Drawing for Architects: How to Explore Concepts, Define Elements, and Create Effective Built Design Through Illustration 1592538975, 9781592538973

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© 2015 by Rockport Publishers Text © 2015 Julia McMorrough Images © 2015 Julia McMorrough except as otherwise noted Foreword © 2015 R.E. Somol First published in the United States of America in 2015 by Rockport Publishers, a member of Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc. 100 Cummings Center Suite 406-L Beverly, Massachusetts 01915-6101 Telephone: (978) 282-9590 Fax: (978) 283-2742 www.rockpub.com Visit RockPaperInk.com to share your opinions, creations, and passion for design. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the copyright owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of the artists concerned, and no responsibility is accepted by producer, publisher, or printer for any infringement of copyright or otherwise, arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensure that credits accurately comply with information supplied. We apologize for any inaccuracies that may have occurred and will resolve inaccurate or missing information in a subsequent reprinting of the book. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN: 978-1-59253-897-3 Digital edition published in 2015 eISBN: 978-1-62788-252-1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data McMorrough, Julia. Drawing for architects : how to explore concepts, dewne elements, and create effective built design through illustration / Julia McMorrough. pages cm ISBN 978-1-59253-897-3 (pbk.) 1. Architectural drawing. I. Title. NA2700.M43 2014 720.28’4--dc23 2014035921 Design: Julia McMorrough Cover Image: Julia McMorrough Printed in China

Julia McMorrough

How to

exp lore con cep ts,

def ine ele me nts , an d cr eat e ef

fect ive bui lt d esig n th rou gh illu stra tion

dedication

For my parents, Grace and Frederick Holmes.

contents 6

Foreword The Architecture of the Drawing by R.E. Somol

8

Introduction Drawing Attention

10 12 18 20 30 36 46 58 68 94 96 98 124 130

01 Projection Types Drawing from History Guide Plan Section Elevation Axonometric Oblique Perspective 02 Format Standards The Languages of an Architect Making and Reading Drawings Drawing and Digital Production

132 182 183

03 Graphic Specimens Drawing to Design Contributors Image Credits

184 186 187 188

Resources About the Author Acknowledgments Index

f o rew o rd What makes [architects] architects … is usually easiest to demonstrate anecdotally, beginning with that oft-repeated story of the architect who, when asked for a pencil that could be used to tighten the tourniquet on the limb of a person bleeding to death in the street, carefully enquired, “Will a 2B do?”...[B]eing unable to think without drawing … [is] the true mark of one fully socialized into the profession of architecture. Reyner Banham

R.E. Somol is Director of the School of Architecture at the University of Illinois at Chicago

7

The Architecture of the Drawing R.E. Somol At a moment when the architectural profession and academy appear exhaustively preoccupied by their relevance to the social, economic, and environmental “realities” of the world, drawing is one of the last unnatural acts an architect may commit. Under suspicion of frivolity or nostalgia, excess or convention, drawing is, at best, tolerated as a means to an end, or, at worst, dismissed as gross irresponsibility. But while some architects may occasionally have the opportunity to build, all draw. More than nature (Laugier), the machine (Le Corbusier), or even the city (Rossi), architecture witnesses its primal scene through the graphic act of drawing. Every drawing, every projection, constitutes a swerve, a perversion. And a good thing, too, for there would be no architecture without such disciplined deviations. All architecture is paper architecture. This graphic nature of architecture has been celebrated in the discipline as an opportunity for the production of new architecture, perhaps most famously by the generation of architects who came of age in the 1960s. In John Hejduk’s Diamond House series, for example, the tipped or rotated square emerges as the fundamental architectural primitive. For Hejduk, underlying and preceding the generic cube is the two-dimensional diamond, which itself must be rotated and projected before entering the world as the cube. Similarly, Peter Eisenman’s axonometric model for House X retains, in its oblique physical construction, the project’s first instantiation as an act of projective geometry. In these and other works of the period, drawing is the generator.

As the identities of plan and section themselves began to take on the generic status of “cuts” for this generation, the radical implications of this reorientation for the spatial, material, and rhetorical unfolding of architecture nonetheless required that the conventions and disciplines of drawing remain intact. Today, however, the conceptual “relativity” of plan and section has itself become practically subsumed by the new primal entity of architecture, “the model.” Whether offered by Rhino or Revit, the model has come to assume the foundational status of being the thing itself, an unauthored (whether in collaboration with the software or others) form of nature. The implicit form of argument that held within orthographic relationships has been displaced within the real-time negotiation and accommodation of the model. What risks being lost in this new order is the understanding of architecture as an artifice, a culturally intended form, an ideological projection susceptible to agency (or signature), manipulation, and disagreement. By highlighting the tug-of-war among genres of drawing and generations of architects, the present book imagines a potential future for such unnatural acts as architecture. To paraphrase Dave Hickey on the relationship of America to Las Vegas, the world is not a particularly good lens through which to view (or evaluate) architecture, but architecture is a powerful lens through which to view (and remake) the world. Architectural drawings, along with all the artificial conventions they assume, are a key accomplice in this anticipatory role. Drawing for Architects exposes some of the pleasures and possibilities that such voluntary subjugation to these constraints entails.

i n t ro ductio n

I prefer drawing to talking. Drawing is faster and leaves less room for lies. Le Corbusier

9

Drawing Attention We are at an interesting juncture in the history of drawing for architecture. To take on the topic to any reasonable degree, one must be ready to ask a delicate question: Do architects still draw? Architects today work differently than those of twenty or more years ago. Few have the patience or the need to learn the laborious fundamentals of constructing a perspective by hand or the painstaking task of practicing hand lettering that is precise, consistent, and almost mechanical in appearance. So the answer may be a qualified no. Rare is the architect hunched over a drafting board, pen or pencil in hand, but plenty may be found guiding a mouse or stylus through a digitized drawing or modeling process. The question, then, is more useful once restated: Do architects still make drawings? The answer to that is a far more resounding, though nuanced, yes. Drawings are still the currency of the architect. It’s difficult to convince the world of the intrinsic value of design if it is not represented in a manner adequate to its worth. The logic of drawing is, has been, and continues to be a core aspect of how architecture is both envisioned and represented. Architects use drawings to tell the story of their ideas. These drawings, whether technical or provocative, precise or fantastic, still largely conform to agreed-upon conventions within the profession and the associated trades. An architect’s command of drawing enables control of a message, and failure to engage the power of the drawing may result in loss of that control.

Though it’s easy to lament the end of a handmade era, it’s also pointless to deny the power of the modern tools that enable facile design investigation and an almost instantaneous ability to produce the documentation necessary to broadcast all aspects of a design’s development. But whether handwrought or digitally crafted, a design communicates its intentions by way of drawings. More and more often, these may be as crafted projections of a digital model, but they are drawings.

Drawing for Architects provides insights into a progression of drawing types, projections, and techniques by amplifying the conversations among plan, section, elevation, axonometric, oblique, and perspective, each with a specific relation to the kind of design information that it expresses. This book will explain both the technical and disciplinary importance of these conventions of drawing and the ways they continue to underwrite and enable the efforts of architectural design. Within is a catalog of drawing types used in architecture, as well as an assessment of applications, techniques for production, and key terminology mostly explored through a unique case study that takes a purposemade building design through each type and technique. To complement this information, drawing examples from a broad spectrum of currently practicing architects are featured as specimens of what drawing for architecture means today. As compared to talking, drawing may “leave less room for lies,” but no drawing is without agency, and control of what it omits is of equal importance to what it includes. The power of the drawing is its ultimate authority by what it chooses to privilege, leaving considerable room for an expanded world of possibilities.

01 PROJECTION TYPES

12 Drawing for Architects

01 Projection Types 13

Drawing from History Architectural drawings take on many guises and perform many tasks, but their primary jobs involve the generation or representation of design ideas, and, frequently, they involve both. Significantly, as most architectural production today is digital, the distinction between drawing and modeling is an important one: the drawing is a projection of the object, not the object (model) itself. So, while we may increasingly be able to exist within efficient digital creations of seemingly inhabitable virtual spaces, it is the manifestation of these spaces as multiple possible projections onto the twodimensional picture plane that is of interest in consideration of the drawing and its volition. Drawings in architectural production imply reduced-scale depictions of much larger buildings, parts of buildings, and even parts of cities. The history of reduced-scale drawings in the creation of architecture is beset by spotty evidence and conflicting viewpoints. Unlike many of the buildings they have yielded, the drawings responsible for much of the ancient built world, if there were drawings, have simply not survived. The buildings of ancient Greece were the result not of prepared reduced-scale plans, sections, and elevations, but of an arrangement of discrete and highly standardized elements organized by way of written directions (syngraphai) and full-scale templates carved into stone. Such drawings were discovered on walls of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma and thought to be from the third century BCE. They depict not only full-scale working drawings for the temple’s details, but also examples of drawings explaining, in single-axis protraction (where the column plan was depicted at full scale, while its much longer height was proportionally reduced due to lack of space), the methods for constructing the temple’s enormous columns. Later, reduced-scale architectural drawings may have been created on papyrus, parchment, and even wood slabs, but such materials were incapable of surviving several millennia.

The Invention of Drawing, Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1830)

Since the Renaissance, however, with its commitment to the dissemination of ideas and knowledge, and a parallel dedication to the careful preservation of its drawn artifacts, the innovations, discoveries, and ideologies surrounding the projection of three-dimensional space onto a two-dimensional picture plane continue to preoccupy the imaginations of architects and historians alike. For artists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, depicting the origin of drawing was familiar terrain, frequently explored through the classical legend of Diboutades and her departing love. In these paintings, the woman traces the outline of her beloved’s shadow, which has been cast onto a wall by the light of a nearby candle or lamp. Robin Evans, in his essay “Translations from Drawing to Building,” compares these portrayals to the interpretation by painter and architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, whose 1830 painting The Invention of Drawing, places this same scene outdoors, with the shadow cast by the Sun, and the man’s silhouette drawn by a shepherd, while the woman holds the head of the subject steady. The distinctions may seem minor, but as described by Evans, an architect and historian, they put forward two important issues. By moving the action outdoors, a nonconstructed environment, Schinkel suggests that building could not have existed in advance of this moment of the first drawing. Schinkel’s painting also establishes a case for the orthographic projection made possible by the effectively parallel lines of the Sun’s radiation, as compared to the local light source of the more typical painting, resulting, in that case, in a perspectival rendition of the shadow. This comparison provides a telling context for understanding drawing’s position relative to architecture and the cultures that have produced it, and though our access to the exact origins of the first drawings used to create buildings may be uneven, Schinkel makes a compelling case for the necessity of drawings to precede buildings.

14 Drawing for Architects

Projection Types ORTHOGRAPHIC

Plan Section Elevation

Architecture is inherently three-dimensional, though it often relies on the two-dimensional means of representing spaces and forms through the use of projection, of which there are three primary categories: orthographic, oblique, and perspective. Each projection type has attributes that enable it to convey, in two dimensions, various degrees of information about the threedimensionality of the object.

Axonometric Elevation (Side)

Elevation (Back)

Section (Transverse)

plan (top)

Elevation (Front)

Elevation (Side)

MULTIVIEW ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

PARALINE (SINGLE VIEW)

01 Projection Types 15

PERSPECTIVE

OBLIQUE

Often, the term “projection” is used even if a drawing has not been created through the process of projection, but was drawn instead as a pictorial representation. Projections emerge from an inherent understanding of the object and the theory of its construction, whereas pictorial representations are the result of following a set of directions. Computers frequently make our projections for us, working through the deeper fundamentals necessary to the construction of a projection. While this section acknowledges the multiple possible origins of a projection, its focus is on the understanding of the results and uses of these projections, rather than on the varying methods of their construction.

HORIZON LINE

Two-point Perspective Plan Oblique

HORIZON LINE

Elevation Oblique

One-point Perspective

PERSPECTIVE (SINGLE VIEW) OBLIQUE PROJECTION

PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

16 Drawing for Architects

The Picture Plane

Projections are well understood by their relationship to the picture plane. The picture plane itself could be described as a yat window through which the object is viewed, such as a sheet of paper on which the projection is drawn, or a computer screen that frames a digital model in a particular position.

Plans, sections, elevations, and axonometrics are orthographic, because their projections are accomplished through parallel lines that meet the picture plane at right angles.

01 Projection Types 17

All of the projection types have the same four elements: an object, a viewer, a picture plane, and projector lines.

Oblique projections meet the picture plane at oblique (slanted) angles, though they are parallel to each other.

In a perspective projection, the receding lines converge to a vanishing point on the horizon.

18 Drawing for Architects

01 Projection Types 19

Guide

Calling on the power of drawing to organize, illuminate, and engage, the principal projection types will be explored through the graphic documentation of a prototype building design. The featured Local Library is a mid-scale library and community gathering space. It could be sited anywhere—on an island, in the mountains, in the city—and it was designed for and with the drawings in the pages to come. It will serve as navigator, tour guide, and testing ground for the drawing types presented. Organized by type, these drawings are explorations as much as they are explanations. Taken together, they represent ideas about one possible project, explored through conventions of architectural production and representation. As a set of drawings about the building, their primary aim is to exploit the projection types in question, in service of investigating possibilities for the building’s design. As the drawings explore the ways that different projection types are uniquely suited to telling different pieces of one building’s many latent stories, ideally, they may not coordinate with each other consistently. Such inconsistency is imperative to understanding a drawing’s strength as a design tool, and not just as a view of a model. Drawings have ambitions and are at their strongest when helping designers discover what questions to ask of their designs. Note: Pages that focus on the Local Library will display the diagram above] with notations that reyect the featured drawing.

20 Drawing for Architects

E

N

RE

A PL

U CT

PI

Plan as Overhead View

Plan as Section Cut (Floor Plan)

01 Projection Types 21 PLAN

Plan A groundplan is made by the proper successive use of compasses and rule, through which we get outlines for the plane surfaces of buildings. Vitruvius The Ten Books on Architecture

22 Drawing for Architects

Building Massing

Look UP Hor reƃecVed ceiling plan.

Look DOWN Hor ƃoor plan.

Plan Section Cut through Building Mass

01 Projection Types 23 PLAN

PLAN A plan is both method for achieving an end and a detailed formulation of action toward that end. As a projection type within architectural drawing, it may also assume the roles of overhead view (as in a roof or site plan), or as a section cut horizontally through a building, resulting in what is typically understood to be a floor plan. Outside the discipline of architecture, it is not uncommon to hear the drawings of architects referred to simply as “plans” or “floor plans.” As evidenced by the above distinctions of plans and their meanings, this is both true and not. The collected drawings necessary to describe a proposed piece of architecture are not only floor plans or overhead views—they comprise versions of all of the projection types, and more. But at the same time, the drawings are, in fact, a plan of action, or, per Le Corbusier in Vers une Architecture, “a plan of battle” working in service of the building to come. The plan itself—as privileged view from above and as visionary intention—may be the projection type most typically understood as being “architectural” or about the practice of architecture. In a construction document drawing set, by national standards, the plans come first, followed by elevations, sections, and details. All of this might point to the plan as the primary architectural projection—and of course it is not—but it shoulders much of the burden of documentation, clarification, coordination, and navigation. A building’s plans are where we get our bearings—they are simultaneously maps of their geography and itinerary for their realization.

