t ion f a l ls a s s now .

I n s u m mer , much o f t he

p recip i ta t ion c an f a l l w i th a s urpr is ing f i erceness . a re e spec ia l ly c o m mon i n e ar ly s u m mer ;

H a i l a nd t hunders tor ms

i n t he K azan luk r eg ion , f or e xa mp le ,

t hunders tor ms o ccur o n o ne d ay i n t hree i n J une .

T hese a re o f ten h igh ly

l oca lised a nd e x tre me ly v io len t i n t he ir i n tens i ty , a nd c an r esu l t i n much o f t he mon th ly r a in b eing d epos i ted w i th in a f ew h ours .

A l though d ata o n t he

more s pec tacu lar o f t hese d ownpours i n Bu lgar ia i s l ack ing , T urr i l l ( 1929 ) c i tes o ne i ns tance i n Yugos lav ia when 4 8 mm o f r a in f e l l i n 2 0 minu tes ( 1 60 m m/hr ) a nd a no ther i n Dobru ja when 3 20 m m f e l l i n f our h ours ( 80 m m/hr ) . T he e f fec t o f s uch t orren t ia l d ownpours o n s o i l e ros ion w i l l b e d iscussed l a ter i n t h is c hap ter . i v )

s o i ls

Wi th in Bu lgar ia o ver 6 0 d is t inc t s oi l t ypes h ave b een r ecogn ised ( Kon iev , 1 966) . F or t he p urposes o f t h is s tudy , h owever , i ti s s uf f ic ien t t o d is t ingu ish f our ma in g roups . a )

f ores t s oi ls :

a reas o f B u lgar ia .

T hese c o mpr ise a v ar iab le g roup o f s o i ls f ound o ver l arge T hey were o r ig ina l ly f or med d ur ing P l iocene a nd l ower

Qua ternary t imes u nder more e x tre me b ioc l i ma t ic c ond i t ions t han t oday . T yp ica l ly , t he ir p ro f i le i s c harac ter ised b y A (B )C h or izons wh ich g rade i n to e ach o ther w i thou t a ny s harp b oundar ies ; b y mu l l f or ma t ion .

The A h or izon i s u sua l ly c harac ter ised

Una ltered f or ms o f t h is s o i l g roup a re f ound t oday o n ly i n

i so la ted p ocke ts a t t he e dges o f v a l leys .

They a re u sua l ly i n tense ly wea thered

a nd f ound i n al eached f or m marked b y l ow pH a nd p hospha te v a lues .

Where

p seudo-podso l isat ion h as o ccurred , t he h igh a c id i ty r esu l ts i n l ow l eve ls o f n i trogen , p hospha tes a nd o rgan ic ma t ter . c ons iderab ly :

The t ex ture o f t hese s o i ls v ar ies

o n s lopes w i th a g rad ien t i n e xcess o f 2% a nd e spec ia l ly 6% ,

t hey a re f ound i n v ary ing s ta tes o f e ros ion a nd c haracter ised b y a sma l ler p rop or t ion o f c lay a nd s i l t p ar t ic les .

I n g enera l , f ores t s oi ls a re modera te ly

wa ter-re ten t ive a nd a t n o t ime o f t he y ear s u f fer f ro m e i ther e xcess ive wa terl ogg ing o r d ryness ( Kubiena , 1 953 :232 ) . These s o i ls e x tend u p t o 1 500 m a .s . 1 . a nd s uppor t av ar ie ty o f t ree a nd b rushwood c o m mun i t ies wh ich w i l l b e d escr ibed s hor t ly . I n s o me o i t h € , d r ier a reas o f Bu lgar ia , s ou thern b raunerde ( Kubiena , 1 952 : 2 39 ) h ave d eve loped .

T he p ro f i le o f t hese s o i ls i s marked b y as ha l low , h u mus-

d e f icien t Ah or izon a nd a t h in B h or izon .

When e roded , t he u pper p ar ts o f t he

p ro fi le a re e as i ly r e moved . b )

d i luv ia l h i l l s o i ls :

T hese s oi ls a re u sua l ly f ound a t t he f oo t o f h i l ls i n

i nf ans a nd s he lves a nd a re d er ived f ro m f ores t s oi ls wh ich h ave b een r e-sor ted b y e ros ion .

Nor ma l ly t hese s o i ls a re s tony a nd we l l-dra ined , b u t t he ir g ranu-

l o metry d epends t o al arge e x ten t u pon l oca l f actors s uch a s t he g rad ien t o f t he p aren t s lope a nd t he r a te o f e ros ion .

As t hese s o i ls a re f ed b y s i lt-laden

wa ters , t hey a re i n ter m i t ten t ly r echarged w i th p lan t n u tr ien ts .

6 1

C ) smo ln i tzas : T h is i mpor tan t s o i l t ype p reva i ls o ver a l arge p ar t o f S ou th Bu lgar ia , e spec ia l ly t he Mar i tza b as in . T hey h ave f or med o n t he l owes t e leva t ions a nd g en t les t g rad ien ts o f r iver v a l leys where d ra inage was i mpeded a nd t he a ccumu la t ion o f c lay p ar t ic les was f ac i l i ta ted . T hrough t he a ccu mul a t ion o f o rgan ic mater ia l d er ived f ro m meadow-bog a nd t he l ower ing o f g round-wa ter , s wa mp s o i ls d eve loped i n to smo ln i tzas , a nd meadow-bog v egeta t ion was s ucceeded b y g rass s teppe o r , where b e t ter d ra ined , b y t ree a nd s crub c over . A smo ln i tza p rof i le c haracter is t ica l ly s hows a we l l-deve loped A h or izon , o f ten u p t o m t h ick a nd c on ta in ing a we l l-crumbed mu l l . Th is p asses w i tho u t a ny s harp b reak i n to a wh i te C a h or izon , f or med b y t he a ccumu la t ion o f wa ter-so luble s a l ts , a nd t hen t he u nder ly ing C h or izons . The u pper s oi l l ayers a re s trong ly l eached o f c arbona tes . A s c he m ica l wea ther ing i s o bs truc ted , g rea t r eserves o f s o i l n u tr ien ts a ccumu la te . On a ccoun t o f t he r ich s o i l f auna , t he d eco mpos i t ion a nd h um i f ica t ion o f o rgan ic ma t ter i s r ap id . B ecause o f t he h igh c lay c on ten t o f t hese s o i ls , smo ln i tzas a re e x tre me ly wa ter-re ten t ive , a l though t hey c an d ry o u t i n s um mer . I n w in ter a nd s pr ing t hey a re g enera l ly mo is t a nd s o me t i mes b ad ly d ra ined ( Kubiena , 1 953 :138 ) . d )

r iver ine s o i ls :

Two t ypes o f r iver ine s o i ls c an b e d is t ingu ished , o ne

f or med ma in ly o f s and , t he o ther o f c lay .

T he s andy t ype i s f ound a long t he

u pper r eaches o f r ivers , where t he g rad ien t i s s teep a nd t hus t he c arry ing c apac i ty o f t he r iver i s g rea t . Under t hese c ond i t ions s i l t a nd c lay p ar t ic les a re n o t d eposi ted u n t i l t he s peed o f t he r iver s lackens d owns trea m . T hese s oi ls a re n or ma l ly we l l-dra ined . C lay r iver ine s oi ls a re f ound a long t he l ower r eaches o f s o me r iver v a l leys s uch a s t he Mar i tza a nd A z mak ( see c hap . 9 ) where t he g rad ien t i s s l igh t a nd d ra inage impeded . These s o i ls s how a h igh ly d eve loped A h or izon c on ta in ing al arge q uan t ity o f o rgan ic r es idues , a nd a re u sua l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th a marsht ype v ege ta t ion . v )

v ege ta t ion

S evera l d i f feren t t ypes o f p lan t c o mmun i t ies c an b e r ecogn ised i n B u lgar ia . I n g enera l t he ir c o mpos i t ion a nd d is tr ibu t ion a re t he r esu l t o f t wo ma in f ac tors , n a me ly a l t i tude a nd man . As i ti s e x tre me ly d i f f icu l t t o a ssess t he e x ten t a nd d ura t ion o f t he l a t ter i n f luence , we s ha l l a t t h is s tage c on f ine o ur a t ten t ion t o d escr ibing t he ma jor p lan t c o m mun i t ies f ound i n Bu lgar ia t oday , ( exclud ing t hose s uch a s c rop a gr icu lture , p as ture , p lan ta t ions a nd g ardens wh ich r es u l ted d irec t ly f ro m h uman a ct iv i t ies ) , i n t erms o f t he ir a l t i tude . a ) r iver ine marsh : T h is o ccurs o n s wa mpy s oi ls i n r iver v a l leys where d ra inage i s s evere ly impeded . T oday s uch a reas a re r are , s ince t hey h ave b een e i ther d ra ined o r c onver ted i n to r ice f i elds . Turr i l l ( 1929 :127 ) d id h owe ver o bserve e x tens ive marshes i n t he Mar i tza b as in wh ich were c h ie f ly c o mposed o f P hragm i tes c o m mun is T r in . ,S c irpus l acus tr is L ., T ypha l a t if o l ia L . a nd v ar ious s pec ies o f C arex a nd C yperus . b ) s teppe g rass land : T h is t ype o f c o m mun i ty i s f ound o n smo ln i tzas wh ich h ave n o t b een c onver ted t o p as ture o r p lough-land a nd a re i n t he ma in p oor ly d e f ined .

B y d ef in i t ion , t he c o mmones t s pecies i n t hese g rass lands

6 2

a re G ra m inae.

When wr i t ing o f t he s teppe g rass lands i n Bu lgar ia , h owever ,

Turr i l l ( 1 929 :158 ) c onc luded t ha t ' i t i s i ncorrect t o s peak o f al arge s teppe f lora i nt he s ense o f many s pec ies l im i ted t o , o r mos t u sua l ly o ccurr ing , i n t he s teppe v ege ta tion ' . C ) a . s .1 .

f ores t :

Oak f ores ts a re p reva len t a t a l t i tudes b e low 7 00 — 1 000 m.

A ccord ing t o Turr i l l ( 1 929 :140 ) ' Woods d om inated b y o ak . . .o ccur

e spec ia l ly i n t he l ow land a nd h i l l z ones [ and ] o f ten f or m p ure o r a l mos t p ure c o mmun i t ies b u t s o met i mes merge i n to mixed d ec iduous f ores t '. i ng s pec ies were t he c o m mones t :

The f o l low-

Quercus c on fer ta K i t ., Q . c err is L .,

Q . r obur L . a nd Q . s ess i l i f lora S a l isb .

T hese were o f ten a ssoc ia ted w i th

t he f o l low ing : Frax inus e xce ls ior L .

U l mus c a mpes tr is L .

Fagus s y lva t ica L .

T i l ia t o men tosa Moench

Acer c a mpes tre L .

J ug lans r eg ia L .

Prunus a v iu m L .

C arp inus b e tu lus L .

a nd o ccas iona l ly w i th : P yrus s pp .

Popu lus s pp.

Acer s pp .

Os tyra c arp in i fo l ia S cop .

C as tanea s a t iva M i l l on ta ined s uch s pec ies a s : T he u ndergrowth i n s uch f ores t c Prunus s p inosa L .

C ory lus a ve l lana L .

L igus trum v u lgare L .

U ra taegus monogyna J acq .

C ornus s angu inea L .

C ornus mas L .

S a mbucus n igra L .

Rha mnus s pp.

I ti s c lear f ro m t he a bove l i s t t ha t t h is t ype o f f ores t c o m mun i ty c on ta ins aw ide v ar ie ty o f e d ib le p lan t r esources , s uch a s wa lnu t , h aze l , s wee t-ches tnu t a nd C orne l ian c herry . b eech f ores t A bove t he l eve l o f o ak f ores t a nd a t a lt i tudes b e tween 7 00-1000 m

u pt o

1 400 — 1 500 m , b eech i s c o mmon ly t he d om inan t a nd s o me t i mes t he o n ly t ree s pec ies .

I n t he h igher p ar ts o f b eech f ores ts , c on i fers a re o f ten a n im-

p or tan t , a nd s o me t i mes d om inan t c o mponen t o f t he wood land s pec ies . f o l low ing s pec ies a re o f ten impor tan t a ssoc ia tes o f b eech f ores ts :

The

( Turr i l l ,

1 929 :141 ) : Carp inus b e tu lus L .

B e tu la v errucosa Ehrh .

Popu lus t re mu la L .

Acer p seudop la tanus L .

P yrus a ucupar ia G a .er tn .

U l mus s cabra M i l l .

Abies a lba Mi l l .

P icea a bies Kars t

C ory lus c o lurna L .

P inus s y lves tr is L .

F ores t c o m mun i t ies s uch a s t hese a re n ow e x tre me ly r are i n Bu lgar ia . Over much o f Bu lgar ia ( and a lso t he B a lkan p en insu la i n g enera l ) b rushwood c o mmun i t ies a re f ound i ns tead .

T hese a re k nown i n Bu lgar ia b y t he v er-

n acu lar n a me o f ' sh iblyak ' ( Turr i l l , 1 929 :152 ) .

6 3

S h ib lyak i s ap redo m inan t ly d ec iduous t ype o f c o m mun i ty f ound u p t o 1 200 m a .s . 1 .

I tc ons ists ma in ly o f s hrubs a nd b ushes , o f wh ich t he f o l low ing a re

d om inan t a nd c harac ter is t ic s pec ies ( Turr i l l , 1 929 :155 ) : P a l iurus s p ina-Chr is t i Mi l l .

C o t inus c ozgy p . ia S cop .

Quercus l a m enosa Thu i l l .

S yr inga v u lEar is L .

B erber is v u lger is L .

Rhus c or iar ia L .

. A cer c a mpes tre L .

C ornus mas L .

C arp inus o r ien ta l is M i l l .

V iburnu m l an tana L .

C orylus a vel lana L .

C oron i l la emeroides B o iss .

The o r ig in a nd s ign i f icance o f t h is t ype o f c o m mun i ty w i l l b e d iscussed b e low . d )

a lpine c o m mun i t ies :

A bove t he t ree-l ine a t a l t i tudes g rea ter t han 1 500

m a. s. 1 ., a lp ine c o m mun it ies b ecome d om inan t.

Moun ta in g rassland , f or med

d om inan t ly o f s edges a nd g rasses s uch a s v ar ious s pec ies o f F es tuca , P oa , Ph leu rn a nd J uncus , o f ten f or m e x tens ive a reas o f moun ta in meadow i n many p ar ts o f Bu lgar ia . On s o me h igh moun ta in s lopes , h owever , where d ra inage i s impeded , moun ta in b ogs a re f ound .

Turr i l l ( 1929 :130 ) s aw s o me o n M t .

V i tosa , n ear S o f ia , a t a l t i tudes b e tween 1 750 m a nd 2 285 m a .s.l. wh ich were c harac ter ised b y s wa mp p lan ts s uch a s v ar ious s pec ies o f Vacc in ium , E r iop horu m , Drosera a nd O rch is. v i )

r ecen t a nd modern f ar m ing e cono m ies i n Bu lgar ia

E cono m ic p reh is tor ians h ave f requen t ly b een t e mpted t o b ase t he ir r econs truc t ions o f p reh is tor ic s ubs is tence p a t terns u pon c on te mporary a gr icu l tura l p ract ices , e specia l ly when t hese s ee m ' t rad i t iona l ' o r ' pr im i t ive ' when c o mp ared w i th t hose i n , f or e xa mp le , N .W . Europe .

As t h is s ec t ion w i l l i nd ica te ,

h owever , i t wou ld b e d angerous t o u se s uch d a ta u ncr i t ica l ly i n v iew o f t he c hanges wh ich h ave o ccurred i n Bu lgar ia o ver t he l as t c en tury.

F or t he p ur-

p oses o f t h is d iscuss ion , i ti s c onven ien t t o s epara te f ar m ing f ro m t ranshu man t e cono m ies . a )

f ar m ing e cono m ies :

Ad escr ipt ion o f f ar m ing i n Bu lgar ia d ur ing t he

1 880s s hor t ly a f ter t he c oun try h ad g a ined i t s i ndependance f ro m O t to man r u le , i s g iven b y S a mue lson ( 1888 :168 ) :

' Near ly e very p easan t h as h is f arm , r are ly

o f l ess t han f ive t o s ix h ec tares ( 12 A - t o 1 5 a cres ) , a nd a n umber o f t hese f ar ms , w i th t he ir c o t tages a nd h u ts g rouped t oge ther , f or m a v i l lage , t o wh ich i s a t tached a l arge e x ten t o f c oun try a s "Mera" . p as ture , i n t he moun ta ins wood land ;

I n t he p la ins t h is "Mera" i s

b u t wherever i ti s s i tua ted , t he c o m mun-

i t y t o wh ich i tb e lo n gs h as t he u su fruc t , i nc lud ing t he r igh t t o c u t wood .' Mos t o f t hese f ar ms were e ngaged i n c erea l c u l t iva t ion a nd s tock r a is ing f or d o mes t ic c onsump t ion ; a lso g rown . a nd f ue l .

af ew c ash c rops s uch a s t obacco a nd v egetab les were

I n a dd i t ion t he mera p rov ided a v a luab le s ource o f a n i ma l f eed

Th is t ype o f f ar m u n i t c on t inued t o f or m t he b as is o f Bu lgar ian a gr icu lture u n t i l 1 939 .

B y t ha t t ime h owever c ond i t ions a ppear t o h ave b een c ons iderab ly

worse t han f i f ty y ears p rev ious ly , l arge ly a s ar esu l t o f ar ap id i ncrease i n p opu la t ion i n t he d ecades f o l low ing i ndependence .

As D obr in ( 1973 :5 ) n o tes ,

t here was ' an e x tre me ly h igh b ir th r a te d ur ing t he f irs t t hree d ecades o f t he

6 4

t wen t ie th c en tury , i n f luenced p resu mab ly b y improved c ond i t ions o f i ndepend ence , o n t he o ne h and , a nd r e f lect ing t he p easan ts ' way o f l i fe o n t he o ther . T ab le 3 0 s hows t he magn i tude o f t h is g row th i n p opu la t ion f ro m t he 1 880s o nwards . B y 1 939 , t he i ncrease i np opu la t ion h ad h ad p ro found e f fec ts u pon t he f ar m ing e cono my o f t he c oun try , a nd r esu l ted i n ac a tas troph ic s i tua t ion . I n t he f irs t p lace , t he s i ze o f f ar ms d ec l ined ; i fS a mue lson 's e s t i ma te o f 1 21 --15 a cres f or t he a rea o f a n a verage Bu lgar ian f ar m i n t he 1 880s i s a ccura te , t here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t h is a rea h ad b een h a lved b y 1 939 . As T ab le 2 5 s hows , mos t o f t he f ar ms t hen were l ess t han r q - a cres i n a rea . T he c onsequences o f s uch a r ap id g rowth i nt he p easan t p opu la t ion were worsened b y t he s ys te m o f i nher i tance , whereby e ach s on was e n t i t led t o as hare o f h is f a ther 's l and . T h is mean t t ha t f ar ms b eca me sma l ler a nd more f ragmen ted w i th e ach g enerat i on . A s ys te m o f l and t enure wh ich h ad i n i ta l ly g uaran teed e very p easan t e nough a rab le l and e ven tua l ly g ran ted e nough t o n o-one . T he p rocess o f l and f rag men ta t ion a nd i t s r esu l ts a re d escr ibed b y Wo l f f ( 1 967 :162 ) : ' f er t i le v a ll ey l and was a t s uch a p re m ium t ha t e very v i l lager n eeded a sma l l s hare . H igh i n t he h i l ls a nd p erhaps f ar f ro m h is a rab le s tr ip h e migh t h ave a no ther l o t , t h is t ime p erhaps v ineyard o r o n ly p asture. E lsewhere h e migh t s t i l l h ave o ther h o ld ings . When h e d ied , h is l and was d iv ided e qua l ly among h is s ons ; e ach mus t o f c ourse r ece ive s o me a rab le i n t he v a l ley a nd s o me o f t he p oorer l and i nt he h i l ls . I n o ne g enera t ion , a man 's p roper ty , o f ten t oo sma l l t o b eg in w i th , migh t b eco me a c o l lec t ion o f t iny s tr ips , s epara ted b y l ong d ist ances , a nd t o ta l ly u necono m ica l t o work . S o me t i mes a p easan t h e ld f or ty , f i f ty , o r e ven more t iny p lo ts , s evera l mi les a par t , a l l a dd ing u p t o o ne i nade quate h o ld ing . T he dwar f a nd d iv ided h o ld ing h ad b y 1 939 b eco me c haracteri s t ic o f t he B a lkan c oun tr ies ' ( Wol f f , 1 967:162 ) . T hus , b y 1 939 , Bu lgar ian a gr icu l ture c o mpr ised 8 84 ,869 f ar ms wh ich c ons is ted o f 1 1,862 ,158 p lo ts ( Brown , 1 970 :196 ) . As a r esu l t o f t he f ragmen ta t ion o f f ar m h o ld ings a nd t he ir d ec l ine i n a rea , mos t f arms were u necono m ic . Gra in was o f ten t he ma in c rop , b u t y ie lds were l ow b ecause o f t he l ack o f manure ; t h is c ou ld n o t b e i ncreased e xcept b y r a is ing t he n umber o f l i ves tock , f or wh ich more f odder c rops wou ld h ave b een n eeded .

Ye t t he , g rowth o f f odder wou ld h ave n ecess i ta ted a r educ t ion i n t he

a rea g iven t o g rain c u l t iva t ion , a nd t h is mos t f arms c ou ld n o t a f ford . A s S e ton- Wa tson ( 1945 :90 ) wro te : ' The sma l l h o ld ings ...produce c erea ls a nd h ave a sma l ler n umber o f a n i ma ls , b u t a re p reven ted f ro m k eep ing many a n ima ls b y t he l ack o f f odder , a nd f ro m p roduc ing v ege tab le a nd i ndus tr ia l c rops b y t he l ack o f a n i ma l manure ' .

T he r esu l ts o f s uch a d ear th o f manure o n

B u lgar ian f ar ms b y 1 939 i s we l l i l lus tra ted b y t he c on tras t p resen ted b y Dan ish a gr icu l ture . I n 1 937 , 2 4.23% o f t he a rab le l and i n D enmark was g iven o ver t o f odder c rops , c o mpared w i th o n ly 6 .68% i n Bu lgar ia ; whea t y ie lds were 2 9 .2 q u in ta ls/hec tare i n D enmark , b u t o n ly 1 1.9 q u in ta la/hec tare i n Bu lgar ia ( Se tonWa tson , 1 945 :89) .

T he emphas is o n g ra in c u l t iva t ion p rov ided a mos t i nade-

q ua te d ie t , d ef icien t i np ro te in , c a lc iu m a nd v i ta m ins . Mos t f ar ms d id n o t p roduce e nough f or d o mes t ic c onsu mp t ion ; i n 1 939 , i t was e s t i ma ted t ha t t he a verage f ar m h ouseho ld h ad t o p urchase 8 1% o f t he ir f ood . Th is c ou ld b e d one o n ly b y as ys te m o f e x tended c red it : c rops wou ld b e s o ld e ven b e fore t hey were s own , a nd c a lves b e fore t hey were b orn . I ti s s carcely s urpr is ing t ha t , a s Wo l ff ( 1 967:162 ) o bserved , ' gr inding b i t ter p over ty a cco mpan ied t he dwar f h o ld ing ' .

6 5

I nt he o p in ion o f many e cono m is ts ( see R oya l I ns t i tu te o f I n ternat iona l Af fa irs, 1 939 , 1 940 ;

S e ton- Wa tson , 1 945 :

Wo l f f , 1 967 ) t he c oun try b y 1 939 was c hron i-

c a l ly o ver-popu la ted , a nd c ou ld s o lve t h is p aramoun tp rob le m o n ly b y i ndust r ia l isa t ion o r mass em igra t ion .

The p opu la t ion o n t he a rab le l and i n 1 939

was 1 13 p ersons p er s quare k i lo me tre , c o mpared w i th o n ly 3 6.6 i n D en mark , a n i nco mparab ly wea l th ier c oun try ( Roya l I ns t i tu te o f I n ternat iona l A f fa irs, 1 939 :75 ) . I t was g enera l ly t hough t t ha t t he c arry ing c apac i ty o f t he a rab le l and i n Bu lgar ia was a bou t 5 0 p eop le p er s q . km . The g rave p rob le ms p ervad ing Bu lgar ian a gr icu l ture b y 1 939 were t o a l arge e x ten t r eso lved b y t he a bsorp t ion o f t ha t c oun try i n to Moscow 's s phere o f i n f luence a nd t he e s tabl ish men t o f aC o m mun is t r eg i me i n 1 944.

S ince

t hen , Bu lgar ian a gr icu l ture h as b een t rans for med o u t o f a l l r ecogn i t ion o f t he p re-1939 s i tua t ion , p r i mar i ly b y c o l lec t iv isa t ion a nd mechan isa t ion .

I ti s ,

h owever , d i f f icu l t t o o b ta in p rec ise o r r e l iab le i n for ma t ion o n Bu lgar ia s ince 1 945 .

As D obr in ( 1973 :x i i ) s ta tes : ' Lack o f d a ta o n an u mber o f r e levan t p oin ts

a nd t he p ecu l iar i t ies o f o f f icia l S ov ie t-s ty le s ta t is t ics , a s we l l a s s evere r es tr ic t ions o n i ndependen t e nqu iry i n s o me C o m mun is t c oun tr ies , a re h and ic apping f actors i n a rr iv ing a t d e f in i te c onc lus ions ' o np os t-1945 d eve lop men t . Accoun ts o f Bu lgar ia u nder C o m mun is t r u le t end t o b e h igh ly p ar t isan , whet her wr i t ten b y Bu lgar ians ( f or e xa mp le ,

D inev a nd Meln ins ld . ( 1965 ) o r

R ouss inov ( 1969 ) ) o r b y Amer icans ( Wo l f f ( 1967) , Brown ( 1970 ) o r D obr in ( 1973 ) ) .

B o th s ides a re h owever c ons is ten t u pon a n umber o f p o in ts .

F irs t , t he t rad i t iona l s ys te m o f l and t enure a nd i nher i tance h as b een a bo l is hed b y b r ing ing a l mos t a l l a rab le l and u nder s ta te c on tro l .

I n 1 949 , o n ly

1 1.2% o f t he l and was c o l lect iv ised , b u t a t t he e nd o f t ha t y ear , c o l lec t iv isat ion b egan i n e arnes t a nd w i th in 1 2 mon ths 4 4 .2% o faa l l a rab le l and was s ta tec on tro l led . Th is p ropor t ion r ose t o 7 7.4% b y 1 956 , a nd t o o ver 9 2% b y 1 958 ( Brown , 1 970 :198-203 ) . A t t he s a me t ime , f ar ms were r eorgan ised i n to l arg er u n i ts .

T h is p rocess r eached a c l i max i n 1 958 , when 3 450 c o l lec t ives

were merged i n to 6 44 n ew f ar ms w i th a n a verage a rea o f 7 0 , 0 00 d ecares ( wh ich were t hus t he l arges t i n Europe ) .

T hese p roved t oo l arge t o b e mana-

g ed e f f ic ien t ly , a nd s o were r e-organ ised i n to 9 32 f ar ms , c o mpr is ing o n a verage 4 2 , 0 00 d ecares ( Brown , 1 970 :208 ). i n T ab le 2 6.

These t rends a re s u m mar ised

T he s ign i f icance o f t hese c hanges s hou ld n o t b e u nder-es t i ma ted ;

a s Brown ( 1970 :204 ) r e marks , "Wha t h ad p rev ious ly b een Bu lgar ia 's mos t o u ts tand ing p hys ica l c harac ter is t ic - t he p a tchwork q u i l t o f t iny h o ld ings h ad b een c o mp le te ly t rans for med i n al i t t le o ver t en y ears ' ( Brown , 1 970 :204 ) . The r e la t ionsh ip G I b ia te-owned t o p r iva te l and i s s t i l l i n f lux , h owever , A l though o n ly c . 9% o f t he a rab le l and was l e f t i n p r iva te h ands i n 1 958 , t h is p ropor t ion h as—b een l e f t more o r l ess c ons tan t , a nd e ven a l lowed i n s o me i ns tances t o i ncrease s l igh t ly . Th is i s l arge ly b ecause t he p r iva te l and , h owe ver u n tenab le i n t heory , i s i nd ispens ib le i n p rac t ice . As T ab le 2 7 s hows , t he p resen t e cono my wou ld b e s evere ly weakened i ft he p r iva te l and were r emoved .

