Reforming the United Nations : A Chronology [1 ed.] 9789004242227, 9789004242210

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Reforming the United Nations

Reforming the United Nations Series Editor Joachim Müller

VOLUME 7

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/refo

Reforming the United Nations A Chronology Edited by

Joachim Müller

LEIDEN | BOSTON

The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at http://catalog.loc.gov LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016013225

Want or need Open Access? Brill Open offers you the choice to make your research freely accessible online in exchange for a publication charge. Review your various options on brill.com/brill-open. Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface. isbn 2468-4163 isbn 978-90-04-24221-0 (hardback) isbn 978-90-04-24222-7 (e-book) Copyright 2016 by Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill nv incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill nv provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, ma 01923, usa. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner.

Contents Preface VII Abbreviations IX 1 Short Introduction to the Structure of the un 1 2 Summary of Main Reform Initiatives, 1946 to 2015 12 1 Trygve Lie (Norway), 1946–1953: Building the Foundation 13 Organizational Structure, Headquarters and Decentralization 14 New Entities and Subsidiary Bodies 14 First Experience in Technical Assistance and Peacekeeping 15 2 Dag Hammarskjöld (Sweden), 1953–1961: Cold War 16 Peacekeeping Becomes Established 16 Management Reform with Political Overtones 16 3 U Thant (Burma), 1961–1971: The Third World 17 Peacekeeping Financing 18 New Planning and Budgeting System 19 Increase in Membership 19 Focus on Development 20 4 Kurt Waldheim (Austria), 1972–1981: The North–South Conflict 20 A New un Structure for Global Economic Co-operation 21 5 Javier Pérez de Cuéllar (Peru), 1982–1991: Return to the un 22 Administrative and Financial Functioning 23 Rediscovery of the un 24 6 Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt), 1992–1996: The New Unity 26 Major Structural Changes 26 An Agenda for Peace 27 Agenda for Development 28 50th Anniversary of the un 29 7 Kofi Annan (Ghana), 1997–2006: Focus on Integrity and Efficiency 30 The Quiet Revolution 31 Millennium Summit 34 Security Council Reform 36 In Larger Freedom: Integrity and Efficiency 43 8 Ban Ki-moon (South Korea), 2007–2016: The Limits of the un 51 Secretariat: Structure, Human Resources and Change Plan 51 Peacekeeping: Structure, Policy and Conduct 54

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System-wide Coherence and “Delivering as One” 60 Capital Master Plan 66 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 73 Concluding Observations 81

3 Chronology of Main Change Events 85

Appendix i: Reform Documents 1 Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 223 2 The Future of United Nations Peace Operations: Implementation of the Recommendations of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations (hippo) 264 3 Challenge of Sustaining Peace: Report of the Advisory Group of Experts on the Review of the Peacebuilding Architecture 297 4 The Secretary-General’s Five-Year Action Agenda 301

Appendix ii: Supporting Information 1 Charter of the United Nations 311 2 Provisional Rules of Procedure of the Security Council 341 3 Statute of the International Court of Justice 352 4 United Nations Member States 368 5 Security Council Membership 376 6 United Nations Peacekeeping Operations 381 Bibliography on UN Reform 389 Index 421

Preface The United Nations (un) celebrated its 70th anniversary and approved the ­Sustainable Development Agenda in September 2015. The Agenda proclaims the commitment to end hunger and poverty and to ensure healthy lives for all by 2030. The approval of the Agenda was called “a defining moment in human history” by Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In order to be able to deliver, the un will need to fundamentally reform its institutions, its way of doing business and the existing funding regimes. The un has been the subject of many reform efforts before. Founded after the ravages of World War ii and the collapse of the League of Nations, the organization has evolved from humble beginnings to a large, complex and fragmented institution with an ambitious and expanding mandate: to maintain peace and security by preventing war, to foster economic and social development, and to promote respect for human rights. This is done through consultations and negotiations among member states resulting in the approval of programmes, policies and decision. The Secretary-General and the un staff facilitate those discussions and implement the resulting decisions through a wide spectrum of services: organizing international conferences on issues of global significance; administering peacekeeping operations; mediating international disputes; organizing humanitarian relief programmes; surveying economic and social trends; preparing studies on human rights and sustainable development; and addressing disaster relief, the fight against hiv/aids, terrorism, gender equality, climate change, and more. The expansion of peace operations is particular striking. By mid-2015, the number of peacekeepers had risen to over 130,000 involved in 15 missions, and peace operations now account for over half of the organization’s activities. This publication captures the evolution of the un, presenting the main ­reform initiatives from the early 1940s to the end of 2015.1 A chronological presentation of the changes in organizational structure, process and mandate tells an exciting story. It highlights successes and failures, including the underlying causes of these outcomes. The complexity of the subject matter will be ­captured by following questions: 1 For related publications, please refer to Joachim Müller, Reforming the United Nations, ­Kluwer Law International, The Hague, The Netherlands, and Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands, including New Initiatives and Past Efforts, Volumes i to iii, 1997; The Quiet Revolution, Volume iv, 2001; and The Struggle for Legitimacy and Effectiveness, Volume V, 2006.

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What prompted the reform initiative? What were the interests and constraints? What were the dynamics of the process? What change occurred?

This publication starts with a short introduction to the structure of the un in Part i. The reform initiatives are presented in a twofold, mutually reinforcing format. Part ii presents a summary of the main reform initiatives and Part iii a chronology of change events. Whereas Part ii provides a comprehensive view of individual efforts, Part iii arranges the changes chronologically, highlighting parallel events. A system of cross-references from Part ii to Part iii facilitates easy linkage between the two sections. This is done by indicating the date of an event in square brackets in both sections. Part ii on the summary of major reform initiatives is organized according to the terms of office of the Secretaries-General. Although the Secretary-General is responsible for some initiatives and results, in many cases countries are in charge of the negotiations and decision-making process. Nevertheless, the individual Secretary-General often stands for an era of un history during which certain initiatives prosper or fail. The summary captures all the main reforms since the un was established, but additional explanations are provided for the most recent initiatives. Part iii on the chronology of main change events lists reforms such as the establishment of expert groups, release of reform proposals and decisions on reform proposals. Each reform event is introduced with keywords. Related un documents and decisions are indicated for further reference. Dates of events shown in square brackets allow for cross-referencing within Part iii. As supplementary information, Appendix i presents three recent key documents, namely the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations (hippo) and the Five-Year Action Agenda of Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. Appendix ii presents the Charter of the un, a list of member states with the scale of assessment, budget information and other documents. Finally, Appendix iii provides a bibliography on un reform. I trust that this publication will be of use to everyone interested in the work of the un. Joachim Müller 2016

Abbreviations acabq acc act ahwg au canz ccd cd ceb cict cito cmp cmt csd DaO dda desa dfs dpa dpko eca ecafe ece echa eclac ecosoc emg epta erp escap escwa fao G4 G7 G77 G8

Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions Administrative Committee on Co-ordination Accountability, Coherence, and Transparency Ad Hoc Working Group African Union Canada, Australia and New Zealand Conference of the Committee on Disarmament Conference on Disarmament Chief Executives Board for Co-ordination Commission on International Commodity Trade Chief Information Technology Officer Capital Master Plan Change Management Team Commission on Sustainable Development Delivering as One Department for Disarmament Affairs Department of Economic and Social Affairs Department of Field Support Department of Political Affairs Department of Peacekeeping Operations Economic Commission for Africa Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East Economic Commission for Europe Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs Economic and Social Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean Economic and Social Council Evaluation Management Group Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance Enterprise Resource Planning Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia Food and Agriculture Organization Group of 4 Group of 7 Group of 77 Group of 8

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gao General Accounting Office gatt General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade gavi Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization gnp Gross National Product hippo High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations hiv/aids Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome hlcm High-Level Committee on Management hlcp High-Level Committee on Programmes hlpf High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development iaea International Atomic Energy Agency iasc Inter-Agency Standing Committee ibrd International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ibsa India-Brazil-South Africa Dialogue Forum icao International Civil Aviation Organization icc International Criminal Court iccica Interim Co-ordinating Committee for International Commodity Agreements International Court of Justice icj ict Information and Communication Technology ida International Development Association ifad International Fund for Agricultural Development ifc International Finance Corporation ign Intergovernmental Negotiations ilo International Labour Organization imf International Monetary Fund imis Integrated Management Information System imo International Maritime Organization incb International Narcotics Control Board iot Integrated Operational Team ipsas Public Sector Accounting Standards itc International Trade Centre itu International Telecommunication Union jiu Joint Inspection Unit mdgs Millennium Development Goals monuc un Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo nam Non-Aligned Movement nato North Atlantic Treaty Organization ngo Non-governmental organization nieo New International Economic Order

Abbreviations npt ocha oda oecd ohchr ohrlls

Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons un Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs Office of Disarmament Affairs Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Office of the High Representative for Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Developing States oii Office for Inspection and Investigations oios Office of Internal Oversight Services ola Office of Legal Affairs onuc un Force in the Congo orci Office for Research and the Collection of Information owg Open Working Group P5 Permanent Five pbc Peacebuilding Commission plo Palestine Liberation Organization qcpr Quadrennial Comprehensive Policy Review rc Resident Co-ordinator sab Scientific Advisory Board sag Senior Advisory Group sdgs Sustainable Development Goals sdsn Sustainable Development Solutions Network sunfed Special un Fund for Economic Development tcpr Triennial Comprehensive Policy Review tst Technical Support Team UfC Uniting for Consensus un Women un Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women un United Nations unaids Joint un Programme on hiv/aids unamid UN-African Union Mission in Darfur una-usa un Association of the United States uncdf un Capital Development Fund unced un Conference on Environment and Development uncip un Commission for India and Pakistan unctad un Conference on Trade and Development undaf un Development Assistance Framework undc un Development Corporation undg un Development Group undp un Development Programme unef un Emergency Force