24 Drawing for Architects

Cutting a Plan

01 Projection Types 25 PLAN

Cut through walls is shown as black poché. FLOOR PATTERN UP AUDITORIUM

Door swing indicates direction and range of door’s opening capabilities. STAIRS

STORAGE

BATHROOM FIXTURES (TOILETS, SINKS, AND STALLS)

Ramp with direction indicator (up) UP

ROUND COLUMNS

VENDING

CLASSROOM

CHILDREN’S LIBRARY

FLOOR PATTERN

CORRIDOR

BOOK DROP

SEATING (MOVABLE) Furniture, unless builtin, is not typically shown on a ƃoor plan, thouIh it would be present on a furniture plan, and sometimes an electrical plan if furniture placement will affect locations of electrical outlets.

FLOOR PLAN A plan cut is typically taken about 3’ 0” or 4’ 0” (0.9 or 1.2 m) from the yoor of the level being represented. Material that is being cut through (as in a wall) is shown the most boldly (as a heavy outline, or even solid black), with the information beyond (below) depicted in line weights appropriate to describe their distance from the cut plane. Different plans can have different roles, and their content reyects this. Plans meant for construction will include dimensions, notes, and a variety of keys and symbols. Plans meant for presentation will be cleaned up of more technical information, focusing instead on graphic clarity and readability.

26 Drawing for Architects A

Detail section marker: top number is detail number; bottom number is page/sheet.

1 28

B

B’

C’

Interior elevation key: indicates where to Ƃnd these eleXations in the drawinI set.

D

E

Grid lines: indicate structural grid, and should be consistent from one plan to another.

F

G

H

1 GREEN ROOM

2 p.44 1

SOLID WALL STUDY CARRELS

RECEPTION

2 AUDITORIUM

UP

WINDOW

STACKS

A

A Section marker: Cut lines indicate location and direction of section cut. (See pages 3435 for section drawing.)

3 COURTYARD

STORAGE

4 CIRCULATION REFERENCE

5

CHILDREN’S LIBRARY UP

EL. 3’-0”

LOBBY

CAFE + LOUNGE

STAFF

VENDING

PATIO BOOK DROP

ENTRY

6

EL. 7’ 0”

CLASSROOM

7

Floor Plans

LEVEL ONE PLAN

EL. 3’ 0”

C

Each level of a building has its own yoor plan, drawn to the same standards and with consistent information depicted. The ground level plan may also indicate immediate site information, especially as it relates to entry and exit scenarios for the building. Signiwcant information that might be above (an opening in the ceiling, for instance) is indicated with a dashed line.

UP

Ramp: lines desiInate that surface slopes upward.

North arrow: indicates cardinal direction of plan.

EL. 0’ 0” 1 42

north

Exterior elevation marker: top number is drawinI number; bottom number is 0 sheetpaIe.

8’

Graphic scale: proXides scale understandinI of the drawinI that will remain consistent, eXen if the plan is re24’ duced or enlarIed.

01 Projection Types 27 PLAN

Solid cut indicates where building is cut through (due to sloping roof).

DN.

LiIhter outline and material tone indicate roof beyond (below).

LOUNGE

STORAGE

STOR.

MEETING

CLASSROOM

Alignment: the dashed overhead line on level one aligns with the yoor edge in level two.

Elevator: crossed lines indicate a shaft that is open throuIh the ƃoor.

CLASSROOM

Dashed outline indicates extents of canopy above.

LEVEL TWO PLAN In this case, the second yoor of the building occupies only a small portion of the building’s footprint. Therefore, at the plan section cut, there is much about the lower level and the roof plan that will be shown below the level of the cut. Site information would not be indicated on this plan.

28 Drawing for Architects

Other Plans

ENLARGED FLOOR PLAN Such a plan may be useful for depicting many aspects of a room, or series of spaces, that might not wt into the larger plans by level, and may include materials, furniture, and details about built-in wxtures or cabinetry.

REFLECTED CEILING PLAN A reyected ceiling plan (RCP) is also a horizontal section cut, this time looking up, toward the ceiling, instead of down, toward the yoor. Like a yoor plan, an RCP also makes most bold the materials being cut through (walls), but depicts issues related to ceiling construction and lighting that associate with the ceiling, instead of with the yoor.

EL. 6’ 0”

EL. 5’ 0”

EL. 7’ 0” EL. 6’ 0”

EL. 5’ 0” EL. 1’-0”

BENCH

BENCH

01 Projection Types 29

ROOF PLAN

PLAN

A roof plan is typically not a section cut, but a view from high above the building’s roof level. There are no section cuts and, instead, all information is shown almost as a horizontal elevation. Roof plans may employ shadows, which help to indicate heights and changes in plane, as well as immediate site information, including vegetation. SITE PLAN A site plan may include the building’s roof plan, or it may include the ground level yoor plan as a way to indicate the relationships of entry, access, and context.

EL. 3’-0”

BENCH

EL. 3’ 0”

EL. 4’ 0”

BENCH

EL. 7’ 0”

30 Drawing for Architects

E

N

E

UR

T IC

P

PIC

TU

RE

PL

AN

E

A PL

LongiVWdinal SecVion

TranUXerUe SecVion

01 Projection Types 31 SECTION

Section If sections in architecture have diverse functions for the choices of building elements’ disposition, they are also the necessary referent of all anticipation of construction; they determine in the most immediately visible way the relationship between forms and forces. Jacques Guillerme and Hélène Vérin “The Archaeology of Section”

32 Drawing for Architects

SECTION Section drawings are best understood as vertical cuts through an object. As with a plan section, the material being cut through is indicated with a bold outline or solid fill. Such planes would include not only walls, but also floors, roofs, and the ground upon which the building is sited. Depending on the scale of the drawing or purpose of the section, the cut-through material may be represented in greater or lesser levels of detail. Dir ecV

ion

oH

Xie Y

Generation of Section A-A

Section A-A (Looking NorVh)

SecVion A-A

Section A-A (Looking SoWVh)

01 Projection Types 33 SECTION

tio

f no

ec Dir

SecVion A-A (Looking SoWVh)

w

Vie

It takes a lot of sections to describe a building well, and typically, several transverse (short, against the grain) and several longitudinal (long, along the grain) sections are needed to adequately document a building. Building sections are most helpful when they cross through spatially significant areas (as opposed to corridors and bathrooms, though those must also be well documented).

34 Drawing for Architects

Cut line passes through opening in wall.

LINE OF SECTION CUT Sections are unique in their ability to tell several stories at once. Most signiwcantly, they provide a clear understanding of the vertical relationships of a building, while also supplying strategic glimpses into the building’s interior elevations.

Dashed line in plan aligns with ceiling form.

FLOOR LINE GROUND LINE BUILDING SECTION CORRESPONDENCE TO PLAN

ROOF LINE BEYOND CUT LINE

35

Section drawing contains elevational information from this line and beyond.

Cut line passes through opening in wall.

Line of section cut stands out in highest relief.

Stairs and raked seating are seen in elevation beyond.

36 Drawing for Architects

01 Projection Types 37 ELEVATION

Elevation The architect takes his projections from the ground plan and, without altering the lines and by maintaining the true angles, reveals the extent and shape of each elevation and side—he is one who desires his work to be judged not by deceptive appearances but according to certain calculated standards. Leon Battista Alberti On the Art of Building in Ten Books

38 Drawing for Architects

Horizontal Plane

Projection of Elevations

H

F Fro

nta

lP

ow Pr

lan

e

le

e

an

Pl

P 1

2

Object

Picture Planes

EleXaVion (Back)

EleXaVion (Side)

)

an

Pl

Ele

XaV

ion

op (T

(Fr on V)

El 3

Projection Lines

4

Elevation and Top Views

n

Vio

a eX

e)

id

(S

01 Projection Types 39 ELEVATION

ELEVATION Orthographic projections accurately portray the scale of an object, in whatever axis is contained in its view. Such drawings are true in their depiction of lengths and angles. Multiview drawings work together to describe the three dimensionality of any one object, unlike paraline or perspective drawings, which may show two or more planes and their relationships to each other.

The picture plane (PP) is the two-dimensional plane onto which a three-dimensional object is recorded. The horizontal plane is parallel to the ground, while the frontal and proƂle planes are both perpendicular to the horizontal plane and to each other. Through projection lines, the top and side views of the object may be seen to “collapse” onto their respective picture planes.

EleXaVion (Side)

Plan (Vop) EleXaVion (FronV)

5

Projection of Elevations

EleXaVion (Back)

EleXaVion (Side)

40 Drawing for Architects

Elevational Information

Highest Edge of Folded Roof

Edge of Canopy

ELEVATION

A building’s elevations are projections of its vertical faces or facades. Exterior elevations depict the outer envelope of the building from ground to roof. Elevation projections do not intersect the picture plane, so there is no section cut; however, there is much elevational information depicted in section drawings, including whole façades, if they are seen beyond the section.

Both interior and exterior elevations locate signiwcant aspects of a building’s vertical surfaces, including windows, doors, and materials. As with all orthographic projections, line weights and other graphic cues are important in depicting the technical aspects of the elevation accurately. Despite this, issues of depth can be difwcult to portray without the use of shadows, a technique that promotes an almost threedimensional understanding of the space of an elevation.

Shadow helps to graphically explain the length of the canopy and the depth of the entrance.

Ground Line

Tower beyond is visible behind brick screen, illustrating the screen’s porosity.

42 Drawing for Architects

Despite their inherent planarity, elevations do not need to feel yat. Much about the building’s character and disposition can be communicated through the use of color, pattern, tone, texture, shadow, materiality, and context.

01 Projection Types 43 ELEVATION

44 Drawing for Architects

Interior Elevations Interior elevations depict the walls of interior spaces. They may be part of a section drawing or they may be stand-alone drawings that simply span from yoor to ceiling.

1

2

3

4

1. East Elevation

7

2. West Elevation

6

5

4

01 Projection Types 45 ELEVATION

5

7

6

EL. 7’ 0”

EL. 3’ 0”

3

2

1

EL. 7’ 0”

46 Drawing for Architects

OB

JEC

T

OBJECT

PICTURE PLANE

The cube’s diagonal in this isometric projection is perpendicular to the picture plane.

Object is viewed from a position perpendicular to the picture plane.

PICTURE PLANE

Axonometric paraline drawings are orthographic projections, such as plans, sections, and elevations, and include the subcategories of isometric, dimetric, and trimetric. Unlike multiview drawings, axonometric projections place the object at a skewed angle relative to the picture plane, and thereby offer views of multiple planes of the object simultaneously. As a result, their relationship to the picture plane through which they are projected and understood becomes more complex.

Depending upon whether an isometric image was drawn or projected, the resulting edge lengths will vary. When drawn, scales along the x, y, and z axes will be true and may be constructed accordingly. When created through means of projection, these scales will be shorter than their true lengths.

Projected: consVrWcVion oH paraline draYing as direcV proLecVions oH Vhe plan and eleXaVion as mediaVed D[ Vhe hori\onVal and HronVal picVWre planes. Drawn: creaVion oH Vhe paraline draYing D[ means oH measWremenV along Vhe scaled principal axes.

01 Projection Types 47 AXONOMETRIC

Axonometric Axonometric drawings have been slid in between the perspective and orthographic projections as an expeditious way of representing the third dimension without sacrificing the scale measure of plan, elevation, and section. Robin Evans The Projective Cast: Architecture and Its Three Geometries

48 Drawing for Architects

AXONOMETRIC

z

Isometric drawings: Created by positioning the three principal axes at a 30° angle with the picture plane, and in each axis, the lengths are equal.

120° 120°

120° [

x

1 1

1

30°

The distinctions among the conventions of the three types of axonometric projections are illustrated here. When such views were more typically either projected or drawn by hand, understanding the variations of the angle and the proportional lengths of graphic information of not only the three principal axes (x, y, and z), but also of information not parallel to these axes, was critical to setting up and creating desired threedimensional images.

ISOS = equality METRON = measure

30°

Isometric Drawings

1

15°

¾

Dimetric Drawings

Trimetric Drawings

1

¾

15°

15°

1

¾ ¾ 30°

Dimetric drawings: Two of the three major axes are constructed at the same scale (either full scale or an equal proportion of full scale). The angles of the x and y axes may vary.

Trimetric drawings: The scales of all three axes are varied, and foreshorten at different rates, and the object’s angle to the picture plane also varies.

15°

1

¾ 60°

01 Projection Types 49 AXONOMETRIC

z

With digital modeling, the simplicity of setting up analogous axonometric views has largely eliminated any need to manually construct them in order to work with and produce similar drawings.

y x

30°

30°

Massing Isometric A building’s massing is its overall shape, size, and relative disposition. Axonometric views are particularly useful for illustrating a building’s massing at multiple scales and levels of detail.

50 Drawing for Architects

Axonometric Diagrams 3-D DIAGRAMS

Because they are able to present three planes at once, axonometric views offer a uniquely omniscient viewpoint. This makes them very useful in diagrams that can distill complex relationships through understandable threedimensional depictions.

1. Volume + Needs

2. Zoning

3. Shaping + Distribution

01 Projection Types 51 AXONOMETRIC

the SHOW 1 Performance Assembly MeetinI

STUDY Studies Carrels LounIe SUN Courtyard BOOKS KIDS Children’s Library

BASE Entry Circulation Reference

the SHOW 2 Performance Assembly MeetinI

4. Zone Identities EXPLODED VIEWS

5. Parts to Whole

Axonometric views are also well suited to being exploded as a means of graphic explication. An exploded view takes apart elements of the overall composition of a building in order to visually explain relationships such as assembly, construction, and organization. Employed as a diagram, it facilitates a broader understanding of the building’s programmatic identities and adjacencies.

Views from above

01 Projection Types 53 AXONOMETRIC

BIRD’S-EYE AXONOMETRIC Axonometrics that privilege the view from above may be termed aerial, overhead, or bird’s eye. As three planes will always be present in an axonometric, such views describe the relationships among the top and two sides of the object.

54 Drawing for Architects

Isolated Axonometric Views

01 Projection Types 55 AXONOMETRIC

CUTAWAY VIEWS The cutaway view within the axonometric projection takes advantage of the “faithful” abstraction possible with axonometrics, and provides a detailed depiction of a discrete space within a more diagrammatic and contextualizing whole.

The kids’ Ying oH Vhe local liDrar[ is shoYn as remoXed and isolaVed Hrom Vhe resV oH Vhe DWilding proXiding an oXerall WndersVanding oH iVs oYn inVernal relaVionships. IV HWrVher serXes as a Dase ke[ Hrom Yhich eXen more deVailed and enlarged XieYs are Vaken.

56 Drawing for Architects

Views from Below

01 Projection Types 57 AXONOMETRIC

RP8973_169

WORM’S-EYE VIEW This best-of-both-worlds view provides a unique sense of a building’s spatial qualities, while also grounding the building through the ability to represent its full plan relationships—something a bird’s-eye axonometric view cannot accomplish as easily.