A l though Bu lgar ian c o m men ta tors h ave a t t imes c r i t ic ised t he p ers is-

t ence o f p r iva te l and o n g rounds o f i neff ic iency , t hey w i l l p robab ly r e ma inan i n tegra l p ar t o f t he e cono my f or s o me t ime t o c o me . There i s e very r eason t o s uppose t ha t y ie lds h ave i ncreased s ign i f ican t ly s ince 1 945 .

The magn i tude o f t hese i ncreases , s hown i n Tab les 2 8 a nd 2 9 ,

6 6

i s p ar t ly a t tr ibu tab le t o t he f ac t t ha t i n 1 939 Bu lgar ian a gr icu l tura l p roduc t iv i ty was o ne o f t he l owes t i n Europe .

I tr e ma ins a d eba tab le p o in t whe ther S ov ie t-

s ty le p lann ing h as b een a s impor tan t af ac tor i n r a is ing f ar m y ie lds a s t he a dven t o f mechan isat ion a nd c he m ica l f er t i l isers ;

a s T ab le 3 1 s hows , c rop

y ie lds h ave i ncreased s ince 1 945 i n n on-Co m mun is t a s we l l a s C o m mun is t c oun tr ies . b )

t ranshu mance :

Transhu mance was f or l ong o ne o f t he mos t s a l ien t

f ea tures o f Bu lgar ia a nd t he ma in way o f e xp lo it ing l arge a reas o f s easona l moun ta in g razing .

As Turr i l l ( 1929 :209 ) o bserved i n t he f irs t q uar ter o f t h is

c en tury " In Bu lgar ia , t ranshumance i s e specia l ly c arr ied o u t b y t he c a t t le h erds man o f t he c en tra l S redna G ora , b y t he s hepherds o f t he Ko te l B a lkan , b y t he V lachs a nd b y t he Turk ish Y ourouks . . .T he ' Srednogorc i ' w in ter i n t he l ower Mar iza b as in o r n ear Burgas , a nd t he s hepherds o f Ko te l i n t he P on t ic l ow lands o f t he Dobrud ja a nd T hrace , e spec ia l ly n ear Karnobad , a s t hey h ave d one f or y ears '.

J ir icek ( 1887, i n Turr i l l , 1 929 :209 ) n o ted t ha t i n t he

1 870s s heep a nd g oa t n u mbered 5 25 ,000 i nt he S l iven d is tr ic t a lone i n e as t Bu lgar ia , a nd 5 60 ,000 n ear S o f ia .

These c o mmun i t ies f o l lowed a we l l-

e s tab l ished r ou t ine o f s easona l move men ts b y w in ter ing t he ir f locks o n t he l ow lands a nd t hen t rans ferr ing t he m t o t he a lp ine g razing o n t he S tara P lan ina , S redna G ora o r Rhodopes .

S urp lus p roduce s uch a s mi lk , mea t o r woo l was

s o ld t o t owns a nd v i l lages i n r e turn f or g ra in a nd o ther p roduce ;

i n a dd i t ion ,

t hese f l ocks p rov ided much o f t he manure a va i lab le t o t he a rab le l and . Av ar ie ty o f p o li t ica l a nd s ocia l f ac tors h ave c aused t he p rac t ice o f t ransh u mance t o d ec l ine s er ious ly i n r ecen t d ecades .

Al arge p ropor t ion o f t he

t ranshu man ts o bserved b y Turr i l l were Turk ish who h ad r e ma ined i n Bu lgar ia a f ter i t s i ndependence f ro m t he O t to man Empire .

I n t he y ears f o l low ing t he

Grea t War , s uch e thn ic minor i t ies were e ncouraged t o r ese t t le i n t he c oun try o f t he ir mother t ongue.

B e tween 1 925 a nd 1 939 , n ear ly 1 00 ,000 Turk ish-

s peak ing Bu lgar ians em igra ted t o Turkey ( Wo l f f , 1 967:477 ) , a nd b y 1 952 , 2 20 ,000 h ad l eft Bu lgar ia. Those r e ma in ing h ave b ecome a ss im i lated i n to t he p opu lat ion .

Thus when Turr i l l w rote a bout t ranshumance i n t he 1 920s,

h e w as o bserv ing t he b eg inn ing o f ad rast ic d ec l ine i n i t s p revalence. T ranshu mance wou ld p robab ly h ave d ec l ined e ven i f s uch e thn ic r eo rgan isa t ions h ad n o t o ccurred .

I ndus tr ia l isa t ion , t he g rowth o f c i t ies a nd

t he c om for ts o f ac onsumer s ocie ty a re r are ly c o mpa t ib le w i th t ranshumance . I n s evera l c onversa t ions , Iwas t o ld t ha t s hepherd ing h ad d ec l ined i n r ecen t y ears b ecause i t was d i f f icu l t t o r ecru i t y oung men f or s uch work ; i t was c er ta in ly my impress ion t ha t mos t s hepherds were e lder ly .

T hus a l though

t here a re r epu ted ly ( see T ab le 3 0 ) more s heep a nd g oa t t han when Turr i l l was w ork ing , t he f l ocks a re sma l ler , a nd t he ir s u m mer g razing i s n ow c h ie f ly c arr ied o u t b y sma l l g roups b ased o n c o m munes f or a f ew d ays a t at ime . 2 .

D iscuss ion :

r e levance o f modern d a ta t o s tud ies o f n eo l i th ic a nd b ronze

a ge e cono m ies I nt h is s ect ion we s ha l l t ry t o a ssess t he v a lue o f t he d a ta p resen ted a bove t o s tud ies o f n eo l i th ic a nd b ronze a ge s e t t le men t i n Bu lgar ia . Three t he mes w i l l b e s e lec ted a s b e ing o f e specia l r e levance : c l i ma te u pon h u man s e t t le men t a nd s ubs is tence ;

f irs t , t he e f fec t o f r e l ief a nd s econd , t he p robab le e cono m ic

p oten t ia l o f t he s o i l t ypes a nd v ege ta t iona l c o m mun i t ies d escr ibed a bove , a nd 6 7

t h ird , t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he c l i ma te , v ege tat ion a nd s oi l c over o n t he o ne h and , a nd man a nd a gr icu l ture o n t he o ther . i ) i n f luence o f r e l ie f a nd c l i ma te o n n eo l i th ic a nd b ronze a ge s e t t le men t The e f fec ts o f c l i ma te a nd r e l ie f wou ld u ndoubted ly h ave c aused t he amoun t o f r esources a va i lab le t o ap reh is tor ic c o m mun i ty t o v ary c ons iderab ly t hrougho u t t he y ear .

I n p ar t icu lar , t he c o mb ina t ion o f l ow t e mperatures a nd p ro-

l onged s now c over d ur ing w in ter mon ths a t a l t i tudes a bove 1 500 m a. s.l. wou ld a l mos t c er ta in ly h ave r es tr ic ted t he u sage o f a lp ine g razing t o t he s ummer mon ths o n ly . E ven i n s u m mer h owever i ti s o f ten d i f f icu l t t o g a in a ccess t o t hese a reas b ecause o f t he p rec ip i tous n a ture o f t he moun ta in s lopes . I n many a reas t hese c an b e a scended o n ly v ia a f ew , w ide ly s epara ted s ide v a l leys . The l a t ter migh t h ave b een a n impor tan t f actor a f fec t ing t he l oca t ion o f p reh is tor ic s e t t le men ts , f or t hose c o m mun i t ies wh ich e xp lo i ted t he r esources o f b o th t he l ow lands a nd t he h igher moun ta in a reas wou ld p robab ly h ave l oca ted t he ir s e t t le men ts n ear s uch s ide v a l leys .

Th is h ypo thes is w i l l b e c ons idered l a ter

w i th r e ference t o p reh is tor ic s et t le men t i n t he

e lope 6 . r eg ion ( chap . 6 ) .

T he moun ta inous n a ture o f much o f B u lgar ia wou ld h ave i n f luenced c ons iderab ly s e t t le men t i n a nd move men t b e tween d i f feren t a reas , a nd p robab ly h ave c on f ined p reh is tor ic s e t t le men t t o l owly ing r iver v a l leys t o t he s a me e x ten t a s i td oes t oday.

C o m mun ica t ions b etween v a l ley b as ins a nd a cross

moun ta in r anges wou ld a lso h ave b een a d i f f icu l t p rocedure .

E ven t oday ,

move men t a cross t he S tara P lan ina b e tween N or th a nd S ou th Bu lgar ia i s l arge ly r es tr ic ted t o f our w ide ly s epara ted p asses , a nd t he Rhodopes p resen t a n e ven g rea ter o bs tac le t o t rave l . i )

t he e cono m ic p oten t ia l o f s o i ls a nd p lan t c o m mun i t ies

a )

s o i ls :

A l though s evera l s o i l t ypes o ccur i n Bu lgar ia , o n ly a f ew a re

l i ke ly t o h ave b een s ui table f or p reh is tor ic c rop a gr icu l ture i n t er ms o f t he ir t i l lage p o ten t ia l a nd f er t i l i ty .

I ts ee ms mos t u n l ike ly t ha t t he t ypes o f d igg ing

imp le men ts a nd p r im i t ive a rds i n u se i n S ou th Bu lgar ia b y t he Bronze A ge wou ld h ave b een s u i tab le f or t i l l ing h eavy a nd p oor ly d ra ined s o i ls s uch a s t he smo ln i tzas , f ores t a nd r iver ine s wa mpy s o i ls .

I ndeed , l arge a reas o f t hese

h ave c o me u nder c u l t iva t ion o n ly w i th in t he l as t t wen ty y ears o r s o w i th t he i n troduct ion o f mechan ised p lough ing , o f ten a cco mpan ied b y l arge-sca le d ra inage s che mes .

C rop c u l t iva t ion d ur ing t he N eo l ith ic a nd Bronze Age wou ld

p robab ly h ave b een l im i ted t o t he l i gh ter a nd b e t ter-dra ined s o i ls , n a me ly t he d i luv ia l s andy s oi ls , s andy r iver ine s o i ls a nd e roded t ypes o f f ores t s o i ls . I ti s h owever t he smoln i tzas , c on ta in ing t he l arges t r eserves o f o rgan ic a nd minera l n u tr ien ts , t ha t a re t he mos t f er t i le s o i ls . A s ac onsequence , t i l lage p o ten t ia l a nd s o i l f er t i l i ty wou ld h ave b een mu tua l ly e xc lus ive c a tegor ies . P reh is tor ic c rop a gr icu l ture i s t hus l i ke ly t o h ave b een r es tr ic ted o n t he o ne h and t o t hose s o i ls l i gh t e nough t o t i l l a nd , o n t he o ther h and , t o t hose wh ich c ou ld s us ta in t he h eav ies t y ie lds . I n t h is c on tex t , s o i l e cotones , f or med where d i f feren t s o i ls g rade i n to e ach o ther , may h ave b een o f e spec ia l s ign if icance .

F er t i le s o i ls t oo h eavy t o t i l l b eco me more amenab le mechan ica l ly

where t here i s a n a dm ix ture o f l ess f er t i le s andy s o i ls ; 6 8

c onverse ly , s andy

s o i ls a re made more wa ter-reten t ive a nd more p roduct ive b y t he i nc lus ion o f ah eav ier c o mponen t .

L a ter i n t h is s tudy , t he h ypo thes is w i l l b e t es ted

t ha t s uch e co tones wou ld h ave b een t he mos t a dvan tageous l oca t ions f or s e t t lemen t b y p reh is tor ic a gr icu l tura l c o m mun i t ies . b )

v ege ta t iona l c o m mun i t ies :

As t here h ave b een r egret tab ly f ew p a lyno-

l og ica l s tud ies o n t he v ege tat iona l h is tory o f S . Bu lgar ia , mos t o f o ur a ssess men ts o n t he t ype o f v ege ta t ion f ro m t he s ix th t o t h ird mi l lenn ium b .C . h ave t o b e b ased l arge ly u pon r ecen t a nd c on te mporary d a ta .

B ozh i lova

( 1975 ) h as p ub l ished a p rel im inary r epor t o f ap o l len p ro f i le f ro m t he P an ich ish te p ea t-bog , s i tua ted a t 1 500 m a . s .l . o n t he n or th-wes tern s lope o f Mt . R i la , o ne o f t he h ighes t p eaks i n t he Rhodopes . f ro m t hree ma jor l im i ta t ions , h owever .

T h is p ro f i le s u f fers

F irs t , i tc on ta ins a ma jor h ia tus

wh ich l as ted f ro m 1 0 ,035 + 6 5 B .P. t o 4 275 + 8 0 B .P. a nd t hus p rov ides n o d ata o nt he p er iod i n wh ich we a re i n teres ted , 6 -2000 b .c .

S econd ly , t h is

p ro f i le i s s i tua ted s o f ar f ro m l ow land a reas where p reh is tor ic s e t t le men t wou ld h ave b een d enses t t ha t i ti s mos t u n like ly t o p rov ide i n for ma t ion o n t he way man mod i f ied t he v ege ta t ion .

Th ird ly , i t wou ld s ee m u n l ike ly t ha t a

p o l len p ro f i le f ro m t he u pper s lopes o f a moun ta in c ou ld p rov ide e qua l ly a cc ura te i n for ma t ion o n t he v ege ta t iona l c o m mun i t ies e x tend ing f ro m s ea-leve l ( i n t h is i ns tance , 1 50 km away ) t o s umm i t , wh ich i s i n t h is i ns tance a t C . 3 000 m . ( The r eader i s r e ferred t o T auber ( 1968 ) f or a d iscuss ion o f s o me f ac tors a f fec t ing p o l len d ispersa l , a nd t o Web ley a nd H iggs ( 1974 ) f or a s ta t is t ica l a na lys is o f t he p o l len d a ta f ro m a p ro f i le i n t he wes tern P indhos moun ta ins i n Greece ) . The P an ich ish te p ro f i le s ugges ts t ha t d ur ing t he E ar ly H o locene , s teppe v egeta t ion p revai led b e low 5 00 m a . s .l . ,a nd o pen Quercus-Carp inus f ores t t o 1 000 m a . s .l .

P inus a nd B e tu la were t he d om inan t t rees f ro m 1 -2000 m,

b u t F agus a nd P icea were a lso c o m mon u p t o 1 500 m . e x is ted a t a l t i tudes a bove 2 000 m a . s .1 .

A lp ine v ege ta t ion

T he v ege ta t ion a f ter 2 245 B .P. i s

t hough t t o h ave b een s im i lar , e xcep t t ha t t here was l ess B e tu la a nd more Abies i n t he wood lands b etween 1 000-1500 m a . s .l . Ap o l len p ro f i le f ro m S trash im irovo n ear Lake Varna ( Bozh i lova a nd F i lip ova , 1 975 ) i s u se fu l i n s howing t hat t he v ege ta t ion i n l owly ing a reas h ad b een c ons iderab ly modi f ied b y h u man a c t iv i t ies b y t he t h ird mi l lenn ium b .c . An e no l i th ic a nd a n e ar ly b ronze a ge s e t t le men t a re k nown f ro m n ear where t he p o l len p rof i le was made .

D a ta o n t he v ege ta t ion a ssoc ia ted w i th t he e neo-

l i th ic s e t t le men t , d a ted t o 5 520 + 1 00 B .P. a nd 5 599 + 1 00 B .P., i s s can ty b u t i s s a id t o i nc lude p o l len g ra ins o f T r i t icu m .

T he b ronze a ge s e t t le men t

was a ssoc ia ted w i th l arge n umbers o f r udera ls s uch a s Ru mex , Ur t ica , P lan tago l anceo la ta , C henopod iaceae a nd G ra m inae , i nc lud ing C erea l ia . Arborea l p o l len was r are ly more t han 3 0% o f t he t ota l i n t h is p ar t o f t he p rof i le , a nd c ons is ted main ly o f g ra ins o f Quercus , U l mus , T i l ia , Frax inus , A lnus , F agus a nd C arp inus o r ien ta l is .

I t wou ld s ee m a f a ir a ssu mp t ion t ha t

s im i lar a n thropogen ic i n f luences wou ld b e d etec ted i n t he v ic in i ty o f o ther p reh is tor ic s et t le men ts i n l owlying a reas . Wi th t he p rov iso i n mind t ha t mos t o pin ions o n t he v ege ta t ion o f S . Bu lgar ia f ro m t he N eo l i th ic t o Bronze Age a re s pecu la t ive u n t i l much more p a lyno log ica l d a ta i s a va i lab le , we c an make s o me t en ta t ive p roposa ls .

6 9

F irs t , i ti s l i ke ly

t ha t p reh is tor ic c o m mun i t ies d ur ing t he p er iod u nder c ons idera t ion w ou ld h ave h ad a ccess t o al arge r ange o f e d ib le p lan ts .

As T ab le 3 2 s hows , t he

p roduce f ro m t rees s uch a s wa lnu t , h aze l a nd o ak a re e x tre me ly n u tr it ious i n t er ms o f t he ir weigh t a nd c o mpare f avourab ly w ith p lan ts s uch a s c erea ls a nd l egu mes . F ru i ts s uch a s a pp le , p ear a nd C orne l ian c herry c ou ld h ave b een a n impor tan t s ource o f s ugar a nd v i ta m in C . Many o f t he p lan ts f ound i n t he t ype o f wood land c o mmun i t ies s o f ar d escr ibed c ou ld h ave b een c ons erved a nd s o e a ten t hroughou t t he y ear . A l though a w ide r ange o f e d ib le p lan ts m igh t h ave b een a va i lab le i n woodl ands , i ts ee ms u n l ike ly t ha t t hey wou ld h ave b een s tap le f oods among c o mmun i t ies wh ich p ossessed c erea ls o r l egumes . T h is i s l arge ly b ecause e d ib le p lan ts i n wood land c o m mun i t ies t end t o b e f ound i n d ense b u t w ide ly s ca t tered c oncen tra t ions . C onsequen t ly , t he amoun t o f p ro te in o r c a lor ies wh ich c ou ld b e e x trac ted f ro m t rees s uch a s h aze l , o ak o r wa lnu t i n f or e xa mp le o ne a cre o f wood land w i l l p robab ly b e f ar l ess t han t ha t o b ta ined f ro m a s im i lar a rea u nder c erea ls o r l egumes . .Th is i ssue w i l l b e e xa m ined more c lose ly l a ter when t he b o tan ica l d a ta f ro m C hevdar a nd K a .zan luk i s d isc ussed . S econd ly , t he v egeta t iona l c o mmun i t ies d escr ibed a bove a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een o f v arying p o ten t ia l f or a n i ma l g razing , a nd c an b e c lass i f ied a s f o l lows : y ear-round g razing An i ma ls c ou ld h ave f ound g razing t hroughou t t he y ear o n ly i n a reas wh ich were a ccess ib le d ur ing w in ter , a nd wh ich r eta ined a dequa te mo is ture i n t he s u mmer . S uch a reas wou ld h ave b een o f c r i t ica l impor tance i n t he l a te s um mer , when o ther s o i ls b eco me t oo d ry t o p rov ide g ood g razing . I ts ee ms r easonab le t o s uppose t ha t t he ma in o ccurrences o f s uch g raz ing w ou ld h ave p reva i led o n t he smo ln i tzas a nd r iver ine s o i ls where d ra inage i s mos t impeded . s easona l g razing We c an r ecogn ise t wo t ype o f s easona l g razing . One wou ld h ave o ccurred i n l ow land a reas o n s oi ls wh ich b eca me t oo d ry i n s ummer t o p rov ide y earr ound g razing .

I n S ou th Bu lgar ia t hese s oi ls w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een t hose

smo ln i tzas wh ich d r ied o u t i n l a te s u mmer , a nd h i l l s o i ls a t l ow a l t i tudes . The s econd t ype o f s easona l g razing wou ld h ave b een f ound i n moun tain a reas a bove t he t reel ine . Wh i ls t t hese a reas p rov ide g ood g razing i n t he s pr ing a nd s u mmer , t hey a re i naccess ib le i n w in ter b ecause o f l ow t e mperat ures a nd d eep s now . b rowse Th is wou ld h ave p reva i led where t ree-grow th was e x tens ive , e i ther i n t he f or m o f d ec iduous f ores t o r s h iby lak . S uch t ree-cover wou ld a lso h ave f or med au se fu l s ource o f w in ter f odder a nd s he l ter f or l i ves tock . T he n u tr i t ive v a lue o f v ar ious p lan t f oods f or l i ves tock i s s hown i n T ab le 3 3 . I n a dd i t ion , t h is r esource w oü ld h ave p rov ided mos t o f t he f ood r equ ire men ts f or r oe-deer , r ed d eer , c a t t le a nd s wine .

7 0

i i )

r e la t ionsh ip b e tween h u man e cono my a nd p hys ica l e nv ironmen t

I ti s d i f f icu l t t o e va lua te t he s ign i f icance o f r ecen t e cono m ic c hanges i n Bu lgar ia i n r e la t ion t o t he ir e nv iron men ta l c on tex t b ecause t he t wo p r inc ipa l c o mponen ts o f t h is r e la t ionsh ip — t he e cono m ic a nd t he e nv ironmen ta l — o pera te w i th in d i f feren t t ime-sca les . R ecen t a gr icu l tura l e cono m ies a re o f ten h igh ly u ns tab le a nd d yna m ic , a nd s ub jec t t o av ar ie ty o f s hor t-ter m p ressures o f ap o li t ica l o r s oc ia l k ind . T h is p o in t i s e specia l ly t rue o f Bu lgar ia , where w ide-rang ing a nd f ar-reach ing c hanges h ave o ccurred w i th in t he p as t c en tury .

A f ter t he g ran t ing o f i ndependence i n t he 1 870 's , t he a gr i-

c u l tura l e cono my was f aced w i th n ove l e cono m ic a nd p o li t ica l c ond i t ions , a nd u ndoub ted ly h ad s cope f or r a is ing i t s p roduc t iv i ty a nd s uppor t ing a n i n i t ia l r ise i np opu la t ion . B y 1 939 , t he s i tua t ion h ad c lear ly d eter iora ted , a nd t he p reva i l ing

' t rad i t iona l ' e cono my was n o l onger a ble t o s uppor t t he r ura l p opu-

l a t ion a t at o lerable s tandard o f l i v ing . S ince 1 945 , ac ons iderab le d egree o f r e-organ isa t ion a nd modern isa t ion h as t aken p lace , a nd w i l l c on t inue t o d o s o f or s o me t ime . T hese a re h owever — e spec ia l ly when c ons idered a ga ins t t he l ongev i ty o f e cono m ic p a t terns o bserved b y t he p reh is tor ian — s hor t-ter m p a t terns o f ak ind wh ich c ou ld p robab ly n o t b e d e tected i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . S ince t he ma in i n teres t o f t he e cono m ic p reh is tor ian c oncerns t he l ong-ter m r e la t ionsh ip o f man w i th h is e nv ironmen t , i ti s n ecessary t o i so la te t hose d eve lop men ts i n r ecen t t imes wh ich a re l i ke ly t o b e d e tec ted i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , a nd wh ich c an b e s een u nder lying t he man i fo ld d eve lopmen ts o f r ecen t t imes . I nt h is c on tex t we c an c oncen tra te o ur a t ten t ion u pon c ons idering t he l ongt er m e f fects o nt he e nv ironmen t o f s ubs is tence a gr icu l tura l e cono m ies a ssoc ia ted w i th a r ap id ly i ncreas ing p opu la t ion , a s h as o ccurred i n B u lgar ia w i th in t he p as t c en tury . The f i rs t s tage o f s uch a n e nqu iry c an i nves t iga te t he r ecen t e f fect o f man o nt he v ege ta t ion o f Bu lgar ia . a )

t he r ecen t e f fect o f man

o n t he v ege ta t ion o f Bu lgar ia :

There c an

b e n o d oub t t ha t man h as p ro found ly modi f ied t he v ege ta t ion o f B u lgar ia b y h is r ecen t a c t iv i t ies .

I ti s s ign i f ican t t hat t here i s n ow l i t t le e v idence f or t he

a l t i tud ina l z ona t ion o f p lan t c o m mun i t ies i n ferred b y Turr i l l ; i ndeed e ven a h al f c en tury a go t he c leares t e xa mples o f o ak , b eech a nd c on i ferous f ores ts s een b y Turr il l w ere l oca ted i n t he most i naccess ib le p arts o f t he c oun try ,c 4uch a s f ron t ier r eg ions o r t he h igher p ar ts o f t he R hodopes . I ts ee ms a r easonab le a ssu mp t ion t ha t t hese c o m mun i t ies w ere o nce more e x tens ive , a nd h ave b een r ep laced b y e i ther c rop c u l t iva t ion o r b rushwood c o m mun i t ies . There a re s ound r easons f or s uppos ing t ha t much o f t he b rush-wood o r s h iby lak c o m mun i t ies i n Bu lgar ia a re r ecen t i n o r ig in a nd h ave s upp lan ted wood land c o m mun i t ies . C rusaders ' a ccoun ts o f t he 1 2 th c en tury r e fer t o t he e x tens ive ' S i lvae B u lgoru m ' b e tween B e lgrade a nd N ish i n S erb ia ( Runc i man , 1 951 :1 ;125 ). I n t he 1 840 's K ing lake p assed t hrough t he s a me a rea , a nd d escr ibes ( 1963 :28 ) t he s a me ' grea t S erv ian f ores t [ t hrough w h ich ] o ur r oad was t o l as t f or more t han a h undred mi les .

End less a nd e nd less n ow o n e i ther s ide t he

t a l l o aks c losed i n t he ir r anks , a nd s tood g loo m i ly l ower ing o ver u s ' . V irt ua l ly n one o f t h is f ores t was o bserved b y Turr i l l l ess t han a c en tury l a ter . Even o n ly f or ty y ears a f ter K ing lake 's j ourney , av ery d i f feren t s i tua t ion p rev a i led .