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xii uneg unep unesco unfccc unfpa UN-Habitat unhcr unicef unisdr unmogip unodc unops unrwa unu unv unwto upu usd ussr wfc wfp who wipo wmo wto

Abbreviations un Evaluation Group un Environment Programme un Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization un Framework Convention on Climate Change un Population Fund un Human Settlements Programme un High Commissioner for Refugees un Children’s Fund un International Strategy for Disaster Reduction un Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan un Office on Drugs and Crime un Office for Project Services un Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East un University un Volunteers World Tourism Organization Universal Postal Union United States Dollar Union of Soviet Socialist Republics World Food Council un World Food Programme World Health Organization World Intellectual Property Organization World Meteorological Organization World Trade Organization

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Short Introduction to the Structure of the un The un is neither an assembly of peoples nor a world government but an organization comprising sovereign states – an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. Founded in 1945, the un has 193 member states1 and its mission is guided by its founding Charter.2 The organization has evolved from humble beginnings to a large, complex and fragmented institution with an ambitious and expanding mandate: to maintain peace and security by preventing war, to foster economic and social development, and to promote respect for human rights. This is be achieved through the six principal organs of the un as described below. Additional sections list peacekeeping operations and a host of related entities. The governing bodies of the un include three principal organs: the General Assembly, which is the main deliberative assembly; the Security Council, which decides on issues of peace and security; and the Economic and Social Council, which promotes international economic and social co-operation and development. All of these agencies are located in New York. They constitute the fora for consultations and negotiations among member states, resulting in the approval of programmes, policies and decisions. The Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-General, is another principal organ. The Secretariat is composed of international civil servants and facilitates the discussions of the governing bodies by servicing meetings, preparing negotiations, providing studies and implementing the resulting decisions. Two other principal organs exist: the International Court of Justice is the primary judicial organ, located in The Hague, and the Trusteeship Council has become inactive since 1994.

General Assembly

The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policy-making and representative organ of the un. All 193 un member states are represented in the General Assembly, making it the only un body with universal representation. Member states may act through sometimes overlapping interest groups such as the 1 See Appendix ii.4 for un Member States, Date of Admission, Scale of Assessment. 2 See Appendix ii.1 for Charter of the un.

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���6 | doi 10.1163/9789004242227_002

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Group of 77 (G77), representing 130 developing countries, and the Non-Aligned Movement (nam) with 112. The European Union represents 28 countries and the canz group is composed of Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Each year, in September, the un membership meets in the General Assembly Hall in New York for the annual General Assembly session and general debate, which many heads of state attend and address. Decisions on important questions, such as peace and security, admission of new members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority of the General Assembly. Decisions on other questions are by simple majority of members present and voting. Each year, the General Assembly elects a President to serve a one-year term of office. Most issues are discussed by the six Main Committees and the Subsidiary bodies of the Assembly. Main Committees: – – – – – –

First Committee (Disarmament and International Security) Second Committee (Economic and Financial) Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian and Cultural) Fourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization) Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary) Six Committee (Legal)

Subsidiary bodies: – – – –

Disarmament Commission Human Rights Council International Law Commission Peacebuilding Commission3

The General Assembly also establishes other committees and bodies to study specific matters such as sustainable development, reform of the Security Council, disarmament, peacekeeping, development and human rights.

Security Council

The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the un Charter, for the maintenance of international peace and security.4 It has 15 members 3 Also reports to the Security Council. 4 See Appendix ii.2 for Provisional Rules of Procedures of the Security Council.

Short Introduction To The Structure Of The Un

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(5 permanent and 10 non-permanent members).5 Under the Charter, all member states are obligated to comply with Council decisions. The Security Council takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to peace or an act of aggression. In some cases, the Security Council may resort to imposing sanctions or even authorize the use of force to maintain or restore international peace and security. The Security Council has a Presidency, which changes every month. The Council establishes peacekeeping operations and political missions and has following subsidiary organs: – – – –

Counter-Terrorism Committee Military Staff Committee Sanction Committees Peacebuilding Commission6

In addition, the Council establishes international criminal tribunals to prosecute crimes against humanity which are not permanent and cease to exist once their business is finished.7

Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council (ecosoc) is the principal body for co-­ ordination, policy review, policy dialogue and recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as implementation of internationally agreed-upon development goals. It serves as the central mechanism for activities of the un system and its specialized agencies in the economic, social and environmental fields, supervising subsidiary and expert bodies. It has 54 members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms. It is the un’s central platform for reflection, debate and innovative thinking on sustainable development. ecosoc holds a four-week substantive session in July, alternating annually between New York and Geneva. That session includes a high-level segment, attended by cabinet ministers and other officials, to discuss major economic, social and humanitarian issues. The Council also co-­ operates with, and to some extent co-ordinates the work of un programmes 5 See Appendix ii.5 for Security Council Membership. 6 Also reports to the General Assembly. 7 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia; International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda; Special Court for Sierra Leone; Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia; Special Tribunal for Lebanon.

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and the specialized agencies, all of which report to it. ecosoc’s year-round work is carried out by the following subsidiary bodies: – Eight functional commissions: Statistical Commission; Commission on Population and Development; Commission for Social Development; Commission on the Status of Women; Commission on Narcotic Drugs; Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice; Commission on Science and Technology for Development; High-Level Political Forum; un Forum on Forests. – Five regional commissions: Economic Commission for Africa (eca), Addis Ababa; Economic Commission for Europe (ece), Geneva; Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (eclac), Santiago; Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (escap), Bangkok; Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (escwa), Beirut. – Standing committees: Committee for Development Policy; Committee of Experts on Public Administration; Committee on Non-Governmental Organization; Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues; un Group of Experts on Geographical Names; Committee for Programme and Co-ordination; Committee on Negotiations with Intergovernmental Agencies.

Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories that had been placed under the administration of seven member states, and ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government and independence. By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence. The Trusteeship Council suspended operations on November 1, 1994.

International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice is the un’s principal judicial organ. Its seat is in The Hague, Netherlands.8 It is the only one of the six principal un organs not located in New York. The Court’s role is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal disputes submitted to it by states and to give advisory 8 See Appendix ii.3 for Statute of the International Court of Justice.

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opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized un organs and specialized agencies. Secretariat The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General and comprises over 40,000 un staff members who work in duty stations all around the world as mandated by the principal organs. As international civil servants, the Secretary-General and un staff members answer to the un alone for their activities, and not to any member state or outside authority. The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year renewable term. The un Charter describes the Secretary-General as “chief administrative officer” of the organization. The Secretary-General is assisted by a Deputy Secretary-General. The Secretariat provides services to the other principal organs of the un and administers the programmes and policies they establish. This includes enabling consultations and negotiations by the governing bodies by preparing documents, interpreting speeches and translating documents. Decisions are implemented through a wide spectrum of services: administering peacekeeping operations; mediating international disputes; organizing humanitarian relief programmes; surveying economic and social trends; preparing studies on human rights and sustainable developments; and addressing disaster relief, the fight against hiv/aids, terrorism, gender equality, climate change, and more. The Secretariat also organizes international conferences on issues of global significance. Although the un is headquartered in New York, it maintains a significant presence in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Beirut, Geneva, Nairobi, Santiago de Chile and Vienna, and has other offices around the world. The Secretariat is mainly funded from the contributions of member states, which are assessed on a scale approved by the General Assembly. The scale is based on the capacity to pay, which is determined by considering their relative shares of total gross national product, adjusted to take a number of factors into account, including per capita income.9 Consequently, 1010 of the 192 members pay for roughly 75 per cent of the assessed budget. For the 2012–2013 biennium, the regular budget amounted to usd 5.2 billion. The Secretariat is organized along departmental lines as follows: 9 10

The scale of contributions is shown in Appendix B.4. United States, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Canada, Spain, China and Mexico.

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– Executive Office of the Secretary-General,11 New York: spokesperson; protocol service. – Office of Internal Oversight Services (oios), New York: audit; inspection; evaluation; investigations. – Office of Legal Affairs (ola), New York: legal counsel; treaty and codification service; trade law; ocean affairs and the Law of the Sea. – Department of Political Affairs (dpa), New York: electoral assistance; counterterrorism; prevention of genocide; special advisor for Myanmar; Palestinian Rights; policy and mediation; Security Council affairs; decolonization. – Office for Disarmament Affairs, New York: weapons of mass destruction; conventional arms; information and outreach; regional disarmament; conference on disarmament. – Department of Peacekeeping Operations (dpko), New York: operations; military affairs; rule of law and security institutions; policy, evaluation and training. – Department of Field Support (dfs), New York: personnel; field budget and finance; logistics support; information and communication technology; policy evaluation and training; logistics base in Brindisi. – Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs (ocha), New York: co-ordination; policy; advocacy; information management; humanitarian financing. – Department of Economic and Social Affairs (desa), New York: financing for development; ecosoc support and co-ordination; social policy and development; forum on forests; statistics; sustainable development; population; development policy and analysis; public administration and development management. – Department for General Assembly and Conference Management, New York: protocol, central planning and co-ordination; General Assembly and ecosoc affairs; meetings and publishing; documentation. – Department of Public Information, New York: news and media; outreach; strategic communication. – Department of Safety and Security, New York: field support; regional operations; headquarters security and safety services. 11

In addition, there are over 40 Special and Personal Representatives and Envoys of the Secretary-General to cover the following regions and countries: Africa, African Union, Burundi, Central Africa, Central African Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon, The Great Lakes region, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Libya, Mali, Sahel, Somalia, Sudan and South Sudan, South Sudan, Sudan/Abyei, Sudan/ Darfur, West Africa and Western Sahara.