58 Drawing for Architects

01 Projection Types 59 OBLIQUE

Oblique Oblique projection became a key military tool in sixteenthand seventeenth-century Europe, and it was championed as a projection without a privileged viewpoint. The practicalities of war demanded a strategic big-picture view, sometimes from atop a horse, of three-dimensional space that was also dimensionally precise. For this reason, it is frequently referred to as military or cavalier perspective. The accuracy of lines and relationships of spaces was a life-or-death issue, making oblique drawings instrumental, and a sharp contrast to the more seductive qualities of central perspectival projection.

An oblique projection usually shows the receding side in correct size but with a distortion of angles. By habit and by indoctrination we read those angles as right angles even if they are drawn as acute or obtuse. Massimo Scolari “The Mechanism of Representation”

60 Drawing for Architects

Oblique Types

receding lines V[p.

Oblique projections allow one of three represented faces to be parallel to the picture plane (PP), thus enabling a true depiction of lengths and angles on that plane.

1

1

1

½ 45°

1

45°

1

Cavalier Projection

Cabinet Projection An elevation oblique places the principal vertical face (elevation) parallel to the picture plane. The angle of the object’s receding lines (which are always parallel to each other) may vary (45° and 75° are shown here) according to the desired emphasis on the other planes.

1

1

1

½ 75°

1

Cabinet Projection

Cavalier Projection

A plan oblique orients the plan or horizontal view parallel to the picture plane, which allows the plan view to be represented in true scale. This plane is typically rotated off of 90° so that more than one plane can be depicted in the same drawing.

1 1

1 1

1 1

1

1

1 ½

Cabinet Projection

75°

1

Cavalier Projection

01 Projection Types 61 OBLIQUE

TrWe EleXaVion

45°

45°

Cavalier Projection Cabinet Projection

75°

Cabinet Projection

75°

Cavalier Projection

TrW e

Cabinet Projection

In cavalier projections, the length of receding lines of oblique projections may be shown at their full (1 : 1) scale, though the resulting effect may appear distorted and too long. This appearance of distortion may be offset by drawing all receding lines at a reduced, though consistent, scale often one-half, twothirds, or three-fourths. Such projections are called cabinet projections, due to their use in the furniture industry.

Pla

n

Cavalier Projection

62 Drawing for Architects

Plan and Elevation Obliques

RecedinI lines are at full scale (1).

Plan is at full scale (1).

1

1

1

135°

PLAN OBLIQUE This projection privileges the plan, which is parallel to the picture plane and is dimensionally and geometrically true. Unlike the plan oblique on the next page, this plan is orthogonal and the receding lines are at an angle from the picture plane.

Plan orientation is shown as 0° clockwise rotation from the Xertical (it is not rotated). Vertical

Direction of recedinI lines is measured from the Xertical (true north) at 135°.

01 Projection Types 63 OBLIQUE

PLAN OBLIQUE Plan is at full scale (1).

1

1

D TE TA RO

In this example, the plan is true and parallel to the picture plane, though it is rotated 45° from the horizontal (or 315° from the vertical). The receding lines are vertical and extend up from the plan.

PLAN

N

A PL

1

Plan orientation is shown as 315° clockwise rotation from the Xertical (due north).

45°

180°

Vertical

RecedinI lines are at half scale (½).

RecedinI lines are at full scale (1).

Direction of recedinI lines is measured from the Xertical (true north) at 180° (which is also 0°).

½

EleXation is at full scale (1).

ELEVATION OBLIQUE Here, the elevation is parallel to the picture plane and the receding lines are drawn at 60° from horizontal. A cabinet projection with receding line lengths at one-half was used to minimize distortion.

1 1 30° 60°

Direction of receding lines is measured from the vertical (true north) at 30°.

64 Drawing for Architects

Elevation Oblique

This elevation oblique is paired with a plan cut, as though the top of the building has been removed. This enables a view of the building’s exterior as well as certain aspects of the interior. The result is an understanding of the study, courtyard, and book stack areas, and how they relate to each other.

01 Projection Types 65 OBLIQUE

½

1

66 Drawing for Architects

01 Projection Types 67 OBLIQUE

TRANSOBLIQUE

Here, both the plan and the elevation are parallel to the picture plane, meaning the receding lines are at a 0° (or 180°) angle from due north. The result is a drawing that collapses plan and elevation, and though the effect is one of a simultaneously two-dimensional and three-dimensional drawing, only two faces are visible, not three. In this example, the plan is true, while the receding lines of the elevation are reduced in scale in order to diminish the appearance of distortion, and to allow more of the plan to be seen without being obscured by vertical walls and other elements. ½ 1

68 Drawing for Architects

COV

FOV

CENTER OF VISION

FIELD OF VISION

SP STATION POINT

Plan

SP STATION POINT

FOV

COV

FIELD OF VISION

Elevation

CENTER OF VISION

PP

PIC

TU

RE

PL

AN

E

VP

VANISHING POINT

VP

VANISHING POINT

SP

STATION POINT

01 Projection Types 69 PERSPECTIVE

Perspective Perspective subjects the artistic phenomenon to stable and even mathematically exact rules, but on the other hand, makes that phenomenon contingent upon human beings, indeed upon the individual: for these rules refer to the psychological and physical conditions of the visual impression, and the way they take effect is determined by the freely chosen position of a subjective “point of view.” Erwin Panofsky Perspective as Symbolic Form

70 Drawing for Architects

Working with Perspective

As with the creation and production of axonometry, digital modeling makes much quicker work of establishing perspectival views, virtually eliminating the painstaking necessity of setting them up manually. Maintaining a working command over the fundamental rules and concepts behind perspective projection is a powerful tool that enables better control over digital interfaces and their methods of perspective view generation. Additionally, it is indispensable for the communication of threedimensional spatial ideas explored by more immediate and expeditious means such as sketching by hand.

01 Projection Types 71 PERSPECTIVE

PERSPECTIVE As their name implies, parallel projections involve projector lines that are parallel (they never meet). In contrast, the projectors of a perspective do meet, at one or more fixed points in space. Perspectival projection allows for a more immersive and spatial visual experience, and because it must rely on a single, fixed viewpoint, perspective could be understood as a more subjective and personal depiction of threedimensional space. Although some form of perspectival representation may have been present in ancient times, evidence of it would not have been likely to survive through the Middle Ages. It was rediscovered and flourished in the Renaissance, reflecting the growing interest in art, architecture, and mathematics.

72 Drawing for Architects

One- and Two-point Perspectives

This seV oH parallel lines remains parallel Vo PP.

VP (VANISHING POINT)

This seV oH parallel lines remains parallel Vo PP.

z y

This seV oH lines (parallel Vo each oVher and perpendicWlar Vo Vhe PP) conXerges aV Vhe VP.

x

One Point

TO VP2 (VANISHING POINT 2)

HL (HORIZON LINE)

ONE-POINT PERSPECTIVE In a one-point perspective, two axes are parallel to the picture plane and projectors of the third axis converge on a single vanishing point on the horizon line.

One-point perspectives are highly effective for depicting tight interior spaces. In any perspective, the picture plane (PP) is the only plane of true size and scale. Any information (even if parallel to the PP) behind the PP will appear smaller than true size, while any information in front of the PP (between the PP and the viewer) will appear larger.

This seV oH parallel lines conXerges aV VP2.

01 Projection Types 73 PERSPECTIVE

TWO-POINT PERSPECTIVE In a two-point perspective, only the vertical lines are parallel to the picture plane. The lines of the two principal axes converge at separate vanishing points on the horizon line.

HL (HORIZON LINE)

Two Point

This seV oH parallel lines conXerges aV VP1.

VP1 (VANISHING POINT 1)

This seV oH parallel lines remains parallel Vo Vhe PP.

z

y

x

74 Drawing for Architects

15 mm

Views

CONTROLLING VIEWS The computer may hasten the process of producing perspective views at will, but that ease does not (and should not) remove the designer’s agency in the process of controlling the message of the views. There are many factors to consider: whether it is best as a one point, two point, or three point, where the viewer is located (at eye level, high up, low down), the weld of vision, and the direction of view.

35 mm

The focal length chosen will also have an impact on the quality of the view and the depiction of the space. The shorter the focal length, the wider the angle of view. 15 mm: ultra wide angle 35 mm: wide angle 50–55 mm: normal angle (close to what the naked eye sees)

Kids’ Space: One Point A long and linear space shown in a one-point perspective, with the viewer at eye height.

55 mm

15 mm

01 Projection Types 75 PERSPECTIVE

35 mm

55 mm

Performance Hall: Two Point A more volumetric space with high spaces is more dynamically displayed with two- or three-point perspectives.

76 Drawing for Architects

VIEWING ANGLES Choosing the best viewing angle and perspective type depends a great deal on what space or information that view wants to prioritize. One-point and two-point perspectives are used here to best dramatize speciwc issues particular to the Local Library’s exterior entrance views.

ONE POINT This one-point view, centered directly on the building’s entrance, emphasizes the dynamic qualities of the ramp below and the canopy above, and highlights the tension between these elements and the yatness of the building’s front facade, which remains parallel to the picture plane.

Axis 1 (PARALLEL TO PICTURE PLANE)

Axis 2 (PARALLEL TO PP)

HL (HORIZON LINE)

VP (VANISHING POINT)

15 mm

01 Projection Types 77 PERSPECTIVE

35 mm PLACING PEOPLE The viewer in this image is standing on the ground, with an eye height of 5’0”, and is looking perpendicular to the front of the building. This Yoman is sVanding on a ramp VhereHore her e[e heighV is higher Vhan Vhe 5’ 0” daVWm.

55 mm

In this case, because the viewer is at eye height, the eyes of any other person who is also standing on the ground plane, and is roughly the same height, will be level along the same horizontal datum. When placing people in a perspective collage, this is a particularly useful way to ensure that people are shown at accurate heights, based on their location in space.

78 Drawing for Architects

TWO POINT The same building front, viewed now from left of center, and at a skewed angle to the picture plane, focuses attention on the corner. Here, the front and left planes of the building converge at separate vanishing points, resulting in more emphasis on the building’s massing as it relates to this corner.

ProLecVors Yill meeV aV VP2.

VP1 (VANISHING POINT)

Axis 1 (PARALLEL TO PICTURE PLAN)

HL (HORIZON LINE)

VP2

15 mm

35 mm

55 mm

01 Projection Types 79 PERSPECTIVE

VerVical proLecVors Yill meeV in Vhe sk[ aV VP3.

VP2

THREE POINT Another approach to the building uses a three-point method, where the planes along all three principal axes converge at three separate vanishing points, including the building’s verticals, which are not parallel to the picture plane, but whose projectors meet at a point in the sky. In this case, the picture plane is not parallel to any of the three axes, and the overall effect is of looking up at the building from a low vantage point.

VP1

E[e heighV is Hrom siVVing heighV.

82 Drawing for Architects

AERIAL VIEWS

VP1 (VANISHING POINT 1)

THREE-POINT AERIAL Three-point views can help to dramatize views from below or above. In this aerial version, the vanishing point for the vertical axis occurs well below the building’s ground plane, while the other two axes converge at a high horizon line.

VP3 (VANISHING POINT 3)

VP2

(HORIZON LINE) HL

(VANISHING POINT 2)

ONE-POINT BIRD’S EYE The one-point perspective shown here depicts a view down from above the building (as though the roof has been removed), with a single vanishing point, to which the drawing’s vertical lines converge. In this case, the x and y planes are parallel to the picture plane, while the verticals (z-axis) converge at the vanishing point.

01 Projection Types 83 PERSPECTIVE

84 Drawing for Architects

Section Perspective ONE POINT

The result of combining perspective and section is a versatile composite drawing. In a one-point view, the section cut may be parallel to the picture plane, and if cut directly at the picture plane, the section itself is true scale and size, though the information behind this plane will recede toward the vanishing point.

01 Projection Types 85 PERSPECTIVE

86 Drawing for Architects

TWO POINT In a two- or three-point view, the section-cut information is not parallel to the picture plane, as it occurs along an axis whose projectors converge at a vanishing point. Therefore, the dimensional scale information at the section cut is not true.

01 Projection Types 87 PERSPECTIVE

88 Drawing for Architects

Entourage

01 Projection Types 89 PERSPECTIVE

The inhabitable qualities of a perspective view make it an ideal method for developing and depicting the experience of a space, which in turn makes it an important presentation tool. For this reason, the spaces of perspectives may be further enhanced with information that helps bring them to life, including light and shadow, people, furniture, materials, trees, cars, and sky. Such elements are the entourage of the space, and while they assist in establishing scale and context, they are also powerful tools for establishing the use and character of a design.

90 Drawing for Architects

Scaling Entourage When entourage elements are applied or collaged into a rendered view (and are not already part of a digital model), care should be taken to ensure that their scale, placement, and disposition follow the rules of perspective already present in the drawing.

Guides: If the perspective drawing is the result of a digital model, place vertical lines of the correct heights around the model. In the rendered view, people or other elements can then be collaged over these lines, and scaled appropriately. Adjacencies: Use the heights of nearby elements in the drawing as helpful vertical milestones. If a person is standing near a door, and that door is 7’-0” high, an average adult wgure will not be as tall as the door.

Incorrect scale placement of Ƃgures:

The respective sizes of these wgures are incorrect for their locations in the perspective space. The wgures on the left are too large] and the wgure on the right is too small.

01 Projection Types 91 PERSPECTIVE

Correct scale placement of Ƃgures: eeping their sizes the same, the wgures are reversed. The smaller wgure is down below on the stage, while the larger wgures loom larger in the foreground.

Correct scale placement of Ƃgures: The same wgures, with sizes changed, can also inhabit their original positions, with the smaller wgures below on stage, and the larger wgure in the immediate foreground.

92 Drawing for Architects

01 Projection Types 93 PERSPECTIVE

CHARACTER Perspectives are versatile design tools, and their ability to perform as stand-ins for the future spaces they want to become gives them a certain power—not as faithfully realistic representations that minimize surprises (although they can be that as well)—but as limitless evocations of what might be possible to create.

02 FORMAT STANDARDS

96 Drawing for Architects

Client

Consultant

Contractor

Architect

Colleague

02 Format Standards 97

The Languages of an Architect A sheet of drawing paper is the utopian's true medium. Wolfgang Pehnt Expressionist Architecture in Drawings

Architects must represent their work and ideas to many constituencies in many contexts. An architect's daily audience might include a range of groups: client, consultant, contractor, and colleague—and he or she is expected to be fluent in not only these languages (graphic and otherwise), but in the dialects and slang arising from their intermingling.

With colleagues, the graphic speech is both looser and more intense. It's the architect's self-referential mother tongue, but one that is constantly seeking new methods for inflecting its delivery. Regardless of the audience, if inadequately represented and documented, even the best ideas will have difficulty flourishing and succeeding.

For clients, communication may emphasize a vision more than the details that will make that vision possible (though this information is also shared with clients), and might be more guarded—frequently in the form of relatable images that reassuringly convey a marriage of the client's desires and the architect's imagination.

The drawings that architects make and use have evolved, and will continue to evolve, based upon available technologies, market demand, and by the jobs they must perform. As with most forms of communication exchange, architectural production has changed dramatically in the past few decades, but the principles behind the drawings this production yields remain in many ways aligned with their historical predecessors.