T he f o l low ing p assage b y S a mue lson ( 1888 :14 ) d escr ibes t he s ta te o f

7 1

f ores ts i n B u lgar ia d ur ing t he 1 880 's : ' The h and o f man h as b een f ar more d es truct ive t han i th as b een c ons truc t ive i n s o me p ar ts o f Bu lgar ia . I n o rder t o f or m s o me i dea o f t he s cene wh ich t he B a lkans mus t h ave p resen ted i n p reh is tor ic t imes , t he r eader s hou ld s ee t he m a s t hey a re t o-day . F ormer ly t he moun ta in s lopes were c lo thed w i th v as t f ores ts o f o ak , f requen ted b y t he b ear , t he wo l f , a nd o ther a n i ma ls o f p rey , wh i ls t t he a urochs r oa med a t l arge o ver t he p la ins . T o-day t he o ak o f a ges i s s e ldo m s een ; a nd a l though e ven i n a u tu mn t he moun ta in-s ides a re s t i l l c overed w i th a c arpe t o f b r igh t g reen , t h is i s f ound o n ac loser i nspec t ion t o c ons is t o f s el f-sown o ak s crub , o n wh ich g oa ts a nd c a t t le b rowse , t he a nc ien t woods h av ing b een r u th less ly d est royed t o s upp ly t he n eeds o f s uccess ive g enera t ions o f b arbar ians — e ven o f t hose who s t i l l r e ma in , i n t he s hape o f wander ing g ips ies a nd i gnoran t h erds men — t o who m n o th ing c onsumab le f or f i rewood ( n ot e ven t he n ew k i lome tre p os ts o n t he ways ide ) c o mes am iss . I n al a ter p assage , h e r e turns t o t he s a me t he me a nd n o tes ' t he c over ing o f o ak s crub w i th wh ich t he h i l ls a re c lo thed . . i n t h is p ar t o f t he c oun try , where t he moun ta ins a re n o t h igh a nd t he woods were e as i ly c leared , t he d es truct ion h as b een c o mp le te . T he h i l ls a re c overed w i th wha t a ppear t o b e g reen p lan ta t ions , b u t o n c loser i nspec t ion , i ti s f ound t o c ons is t o f l ow o ak s hrubs , a nd n o t av es t ige o f p r i meva l f ores t n or o f t imber o f a ny k ind h as s urv ived ' ( Sa mue lson , 1 888 :142 ) . H e a lso h in ts t ha t t h is d es truct ion o f t he f ores t was o f r ecen t o r ig in , a nd a c urren t p rob le m , s ince ' The G overnmen t i s e ndeavour ing t o l im i t t he . . . r igh t ( t o c u t wood ) , f or t he r eason f requen t ly g iven , n a me ly t ha t t he f ores ts h ave a lready b een d enuded o r a re f as t d isa ppear ing ' ( S a mue lson , 1 888 :168 ) . T here c an b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t s h iby lak , i n v iew o f i t s r ecen t o r ig in a nd c o mpos i t ion , r epresen ts a n a n thropogen ic t ype o f p lan t c o m mun i ty. A s Turr i l l ( 1 929 :152-3 ) s ta tes , s h iby lak ' mos t o f ten owes i t s o r ig ins t o t he h u man d es truct ion o f f ores ts . . . s h iby lak i s n o t c omposed o f f ores t u ndergrowth l e f t a f ter t he h igh t rees h ave b een r e moved . Many o f t he c harac ter is t ic s pec ies a re l igh t-de mand ing a nd c er ta in ly c ou ld n o t w i ths tand t he c oo l s hade o f f ores ts . The g rea t e x tens ion o f s h ib lyak i s d ue t o man , b u t i ti s an a tura l b rushwood r epresen t ing a b io t ic c l i max ( or s ub-c l i max ) i n as uccess ion i n i t ia ted a f ter f ores t d es truc t ion a nd wh ich wou ld p ass a ga in i n to f ores t were t he b io t ic f ac tors e n t ire ly r e moved '. We c an i den t i fy t wo p r i mary a c t iv i t ies t ha t h ave p ro mo ted t he g row th o f s h iby lak : o ne , t he u sage o f t imber f or b u i ld ing a nd f ue l ;

t he o ther , t he e f fects o f g oa t-grazing .

As a r esu l t o f t imber e xp lo i ta t ion , T urr i l l n o ted t ha t l arge a reas o f f ores t were b e ing c leared w i th l i t t le t hough t o f e i ther r e-a f fores ta t ion , o r o f ma int a in ing t he f ores t c o mpos i t ion . On t he S uva P lan ina , s ou th o f N ish , a nd a round M t . V i tosa h e n o ted t ha t t he c oni fers a re u sua l ly t he f irs t t rees t o b e c u t f or t imber .

T hey a re o f ten u nab le t o r e-es tabl ish t he mse lves i n c o m-

p e t i t ion w i th t he b eech a nd i t s d ense s hade ' ( 1 929 :195 ). Over l arge a reas o f t he B a lkans , f ue l f or c harcoa l b urn ing was o b ta ined i nd iscr im ina te ly , a nd t h is h ad i rrevers ib le e f fec ts u pon t he f ores t c o mpos i t ion . T here c an b e l i t t le d oubt t ha t t here was a marked i ncrease f ro m t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he l as t c en tury o nwards i n t he u se o f t imber a s f ue l o r c ons truc t ion ma ter ia ls a nd , a s ac ons equence , much f ores t was r ep laced b y b rushwood c o mmun i t ies .

7 2

A more impor tan t f actor i nt he c rea t ion o f s h ibylak h as b een t he p rac t ice o f g oa t-herd ing a nd t ranshumance . I n Turr i l l 's o pin ion , t h is f ac tor a lone a ccoun ted f or mos t o f t he r ecen t d e fores ta t ion i n Bu lgar ia ; a s h e s ta tes ( 1 929 :205 ) I ti s c er ta in t ha t t he f eed ing o f f l ocks o f s heep a nd g oa ts i s t he c h ie f c ause o f t h is [ deforestat ion ], a nd t ha t i ft he ir i nd iscr im ina te wander ings a nd t he p rac t ice o f t ranshu mance were p reven ted , much l and wou ld n a tura l ly r ever t t o f ores t '. T he i n tens i ty o f a n i ma l g razing g rea t ly i ncreased d ur ing t he d ecades f o l low ing Bu lgar ian i ndependence . A s T ab le 3 0 s hows , t he n umb ers o f g oa t a nd p ig i ncreased f ro m 1 887 t o 1 920 b y 2 5% a nd 2 50% r espec t ive ly , d ur ing wh ich t ime , t he h u man p opu la t ion a lso i ncreased a g rea t d ea l . T here c an b e l i t t le d oubt t ha t much o f t he s h ibylak i n Bu lgar ia i s o f r ecen t o r ig in , a nd t hat t here h as b een d ur ing t he p as t c en tury a n u nusua l ly i n tens ive d egree o f p ressure b y man o n wood land c o mmun i t ies i n Bu lgar ia . T he o vere xp lo i tat ion o f wood lands d oub t less r esu l ted i np ar t f ro m t he p ecu l iar p o l i t ica l a nd e cono m ic c ond i t ions p reva i l ing i n B u lgar ia a t t h is t ime :

i t s ee ms l i ke ly

t ha t t he l ack o f p o l i t ica l s tabi l i ty wh ich c harac ter ised t he B a lkans o ver much o f t he l as t h undred y ears , t he d isrup t ions o f wars i nt he 1 870 's a nd 1 912-18 , t he r ead jus t men ts t o n ew f ron t iers , e thn ic r ed is tr ibu t ions a nd u np lanned e cono m ic g rowth c o mbined t o p roduce a n u nusua l ly p ro f l iga te a nd i n tens ive u se o f wood land . We c an n ow e xa m ine s o me o f t he c onsequences o f r ep lacing wood land c o mmun i t ies b y s h iby lak a nd c rop c u l t iva t ion . b )

t he c onsequences o f s h iby lak f or ma t ion a nd c rop c u l t iva t ion o n s oi l

s tabi l i ty : T he e cono m ic a dvan tages o f r ep lac ing wood land v ege ta t ion w i th c rops a re s o o bv ious a s t o n ecess i ta te l i t t le c o mmen t ; i ndeed , t he e xp ans ion o f c rop a gr icu l ture a t t he e xpense o f t ree-cover h as l ong b een r ecogn ised a s o ne o f t he mos t s ign if ican tp rocesses a t work i n Europe o ver t he p as t s ix mi l lenn ia . T here a re a lso c ons iderab le a dvan tages i n mod i fy ing wood land c o m mun i t ies a nd c rea t ing b rushwood o r s crub , f or a w ider a nd more a ccess ib le r ange o f p lan ts a re t hereby main ta ined f or l i ves tock . As t h is p rac t ice i s n ow e v idenced d ur ing t he Meso l i th ic i n p ar ts o f n or thern E urope ( Me l iars , 1 976 ) , i t may a lso h ave o ccurred i n B u lgar ia , p ar t icu lar ly a f ter t he a dven t o f f ar m ing c o m mun i t ies . Wh i ls t t he a dvan tages o f r ep lacing wood land w i th e i ther c rops o r b rushw ood c o mmun i t ies a re r ead i ly a pparen t , t here may b e s er ious l ongter m d rawbacks t o s uch a p ract ice , p ar t icu lar ly i nb r i t t le e nv iron men ts s uch a s p ar ts o f Bu lgar ia where t he e co log ica l b a lance b e tween s o i l c over , v ege ta t ion a nd c l i ma te i s o n ly p recar ious ly ma in ta ined .

I n s evera l e nv ironmen ts wood-

l ands p lay a n e ssen t ia l r o le i n c onserv ing t he s tab i l i ty o f t he s o i l c over . E x tens ive f o l iage h e lps p ro tec t t he s oi l f ro m r a in b y r educ ing t he v e loc i ty o f r a indrops , wh i ls t t he f or ma t ion o f at h ick h umus l ayer makes t he s oi l more wa ter-re ten t ive a nd s o p ro tec ts t he s o i l f ro m wa ter e ros ion .

B e low t he

g round , t he e x tens ive r oo t s ys te ms f ound i n wood lands a bsorbs l arge amoun ts o f wa ter , a nd s o r educes t he amoun t o f r un-o f f b y s ur face wa ter a nd c onsequen t s ur face e ros ion . I ti s n o t d i f f icu l t t o e nvisage t he e f fec ts o n s o i l s tab i l i ty wh ich c ou ld r es u l t f ro m r ep lacing wood lands b y more o pen t ypes o f v egeta t ion . T hese

7 3

c onsequences h ave b een s tud ied i n c ons iderab le p ar ts o f t he wor ld where s oi l e ros ion i s as er ious p rob le m . K i t tredge ( 1973 :276) h as d iscussed t he r el a t ionsh ip b e tween s o i l e ros ion , f ores t c learance a nd s lope , a nd n o tes t ha t ' On c leared l ands , s lopes a s f l a t a s 1 p er c en t may e rode , a nd i ti s g enera l ly c ons idered t ha t s lopes a bove 1 5 p er c en t s hou ld n o t b e c leared '. S evera l r esearchers h ave d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he impor tance o f r a in fa l l i n tens i ty — a s o pposed t o r a in fa l l t o ta ls — a s a n a gency o f s o i l e ros ion . S o me u se fu l d a ta o n t h is f ac tor h as b een p resen ted b y K i t tredge ( 1973 :287 ) a nd i s s um mar ised i n T ab le 3 4 . Ac onspicuous f ea ture o f t h is e v idence i s t ha t s o i l e ros ion u nder s im i lar r a in fa l l c ond i t ions b eco mes p rogress ive ly l essened a s v egeta t ion b eco mes more e x tens ive ; b y t he t ime t he v ege ta t ion h ad a l mos t r ecovered i t s o r ig ina l s ta te a f ter 5 0 y ears , t he r a te o f e ros ion c aused b y 1 1" o f r ain i n 2 4 h ours was l ess t han t ha t wh ich r esu l ted a f ter 2 " r a in fa l l i nt he s a me p er iod o n l and wh ich h ad b een c leared o ne y ear p rev ious ly. I n a no ther e xper i men t i nvo lv ing f ores t c learence , t he e ros ion r a te was 5 00 c u y d p er a cre i n ay ear when r a in fa l l t o ta l led 4 0" w i th a max i mu m i n tens i ty o f 1 .25"/hr ; i nt he f o l low ing y ear , h owever , as im i lar amoun t o f r a in f e l l , b u t w i th a max i mum i n tens i ty o f o n ly 0 .4"/hr a nd t he r esu l t ing e ros ion amoun ted t o o n ly 4 8 c uy d p er a cre ( K i t tredge , 1 973 :288 ) . S im i lar r esu l ts h ave b een o bta ined f ro m o bserva t ions i n Tun is ia ( Med jerda , 1 965 ) , where e ros ion i s a s er ious c urren t p rob le m .

B e tween S ep tember a nd N ove mber o n ly 3 8% o f t he

t o ta l a nnua l r a in fa l l o ccurs , a l though t h is a ccoun ts f or 8 0% o f s o i l p ar t ic les t ranspor ted i n to r ivers t hroughou t t he y ear . T h is was b ecause 7 5% o f t he mos t i n tense r a in fa l l — a s measured i n m m/hr — o ccurs d ur ing t h is t hree mon th p er iod . The e f fec t o f s lope a nd r a in fa l l i n tens i ty o n r a tes o f s oi l e ros ion d epends g rea t ly u pon t he t ype o f l and u se a nd t he e x ten t t o wh ich s o i l i s s tr ipped o f v egeta t iona l c over . I n t h is r espec t a rab le l and a ppears t o b e e xcept iona l ly v u lnerab le .

S o me r e levan t d a ta h as

b een p resen ted b y K i t tredge ( 1 973 :287 ) :

o n s im i lar t ypes o f s o i l , t he e ros ion u nder o ak , b roo msedge o r B er muda g rass was l ess t han 0 .7 t on/acre , b u t o n c o t ton-f ie lds p loughed a long t he c on tour , 6 9 t ons/acre .

H owever , t he e ros ion r a tes r eached 1 60 t on/acre o n a bandoned

f ie lds , a nd 1 95 t on/acre o nf i e lds p loughed a cross t he c on tour o ver a t wo y ear p er iod . I n Tun is ia ( Med jerda , 1 965 ) o n ly 3 0 k g/ha o f s o i l was l os t e ach y ear o n s o i l c overed b y wood land , b u t 2 10 k g/ha was l os t o n a rable l and d ur ing t he s a me p er iod . T h is i n for ma t ion i s h igh ly r e levan t t o Bu lgar ia , a moun ta inous a rea w here much o f t he p recip i ta t ion f a l ls i n s hor t , i n tense s tor ms . I n s uch a n a rea s o i l s tab i l i ty i s h igh ly d ependen t u pon wood land v ege ta t ion , a nd , a s Turr i l l ( 1 929 : 2 04-5 ) n o tes : ' The d es truc t ion o f woods a nd t he p reven t ion b y g razing a n ima ls o f t he ir i m med ia te r e juvena t ion h as d isas trous c onsequences i n many p ar ts o f t he B a lkan P en insu la , n o t mere ly d i f feren t i n s ca le b u t i n q ua l i ty f ro m a nyt h ing s een u nder t he o cean ic i n f luence o f t he B r i t ish I s les . I n t he Med i terrane an d is tr ic ts o f t he B a lkan P en insu la t he p rocesses o f s o i l f or ma t ion b y b o th mechan ica l a nd c he m ica l wea ther ing a re much s lower t han i n more n or thern c l i ma tes .

The s o i l , e spec ia l ly o n s lopes , i s s ha l lower a nd t he s o l id r ocks

a re more e as i ly e xposed . Moreover t he s trong w inds , s uch a s t he b ora a nd Vardar w inds , h e lp t o r e move e xposed s o i l , a nd t he h umus o f woods i s q u ick ly d ispersed when t he t rees a re d es troyed .' 7 4

The d anger t o s o i l s tabi l i ty o f f ores t c learance wh ich Turr i l l n o ted i n t he Ba lkans c an b e s een i n o ther s im i lar a reas o f C en tra l E urope .

T he f o l low ing

q uota t ion c oncerns t he T a tra Moun ta in P ark i n P o land where a s im i lar s ca le o f g razing a nd l u mber ing p reva i led : ' a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he t wen t ie th c en tury i tb ecame o bv ious t ha t t he moun ta in v ege ta t ion was o vergrazed . Des truc t ion o f wood land a nd moun ta in p ine w i th i n tens ive g razing h ad l ed t o s o i l e ros ion a nd t o t he c o mp le te e l im ina t ion o f s o i l c over i n s o me p ar ts o f t he a rea ' ( ? « ,o mn ick i , 1 971 : 601 ). B ecause o f t h is , t he f ores t h as n ow b een p laced u nder c o mp lete p ro tect ion f ro m g razing a nd l u mber ing . I t wou ld s ee m h igh ly p robab le t ha t a n e xpans ion o f c rop c u l t iva t ion a nd b rushwood c o mmun i t ies i n B u lgar ia d ur ing p reh is tory wou ld h ave a cce lera ted t he amoun t o f s oi l e ros ion . T he l ong-ter m e f fec ts o f s uch e ros ion o n h uman s et t le men t c ou ld h ave b een p ro found , f or i fi tl ed t o ar educt ion i n t he p roduct iv i ty o f t he l and , h uman p opu la t ions wou ld h ave h ad t o r educe , o r a t l eas t s tab i l ise , -t heir n umbers t o r ead jus t t o al ess p roduc t ive e cono my . T here wou ld s ee m l i t t le r eason t o s uppose t ha t t he main tenance o f s o i l s tabi l i ty wou ld n o t h ave b een a c ruc ia l f actor a f fec t ing h u man s et t le men t a nd p opu lat ion g row th i n t h is a rea d ur ing p reh is tory . C onclus ions Our a na lys is o f t he p hys ica l f ea tures o f Bu lgar ia , a nd r ecen t a gr icu l tura l t rends s ugges ts t wo l i nes o f e nqu iry wh ich migh t p ro f i tab ly b e d irec ted t owards as tudy o f t he N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age . T he f irs t o f t hese c oncerns t he p ref erred l oca t ion o f p reh is tor ic s e t t le men ts d ependen t u pon c rop c u l t iva t ion a nd a n i ma l h usbandry . A ccord ing t o t he e v idence p resen ted i n t he c ourse o f t h is c hap ter , t he mos t s uccess fu l c o m mun i t ies wou ld t end t o b e t hose wh ich h ad a ccess b o th t o t hose s o i ls wh ich c ou ld b e t i l led u s ing a t mos t ap r im i t ive t ype o f p lough , a nd a lso t o s easona l g razing , p ar t icu lar ly o n t he h igher p ar ts o f moun ta ins o r o n t he l ower p ar ts o f smo ln i tzas . The s econd l ine o f e nqu iry s ugges ted b y t h is d iscuss ion c oncerns t he l ongt er m e f fec ts o f c rop c u lt iva t ion a nd a n i ma l h usbandry u pon t he s tabi l i ty o f t he s oi l c over . I np ar t icu lar i tw ou ld s ee m wor thwh i le t o e nqu ire whe ther p reh is tor ic c o m mun i t ies b ased o n c rop a gr icu l ture a nd s tock-ra is ing were a ssoc ia ted w i th , a nd p oss ib ly i n i t ia ted , s oi l e ros ion a nd o ther r e la ted g eo morpho log ica l c hanges . E v idence o nb oth t op ics w i l l b e p resen ted i n t he c ourse o f t he f o l low ing c hap ters .

7 5

CHAPTER 6 PREH ISTORIC S ETTLE MENT AND SUBS ISTENCE I N THE

ELOPEü- REG ION

The C elope 6r eg ion , C . 1 00 km e ast o f S of ia , i s t he f i rst o f t hree a reas i n S ou th Bu lgar ia w h ich w i l l b e e xa m ined i n t he c ourse o f t he n ex t f ive c hapters. We s ha l l b eg in b y c ons ider ing t he p hys ica l f ea tures a nd r esource p o ten t ial o f t h is r eg ion , a nd t he d istr ibu t ion a nd l ocat ion o f p reh istor ic s e t t le men ts. The s econd p art o f t h is c hap ter w i l l d iscuss t he b o tan ica l a nd f aunal d ata f ro m Chevdar , ar ecen t ly e xcavated n eo l ith ic s ett le men t i n t he a rea. 1 .

The ëelope & , r eg ion Ab r ief d escr ip t ion o f t h is a rea f or ms a c onven ien t s tart ing p o in t . i )t he p hysical e nv ironmen t As F ig . 4s hows, t he ü elope

r eg ion i s av a l ley s yste m s o me 2 0 km l ong

a nd 8 km w ide wh ich i s s urrounded b y h igh moun ta in r anges.

I t s n orthern

marg in i s s harp ly d ef ined b y t he S tara P lan ina moun ta ins wh ich r ise p rec ip it ously f ro m t he v a l ley f l oor , a t c . 5 00 m a .s A ., t o o ver 1 800 m. s ou th , t he S redna Gora r ises a s s harp ly t o o ver 1 500 m.

To t he

The e as tern e dge

o f t he v a l ley i s d ef ined b y t he K ozn ica Pass , o ver 1 000 m a .s.1., w here t he S tara P lan ina a nd S redna Gora meet a nd f or m a s addle;

t hese t wo r anges

mee t i n as im ilar f ash ion a t t he w estern e nd o f t he v a l ley a nd f or m a p ass a bove Do ln i K u marc i. Ano ther s addle b etween Chevdar a nd Mirkovo e f fecti ve ly d iv ides t he v a l ley i n to t wo u n its. A lthough move men t a long t he e lope" r eg ion f ro m e ast t o w est i s g enera l ly e asy , i ti s d iff icu l t t o t raverse t he moun ta ins t o t he n or th a nd s ou th e xcep t v ia a f ew s ide v a l leys.

As w e s ha l l

s ee i n t he n ex t s ect ion , t hese h ave p robab ly p layed a n impor tan t p art i n t he s ubs istence e cono m ies o f t h is r eg ion . On a ccoun t o f i t s e levat ion a nd p rox im ity t o moun ta ins , t he( elope e :r eg ion i s c ons iderab ly c oo ler t han o ther a reas o f Bu lgar ia.

I n s u m mer , t e mpera tures

o n t he v a l ley f loor r are ly r ise a bove 7 5° F ( 26°C ), o r 6 5 °F ( 20 °C ) o n t he mount a in s lopes.

Mean d a ily t e mperatures f or t he v a l ley f l oor a nd moun ta ins a re

c . 6 0 °F ( 17°C ) a nd 5 0 0F ( 12 °C ) r espect ive ly .

I n w in ter, mean t e mperatures

c an r e ma in b elow f reez ing p o in t t hroughou t J anuary a nd February , a nd f or l onger i n t he moun ta ins.

As a tmospher ic c ond it ions o ver moun ta in a reas

a re i nheren t ly u nstab le, t e mperatures c an v ary c ons iderab ly i n t he c ourse o f ad ay , o r o ver a s hort d istance.

Aspect a lso h as a n i mportan t l oca l i n f luence

o n t e mperature a nd was p robab ly a n i mpor tan t f actor a f fect ing h uman s et t lemen t ;

b ecause n or th f ac ing s lopes r ece ive l ess

s un l igh t a nd a re c oo ler t han

t hose f ac ing e ast , west o r s ou th , t he g row ing p er iod f or c rops i s s hortened a nd s o t he p roduct iv ity l ess.

L oca l d if ferences a long t he v a l ley i n r el ief c an

a lso c ons iderab ly r educe t he e f fect o f w inds :

C hevdar , f or e xa mp le , i s

s he l tered b y al ow r idge o f h il ls t o t he n or th o f t he s i te. 7 6

The a nnua l p rec ip itat ion o ft h is r eg ion i s a bou t 1 8-22" ( 500-600 m m ) o n t he v a l ley f l oor a nd o ver 4 0" ( 1000 m m ) o n t he h ighest moun ta in s lopes.

A s t h is

f a l ls t hroughou t t he y ear, t h is r eg ion l acks t he s um mer d rought t yp ica l o f a reas f urther e ast i n Bu lgar ia. I nw in ter much o f t he p rec ip itat ion f a l ls a s s now , e spec ia l ly f ro m Dece mber t o March i nt he v a l ley , a nd o ver a l onger p er iod i n t he moun ta ins. On t he h ighest p eaks o f t he S tara P lan ina a nd o n l ower b u t n orth-fac ing s lopes, s now c an r e ma in i n i so la ted p a tches t hroughou t much , a nd s o me t i mes a l l , o f t he y ear. I n s um mer much o f t he r a in f a l ls i n s hort , l oca l a nd o f ten t orren t ia l t hunderstor ms w h ich c an c ause a c ons iderab le amoun t o f s o il e ros ion i n t he s pace o f af ew m inu tes. I ti s n ot u nco mmon f or o ne t own t o b e f l ooded a f ter a s udden s tor m , wh i lst n o r a in h as f a l len o n ly a f ew k i lo metres away. A c haracter ist ic f eature o ft h is r eg ion i s t e mpera ture i nvers ion , w hereby c oo l a ir o n t he h igher s lopes f a l ls a t n ight a nd d isp laces t he w ar mer a ir i n t he v a l ley.

As a r esu lt , much o f t he mo isture e vaporated d ur ing t he d ay c on-

d enses a nd a t h ick m ist e nsues. Of ten d ur ing t he s ummer, t he e ar ly morn ing m ists r educe v is ib i l ity t o l ess t han 2 5 m o ver t he f l oor o f t he v a l ley u n t i l t hey a re d ispe l led b y t he s un . The p r inc ipa l d ra inage o f t h is r eg ion i s t he r iver Topo ln itza , w h ich r ises a bove K opr iv-i shch itsa i n t he S redna Gora a nd f l ows n orth a nd t hen e ast t hrough t he üeloped r eg ion b efore t urn ing s ou th w ards a ga in t hrough t he S redna Gora. As t he r iver f al ls o ver 2 00 m a long t he v a l ley , i ti s f or t he most p art f astf l ow ing a nd t urbu len t.

Move men t a long t he r iver i s f requen t ly d if f icu l t , f or

t he r iver o f ten f l ows t hrough n arrow a nd p rec ip itous g orges. Throughout i t s c ourse t he Topo ln itza i s f ed b y n umerous m inor s trea ms w h ich d isgorge f ro m t he moun ta ins. These a re h igh ly s easonal i n t he ir f l ow , b e ing l owest i n s um mer a nd a t t he ir h ighest i n s pr ing , w hen t hey a re f ed b y s now me l ted o n t he moun ta ins.

A f ter a v io len t t hunderstor m i n s um mer , h ow-

e ver, t hese s trea ms c an b eco me r ag ing t orren ts f or a f ew h ours a nd n o t i nf requen t ly c arry a n impress ive ly l arge l oad o f ma ter ia l f or a c ons iderab le d istance. The s o ils i n t h is r eg ion a re most e as ily c lassed i n t er ms o f t he ir a l t itude. Above t he t ree-l ine , c . 1 400 m a .s.1., h i l l-so i ls a re c haracter ised b y i n tensi ve p hys ica l wea ther i-n g a nd a n eg l ig ible amoun t o f c he m ica l a nd b io log ica l a ct iv ity .

I n many a reas, t hey a re l i t t le more t han w ea thered b ed-rock . Forest

s o i ls a re f ound o ver most o ft he v a l ley f l oor a nd o n moun ta in s lopes b e low t he t ree ' i nc .. Thc h igher p arts o f t he moun ta in s lopes e xper ience h igh r a inf a l l , l ow r ates o f e vapo transp ira t ion , a nd a re u sua l ly c overed b y c on iferous t ree c over. Consequen t ly , v egetab le ma tter i s b roken d own s low ly a nd a n a c id-r ich , o rgan ic mat a ccumu la tes o n t he s urface. Ra in-wa ter p erco la t ing t hrough t he p rof i le r ed istr ibu tes s o il c onst ituen ts, a nd r esu l ts i n p odso l isat i on a nd t he a ccumu lat ion o f l ower p art o f t he h or izon .

i ron , s o me t i mes d epos ited a s ap an , i n t he

A t l ower a l t itudes, p lan t mater ia l i s more r ap id ly

d eco mposed u nder c ond it ion s o f d ec iduous v egetat ion , l ower r a in fa l l a nd h igher r a tes o f e vapo transp ira t ion ;

l each ing i s u sua l ly s trong a nd l eads t o

t he f or mat ion o f a c lay-enr iched B h or izon .