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– Department of Management, New York: programme planning, budget and accounts; human resources management; central support services; information and communication technology. – Office of the un High Commissioner for Human Rights (ohchr), Geneva: support for 10 human rights treaty bodies; support for universal periodic review process; protection of victims; support for human rights field presences. – Office of the Special Advisor on Africa, New York: coherence and co-ordination of un system support to Africa, in particular relating to the New Partnership for Africa’s Development. – Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict, New York: moral voice and independent advocate for the protection and well-being of boys and girls affected by armed conflict. – Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States (ohrlls), New York: support for the implementation of the Brussels Programme of Action for Least Developed Countries. Secretariat Regional Offices and Commissions – The un Office at Geneva, Geneva: a centre for conference diplomacy and a forum for disarmament and human rights. – The un Office at Vienna, Vienna: the headquarters for activities in the fields of international drug-abuse control, crime prevention and criminal justice, the peaceful uses of outer space and international trade law. – The un Office at Nairobi, Nairobi: the headquarters for activities in the fields of environment and human settlement. – Secretariat of the Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva – Secretariat of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok – Secretariat of the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, Beirut – Secretariat of the Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa – Secretariat of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago Other Secretariat Offices in New York There is a host of other, small Secretariat offices located in New York which include: Peacebuilding Support Office, un Joint Staff Pension Fund; Secretariat

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of the un System Chief Executives Board for Co-ordination (ceb); Ethics Office; Global Compact Office; un Office for Partnerships; un Democracy Fund; un Staff Union; un Non-Governmental Liaison Service; Office of the un Ombudsman; Office of Administration of Justice; un Dispute Tribunal; un Appeals Tribunal; Office of the Special Advisor to the Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide; Office of the Special Representative of the SecretaryGeneral on Sexual Violence in Conflict; Office on Sport for Development and Peace; and Office of the Special Advisor to the Secretary-General for Myanmar. Peacekeeping Peacekeeping operations are deployed with the authorization of the Security Council. The un has no military force of its own. The military personnel of peacekeeping operations are provided voluntarily and financed by member states. Operations are directed by the Secretary-General, usually through a special representative. Depending on the mission, a Force Commander is responsible for the operation’s military aspects, but military contingents answer to their own national defence entities. Peacekeeping operations are financed through the peacekeeping budget and troop-contributing states are compensated at a standard rate. The approved peacekeeping budget for 2012–2013 was approximately usd 7.3 billion. By mid-2015, the number of peacekeepers had risen to over 130,000 involved in 15 missions, and peace operations now account for over half of the un’s activities. Peacekeeping operations as of August 31, 2015 include the following:12 – un Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, Western Sahara, strength: 482 people; – un Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic, Central African Republic, strength: 11,644 people; – un Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali, Mali, strength: 12,893 people; – un Stabilization Mission in Haiti, Haiti, strength: 6,269 people; – un Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, strength: 23,438 people; – African Union–un Hybrid Operation in Darfur, Darfur; strength: 21,357 people; – un Disengagement Observer Force, Syria, strength: 956 people; 12

See Appendix ii.6 for un Peacekeeping Operations.

Short Introduction To The Structure Of The Un

– – – – – – – – –

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un Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus, Cyprus, strength: 1,094 people; un Interim Force in Lebanon, Lebanon, strength: 11,352 people; un Interim Security Force for Abyei, Abyei, Sudan, strength: 4,721 people; un Mission in the Republic of South Sudan, South Sudan, strength: 15,106 people; un Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, Côte d’Ivoire, strength: 8,031 people; un Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, Kosovo, strength: 366 people; un Mission in Liberia, Liberia, strength: 6,541 people; un Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan, India and Pakistan, strength: 115 people; un Truce Supervision Organization, Middle East, strength: 381 people. un System

The un system is made up of the un itself and many affiliated funds, programmes, research and training institutes, specialized agencies and other entities. The funds and programmes, training institutes13 and other entities14 are subsidiary bodies of the General Assembly and are financed through voluntary rather than assessed contributions. The specialized agencies and related organizations are linked to the un through individual agreements and report to ecosoc and/or General Assembly. Specialized agencies15 and related 13

un Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, Turin; un Institute for Disarmament Research, Geneva; un Institute for Training and Research, Geneva; un Research Institute for Social Development, Geneva; un System Staff College, Turin; un University (unu), Tokyo. 14 Joint un Programme on hiv/aids (unaids), Geneva; un International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction (unisdr), Geneva; un Office for Project Services (unops), Copenhagen. 15 World Bank Group, Washington, including the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (ibrd), International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes, International Development Association, International Finance Corporation, and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency; International Monetary Fund (imf), Washington; World Health Organization (who), Geneva; un Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (unesco), Paris; International Labour Organization (ilo), Geneva; Food and Agriculture Organization (fao), Rome; International Fund for Agricultural Development (ifad), Rome; International Maritime Organization (imo), London; World Meteorological Organization (wmo), Geneva; World Intellectual Property Organization (wipo), Geneva; International Civilian Aviation Organization (icao), Montreal; International Telecommunication Union (itu), Geneva; un Industrial Development Organization

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organizations16 have their own legislative bodies and budgets and are funded by both voluntary and assessed contributions. The un applies a salary system that will draw and keep citizens of countries where salaries are highest, and also calls for equal pay for work of equal value independent of the employee’s nationality. Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax that is administered by the un organizations. Funds and programmes include the following: – un Conference on Trade and Development (unctad), Geneva: responsible for dealing with development issues, particularly international trade. unctad includes the International Trade Centre (itc) and wto. – un Development Programme (undp), New York: un’s global development network, focusing on the challenges of democratic governance, poverty reduction, crisis prevention and recovery, energy and environment, and hiv/aids. undp covers the un Capital Development Fund (uncdf) and un Volunteers. – un Environmental Programme (unep), Nairobi: the voice for the environment within the un system. unep acts as a catalyst, advocate, educator and facilitator to promote the wise use and sustainable development of the global environment. – un Population Fund (unfpa), New York: the lead un agency for delivering a world where every pregnancy is wanted, every birth is safe, and every young person’s potential is fulfilled. – un Human Settlements Programme (un-Habitat), Nairobi: promotes socially and environmentally sustainable human settlement development and the provision of adequate shelter for all. – un High Commissioner for Refugees (unhcr), Geneva: protects refugees worldwide and facilitates their return home or resettlement. – un Children’s Fund (unicef), New York: provides long-term humanitarian and development assistance to children and mothers. – un Office on Drugs and Crime (unodc), Vienna: a global leader in the struggle against illicit drugs and transnational organized crime. unodc is committed to achieving health, security and justice for all and to delivering legal and technical assistance to prevent terrorism.

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(unido), Vienna; Universal Postal Union (upu), Bern; World Tourism Organization (unwto), Madrid. International Atomic Energy Agency (iaea), Vienna; World Trade Organization (wto), Geneva; Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization, Vienna; Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, The Hague.

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– un Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (unrwa), Gaza and Amman: provides education, health care, relief and social services, camp infrastructure and improvement, microfinance and emergency assistance to Palestinian refugees. – World Food Programme (wfp), Rome: aims to eradicate hunger and malnutrition. It is the world’s largest humanitarian agency. Every year, the programme feeds almost 80 million people in around 75 countries. – un Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (un Women), New York: merges and builds on the important work of four previously distinct parts of the un system, which focus exclusively on gender equality and women’s empowerment.

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Summary of Main Reform Initiatives, 1946 to 20151 The un came into existence with the ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council – China, France, United Kingdom, United States and ussr – and by a majority of signatories of its 51 member countries [October 24, 1945]. This constituted the second major effort in recent times to organize the international community to work for the prevention of global war.2 The League of Nations, established in the 1920s, essentially dissolved after only 16 years. The reasons for its failure were largely beyond the control of the organization, namely the isolationism of the United States and the fallout from the Treaty of Versailles. But the League also had built-in weaknesses that contributed to its demise. Although the United States did not join the League, the organization had largely been forged by us President Woodrow Wilson. The League relied essentially on moral condemnation to address armed aggression. It also required unanimous agreement of the parties to a dispute before engaging in collective action. These approaches had only limited success in European power politics. The un was founded on the wartime alliance of World War ii. As early as 1941, us President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill issued the Atlantic Charter, a joint declaration of principles to govern the establishment of a worldwide system of security [August 14, 1941]. A few months later, 26 allied nations fighting against the Axis powers issued the Declaration by United Nations in support of the Atlantic Charter [January 1, 1942]. Agreement in principle was reached in 1943 on the need for an international organization to succeed the League of Nations [October 30, 1943]. During the Dumbarton Oaks conference [August 21–October 7, 1944], the United States, ussr, United Kingdom and China succeeded in negotiating and agreeing on the establishment of an international organization to maintain peace and security in the world. Important agreements were reached in 1945 on the Security Council arrangement, leading to the signing of the un Charter 1 Dates of events shown in square brackets allow for cross-referencing with reform events within Part iii. 2 Hoopes, Townsend and Douglas Brinkley, fdr and the Creation of the u.n., New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1997, page ix.