Communication with consultants must be precise and detailed, and able to accommodate the highly specific issues particular to the myriad trades that come together to make even the simplest building. With contractors, a complex language of coordinated effort and highly detailed specificity is expressed in the form of construction documents, shop drawings, and written specifications.

98 Drawing for Architects

Lead Holder

with replacement leads.

Plastic Eraser

Drafting Pencils

in hardnesses from 9H (hard) to 9B (soft).

Lead Pointer

sharpens drafting pencil leads.

Technical Pens Adjustable Triangle

Used in conjunction with parallel bar or T-square, allows for straight vertical and angled lines to be drawn.

Architect's Scale

Three-sided ruler has twelve common scales used by architects. Similar scales also denote the engineer's scale and metric scale.

with varying sized nibs.

French Curve

Specially curved guide for drawing most curves.

02 Format Standards 99

Template (Circle)

Thin plastic stencil-like guides allow for consistent tracing of a range of elements, including shapes, curves, text, furniture, and people.

Parallel Bar

Horizontal bar moves up and down on Ƃxed cables, allowing for straight horizontal lines to be drawn.

Making and Reading Drawings Twenty years ago, most architects used a variety of the tools shown to the left in order to represent numerous scales and types of architectural projection. Drawings were carefully planned in advance to be at the proper scale and to wt onto the drawing sheet appropriately. In recent decades, most architects have moved into digital production, employing CAD (computer-aided drafting) and digital modeling programs, though frequently in conjunction with hand-drawn or drafted drawings.

Drawing Board

Today, many younger architects have never used most of the tools on this page, relying solely on computer-aided modeling and drawing. It's fair to predict that the process will continue to evolve, especially with the increasingly widespread use of BIM (building information modeling) and parametric modeling, but what is of interest in this book are less the tools, than how the tools are used to achieve the drawings of architecture.

100 Drawing for Architects

Design Process

PREDESIGN CONCEPTUAL DESIGN AND PROGRAMMING Architecture is a competitive Ƃeld, and it is not uncommon for architects to provide predesign work, whether through development of a project's program, feasibility studies that will help a client to determine whether or not to pursue the project, or even preliminary conceptual designs. These efforts may lead to the architect being awarded the full design contract, but it is not a guarantee.

SCHEMATIC DESIGN (SD) In this phase, major design ideas are established and explored, and often several options are pursued simultaneously. The drawings that are produced include plans, site plan, elevations, and sections, to a sufƂcient level of detail that preliminary costs may be understood. In addition to the requirements of the drawing set, more evocative views (perspective and other 3-D) and models are prepared for communicating ideas to the client.

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT (DD) The SD scheme is developed in greater detail and produces a more speciƂc drawing set suitable for more accurate cost estimating. With more design issues established, coordination with consultants becomes much more detailed. Design documentation increases in type and scope and includes interior and exterior issues, details, and speciƂcations.

02 Format Standards 101

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS (CDs) A typical CD set contains a site plan, ƃoor plans, reƃected ceiling plans, exterior and interior building elevations, building sections, wall sections depicting construction detailing, interior details, door and window schedules, equipment schedules, Ƃnishes schedules, and written speciƂcations. The coordinated drawings of a range of consultants might also include civil engineering, landscape, structural, Ƃre protection, plumbing, mechanical, electrical, and IT, among others.

CONSTRUCTION ADMINISTRATION (CA) In this phase, the project is under construction, though the architect must maintain oversight of the process to ensure that building is proceeding according to best practices and in accordance with the CD set. This is done through regular site visits and meetings with the construction team. Many issues arise throughout this phase—both anticipated and unanticipated and a constant ƃow of communication, through shop drawings, change orders, and requests for information, is essential.

MARKETING A completed project, once photographed and otherwise documented, becomes an essential marketing tool for obtaining future projects—and the process continues.

102 Drawing for Architects

Terminology As-built drawings Drawings from a project that have been marked up and amended to reyect any changes to the project during construction, especially as they may differ from the construction documents. Also known as record drawings. Blueprint Since its development in the eighteenth century, the blueprint process was widely accepted as the best and most accurate method for clear reprographic reproductions of large-scale technical drawings. The process is a wet one, in which a drawing made on a translucent paper (vellum, mylar, or similar) is exposed to an ultraviolet light, which transfers the drawing onto a heavier, chemically treated paper beneath. A positive print resulted in blue lines on a white background; a negative print created white lines on a blue background. Advancements with large-scale photocopying, plotting and printing have rendered the blueprint essentially obsolete.

Deliverable The agreed-upon documentation (drawings, models, speciwcations, etc.) prepared and delivered by the architect to the client. Drafting The act of producing technically precise drawings that communicate a structure or object in a manner that is dimensionally and geometrically correct. The result of drafting is a two-dimensional drawing, though the image may be three-dimensional in nature. Drafting can be done by hand, with the aid of tools such as T-squares, parallel drafting bars, triangles, compasses, and scales. Computer drafting employs vector-based graphics to produce the same technically accurate drawings. Ichnography The ground plan of a building, as dewned by Vitruvius in his Ten Books on Architecture.

LARGE-FORMAT MEDIA ILLUSTRATION BOARDS high quality and thick, good for pencil, watercolor, ink, chalk (Bristol, Strathmore)

FILM* SHEETS see-through (Vellum, Mylar) PAPER SHEETS thinner than boards, in a variety of weights and textures; generally smooth (Bond)

Line A point extended, with properties of length, position, and direction. Line type A range of line compositions, such as dashed, hidden, broken, etc., that, by their use and placement in a drawing, carry speciwc meanings.

Construction drawings A set of technically precise documents, in the form of plans, sections, elevations, and details, that communicate the architect's design to the contractor and consultants.

Media The variety of papers, wlms, and illustration boards upon which to draw or have drawings printed, plotted, or photocopied. Many types come in a variety of architectural, ANSI, and ISO sheet sizes.

Line weight A range of line thicknesses, from very thin to very thick. A variety of line weights in a drawing aids in differentiating and giving graphic hierarchy to speciwc elements. The more detailed a line drawing, the more it benewts from several line weights.

PAPER ROLLS (Bond, Satin Bond) FILM* ROLLS (Mylar, Vellum, Tracing paper)

*translucent medium essential for overlay and trace work, and necessary for older blueprint reproduction processes

02 Format Standards 103

Orthogonal Lines and geometries that intersect at right (90°) angles. Orthographic Drawing projection in which an object is projected onto a yat surface through the use of parallel lines. Plane A line extended, with properties of width, length, shape, surface, orientation, and position.

Poché From the French word for pocket, in drawing terms, Poche is the solid space being cut through in a section. In a drawing, this may be indicated by several means, from solid black, to cross-hatched, to white between heavy lines. Though often employed to indicate a solidity that is cut through, the presence of Poche does not indicate a homogeneity of materiality. In fact, it may be a stand-in at a large scale for a speciwc construction that can best be understood through a detail section or plan. Point A position in space. Projection The process by which a threedimensional object is transferred onto a two-dimensional picture plane.

Rendering A drawing depicting a design's attributes and intentions, often as a perspectival view, and often with the use of materiality and shadow to enhance the viewing experience. Techniques vary widely. By hand, they may involve pencil, ink, charcoal, watercolor, markers, or adhesive wlm. Digitally, they may become highly sophisticated and can be produced in numerous modeling and rendering programs. Processes may be simple or become almost photorealistic in their depiction of reyection, transparency, and shadows. Reprographics Output or printing, usually on paper or wlm, of drawings and other data. In architectural work, this could include photocopied prints, photography, or digital plots. Shop drawing Drawings, diagrams, and schedules prepared by a contractor or manufacturer and provided to the architect for approval. Shop drawings usually illustrate the manner in which a product will be fabricated, assembled, or installed. The architect is responsible for reviewing and approving these drawings. SpeciƂcations A written set of instructions that accompanies a construction document set. Speciwcations are usually several hundred pages long and follow speciwc standards for providing accurate descriptions regarding items from paint colors to elevator hardware. Stereotomy The cutting of blocks and stone.

Stereometry The process for determining the volume and dimensions of a solid. Volume A plane extended, with properties of length, width, depth, form, space, surface, orientation, and position.

Plotting Plotters use automated pens to print directly from a vectorbased wle, and have become indispensible in the accurate output of computer-drafted architectural documents. Pen plotters are typically limited to line work. Printing Large-format printers that print to a rolled medium (bond, satin, glossy, vinyl, fabric) often look like plotters, but use ink-jet technologies to produce fullcolor, high-resolution images.

104 Drawing for Architects

Line Weights The production of clear, precise drawings, whether drafted or freehand, hand-drawn or computer generated, depends a great deal on control over many aspects of the line work involved. When drawing or drafting by hand, a variety of pencils and pens helps to create the desired effects.

Drafting pencils come in a range of hardnesses, from very hard to very soft. The standard #2 pencil used for nondrafting purposes is an HB grade pencil. Pencils may also be used in the form of a lead holder, which holds a 2 mm lead rewll. Lead rewlls come in the same grades as drafting pencils and are sharpened in lead pointers or with a sandpaper block. Non-photo blue leads are used for underlay and guideline work and will not appear on reproductions such as photocopies and prints. ideal for most ranges of line work

Technical Pen Nibs

Very Soft

Medium Soft

Medium Hard

Clutch Lead Holder

6H 5H 4H 3H 2H H F HB B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B Very Hard

Wood Pencil

Technical Pen Cap

(color-coded to correspond with nib size)

Lead Refills

These line weights (and more) are achievable with most CAD and vector-based graphics programs.

Non-photo Blue Lead Refill

Pencils

Technical Pens Pens with rewllable ink reservoirs or replaceable ink cartridges used to be the norm for the production of archival technical drawings. A range of nibs, from the very wne to very thick, enables one to make lines of a speciwc and consistent width. In the United States, speciwc manufacturers employ proprietary systems for designating various widths, while Europe has followed the ISO standards with widths called out in fractions of a millimeter. A standard set would include the following line weights:

0.13 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0

02 Format Standards 105

Line hierarchies No Hierarchy: TOO LIGHT All lines are the same weight and are too light. This makes it difwcult to distinguish which lines have which roles in the plan. No Hierarchy: TOO HEAVY All lines are the same weight and are too heavy. Not only is it difwcult to differentiate the roles of the lines, but they also run together, creating a messy and cluttered look.

Clear Hierarchy Four line weights describe a variety of elements: 1. Heaviest—section cut through walls 2. Medium—denotes stairs or yoor edges 3. Medium light—tops of low walls or built-in items 4. Light—yoor patterns and other items that should recede and be read as background information

1

2

3

4

106 Drawing for Architects

Construction Document Sets

Cover Sheet Index Sheets H Hazardous Materials C Civil L Landscape S Structural

Drawing Set The construction documents that make up a full drawing set typically involve many more trades than just architecture. The Uniform Drawing System (UDS) has established the below order for a full set, and for within the architectural set. Not all projects will involve all these disciplines and some may involve more. A-100s Floor Plans Reyected Ceiling Plans Roof Plan

A Architectural

A-200s Exterior Elevations Interior Elevations

A-300s Building Sections Wall Sections

I Interiors Q Equipment F Fire Protection P Plumbing M Mechanical E Electrical T Telecommunications R Resource

A-400s Enlarged Plans and Sections A-500s Exterior Details Interior Details A-600s Schedules and Diagrams

02 Format Standards 107

Drawing Sheet Layout Shown here, the numbering coordinate system for a typical sheet, based upon the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) and the National CAD Standard. Note Block (as needed)

1

2

3

4

5

E D4

D C3

C B

B2

A

SECOND FLOOR PLAN

A-102

Title Block (should run vertically at right, or horizontally along bottom), with sheet number and title consistently at lower right corner, making it possible to get a quick view of all sheets when yipping through the set.

108 Drawing for Architects

Standard Paper Sizes 24"

Arch-A

36"

Arch-E

24"

Arch-B

18"

18"

12"

Arch-D

ANSI and Architectural are used primarily in the U.S. and Canada.

Arch-C

ANSI

(American National Standards Institute) 34"

34"

ANSI-D 17"

ANSI-E

ANSI-C

ANSI-B (tabloid)

8.5" 11"

17" 22"

44"

22"

Architectural

11"

12"

9"

36"

48"

ANSI-A (letter)

917mm

A4

A3

A1

A2

C1

C4

C3 648 mm

C2

1189 mm

1297 mm

ISO A-Series

The C sizes provide envelope matches for the corresponding size in the A-series.

A0

C0

ISO (International Organization for Standardization)

1000 mm

707 mm

1000 mm

Used primarily in Europe. DIN A4 is comparable to American letter size.

500 mm

B2

B3

250 mm

B4

353 mm

500 mm

353 mm

B1

707 mm

1414 mm

ISO B-Series B0 size is 1000 mm at the short dimension, and all sizes follow the same logic as the A-series.

917 mm

841 mm

ISO C-Series

A0 measures 1 square meter, and the height to width ratio is 1:1.41 for all sizes.

B0

324 mm

458 mm

594 mm 420 mm

841 mm

324 mm

648 mm

458 mm

297 mm

210 mm

297 mm 420 mm

594 mm

228 mm

02 Format Standards 109

110 Drawing for Architects

CUSTOMARY 1 foot

Measurement

1 inch U.S. Customary Units

1 square foot (sf)

Customary units are often referred to in the U.S. as English or standard units. They derive from the irregular imperial units once used in the United Kingdom, which uses the foot and inch as the basis for distance and area measurement.

FRACTION

ПШЕК ПШМ СШЕК ПШИ УШЕК СШМ ХШЕК ПШЖ ЧШЕК УШМ ППШЕК СШИ ПСШЕК ХШМ ПУШЕК ПШЕ

Measured Thinking

100 sf 1,000 sf

Thinking quickly in a unit of measure is a skill that comes with experience— and a quick grasp of both customary and metric units is akin to being bilingual in measurements. A basic familiarity with a few comparable lengths, areas, and volumes, in both systems, is of great assistance in making conversions an intuitive and relatable process.

DECIMAL 0.0625 0.1250 0.1875 0.2500 0.3125 0.3750 0.4375 0.5000 0.5625 0.6250 0.6875 0.7500 0.8125 0.8750 0.9375 1.0000

0.39 inches 3.94 inches 3.28 feet 10.76 sf

These sizes are not equal to each other (100 sf is equal to 9.3 m2), but they represent comparable sizes in both units of measure and provide a quick basis of relating one system to the other.

100 square feet (10' Ƽ 10') 1000 cubic feet (10' Ƽ 10' Ƽ 10')

5 meters METRIC

1m

2m

3m

4m

6m

7m

These two scales, beginning with 0 at far left, track equivalent lengths in both systems.