However, t he s o i ls o n t he b ase

o f moun ta in s lopes h ave o f ten b een c leared o f t ree-cover a nd s ubsequen t ly s evere ly e roded ;

e lsewhere, c on iferous p lan tat ions h ave r ep laced d ec iduous

7 7

t ree-cover d ur ing t h is c en tury a nd t hus mod if ied t he p rocesses o f s o il f or mat i on . On t he v al ley f l oor, f orest s o ils a re o f ten h eavy a nd p oor ly d ra ined e xcep t where t hey f or med o n f ans. Marsh s o i ls a re f ound o ccas iona l ly i n r iver ine a reas a nd a re u sua l ly a ssoc iated w ith s wa mp v egetat ion , a nd a h igh c on ten t o f c lay a nd o rgan ic mater ia l. i ) The r esource p o ten t ia l o f t he C e lope 6r eg ion i nt he s ix th a nd f i f th m i ll enn ia b .c. The r esource p o ten t ia l o f t h is r eg ion d ur ing t he s ix th a nd f if th m il lenn ia b .c. c an b e e st i mated i n o n ly t he most t en tat ive f ash ion u n t il t here i s r e l iab le e v idence o nt he p reva il ing c l i mate , v egeta t ion a nd s o ils. As, h owever, t he s ubs istence o f Chevdar w as b ased o nb o th c rop a gr icu l ture a nd l i vestock ( see p art 2 o f t h is c hap ter ), w e c an c lass ify t he r esources o f t h is r eg ion i n t erms o f t hese t wo b as ic d iv is ions. a ) a rable l and :

C rop c u l t ivat ion must h ave b een c on f ined t o t hose p arts o f

t he v a l ley where t he g row ing p er iod w as s u f f ic ien t ly l ong a nd t he c l i mate m ild e nough t o e nsure a n e cono m ica l ly wor thwh i le c rop. We c an t hus e l im inate a s u nsu itab le f or c rop c u l t ivat ion t he h igher moun ta in s lopes, a nd i so late a s t he most f avourab le t hose a reas w h ich w ere l owly ing a nd s ou th-fac ing. Because s lopes s teeper t han 1 50 e xper ience s evere e ros ion i n t h is r eg ion w hen c leared f or c u l t ivat ion , a nd a s p oorly-dra ined s o i ls i nt he l owest p arts o f t he v al ley wou ld h ave b een t oo h eavy t o t i l l , s uch a reas w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een u nused f or c rop c u l t ivat ion . I ta lso s ee ms u n l ike ly t ha t v ery s tony s o i ls wou ld h ave b een c u l t iva ted , s ince t hey h ave a l ow o rgan ic c on ten t a nd a re d i f f icu lt t o t i l l. Because o ft hese v ar ious c onstra in ts i n c l i ma te , r el ief a nd s o il , t he p o ten t ia l o f t h is r eg ion f or c rop c u l t ivat ion was p robab ly l ow . b ) a n i ma l h usbandry : I ti s a ssumed f or t he p resen t t hat s heep , g oat , c at t le , p ig , r ed- a nd r oe-deer wou ld h ave b een t he p r i mary a n i mal r esources o f t h is r eg ion d ur ing t he s ix th a nd f i f th m il lenn ia b .c.

The s u itab il ity o f t h is r eg ion

f or t hese d if feren t t ypes o fh erb ivores c an n ow b e c ons idered. S easona l u p land g raz ing wou ld p robab ly h ave b een e x ten s ive a bove t he t reel ine a t a lt itudes a bove 1 500 m a .s . 1 . a nd f or med a n i mpor tan t r esource z one d ur ing t he s pr ing a nd s um mer. These g raz ing a reas a re t oday u sed b y c aprov ines b ased i n c o m munes o nt he v a l ley f l oor. Red d eer a re a lso l ike ly t o h ave u sed t hese h igh land a reas a s t hey a re g rea t ly t roub led b y i nsects d ur ing t he s um mer, a nd f requen t ly s eek r e l ief a nd a c hange i n g raz ing b y m igrat ing t o h igher a l t itudes ( Darl ing , 1 957 ). A l though we c anno t e st i mate t he f or mer e x ten t o f d ec iduous t ree c over i n t h is r eg ion u n t il p a lyno log ica l d a ta i s f orthcom ing , i ts ee ms r easonab ly c erta in t hat b rowse f or c at t le, r ed a nd r oe d eer, a nd f orage f or p ig , wou ld h ave b een v ery e x tens ive d ur ing t he s ix th a nd f i f th m i l lenn ia b .c., b o th o n t he moun ta in s lopes a nd o ver much o f t he v a l ley f l oor.

A l l t hree u ngu lates wou ld p robab ly

h ave u sed t h is b rowse d ur ing t he w in ter.

As t he a nnua l t err itor ies o f r oe

d eer a re sma l l a nd c on f ined t o wood land h ab ita ts ( Andersen , 1 953, P r ior , 1 968 ), t h is a n i ma l wou ld h ave r e ma ined i n d ec iduous w oodland t hroughou t t he y ear. The f eed ing b ehav iour o f t he e x t inct Bos p r im igen ius i s more d if f icu l t t o a ssess, b u t i tc ou ld p robab ly h ave s a t isf ied i t s d ie tary n eeds o n t he v al ley f l oor a nd o nt he l ower moun ta in s lopes t hroughou t t he y ear.

7 8

Goat wou ld p robab ly

h ave f ed i n l owly ing wood land a reas w hen u p land g raz ing a reas were o u t o f s eason .

The s u itab i l ity o f w ood lands f or sw ine i s w el l d ocu men ted ( Hep tner

e t a l., 1 966 ), a nd t here i s n o r eason w hy t hey c ou ld n o t h ave f oraged o n as ucc ess ion o f d if feren t p lan t f oods i n t hese a reas t hroughou t t he y ear.

We c an

a lso i nclude man a s ah erb ivore i n t h is c on tex t a nd n o te t hat d ec iduous woodl and wou ld h ave c on ta ined a w ide r ange o f e d ible p lan ts s uch a s Corne l ian c herry , p lum a nd b lackberry. R iver ine a nd p oor ly d ra ined a reas i nt he v al ley f l oor a re l ike ly t o h ave s upp or ted marsh c o m mun it ies w h ich c ou ld h ave b een u t il ised b y a n i ma ls s uch a s p ig a nd c a t t le , a nd b y man f or t he ir f i sh a nd f ow l. C ) r aw mater ia ls :

Mater ia ls s uch a s s k in , a n t ler a nd wood , a nd p oss ib ly

t he me tamorph ic r ocks u sed f or mak ing p o l ished a xes a nd g r ind ing e qu ipmen t , w ere u ndoub ted ly o b ta ined l oca l ly.

C era m ic a nd c lay a na lyses a re n ecessary

b efore w e c an d eter m ine h ow much o ft he p o t tery u sed b y p reh istor ic c om mun it i es i n t h is r eg ion were o f l oca l manu facture. I ti s p oss ib le t hat f l in t w as i mported s ince t here a re n o k nown l oca l s ources. I t wou ld s ee m a r easonab le c onclus ion t hat t h is r eg ion h as a l ow p oten t ia l f or c rop c u l t ivat ion , b u t ah igh o ne f or a n i ma l h usbandry , n o tab ly i n w oodl ands o ver t he v a l ley f loor , a nd i n a reas a bove t he t ree l ine. As wood lands w ere b o th e x tens ive a nd a ccess ib le, i ts eems u n l ike ly t hat t hey h ad much e f fect u pon t he l ocat ion o f s et t le men ts. The s a me c anno t b e s a id o f a rab le l and a nd s easona l u p land g raz ing , a l though f or d if feren t r easons.

As a rab le

l and w as p robab ly s carce, w e m igh t e xpect a gr icu l tura l s ett le men ts t o b e l ocated a s n ear i ta s p oss ib le t o m in im ise c osts o f c u l t ivat ion i nt er ms o f t int e a nd l abour. Whereas a rab le l and i s s carce b u t e as ily a ccess ib le, t he r everse s eems t rue o f s easona l u p land g raz ing , s ince a ccess i s l im ited t o o n ly a f ew s ide v a l leys i nt he a rea.

Consequen t ly , we m igh t s uggest t hat i fp reh istor ic

c om mun i t ies i nt h is r eg ion e xp lo ited b oth a rab le l and a nd s easona l u p land g raz ing , t he ir s et t le men ts wou ld b e l ocated s o t hat t hey c ou ld h ave im med iate a ccess t o t he o ne, a nd e asy a ccess t o t he o ther. Th is h ypo thes is c an b e e xa m ined b y c ons ider ing t he l ocat ion a nd e nv irons o f t he s ix th a nd f i f th m il lenn ia b .c. s e tt le men ts i n t he r eg ion. i i ) T he l ocat ion o f s ix th a nd f i f th m il lenn ia s et t le men ts i n t he (elopee r eg ion O ur k now ledge o f p reh is tor ic s et t le men t i n t he C e lope6 r eg ion i s l im ited t o o n ly t hree s i tes , n a me ly Nlope6 , Chevdar a nd M irkovo. The r eg ion h as n ot b een s urveyed a rchaeo log ica l ly a nd i ti s h igh ly p robab le t hat o ther p reh ist or ic s i tes e x ist i n t he r eg ion a nd awa it d iscovery. On t he o ther h and , t e l ls a re n ot a n o bv ious f ea ture o ft he l andscape a s t hey a re i n , f or e xa mp le , t he N ova Z agora r eg ion ( see c hap ter 9 ) , a nd t he t hree s o f ar d iscovered may r ep resen t t he l argest a nd l onges t o ccup ied s et t le men ts i n t he a rea. Two o f t hese s i tes, Ce lope da nd Chevdar, h ave b een e xcavated. The e xcavat ions a t ( Petkov , 1 948 ) r evea led a s equence o f o ccupa t ion f ro m

e l o p ee

t he N eo l ith ic t o t he B ronze Age , b u t y ie lded n o d ata o n t he e cono m ic r esources a ssoc ia ted w ith e ach p er iod.

A c ons iderab le b ody o fb otan ica l a nd f auna le v i-

d ence w as r ecovered f ro m r ecen t e xcavat ions a t Chevdar, h owever; w il l b e d iscussed i nt he n ex t s ect ion.

7 9

t h is d ata

• We s ha l l f i rst d iscuss t he l ocat ion a nd p o ten t ia l r esources w i th in 5 km o f e ach s e tt le men tb efore s uggest ing t he s ubs istence s tra tegy most l i ke ly t o h ave b een p ract ised. a ) ee lopeg Mog ila :

Th is s ett le men t l i es 1 .5 km s ou th o f C e lope! , a nd i s

s i tua ted c . 5 00 m a .s . 1 . A s ide v a l ley d irect ly n orth o f t he s i te c arr ies t oday t he o n ly r oad i n t he r eg ion wh ich c rosses t he S tara P lan ina , a l though i ti s u sua ll y impassab le i n w in ter b ecause o f s now. S ome 5 km s ou th o f t he s i te a re t he f ooth i l ls o f t he S redna Gora ;

t o t he e ast a nd w est , t he t erra in i s g enera l ly f l a t.

The ma in d ra inage n ear e elope gi s as trea m r iver wh ich d isgorges f rom t he a bove- men t ioned s ide v a l ley a nd t hen f l ows i n to t he Topo ln itza. I t s c ourse h as n ow b een a rt if ic ia l ly s tra igh tened a nd d eepened t o c on tro l i t s f l ow t hrough t he t own o f ee lope . F ig. 4 s hows t he s o i ls w ith in t he t err itory o f ee lope ga nd r equ ires l i t t le f urther c o m men t . A long t he b ase o ft he moun ta in s lopes, h owever , t he f orest s o ils h ave b een e roded t o ac ons iderable e x ten t a nd n ow c ons ist i n many p laces o f l i t t le more t han w eathered b ed-rock . On t he v a l ley f l oor, p art icu larly a long t he c ourse o f t he r iver wh ich i ssues f rom t he s ide v a l ley n or th o f t he s i te, t here a re l arge d i luv ia l f ans d er ived f rom t he moun ta in s lopes. Modern l and u se w ith in 5 km o f ( elope gr ef lects t he s harp c on trast i n r el i ef b etween t he b ase o f t he v a l ley a nd t he s urround ing moun ta ins. The h eav ier s o ils t end t ob e u sed f or m ilk p roduct ion f rom c at t le, w h ilst o n t he l i gh ter p arts f odder c rops s uch a s r oo ts, ma ize a nd a lso s ome b arley a nd whea t a re g rown . As t he s o i ls o n t he l owest moun ta in s lopes n or th o f t he s i te a nd o n t he f oo th il ls o f t he S redna . Gora s ou th o ft he s i te a re t h in a nd s tony , t hey a re most ly u sed a s g raz ing f or s heep a nd g oat. Where t he g rad ien t i s n ot t oo s teep a nd t he s o i ls a re n o t t oo t h in , c erea ls s uch a s b ar ley a nd o a ts a re a lso g rown . The s lopes o f t he S tara P lan ina a re s t il l e x tens ive ly f orested a nd a re n ow e xp lo ited c ommerc ia l ly. Above t he t reel ine a re e x ten s ive a reas o f a lp ine g raz ing wh ich i s u sed e x tens ively i n s um mer b y c aprov ines. b ) Chevdar :

Th is s i te l i es c . 5 00 m a .s . 1 . o n t he n orth b ank o f t he

Topo ln itza a nd c . 3 km s ou th-east o ft he v i l lage o f Chevdar, i n a sma l l , s em ic ircu lar b as in . Move men t o n f oot f ro m t he s i te i s s evere ly c onstra ined b y t he l oca l t opog raphy. S ou th o f t he s i te, t he S redna Gora r ises p rec ip i tously t o o ver 1 300 m. Access t o t he s lopes a bove t he t ree-l ine i s g reat ly f ac il itated b y a sma l l s ide v a l ley , i m med iately o ppos ite t he s i te.

Movemen t e ast a nd west f rom t he s i te

i s e asy f or 2 -3 km a long t he Topo ln itza u n t il i t s c ourse i s c on f ined t o an arrow , d eep v al ley. N orth o f t he s et t le men t , al ow r idge o f h il ls, c . 1 00 m h igh , impedes move men t i nt h is d irect ion , a nd c o mp le tes t he e nc irclemen t o f t he s ite b yh igher g round. The Topo ln itza i s t he ma in d ra inage o f t he a rea a nd i s e asy t o f ord e xcep t af ter t orren t ia l r a in o r w hen s nows me l t i n s pr ing. The s o ils o n t he h i l ls n or th o ft he s i te a re t h in a nd s tony , a nd w here t he g rad ien t i s i n e xcess o f 2 0 0 ,e x tens ive a reas o fb ed-rock h ave b een e xposed. These s o ils a re i n s harp c on trast t o t he h eavy a l luv ia l c lay s o ils a long t he Topo ln itza.

Between t hese h il ls a nd t he r iver a wel l-deve loped l oa m w ith a

g ood c rumb s tructure h as d eve loped i n t he s em i-c ircu lar b as in a round t he s ite.

Where t h is s o il a d jo ins t he h il ls i tt ends t o b e l igh ter, b u t h eav ier

8 0

w here i tg rades i n to t he r iver ine c lay . The b as in i n wh ich t he s ite i s s i tua ted i s t oday c overed w ith a pp le p lan tat ions, most o f wh ich h ave b een p lan ted i n t he p ast t en y ears.

P rev iously c erea ls w ere g rown b u t t h is p ract ice was d iscon-

t i nued b ecause, Iw as t o ld , mechan ised h arvesters c ou ld n o t d escend t he h il l s lopes t o r each t he c rops. As t here i s a n e as ily n ego t iab le t rack f rom t he v i l lage t o t he s ite, t h is r eason s ee ms d oub tfu l. On t he o ther h and , t here h as b een a c ons iderab le amoun t o f e ros ion o n t he h il l s lopes n orth o f t he s i te a nd c rop c u lt ivat ion may h ave b een d iscon t inued b ecause o f t h is. These s lopes a re n ow u sed ma in ly f or s heep- o r g oa t-graz ing , a nd l avender i s a lso g rown. On t he t op o f t hese s lopes s ome l and h as r ecen t ly b een p loughed f or c rop c u lt ivat ion ; i tr e ma ins t o b e s een whether t h is p ract ice c an b e s us ta ined w ithou t c aus ing f urther s o il e ros ion . Because t he r iver ine c lay a long t he Topo ln itza i s p oor ly d ra ined a nd t oo h eavy t o t i l l , i ti s u sed a s p er manen t g raz ing f or c a tt le , a nd f or h ay-grow ing. The s lopes o f t he S redna Gora a re c overed w ith t h ick d ec iduous f orest , ma in ly o f o ak , b eech a nd e lm ; t here a re a lso a f ew s tands o f r ecen t ly p lan ted c on ifers. The a lp ine meadows a bove t he t reel ine a re u sed e x tens ively a s s um mer g raz ing b y c aprov ines, most o f w h ich w in ter i nt he a rea o f t he modern v i l lage. C ) M irkovo :

The s i te o f M irkovo l i es c . 5 50 m a .s . 1 . a nd s o me 2 km s outh

o f t he e ponymous v i l lage. As i n t he c ase o f Chevdar , t he d istance c overed i n o ne h our 's w a lk f ro m t he s i te i s s trong ly a f fec ted b y t he l oca l t opography . To t he w est o f t he s i te t he S redna Gora r ises t o o ver 1 200 m , a l though n ot a s s teep ly a s n ear Chevdar. A sma l l s ide v al ley o n t he w est b ank o f t he Bunovska p rov ides e asy a ccess t o t he h igher s lopes a bove t he t reel ine. S o me 3 km s ou th o f t he s i te f urther movemen t i n t hat d irect ion i s impeded b y t he n arrow v a l ley i n to w h ich t he Bunovska f l ows. To t he n or th a nd e ast o ft he s ite t he l and r ises t o f or m a s add le c . 9 00 m a .s . 1 . wh ich d iv ides t he ma in v a l ley i n to t wo. The ma in d ra inage i n t he v ic in ity o f Mirkovo c ons ists o f t he Bunovska , at r ibu tary o f t he Topo ln itza , wh ich i s a lso f ed b y an umber o f s trea ms f rom b oth t he S redna Gora a nd t he v a l ley f l oor , n orth a nd e ast o f t he s ite. L it t le n eed b e s a id a bou t t he s o ils i nt he l oca l v ic in ity o f Mirkovo.

A long

t he Bunovska , t he s o il i s u sua l ly t h in a nd s tony , a l though h eav ier c lay s o i ls h ave d eve loped where d ra inage i s impeded a nd t he g rad ien t g en t ler. Forest s o ils h ave d eve loped b eyond t he r iver a nd t hese g rade i n to h il l s o i ls a t h igher e levat ions. The l and a round Mirkovo i s u sed t oday f or a v ar iety o f a gr icu l tura l p urposes. A long t he Bunovska a nd a round Mirkovo , most o f t he l and i s u nder a pp le t rees , o f ten i n ter-cropped w ith f odder c rops s uch a s ma ize, l ucerne, o r h ay , a nd o ccas ional ly p o tatoes.

Most o f t he o rchards h ave b een p lan ted s ince t he war

i n r esponse t o ag row ing d e mand f or f ru it i n S of ia.

The r e ma in ing a rab le l and

i s most ly u nder whea t , wh ich i s g enera l ly p oor i n t h is a rea , f or t he s tands a re o f ten l odged , s tun ted a nd w eedin fested. S ome o f t he h arvest i s t aken b y h and , p art ly b ecause c o mb ine h arvesters c an b e u sed t o g reater p rof it e lsew here. As i n many o ther a reas o f Bu lgar ia , c erea l c u l t ivat ion h as i ncreased i n r ecen t y ears a t t he e xpense o f wood land a nd a n i ma l g raz ing. As a r esu l t , l and i s n ow c om ing u nder t he p lough where t he g rad ien t was p rev iously c onsi dered t oo s teep , o r t he s o i l t oo t h in ,for c rop c u lt ivat ion . S uch a t te mp ts a re 8 1

n ot a lways s uccessfu l ;

e ast o f M irkovo v i l lage o ne l arge a rea w ith a s lope o f

c . 2 00 h as r ecen t ly b een p loughed a nd s ubsequen t ly a bandoned b ecause o f s heet e ros ion . Th is i nstance u nderl ines t he impor tance o f e x tens ive p erenn ia l v eget at iona l c over i n t h is t ype o f a rea t o p reven t s o i l e ros ion ( see c hap ter 5 ) , a nd c an b e c o mpared t o s im i lar o bservat ions i n t he n e ighbourhood o f e lope a nd Chevdar. The l ow land g raz ing i s g enera l ly p oor , a s t he g rass i s s parse a nd o f ten p arched i n s u mmer. There i s s o me p er manen t g raz ing h owever a long t hose p arts o f t he Bunovska w here t he s o il i s h eav ier o r d ra inage impeded. As i n t he c ase o f Chevdar, t he b est g raz ing i s f ound a bove t he t reel ine o n t he h igher s lopes o f t he S redna Gora. A l though t he l ack o f p a laeoenv ironmen ta l d a ta g reat ly impedes u nderstandi ng o f t he r esources a ssoc ia ted w ith t hese s i tes when t hey w ere o ccup ied , a nd a s t he r eg ion h as y et t o b e s urveyed s yste ma t ica l ly f or o ther c on te mporaneous s et t le men ts, we c an make o n ly g enera l o bserva t ions o n t he f actors l ikely t o h ave a f fec ted t he l ocat ion o f e ach s i te. We c an , h owever, n o te t ha t e ach o ft hese t hree s i tes i s i m med iate ly a d jacen t t o p oten t ia l ly a rable l and , a nd h as e asy a ccess t o u p land s easona l g raz ing v ia a s ide v a l ley .

Th is t ype o f l ocat ion

wou ld e nab le a c o m mun ity t o t ake f u l l a dvan tage o f t wo w idely d if fer ing a nd g eograph ica l ly s eparated r esource z ones t hroughou t t he y ear f rom t he s a me p referred s i te. Because a rab le l and i s s carce a nd t he u p land g raz ing i s g enera l ly d if f icu l t t o r each , t he o vera l l d ens i ty o f p opu lat ion i n t h is r eg ion w as p robab ly l ow d ur ing t he s ix th a nd f i f th m il lenn ia. On t he o ther h and , f u ture s urvey m igh t r esu l t i n t he d iscovery o f s evera l c on te mporaneous s e tt le men ts i n t he v a l ley f l oor , a nd l ead t o t he s uggest ion t hat o ther c o m mun it ies u t il ised o n ly t he l ow land r esources t hroughou t t he y ear. I fs o , t he u se o f s easonal ly a va ilab le u p land g raz ing m igh t h ave b een a n a typ ica l p ar t o f t he r eg ional s ubsi stence s yste m , a nd n ot t he n or m , a s i nd icated a t p resent b y a sma l l a nd h igh ly b iased s a mp le o f t hree s i tes. Fro m t he l im ited d ata a t o ur d isposal , w e may s uggest t hat o ne importan t f actor wh ich may h ave a f fected t he s ize a nd l ongev ity o f t e l l s et t le men ts i n t h is r eg ion was t he e xten t o fp oten t ia l ly a rab le l and w ith in t he ir c a tchmen t a reas. öelope6, t he l argest a nd l ongest o ccup ied s i te , h as a ccess t o t he l argest a rea o f p oten t ia l ly a rab le l and , w h ilst M irkovo , t he smal lest a nd s hortest o ccup ied o f t he t hree t el ls , i s i n a n a rea o f much l ower a gr icu l tura l p oten t ia l.

Co m-

mun ica t ion w ith o u ts ide a reas may a lso h ave p layed a p art i n a f fec t ing t he s ize a nd l ongev ity o f s et t le men ts , h owever. ö elope6 i s o n t he most o bv ious r ou te b etween t he S o f ia Bas in a nd K azan luk a rea, whereas Chevdar a nd Mirokovo a re more i so lated a nd r e mo te s ett le men ts. We s ha l l n ow c ons ider t he e v idence f ro m t he r ecen t e xcavat ions a t Chevdar f or t he p lan t a nd a n i ma l h usbandry o f t h is r eg ion C . 5 000 b .c. 2 .

The p lan t a nd a n i ma l h usbandry o f Chevdar

S o me p rel im inary i n for mat ion i s a ppropr iate o n t he a ge o f t he s e t t le men t , i t s s trat igraphy , a nd t he way b io log ica l d a ta w as r ecovered. The a rtefactua l ma ter ia l f ro m most o f t he o ccupa t ion h or izons w as s im ilar t o K aranovo Ia sse mblages f ro m s i tes s uch a s K aranovo a nd Az mak ( Georg iev ,

8 2

1 961, 1 965 ) wh ich h ave b een d ated t o c . 5 300-4500 b .c. ( see Tab le 1 ) . As s o me o f t he c era m ic mater ia l f ro m l ater o ccupa t ion h or izons r ese mb led t hat i n K aranovo I I a sse mb lages ( Georg iev , 1 971:29 ), Chevdar may h ave b een o ccup ied u n t il c . 4 500-4300 b .c.

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Table 1 2

An i ma ls r epresen ted o n Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic a nd b ronze a ge s ites

( 1)

( 2)

( 3)

x

x

x

x x

x x

x

S . s crofa

x

x

S . d o mest ica

x

Bos s p.

( 4)

x

B. t auros B . p r im igen ius

x

Cervus e laphus Capreo lus s p.

x

S us s p .

x

Equus s p. Capra/Ov is

( 6)

x

x

?

?

( 7)

( 8)

( 9) x

x

x

x

?

?

?

x

?

x

x x

x x

x x

x

x

? ?

x x

x

? ? x

x

Cap . s p.

x

Ov is s p. _ Can is f am il iar i . .s _

?

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

?

?

?

x

?

Can is l tmus

x

?

?

x

x

x

x

x

x

U rsus s p.

x

x

Me les s p. L epus s p.

x

Castor s p.

x

x

x

x

x

x

Ayes

x

P isces

x

S hel l-f ish

x

x

Vu lpes s p.

S ources:

( 5)

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x

x

1 :

Go le m ma ta Peshtera ( Neo l ith ic ) :

2 :

Devetak i Pesh tera ( Neo l ith ic ) :

Gau l ( 1948 :40 )

Mikov a nd Dza mbazov ( 1960 )

3 :

Vas il L evsk i ( Neo l ith ic ) :

4 :

Morav ica ( Eneo l ith ic ) :

Dza mbazov ( 1963 )

5 : 6 :

Denev ( Bo lan A ) : Gau l ( 1 948 :71) Kodza Der men ( Bo ian A ) : Gau l ( 1948:70 )

7 :

Ezero ( Eneo l ith ic ) :

Dza mbazov ( 1959 )

I vanov ( 1965 )

8 :

Ezero ( Bronze Age ) :

9 :

H issarl ik ( Ear ly B ronze Age ) :

I vanov ( 1965 )

2 05

x

G au l ( 1948:121 )

Tab le 1 3

Quan t it ies o f n i trogen , p otass ium a nd p hosphorus r e moved b y whea t c rops a t Rotha mpsted u nder d i fferen t c ond it ions o f manage men t , 1 966-7

Amoun ts r e moved i n l bs/acre N itrogen

Treatmen t o f c rop Con t inuous;

n o manure

Con t inuous;

w ith manure

Po tass iu m

P hosphorus

2 2.6

8 .3

4 .0

5 6.6

3 3.8

1 1.4

i st c rop a f ter f al low ;

n o manure

4 1.3

1 9.8

7 .5

I st c rop a f ter f a l low ;

manured

1 07.6

7 1.0

1 8.8

Data f ro m J ohns ton ( 1969 :52-58 )

Tab le 1 4

E f fect o f c rop c u lt ivat ion u pon s o i l s truc ture

%b y w e ight o f s o il

% o f a ggrega tes

mo isture when

more t han 3m m Type o f l and u se P asture 1 00 y rs o ld

i n d ia me ter

% o rgan ic mat ter

f u l ly d ra ined

4 9

1 0.4

3 5.6

2 7

5 .7

3 0.8

1 8

4 .0

2 4.6

Arab le , t hen g rass f or 2 8 y rs Arab le , t hen g rass f or 6y rs

Data . f ro m L ow ( 1955 )

2 06

Tab le 1 5

Assoc iat ion o f w eeds w ith wheat a nd b arley c rops a t Woburn , i n d ecreas ing o rder o f f requency w ith w hea t

N umber o f s eeds p er 8 .6* f t2 Weed s pec ies

Wheat

Barley

S pergu la a rvens is A lche m il la a rvens is

8 ,475 4 ,520

1 6 ,1101/ 4 4

Matr icar ia i nodora

3 ,183

Poa a nnua

2 ,816

1 ,314

Po lygonum a v icu lare

1 ,041

1 ,316 '

2 34

Cerast ium v u lgatu m

4 35

Veron ica a rvens is

4 07

1 37

1

Gnapha l iu m u l ig inosum

3 44

1 ,007 y

J uncus b u fon ius

3 39

8

S te l lar ia med ia

2 80

9 15 l i

Capse l la b ursa-pastor is

2 55

1 ,520 l i

Agrost is s to lon ifera

1 81

8 6

P apaver sp p.