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���6 | doi 10.1163/9789004242227_003

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by 50 nations at the un Conference on International Organization in San Francisco [April 9–June 26, 1945]. 1

Trygve Lie (Norway), 1946–1953: Building the Foundation

Following the establishment of the un [October 24, 1945], the General Assembly [January 10–February 14, 1946] and the Security Council [January 17, 1946] met in London for the first time. Trygve Lie was elected first Secretary-General of the un [February 1, 1946]. He had previously been a Norwegian politician, labour leader and foreign minister. Lie earned the reputation of being pragmatic and determined. He had limited success, however, in dealing with a number of post – World War ii conflicts. Lie’s term was extended in 1950 over objections from the Soviet Union, which subsequently refused to acknowledge him as Secretary-General. He resigned on November 10, 1952. During Secretary-General Trygve Lie’s term in office, the un moved quickly to establish the new organization and its secretariat, committee structure and new organizational entities and policies. First, key policy documents were approved such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the genocide convention [December 10, 1948]. Lie was credited with playing a major role in building the un, including establishing its headquarters in New York and developing the first steps in the new concept of peacekeeping. With regard to a longer-term vision, Lie issued an ambitious paper called “Twenty-Year Programme for Achieving Peace through the United Nations” [July 26, 1950]. A number of proposals were not adopted due to the security crisis resulting from the Korea conflict. They included proposals to establish a new disarmament system, a standing un force, international control of atomic energy and regular ministerial level meetings of the Security Council. These issues resurfaced in reform proposals in the 1990s. Other suggestions advanced by Lie proved to have a lasting impact, including the need for technical assistance for economic development, the expanded role of specialized agencies and the need for wider observance of and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms around the world. The first Secretary-General largely defined the role of the position for his successors. In particular, he carved out a role for the Secretary-General as conflict mediator and, based on Article 99 of the Charter, he established the Secretary-General’s right to address the Security Council on items on its agenda. In so doing, Lie paved the way for the Secretary-General becoming a political actor in its or her own right.

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Organizational Structure, Headquarters and Decentralization A number of key decisions were made during the early years. The organization of the Secretariat, including the principal administrative units and staffing arrangements, was approved [February 13, 1946]. The Secretariat was established with eight departments: Security Council Affairs; Economic Affairs; Social Affairs; Trusteeship and Information; Legal; Public Information; Conference and General Services; and Administration and Financial Services. A total of 2,500 staff members were recruited in 1946 and 1947. The system whereby funding was made available to the un was established. Expenses were apportioned broadly according to capacity to pay as the core principle. The United States initially paid 40 per cent of the regular budget; this proportion was reduced in subsequent years. The Assembly adopted the un flag [October 20, 1947]. The General Assembly chose New York for the un’s headquarters [February 14, 1946]. Following the move to New York, the un temporary headquarters was first established at Hunter College [March 21, 1946] and then at Lake Success [August 16, 1946]. Construction of the permanent headquarters building in New York started in 1948, and the building was inaugurated in February 1952 [February 27, 1952]. The complex is located in Manhattan, overlooking the East River, on First Avenue between East 42nd and 48th Streets, located on 17 acres of land donated by the Rockefeller family. It includes the 39-storey Secretariat tower, the domed General Assembly Hall, and the conference building. The design was based on the proposals of Le Corbusier (France/Switzerland), and Oscar Niemeyer (Brazil). The United States, as host country, had financed the construction of the complex by providing the un with an interest-free loan equivalent to about usd 1.0 billion in 2015 dollars. The rest of the complex – the Dag Hammarskjöld Library, the underground North Lawn Extension and the South Annex – was built between 1960 and 1982. In the 1950s, the Secretariat was decentralized from New York to regional centres in Geneva [March 28, 1947], Bangkok [January 1947], Santiago de Chile [February 25, 1948], Addis Ababa [November 26, 1958], and Beirut [August 9, 1973]. New Entities and Subsidiary Bodies A host of new entities and subsidiary bodies and specialized agencies were established. This included the semi-independent entities, such as unicef [December 11, 1946]. New organizations were also initiated, such as the International Atomic Development Authority [June 14, 1946], the who [December 14, 1946], un Relief for Palestine Refugees [November 19, 1948], unhcr [December 3, 1949], and unrwa [December 8, 1949]. In addition, to clarify the separate roles of the un and the technical work of un specialized agencies, the General Assembly approved agreements with the ilo, fao, unesco and icao

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[December 14, 1946], and later with the ibrd, imf, upu, and itu [November 15, 1947]. Nevertheless, some overlap continued to exist between specialized agencies and the un Departments of Economic Affairs and Social Affairs as well as with ecosoc as the policy-making body. Adding to this potential overlap were the newly established economic commissions for Europe, Asia and the Pacific and Latin America as well as the un technical assistance work. This highlighted the need to emphasize co-ordination in future reform proposals. Subsidiary bodies were established by ecosoc, including the Administrative Committee on Co-ordination [September 21, 1946], a forum that convened the executive heads of all organizations in the un system, under the chairmanship of the un Secretary-General, to focus on questions of co-ordination and cross-cutting policy issues. The General Assembly established the first intergovernmental bodies such as the Commission on Human Rights, Commission on Narcotic Drugs, and Statistical Commission [February 16, 1946]. This was followed by the Commission on the Status of Women [June 21, 1946], the Economic and Employment Commission [October 1, 1946], Population Commission [October 3, 1946] and Trusteeship Council [December 13, 1946]. First Experience in Technical Assistance and Peacekeeping The Assembly authorized the Secretary-General to provide technical assistance for economic development to governments [December 4, 1948]. Next, the un Field Service and the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance (epta) were established to provide technical assistance to developing nations [November 22, 1949], under what was later to become undp. The first experiences in peacekeeping were gained when the Security Council established the un Commission for India and Pakistan (uncip) to investigate and mediate the question of the accession of Jammu and Kashmir [January 6, 1948]. uncip’s role was subsequently enlarged; the first team of unarmed military observers was formed to supervise the ceasefire between India and Pakistan; it eventually became the un Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan [March 30, 1951]. These events were followed by the establishment of the first group of military observers, headed by the un Mediator Count Folke Bernadotte of Wisborg, to supervise the truce following the cessation of hostilities in Palestine. This group became the un Truce Supervision Organization [May 29, 1948]. In June 1950, the Security Council recommended that member states assist the southern part of Korea to repel the armed attack from the north [June 27, 1950]. In November 1950, the Assembly adopted the Uniting for Peace resolution, which addressed the aggression by North Korea [November 3, 1950]. The resolution also stated that the Assembly may recommend collective action,

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including the use of force, if the Security Council fails to exercise its responsibility due to lack of unanimity. 2

Dag Hammarskjöld (Sweden), 1953–1961: Cold War

Dag Hammarskjöld was elected the second Secretary-General of the un [April 10, 1953] and re-elected for a second term. Before accepting the position, he had been a Swedish diplomat and economist. Hammarskjöld was initially seen as a competent technocrat without political views. He began his term by building up the un Secretariat to 4,000 administrators and setting up regulations that defined their responsibilities. The Soviet Union denounced his role in the Middle East conflict and demanded his resignation. Dag Hammarskjöld died in office in a plane crash en route to cease-fire negotiations in the Congo [September 18, 1961]. Peacekeeping Becomes Established During the term of Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld, the full concept of peacekeeping was developed, namely lightly armed troops from a number of countries that were neutral to the conflict, monitoring a ceasefire agreement. Peacekeeping forces were to use force only in self-defence. This concept was first introduced when the General Assembly established the un Emergency Force (unef) [November 5, 1956]. unef supervised the withdrawal of the armed forces of France, Israel and the United Kingdom from Egyptian territory and, after the withdrawal, served as a buffer between the Egyptian and Israeli forces. unef was withdrawn in May–June 1967, at Egypt’s request. A second mission was launched in June 1958 when the Security Council established the un Observation Group in Lebanon [June 11, 1958]. This was followed in July 1960 by the un Force in the Congo (onuc), which had a significant military force [July 14, 1960]. At its peak, onuc numbered nearly 20,000 troops, with contingents from Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Ireland, Liberia, Morocco, Sweden and Tunisia. Established by the General Assembly, onuc arranged for the withdrawal of Belgian military personnel, later expanding to mercenaries, and provided military assistance to ensure internal stability. onuc stayed on location until 1964. Management Reform with Political Overtones The new Secretary-General took a strong interest in management issues and set out to centralize certain functions by placing the personnel, legal and finance offices under his direct supervision [December 9, 1953]. He also broke down

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departments into smaller units, including the Department of Conference and General Services, which was split into two, resulting in a total of seven departments and offices other than the expanded Office of the Secretary-General. With regard to personnel management, he demanded and received increased authority over the appointment and termination of staff. Hammarskjöld oversaw a period of expansion, with the number of staff members reaching 4,400 by 1960. East–West antagonism during the 1950s took its toll on Dag Hammarskjöld’s work. He was acting too independently for the Soviet Union, controlling what was considered to be a Secretariat with a pro-Western bias. It was argued that peacekeeping operations were staffed with persons from nato countries only, while candidates from socialist countries were rejected for technical assistance projects with developing countries in order to preserve Western influence. Indeed, at that time, staff from the United States and its Western allies constituted an overwhelming majority within the un. The situation escalated when the Soviet Union and its allies refused to share in the cost of peacekeeping operations. To ensure adequate control over the workings of the Secretariat, the Soviet Union proposed to replace the post of Secretary-General with a troika of one representative each from the socialist states, the Western military alliance and the non-aligned states [September 22, 1960]. This proposal was addressed by a group of experts (Group of 8), established by the Secretary-General in response to a request by the General Assembly, to review the organization of the Secretariat [June 14, 1961]. The Group recommended against the troika proposal but advanced a number of recommendations to address the imbalance in the geographic distribution of staff which were ultimately approved. This was to be achieved by introducing a new formula to determine the proportion of positions for each country. Attention was also paid to budgetary matters, including budgetary stabilization, reducing posts, and approving, at the same time as the annual budget, a budget ceiling for the subsequent year [June 14, 1961]. 3