1' 2' CUSTOMARY

3'

4'

5'

6'

7'

8'

9'

11' 10 feet

12'

13'

14'

15'

16'

17'

18'

19'

21' 20 feet

22'

23'

24'

25 5'

25 5'

02 Format Standards 111

METRIC 304.8 mm (300 mm) 0.3048 m (0.3 m) 25.4 mm (25 mm)

Metric Units (SI)

0.093 square meter (m2)

Ofwcially referred to as the Système International d'Unités (abbreviated to SI in most languages), the metric system is the universally accepted system of units in science, trade, and commerce, and has been adopted as the ofwcial measurement system for most countries. Despite the fact that metrication has yet to be established in the U.S., nearly all federally funded building projects are required to be in SI units. However, total American metrication in the building trades would require that building products and materials whose planning grid is in customary units (8" bricks, 4'0" drywall, etc) would have to change their actual dimensions to wt within standard metric planning grids.

9.3 m2 92.9 m2 10 mm When converting from customary to metric and vice versa, one might use "soft" or "hard" conversion strategies. Soft conversions are close to exact equivalencies, while hard conversions round up or down for a cleaner and more rational equivalency.

100 mm 1 meter 1 square meter

soft:

12 inches = 305 mm

hard:

12 inches = 300 mm

9 square meters (3 m Ƽ 3 m)

27 cubic meters (3 m Ƽ 3 m Ƽ 3 m)

15 meters

10 meters 8m

26'

11 m

9m

27'

28'

31'

29' 30 feet

32'

33'

34'

35'

36'

12 m

37'

38'

39'

13 m

41' 40 feet

42'

43'

14 m

44'

45'

46'

47'

48'

49' 50 feet

112 Drawing for Architects

Scale Since most architecture is larger than a sheet of paper, it is not possible to produce full-scale design drawings, meaning that most architectural drawings are drawn at a reduced scale. For hand drawings, this requires establishing the desired scale before beginning to draw and then consistently drawing to that scale for that drawing. This process is aided by the use of an architect's scale, which has twelve commonly used scales on three sides, allowing scaled dimensions to be quickly and easily determined.

customary scale

Comparable Scales Customary scales are understood by their relationship to one foot (i.e., ПШИ"=1' 0"). Metric scales operate as ratios (i.e., 1 : 1 is full scale, 1 : 50 is ПШЙД of full scale, etc.). It's important to note that ПШИ"=1' 0" is not the same as ПШИ of full scale. Instead, its ratio is determined as follows:

ПШИ" = 1' (or 12")

therefore, 1" = 4" Ƽ 12" (or 1 : 48)

metric scale

ПШЕКΗс1Ζ0Ηഩ;1͗192Ϳ СШЗЖΗс1Ζ0Η;1͗128Ϳ ПШМΗс1Ζ0Η;1͗96Ϳ СШЕКΗс1Ζ0Ηഩ;1͗64Ϳ ПШИΗс1Ζ0Ηഩ;1͗48Ϳ СШМΗс1Ζ0Ηഩ;1͗32Ϳ ПШЖΗс1Ζ0Ηഩ;1͗24Ϳ СШИΗс1Ζ0Ηഩ;1͗16Ϳ

1͗200 1͗125

1Ηс1Ζ0Ηഩ;1͗12Ϳ 1ПШЖΗс1Ζ0Η;1͗8Ϳ 3Ηс1Ζ0Ηഩ;1͗4Ϳ

1͗10

1͗100 1͗50 1͗25

1͗5

In computer-aided drawing and modeling, it is recommended to work at full scale and then set up the desired scale(s) at which the drawing will be printed or plotted. As the scale of a drawing increases, more detail may be shown, though over a smaller area. When used in a construction drawing set, the scale of each drawing must be noted, especially when several different scales of drawing occupy one page, as in a set of details. When drawings are reproduced elsewhere, as in a book or on a website, assuring that the drawing is always printed at the scale intended is not possible. For such reasons, it is advisable to use a graphic scale, which adjusts relative to the drawing, and always gives a clear indication of the drawing's key dimensions.

Plan at ПШМ"=1' 0" 0

Plan at ПШЕК"=1' 0"

8'

24'

0

8'

24'

02 Format Standards 113

side 1

Architect's Scale

(customary measurement)

A triangular architect's scale efƂciently displays twelve common scales used in architectural drawing. The scale has three sides, with four different scales per side. Tips for reading these scales are noted below. %omparable scales are also available in metric and engineering designations.

side 2 side 3

ПШЕК" = 1' 0"

full scale (1" = 1")

(1" = 16')

4ead from  in this direction

4ead from  in this direction

СШЕК" = 1' 0"

4ead from  in this direction

inches begin before 

4ead from  in this direction

inches begin before 

СШЗЖ" = 1' 0"

1" = 1' 0"

4ead from  in this direction

inches begin before 

4ead from  in this direction

inches begin before 

ПШЖ" = 1' 0"

ПШИ" = 1' 0"

4ead from  in this direction

inches begin before 

4ead from  in this direction

inches begin before 

ПШМ" = 1' 0"

СШИ" = 1' 0"

4ead from  in this direction

inches begin before 

4ead from  in this direction

inches begin before 

СШМ" = 1' 0"

3" = 1' 0"

4ead from  in this direction

inches begin before 

4ead from  in this direction

inches begin before 

1 ПШЖ" = 1' 0"

114 Drawing for Architects

Comparable Scales

Customary 1"= 40' 0" (1 : 480)

Metric 1 : 500

02 Format Standards 115

116 Drawing for Architects

Customary

ПШЕК" = 1' 0" (1 : 192)

Comparable Scales

Metric 1 : 200

02 Format Standards 117

118 Drawing for Architects

Customary

ПШМ" = 1' 0" (1 : 96)

Comparable Scales

02 Format Standards 119

Metric 1 : 100

120 Drawing for Architects

Customary

ПШИ" = 1' 0" (1 : 48)

Comparable Scales

Metric 1 : 50

02 Format Standards 121

122 Drawing for Architects

Customary

ПШЖ" = 1' 0" (1 : 24)

Comparable Scales

Metric 1 : 25

02 Format Standards 123

124 Drawing for Architects

02 Format Standards 125

Drawing and Digital Production The computer has introduced to architecture the means to explore, create, and build designs previously unimaginable. A constantly evolving collection of graphics, drafting, modeling, rendering, and parametric programs and platforms place considerable power into the architect's hands, enabling unparalleled spatial, material, and experiential innovations. Ultimately, no matter how sophisticated they may be, these digital interfaces are still tools. They are the means and not the ends of design thinking, and the command over the drawings, images, models, and virtual worlds they make possible is still the responsibility of the designer at the helm. Though the computer can't help but inyuence the way architects think through design issues today, the architect still needs to steer the ship, lest the ship take control.

126 Drawing for Architects

Digital Graphics Terminology

BIM Building Information Modeling Digital modeling in which the threedimensional information about a model can be shared among multiple users in a common database.

Model (physical) An actual model of a building or design element, often to scale, and created from cardboard, chipboard, foam core, foam, or other material.

Parametric design Digital modeling in which the threedimensional information about a design or building element is stored as a data set. Raster graphic Images made up of a grid of pixels (bitmap). The more pixels, the higher the resolution and the bigger the digital wle. A raster image suffers a loss of quality when scaled up from its original size, causing the image to appear jagged and pixelated. Common extensions for raster graphics include .bmp, .tif, and .jpeg.

Image resolution The amount of detail a rasterized image holds, determined in pixels per inch or centimeter. The more pixels per area, the higher the resolution and the larger the wle. Model (digital) A computer-generated representation of a design concept in three dimensions.

NURBS Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline Through mathematical models employing control points and control surfaces, it is possible to create and represent digital models with highly accurate curves and curved surfaces.

02 Format Standards 127

Vector graphic Graphics composed of paths that are displayed and stored in the form of geometric primitives such as points, lines, curves, and polygons. Because they are made of paths and not pixels, as vectors increase or decrease in scale, they retain their crispness and clean edges. Common extensions for vector graphics include .ai (Adobe Illustrator), .eps (encapsulated postscript), .svg (scalable vector graphics), and .dwg (drawing wle).

x, y, and z axes Three directions of the Cartesian coordinate system, in which x and y establish a two-dimensional plane, and z establishes the third dimension.

z

x y origin

Wireframe The presentation of a digital model in which lines are shown to connect all vertices, but with no hatching or shading. A wireframe of a model is like a skeletal x-ray of the massing.

128 Drawing for Architects

Digital Programs

Currently, architects and designers have countless programs and digital interfaces at their disposal from very basic to highly sophisticated. A sampling of commonly used 2-D, 3-D, and graphics programs is outlined below. Digital developments happen quickly, however, so there is no dewnitive list of always-current software, and no way to ensure that the information here won't change.

0ewly created illustrations and page layouts for this book encompassed the following program types

A A 1

3

2-D Drafting

Revit (BIM) 3-D Modeling

3

Rendering

NURBS

Autodesk, Inc. This Building Information Modeling software allows for designs to be developed in 3-D, annotated in 2-D, and shared via a model database. Capable of 4-D BIM, which introduces time and schedule into an intelligent linking of models and assemblies. 2000: Revit 1.0 by Revit Technology Corporation 2002: Revit 4.1 2002: acquired by Autodesk

Animation

AutoCAD Parametric

Autodesk, Inc. 2-D and 3-D CAD (computer-aided design) drafting and modeling.

)raphics and TeZt

A A 1

3

1982: desktop application 2014: 28th release

Rhino Robert McNeel & Associates NURBS-based 3-D modeling software that is particularly good at representing curves and surfaces. It includes scripting language and Grasshopper plug-in for use in computational design. Supports various CAD formats, including AutoCAD.

Page Layout

3 Vector-based

Raster-based

3

02 Format Standards 129

Sketchup

Illustrator

Trimble

Adobe Systems

This 3-D modeling program works with planes and faces instead of solids. 2000: developed by @Last Software 2006: acquired by Google 2013: acquired by Trimble Sketchup Make—freeware version Sketchup Pro—improved layout and plug-ins models are exportable to numerous rendering interfaces.

3

Maya Autodesk, Inc. 3-D computer graphics software often used to create interactive 3-D environments, such as for video games, visual effects, and animated Ƃlms.

A vector graphics editor, often used for postproduction line and color work on drawings that have come from 3-D modeling applications. Using Flash graphics, animations may be created from Illustrator. 1987: Illustrator 1.0

A 1

Photoshop

InDesign

Adobe Systems

Adobe Systems

A raster based graphics editing program.

A desktop publishing application used for the production of posters, books, magazines, and newspapers.

1990: Photoshop 1.0 1993: Photoshop 3.0 introduced Layers 1998: Photoshop 5.0 introduced multiple undo 2000: Photoshop 6.0—vector shapes

1999: InDesign 1.0 InDesign replaced its predecessor, PageMaker, which suffered in competition with QuarkXPress in the 1990s.

Animations may be created with Timeline and Keyframes.

A 1

1998: initial release by Alias|Wavefront 2005: acquired by Autodesk

A

3

A

A

03 GRAPHIC SPECIMENS

132 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 133

Drawing to Design The architectural drawing is not just a document containing the required data, but inescapably bears the stamp of the author’s personal style … further, a drawing may be a graphic form of architectural theory, conceived not only to illustrate the designer’s principles but to persuade the viewer of the validity of his or her point of view. James Ackerman “The Conventions and Rhetoric of Architectural Drawing”

Throughout the history of architectural drawing— effectively, the history of humankind—various techniques of representation have been developed and favored so completely by the epochs and cultures that established them, that they can in many instances be seen to not only represent said times and places (as in the central projection of the Italian Renaissance, the light and shadow watercolor elevations of the Baroque period, or Chinese oblique projections), but to have had due influence on the architecture that has resulted from them. Though designers are no longer bound by a contextual adherence to the idea that there is one proper projection or technique suitable to describe their intentions, and one could argue further that the virtual effects of advanced digital modeling are quickly supplanting the once inviolable roles of strict orthographic projections, it remains that a keen understanding of the variety of methods in play is essential for uncovering the opportunities of each, in relation to what might be missing from the others—toward a useful evolution of all. Truly, architects today are expected to evolve much more quickly than their historical counterparts, in all aspects of their practice and development not least, the means by which they represent their ideas to a changing world. And, in fact, our current condition does not necessarily signal an end to old methods or a disavowal of the roles of projection in design work. Digital opportunities set up an exhilarating, and seemingly infinite, array of methods with which to vividly

imagine worlds that don’t yet exist, in a way that makes them seem not just inevitable, but necessary. With all these mediums, and when almost everything, at least graphically and computationally, is available, it’s no easy feat to know where to begin to harness these powers and possibilities. What follows is a cross-section of the ways that a range of currently practicing designers understands and champions drawings as necessary in their work. Far from negating previously understood rules of projection and representation, the examples included here simultaneously bend, break, reinforce, and reinvent the rules. These drawings exhibit an appropriately contemporary attitude about composite ideas—both of projection types and means of production, an idea summed up best by architect Andrew Zago’s assessment of his own included drawing as a “strange cocktail” of experimental methods. A design can be realized in many ways. While drawings used to be the primary method, they have become conscious decisions about the most effective or provocative means to facilitate and communicate—to make the thing and to show the thing. The graphic specimens included here underline the idea that drawing, the act of setting out a specific job for a projection or view to take on, is still an opportunity to discover, to ask, to answer, and to continue to ask questions—that drawing is to design.

03 Graphic Specimens 135

Utile City Utile, Inc. projection type: axonometric design: “This was a self-initiated drawing that we use to articulate a key intellectual preoccupation of our practice—the resilience and innovative possibilities of market-driven building typologies. It is also a celebration of the urban public realm and a subtle nod of appreciation to Boston, where many of our projects are located.” techniques: “We created a wctitious cityscape in the background, composed of buildings based on, but not entirely identical to, familiar Boston building types and landmarks. Into this background we dropped many of our urban architecture and public realm projects. The entire drawing is created from Sketchup, with some post production in Adobe Illustrator.”

136 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 137

Faliro Pier Point Supreme Architects projection type: one-point perspective

design: “The Faliro pier integrates sea-related activities into Athens daily life. Activities on the pier extend onto a ferryboat and water-taxis park on its two sides. The ferryboat will host cultural and other events with sea routes that reach as far as Cape Sounio, while the water taxis will carry Athenians and tourists to various spots along the Athens coastline, extending the city’s public transportation network into the water. The graphic character of the project takes on the semiology of marine objects and boats.” techniques: Mixed media collage. “The image, as happens typically with Point Supreme’s work, shows the project in relation to the city around it and the elements of it that are thought to be in critical relation with it; the surrounding mountains, the Acropolis, the stadium, new opera (to be built), and buildings along the coast.”

Faliro Pier, view from ferryboat

138 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 139

Nora House Atelier Bow-Wow projection types: one-point section perspective detail section design: The Nora House sits on the outskirts of Sendai, Japan, and incorporates many vernacular elements, including the large roofs, deep verandas, and chimney forms of the nearby traditional farmhouses. Home to a young family recently relocated from the city, the house accommodates inventive interactions between interior and exterior, and incorporates multiple levels into a single story volume. techniques: This drawing, as is typical of the work of Atelier Bow-Wow, celebrates the “practice of lively space,” and brings together in engaging and practical detail, a comprehensive story about the house’s volumes, adjacencies, construction, materiality, and daily life. This is accomplished with careful attention to line weights and types, pattern, notation, and entourage, with a graphic sum that exceeds its parts.