1 31

4

V ic ia h irsu ta

1 30

V io la a rvens is

16

1 3

Myoso L is a rvens is

8 7

Arenar ia s erpy l l ifo l ia

8 4

_ 6

L am iu m amp lex icau le

7 0

1 85 Y

L egous ia h ybr ida

6 0

2 3

Veron ica h ederaefo l ia

4 8

1

Ru mex a cetose l la

4 3

5 6 y

S enec io v u lgar is

3 9

8 4

Veron ica b uxbaum i i

1 4

Po lygonum c onvo lvu lus

1 0

Chenopod iu m a lbum

7

Tota l

2 3,115

Y d eno tes s pec ies p redo m inan t i nb ar ley. Based o n Brench ley a nd War ing ton ( 1933 :105 )

2 07

8 60 y 3 0

y

1 62 Y 2 4,116

Tab le 1 6

Man/hours p er h ectare e xpended i n sw idden c u l t ivat ion b y t he Hanunoo o f t he Ph i l ipp ines a nd I ban o f S arawak

C l i max f orest Act iv it ies Forest c lear ing C rop g row ing Harvest ing To ta l S ource :

S econdary f orest

Ba mboo

Hanunoo

I ban

Hanunoo

I ban

6 05

3 25-408

3 95

1 79-262

2 85

1 465

3 42-407

1 470

3 71-473

1 470

6 10

2 28-326

6 10

2 28-326

6 10

9 05-1141

4 75

7 78-1061

2 680

C lark a nd Haswe l l ( 1970 :46-7 )

2 08

Hanunoo

2 365

Tab le 1 7

Mean w heat y ields u nder f a l low ing ( 1935-64 ) c o mpared w ith mean y ields u nder c on t inuous c ropp ing a t Ro tha mpsted

Gra in

S traw

Year af ter f a l low

1

2

3

4

n o manure

1 6.9

9 .8

9 .5

9 .5

1 1.4

2 5.7

1 4.4

manure

2 6.4

2 3.3

2 1.2

2 0.0

2 2.7

5 3.2

1 0.2

3 .1

2 .8

2 .8

4 .7

7 .0

3 .9

1 .8

0 .6

3 .3

mean

1

2

3

4

mean

1 4.0

1 4.2

1 7.1

4 4.5

4 1.8

4 1.2

4 5.2

1 5.9

4 .6

4 .2

4 .4

7 .3

1 9.0

1 0.3

7 .6

7 .0

1.0

i ncrease o ver c on t inuous wheat : n o manure manure

a verage y ie lds o f c on t inuous w hea t w ithou t manure , 1 852-1925 : w ith manure a verage y ields o f c on t inuous s traw w ithou t manure w ith manure

Based o n Garner a nd Dyke ( 1969 :45-6 )

2 09

6 .7 cw t/acre

:1 9.4 : 9 .8 :3 4.2

Tab le 1 8

Co mpar ison o f t he e f fects o f f a l low ing a nd c on t inuous c u l t ivat ion o n c o mpos it ion o f w eed f l ora a t Rotha mpsted

%o f 1 925 p opu lat ion

S pec ies

1 927

1 927

c on t inuous c rop

f a l low f or

f or 2 y ears

2y ears

Veron ica b uxbaum i i

2 86

6 4

Myoso t is a rvens is

2 61

1 7

G al ium a par ine

1 96

S onchus a rvens is

1 67

1 9

8

Capse l la b ur s a-pastor is

1 40

9 7

A lopecurus a grest is

1 37

Veron ica a rvens is

1 27

4 2 1

Arenar ia s erpy l l ifo l ia

1 14

9 2

Matr icar ia i nodora

1 09

3 5

Gal ium t r icorne

1 09

Cauca lis i a rvers is

9

1 07

1 5

P apaver r hoeas

8 5

4 6

Med icago l upu l ina

8 0

Veron ica h eder ifo l ia

5 3

4 1

A lche m il la a rvens is

4 4

3 2

Anaga l l is a rvens is

4 4

2 7

S enec io v u lgar is

3 6

7

7

A tr ip lex p atu la

3 4

1 2

L egous ia h ybr ida

3 3

3 8 1 1

j

S te l lar ia med ia

2 8

Aethusa c ynap ium

1 9

8

Po lygonu m c onvo lvu lus

1 8

2

Barts ia o don i tes

1 6

3 2 l i

L inar ia m inor

1 6

2 7

Euphorb ia e x igua

1 3

1 0

Po lygonum a v icu lare

8

4

S cand ix p ecten

5

3

d eno tes t hose s pec ies n o t r educed i n weed n u mbers b y f al low ing. Based o n Brenchley a nd War ing ton ( 1933 :109-118 ).

2 10

Tab le 1 9

E f fect o f f a l low ing t ime u pon weed f l ora a t Ro tha mpsted

N u mber o f s eeds a s % r e lat ive

Fa l lowed 1 925-6

t o n u mber o r ig ina l ly i ns o il

( p loughed a u tumn )

Over 1 00%

l ess t han 4 0%

( p loughed s pr ing )

4s pec ies

1 3 s pec ies

-

4s pec ies

8 1-100% 4 1-80%

Fa l lowed 1 927-8

8s pec ies

7s pec ies

1 6 s pec ies

4s pec ies

Based o n Brench ley a nd Waring ton ( 1936 :482 )

Tab le 2 0

Man/days p er h ec tare e xpended i n c erea l c u l t ivat ion i n f a l low c ropp ing

L oca l ity I ta ly

Per iod

Man/days/ha

1 st c en tury A .D.

3 7

Man/hrs/ha

2 96

Eng land

1 6th-18th c en tury

3 1

2 48

Par is b as in

2 0 th c en tury

3 0

2 40

S . S pa in A lger ia

2 0th c en tury 2 0th c en tury

5 0-60 1 6.5

( 1 ) a ssu mes a n 8h our work ing d ay. S ource :

Wh ite ( 1965 :103 ).

2 11

( 1 )

4 00-480 1 32

Tab le 2 1

Numbers o f weed s eeds p er a cre a t h arvest ing

I st y ear af ter f a l low S pec ies

i n h arvest

Med icago l upu l ina P apaver s pp. Po lygonum a v icu lare Myosot is a rvens is

1 6836

2 nd y ear a f ter f a l low

o n g round

i n h arvest

o n g round

? ?

2 467

3 411

6 80

5 47

8 084

7 2699

1 587

11

7 70

1 051

2 2

2 01

4 11

5 73

5 6

8

Chenopod iu m a lbum/ A tr ip lex p atu la

2 995

1 32

A lopecurus mysuro ides

1 26

7 4

6 33

4 446

Tr ip leurospernum mar it inum

2 17

1 27

1 515

2 2566

Aethusa c ynap ium O don ites v erna A l l s pec ies

S ource :

1 14

1 52

1 58

6 8

6 5

3

2 08

4 310

2 4115

104

1 4911

1 00087

Thurston ( 1969 :F ig . 1 0 :14 )

2 12

Tab le 2 2

Mon th ly t e mperatures ( C ) i n Bu lgar ia f ro m 1 896 t o 1 925

A lt. m. Met. S tat ion Gabrovo

a.s. 1 .

J an .

3 75

1.3

Feb. Mar. 0 .6

5 .5

Apr.

May

J une

J u ly

Aug.

1 0.1

1 4.8

1 7.9

1 9.9

1 9.5

1 9.2

2 1.8

2 1.4

Kazan luk

3 72

0 .6

2 .2

6 .2

1 0.8

1 5.6

S of ia

5 50

1.7

0 .4

5 .3

1 0.2

1 5.1

1 8.2

2 0.4

2 0.1

7 .4

1 2.2

1 7.3

2 1.0

2 3.4

2 2.8

P lovd iv

1 60

0 .9

3 .0

Petr itsch

1 50

2 .4

3 .8

8 .2

1 2.8

1 8.1

2 2.2

2 4.4

2 4.0

1 .4

2 .6

6 .0

1 0.3

1 5.4

1 9.7

2 2.1

2 2.1

Varna

3 5 1 7

2 .0

3 .3

6 .7

1.0

1 5.7

2 0.2

2 2.8

2 2.6

R ila

1 165

2.6

1.2

1 .3

5 .9

1 1.5

1 3.8

1 6.0

1 6.0

Petrohan

1 400

4.9

4.0

1.6

3 .0

8 .8

1 1.6

1 3.6

1 3.8

S it n iakovo

1 740

4.9

3.6

2.6

2 .1

7 .4

1 0.2

1 2.6

1 2.7

S ep.

O ct.

Nov.

Dec.

Max.

Min.

Burgas

Av. t hr.

S ep.

Oct.

N ov.

Dec.

Gabr o vo

1 5.7

1 0.9

4 .9

1 .1

Max.

Min.

Y ear

Range

1 0.0

2 1.2

K a .z an luk

1 7.3

1 2.0

5 .8

2 .3

3 6.4

13.8

1 1.3

2 1.2

S of ia

1 6.1

1 0.8

4 .4

0 .3

3 4.6

17.3

1 0.0

2 2.1

P lovd iv

1 8.7

1 3.2

6 .7

2 .8

3 6.6

13.8

1 2.4

2 2.5

Petr itsch

1 9.3

1 4.1

7 .7

3 .9

1 3.4

2 2.0

Varna

1 8.3

1 3.7

7 .8

4 .7

3 5.1

12.7

1 2.0

2 0.7

Burgas

1 9.1

1 4.3

8 .3

5 .1

3 5.7

11.6

1 2.6

2 0.8

R ila

1 2.1

8 .2

3 .2

0 .0

7 .0

1 8.6

Petrohan

1 0.2

6 .0

0.1

3.0

2 6.6

22.5

4 .4

1 8.7

8 .9

5 .0

0.1

2.8

4 .2

1 7.6

S itn iakovo S ources :

A lt ( 1932 );

Turr il l ( 1929 )

2 13

0 C . 3 i n

N o v . D e c .

0 0

0 0 N .I ' t

0 C Z C Y ) C Z CD O t I C

C Z

C )

c Y ) c : 5-›

o o

o o

o o I

C r )

N c c n

0 " )

L C ) • ; t 4

c ) c c — i i n

C l

0

C D C l

0

CD

CD

0

e4

00

. N 1

0

C D c o

C Z c o

c o

N L I Z

c l

0

C . 0

N N

C l e l

c ic cC Z

e l

C D C Y Z

C Y >

C O

C M

I S Z

c c

N

N

C M

o z )

C \ I c n

CD

C D

c o

00

i n L I Z N

4 : 7. )e i

o C Z

L I Z L C Z

( X ) C Z

C r ) N

L I Z e

e l e

c . o

L C Z

c 0 C Z

N

e l C Z

C D N

C Z i n

0 " e

C Z c o

C D

N • 44 C l

e l

L t Z 0

o o

C O

C >

c o

T u r i l ( 1 9 2 9 )

N

c o( 3 )

e l

0

N L C Z 0 0 0 CM C SJ

0 7 e l eZ

e f

• ( e i c .0 .i 00

c gluz e t-f luzl -41- 41 o o C . D1 CZ N C O 0 0 • i

F e b . M a r . A p r . M a y .

C D 0

0 0

c eI

0 01i n

e i

o

I n

c e e i

t - c : p

c o

C D

C Z 0 0

0 0 0

C l c o

0 c o

e i i n

C Z

0-4 m t 4

0 C D

I n

• i

0 0

0 c c

C O c l

N C Z

C Y Z m t +

C Z C Z

N C I

C Z C Z

N N

N C l

N

N e

C C ) CZ

N N

0 0 C Z CZ CZ CZ C YZ

L C

O C O

C \ 1

o

C T >

e i

c e

e i

O IC ) i n C Z

0 0 C O e l e laZ i n

N I C C )

0

O C > e

g1

> 0

, . . A z

_0 c e

N , c 1

C D

4

. " . 4 > r c s

u ) ▪ : 4 . -)

i z l 0

0 . +

4 ) c u

; f c e

r n

g i

P A

>

. 0 0

c i p

c d ; 1 1 Y 1

2 c d

L . 4 ) . 7 .1 c u

. t)

1 24

( f )

P A

214

3 0 / d r i e s t m o n t h ( s )

M e t . S t a i o n

0

7 54

C O

E — i

, c u

C\ I

0 0

0

C D

C D

( X )

C D

C D

9-1

9 r . . 4

9 -4

CD 91

C 7 )

CD

C4 )

N

C Y )

00

CD

00

9I

N

00

00

N

' , e l

9-4

9 4

9 .4

9 4

( X )

L C

C Y D

C S D

L S D

0 4 -4

C\ I

0 0

b -

C

O

t -

t -

C r z Cn ce

› — D › . ) c d

C ' 1

CD

• : 1 4

. r . 1

C d

p s 2

91

M

C \ I •

CD ri

▪

C r ' J

9 4

91 91

r4

N 94

C) . 9 .9

b .. 4 • 4

h D

•

mf •

• C L e

b Ce

c l b V D

C i n

C D C O

0 L n

0

c r )

o 4

M e t . S t a i o n

< 1

9 4

c 2

C dA C D 4

0

C / D

0

I n C Z

b TH

c r )

° Ü , b

_ 4 P i

2 15

Tab le 2 5

Pat tern o f l and t enure i n Bu lgar ia i n 1 939

Far m-ho ld ings

% o f t o ta l

1 57 ,264

To ta l

Mean a rea i n a cres

1 4.2

1 .2

5 76 ,264

5 2.8

7 .5

2 76 ,377

2 5.3

1 7.5

5 8 ,274

5 .3

3 0.0

2 5 ,946

2 .4

6 0.0

1 ,094,125

1 00.0

S ource :

Tab le 2 6

Dobr in ( 1973 )

Chang ing p a t tern o f l and t enure i n Bu lgar ia f ro m 1 948 t o 1 967

Nu mber o f p r ivate f ar ms Co-operat ive f ar ms

1 958

1 967

1 ,103,100J

6 1,283

7 ,213

1 ,100

% o f s tate-owned l and

j 1 946

1 948

S ource :

1 1.0

Rouss inov ( 1969 )

2 16

3 ,290

8 66

9 4.3

9 9.4

Tab le 2 7

P ercen tage o f a gr icu l tura l p roduce o b ta ined f ro m p r ivate l and i n Bu lgar ia i n 1 956 a nd 1 967

Tota l a rab le l and

1 956

1 967

P lu ms

3 4.9

5 0.4

G rapes

2 2.4

2 9.0

Po tatoes

1 4.8

2 5.3

App les

2 5.8

2 2.4

Ma ize

1 2.1

2 2.8

On ions

1 4.9

1 9.4

Bar ley

1.7

1 1.2

6 .1

7 .6

1 3.0

7 .0

Wheat

2 .4

0 .4

S ugar-beet

0 .4

0 .2

Tobacco

0 .1

0 .1

Eggs

5 8.7

4 1.6

Meat

2 2.3

2 9.1

Woo l

2 3.4

2 6.3

Cow 's m i lk

1 8.6

9 .9

L ucerne To matoes

An i ma l P roduce

S ource :

Dobr in ( 1973 )

2 17

Tab le 2 8

Year 1 1 913 2

Crop p roduct ion i n Bu lgar ia , 1 913-1967, i n t housands o f me tr ic t ons

Whea t

Barley

Ma ize

Tobacco

1 ,239

2 51

7 86

-

9 03

2 04

9 40

3 3

1 929 2 1 939 3

1 ,937

3 34

1 939 3 1 967

2 ,003 3 ,241

4 14 9 85

5 32j 1 ,077 1 ,977

S ugar-beet

To matoes

3 6

-

-

-

-

3 5

3 2

-

-

4 1 1 07

2 34 2 ,040

4 4 7 02

6 59 7 99

1 935 S ources :

Tab le 2 9

1 :

N ava l I n tel l igence D iv is ion ( 1920 )

2 :

Roya l I nst itu te o f I n terna t iona l A f fa irs ( 1940 )

3 :

Brown ( 1970 )

Agr icu l tura l p roduct iv ity i n Bu lgar ia i n 1 939 a nd 1 967

1 939

1 967

Wheat

1 310

3 055 k g/ha

Ma ize

1 359

3 433 k g/ha

4 50

2 040 l i tres

4 2

4 3 l i tres

Milk p er c ow Mi lk p er s heep Woo l

1 .5

Eggs p er h en

S ource :

7 3

Rouss inov ( 1969 )

2 18

G rapes

2 .7 k g 1 05

e

0 N C f ) T i

e z 0 N I n N C D . C M

I f ) N L C N N . ' e . 1

N 0 0 . . i

C D C D N

C Z N

N 0 C O 0 " › C T J L . C 3 . 4 .

0 N C I I t

ri

CO

Cn

N

e

e

C l c > i n c y , e l . 1 . . 4

C l 4 c e

N i n N

ri

c e c . o C I e i C I N . C 7 2

c e I n C M " V • « I

c n c o i n c o N C O e . t. . .

c o t c n N C O i n ,r ° 4

4 N " e 4

N a > " i I

. 4 c o C )

C l

e n

C C i n I n 0 N

G O c o c e . C e

N c o c o . N

c o e z

N e z C C ) i n " . . 4

o . I C D ' F t N

4 N L C I N N

cy z

ri

e

C D c e C D • 4-1

C C ) c o N CZ . 4

c o ,q . 1 N L I ' D c > i n . C Y>

0 e i N . . 0 0

T o t a l n u m b e r i n u n i t s o f t h o u s a n d s

C e

r1

L ' • • •

N ( X ) i 1 e 4 C A e 4 .

N

0.3 c n Go

in

0.3 N e l C I . • -I

-

CO

C I

C . 0

. 4

u p

+ t-• cn e 4 N

N 0 0 e l

N . 9-4

N

N 0 I 0

N 00 00 C .0 0 .0 C ) I n N e t C I 4

.

-

4

t -

l

4

I n

4 .

I

0 0 e 4

M I N OO 0 0 e 4 4

N

e

t o

o

N

I

0 e O-J M o N

N C T > N 0 0 i n t o

00

I C )

r4

CO

c o

M IZZ CO C 0 c o e i co I P b

o

I

e l

i n co o 4

e l

m tc o

4

C I c e

00•

e l

N u z

e e t -

E -+

e N 00 00

c o c o

o o cq

I

I

I

I

ic yz

( 7 3

i

ri • •

" Z t4

0

r n

c ) 0

1

c a

' a l

„ c

o

C f )

CD

i t 0

P g l

r / 2

0 =

E n > >

0

p

* C

4 , . . .

. , 4

0

a ta

c d 0

a 21 9

d o n k e y s a n d m u l e s c o m b i n e d

0

• •

N

• •

• •

e

Table 3 1

Crop y ields i n l bs/acre f ro m C lass ical t o r ecen t t imes

Crop

Per iod

L ocal ity

wheat

7 0 B .C.

S ic ily

Deta ils

Y ield

Ref .

1 000

1 2

wheat

1 325-49

Ha mpsh ire

4 50

wheat

1 325-49

S urrey

5 00

2

wheat

1 325-49

Berksh ire

6 15

2

whea t

1 325-49

Buck ingha msh ire

4 75

2

wheat

1 325-49

Ox fordsh ire

4 55

2 2

wheat

1 325-49

Wil tsh ire

4 65

wheat

1 325-49

S o merset

4 00

2

whea t

c . 1 600

Eng land

4 50

1

wheat

c . 1 750

Eng land

7 30

1

wheat

1 852-1925

Ro tha mpsted

7 50

3

2 170

3

1 375

4

2 750

4

5 50

5

a nnua l c ropp ing , n o manure

wheat

1 852-1925

a nnua l c ropp ing ,

Ro tha mpsted

manured wheat

1 935-64

4 -year f a l low ,

Rotha mpsted

n o manure w heat

1 935-64

4 -year f a l low ,

Rotha mpsted

manured wheat

1 922-30

Greece

whea t

1 922

U . S. A.

n at iona l a verage

8 85

5

wheat

1 922

Canada

n at iona l a verage

1 064

5

whea t

1 922

F rance

n at iona l a verage

1 243

5

wheat

1 922

G er many

n at iona l a verage

1 680

5

wheat

1 922

Den mark

2 464 125

5 6

1 990

7

wheat

1 936

Bu lgar ia

n a t iona l a verage n a t iona l a verage

whea t

1 936-8

B r ita in

n a t iona l a verage

wheat

1 933-7

N orway

n a t iona l a verage

1 750

8

wheat

1 934-8

Den mark

n a t iona l a verage

2 736

9

whea t

1 933-7

G reece

n a t iona l a verage

7 95

5

wheat

1 938

Yugoslav ia

n at iona l a verage

1 275

1 0

wheat

1 938

I ta ly , Br ind is i

n a t iona l a verage

8 96

1

wheat

1 938

I ta ly , Ferrara

3 136

1

whea t

1 944

I ran

8 06

1 2

wheat

1 963

I raq ( Diya la )

1 018

1 3

wheat

1 963-5

I srael

n at ional a verage

1 606

1 4

wheat

1 963-5

U .S.A .

n at iona l a verage

1 559

1 4

wheat

1 963-5

Sweden

n at iona l a verage

3 235

1 4

wheat

1 963-5

N etherlands

n at iona l a verage

3 946

1 4

wheat

1 963-5

F rance

n at iona l a verage

2 700

1 4

wheat

1 967

Br ita in

n at iona l a verage

3 730

n at iona l a verage

2 20

7

Tab le 3 1 ( con td.) Y ield

Ref .

Ha mpsh ire

6 50

2

7 50

2

Crop

Per iod

L ocal ity

b ar ley

1 325-49

Deta ils

b arley

1 325-49

S urrey

b ar ley

1 325-49

Berk sh ire

1 300

2

b ar ley

1 325-49

Buck ingha msh ire

1 080

2

b ar ley

1 325-49

Ox fordsh ire

8 35

2

b ar ley

1 325-49

Wi ltsh ire

7 90

2

7 90

2

1 731

3

5 564

3

2 788

3

5 153

3

n a t iona l a verage

8 06

5

b ar ley

1 325-49

S o merset

b arley

1 853-1913

Rotha mpsted

g rown c on t inuously , n o manure

b arley

1 853-1913

g rown c on t inuously ,

Rotha mpsted

manured b ar ley

1 853-1913

4 -course r o tat ion ,

Ro thampsted

n o manure b arley

1 853-1913

4 -course r o tat ion ,

Ro tha mpsted

manured b arley

1 926-30

Greece

b ar ley

1 934-8

Denmark

n at iona l a verage

2 682

b arley

1 938

Yugoslav ia

n at iona l a verage

9 18

1 0

9 1 2

b arley

1 944

I ran

n at iona l a verage

8 96

b arley

1 936-8

Br ita in

n at iona l a verage

1 840

b arley

1 963

I raq ( D iya la )

b arley

1 963-5

U .S.A.

n at iona l a verage

1 859

1 4

b ar ley

1 963-5

N ether lands

n at iona l a verage

3 547

1 4

b arley

1 963-5

France

n at iona l a verage

2 625

1 4

b ar ley

1 967

Br ita in

n at iona l a verage

3 360

7

o ats

Ha mpsh ire

4 50

2

o ats

1 325-49 1 325-49

S urrey

4 75

2

o ats

1 325-49

Berksh ire

4 35

2

o ats

1 325-49

Buck ingha msh ire

5 50

2

o ats

1 325-49

Ox fordsh ire

6 15

2

o ats

1 325-49

Wi ltsh ire

4 65

2

o ats

1 325-49 1 926-30

S o merse t Greece

n at iona l a verage

5 15 5 70

2

o ats o ats

1 933-7

Greece

n at iona l a verage

7 28

5

o ats

1 938

Yugoslav ia

n at iona l a verage

8 28

o ats

1 933-7

N orway

n at iona l a verage

1 815

o ats

1 936-8

Br ita in

n at iona l a verage

1 800

7

o ats

1 934-8

Denmark

n at iona l a verage

2 430

o ats

1 963-5

I srael

n at iona l a verage

1 270

9 1 4

o ats

1 963-5

U .S.A.

n at iona l a verage

1 460

1 4

o at s

1 963-5

N etherlands

n at iona l a verage

3 416

1 4

o ats

1 963-5

F rance

n at iona l a verage

1 986

1 4

1 255

2 21

1 3

5 1 0 8

Table 3 1 ( con td.) Deta ils

Y ield

Ref .