U Thant (Burma), 1961–1971: The Third World

U Thant was elected third Secretary-General of the un after his predecessor Dag Hammarskjöld died in a plane crash; he too was re-elected for a second term [November 3, 1961]. He had previously been a Burmese diplomat and politician. Thant had a calm and unassuming demeanour which won his colleagues’ respect. He was credited for defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis and ending the civil war in the Congo. The Six Day War between Arab countries and

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Israel, the Prague Spring and subsequent Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 leading to the birth of Bangladesh all took place during his tenure as Secretary-General. His once good relationship with the us government deteriorated rapidly when he publicly criticized American conduct of the Vietnam War. During the term of Secretary-General U Thant, the main change initiatives covered peacekeeping financing, the budget cycle, expansion of membership and establishment of new organizational entities in the area of development co-operation. Peacekeeping Financing Immediately after taking office, U Thant was confronted with a major financial crisis. In the Security Council, the unef peacekeeping missions had been vetoed by Britain and France and the onuc mission by the Soviet Union; both were approved by the General Assembly. This was considered unconstitutional by the veto countries, which refused to contribute to the costs of those missions. Due to the non-payment, France and the Soviet Union came close to owing more than the previous two years’ contributions and losing their voting rights in accordance with Article 19 of the Charter. To avert a crisis, it was agreed that there would be no vote during the session of the General Assembly and that the Working Group on the Examination of the Administrative and Budgetary Procedures of the un (Group of 15) would be asked to review the matter. The Working Group suggested requesting an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice on the legal nature of financial obligations arising from unep and onuc [November 15, 1961]. The International Court of Justice subsequently advised that expenditures for unef and onuc were expenses of the organization [July 20, 1962], and this ruling was accepted by the General Assembly [December 19, 1962]. Despite the decision by the General Assembly, the dissatisfaction with the approval and funding of peacekeeping operations continued. The previous Working Group was continued and expanded by an additional six members (Group of 21). At its Special Session on the Financing of Peacekeeping Operations, the General Assembly approved some general principles to serve as guidelines for sharing the costs of future peacekeeping operations [June 27, 1963]. Moreover, it established the intergovernmental Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations to undertake a comprehensive review and subsequently approved its recommendations [December 15, 1965]. This effort was successful. The Assembly agreed that the onuc peacekeeping arrears would not count against overall arrears for the purpose of Article 19 and that it would  not demand the outstanding contribution. Instead, the countries that supplied troops agreed informally to bear the cost of their participation

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in peacekeeping operations themselves in order to make up for the funding shortfall due to non-payment. In addition, the Assembly agreed that in future only the Security Council would establish new peacekeeping forces and contributions to peacekeeping would be assessed. New Planning and Budgeting System The expansion of the un bureaucracy that took place under the tenure of Dag Hammarskjöld continued during the time of U Thant, and there were 8,000 staff members by 1969. The major contributors, in particular the United States, were concerned about the expansion, especially in the economic and social fields. It was seen as creating inefficiencies, duplications and overlapping of activities. To review the matter, the General Assembly established the Ad Hoc Committee of Experts to Examine the Finance of the un and the Specialized Agencies (Group of 14), which proposed a budget cycle reform, budget performance reporting, long-term planning, and strengthened evaluation and external control [July 19, 1966]. Additional proposals were made to limit the number and size of meetings and documentation. The proposals launched a major reform effort within the un system. The Assembly approved a new budgetary procedure involving the submission of proposed annual budget together with planning estimates for the next one-year budget period [December 19, 1967]. The budget was to be based on long-term plans developed by programme-formulating bodies, including ecosoc and its subsidiary bodies. The Joint Inspection Unit (jiu), composed of eight inspectors, was created to achieve greater co-ordination between the organizations of the system and to investigate all matters having a bearing on the efficiency of services and proper use of funds [December 22, 1976]. Other issues included the introduction of a programme budget for a two-year budget cycle, and the introduction of a medium-term plan. The un’s first biennial programme budget was approved in 1973 for the period 1974–1975, along with the first medium-term plan for the period 1974–1977. The General Assembly approved a reorganization of the Secretariat proposed by the Secretary-General U Thant, which essentially involved a reduction in senior positions and the introduction of a new senior job category [December 19, 1967]. Increase in Membership Decolonization created rapid growth in un membership; by 1965 it stood at 118, twice as many as at the organization’s founding. To reflect the growing membership, the General Assembly proposed that the Security Council be increased from 11 to 15 with 4 additional non-permanent members, and that ecosoc be expanded from 18 to 27 members [December 17, 1963]. The Charter amendments came into effect on August 31, 1965, after reaching the necessary

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number of ratifications. ecosoc membership was subsequently increased again, from 27 to 53 members [December 20, 1971]. Focus on Development With states from Africa and Asia joining the un, focus shifted to development issues, with corresponding budget increases through the expansion of the technical co-operation programmes. This led to the establishment of new bodies, particularly the undp [November 22, 1965], which was to provide the framework for technical co-operation with developing countries. undp established a network of co-ordinators in the field, who were subsequently upgraded to Resident Co-ordinators (rcs). undp also subsumed the function of the un Special Fund established in 1959. A number of other entities were established: unido [December 20, 1965], the itc [December 12, 1967], and uncdf [December 15, 1967]. With the increased emphasis on development, it was anticipated that funding for technical co-operation would increase considerably. The network of uncoordinated new entities appeared to be ill equipped to handle the new task. In response, the Governing Body of undp mandated Sir Robert Jackson to examine the implications of the anticipated funding increase for the un development system. Jackson, an Australian national, had a distinguished career in the un system and advised the head of undp on technical, logistical and pre-investment aid to developing countries. He issued a severe indictment of the existing arrangement, describing it as a non-system, lacking a central brain [December 1969]. The lack of global planning and priority setting was to be addressed by turning ecosoc into a central forum for economic questions. undp was to become the central co-ordination organization of the un system through which all voluntary funds were to be channelled to the specialized agencies. The specialized agencies, however, rejected the curtailment of their independence, and member states showed very little interest in centralization. Some headway was made in improving the work of undp itself by the introduction of country programme planning, based on indicative planning figures, and appointing undp resident representatives as co-ordinators of other un development agencies [March 16–26 and December 11, 1970]. 4

Kurt Waldheim (Austria), 1972–1981: The North–South Conflict

Kurt Waldheim was elected the fourth Secretary-General of the un [December 22, 1971]. He had been an Austrian diplomat and politician. However, his

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diplomatic efforts, particularly in the Middle East, were overshadowed by the diplomacy of then us Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. Waldheim was reappointed in 1976. After leaving the un, he again became involved in Austrian politics, at which point his service as an intelligence officer in the German army during World War ii raised international controversy in 1985. During the term of Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim, the un bureaucracy continued to grow, especially in the economic and social areas, reaching a total of 15,000 of un staff members by 1980. The main change initiative concerned the adoption of a policy on a new international economic order and restructuring the un to support its implementation. A New un Structure for Global Economic Co-operation Towards the mid-1970s, the un increasingly became the forum for global negotiations on issues involving development. Whereas technical co-operation remained of paramount importance for developing countries, development was to be achieved by addressing new issues such as trade, energy, a common fund for raw materials, industrialization, technology transfer, a code of conduct for transnational corporations and the Law of the Sea Convention. Developing countries, organized in the G77 called for a New International Economic Order (nieo), which was opposed by the industrialized countries. This North–South divide was expressed within unctad and was exaggerated by the continuing East–West antagonism. The General Assembly, at its sixth special session, adopted the declaration on the establishment of the nieo [May 1, 1974]. The declaration covered equitable sharing of world trade in commodities, industrialization, technology transfer, technical co-operation, and the restructuring of the economic and social sectors in the un system. Whereas developing countries supported national control over resources and the policy of national self-reliance, developed countries were reluctant and expressed reservations, which fell short of open opposition. This was followed by the adoption of the Charter of the Economic Rights and Duties of States which also reflected the new emphasis captured in the nieo [December 12, 1974]. New entities were set up. The un Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm, Sweden, in June 1972, resulted in the formation of unep, located in Nairobi, Kenya [June 16, 1972]. The un Habitat and Human Settlements Foundation was also established [December 16, 1974]. Following the approval of the nieo and the Charter of the Economic Rights and Duties of States, developing countries focused on the implementation of the new commitments. At the insistence of the developing countries, the