140 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 141

Totems William O’Brien Jr. projection type: axonometrics design: “Totems are a series of verticallyoriented, proto-architectural models—representing a reconsideration of anachronous mechanisms of architectural form-making in a contemporary context dewned by relationalmodeling processes and roboticfabrication techniques.” techniques: The drawings represent wnal steps in a series of diagrams, which strategically employ line weights, patterns, and hidden lines to graphically describe the generative processes that yielded the wnal forms.

142 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 143

Schiphol Research & Development Center WW Architecture projection type: site plan design and technique: “The underlying premise of WW’s Schiphol project centers on new architectural alignments. Our aim is to create a system of relationships (among programs, landscapes, forms, and circulation) that simultaneously underscores the independence of parts and allows parts to be absorbed into one another. Neither weld (modern) nor axial (classical), but nonetheless both open (modern) and wgured (classical), this system uses lines to capture regions and then uses those same lines to exceed those regions. How we drew these relationships (how we put lines on paper) had everything to do with this premise. We had to invent a line that could simultaneously dewne and exceed dewnition. “One might argue that the history of architecture is, in the end, a history of the line’s path, at times dewning space and at times dissolving space. In the Schiphol project, we wanted the line to do both unyinchingly. It was, in fact, impossible for us to separate the notion of a ‘technique’ from that of a ‘design,’ an approach to architecture that has run through our work for many years.”

144 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 145

Property with Properties Zago Architecture projection type: elevation and section oblique design: Commissioned for the “Foreclosed: Rehousing the American Dream” exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the project uses misregistration to “relax the boundaries” of a Rialto, CA, subdivision, in order to introduce a richer mix of uses and an unexpected spatial diversity in the neighborhood. techniques: “A strange cocktail of, at least Rhino, Grasshopper, Maya, Illustrator, After Effects, and green screen wlming. Probably the most interesting thing we’ve found in general, is that it’s better to shear a digital model and present it in elevation than to try to convince the software into producing any sort of isometric (unlike the old days of FormZ when parallel projection was the default).”

Three frames from animation

146 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 147

Nature City WORKac projection type: section perspective design: Commissioned for the “Foreclosed: Rehousing the American Dream” exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, Nature City reinvents the Town–Country for the twenty-wrst century, with new housing typologies, access to nature, and a sustainable live–work economy. “In Nature-City, your backyard is nature, and you can afford it.” techniques: “After using physical model studies to arrive at the various typologies of infrastructure and housing blocks, a 3-D digital model was constructed in Rhino and used to produce 2-D line drawings and a base rendering. A collage of Illustrator and Photoshop layers was used to represent the diversity of landscape, public, and private spaces.”

148 Drawing for Architects

S oMA P TO: M

1 MA PS

03 Graphic Specimens 149

Underberg LAMAS projection type: axonometric narrative design: “Entry into the MoMA PS1 design competition. Throughout this sequence, the design of Underberg implicitly takes into account that specialized union labor is expensive, that student assistance is limited to the ground, and that offthe-shelf products like Krinner ground screws and Rohn telecommunication poles come equipped with simple installation techniques. Keeping these three factors of labor in mind, LAMAS sought to keep as much labor as possible in the workshop and on the ground where the students could take part. This minimizes specialized labor, which not only drastically reduces costs but celebrates the speciwcities of PS1’s labor conditions. The wnished installation is just as much about a party-goer saying, ‘Hey, wow!’ as it is about a student laborer pointing at 500 sf [46 m2] of marbling hanging 50 feet [50 m] in the air and saying, ‘I did that.’” drawing objective: “LAMAS has always experimented with labor sequence drawings as distinct from assembly drawings that assume a laminated tectonic system of component parts. For Underberg, the sequence of required actions were as follows: 1) Tyvek marbling process, 2) sewing of the icebergs, 3)yat-packing for delivery to New York, 4) using specialized labor and machinery for the foundation ground screws, 5) lifting the telecommunication poles into place without a crane by gin pole tilt-up method, 6) fastening Tyvek to steel frame on the ground by student labor, and 7) using a pulley system to lift the icebergs into place as in an Amish barn raising.”

150 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 151

Flask Factory Eureka Design projection type: two-point interior perspective design: Concept montage of a hotel room for a revitalization project that converts an old yask factory into a hotel. techniques: “The base line-drawing was wrst drawn on tracing paper with pencil and then taken into Photoshop for collage. The background was intended to be kept plain with a light touch of textured mapping to highlight our design.”

152 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 153

Monument to Freedom and Equality Stan Allen Architect projection types: axonometric design: “The monument today needs to engage the collective imagination, to offer a vision of the one and the many, the individual and the collective. Freedom needs a weld: an expansive arena in which the collective imagination can yourish. But a pure weld lacks purchase; without internal differentiation it has no capacity to focus or motivate the collective toward a common purpose. The weld also needs to be wgured. In opposition to these absolute models—the monumental object or the neutral weld—we propose a monument that exists between object and weld: a monument in process.” techniques: “The main body of the monument is based on a wve-sided wgure with an active prowle. The singularity of the block is cut and opened up by a series of axes that relate to local landmarks and frames a view of the Neues Rathaus tower. The solidity of the block is opened up by a series of pathways aligned to key locations in the city, allowing citizens to traverse the space of the monument. A village-like cluster of related geometric elements is created.”

03 Graphic Specimens 155

Islands and Piers studioAPT projection type: transoblique design: “The site of the San Romanoway housing is vast, it struggles with scale, and its few amenities are disparate and scattered in a ‘sea’ of parking lots, sidewalks, trashcans, trees, and grass (greenish to brownish depending on the season). As elements that bring order and calm to sometimes difwcult conditions islands and piers are proposed as moments of relief and repose. In their phenomenal characteristics they provide a sense of desirable quality. As formal strategies they offer this site a means of establishing a loose and expandable network of location, identity, community, and amenity.” techniques: “As part of a competition entry, the drawing was created to serve as a single image that could capture the majority of issues at play in and around the site. The transoblique, in which both plan and elevation are parallel to the picture plane, provided the opportunity to represent the site in true plan, but with a three-dimensional quality. A base site condition was digitally drafted, with information gathered from CAD site plans and aerial photography. For the design work, hand sketches became a Sketchup model and a series of drafted oblique drawings. The line work, from AutoCAD, Rhino, and Sketchup, came together in Illustrator, where colors were added.”

03 Graphic Specimens 157

Flat-ish? CAMES/gibson projection type: two-point perspective design: “Lines denote limits, set boundaries, separate inside from outside. Against this restrictive mentality, let us proliferate the line in search of a more foolishly uninformed ambiguity among geometry, form, and graphics.” techniques: “‘Flat-ish?’ is a document created from a representation process that collapses three types of line patterns into one space. Using projected lines on digitally modeled surfaces, two-dimensional area hatches, and image-traced wlls to visually unite foreground and background, the drawing seeks to yatten the prescribed perspective view. Beyond the alternation between software programs, the work is concerned with visual subtleties possible when using both CMYK and RGB blacks within the same document.”

158 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 159

Brakel Police Station Organization for Permanent Modernity projection type: two-point perspective design: The drawing reyects the ambitions of the project for a police station, which is a “slightly curved brutalist block” that sits on a “landscape with nipples.” When not supported by the landscape, the building is held up by 15-foot-tall [4.5 m] caryatids of Flemish policemen. Full-story “megabrick” modules are stacked, giving the building the feel of an Egyptian monument. techniques: “The drawing was made by someone without any familiarity with advanced computation or parametrics. We made a simple 3-D model, photographed it, and then spent time and love in Photoshop and Illustrator to render it.”

160 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 161

Klaksvik City Center Lateral Ofwce projection type: two-point perspectives design: This set of images was used in sequence, like comic panels, to describe key moments in the urban design proposal for Klaksvik in the Faroe Islands. techniques: “The scenes were modeled in Rhino, and once speciwc views were selected, the outputed images were brought into Illustrator to be traced as two-dimensional line drawings, to which people and other items were added.”

162 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 163

Estonian Academy of Arts Sean Lally/WEATHERS projection type: two-point perspective design: The Estonian Academy of Art employs a series of six “artiwcial climatic lungs,” which connect the school above to the public park below. The building is able to capture energy from the mechanical systems below the park. The results are artiwcial but lush gardens and full-spectrum lighting that help to mitigate the effects of Estonia’s long, gray winters. techniques: “This image is uncharacteristic of how the ofwce usually represents design intentions; which is through photographs of detailed physical models with select moments of Photoshop enhancement. In this case, the image is a combination of a loosely detailed wireframe Maya model coupled with multiple Photoshop layers on top to build up the scene. The various energy systems that help give shape to the center left of the image are constructed with a selection of Photoshop brush techniques, often collected and traded online. This technique gives greater design control and yexibility during a tight competition deadline rather than building a detailed physical model to photograph, or rendering a complete image in a software program.”

164 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 165

(No) Stop Marconi NHDM projection type: one-point section perspective design: “(No) Stop Marconi engages the history of enduring speculation and the famously uncertain future of the 93-meter-high [305 feet] Europoint Towers (or Marconi Towers, by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 1971–1975) in Marconiplein at the fringe of the Dutch port city of Rotterdam, which will become entirely vacant within the next few years, when the last occupant and its developer, the City of Rotterdam, relocates to De Rotterdam in Kop van Zuid, the biggest building ever to be erected in the history of the Netherlands. The Europoint Towers are emblematic of, and yet a fraction of, an increasing number of usable, but vacant, ofwce towers in Europe and beyond.” techniques: “The drawing ‘Te Huur’ acts as a frontispiece for the project and was constructed from a three-dimensional model based on the original construction drawings of the towers and the municipal GIS and photographic data. Not tied to any speciwc scheme, the one-point section perspective affords the inclusion of a larger locational and conceptual context while allowing for the detailed depiction of the activities of moving and cleaning in the foreground and within the towers. The x-ray view emphasizes the base structure of the towers, bringing forward their potentials as a framework and infrastructure for the new city.”

166 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 167

New Taipei City Museum of Art Lewis Tsurumaki Lewis Architects projection type: two-point section perspective design: The drawing is from a competition entry for the 230,000 sf [21,350 m2] New Taipei City (NTC) Museum of Art, which seamlessly integrates public life with the experience of art. Use of the section perspective assists in describing the volume yoating over an open plaza, with landscape yowing under the building. techniques: “This drawing combines what works best from disparate mediums and methods, through an active looping exchange between scanners, printers, pencils, software, and mylar. Color, tone, and surface qualities from digital rendering are paired with lines, edges and details from 3H leads on 4 mil mylar. The speed of one is augmented (and slowed down) by the agility of the other. Multiple hands can produce a single hand drawing, rapid digital massing can be yeshedout by deliberate over drawing. Over drawing does an end-run around normative workyow processes prescribed by digital software and traditional claims of authenticity, in service of an opportunistic architecture.”

168 Drawing for Architects

Helium

Helium

Helium

03 Graphic Specimens 169

Project Inflatable PINKCLOUD.DK projection type: site sections design: A winning solution for the Dawn Town Miami Floating Stage design competition, Project Inyatable proposes a yoating stage with a 280-foot [85 m] span inyatable roof, that is not only functional, but becomes a visible icon from downtown Miami. Performances can be viewed from the existing Miami Marine Stadium. Using helium as the roof’s structure, the whole assembly is easily transported, dismantled, and stored. techniques: The set of diagrams was created by brainstorming possibilities (what does it want to show? what can it look like? what graphic language should be used?), followed by hand-sketching and storyboarding. From this, a Rhino model was made, and 2-D information was extracted from the 3-D model, with line and color work done in Illustrator.

170 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 171

Heerlijkheid Hoogvliet Sam Jacob/FAT projection type: two-point perspective design: The Heerlijkheid park in Hoogvliet, a satellite town of Rotterdam, provides sports, community, and recreation areas for local residents. Included are a villa for social events such as weddings, movies, and children’s gatherings. The park itself, situated between pastoral and industrial settings, incorporates elements that honor the speciwcity of its environment and local character.

techniques: Supplementing minimal line work, color, tone, and texture layer up to depict the site in a painterly fashion that reyects the exuberant playfulness of the design.

172 Drawing for Architects

live zone

live zone

work zone

4 3

cranberry bogs

2 Marshy Grasses picnicing, birdwatching

live zone

5 cranberry bogs

1

Cranberry Bog

Dune Fields

harvesting, ice skating

Interlaced with the existing landscape, new pockets of programmed space are packaged with a WTG, providing a truly interactive visitor experience

2

Salt Water Swimming Pool

Hyannis Ferry Terminal 1ew architecture Erings ferry, Àshmarkets, and YMCA together for the Hyannis locals and visitors alike

work zone

3

Commercial Fish Pier / Wholesale Market

4

YMCA

5

Bog Walk

swimming, splashingg

Extended boardwalks wrap the coast and move through the working seacoast and cranberry bogs

new ferry terminal: live/work infrastructure

1

A visitor·s center about wind turbines acts as an apology for the disorganized view. When was the last time you went to a museum to study something you didn·t like" The Wind Turbines are the museum – the Working Landscape is the content. Daily engagement with this landscape via a new Ferry Terminal / Fishing Port / YMCA brings together locals and visitors with the everyday life of Cape Cod. The Working Landscape is “exhibited” at a new Hyannis Harbor Ferry Terminal. A YMCA overlooks the active Àshing harbor, providing views of the distant turbines while running on the treadmill. The ferry comes in next to commercial Àshing boats, aligning the agricultural economies of commercial Àshing and cranberry growing in a new intermodal terminal.

Commercial Fishing Boats dock space for commercial boats

Fish Market wholesale Àsh, lobster

Convenience Mart pick up milk on your way home, or grab a coffee before you head out for the daily catch

Fish House Àshermen amenities such as showers, restrooms, and lockers

YMCA views of the turbines during spinning, yoga, pilates

Ferry Terminal passenger and auto ferry to the islands

ol

03 Graphic Specimens 173

Beach Deck concerts, clam bakes

Playing Field baseball, bocce

hingg

110% Juice Implement projection type: two-point perspective design: “The project demonstrates how different recreational, agricultural, and economic programs can sit next to large-scale infrastructure. We wanted to show an active, working sea coast that combined local industries (wsh markets and cranberries) with recreational activities (hiking and biking, baseball and music performances) vernacular to Cape Cod. The on-land turbines take the place of the proposed visitor’s center that explains the benewts of the Cape Wind project. Rather than design a museum about the turbines, we designed a new ferry terminal/wsh market demarcated by turbines on land.”

dune ϐieldsǣ ecologies and economies Just as coastal dunes offer protection to the most diverse and fragile of ecologies, the dune Àelds package the intense program of the live/work seacoast offering shelter, privacy, security, and public forum in close proximity to each other. Fields vary in scale as well as use offering room enough for large public gatherings and rec sports while still allowing for intimate clam bakes with family and friends.

VIEW + VISION = 110% JUICE

techniques: “The ‘hard’ architectural parts of the project were modeled in a 3-D modeling program; then we brought the outline of those geometries into Photoshop, where we spent the majority of time rendering the image. We approach Photoshop as a drawing program, layering, smoothing, and feathering textures, colors and shadows similar to our experiences with painting and drawing. We wnished the images in Illustrator to add further diagrammatic washes, lines, and explanatory text (which we see as part of the image, such as how the text colors pick up colors present in the landscape).”