Crop

Per iod

L oca l ity

o ats

1 967

Br ita in

n at iona l a verage

3 024

7

r ye

1 926-30

Greece

n a t iona l a verage

6 85

5

r ye

1 933-7

G reece

n a t iona l a verage

7 50

5

r ye

1 938

Yugoslav ia

n a t iona l a verage

8 06 1 620

1 0 9

r ye

1 934-8

Denmark

n at iona l a verage

r ye

1 963-5

U .S.A.

n at iona l a verage

126

b eans

1 847-78

Ro tha mpsted

a nnua l c ropp ing ,

6 10

3

102

3

1 4

n o manure b eans

1 847-78

a nnua l c ropp ing

Rotha mpsted

manured b eans

1 938

Yugoslav ia

n a t ional a verage

1 010

1 0

b eans

1 963-5

N ether lands

n at iona l a verage

2 531

1 4

p eas

1 938

Yugoslav ia

n at iona l a verage

1 208

1 0

l en t i ls

1 938

Yugoslav ia

n at ional a verage

5 76

1 0

s pe l t

1 938

Yugoslav ia

n at iona l a verage

6 20

1 0

1 938

Yugoslav ia

n at iona l a verage

8 06

1 0

b uckwhea t1 938

Yugoslav ia

n at iona l a verage

6 44

1 0

mil let

1 938

Yugoslav ia

n a t iona l a verage

1 680

1 0

S ources :

1 :

Wh ite ( 1963 )

wheat mixed w ith r ye

2 :

T itow ( 1972 )

3 :

Ha l l ( 1917 )

4 :

Garner a nd Dyke ( 1969 )

5 :

N ava l I n tel l igence Geograph ica l Handbook S er ies :

6 :

S eton- Watson ( 1945 )

7 :

Cen tral O f f ice o f I nfor mat ion ( 1969 )

8 :

N aval I n tel l igence Geograph ica l Handbook S er ies :

N orway I ( 1942 )

G reece I , ( 1944 )

9 :

N ava l I n te l l igence Geograph ica l Handbook S er ies :

Denmark ( 1944 )

1 0 :

N ava l I ntel l igence Geograph ica l Handbook S er ies :

J ugoslav ia ,

1 1:

N ava l I n te l l igence Geograph ical Handbook S er ies :

I t a ly , I V ( 1944 )

1 2 :

N ava l I n tel l igence Geograph ical Handbook S er ies :

P ers ia ( 1945 )

1 3 :

Ada ms ( 1963 )

1 4 :

FA O ( 1966 )

I I , ( 1944 )

( t o c onvert l bs/acres i n to k g/ha , mu lt ip ly b y 0 .89 )

2 22

Tab le 3 2

Food v a lues o f f ood-stu f fs :

Resource

c on ten t p er k g o f e d ib le p or t ion i n gms

Prote in

Fat

Carbohydra te Ca lor ies

Fru it a pp les , f resh

3 .0

4 .0

1 50

5 80

a pp les , d r ied

3 0.0

7 .0

7 36

2 810

b lackberr ies c herr ies

1 2.0 1 1.0

1 1.0 4 .0

1 19 1 46

6 20 6 00

c urran ts

1 4.0

4 .0

1 39

5 80

d ates, d r ied

2 2.0

6 .0

7 50

3 140

f igs , f resh

1 2.0

4 .0

1 61

6 50

f igs , d r ied

3 1.0

2 .0

7 30

2 800

g rapes

8 .0

4 .0

1 67

7 40

p ears , f resh

5 .0

4 .0

1 55

6 10

p ears , d r ied

2 3.0

4 .0

7 20

3 010

p lums , f resh

7 .0

2 .0

1 29

5 60

p lu ms , d r ied

2 3.0

6 .0

7 10

2 990

r aspberr ies

1 1.0

6 .0

1 44

6 60

s trawberr ies

8 .0

6 .0

8 1

4 10

muter- melons

5 .0

2 .0

6 9

3 10

Vege tab les c au l if lower

2 4.0

2 .0

4 9

3 10

c abbage , f resh

1 6.0

1 .0

5 7

2 50

c abbage , d r ied

1 37.0

1 8.0

6 88

3 460

2 4.0

2 .0

7 6

3 50

2 57.0

1 0.0

5 93

3 570

b eans , f resh l en t i ls , d r ied p eas, f resh

6 7.0

4 .0

1 70

8 00

p eas , d r ied

2 45.0

1 0.0

6 17

3 540

2 7.0

7 .0

8 8

5 20

1 86.0

5 41.0

1 96

6 400

3 4.0

1 9.0

4 56

2 130

d andel ions Nu ts a l monds c hestnu ts , f resh

6 7.0

4 1.0

7 90

3 800

h aze lnu ts

c hestnu ts , d r ied

1 27.0

6 09.0

1 80

6 710

wa lnu ts

1 50.0

6 44.0

1 56

7 020

5 2.0

4 30.0

4 30

2 26.0

5 45.0

1 56

a corns 1 p istach io 1 Milk p roducts c ow 's m i lk

3 3.0

3 7.0

4 94

6 50

g oat 's m i lk

3 7.6

4 0.7

4 64

7 10

s heep 's m ilk

5 1.5

6 1.8

4 17

6 .0

8 10.0

2 50.0

3 22.0

b u t ter ( cow ) c heese ( Cheddar )

2 23

4 2 0

9 30 7 160 3 980

Tab le 3 2 ( con td.) Prote in

Fat

1 69.0

2 10.0

-

2 180

p ork ( med. f at )

1 64.0

2 50.0

-

2 910

mu t ton ( med. f at )

1 80.0

1 75.0

-

2 300

v en ison

2 00.0

6 0.0

-

1 340

Resource

Carbohydra te

Calor ies

Meat b eef ( raw , med. f at )

r abbi t

2 08.0

1 02.0

-

1 750

h are

2 10.0

5 0.0

-

1 290

d uck ( med. f at , r aw )

1 60.0

2 86.0

-

3 210

g oose ( med. f at , r aw )

1 64.0

3 15.0

-

3 490

c od , f resh

1 65.0

4 .0

-

7 00

h err ings, f resh

1 90.0

6 7.0

-

1 360

l obster , f resh

1 62.0

1 9.0

-

8 60

s almon

2 20.0

1 23.0

-

2 030

o ysters

6 0.0

1 2.0

3 7

5 00

1 00.0

2 0.0

3 0

7 00

S ea f oods

mussels I I / Cerea ls Wheat)i

15.0

2 0.0

7 00

3 440

b ar ley I t Y

1 20.0

2 0.0

6 80

3 390

b uckwhea t f lour

7 97

3 540

wheat f lour, wh i te

1 08.0

6 3.0

1 1.0

7 55

3 700

wheat f lour, who le

1 22.0

2 3.0

7 18

3 340

8 9.0

1 8.0

5 21

2 660

7 95

3 190

b read ( brown )

1 1.0

Misc. 3 .0

h oney

6 .0

4 4.0

4 0

5 00

3 5.0

4 .0

6 0

4 20

b eer mushroo ms

S ources :

D ie m ( 1 956 ) ;

-

e xcep t f or

R en frew ( 1973 ) a nd I 1 P la t t ( 1962 )

2 24

Tab le 3 3

Nu tr it ive v a lue o f f ood-stu f fs f or l ivestock

Food-s tu f f

S tarch e qu iva len t

Prote in e qu iva len t

p er 1 00 l bs

p er 1 00 l bs

Beans, b eg inn ing t o f l ower

7 .1

1 .9

K idney v etch

7 .9

1. o

Peas , b eg inn ing t o f l ower

6 .8

2 .0

Ve tches , i n f lower

7 .5

1 .8

Vetches , b eg inn ing t o f lower

3 7.0

1 3.2

Vetches , i n f u l l f lower

3 3.0

8 .1

Grass ( hay matur ity )

1 0.2

1 .8

Meadow h ay ( excel len t )

4 9.0

7 .9

Meadow h ay ( med iu m )

3 2.0

3 .6

Meadow h ay ( very p oor )

2 2.0

2 .4

9 .4

1 .2

Grass d r ied ( l eafy )

5 1.7

9 .3

Bar ley s traw ( spr ing )

2 3.0

0 .7

Bean s tra w ( i nclud ing p ods )

1 9.0

1 .7

L inseed c haf f

1 7.9

1 .2

Oats ( green )

Oa t s traw ( spr ing )

2 0.0

0 .9

Oat s traw ( w in ter )

2 1.0

0 .5

Pea s traw

1 6.9

3 .8

Tare o r v etch s traw L in seed

1 3.0

3 .6

19.0

1 8.7

Pea-husks

6 4.2

3 .4

Whea t s traw ( spr ing )

1 3.0

0 .1

Whea t s traw ( w in ter )

1 3.0

0 .1

Barley g ra in

7 1.0

6 .5

Oats g ra in

5 9.6

7 .6

Wheat g ra in

7 2.0

9 .6

Beans ( seeds )

6 6.0

1 9.8

L en t ils ( seeds )

7 0.0

2 0.5

Peas ( seeds )

6 9.0

1 8.1

Vet ches ( seeds )

6 9.8

2 1.5

Buckwheat Mi lk , c ows , who le Mi lk , whey App le p o mace, f resh

8 .1

1 .3

1 7.1

3 .2

6 .1

0 .6

1 2.4

0 .6

Produce f ro m p asture P asture-grass , n on-ro tat iona l

1 4.7

4 .1

Pasture-grass , s pr ing v a lue

1.2

2 .1

P asture-grass, w in ter v a lue

1 1.4

1 .7

P roduce f ro m b rowse Brush-wood

1 4.8

1 .8

Gorse

8 .9

1 .8

H eather

6 .0

1 .0

2 25

Tab le 3 3 ( con td.) Food-stu f f

S tarch e qu ivalen t p er 1 00 l bs

Prote in e qu iva len t p er 1 00 l bs 1 0.0

E l mleaves ( dr ied )

5 0.0

L eaves o f t rees i n J uly ( dr ied )

3 7.6

4 .9

N et t les ( dr ied )

4 6.5

1.0

Pop lar l eaves i n O ctober ( dr ied )

3 3.9

4 .7

Beech mast

8 6.2

1 0.4

Acorns ( dr ied )

7 0.2

2 .4

Horse-chestnu t , f resh

3 8.0

2 .0

Horse-chestnu t , d r ied

5 6.2

3 .2

L ocust b eans ( pods p lus s eeds )

7 1.4

3 .6

S ource :

Evans ( 1960 )

2 26

Table 3 4

Relat ion b etween r a in fal l i n tens ity , s o i l e ros ion a nd v egetat iona l c over

Years s ince f orest c leared b y f i re P rec ip itat ion i n i nches

1

5 1

S ource :

1 7

5 0+

Eros ion i n y c l3 / acre

o ver 2 4 h ours 2

4

5

1

2 0

1 2

1 80

1 40

K it tredge ( 1973 )

2 27

0 1 2 8

0 0 3

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T ab le 3 9

Nu mbers o f weed s eeds i n Type 1a nd Type 2 s a mp les f rom Chevdar

Depos it n umbers Type 1 s a mp les

F 15

J 15

F 16

Ru mex c r ispus

1 02/4.1 1 2

Ru mex a cetose l la Rumex s p.

G 16

6 2

F 14

5 24.2

2

3

3

2

1 1

Po lygonum a v icu lare Po lygonum s p.

2

2

S a mbucus e bu lus

1

Avena s p.

1 2

Ga l iu m a par ine

3

2

Gal ium mo l lugo L ab ia tae Chenopod iu m s p.

1

Ma lva s p. Caryophy l laceae

1

i gno ta Tota l Type 2 s a mp les

7

1 8

2

9

2 9

1 01

1 03 5 1

Ru mex c r ispus R. a cetosel la

6

7

2 7

2 7

7

2

1 05

F-G16

G 15

J 13

J 14

4

2 1

6

Rumex s p. Po lygonum a v icu lare Po lygonu m s p.

2

2 0 1

9 3

1

3

1 1

S a mbucus e bu lus

1

Avena s p.

6

Ga l iu m a par ine

1

Ga l iu m mo l lugo

1

6

3 8

6

1 6

2

1

L ab iatae Chenopod iu m s p.

1

Ma lva s p.

1

Caryophy l laceae i gno ta

2

1

To ta l

4

7

3 1 0

2 32

1 0 1 6

1 8

8 3

2 1 9

Table 4 0

D istr ibu t ion o f w eed s pec ies a ccord ing t o c on tex t a t Chevdar

F loors

P lan t •

( x p resen t ;

O vens

Rumex c r ispus

x

x

R . a cetosel la Ga l ium a par ine S a mbucus e bu lus

x x x

x x x

P o lygonum s p.

x

x

P o lygonum a v icu lare Chenopod ium s p. Ga l ium mo l lugo Ma lva s p.

x x x x

-

L ab iatae

x

Avena s p.

-

-a bsen t )

2 33

x

C D C q

N

t C M

e 4

• • • 1

C V C M

0 0

C n r • I

I n

C e D

r i

C . 0

0 0

C L r D

L S D

L C D

C Y )

i r

c i

c eD C l

L C D

0 0 N

C e D

r l

C M

C i )

5

U )

C O

L C D

N

C )

c i

0

e

e

e

0 c -

C )

C o m p o s i t o n o f T y p e 3 s a m p l e s f r o m o c u p a t i o n a l d e p o s i t s a t C h e v d a r

.

e

e• c• 0• C D c i L C D

C D

•

•

e• c q• c•

C )

c \ I c i c v c i I C )

•

C D

I n

N

C V L t D

C I N L f D

C Z c i L C D

L f D • C I N L C D

1 . D 0 0 C I D • • • • • • c i z C c c e N N C V C V c i N L C D V D L C ) C D L C D

2 34

Table 4 2

Co mpos it ion o f Type 3 s a mp les f ro m r iver ine d epos its a t Chevdar

Depos it

T. mono-

n u mber

c occu m

5 24.6 5 24.7

2

T .d icoc- T.aesc um

t ivu m

H .hexast i chu m

V ic ia L ens Rubus O ther s p.

s p.

s p.

p lants

To tal

5

1

1

3

4

1 4

9

6

2 7

5

2

3

5 24.8

1

i

1

5 24.9

2

1

5 24.12

1

5 24.13

1

5 24.14

2

5 24.16

5

5 24.17

3

5 24.18

2

5 24.20

3

5 24.21

3

5 24.22

3

5 24.23

2

5 25.1

6

5 25.2

2

3 1

2

5

2

4

1 3 1 5 1 1 1 1

8

1 4 3 1 8

2

6

1

4

2

3

8

1

3

7

2

2

8 2

1

3

2

1

1

5 25.4 5 25.5

1

5 25.6

2

1

5 25.15

2

1

5 26.1

3

3

5 26.2

1

1

2 35

8

2 0

5

3

1 2

1

3

1

8 5 1

2

1 0 8 4

3 1

4

1 1 3

Table 4 3

Econo m ic importance o f p lan ts a t C hevdar i n t er ms o f ( A ) t he ir d ietary p oten t ial a nd ( B ) t he ir a rchaeo log ica l r epresen tat ion

A S tap le r esources :

L ens s p.

V ic ia c f. s at iva

V ic ia c f . s a t iva

L • d icoccu m

T . d icoccum

H . h exast ichu m

T . a est ivu m H . h exast ichu m Avena s p. I nc iden ta l r esources :

Casua l r esources :

Chenopod iu m s p.

L ens s p.

L inum c f . b ienne

Rubus i daeus

Rubus i daeus

Ma lus s p.

Ma lus s p.

Cornus mas

Cornus mas

Rumex ( cr ispus )

Ru mex ( cr ispus )

T . monococcu m

T . monococcu m

T . a est ivu m

Ma lva s p.

Chenopod iu m s p.

Poten t i l la s p.

Ma lva s p.

Po lygonu m s p.

L inu m c f . b ienne

Verbascum s p.

Po ten t il la s p.

Ga l iu m ( apar ine )

Po lygon tun s p.

G . ( mo l lugo )

Verbascum s p.

S a mbucus e bu lus

Ga l iu m ( apar ine ) G . ( mo llugo ) S a mbucus e bu lus Avena s p.

2 36

K ey t o Bone Measure men ts i n T ab les 4 4 , 4 5 , 7 5-78 1 : 2 :

max imum l eng th t h ickness o f p rox i ma l e p iphys is ( see f i g. f or c a lcaneum )

3 :

w id th o fp rox i ma l e p iphys is ( see f i g. f or c a lcaneum )

4 :

max imum p rox ima l w idth

5 :

( on c a lcaneum : max imum t ransverse w id th ) max i mum p rox ima l t h ickness

6 :

m in i mum d iaphysa l w id th ( on s capu la : m in i mum w id th o f n eck )

7 :

m in i mum d iaphysa l t h ickness

8 :

w id th o fd ista l e p iphys is

( on s capu la :

m in i mu m t h ickness o f n eck )

9 : 1 0 :

t h ickness o f d is ta l e p iphys is max imum d is ta l w id th

1:

max i mum d is ta l t h ickness

S chemat ic

c alcaneum

N

C .0 •

•

C . 4 )

I n I n • z j i • • • L

L C

C C

N

•

l b

0 •

N

N C l

C C ) C l

N

• e l

C O

• e

i n

I n

G O CC •

0 0 C e D

•

c e C Y D

•

e l N

•

e l C V

0 0 C O 0 t f ' D N • • • • • C O C Y D • 41 . 4 ! C C c m C C C

C Y D C Y D • •

M C l

N

c m c o • •

•

C D

t r D

I C ) C • •

C C

•

C I C Y D

0

0 0 •

CY>

L e D •

C Y D C ' D

• ( C O C O c . C ) • • • •

C S : D

0

•

C Y D CC N . • • • • c m a ) r e L N C O I n t I n S D

C l

▪ ▪ 0 0

•

0 0 C e D

e I n

e q •

. 4 -1 I I

c e N

CD

CD

•

c n

•

0 0

e

CD •

ei

I n L i e c m 0 0 • • • • • CC c o c q C l C l C C

• r ' D

• C D

C l •

C l

0

•

C

C

0

•

C

•

• 0 0

C • N

0

N

•

e

.

C l

▪ V D

C O • C . D

C

i n 0 • •

•

e c e

e

C •

C

0-3 N

C O C D

C l CC C e D • • I O D • z t, C C N N

C e

•

•

c e c e

C CC l • •

• C O L S D

C Z ) C O

C . 0

C e D •

I n C C

•

N

• C Y D

7 1 T a b l e 4 M e a s u r e m n t s o f B o s b o n e s ( i n m ) f r o m C h e v d a r

L I D c e

l )C l ) c )zC z e eee ; €1 ; E

4 c d

4 c d

4 c d

4 c d

; . • 4

c d

c d

c d

C ) c d

c n

c d

c d

r : 4f a l

c d

C )a )a )a )a )a )a )a )

2 37

e c i ä

" J d i" c r s '" c « , g" c 7 i4 4 c d

c d

c d

C

c d

I . . . 4

1 « . 1

c d

c d

c d

. . a. . a, . 2 .. 5c c d cd

c d

2,2 C l )C l )2 g

1 4

( 7 )

S . 0

L O

0

0 0 • • • C O N e m t 4

•

L CD • e z t 4

C e J

N

N O • • C S ) C D 4 C D el

t f , 0 0 • • N I C - L t z

T a b l e 4 ( c o n t d . )

, 4

2 38

C 9 0 9 N [ 3 C D • • • • • • C 9 0 0 0 0 0 C l Cl I

0

C D

0 .>

t ` .•

•

N

•

0

•

N CI

N

•

C

•

N

•

C l N N C9 C9

L

O

O D

N

7 t4 N

•

C .0

•

C l

•

•

• c o

•

O D e C l

t C i • • • • N 0 0 C D

C O

O N 9 C C l • • • • • C l C N L -

e •

L r

•

•

C. — I

G O

•

C l •

L C z

• L CD

N • N C l

C 9 e l i n • • • N C O 0 C 9 N C 9

C Z

•

c .c

•

o o

C l C • • c o i n C l C l

•

C l

c o

CD

•

e

•

CO

C 9 C O C D • • • * C O t - O D

N

0

C l

•

•

•

C l

0 C l

C D

•

i n e C O • • • c c e

e • .4

m a x i m u b r e a d t h ;

i n C M L I Z 0 0 i n C i 0 C Z C q l 4 1 2 C Z 0 0 . • • • • • • • • • • • 0 0 0 CM CI N M 0 0 CD 0 CD 0 N N N C 9 N N

• 0 C 9

• e t C 9

• N

c q • e l N

• C 9

L e z •

•

C . O N

L C

N

t • -• •

C l -

45 ,

c d

Cq • C \ 1

•

Ce

M e a s u r e m n t s o f c a p r o v i n e b o n e s ( i n m ) f r o m C h e v d a r

C l

C J.) r1

r . 4

c I

E -I

; • . 4

c a

; • I

; 1

` A)

• 4

z

I 0

I

0

0

0

. c 2 . C 2 • , 4

• C 2

. C 2

c a

E i E 1 c r )

c e 0

c a

c e

c a

c a c . )

c e

" C S c d

t i ) c n r i p t Z

" C3

2 2 ,

3 . )2 ,

t n

Table 4 6

Tee th measure men ts ( i n mm ) f ro m Chevdar

G enus

Too th

Bos s p.

S us s p.

C apra/Ov is

Can is s p.

Fel is s p.

1 \13

4 0.9

1 \1 3

3 8.4

1 \1 3

3 2.6

M

3 6.3

3

M 3

3 5.6

M,3

2 9.7

M3

4 0.1

M3

4 7.5

M3

3 0.5

M3

4 5.1

M3

2 1.6

M

3

M

3

1 9.9 1 8.2

M

3

2 1.3

M

3

2 3.5

T T 13

1 4.2

M

1

1 \4

1

M

2

P

4

M1 P3

L eng th

-

M 1

2 1.0 2 0.1 1 0.5 1 0.6 1 0.1 2 4.5

Table 4 7

Nu mbers o f b ones a nd t eeth o f u ngu lates a nd sw ine f ro m l arges ca le e xcava t ions a t Chevdar

Genus Bos

Capreo lus

S us

Capra/Ov is

Tota l

Anato m ica l p ar t S capu la

9

Humerus

5

Rad ius

2

U lna

5

P e lv is

5

Fe mur

2

2

5

1 5

3 1

1 0

1 5

5 4 1

7

4

1 3

2

8

1 6

2

9

1 3

T ib ia

5

1

1

7

1 4

Metacarpal

8

1

2

6

1 7

Me ta tarsal

1

1

3

5

As tragu lus

1

1

2

i st p halange

4

1

5

2 nd p halange

2

1

3 rd p ha lange Cubo ids/carpa ls

1

Mand ibles

9

Max i l la

6

1

2

Teeth

6

1

4

To ta l

3 -

7 1

1 2

1 0

8

2 8

2 41

1 3

8 9

3 4 9 1 1 1 96

Tab le 4 8

Numbers o fb ones a nd t eeth o f e ach a n i mal r ecovered i n t rench , d ry-s ieves a nd wet-s ieves f ro m t he s ound ing a t Chevdar

An i ma l Cat t le S heep/goat

Trench

Dry-s ieves

Wet-s ieves

Total

Bones Teeth

Bones Teeth

Bones Teeth

Bones Teeth

2 1 3

1 6

1 4 2

9

3 3

1 2

3 8 8 2 0

1 2 7

P ig

2

-

9

4

9

2

Roe d eer

1

-

1

-

1

2

3

2

Red d eer

-

-

-

-

2

-

2

-

1 0

6

Can id

2

1

4

-

4

5

Hare

2

-

1

-

3

1

6

6 1

B ird

1

-

2

-

-

-

3

-

F e l id

-

-

-

-

2

-

2

-

Roden t

-

-

1

-

5

-

6

-

Frog

1

-

4

-

1

-

5

-

F ish

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

-

Tota l S he l l S na il

2 3

8

6 5 1 6 5

2 42

1 3

6 1

2 3

1 49

3 2

4 8

2 5

3 0

4 4

Tab le 4 9

Recovery o f v ar ious a nato m ical p ar ts o f u ngu la tes a nd sw ine i n t rench , d ry-s ieves a nd w et-s ieves f ro m t he s ound ing a t Chevdar

Trench

Dry-s ieves

Wet-s ieves

Tota l

Ana to m ica l p art S capu la

4

1

-

-

5

Humerus

1

3

2

6

R ad ius

-

4

-

4

U lna

-

-

1

1

P e lv is

1

1

-

2

F e mur

1

-

-

1

T ib ia

2

-

-

Me tacarpal

4

9

2

Me tatarsa l

2

1

3

i s t p halange

1

1 2

8

6 2 1

2 nd p halange

1

9

3 rd p halange

1

5

5

1

C arpa ls/ tarsa ls As traga lus

-

7 1

9 -

1 6 1

Ca lacaneu m

-

-

4

4

To ta l

1 8

1

2 1 5

5 3

4 5

2 43

2 1

1 16

Tab le 5 0

Proport ions o f l imb-bones t o p halanges , c arpa ls a nd t arsa ls a t Chevdar a ccord ing t o d if feren t r ecovery p rocesses

s a mp le f ro m l arge-sca le e xcavat ions Teeth L i mb-bones Pha langes , c arpa ls a nd t arsa ls Rat io l imb-bones : p ha langes

s a mp le f rom s ound ing t rench

1 1 33

8 1 5

9

1 4.8 :1

3

5 :1

2 44

d ry-s ieves

w et-s ieves

Tota l

1 3

2 3

4 4

1 9

1 2

4 6

3 2

3 3

6 8

0 .6 :1

0 .4:1

0 .8 :1

T ab le 5 1

Rela t ive a bundance o f u ngu lates a nd sw ine f ro m s ound ing a t Chevdar o nb as is o f s elected a nato m ica l p arts

Anato m ica l p ar t S capu la

S heep/goa t

P ig

4

1

Humerus

5

1

Rad ius

4

F e mur

1

T ib ia

2

Me tacarpa l Me ta tarsa l

4 1 5

2 nd p ha lange

1 4 8

A stragalus

1

C a lcaneum

3

To ta l

7 3

Cat t le

Red d eer

-

1 2

I s t p ha lange 3 rd p ha lange

Roe d eer

3 2 4 j

1

2 1 /

1

1

3 j 1 1 4

2

) 2 e xcludes l atera l p ha langes

2 45

3

1

Tab le 5 2

Rela t ive a bundance o f u ngu lates a nd sw ine f ro m s ound ing a t C hevdar, o nb as is o f n u mbers o f i nd iv idua ls r epresen ted i n s trat igraph ica l ly d ist inct d epos its

S heep/goa t O ccupat iona l d epos its

P ig

Cat t le

Roe d eer

1 ( 5 )

1 (2 )

1 (1 )

1 (2 )

1( 7 )

1 (2 )

1 (1 )

1 (1 )

1 ( 2 )

1 ( 1 )

1 (30 )

1 (2 )

1 ( 2 )

1 (6 )

1 (2 )

Red d eer 1 (2 )

1 (23 ) 1 ( 7 ) 1 (13 ) R iver ine d epos its

1( 5 )

1 (3 )

1 (1 )

1( 6 )

1 (3 )

1 (1 )

1( 2 )

1 (2 )

1( 1 )

1 (4 )

1 ( 6 ) 1 ( 2 ) Numbers o f i nd iv idua ls

1 4

9

4

3

1

4

4

2

9

4

2

1

Numbers o f i den t if ied b ones a nd t eeth % o f i nd iv idua ls

1 11

2 5

4 5

2 9

7 6

1 7

1 3

% o f i den t if ied b ones a nd t eeth

4

( numbers i n p aren thes is r efer t o n umbers o fb ones a nd t eeth o f e ach a n i ma l )

2 46

T ab le 5 3

Relat ive impor tance o f u ngu lates a nd sw ine f ro m s ound ing a t Chevdar i n t er ms o f mea t we igh ts , c a lcu la ted f ro m n u mbers o f i nd iv idua l a n i ma ls

s heep/goat

p ig

c a t t le

r oe d eer

r ed d eer To ta l

a ) i nclud ing c at t le n umber o f i nd iv idua ls w e igh t ( kg ) %o f t ota l

1 4 3 50 1 7.8

9 3 60j

4 1 000

1 8.3

5 0.7

9

-

3 7 5

1 2 00

3 .1

1 0.1

3 1 1 985 1 00.0

b ) e xclud ing c at t le n umber o f i nd iv idua ls w e igh t ( kg ) %o f t ota l

1 4 3 50 3 5.6

3 60 3 6.5

-

3 7 5

1 2 00

7 .7

jo nb as is t hat 1 y r o ld p ig w e ighs c . 4 0 k g ( Heptner e t a l., 1 966 :74 )

2 47

2 0.2

2 7 9 85 1 00.0

Table 5 4

A

Feed ing r equ ire men ts ( i n l bs ) o f s heep

f or 1 s heep e ach week

L ive w e igh t

Dry mat ter

S tarch e qu iva len t

Pro te in e qu iva len t

6 0 l b ( 27.3 k g )

1 4.5

6 .3

8 0 l b ( 36.3 k g )

1 7.9

7 .8

0 .3

1 00 l b ( 45.4 k g )

2 0.4

9 .0

0 .4

1 20 l b ( 54.4 k g )

2 2.9

1 0.0

0 .5

0 .2

1 60 l b ( 72.6 k g )

2 8.0

1 2.0

0 .6

2 00 l b ( 90.7 k g )

3 1.5

1 4.0

0 .8

B -f or 1 00 s heep o ver 1 6 weeks f ro m Dece mber t o March 6 0 l b ( 27.3 k g )

2 3,200

1 0 ,080

3 20 4 80

8 0 l b ( 36.3 k g )

2 8,640

1 2 ,480

1 00 l b ( 45.4 k g )

3 2,640

1 4 ,400

6 40

1 20 l b ( 54.5 k g )

3 6,640

1 6 ,000

8 00

1 60 l b ( 72.6 k g )

4 4,800

1 9 ,200

9 60

2 00 l b ( 90.7 k g )

5 0,400

2 2 ,400

1 280

S ource :

Evans ( 1960 :74 )

2 48

Tab le 5 5

Feed ing r equ ire men ts ( i n l bs ) o f c a t t le

L ive w e ight

Dry mat ter

S tarch e qu ivalen t

A -f or 1b u l lock e ach w eek 5c w t ( 254 k g )

1 01.5

2 8.0

6c w t ( 305 k g )

1 19.0

3 1.5

7c w t ( 356 k g ) 8c w t ( 407 k g )

1 33.0 1 43.5

3 5.0 3 8.5

9c w t ( 458 k g )

1 54.0

4 2.0

1 0 c w t ( 508 k g )

1 64.5

4 5.5

1 2 cw t ( 6 11 k g )

1 85.5

5 2.5

1 4 c w t ( 7 12 k g )

2 06.5

5 7.8

B -f or 1 0 b u l locks o ver 1 6 w eeks f ro m Dece mber t o March 5c w t ( 254 k g )

1 6 ,240

4 480

6 cw t ( 305 k g ) 7 cw t ( 356 k g )

1 9,040 2 1,280

5 040 5 600

8 cw t ( 407 k g )

2 2,960

6 160

9c w t ( 458 k g )

2 4,640

6 720

1 0 c w t ( 508 k g )

2 6,320

7 280

1 2 cw t ( 710 k g )

2 9,680

8 400

1 4 c w t ( 712 k g )

3 3,040

9 248

S ource :

Evans ( 1960 :47 )

Tab le 5 6

Est i mated s ources a nd i n take o f meat a t Chevdar ( i n k g ) p er a nnum

S heep Nu mber We igh t p er a n i ma l To ta l w e igh t

3 0

P ig

C at t le

1 9

8 .6

Red d eer 2 .1

3 6

4 0

2 50

2 00

1 080

7 60

2 150

4 20

2 50

Roe d eer 6 .3

To ta l 6 E

2 5 1 57.5

4 56

Tab le 5 7

Co mpos it ion a nd c on tex t o f Type 2 s a mp les f ro m e ar ly n eo l ith ic K azan luk

Con tex t S pec ies

F loor

F loor

T . monococcu m

1 5

6 5

T . d icoccum

9 4

3 48

T . a est ivu m H . h exast ichu m V ic ia s p. L ens s p.