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General Assembly established a Group of Experts on the Structure of the un System to adapt the system’s governance and organizational structure so it could address the economic and social problems of developing countries. The Group was to address problems of development and international economic co-operation. Proposals were submitted in May 1975 entitled “A New un Structure for Global Economic Co-operation” [May 28, 1975], also known as the Gardner Report after the Group’s chairman. The Group reaffirmed, and in some cases elaborated on, Jackson’s diagnoses. Proposals included the restructuring of ecosoc, new consultative procedures, consolidation of development funds in a new un Development Authority, and the creation of a new post of Director-General for Development and International Economic Cooperation to provide leadership to the un system. The report was considered by the General Assembly and provoked considerable controversy [September 16, 1975]. No specific recommendations were approved. Instead, the Assembly established the Ad Hoc Committee on the Restructuring of the Economic and Social Sectors of the un System. The Committee was to prepare action proposals. After two years of negotiations, the Ad Hoc Committee reached a compromise [December 14, 1977]. The initial recommendations of the Gardner Report were significantly diluted. The role of the General Assembly was strengthened as proposed by the G77, but without addressing the key demand to vest in the Assembly control over the World Bank, imf and General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (gatt). The post of Director-General for Development and International Economic Co-operation was created, albeit without the powers and means the developing countries had wished for. In ecosoc and unctad, things remained the same. The G77 blocked the reduction in the number of ecosoc committees demanded by industrialized countries, while the latter prevented any upgrading of unctad. The Soviet Union supported the call for an nieo, whereas the United States argued for a reform in management, planning and co-ordination. 5

Javier Pérez de Cuéllar (Peru), 1982–1991: Return to the un

In 1981, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar was elected the fifth Secretary-General [December 15, 1981]. He had previously served as a Peruvian diplomat and politician. During his two terms, he led mediations between Britain and Argentina in the aftermath of the Falklands War and promoted the efforts of the Contadora Group to bring peace and stability to Central America. He also interceded in the negotiations for the independence of Namibia, the conflict in Western Sahara and the Cyprus issue. During the term of Secretary-General Javier Pérez

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de Cuéllar, the main change initiative involved the un’s administrative and financial functioning and a host of new reform efforts following the end of the Cold War. Administrative and Financial Functioning During the early 1980s, political confrontation became all-pervasive. Disappointed third world countries deplored the “ignorance of the minority”, while the industrialized countries deplored the “tyranny of the majority”. The United States and its allies retreated from the organization, levelling accusations of politicization and mismanagement at the organization. The Reagan administration and the United States Congress called for a change in un budget practices. The un budget is approved by a two-thirds majority of all member states, with all votes having equal weight. The countries making the largest financial contributions, including the United States, were often outvoted on budget questions. The United States reacted by demanding voting power in the approval of the budget proportionate to its contribution. The demands were coupled by the withholding of mandatory payments, which resulted in a major financial crisis. While the un struggled to avoid financial collapse, a number of reform proposals were developed outside the un. The Brandt Commission aimed to revive the almost broken-down North–South dialogue [February 12, 1980], which was taken up by the North–South Economic Summit in Cancun, Mexico [October 20–22, 1981]. The Palme Commission developed new ideas to expand the un concept of collective security [April 1983]. The Heritage Foundation, a us think tank close to the Reagan administration, suggested a major redirection or the establishment of an alternative system to the un [September 1984]. In the meantime, the us Congress passed legislation, known as the Kassebaum-Solomon Amendment [August 16, 1985]. The legislation required that the us’s assessed contribution to the un regular budget be reduced from 24 to 20 per cent unless the un adopted weighted voting on budgetary matters proportionate to the contribution of each member state. This was to address the lack of us influence over the un budget process. In view of the un’s financial collapse, the General Assembly entrusted a group of high-level intergovernmental experts (Group of 18) with reviewing the un’s administrative and financial functioning. The Group presented 71 recommendations covering budget procedures, reduction of staff, the structure of the Secretariat, and intergovernmental machinery [August 18, 1986]. These recommendations were approved by the General Assembly [December 19, 1986], including a new consensus-based, two-tier budget process. In addition to the regular biennium budget, a new budget outline was introduced, issued one year prior to the budget. The new budget outline was to be approved not

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by majority vote but by consensus, giving each member a veto, including the major contributors. Although the introduction of the new consensus-based budget process revealed similar interests in East and West, it was perceived by the developing countries as a threat to the principles of sovereign equality. Other decisions included reducing the number of overall posts by 15 per cent and senior-level posts by 25 per cent; reducing the number of conferences; cutting the costs of travel and documentation; and making organizational adjustments. The latter resulted in the new Department for Special Political Questions, Regional Co-operation, Decolonization and Trusteeship. This was done by merging the previous Office of Special Political Questions with the Department of Political Affairs, Trusteeship and Decolonization. As an innovation, the Office for Research and the Collection of Information (orci) was established for analysis and early warning. This was seen as an attempt to establish an intelligence function in the un and objected to by the United States. orci was later abolished by Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali. Other organizational changes included the consolidation of social development activities in Vienna, the reorganization of public information and the merging of programme planning and budgeting within the Department of Administration and Management. A number of recommendations were not implemented, such as the proposed reduction in staff benefits and entitlements, the simplification of the ecosoc committee structure and the restructuring of the economic and social areas. Moreover, rather than a decrease in staff, the number first increased to 16,000, after which a decline set in. Nevertheless, the reforms appeased the critics of the un and paved the way for the United States to assume payment of its assessed contribution again, thus avoiding the organization’s financial collapse. Rediscovery of the un With the end of the Cold War in the second half of the 1980s, the un was rediscovered. New peacekeeping and observer missions were approved with unprecedented speed, covering Angola, Namibia, Nicaragua, El Salvador and Cambodia. In parallel, a host of new reform proposals emerged from heads of government, groups of ambassadors, non-governmental organizations (ngos) and individual experts. In an unprecedented article, Mikhail Gorbachev, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the ussr, emphasized the importance of the un, particularly its peace and security role [September 17, 1987]. He proposed the wide use of un observers and peacekeeping forces, the holding of Security Council meetings at the ministerial level, the establishment at the un of an intelligence

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monitoring capability, and the involvement of non-governmental groups in conflict resolution. Rather than merely new ideas, the proposals represented a dramatic break from Soviet policy and brought new life to the un. The Brundtland Commission presented an assessment of environmental degradation and economic development [March 20, 1987]. The Commission argued for the establishment of a un programme on sustainable development, a concept which was to become a un mantra in the future. The Commission introduced proposals to raise revenue from the use of international commons and natural resources. It was instrumental in convening the un Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. A panel of the un Association of the United States (una-usa), chaired by former us attorney general Elliot L. Richardson, made some innovative reform proposals including the creation of a ministerial council to maintain a global watch in human security [September 1987]. Prior to this, Maurice Bertrand, a member of the un jiu, issued “Some Reflections on Reform of the un”, proposing a new economic security council and a new semi-independent commission, inspired by the European Community [December 6, 1985]. The South Commission proposed a fundamental transformation of the World Bank and imf, the establishment of international regimes to exploit global commons such as Antarctica and outer space, and periodic un summits to review the world economic situation, prospects for development and the environment [May 1990]. Brian Urquhart and Erskine Childers, senior un staff members supported by the Ford and Dag Hammarskjöld foundations, issued a series of reform proposals, covering the selection process for the Secretary-General and the reorganization of the un Secretariat [September 19, 1990; June 1991; March 1994]. Other reform proposals were issued by the North–South Roundtable, which presented “Strengthening the un for the 1990s” [January 18–19, 1991], the Stanley Foundation report on “un Structure and Leadership for a New Era” [February 22–24, 1991], the Stockholm Initiative on Governance report on “Common Responsibilities in the 1990s” [April 22, 1991], and the Nordic un Reform Project with “The un in Development – Reform Issues in the Economic and Social Fields” [April 1991]. Towards the end of 1991, Ambassador Peter Wilenski, Australia’s permanent representative to the un, had assembled a diverse group of 22 ambassadors to develop reform proposals for the incoming Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali. Key recommendation included consolidating the Secretariat into fewer departments and strengthening the Secretary-General’s authority [November 1991]. The outcome was that many of this group’s recommendations were followed.

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For the first time, the United States and the ussr issued a joint statement called “Responsibility for Peace and Security in the Changing World”, declaring that the confrontational East–West relationship was giving way to co-operation and partnership [October 1, 1990]. 6

Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt), 1992–1996: The New Unity

Boutros Boutros-Ghali was elected sixth Secretary-General [December 3, 1991]. He had been an Egyptian academic, politician and diplomat and vice foreign minister of Egypt. Boutros Boutros-Ghali oversaw the un at a time when it had to deal with several world crises, including the break-up of Yugoslavia, the Rwandan genocide, and the Angolan and Somalian civil wars. He was the only un Secretary-General not to be elected to a second term in office. Some have argued that the United States was opposed to Boutros-Ghali because of his reluctance to approve nato bombing in Bosnia. During his term in office, the main change initiative covered major structural changes of the Secretariat and the launch of An Agenda for Peace. Many reform initiatives were made to salute the 50th anniversary of the un. Major Structural Changes Boutros Boutros-Ghali forcefully reorganized the Secretariat during his first months in office in 1992. In so doing, he was guided in particular by the proposals of 22 ambassadors submitted by Ambassador Peter Wilenski, Australia’s permanent representative to the un [November 1991]. He consolidated the organization and abolished a number of senior positions. In the economic and social area, the un Centre on Transnational Corporations was closed down, several independent entities were consolidated into the single large Department for Economic and Social Development (desa), and the post of DirectorGeneral for International Co-operation and Economic Affairs was abolished. In the peace and security area, offices are clustered into dpa, with a focus on analysis. The previous Office for Special Political Affairs became the dpko, which focused on operations, and the status of un disarmament work was reduced. Developing countries criticized the consolidation of organizational entities and objected to the abolition of the post of Director-General. Its creation had been one of the main results of the reforms in the 1970s. Nevertheless, the General Assembly retroactively endorsed the restructuring [March 2, 1992]. In fact, there was a widespread feeling that the issue of development had been marginalized in favour of the industrial countries’ security priorities. The restructuring was essentially undone one year later [May 6, 1993]. The new