174 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 175

Hennepin House UrbanLab projection types: axonometric and plan design: “We worked the project—a house for a couple in rural Illinois—through diagram and physical model. The X came from the diagram as we tried to dewne the problem of locating the project on the border between two existing landscapes—a prairie and a woodland—on the site. The diagram led us to yip the X from a solid to a void, thereby carving the simple house box volume, and allowing the site to yow through the project.” techniques: The drawings were made with a simple 3-D digital model and Illustrator.

176 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 177

Jøssingfjord Museum Superunion Architects + Powerhouse Company projection type: elevation design: “The Jøssingfjord Museum is both a testimony to the power of man as well as to the power of nature. We have conceived it in a few simple elements. The roof shelters and directs the light and views. Under this roof, all functions are simply laid out according to their most preferable position. As an underlying basis, there is a yexible orthogonal grid that allows for future changes. The museum is visible as a simple gesture from the top of the mountain. As we approach it, the space guides the eyes toward the stunning views and feats of the surroundings. Partly sunk into the ground, it embeds itself into the site and makes a clear geological mark. If we wish to enter it, the river will lead us to the entrance.” techniques: Base image was rendered from a 3-D model, with textures and surroundings applied in Photoshop.

03 Graphic Specimens 179

The Belly of a Mountain Design Earth projection type: site section design: “Belly of a Mountain draws together urban infrastructure and the geography of the city by organizing Rio de Janeiro’s expanding urban logistics within a series of excavated grottos. The project embodies the urban desire of having the cake and eating it too. It preserves the image of Nature of the Sugarloaf and Corcovado all while utilizing the mountains’ internal volumes to accommodate often externalized infrastructures such as energy facilities, logistic zones, landwlls, cemeteries, water puriwcation plants, and other industrial facilities.”

techniques: Complex relationships at multiple scales are presented through careful control of lines, patterns, hatches, and the minimal use of color.

180 Drawing for Architects

03 Graphic Specimens 181

Cartoonish Metropolis Jimenez Lai/Bureau Spectacular projection type: section design: The Cartoonish Metropolis section depicts a composite society of imaginary worlds, in all of its absurdity and possible reality. techniques: In this building as graphic novel, heavy black poche dewnes the enclosing forms of myriad self-contained worlds. A limited but bold color palette works within this outline frame to amplify the drawing’s cartoonish demeanor.

182 Drawing for Architects

Graphic Specimens: Contributors For each contributor listed below, the Ƃrm’s principals or key members are noted, though it’s important to recogni\e that it is the nature of design practice that many drawings go through many hands, and where possible, additional contributors have also been included.

Atelier Bow-Wow Tokyo Momoyo Kaijima Yoshiharu Tsukamoto

Implement Columbus Karen Lewis Jason Kentner

Bureau Spectacular Chicago Jimenez Lai

LAMAS Toronto Wei-Han Vivian Lee James Macgillivray

CAMES/gibson Chicago Grant Gibson Sarah Blankenbaker Design Earth Ann Arbor Rania Ghosn El Hadi Jazairy Yu-Hsiang Lin Dongye Liu Jia Weng Eureka Design Hong Kong Annette Chu Wendy Hui FAT London Sean Grifwths Charles Holland Sam Jacob

Lateral OfƂce Toronto Lola Sheppard Mason White Lewis Tsurumaki Lewis New York David Lewis Paul Lewis Marc Tsurumaki NHDM New York Nahyun Hwang David Eugin Moon William O’Brien Jr. New York

Organization for Permanent Modernity Brussels Natalie Seys Alexander d’Hooghe

Superunion Architects/ Powerhouse Company Oslo Johanne Borthne Vilhelm Christensen

Pinkcloud.DK Brooklyn Leon Lai Eric Tan

UrbanLab Chicago Sarah Dunn Martin Felsen

Point Supreme Architects Athens Konstantinos Pantazis Marianna Rentzou

Utile, Inc. Boston Tim Love Mimi Love

Sean Lally/WEATHERS Chicago

WORKac New York Amale Andraos Dan Wood

Stan Allen Architect New York Stan Allen studioAPT Ann Arbor John McMorrough Julia McMorrough Isaac Howell Caitlin Sylvain

WW Architecture Houston Sarah Whiting Ron Witte Zago Architecture Los Angeles Andrew Zago Laura Bouwman

Image Credits 183

Image Credits page 12: ‘The Invention of Drawing’ (Von der Heydt-Museum Wuppertal) pages 134 & 135: Utile City (Utile, Inc.) pages 136 & 137: Faliro Pier (Point Supreme Architects) pages 138 & 139: Nora House (Atelier Bow-Wow) pages 140 & 141: Totems (William O’Brien Jr.) pages 142 & 143: Schiphol Research & Development Center (WW Architecture) pages 144 & 145: Property with Properties (Zago Architecture) pages 146 & 147: Nature City (WORKac) pages 148 & 149: Underberg (LAMAS) pages 150 & 151: Flask Factory (Eureka Design) pages 152 & 153: Monument to Freedom and Equality (Stan Allen Architect) pages 154 & 155: Islands and Piers (studioAPT) pages 156 & 157: Flat-ish? (CAMES/gibson) pages 158 & 159: Brakel Police Station (Organization for Permanent Modernity) pages 160 & 161: Klaksvik City Center (Lateral OfƂce) pages 162 & 163: Estonian Academy of Arts (Sean Lally/WEATHERS) pages 164 & 165: (No) Stop Marconi (NHDM) pages 166 & 167: New Taipei City Museum of Art (Lewis Tsurumaki Lewis Architects) pages 168 & 169: Project Inƃatable (PINKCLOUD.DK) pages 170 & 171: Heerlijkheid Hoogvliet (Sam Jacob/FAT) pages 172 & 173: 110% Juice (Implement) pages 174 & 175: Hennepin House (UrbanLab) pages 176 & 177: Jøssingfjord Museum (Superunion Architects + Powerhouse Company) pages 178 & 179: The Belly of a Mountain (Design Earth) pages 180 & 181: Cartoonish Metropolis (Jimenez Lai)

All other images are by the author.

184 Drawing for Architects

Resources Scholarship on the subject of drawing in architecture—from direct application to theoretical contexts, to questions about its future—is abundant and varied. Many of the following sources informed the content of this book, directly or indirectly. All are necessary contributors to the ongoing use, application, and understanding of architecture’s drawings.

The Renaissance

With the Renaissance came a widespread desire to connect cultures through enhanced communication, resulting in a carefully preserved wealth of writing and drawing on the subjects of art, engineering, architecture, drawing, and geometry. For many scholars, this period marks a dewnitive starting point for our current knowledge of architectural history and the role of drawing in the process. Vitruvius The Ten Books on Architecture, published 1486, though wrst written in the wrst century BCE

c. 70–15 BCE Marcus Vitruvius Pollio was a Roman architect and engineer. His Ten Books extolled graphia (plan), orthographia (elevation), and scaenographia (perspective).

Leon Battista Alberti On the Art of Building in Ten Books, 1452

1404–1472 Italian architect, painter, and linguist, he codiƂed Brunelleschi’s rediscovery of perspective.

Piero della Francesca On Perspective for Painting, 1482

1415–1492 Italian painter and geometer, in addition to his treatises, his notable paintings include The Flagellation of Christ (1460).

Sebastiano Serlio Seven Books on Architecture, 1537

1475–1554 Italian architect whose illustrated treatise aided in canonizing the classical orders and explored scaenographia (scenography) in perspectival stage sets.

185

Ackerman, James S. and Wolfgang Jung, eds. Conventions of Architectural Drawing: Representation and Misrepresentation, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000. Akin, &mer and Eleanor F. Weinel. Representation and Architecture, Silver Spring: Information Dynamics, Inc., 1982. Allen, Stan. Points + Lines: Diagrams and Projects for the City, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999. Allen, Stan. Practice: Architecture, Technique + Representation, London: Routledge, 2009. Banham, Reyner. A Critic Writes: Essays by Reyner Banham, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Bingham, Neil. 100 Years of Architectural Drawing: 1900–2000, London: Laurence King, 2013. Bretez, Louis. The Practical Perspective for Architecture, 1706. Ching, Francis D.K. Architectural Graphics, Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 5th ed. 2009. Ching, Francis D.K. Architecture: Form, Space, and Order, Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 3rd ed. 2007. Ching, Francis D.K. and Steven Juroszek. Design Drawing, Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2nd ed. 2013. Dalley, Terence. The Complete Guide to Illustration and Design: Techniques and Materials, Secaucus: Chartwell Books, Inc., 1980. Ellis, George. Modern Technical Drawing, London: BT Batsford, 1913. Evans, Robin. The Projective Cast, Architecture and Its Three Geometries, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2000.

Evans, Robin. Translations from Drawing to Building and Other Essays, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1997. Farish, William. “On Isometrical Perspective,” in Translations of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1822. Forseth, Kevin. Graphics for Architecture, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1980. Guillerme, Jacques and Hélène Vérin. “The Archaeology of Section” in Perspecta 25: The Yale Architectural Journal (1989), pp. 226–257. Hewitt, Mark. “Representational Forms and Modes of Conception: An Approach to the History of Architectural Drawing,” in Journal of Architectural Education. Vol. 39, No. 2 (Winter, 1985), pp. 2–9. Kuhn, Jehane R. “Documentation and Design in Early Perspective Drawing,” in Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 53 (1990), pp. 114–132. Laseau, Paul. Architectural Representation Handbook: Traditional and Digital Techniques for Graphic Communication, McGraw-Hill, 2000. Le Corbusier. Toward an Architecture, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2007 (republication of 1924 original). Maynard, Patrick. Drawing Distinctions: The Varieties of Graphic Expression, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005. Panofsky, Erwin. Perspective as Symbolic Form, Leipzig & Berlin: Vorträge der Bibliothek Warburg, 1927 (republished, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1991). Pehnt, Wolfgang. Expressionist Architecture in Drawings, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1985.

Perez-Gomez, Alberto and Louise Pelletier. Architectural Representation and the Perspective Hinge, Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000. Porter, Tom and Bob Greenstreet. Manual of Graphic Techniques 1, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980. Porter, Tom and Sue Goodman. Manual of Graphic Techniques 2, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1982. Ramsey, Charles George and Harold Reeve Sleeper. Architectural Graphic Standards, Hoboken, John Wiley & Sons, 11th ed. 2007. Scolari, Massimo. Hypnos, New York: Rizzoli, 1987. Scolari, Massimo. Oblique Drawing: A History of Anti-Perspective, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2012. Senseney, John R. The Art of Building in the Classical World. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Shank Smith, Kendra. Architects’ Drawings: A Selection of Sketches by World Famous Architects through History, Elsevier Architectural Press, 2005. Turner, William Wirt. Projection Drawing for Architects, New York: Ronald Press Co., 1950. White, Edward T. Graphic Vocabulary for Architectural Presentation, University of Arizona, 1972. Wightwick, George. Hints to Young Architects, London: Crosby Lockwood and Co., 1880. Yee, Rendow. Architectural Drawing: A Visual Compendium of Types and Methods, Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.

186 Drawing for Architects

About the Author With extensive building design experience, Julia McMorrough has worked for wrms in Boston, Columbus, Kansas City, and New York. She received a bachelor of architecture from the University of Kansas, a master of science in architecture from Columbia University, and is currently associate professor of practice in architecture at the University of Michigan. She is the author of The Architecture Reference & Speciwcation Book. Julia McMorrough is also a cofounder of studioAPT (Architecture Project Theory). Animated by the question of “aptitude,” studioAPT focuses on joining the expeditious with the unexpected, and schemes at a variety of scales that addresses the problematics of contemporary architectural production and communication. Efforts involving graphic design, residential planning, and urban research have led to projects that include a graphic handbook of architectural information, a situation comedy about architecture, and explorations of improvisational urbanism.

187

Acknowledgments The production of Drawing for Architects has allowed me the unique opportunity to be in a near-constant state of drawing, but the real joy has come from being immersed in the drawings of the designers featured in “Graphic Specimens.” For their graciousness in allowing their work to be shared, their candid descriptions of their process, and the high quality of their production, sincere thanks are extended to Stan Allen, Amale Andraos, Sarah Blankenbaker, Johanne Borthne, Laura Bouwman, Vilhelm Christensen, Annette Chu, Alexander d’Hooghe, Sarah Dunn, Martin Felsen, Rania Ghosn, Grant Gibson, Wendy Hui, Nahyun Hwang, Sam Jacob, El Hadi Jazairy, Momoyo Kaijima, Jason Kentner, Jimenez Lai, Leon Lai, Sean Lally, Vivian Lee, David Lewis, Karen Lewis, Paul Lewis, Mimi Love, Tim Love, James Macgillivray, David Moon, Liam O’Brien, Konstantinos Pantazis, Marianna Rentzou, Natalie Seys, Lola Sheppard, Eric Tan, Yoshiharu Tsukamoto, Marc Tsurumaki, Mason White, Sarah Whiting, Ron Witte, Dan Wood, and Andrew Zago. Thanks to Liz Momblanco, Rebecca Price, and Sierra GØnnel-Kaag for their invaluable image research expertise and insights. Thank you and cheers to Bob Somol, whose foreword gets to the heart of the matter with an efwcient eloquence that coaxes the book’s subsequent 185 pages to stand up a little straighter. To John McMorrough, while I am grateful for research assistance, editorial insights, and emotional encouragement, I am deeply thankful for constant professional and personal enrichment. Thanks, wnally, and simply, to John, Matthew, and Walter for keeping life meaningful, funny, and far from boring.