2 2 5 4 1 7

1 9 2 4 1 6 2 6

Cornus mas

-

2

Rubus s p.

2

7

L inum c fb ienne

1

1

O ther p lan ts Rumex ( cr ispus )

3

4

H. ( acetosel la ) — Ga l ium ( apar ine )

3

7

5

1

G . ( me l lugo )

-

1

•••• ••• ••

Verbascu m s p.

1

1

Gra m in .ae

1

-

i gno ta To ta l

3 6

5 0

2 09

5 27

2 51

Tab le 5 8

Co mpos it ion a nd c on tex t o f Type 5 s a mp les f ro m e arly n eo l ith ic K azan luk

Con tex t S pec ies T . monococcu m T . d icoccu m T . a est ivu m

Midden 3 2 3

Midden 2 5

M idden 6 6 9

M idden 4 2 4

6

1

-

4

H . h exast ichu m V ic ia s p.

1 3 7

6 6

3 1 8

6 2 2

L ens s p.

2 6

3 4

3 0

P isum s p.

1

2 8 2

-

Cornus mas

-

1

4

Rubus s p. L inu m c fb ienne

-

2 -

7 2

2

O ther p lan ts Rumex c r ispus

-

-

2

4

R . a ce tosel la

-

1

1

7

Ru mex s p.

3

-

-

Po lygonum a v icu lare

1

-

-

-

Ga l iu m a par ine

1

-

-

1

G . mo l lugo

-

-

-

1

S a mbucus e bu lus

-

-

-

1

Caryophy l laceae

-

-

1

-

i gno ta

4

1

To ta l

8 8

7 3

2 52

2 0 1 85

1 1 07

Ce

CD

0

CZ

el

( X )

00

OD N r I

CZ

0

; 1

r ) C

0

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N

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e

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0 1. J

L o

C . 0

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t •

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0 0 C I

N

N . 1

C O

N C l , . 1

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N

e l

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C . D 0 0

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c o c e

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C o m p o s i t o n a n d c o n t e x t o f T y p e 6 s a m p l e s ( e x c l u d i n g c o m e n s a l s ) f r o m e a r l y n e o l i t h i c K a z n . l u k

a ) v .

. c 2 v e t E 4

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N

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E

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S p i k e l e t f r a g m e n t s

C l . )

c o

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c n I C )I

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t -

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i n

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ri

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i n

rl

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C D

; • 4 P C : 1

254

c a . 0 S a m b u c u s

a r z

C d

C l

i n

0 C l

c o M C T >

g2

T h i c k n e s

X

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CO C)

•

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x

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CC

tX

M • C

0 ' 3

N

•

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N

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0 0 N

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v
• • c ) c C V r e C V

•

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C D C Y D N C Y D • • • • c Z > C Y D

c e • 0 0 N

c o c e e4

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•

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I I. . , . , ... .e • , . . , e C . ). , . ). o ee4 u . , . . 8 . , .0a. 6 .0C l )0 "

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▪

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C l ) P A

c o c d c a )

C l ) C D Z i O Z Z Z O w Z Z Z C D C I ) Q Z › , ( I ) 9 ' .1 "C i " J c 7 e Q ) ; i . 4 > . i " 0 " V " 0 k J c e c a . , . . . , . . ( I )

W

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c d i I

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c d

t e

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r d

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c d * -1 " C S " 0 T z i M S " 0

P O . . . 4 > N

N

N

C l

z

C l

2 68

c n

t r z r , •c • oo

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c o

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el

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l

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C

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CD

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0 0 CI C D • e r •

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c q

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C `g

C . )

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6,4

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e 1 5 )e eeee •ee : • ,••

c . )

o7 : 5' 8 a )-8 " 8 -8 -8 -8 " 8 -8 " • o 8 —8

M e a s u r e m n t s ( i n m . ) o f S u s b o n e s f r o m K a z a n l u k

Z Z Z

Z Z

O

> > 3

>)

. r w ,

; 4

g . 4

7 2 1

M4 3 p ` . 1

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Z Z Z ; • 4

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C t

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41

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C l

C l

C l C l

2 69

41

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0

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•

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N

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C . 0 L C D • • C \ I

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L L CO • • • 0 0

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c y z N

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c i

M i d l e N e o l i t h i c

o4

C e r v u s

5 g c d c ) C I )

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c d c) c i p

c d c) C I )

g , . e

b i ) Z c d

c l )

c d V • , . , . ce il z •

c d • , . . , -4 4 . ) e z i m : 4 J

C d

g c u c t . 4 cd C . )

2 70

C a p r e o l u s c a p r e o l u s

e l a p h u s

c n 2

I n

C C

9

C \1

•

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C 73

N

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L •

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N

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c .0

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CO

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m t .

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N

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N

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C )

Z

a

a

M i d l e N e o l i t h i c

M e a s u r e m n t s ( i n m ) o f c a p r o v i n e b o n e s f r o m K a z n l u k

c d ' "

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g 4

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a )

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Z

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O

Z

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4 4 c d c d W W

c d W

f a)

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0

Z

C . )

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e oe 0 , ,. . , _ . , . . , „4 . 3. e ° , -

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C . )

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a ) Z

C D

- t -1 1 .1 , 1 ' 0 ; . I e • « I f i 4 i t S c d c d c d c d • ' ' W r z “ : “ .4

•

c u Z

0 CI )

C D Z

r t i V V i t S -4 • ' '

C ) Z

( i ) i J 4 c d c d ) . 4 r z l

7 d7 4" gr 4 7 , ' d, gc i lC l ), , ,u )C 1 )c

r nc n r . 1

*P.

; .7 i .

a )

4 e r x 3

* 1'4

4

a )

, . . e ›

4 c d r . 4

d . r

. 1. . .

C e )

c i

c i D

c d 4, 4i r i z .1«.1 ol... Q c d . 0 p C 2 u ) . e . e * . 2 2

br.4

o r. . .

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•,. I

. C 2 p i n p C 2 r t 2 : 4 J • G " 4 : 11 " 4

. 1 .

, C 2 ' 4 : 1

P U . . ; 1

c o

c C 5

8. 4 5

a )

a )

c o . . ,

; , . 4

% . 4

g . 1

c C 2 . ‚ )

8

a . ) . . ,

a )

2 71

r n 7 ' 4

Z "1

Z 72 ,

-4

—

• g_h ot eb z 5 , 0 a ) , >▪ › . 4 • , . , c n c i ) c n e e c e

4 .'

t o e

c 2

> • ' ( 1 9

c 2

c o c e e c )

Tab le 7 9

Tee th measure men ts ( i n mm . ) f rom K azan luk

Genus

Per iod

Bos s p.

Early N eo l ith ic Early N eo l ith ic

S us s p.

Capra/Ov is

Tooth

M 3

2 7.1 3 0.6

Early N eo l ith ic Midd le N eo l ith ic

M3 m3

3 1.0 3 4.7

Ear ly N eo l ith ic

M

3

4 2.6

Early N eo l ith ic

M

3

4 3.7

3

M3

1 9.6

Midd le N eo l ith ic

m3

1 7.1

Early N eo l ith ic

Ma

2 1.4

Early N eo l ith ic

M3

2 3.4

Early N eo l ith ic Midd le N eo l ith ic

M3 M3

1 9.0 2 3.1

L a te N eo l ith ic

M

3

1 6.3

L ate N eo l ith ic

M3

2 3.4

L a te N eo l ith ic L ate N eo l ith ic

M M

3

2 1.4 2 2.3

Early N eo l ith ic

M

3

1 7.8

Early N eo l ith ic

M

3

1 6.9

Early N eo l ith ic

M

Early N eo l ith ic

M

3

Early N eo l ith ic

M

3

Early N eo l ith ic

M3

2 0.0

Midd le N eo l ith ic

M

1 5.6

Midd le N eo l ith ic

M

3

M

3

M

3

Ear ly N eo l ith ic

Capreo lus c apreo lus

M

L ate Neo l ith ic

L a te N eo l ith ic L ate N eo l ith ic

Cervus e laphus

L eng th

3

3

a

m3

1 6.9 18. 6

1 5.5

17 .4 1 6.2 1 6.3 1 8.9

Early N eo l ith ic

m

3

1 4.9

L ate N eo l ith ic

m3

1 4.9

L ate N eo l ith ic

m3

1 4.2

Middle N eo l ith ic Midd le N eo l ith ic

M3

2 6.1 2 6.2

Midd le N eo l ith ic Midd le N eo l ith ic

M

3

M

3

M

L ate N eo l ith ic

M

L ate N eo l ith ic

M

3

1 2.2 1 4.2

3

1 3.3

3

1 2.2

Early N eo l ith ic

m3

1 4.9

Early N eo l ith ic

m

3

1 3.8

Midd le N eo l ith ic

m3

1.5

Midd le N eo l ith ic

m3

1 5.3

Middle N eo l ith ic

m3

1 4.1

L ate N eo l ith ic

m3

1 7.6

2 72

Tab le 7 9 ( con td.) Genus

P er iod

Tooth

Capreo lus c apreo lus

L ate N eo l ith ic

U rsus s p.

L ate N eo l ith ic L a te N eo l ith ic

Can is s p.

1.4

M

2

Early Neo l ith ic

M

1

2 1.5 2

Ear ly N eo l ith ic

P

2

8 .8 2

Ear ly N eo l ith ic

P3

1 1.0 2

Early N eo l ith ic

P

Ear ly N eo l ith ic Early N eo l ith ic Early N eo l ith ic Ear ly N eo l ith ic

( 1

r n3

2 2 3.7 2 1 8.0

Early N eo l ith ic

Vu lpes s p.

L eng th

v ery y oung i nd iv idual ;

i

M

4

11 .0

M1 M

P2 -

5 8

2

P4 1

2t eeth f ro m s a me mand ible )

2 73

8 .8

2 M

2

2 0.0 2

9 .7

2 2

1 6.3 2

Tab le 8 0

Numbers o f s e lec ted a na to m ical p arts o f u ngu lates a nd sw ine f ro m e ar ly n eo l ith ic K azan luk

Ana to m ica l p ar t

S heep/goa t

P ig

Catt le

Red d eer

S capu la

1

2

2

Hu merus

2

3

1

Rad ius

5

Metacarpal I st p ha lange

8 6

3 5 1

2 nd p ha lange

3

6 1

2

2

1 2 2

1 5

1

9

3 rd p halange

9

1 1

Fe mur

3

2

T ib ia

6

2

1 1

As tragu lus

1

Ca lcaneum

4

1

Metatarsal

7

2

Roe d eer

1

1 1

Total No.

5 5

2 6

4

1 3

1 6

% o f t ota l

4 9

2 3

3

1 1

1 4

1e xcludes l atera l p ha langes

2 74

Tab le 8 1

Nu mbers o f s e lected a na to m ical p ar ts o f u ngu lates a nd sw ine f rom m iddle n eo l ith ic K azan luk S heep/goa t

P ig

C at t le

S capu la

1

2

2

Humerus

2

Ana tom ica l p art

Red d eer

Roe d eer

Rad ius

1

Me tacarpal I st p halange

7 9

1

1

1 2

1

2 nd p halange

8

1 )2

3

1

3

3 rd p halange Fe mur

3 2

T ib ia As tragu lus Ca lcaneum

3 3 1

1 2

1 1

Metatarsa l

i

To ta l n o.

4 0

6

% o f t o ta l

6 2

9

yexcludes

l a teral p ha langes

2 75

7 1

4 7

7 1 .

Table 8 2

Nu mbers o f s elected a na to m ica l p arts o f u ngu lates a nd sw ine f ro m l ate n eo l ith ic K azan luk

Anato m ica l p art

S heep/goa t

P ig

Cat t le 1

S capu la

2

1

Hu merus

1

1

Rad ius

1

1

Red d eer

1 . 1

Metacarpa l i st p ha lange

Roe d eer

1 . 3

3 1, 2

2 nd p ha lange

9

3, /

3 rd p ha lange

3

1 /

1 1

5 5

Fe mur T ib ia

2

3

As tragu lus

2

Calcaneum

1

1

Meta tarsa l

2

1

Tota l N o.

2 6

1

% o f t o ta l

4 0

1 7

) ie xcludes l ateral p ha langes

2 76

1 1

1

1

8

5

1 5

8

2 3

1 2

1

Tab le 8 3

He igh t a nd e st i mated d at ing o f s i tes i n t he Nova Z agora r eg ion

No. o n map

S ite

He igh t

N eo l ith ic

Eneo l ith ic

I ron

Age

Age

1

Ru man ja

2

K aranovo

1 2 m

3

Br jastovo

2m

4

Asenovets

3m

5

Da monova

3m

x

6

K orten

1 2 m

x

x

x

7

S öd jisko Po l je

6m

?

x

x

8

S öd ievo

2m

9

S ite 3 7

1 0

S igansk i Mog ila :

6m

Bronze

3m a

4m

b

3m

c

3m

x x

x

x x

x x x x x

1 1

Ezero

1 2 m

x

x

x

1 2

Padarevo

1 0 m

x

x

x

1 3

K on jovo

x

x

1 4

D jad janovo

1 0 m

x

x

x

1 5

Mladovo

1 0 m

x

x

x

1 6

S obrano

1 0 m

x

x

x

1 7

Z agorsk i

1 2 m

x

x

x

1 8

Z agorsk i S ou th

1 9

D jadevo

3m

2 0

Omarchevo

4m

6m

3m

2 1

B ikovo

6m

2 2

P itovo

3m

x ? x

x

x

x

x

x

x

?

x

2 3

Bogdanovo

3m

x

x

2 4

Rad ievo

4m

x

x

2 5

Mlekarevo

6m

2 6

L ubenova Mah la

3m

2 77

?

x

x

x

x

Tab le 8 4

Percen tage r epresen ta t ion o f l and u se c ategor ies w ith in 2 km r ad ius o f s i te :

s ites w ith g reater t han 5 0% a rab le

Arable

Graz ing Per manen t

L ow land

S ite

Browse

S easona l Up land

Ezero ( Neo l ith ic )

8 1.3

1 6.4

_

_

2 .3

K orten

7 9.8

-

-

1 5.4

4 .8

_

_

2 5.5

6 4.4

-

_

3 5.6

-

D jad janovo

5 9.8

3 1.8

-

8 .4

-

K on jovo ( Eneo l ith ic )

5 9.6

1 6.5

-

2 .3

2 1.6

S igansk i Mog ila ( Neo l ith ic ) Da monova

7 4.5

-

Ru man ja

5 9.0

-

_

2 1.0

1 9.9

Mladovo

5 8.1

8 .5

-

7 .2

2 6.2

K aranovo

5 5.2

1 3.1

-

1 1.3

2 0.4

2 78

Tab le 8 5

Percen tage r epresen tat ion o f l and u se c a tegor ies w ith in 2 km r ad ius o f s ite :

s i tes

w i th 2 5-50% a rable

Graz ing

Arable P er manen t

S easona l L ow land

S ite

Browse

Up land

Zagorsk i

4 7.4

2 7.9

1 2.2

-

1 2.5

S obrano

4 6 .5

1 9.2

7 .0

-

2 7.3

D jadevo ( Eneo l ith ic )

3 9.4

1 4.8

2 0.5

5 .3

Asenovets

3 8.5

-

-

5 6.3

2 0.0 5 .2

Padarevo ( Neo l ith ic )

3 7.1

1 6.5

-

-

4 6.4

Zagors id S ou th

3 5.1

4 8.5

1 4.1

-

2 .3

S igansk i Mog ila 3 5.0

3 9.5

-

-

2 5.5

Br jastovo

( Bronze Age )

3 1.5

-

-

6 5.7

2 .8

Kon jovo ( Bronze Age )

3 0.5

4 5.6

-

2 .3

2 1.6

S t id jisko Po l je

2 8.7

-

-

0 .6

7 0.7

Ezero ( Bronze Age )

2 7.3

7 0.4

-

-

2 .3

Table 8 6

Percen tage r epresent a t ion o f l and u se c ategor ies w i th in 2 km r ad ius o f s ite :

s ites w ith l ess t han 2 5% a rab le

Arab le

Graz ing Per manen t

S easona l L ow land

S ite

Browse

U p land

D jadevo ( Bronze Age )

2 3.7

3 0.5

2 0.5

5 .3

2 0.0

Mlek arevo

2 2.0

-

5 4.0

-

2 4.0

Ru l ievo

2 0.7

_

4 8.7

4 .2

2 6.4

P itovo

1 8.8

-

4 6.3

2 7.2

7 .7

S öd ievo

1 7.2

-

-

5 0.0

3 2.8

Bogdanovo

1 4.6

1 8.3

2 4.6

-

4 2.5

S ite 3 7

1 3.6

3 0.2

-

-

5 6.2

Omarchevo

1 0.5

-

8 0.1

-

9 .4

L ubenova Mah la

8 .8

1 2.5

7 8.7

-

-

Padarevo ( Bronze Age )

5 .7

4 7.9

-

-

4 6.4

-

2 .3

9 7.7

B ikovo

2 79

CO

L IZ

c o t -

.-1 0

e L e z CD

C M

, . 1

C .0

re

L fZ CZ

i f ) •

C l

e c \ I

o e a

I . C 3

C \ I

eI

" m • I . 4 “ . . 1

1 )

E n e o . T o t a l

C YD

' , e l 1 c . 1 . i

` ct i C Y)

CD

> 1

L IZ

I

- t O

C O V D •I

, 4 c o 4

C . 0

•

io o i n

c > e

" , • • 1

‚, 4

c e

CID

0 0

to

C .0

C D

e C O

C YZ

N

0

L IZ

c o

• 1 Cl

t s-

00

C

C

c O

N

0

C O

t • •

C .0 C ID

CD

0 c '

N

c

03 -

0

e t o

L IZ

c q

41

t O

CO

CO

C O i n

e

CD

CI C • 1

e I

Cq

L c

t -

C O

i n

. , . . 1

i n

c d

72 2

C D

C . )

C d

E I

c » U

2 80

; 4 P 1

W e d s ( s e t a b l e 8 )

7C 1 4

V i c a f a b

C / )

C I )

H o r d e u m h e x a s t i c h u m

N CO

C l

c . o

C O

eI

Cl

C o m p o s i t i o n o f s a m p l e s o f p l a n t r e m a i n s f r o m E z e r o ( e x c l u d i n g w e d s )

. e . 1

C O C .0

C l

7 1 '

C

CO

a o

r4

CO

0

N

C D

. — i

c o

c 9

G O

N t -

( 30

N

L e 2

CC )

e

L t Z

C : D

C

N

N CO

N

W e d s e d s r e p r e s n t e d a t E z e r o

C YD

c d 1 7: 5

C l ) 0

• c . )

C r u c i f e r a e :

C l

2 8 ] .

c a

C l ) C l ) % 4

0

L C D

e

c e j

L C D

• 1

L -• C D Cl

Cl

O D C O CO

91

00

CO

C l

› < 1

L C D

N

. 9 . 9 4

c . )

CM )

. • f

0 0

91

9 .4

C l

N

j f p o s i b l y i n t r u s i v e .

I t )

C D

C . ) •• e ec c i e , C l ) r n

•1 .

js e d c a p s u l e .

••

C.)

• i t 3

R u b i a c e a :

T a b l e 8 ( c o n t d . )

4 )

E — + 2 82

0

Table 8 9

Measure men ts ( i n mm ) o f T . d icoccu m g ra ins f ro m E zero

N umber L evel

Depos it t ype

V I

F il l

3 3

F loor a nd o ven

1 9

V I I

F loor

L eng th

measured

3

x

S2

Bread th X

32

5 .23

0 .62

2 .59

0 .43

5 .15

1 .23

2 .54

5 .23

-

2 .48

Th ickness X

32

2 .59

0 .37

0 .38

2 .77

0 .20

-

2 .22

-

V II I

F loor a nd o ven

4 2

5 .15

0 .51

2 .44

0 .36

2 .49

0 .31

I Xd

F loor a nd o ven

3 3

5 .19

0 .43

2 .48

0 .35

2 .55

0 .22

I Xc

F loor a nd o ven

4 5

5 .34

0 .39

2 .53

0 .30

2 .60

0 .30

I Xb

F loor a nd o ven

2 5

5 .39

0 .38

2 .41

0 .38

2 .52

0 .18

I Xa X I

F loor a nd o ven F loor

5 0 2 5

5 .02 4 .85

0 .49 0 .44

2 .44 2 .62

0 .28 0 .29

2 .55 2 .53

0 .26 0 .28

Tab le 9 0

Measure men ts ( i n mm ) o f T . monococcum g ra ins f ro m E zero

L evel

Depos it t ype

V I

F il l

I Xb I Xd

Table 9 1

Number measured 2 9

x

L eng th S2

Breadth X

52

Th ickness X

5 .02

0 .57

1 .62

0 .25

2 .41

F loor a nd o ven

4

4 .91

_

1 .64

_

2 .43

F loor a nd o ven F loor a nd o ven

3 9

5 .17 5 .07

-

1 .49 1 .61

-

2 .55 2 .43

2

0 .37

Measure men ts ( i n mm ) o f H . h exast ichu m g ra ins f ro m E zero

Number L eve l

Depos it t ype

V I

F loor a nd o ven

V I I

F loor

V I I I

F loor a nd o ven

1 3

I Xd

F loor a nd o ven

2 7

I Xc

F loor a nd o ven

L eng th

measured

x

s2

Bread th x

Th ickness 2

x

s2

^

3

6 .16

-

3 .22

-

2 .54

5

5 .83

-

3 .26

-

2 .54

5 .43

-

2 .82

-

1 .99

5

5 .72

0 .56

2 .85

0 .36

2 .23

0 .29

6 .01

_

3 .33

_

2 .56

_

I X 1 3

F loor a nd o ven

3 0

5 .91

0 .64

2 .94

0 .40

2 .29

0 .34

X

F loor

5 0

6 .11

0 .48

2 .93

0 .33

2 .37

0 .29

X I

F loor

1 2

5 .92

-

3 .11

-

2 .53

2 83

Tab le 9 2

Gra in s ize ( i n mm ) o f T . d icoccum f ro m Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic a nd b ronze a ge s ites L eng th Con tex t

x

s2

x

s2

Th ickness

P er iod

S ite

N eo l ith ic

Chevdar

Ovens

6 6

5 .85

0 .53

2 .88

0 .35

2 .79

0 .31

N eo l ith ic

K azan luk

Midden

3 4

6 .01

0 .56

3 .08

0 .40

2 .77

0 .33

N eo l ith ic

K aranovo (1)

-

-

6 .6

-

3 .1

-

2 .8

-

N eo l ith ic

Az mak (1 )

-

-

6 .6

-

3 .1

-

2 .7

-

EBA

E zero

L evels

N o.

Bread th

X

S2

2 75

5 .17

0 .58

2 .50

0 .33

2 .56

0 .26

V I t oX I MBA

S ource :

Tab le 9 3

S igansk i

Oven

2 5

5 .14

0 .38

2 .45

0 .23

2 .38

0 .19

Mog ila

Oven

2 5

5 .00

1 .03

2 .27

0 .49

2 .48

0 .53

( 1 ) J . M. Renfrew ( 1969 :161 )

Gra in s ize ( i n mm ) o f T . monococcum f ro m Bu lgar ian n eo l ith ic a nd b ronze a ge s i tes L eng th

P er iod

S ite

Con tex t

N o.

N eo l ith ic

Chevdar

Oven

N eo l ith ic

Chevdar

F loor

N eo l ith ic

K azan luk

Midden

N eo l ith ic

K azan luk

F loor

N eo l ith ic

Az mak (1 )

-

-

N eo l ith ic

K aranovo (1 )

-

-

EBA

E zero

L evels

9 1 3 2 6 4

4 5

x

s2

Breadth X

S2

Th ickness X

S2

5 .65

-

2 .18

-

2 .75

-

5 .02

-

1 .90

-

2 .43

-

5 .61

-

2 .09

-

2 .75

-

4 .87

0 .36

1 .61

0 .48

2 .15

0 .68

5 .2

-

2 .0

-

2 .5

-

5 .9

-

2 .1

-

3 .1

-

5 .03

0 .88

1 .61

0 .23

2 .43

0 .33

V I,EK S ource : Tab le 9 4

( 1 ) J . M. Ren frew ( 1969 :161 ) Gra in s ize ( i n mm ) o f H . h exast ichum f ro m Bu lgar ian n eo l i th ic a nd b ronze a ge s i tes L eng th

P er iod

S ite

Con tex t

N o.

x

s2

Breadth X

S2

Th ickness X

S2

N eo l ith ic

Chevdar

Oven

1 8

6 .13

0 .26

3 .07

0 .35

2 .30

0 .38

N eo l ith ic

Chevdar

Oven

5 0

6 .21

0 .66

2 .77

0 .30

2 .04

0 .28

N eo l ith ic

K azan luk

Midden

2 0

6 .08

0 .54

3 .28

0 .32

2 .29

0 .29

EBA

Ezero

1 45

5 .78

1 .21

2 .87

0 .55

2 .27

0 .49

L evels V I-X I

2 84

Tab le 9 5

Measure men ts ( i n mm . ) o f V it is p ips f ro m s a mple 1 2 (d a t E zero a nd S itagro i I V

S ite

Ezero I X

L eng th

B readth

Th ickness

Bread th/Leng th

6 .77

4 .35

3 .30

6 4.2

5 .83

3 .63

2 .97

6 2.3

5 .55

3 .58

2 .59

6 4.4

6 .88

4 .18

3 .08

6 0.8

5 .45

3 .36

2 .75

6 1.1

Average

6 .09

3 .82

2 .94

6 2.7

S itagro i I V (1 )

5 .3

7 0.5

( 4 .2-6.0 )

S ource :

( 92.8-50.0 )

( 1 ) J . M. Ren frew ( 1971:73 )

2 85

1

L I Z

E n e o l i t h i c

C \ 1

, _ 2

l I e

0 ( . i s-)

; 4 C d

G r 4

B a s e d o n I v a n o v ( 1 9 6 5 )

. 4 )

.

E n e

0 . , .

. r n t tc q . t

. 4 4

C . ) : a' . 5 3 •

C Y J • C

. 4 1 0 • • • N CZ 1 3 N

•

" Z t t

•

•

C . Z )

C S )

• C \ 1

• N

•

• C t-J

•

c : p

• I 0

• N

I V )

r e d e r 2 0 k g ;

L f • J

•

•

Z 0 0 •C• • ' e t I n

I

I 0

C + Z N

0 0 0 0

1

a n d r o e d e r 2 5

. e

( X ) L C Z I n •N • • • • C-J N 1 . f D

c e 4 4 0

0

44 P i . 1

. 0 e

C . 0 e • • ' ‘ 1 4 1 0 0

L c • • e l 4 4

4 I • 9 4

r • L l

s h e p / g o a t 2 5

c o , 4

k g ;

C M C O 0 C D ' r e • • • • • N C . D 0 0

( 1 ) b a s e d o n I v a n o v ( 1 9 6 5 )

5

c d

2 87

X X

e4

X

X X

X X X

X X

X X

X X X

X X X X

X X

X X

X X X

X

X

X X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X X

X X

t l

C .