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mega-department desa was split into three again: the new Department for Policy Co-ordination and Sustainable Development established in response to the Earth Summit [June 3–14, 1992]; the Department for Development Support and Management Services; and the Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis. Somewhat later, a new Department of Humanitarian Affairs was established. The new Inter-Agency Standing Committee (iasc) was set up as the primary mechanism for inter-agency co-ordination and humanitarian assistance. The new committee involved un and non-UN entities, the latter including the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Council of Voluntary Agencies, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the American Council for Voluntary International Action, and the World Bank. The iasc operates under the leadership of the Emergency Relief Co-ordinator. Responding to a demand by the United States, the Secretary-General established the Office for Inspection and Investigations to provide audit, inspection and investigation services to the organization [August 24, 1993]. The Office was part of the Secretariat, reporting to the Secretary-General. Just one year later, the new Office was replaced by the Office of Internal Oversight Services (oios), which had additional responsibilities, independence and authority [July 29, 1994]. oios was to identify and investigate possible cases of inefficiencies or malfeasance within the organization. In December 1993, member states agreed to transform the governing bodies of undp, unfpa and unicef into smaller executive boards [December 20, 1993]. The change was supported by the smaller countries only reluctantly. An Agenda for Peace With the end of the Cold War, a new global consensus was developing. In January 1992, the Security Council met for the first time at the level of heads of state and government and requested that new Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali prepare his recommendations on strengthening the un’s capacity in the security area [January 31, 1992]. The Secretary-General responded to the Security Council’s request by presenting the “Agenda for Peace”, which contained suggestions for reform in the area of preventive diplomacy, peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding [June 17, 1992]. The report broke new ground. Numerous proposals were advanced, including the development of an early warning system to assess threats to peace; the establishment of demilitarized zones in conflict areas; and the use of military force in the face of a threat to peace. A controversial proposal was the creation of peace-enforcement units under the command

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of the Secretary-General. Though the developing countries took a cautious attitude towards this activist agenda, the report provided the foundation for the reform process in the coming years and allowed new activities such as the deployment of un troops in Somalia. A “Supplement to an Agenda for Peace” was subsequently considered [February 22, 1995]. Proposals included the establishment of a rapid reaction force, a more prominent role for the Secretary-General in preventive diplomacy, and a comprehensive information capacity. Other proposals included curbing the spread of anti-personnel landmines and the inclusion of reconstruction efforts and rehabilitation government into post-conflict peacebuilding. Finally, it was suggested that the potential impact of sanctions on the target and third countries be assessed prior to imposing such sanctions. Most of the recommendations were not approved, but agreement was reached on enhancing existing stand-by arrangements, and the need to control the costs of peacekeeping operations was emphasized. Agenda for Development The General Assembly mandated the Secretary-General to present an “Agenda for Development” to counterbalance the low priority given to development following the issuance of the Agenda for Peace [December 22, 1992]. The Secretary-General’s first proposals were considered to be disappointing and rejected by the G77 since they did not contain detailed recommendations [May 6, 1994]. The second proposal for an Agenda for Development was rejected as well [December 19, 1994]. The Secretary-General proposed to increase official development assistance, move funding from voluntary to assessed contributions, cancel the debt burden for least developed countries, revitalize ecosoc, focus on women’s empowerment, poverty eradication and support for African development, and consider holding an international conference on the financing of development. The G77 and the European Union expressed their disappointment about the lack of action-oriented proposals. The United States considered the Agenda too far-reaching, especially the proposals regarding funding and debt relief. Instead of approving the Agenda as initially anticipated, the General Assembly established an open-ended working group to draw up an action-oriented, comprehensive “Agenda for Development” prior to the end of 1995. However, final agreement was only reached in 1997 [June 20, 1997]. The final result was limited. No new commitments were reached due to persistent differences between the G77 and the industrialized countries. Nevertheless, the Agenda also reflected a new emphasis. Whereas previous efforts emphasized the role of governments in organizing the market process, the Agenda described development as a complex process that is based on the rights and freedom of the individual.

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50th Anniversary of the un In preparing for the anniversary, the Assembly could draw on a number of working groups: Agenda for Peace [June 17, 1992, and after], Reform of the Security Council [December 3, 1993, following], and Agenda for Development [May 6, 1994, following]. Reports of recent reform initiatives include South Centre [October 1992]; Independent Advisory Group on un Financing (Ogata/ Volcker Group) [April 1993]; us Commission on Improving the Effectiveness of the un (Leach/Lichtenstein Commission) [September 1993]; Renewing the un System (Childers/Urquhart) [March 1994]; Commission on Global Governance (Carlsson/Ramphal Commission) [February 1995]; Independent Working Group on the Future of the un (Qureshi/Weizsäcker Group) [June 1995]; and Reforming the un (Kennedy/Russet) [September 1995]. A multitude of proposals were advanced, including the following: – Creating an economic security council or strengthening ecosoc (South Centre, Carlsson/Ramphal Commission, Kennedy/Russet) – Establishing a un rapid reaction force and addressing intra-state conflicts (Qureshi/Weizsäcker Group, Carlsson/Ramphal Commission, Kennedy/ Russet, Leach/Lichtenstein Commission) – Charging for the use of global commons, such as sea lanes, ocean fishing and the electromagnetic spectrum (Carlsson/Ramphal Commission, Kennedy/ Russet) – Reducing the financial assessment of the United States to limit dependency (Childers/Urquhart, Carlsson/Ramphal Commission, Kennedy/Russet) – Strengthening the political authority of the General Assembly over a single, co-ordinated un system, and making the Bretton Woods institutions more democratic and subject to overall policy co-ordination by the un (South Centre) – Creating a un Parliamentary Assembly, a common seat for the un system organizations, a single un Development Authority by consolidating un funds and programmes, and a un Humanitarian Security Police Force (Childers/ Urquhart) – Mandating the Security Council to authorize action in intra-state conflicts; banning the manufacture and export of land-mines; and restricting the appointment of the Secretary-General to a single term of seven years (Carlsson/Ramphal Commission) – Establishing three related councils: a new economic council, a new social council, and the existing but enhanced Security Council. All three bodies should be served by a common secretariat (Qureshi/Weizsäcker Group)

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– Establishing permanent regional membership for the Security Council, restricting the use of the veto to issues of war and peace, and rescuing collapsed states such as Cambodia, Afghanistan, Haiti, and Rwanda as a new role for the un (Kennedy/Russet) – Charging interest on late payments of assessed contribution, increasing the working capital fund from usd 100 million to usd 200 million, and establishing a revolving reserve fund of usd 400 million for peacekeeping (Ogata/Volcker Group) – Not greatly expanding the Security Council in order to avoid impairing its ability to reach consensus, ensuring that us military personnel in peacekeeping only serve under us command, and establishing an office of inspector general and the position of High Commissioner for Human Rights (Leach/Lichtenstein Commission) Contrary to initial expectations, no decision on reform of the un was made during the anniversary celebration and the proposals were not addressed in any noticeable way. Instead, the Assembly adopted a declaration reflecting the lowest common denominator [October 22–24, 1995]. The environment had changed with astonishing speed from the enthusiasm of the early 1990s. On October 3, 1993, 18 American soldiers serving in the un operation in Somalia were killed. The tragedy was a watershed, leading to a major change in the United States’ un policy. In contrast to the first Bush administration, the Clinton administration increasingly retreated from assertive multilateralism and did not engage in new peacekeeping operations. As in the 1980s, the demands for reform were coupled with the renewed withholding of funds. In response, Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali introduced major budget reductions, cutting about 10 per cent of the staff. However, further reform initiatives had to await the new Secretary-General. 7

Kofi Annan (Ghana), 1997–2006: Focus on Integrity and Efficiency

In 1996, Kofi Annan was elected the seventh Secretary-General of the un [December 17, 1996]. He had been a senior un official, including Under-SecretaryGeneral for peacekeeping operations. In 1999, Annan supported the efforts of East Timor to secure independence from Indonesia. He supported sending a un peacekeeping mission to Darfur, Sudan. In September 2004, when questioned about the legal authority for the invasion, Annan said he believed that the 2003 invasion of Iraq was not in conformity with the un charter and was illegal. Following some allegations, an inquiry into the management of the un