188 Drawing for Architects

Index

A

Ackerman, James, 133 adjustable triangles, 98 Adobe Systems, 129 aerial views axonometric projections as, 52–53 elevation and, 38 one-point bird’s eye, 83 three-point aerial, 82 After Effects program, 145 Alberti, Leon Battista, 37 ANSI (American National Standards Institute) paper sizes, 108 “Archaeology of Section, The” (Jacques Guillerme and Hélène Vérin), 31 architects adjustable triangles, 98 architect’s scales, 98, 112, 113 audiences, 97 BIM (building information modeling), 99 CAD (computer-aided drafting), 99, 104, 128 circle templates, 99 clients and, 97 colleagues and, 97 communication and, 97 construction administration (CA), 101 construction documents (CDs), 101, 102, 106–107 consultants and, 97 contractors and, 97 design development (DD), 100 design process, 100–101 drafting pencils, 98 drawing boards, 99 French curves, 98 lead holders, 98 lead pointers, 98 marketing, 101 parallel bars, 99 parametric modeling, 99 plastic erasers, 98 predesign, 100 schematic design (SD), 100 templates, 99 tools, 98–99 Architectural paper sizes, 108 as-built drawings, 102 A-Series ISO paper sizes, 109

Atelier Bow-Wow, 139 audiences, 97 AutoCAD program, 128, 155 Autodesk, Inc., 128, 129 axonometric projections bird’s-eye views, 52–53 cutaway views, 54–55 digital modeling, 49 dimetric drawings, 48 exploded views, 51 Hennepin House, 174–175 introduction to, 46 isometric drawings, 47, 48 massing and, 49 Monument to Freedom and Equality, 152–153 paraline drawings, 47 picture plane (PP) and, 46 three-dimensional, 50 Totems, 140–141 trimetric drawings, 48 Underberg, 148–149 Utile City, 134–135 worm’s-eye views, 56–57

circle templates, 99 clients, 97 colleagues, 97 communication, 97 computers. See digital production. construction administration (CA), 101 construction documents (CDs), 101, 102, 106–107 consultants, 97 contractors, 97 “Conventions and Rhetoric of Architectural Drawing, The” (James Ackerman), 133 C-Series ISO paper sizes, 109 customary units. See also measurements; metric units. 1 : 24 scale, 122 1 : 48 scale, 120 1 : 96 scale, 118 1 : 192 scale, 116 1 : 480 scale, 114 conversions, 110–111 introduction to, 110 scale, 110–111, 112 cutaway views, 54–55

B

D

Banham, Reyner, 6 Baroque period, 133 Belly of a Mountain, The, 178–179 BIM (Building Information Modeling), 99, 126 bird’s-eye views axonometric projections as, 52–53 elevation and, 38 one-point bird’s eye, 83 three-point aerial, 82 blueprints, 102 Bond paper rolls, 102 Bond paper sheets, 102 Brakel Police Station, 158–159 Bristol illustration boards, 102 B-Series ISO paper sizes, 109 Bureau Spectacular, 181

C

cabinet projections, 61 CAD (computer-aided drafting), 99, 104, 128 CAMES/gibson, 157 Cartoonish Metropolis, 180–181 cavalier perspectives. See oblique perspectives.

Dawn Town Miami Floating Stage design competition, 169 deliverables, 102 depth elevation and, 41–42 volume and, 103 design development (DD), 100 Design Earth, 179 design process construction administration (CA), 101 construction documents (CDs), 101, 102, 106–107 design development (DD), 100 marketing, 101 predesign, 100 schematic design (SD), 100 detail sections Nora House, 138–139 Poché and, 103 Diamond House series (John Hejduk), 7 digital production After Effects program, 145 AutoCAD program, 128, 155 axonometric projections, 49

Index 189

BIM (Building Information Modeling), 126 CAD (computer-aided drafting), 99, 104, 128 Grasshopper program, 145 Illustrator program, 129, 135, 145, 147, 155, 159, 161, 173 image resolution, 126 InDesign program, 129 introduction to, 125 Maya program, 129, 145 models, 126 NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline), 126, 128, 129 parametric design, 126 perspective and, 70 Photoshop program, 129, 147, 151, 159, 173, 177 physical models, 126 raster graphics, 126 Revit (BIM) program, 128 Rhino program, 128, 145, 155, 161 Sketchup program, 129, 135, 155 terminology, 126–127 vector graphics, 127 wireframes, 127 x axis, 127 y axis, 127 z axis, 127 dimetric drawings, 48 drafting, dewnition of, 102 drafting pencils, 98, 104 drawing boards, 99 drawing sheet layouts, 107

E

Eisenman, Peter, 7 elevation character communication and, 42 depth and, 41–42 exterior elevation, 41 frontal plane, 39 horizontal plane, 39 interior elevation, 41, 44–45, 101 introduction to, 39 Jøssingfjord Museum, 177 line weights and, 41 oblique projection, 60, 63, 64–65, 67 picture plane (PP), 38, 39 proƂle plane, 39 projection lines, 38, 39

Property with Properties, 144–145 sections and, 34–35 top views and, 38 transoblique, 67 enlarged yoor plans, 28 entourage elements adjacencies for, 90 guides for, 90 introduction to, 89 scaling, 90–91 Estonian Academy of Arts, 162–163 Eureka Design, 151 Evans, Robin, 13, 47 exploded views, 51 Expressionist Architecture in Drawings (Wolfgang Pehnt), 97 exterior elevation, 41, 101

F

Faliro Pier, 136–137 wlm rolls, 102 wlm sheets, 102 Flask Factory, 150–151 Flat-ish? project, 156–157 yoor plans, 25–27 focal lengths, 74 “Foreclosed: Rehousing the American Dream” exhibition, 145, 147 French curves, 98 frontal plane, 39

G

graphic scale, 112 graphic specimens Belly of a Mountain, The, 178–179 Brakel Police Station, 158–159 Cartoonish Metropolis, 180–181 Estonian Academy of Arts, 162–163 Faliro Pier, 136–137 Flask Factory, 150–151 Flat-ish? project, 156–157 Heerlijkheid Hoogvliet, 170–171 Hennepin House, 174–175 Islands and Piers, 154–155 Jøssingfjord Museum, 176–177 Klaksvik City Center, 160–161 Monument to Freedom and Equality, 152–153 Nature City, 146–147 New Taipei City Museum of Art, 166–167

Nora House, 138–139 (No) Stop Marconi, 164–165 110% Juice, 172–173 Project Inƃatable, 168–169 Property with Properties, 144–145 Schiphol Research & Development Center, 142–143 Totems, 140–141 Underberg, 148–149 Utile City, 134–135 Grasshopper program, 145 guides, perspective and, 90 Guillerme, Jacques, 31

H

Heerlijkheid Hoogvliet, 170–171 Hejduk, John, 7 Hennepin House, 174–175 Hickey, Dave, 7 hierarchies, of lines, 105 horizontal plane, 39 House X (Peter Eisenman), 7

I

ichnography, 102 illustration boards, 102 Illustrator program Brakel Police Station, 158–159 Hennepin House, 174–175 introduction to, 129 Islands and Piers, 154–155 Klaksvik City Center, 160–161 Nature City, 146–147 110% Juice, 172–173 Property with Properties, 144–145 Utile City, 134–135 image resolution, 126 Implement Design Associates, Co., Ltd., 173 InDesign program, 129 interior elevation, 41, 44–45, 101 Invention of Drawing, The (Karl Friedrich Schinkel), 12, 13 Islands and Piers, 154–155 ISO (International Organization for Standardization) paper sizes, 109 isometric drawings, 47, 48

J

Jøssingfjord Museum, 176–177

190 Drawing for Architects

K

Klaksvik City Center, 160–161

L

Lai, Jimenez, 181 Lally, Sean, 163 LAMAS, 149 large-format media, 102 Lateral Ofwce, 161 lead holders, 98 lead pointers, 98 Le Corbusier, 8, 23 Lewis Tsurumaki Lewis Architects, 167 line, dewnition of, 102 line type, dewnition of, 102 line weight CAD (computer-aided drafting) and, 104 deƂnition of, 102 elevation and, 41 line hierarchies, 105 pencils and, 104 technical pens and, 104 longitudinal sections, 33

M

marketing, 101 massing axonometric projections and, 49 deƂnition of, 49 two-point perspective and, 78 wireframe and, 127 Maya program Estonian Academy of Arts, 162–163 introduction to, 129 Property with Properties, 144–145 measurements. See also customary units; metric units. conversion strategies, 111 quick thinking, 110 scale, 112–123 Système International d’Unités (SI), 111 “Mechanism of Representation, The” (Massimo Scolari), 59 media types, 102 metric units. See also customary units; measurements. 1 : 25 scale, 123 1 : 50 scale, 121 1 : 100 scale, 119 1 : 200 scale, 117

1 : 500 scale, 115 conversions, 110–111 introduction to, 111 scale, 110–111, 112 military perspectives. See oblique perspectives. models, dewnition of, 126 Monument to Freedom and Equality, 152–153 Museum of Modern Art (New York), 145, 147, 149 Mylar wlm rolls, 102 Mylar wlm sheets, 102

N

National CAD Standard, 107 National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), 107 Nature City, 146–147 New Taipei City Museum of Art, 166–167 NHDM, 165 Nora House, 138–139 (No) Stop Marconi, 164–165 NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline), 126, 128, 129

O

oblique projections cabinet projections, 61 cavalier projections, 61 elevation oblique, 60, 63, 64–65, 67 introduction to, 15, 59 picture plane (PP) and, 17, 60 plan oblique, 62–63, 67 transoblique, 66–67 O’Brien, William, Jr., 141 110¯ Juice, 172–173 one-point perspective. See also perspective. aerial (bird’s eye) view, 83 controlling, 74 facade example, 76 Faliro Pier, 136–137 introduction to, 72 Kids’ Space example, 74 Nora House, 138–139 (No) Stop Marconi, 164–165 section perspective, 84–87 selecting, 76 On the Art of Building in Ten Books (Leon Battista Alberti), 37

orthogonal lines, 103 orthographic projections, 14, 16, 103

P

Panofsky, Erwin, 69 paper ANSI (American National Standards Institute) sizes, 108 Architectural sizes, 108 DIN A4 size, 109 drawing sets, 106 drawing sheet layout, 107 illustration boards, 102 ISO (International Organization for Standardization) sizes, 109 rolls, 102 sheets, 102 sizes of, 108–109 paraline drawings, 47 parallel bars, 99 parallel projections, 71 parametric design, 99, 126 Pehnt, Wolfgang, 97 pencils, 98, 104 pens, 98, 104 people, perspective and, 77, 88–91 Perspective as Symbolic Form (Erwin Panofsky), 69 perspective. See also one-point perspective; two-point perspective; three-point perspective. adjacencies and, 90 aerial views, 82–83 digital modeling of, 70 entourage elements, 88–91 focal lengths, 74 guides, 90 introduction to, 15 parallel projections compared to, 71 people placement in, 77, 88–91 picture plane (PP) and, 17, 60 Renaissance period, 71 section perspective, 84–87 vanishing points, 72, 73, 78, 80 view control, 74 viewing angles, 76 Photoshop program Brakel Police Station, 158–159 Estonian Academy of Arts, 162–163 Flask Factory, 150–151

Index 191

introduction to, 129 Jøssingfjord Museum, 176–177 Nature City, 146–147 110% Juice, 173 physical models, dewnition of, 126 picture plane (PP) axonometric projections and, 46 deƂnition of, 39 elevation projection and, 38, 39 oblique projections and, 17, 60 size and scale and, 72 three-point perspective and, 80 PINKCLOUD.DK, 169 plane, dewnition of, 103 plans cutting, 24 deƂnition of, 23 enlarged ƃoor plans, 28 ƃoor plans, 25–27 information in, 25, 26 introduction to, 23 oblique projections, 60, 62–63, 67 reƃected ceiling plans, 28 roof plans, 29 site plans, 29 plastic erasers, 98 plotting, reprographic, 103 Poché, dewnition of, 103 point, dewnition of, 103 Point Supreme Architects, 137 Powerhouse Company, 177 predesign, 100 printing, reprographic, 103 prowle plane, 39 Project Inyatable, 168–169 projection, dewnition of, 103 Projective Cast: Architecture and Its Three Geometries, The (Robin Evans), 47 Property with Properties, 144–145 PS1 design competition, 149

R

raster graphics, 126 reyected ceiling plans, 28 Renaissance period, 71, 133 rendering, dewnition of, 103 reprographics, 103 Revit (BIM) program, 128 Rhino program introduction to, 128

Islands and Piers, 154–155 Klaksvik City Center, 160–161 Property with Properties, 144–145 Robert McNeel & Associates, 128 roof plans, 29

S

Sam Jacob/FAT, 171 Satin Bond paper rolls, 102 scale 1 : 24 customary measurement, 122 1 : 25 metric measurement, 123 1 : 48 customary measurement, 120 1 : 50 metric measurement, 121 1 : 96 customary measurement, 118 1 : 100 metric measurement, 119 1 : 192 customary measurement, 116 1 : 200 metric measurement, 117 1 : 480 customary measurement, 114 1 : 500 metric measurement, 115 architect’s scale and, 112 customary units, 110–111, 112 detail and, 112 graphic scale, 112 metric units, 112 necessity of, 112 schematic design (SD), 100 Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, 12, 13 Schiphol Research & Development Center, 142–143 Scolari, Massimo, 59 Sean Lally/WEATHERS, 163 sections Belly of a Mountain, 178–179 Cartoonish Metropolis, 180–181 elevations and, 34–35 introduction to, 32 longitudinal, 33 Nature City, 146–147 one-point perspective, 84–85 Project Inƃatable, 168–169 Property with Properties, 144–145 three-point perspective, 86–87 transverse, 33 two-point perspective, 86–87 vertical relationships and, 34–35 shop drawings, 103 site plans, 29 Sketchup program, 129, 135, 155 Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 165

speciwcations, dewnition of, 103 Stan Allen Architect, 153 stereometry, 103 stereotomy, 103 Strathmore illustration boards, 102 studioAPT, 155 Superunion Architects, 177 Système International d’Unités (SI), 111

T

technical pens, 98, 104 templates, 99 Temple of Apollo, 13 Ten Books on Architecture, The (Vitruvius), 21 terminology as-built drawings, 102 BIM (Building Information Modeling), 126 blueprints, 102 construction drawings, 102 deliverables, 102 drafting, 102 ichnography, 102 image resolution, 126 large-format media, 102 line, 102 line type, 102 line weight, 102 models (digital), 126 NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline), 126 orthogonal lines, 103 orthographic projections, 103 parametric design, 126 physical models, 126 plane, 103 plotting, 103 Poché, 103 point, 103 printing, 103 projection, 103 raster graphics, 126 rendering, 103 reprographics, 103 shop drawings, 103 speciƂcations, 103 stereometry, 103 stereotomy, 103 vector graphics, 127 volume, 103

192 Drawing for Architects

wireframes, 127 x axis, 127 y axis, 127 z axis, 127 three-dimensional projections, 50 three-point perspective. See also perspective. aerial view, 82 building facade example, 80–81 Performance Hall example, 75 section perspective, 86–87 tools, 98–99 Totems, 140–141 tracing paper, 102 “Translations from Drawing to Building” (Robin Evans), 13 transoblique projection Islands and Piers, 154–155 scale and, 66–67 transverse sections, 33 Trimble, 129 trimetric drawings, 48 two-point perspective. See also perspective. Brakel Police Station, 158–159 building facade example, 78–79 Estonian Academy of Arts, 162–163 Flask Factory, 150–151 Flat-ish? project, 156–157 Heerlijkheid Hoogvliet, 170–171 introduction to, 73 Klaksvik City Center, 160–161 New Taipei City Museum of Art, 166–167 110% Juice, 172–173 Performance Hall example, 75 section perspective, 86–87

U

Underberg, 148–149 Uniform Drawing System (UDS), 106 UrbanLab, 175 U.S. customary units. See customary units; measurements. Utile City, 134–135 Utile, Inc., 135

V

vanishing points, 72, 73, 78, 80 vector graphics, 127 Vellum wlm rolls, 102 Vellum wlm sheets, 102

Vérin, Hélène, 31 Vers une Architecture (Le Corbusier), 23 viewing angles, 76 Vitruvius, 21 volume, dewnition of, 103

W

wireframes, 127 WORKac, 147 worm’s-eye views, 56–57 WW Architecture, 143

X

x axis, 127

Y

y axis, 127

Z

Zago, Andrew, 133 Zago Architecture, 145 z axis, 127