X X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X

X X

X X X

X X

X

X

X

P r i n c i p l e p l a n t s r e p r e s n t e d o n e a r l y n e o l i t h i c s i t e s i n w e s t e r n T u r k e y a n d S o u t h e a s t E u r o p e

X X

X X

›) g f

4 C D c d C I ) e

= C

C . )

4

c d

C D

C I )

e g g g a ) ; . 4. 4 )

. ,5

% 1

1 )

c ea ) .

c d

x s . ,t r y

2 88

› › C D

" 5 ,

K ey t o Table 9 8 Turkey S it e 1 : 2 :

Ha9 ilar ( acera m ic ) 7 000 b .c. ( He lbaek , 1 970 ) Can Hasan I I 7 000 b .c. ( French e t a l., 1 972 )

3 :

Va tal H t iy t ik 5 8-5600 b .c. ( Helbaek ,-- 1 964 )

4 :

Ha9 ilar ( cera m ic ) c . 5 600 b .c. ( Helbaek , 1 970 )

Greece 5 :

Ghed ik i ( acera m ic ) 6 -5000 b .c. ( Ren frew , J . M., 1 973 )

6 :

S esk lo ( acera m ic ) 6 -5000 b .c. ( Ren frew , J . M., 1 973 )

7 :

Ach il leon ( acera m ic ) 6 -5000 b .c. ( Ren frew , J . M., 1 973 )

8 :

Arg issa ( acera m ic ) 6 -5000 b .c. ( Hopf , 1 962 )

9 :

N ea N iko med ia c . 5 500 b .c. ( van Z e ist & Bot te ma , 1 971 )

Crete 1 0 :

Knossos ( acera m ic ) c . 6 000 b .c. ( Evans , 1 968 )

Bu lgar ia 1 1:

Az mak , E . N . C . 5 000 b .c. ( Ren frew , J . M., 1 969 )

1 2:

K aranovo , E . N . c . 5 000 b .c. ( Ren frew , J . M., 1 969 )

1 3 :

Chevdar c . 5 000 b .c.

1 4 :

K azan luk ,

E . N . c . 5 000 b .c.

Yugos lav ia 1 5 :

1 .

Anza I . c . 5 000 b .c. ( G i mbu tas , 1 974 )

1 6 :

Vrsn ik c . 5 000 b .c. ( Garasan in M. a nd D ., 1 961)

1 7 :

S elevac—l ate V inea ( Hopf , 1 974 )

i nc ludes s o me p oss ib le s pelt g ra ins

2 89

Tab le 9 9

P r inc ipa l a n i ma ls r epresen ted o n e arly n eo l ith ic s ites i n w estern Turkey a nd S ou th-east Europe

d eer S ite

s heep

g oa t

s h/g t

c at t le

p ig

Can Hasan 1 1 ( 1 )

x

?

x

x

4i ld i H i lyük ( 2 )

x

x

x

x

a ta l Hüyük ( 3 )

x

x

x

x

r ed x

r oe x

x

d og

c a t

? x

S uberde ( 4 )

x

x

x

x

x

Arg issa ( 5 )

x

x

x

x

x

x

N ea N iko med ia ( 6 )

x

x

x

x

?

Knossos ( acera m ic ) ( 7 )

x

x

x

x

Chevdar

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

K azan luk

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x ? x

Anza ( 8 )

x

x

x

x

x

x

L epensk i V ir ( 9 )

x

x

x

x

x

x

S ources : 1 :

French e t a l.

2 :

Payne ( 7 672c )

3 :

P erk ins ( 1969 )

( 1972 )

4 :

Perk ins & Da ly ( 1968 )

5 :

Boessneck ( 1962 )

6 :

H iggs ( 1962 )

7 :

J ar man & J ar man ( 1968 )

8 :

G i mbu tas ( 1974 )

9 :

Bököny i ( 1970 )

2 90

Tab le 1 00

S ize o f c at t le b ones ( i n mm ) f ro m e arly n eo l ith ic s i tes i n western Turkey a nd S ou th-East Europe

L eng th/ Age

S ite

Co rn-

Range

7 e leng th

N

2

men ts

Max i mum d istal w idth o f h umc . f .us S uberde ( 1 )

6 500 b .c.

1 00.9-102.9

1 01.9

8 5.3-108.0

1 02.0

9ata l Hüyük X-X I I ( 1 )

6 400 b .c.

Arg issa ( acera m ic ) ( 2 )

6 000 b .c.

V V

1 2

9 1.0

V V

1

D

9ata l Hüyük V I ( 1 )

5 800 b .c.

6 3.0-105.0

8 6.3

3 3

D

F ik irtepe ( 1 )

5 000 b .c.

7 5.5- 9 7.5

8 3.0

1 6

D

Beycesu l tan ( 1 )

4 000 b .c.

7 6.5- 9 0.8

8 2.4

5

D

N esz mely-Tekerespa tak (3 )

4 000 b .c.

7 7.0- 8 1.0

7 9.0

2

D

Chevdar

5 000 b. c.

6 4.4- 7 5.5

7 1.8

3

D

L eng jh o f i st

h _ p Ak aAt c Y j e _

N ea N ikomed ia ( 4 )

c . 5 500 b .c.

7 4.0

1

D

Arg issa ( E. Thess ) ( 2 )

c . 4 000 b .c.

5 2.0- 5 5.0

5 2.8

4

D

Chevdar

C . 5 000 b .c.

5 8.0- 7 3.0

6 4.1

5

D

5 6.0

1

D

L eng th o f 2 nd p halange N ea N iko med ia ( 4 )

c . 5 500 b .c.

Arg issa ( acera m ic ) ( 2 )

c . 6 000 b .c.

4 3.0-48.0

4 3.8

3

D

K azan luk

C . 4 000 b .c.

3 6.7- 4 0.0

3 8.4

3

D

Max i mum d istal w idth o f t ib ia

K astr i tsa ( U .Pa l ) ( 5 )

Width/

Co rnmen ts

Age

Range

xw idth

L ate P le isto-

7 7.0- 8 4.0

8 2.0

3

W

6 8.5- 9 0.0

7 8.5 4 2

V V

7 1.0

D

c ene Hungary ( 5 )

' Neo l ith ic'

Arg issa ( acera m ic ) ( 2 )

c . 6 000 b .c.

Knossos ( E. N . I a ) ( 5 ) Chevdar

C . 5 600 b .c.

6 1.5- 6 7.5

6 5.5

5

D

C . 5 000 b .c.

5 6.0- 6 2.0

5 9.0

2

D

2

W

Max i mum l eng th o f c alcanea

1

L eng th/

Kastr i tsa ( U . P a l ) ( 5 )

L ate P le isto-

1 82-185

1 83

c ene Hungary ( 5 )

' Neo l ith ic '

1 50-190

1 65

1 22-125

1 23

2

D

1 40

1

D

1 41.5

2

D

Knossos ( E. N.Ia ) ( 5 )

c . 5 600 b .c.

Arg issa ( E . Thess ) ( 2 )

c . 4 000 b .c.

Chevdar

c . 5 000 b .c.

S ources :

W:

1 .

P erk ins ( 1969 );

4 .

H iggs ( 1962 );

w i ld , o nb as is o f s ize ;

5 . D :

2 .

1 30-152

Boessneck ( 1962 );

3 .

Bököny i ( 1974 );

J ar man a nd J ar man ( 1968 ). d o mest ic , o nb as is o f s ize ;

2 91

4 9

V V

Tab le 1 01

S ize o f sw ine b ones ( i n mm ) f ro m e ar ly n eo l ith ic s ites i n S ou thEast Europe

Width/ S ite

Age

Range

xw idth

N Co m men ts

Max i mu m d ista l w idth o fh u merus Egozw i l 2( 1 ) S ee ma tte ( 1 ) Knossos ( acera m ic ) ( 1 ) Arg issa ( acera m ic ) ( 2 ) s zen t marton ( 3 )

S ources :

4 4.0-56.0

5 0.5

3 4

W

4 9.0-56.0

5 1.0

1 0

W

C . 6 000 b. c. _

4 0.0-42.0

4 1.0

2

D

3 9.0

1

D

3 5.9

5

D

4 4.0

1

W

c . 6 000 b .c. _

Bere t tyoK azan luk

c . 2 500 b .c. _ C . 2 5 0 0 b .c . _

c.4 500 b .c. _

3 3.5-38.5

1 .

J ar man a nd J ar man ( 1968 )

2 .

Boessneck ( 1962 )

3 .

Bököny i ( 1974 )

Co m men ts: W: D :

w ild , o nb as is o f s ize d omest ic, o nb as is o f s ize

2 92

Table 1 02

Tee th measure men ts ( i n mm . ) o f c at t le , sw ine, d og a nd c a t f ro m e arly n eo l ith ic s ites i n S ou th-East Europe a nd e lsewhere

L eng th/ S ite

Range

Cat t le :

M

xl eng th

N

Co m men ts

3

K astr i tsa ( U.Pa l. ) ( 1 )

4 0.5-51.8

4 6.0

Arg issa ( acera m ic ) ( 1 )

3 8.5

N ea N iko med ia ( 2 ) Knossos ( E. N . 1 a ) ( 1 )

3 4.0-38.0

Chevdar

2 9.7-40.9

1 3

W

1

D

4 3.0

1

D

3 6.5

3

D

3 5.6

6

D

2 7.1(a )

1

D

3 4.0-38.5

3 5.5

4

W

2 9.0

1

D

3 0.6-31.0

3 0.8

2

D

Knossos ( acera m ic ) ( 1 )

3 5.5

1

D

Arg issa ( acera m ic ) ( 3 )

3 4.5

1

D

3 2.5-37.0

3 3.4

6

D

1

W

3 9.5-49.0

4 3.5

K azan luk Cat t le :

M3

Kastr itsa ( U.Pal.) ( 1 ) Knossos ( acera m ic ) ( 1 ) K azan 1 ;k t . :

M 3

Arg issa ( E.Thess. ) ( 3 ) T isza lu . i-Dankado mb ( 1 ) Burgäsch isee-Süd ( 1 )

3 9.5

2 0

W

S ee ma t te ( 1 )

3 7.8-53.0

4 3.0

9

W

Chevdar

4 0.1-47.5

4 3.8

2

W

4 2.6

1

W

2 7.0-30.5 3 2.0-34.0

2 8.8 -

5 -

D ? D

2 7.0

1

D

Burgäsch isee -Süd ( 1 )

3 6.0-43.0

4 0.5

6

W

Chevdar

3 0.5-45.1

K azan luk P ig :

M3

Arg issa ( M. Thess.) ( 3 ) N ea N iko med ia ( 2 ) Beret tyo- z en t mar ton (4 )

K azan luk Can idae :

3 7.8

2

W

4 3.7

1

W

M1

C . l upus a rabs Palest ine-post-g lac ial (5 )

2 3.8-24.3

2 4.1

2

W

Pa lest ine-recen t (5 ) J er icho (PPNB ):

2 1.7-24.2

2 3.1

5

W

2 0.7-23.8

2 2.0

7

? D

Can is s p. ( 5 ) L ebo ( 4 ) : C. f am il iar is ( 4 )

1 9.0-20.0

1 9.5

4

D

Chevdar

2 0.1-21.0

2 0.5

2

I D

K azan luk

2 0.0-21.5

2 0.8

2

D

Vu ipes p ost-g lac ial ( 5 )

1 3.6-17.1

1 5.2

r ecen t ( 5 )

1 2.2-14.8

1 3.8 2 93

5 5 9

Tab le 1 02 ( con td.) L eng th/ S ite

Range

xl eng th

N

Co m men ts

Vu lpes J er icho ( PPNA ) ( 5 )

1 2.6-15.8

1 3.9

J er icho ( PPNB ) ( 5 )

1 2.0-14.9

1 3.5

2

1 6.3

1

K azan luk

1 7

Fel is s p. J er icho ( PPN ) ( 6 ) S hef f ield :

r ecen t ( 7 )

6 .6- 7 .9

Chevdar

S ources :

No tes :

1 .

J ar man a nd J ar man ( 1968 )

2 .

H iggs ( 1962 )

3 .

Boessneck ( 1962 )

4 .

Bököny i ( 1974 )

5 .

C lu t ton-Brock ( 1969 )

7 .3

1

D

7 .2

2

D

1 0.1

1

6 .

Z euner ( 1958 )

7 .

S hef f ield Un ivers ity c o mpara t ive c o l lect ion .

a s

v ery y oung i nd iv idual.

Co m men ts : W:

w ild , o nb as is o f s ize

I D :

d o mes t ic , o nb as is o f s ize

2 94

? D

Table 1 03

An i ma ls r epresen ted i n U pper P le istocene s i tes i n Bu lgar ia

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

Bos p r im igen ius

x

x

x

-

x

x

x

x

-

x

Cervus e laphus

x

x

x

x

-

x

-

-

-

-

-

-

x

-

-

-

-

-

x

x

x

x

x

-

-

-

-

-

Capreo lus c apreo lus Capra s p.

x

x

Equus

x

x

Rh inoceros s p.

-

-

x

x -

-

-

x

-

x -

U rsus s pelaeus

x

x

-

x

x

x

Hyaena s pelaea

x

x

-

x

x

-

-

-

-

-

x

-

-

-

x

x

-

-

-

-

-

x

-

-

-

-

-

-

x

-

-

-

Can is s p.

-

Vu lpes s p.

-

Martes s p.

-

L epus e uropaeus

x

x

( x p resen t , -a bsen t ) S ources :

1 :

Devetak i Pesh tera ;

2 :

Pesh t ;

Mikov a nd Dza mbazov ( 1960 )

Dza mbazov ( 1957 )

3 :

Morav ica ;

4 :

Vas i l L evsk i ; D za mbazov ( 1963 )

Dza mbazov ( 1959 )

5 :

L is icata Pesh tera ;

Dza mbazov ( 1963 )

6 :

Tabashkata P esh tera;

7 :

Te mna ta Dupka ;

8 :

Bacho K iro ;

9 :

Go le mata Pesh tera ;

1 0 :

Dza mbazov ( 1963 )

Gau l ( 1948 )

Garrod ( 1939 ) Gau l ( 1948 )

Franch th i , S . Greece; Payne ( 1975 )

2 95

-

x x x

Table 1 04

S ize ( i n mm ) o f modern a nd p reh istor ic s eeds o f L . c f . b ienne L eng th No.

min .

a verage

Chevdar

5

2 .80

2 .98

K azan luk

6

1 .93

2 .18

Breadth max.

m in .

a verage

max .

3 .03

1 .49

1 .57

1 .71

2 .48

0 .94

1 .06

1 .21

9ap t enü ( 1 )

1 2

2 .2

2 .45

2 .6

1 .1

1 .30

1 .5

modern

2 5

2 .58

2 .69

2 .71

1 .54

1 .65

1 .77

( 1 )

v an Z e ist ( 1972 )

2 96

T otal

%

of d o mi na nt s peci e s

O th e r pla nts

0

M 0 0

p I . e c z

C V

CD CD O 0 0 .4 .I 0 0

O 0 0

O C D 0

O 0 0

C Z I n C D C D C D 0 0 r e • • • • • • • C D 0 0 0 C D C D 0 ) C D o t o o t o 0 ( I n t m c n e n . ,

0 • 0 0 —

0 • 0 c z . ,

0

0 r i

1

1

I . I .4

00 N

O 0 0

1

00

1

O CC 0 0 0 e

CV .1

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

I n " e l l 0 t -, ( 0 C D C1 • • • • • • • • 0 C z o o 0 i n c > C ) c o 0 c n c m c p c z c r z c z . . , I CV CV

1

,

(

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1 1

1

1

1

00 r l

1

1

V • fa b a

i

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i

i

i

i

i

i

i

i l

l

i

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i

i

H . h e xasti c h u m

T.

T.

0

0

0

0

O il D c z a 3 0 C D

I I

I

1 1

e r vili a

L e ns c uli na ris

a e sti vu m

di c occ u m

m o noc oc c u m

C o nte xt

‘ Z t i

1

•

C D C l C V 00 C D

0 0 C D

▪ •

( D C 7 ) c q

1

C e l

N 0 c r ›

c q •

C i

c u

C 0 0

Site

I

1

c ) c 0 0 (: ). .t to C r )

1

C D 00 M CD C D CD

0 0 e

1

1

1

1 1

1

1

1

1 1

1

1

1

1 1

1

1 1

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C

1

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C V

1 1

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1

1

1

o o

1

1

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1

1

O CD CZ CV 0 0 CD OO O CD CD CD

1

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e

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l

oo

o o

a )

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T h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f p r e h i s t o r i c c r o p s f r o m B u l g a r i a a n d G r e c e

O LC 2 0 e 1 0 0

i

V i ci a sati va

a )

a )

0 00 g . 1

a ,

a ,

a )

C )

•

; • 4

7 : 3 •

" C S

4 c d " C 3

4 c i

•

t z . ) . 4

c i ) . 4

a . ) . 4

a )

5 5 e5 5

C . )

L )

O

O

O


0

> 0

1

1

c a

c 5 a c e a N

N

> 0

0 0 i n

I e . . . 1

1

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C A C Z

i

e

C T) C D C Z CZ

0 0 0 g 1

0 0 C> " r 1

0 0 0 C > C) e . I • I

> 0

> 0

c ec dc d

c d

0

E N

> 0

N

c d

E N

C r )

t . .

I S Z

C O

m

1

0 0

E N

> 0

> 0

0 0

g

C I >

` 7 5 c om Z 0

C D

i l l

N

11 1 1 1 1

0

0

N

N

N

c > 0

C I )

4

> 0

> 0

m

c i a

>

>

>

c / a

c o )

c r l

63

0

t : 1 0

b l D

t i ß

2 99

c . 7 )4

< 1

C [ , 1 L )

C 1 )

; . 1 C d

C D b p

• F .

( : ne L CD z t 4 e e e e t e t

c n c d W O

i z i ) h p

r 2: 1

W


0 0 0 0

a 5 c a c e g , gn c a

0 20 0 ; . ,

› Q0

T a b l e 1 0 5 ( c o n t d . )

o

11 1 1 1 1

C Z N

c c i

> 0

E N

1

C \ I ' ‚' 1

0 0 c . 0 0

> 0

i

1

c . 7 DI

S a mp le n u mber

i

z > 0

N

Per iod

e

0-3 N N 0 0

C' z C Z C Z C Z CZ C Z

L • )

10 0 . ,

e

0 0 ,I 0 C

0 ` )

i

I

0 0

i n CO CM N . • • • • •

— 4

, 1

T . d icoccum

0 0

C )

( X) t • • Cz 0 0

I

i

L ens c u l inar is

T . a est iv -um

L i z

t C C

, ,

0

H . h exast ichum

tM

• • •

C Z C Z

i

0 0 , . 1

V ic ia s at iva -

0 0 0

2

; _ , r r l

e t t - e 0 e

L f 3

\ I i 1 4 I I n c I n n . I n n

▪ •

To ta l

C D 0 0

9

% o f d om inan t

•

( 3 )

s pec ies O ther p lan ts

( 3 " J

C D

I

rZ CI

C>

•

C D

C e D

I

I-

V . e rv il ia _

N C 7 D

i

V ic ia s a t iva

• C . 0

0

I

1 . 0 C T )

1 . 0

0

H . h exast ichu m

▪

T . d icoccum

c o

c r . J

0

e

I

II

I

e C D

N 0

•

• C ' D

CI

I

I

I

1

1

1

II I

I

1

1 •

I 0

1

I

C \ 1

" Z t4

0

Cq

0

$ . 4

c d • ' )

0 0

I

1

CO

1

•

UD

•

0

I

c q 0 0

1 C I O C 9

I

I

0

II I I I I

I C D

T . a est ivum

c n

• C . D C 7 D

II I

L ens c u l inar is

T . monococcu mI

e c D

C \ 1

P isu m s p. V . ! ia

O 0

0

I

c d •

C D

Con tex t

c e

c d

c d c

/

o S ite

c d

•o . . . 4

c d

eg

.

4 9

2 c

C 4 9 n

• • • • 1

o5 5 2

r 2 k

2 c

55

P : 1 P : 1 P : 1

P er iod

e i ) b n

e e e

O

0

0

0

t 0 c ) J 0 i n i n i n c m

C O

C D

I h . 4

S a mp le n u mber

c o

i n

3 00

Table 1 06

Assoc ia t ion o f c rops a nd c om mensa ls f rom t he N ear East

S ite

Date

C rop

Co m mensa l

Com mensa l

H aelar V I ( 1 ) H e lar V I

5 400 b .c. 5 400 b .c.

b arley v etch

v etch b ar ley

whea t whea t

H av ilar V I

5 400 b. c.

whea t

b arley

l egumes

H elar I

5 200 b .c.

b ar ley

l en t i l

wheat

T e l l Chragh ( 2 )

b arley

whea t

l en ti l

T e l l Qurtass ( 2 )

c . 3 800 b .c. — 2 1-1800 B .0 .

l ent il

v etch

wheat

T el l Baz mosian ( 3 ) T e l l Baz mos ian

2 1-1800 B . 0. 2 1-1800 B .0 .

v etch b ar ley

l en t il whea t

wheat l en t il

T e l l Baz mos ian

2 1-1800 B . 0.

b ar ley

wheat

l en t il

T el l Baz mosian T el l Baz mos ian

2 1-1800 B .C. 1 500 B . 0.

b arley b arley

whea t whea t

l en t il l en t il

Te l l Baz mos ian T el l Baz mos ian

1 500 B .0 . 1 500 B .0 .

b ar ley b arley

w heat w heat

l en t il l en t il

S ources :

1 .

Helbaek ( 1970 )

2 .

Helbaek ( 1960b )

3 .

Helbaek ( 1965 )

3 01

Tab le 1 07

Assoc iat ions o f c rops a nd c o m mensa ls f ro m De ir A l la

S a mp le N o.

Date

Corn-

Co r n-

Co r n-

C rop

mensal

mensa l

mensa l

wheat

1

L 120

c . 1 200 B .C.

b arley

2

L 129

c . 1 200 B .C.

b ar ley

3 4

F609 F612

1 200-1150 B .C. 1 200-1150 B .C.

w heat w heat

b ar ley b arley

5

M204a

1 200-1150 B .C.

w heat

b arley

p ea

v etch

6

M204B

1 200-1150 B .C.

v etch

f l ax

wheat

b arley

7

AA406a

7 th-6th c entury B . 0 C .

w heat

b arley

f l ax

8

BB303b

7 th-6 th c en tury B .C.

w heat

b arley

f l ax

9

EE334

7 th-6th c en tury B .C.

f l ax

wheat

b arley

EE334V I

7 th-6th c en tury B .C.

w heat

b arley

f l ax

1 0

S ource :

v an Z e ist a nd Heeres ( 1973 )

Tab le 1 08

S ite

Assoc iat ions o f c rops a nd c o m men sa ls f ro m Hungary

Date

C rop

Co m mensa l

Dunap 'en tele

Bron ze Age

b arley

w heat

Toszeg

Bronze Age

wheat

b arley

S üt tö

Bronze Age

whea t

b arley

S a lhegy

I ron Age

wheat

b arley

S a lhegy

I ron Age

wheat

l egu mes

S a lhegy

I ron Age

b arley

l egumes

S ource :

Te mp ir ( 1964 )

3 02

Co m mensa l

l egu mes

Tab le 1 09

Assoc iat ions o f c rops a nd c o mmensa ls f ro m B r ita in

S ite

Crop

P er iod

Com mensal

Co m mensa l

I l ford H il l

L ate B ronze Age

b arley

wheat

Wink lebourne E state

Early I ron Age

whea t

b arley

Ma iden Cast le Worth Ma l travers Port land B eeh ives

Ear ly I ron Age

w heat

b ar ley

Early I ron Age Early I ron Age

whea t whea t

b arley

Ear ly I ron Age

whea t

b ar ley

F if ield Bavan t

Early I ron Age

b arley

wheat

L it t le S o lsbury

Early I ron Age

wheat

b arley

b ar ley w heat

whea t b ar ley

b arley b ar ley

wheat

l egumes

wheat

l egumes

H e mbury

Worlebury

Early I ron Age

Meare

Early I ron Age

G lastonbury

L ate I ron Age

Ro therly Wick lebourne

L ate I ron Age Ro mano-Br it ish

wheat

b arley

S t. A lbans V eru lan iu rn

Ro mano-Br it ish

whea t

b ar ley

Ro mano-Br it ish

whea t

b ar ley

R ivenhal l

Ro mano-Br it ish

wheat

Ha lstead

Ro mano-Br it ish

wheat

S ource :

He lbaek ( 1952a )

3 03

r ye

Tab le 10

Assoc iat ions o f c rops a nd c om mensa ls f rom S cand inav ia

S ite

Date

Bunds9 S ( 1 )

C rop

Com mensal

M idd le N eo l ith ic

w heat

Phelum/ Bro mus

Vo ld to f te ( 2 )

Bronze Age

b arley

wheat

Va lhagar ( 3 )

4 th c en tury A .D.

w heat

Commensa l b arley

Va lhagar ( 3 )

4 th c en tury A .D.

r ye

Va lhagar ( 3 ) Va lhagar ( 3 )

4 th c entury A .D. 4 th c en tury A .D.

b ar ley b arley

r ye r ye

Valhagar ( 3 )

4 th c en tury A .D.

b arley

r ye

Oxb f z i l ( 4 )

6 th c en tury A .D.

b arley

r ye

o ats r ye

Ox 1 30 1 ( 4 )

6 th c en tury A .D.

b arley

o ats

Eketorp ( 5 ) Eketorp ( 5 )

8 th c en tury A .D. 8 th c en tury A .D.

b ar ley b arley

r ye r ye

Eke torp ( 5 )

8 th c en tury A . D.

b ar ley

r ye

o ats

Eketorp ( 5 )

8 th c en tury A .D.

b ar ley

r ye

o ats

S ources :

1 . 2 .

J essen ( 1939 ) Helbaek ( 1952c )

3 .

H elbaek ( 1955 )

4 .

H elbaek ( 1958b )

5 .

He lbaek ( 1966b )

3 04

K ey t o F ig. 1 Metero log ical s tat ions ( see T ab les 1 0-12 ) 1 :

S of ia

2 :

P lovd iv

3 :

Gabrovo

4 :

K azan luk

5 :

K justend il

6 :

Petr itsch

7 :

Varna

8 :

Burgas

9 :

R i la

1 0 :

Petrohan

1 1:

S itn iakovo

S quares d enote f i e ld- work a reas : A :

e lope6 r eg ion

B :

K azan luk r eg ion

C :

N ova Z agora r eg ion

b.0 •r 1

•

R e l i e f , d r a i n a g e a n d m o d e r n s e t l e m n t i n B u l g a r i a .

L a r g e , h o m g e n o u s

S m a l ‚ h e t e r o g e n e o u s

c b

( f )

c ) C c

L . «

. 0 0

A

( 1 ) GT )

L . 0

L L

2 5 Mean

2 0

1 5 -

1 0 ,

, c, , _ . -. ,, . . z_ _, ,, . . . . . o

• • . .

5

0 -

__

-0- , _

. _

o

—

i m

w hea t; 4 -y r f a l low c yc le ; manured ;n o ;a nnua l

• 0

A

b ar ley; "

"

manure

c ropp ing ;manured "

;n o

11

;

manure

manured

;n o

manure

( Da ta f r om H a l l ,19 17 & G a rner a nd D yke , 1 969 ) . F ig . 3 : C rop y i e lds u nder d i f fer ing c ond i t ions o f c u l t iva t ion .

·a

V) V)

c:,

' i::j

"t, C: QI

3:

0

"t,

0 QI

E

-� l: C: ::,

0

E

'V) QI

.....

� C:

3: .....

0 .Q

vi QI

.....

�

3: c:, QI

E

.....

"t, QI -C (J

�

0

i

�

"t,

:E :!Q 0 V)

vi QI .....

�

c:,

�::, w

"t, C:

c:, c:,

;

::,

i

.....

::,

c

0 0

(J

E

c:::, c:::,

le.

Fig. 4

, _

- -

• • • •

- - -

- _

. .•• • ••

_

- _ _

-

- - _ _ __

• ••••

1 1

. 1 1.1 1.0 18

1 •

ei t im i

•

=a m omm

0 b lack c lay

y e l low c l ay

N or th s ec t ion o f s ound ing a t

••

.• •

•.

=zz i i m .

b urn t c l ay C hevdar .

p i t

•

O c u p a t i o n a l d e p o s i t s

l am ina ted c l ay

a sh

l am ina ted c l ay

. .

• •

. .. * * *

:S ou th s ec t ion o f t h e s ound ing a t C hevdar .

t C O

* -Occupa t iona l d epos i ts

*

›

e- R iver /ne d epos i ts >

t

1 2-

11O

0 00

A

1 0

0 0 A

O

o 9-

0

O

0 0

A

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E f f ic iency o f d if feren t r ecovery p rocesses a t K azan luk .