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Oil-for-Food Programme, the un’s largest undertaking, found insufficient evidence to indict Kofi Annan on any illegal actions, but was highly critical of the un’s management structure. During the term of Secretary-General Kofi Annan, the main change initiative involved the management reforms known as the Quiet Revolution during the late 1990s and early 2000s, which resulted in better co-ordination and co-operation within the un development and humanitarian system. He achieved the approval of the Millennium Development Goals (mdgs) to combat poverty, hunger and disease and the revamping of peacekeeping operations following the Brahimi Report by the Millennium Summit. As well, the fight against the hiv/aids pandemic was energized. Major organizational re-adjustments associated with his programme entitled “In Larger Freedom” included efforts to address concerns following the 2003 Iraq invasion and the mismanagement of the un Oil-for-Food Programme. During Kofi Annan’s term, the initiative to reform the Security Council was most prominent. The Quiet Revolution The appointment of Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 promised a new start and a chance for a fundamental restructuring of the organization to accommodate the critics. Jesse Helms, Chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, presented demands for the cessation of perceived un encroachment on national sovereignty, major budget reductions, a change in the budget process and an overhaul of peacekeeping. The HelmsBiden Reform Act of 1999 called for zero-growth budgets and reductions in the United States’ assessed contribution. Payment of the United States’ arrears was made contingent on benchmarks related to un financial, administrative and programme reforms. Soon after taking office, Kofi Annan established a cabinet-style body to assist him and grouped 30 un departments, funds and programmes under four sectoral areas: peace and security, economic and social affairs, humanitarian affairs, and development [January 1997]. An Executive Committee was established to co-ordinate the work of each area. The committees were later linked directly to the Office of the Secretary-General by the establishment of a senior management group. After six months in office, Kofi Annan presented his report “Renewing the United Nations: A Programme for Reform” [July 14, 1997]. Reorganization, consolidation of efforts at the country level and reaching out to civil society and the private sector were the core of the reform effort. The Assembly approved the proposal to establish a position of Deputy Secretary-General, the reduction in administrative costs from 38 to 25 per cent, the creation of a development account funded through savings and the introduction of a performance-based

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management culture. In order to address more fundamental problems, the Assembly agreed to hold a Millennium Summit in 2000. Reorganization efforts were implemented in 1997 and 1998, partly undoing decisions of the previous Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali. Three economic and social entities were merged into one Department of Economic and Social Affairs (desa) and Vienna-based activities were merged into the un Office on Drugs and Crime. The Department of Public Information was reoriented. The Department for Disarmament Affairs (dda) was re-established and the Strategic Planning Unit within the Office of the Secretary-General was created. In September 1999, the Geneva-based human rights programmes were merged into a single ohchr. The proposal to establish a Deputy Secretary-General to oversee a single ­humanitarian agency was not approved, due to opposition from unicef in particular. Instead, ocha was established, with limited authority and effectiveness, replacing the previous Department for Humanitarian Affairs. The consolidation of country teams for the various un funds and programmes included the establishment of un Houses, which provided shared common office space and utilized common service providers. Other efforts focused on strengthening the role of the un rcs as the leaders of un country teams. To bring un assistance more closely into line with the host countries’ priorities, the concept of a Common Country Assessment was established to clarify national needs, and the un Development Assistance Framework (­u ndaf) was created to set out the division of labour among un entities ­assisting governments. Strengthening the public information function had been one of the Secretary-General’s stated priorities. He established the Task Force on the Reorientation of un Public Information Activities, chaired by Mark Malloch Brown, head of External Relations at the World Bank [August 14, 1997]. The Task Force recommended expanding and upgrading the Department for Public Information by consolidating existing entities, creating regional hubs and establishing partnerships with ngos. One of the major functions of the new department would be delivering strongly news-oriented media services, with a 24-hour approach to global media. The Secretary-General accepted most but not all of the recommendations and submitted the report to the General Assembly’s Committee on Information. Next, the network of un information centres was rationalized around regional hubs, starting with Western Europe, where nine individual centres were replaced by a regional office in Brussels. The Department of Public Information was restructured by establishing a Division of Strategic Communications to focus on un messages related to priority themes and an Outreach Division to group together services for delegations, civil society and the general public.

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Reaching out to civil society and the private sector as partners was an innovative initiative. The Secretary-General challenged corporations to meet their responsibilities as global citizens. Under the terms of the Global Compact, participating businesses were to put activities into place to advance the un’s core values in the areas of human rights, labour standards and the environment. One outcome of the un’s new openness was the creation in March 1998 of the un Fund for International Partnership, established by a Ted Turner donation of usd 1 billion, which supports programming in the areas of children’s health, population and women, environment and peace, security and human rights. The Assembly also approved a new scale of assessment [December 23, 2000]. In accordance with the conditions outlined in the Helms-Biden Act, the United States’ assessment for the regular budget was reduced from 25 to 22 per cent and for peacekeeping operations from 30 to 26 per cent, with the implicit understanding that in exchange the United States’ arrears would be paid. The us Senate voted two months later to make a substantial payment of usd 582 million of arrears to the un. The final arrears payment was made in September 2001. The decision was seen as putting the un back on a solid financial footing for the years to come. Finally, after a long negotiation process, the Assembly approved the introduction of results-based budgeting [December 23, 2000]. In 2002, the Secretary-General’s second major package of reform, entitled “Strengthening of the United Nations: An Agenda for Further Change”, was approved by the General Assembly [December 20, 2002]. The package aimed to expand the reform initiatives introduced in 1997 and included a number of housekeeping initiatives. Development and implementation of the reforms were overseen by the Deputy Secretary-General. Specific changes covered public information, the planning and budgeting system, management and staff, and technical co-operation. The planning and budgeting system was considered to be overly complex, involving too many committees, voluminous documentation and hundreds of meetings. The Assembly approved the introduction of a shorter medium-term plan covering two years rather than four, which was combined with the budget outline submitted one year before the actual budget. The budget document itself was to be less detailed and the Secretary-General was given more flexibility to manage resources. With regard to the management of staff, the office of the Ombudsman had been established at the end of 2001 and an informal mediation process was set up to strengthen the internal staff justice system. A new staff selection system was introduced to shorten the recruitment process, despite concerns that this would make it difficult to achieve an equitable distribution of national representation among staff members and improve the gender balance. un

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managers also received training in people management, in tandem with the introduction of a new personnel appraisal system. Moreover, staff mobility between different locations and functions was supported. With regard to technical co-operation, important steps had been taken since 1997 to ensure more effective co-ordination among the various un entities working in a given country. The new initiatives developed by the un Development Group (undg) supported the pooling of resources between un agencies, funds and programmes working in each country and the establishment of joint programming, common databases and knowledge networks. The rc system was provided with additional support. The reforms launched by the Secretary-General in 1997 and 2002 were acknowledged. In response to a request by the United States Congress, the United States General Accounting Office (gao) reported that the Secretariat had substantially restructured its leadership and operations and partly implemented a performance-oriented human capital management system [May 2000]. In 2002, the un met the last of the Helms-Biden benchmarks, prompting the United States Congress to release the third and final instalment of more than usd 1 billion in dues to the un. In a second report [February 2004], the gao noted that, as of December 2003, 60 per cent of the 88 reform initiatives in the 1997 agenda and 38 per cent of the 66 initiatives in the 2002 agenda were in place. In general, the reforms under the Secretary-General’s authority progressed faster than those requiring member states’ approval. Millennium Summit mdgs and Peacekeeping By the year 2000, the un and its Secretary-General were looking to the future. The General Assembly decided to hold a Millennium summit in September 2000 [March 15, 2000]. The Secretary-General submitted his vision under the theme “We the Peoples: The Role of the un in the Twenty-First Century” [March 27, 2000]. Under “Freedom from Want”, issues of poverty, education, youth employment, health, hiv/aids, slums, trade access, debt relief, and development assistance are covered. This chapter contained what would later become the mdgs. Under “Freedom from Fear”, proposals were advanced in the area of protecting the vulnerable, intervening to halt mass murder, curbing the illegal traffic in small arms, and making sanctions less harsh on innocent populations. Under “Sustaining Our Future”, issues related to climate change, water crises, biotechnology, forests, fisheries, and biodiversity were covered. Under “Renewing the un”, support was given to a reform of the Security Council, provision of adequate resources, co-operation with civil society, adopting results-based budgeting, and introducing sunset provisions in new mandates.

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The Millennium Summit was attended by an unprecedented 147 heads of state or government. The summit approved the Millennium Declaration, which set out Development Goals (the mdgs) [September 8, 2000]. Major commitments were pledged to promote development and eradicate poverty, including the following targets to be achieved by the year 2015: – Halve the proportion of people living in extreme poverty (less than a dollar a day) and hunger; – Achieve universal primary education; – Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education; – Reduce by two-thirds the mortality rate among children under five; – Reduce by three-quarters the proportion of women who die during childbirth; – Halve and begin to reverse the spread of hiv/aids and the incidence of malaria; – Halve the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water. The mdgs were drawn from the report submitted by Secretary-General and generated an unprecedented level of co-ordinated action within the un system, the donor community, and developing countries. The Declaration also stated the commitment to intensify efforts to reform the Security Council. Peacekeeping Following the recent failures in peacekeeping in Somalia and Yugoslavia and the surge in demand for un peacekeepers, the Secretary-General established the Panel on un Peace Operations, chaired by Lakhdar Brahimi, former Foreign Minister of Algeria, to assess the shortcomings of the then-existing system and to make specific recommendations for change for consideration by the Millennium Summit [March 7, 2000]. The Brahimi report recommended sweeping changes in peacekeeping strategy, doctrine and operations [August 21, 2000]. The prescription was for a larger number of well-equipped, well-trained troops, more support staff at headquarters and stronger political, financial and material support from the member states, particularly members of the Security Council. The Security Council accepted many of the key prescriptions [November 13, 2000]. In particular, the Council recognized the critical importance of peacekeeping operations’ having a credible deterrent capability. To allow for more flexibility in management and logistics, the Secretariat delegated greater authority to the field level. At the insistence of developing countries, gratis personnel (people paid by their own government rather than the un) attached to the Secretariat, mainly sponsored by developed countries, were phased out.

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Implementation of the recommendations was further detailed by the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations and the Secretary-General [December 4, 2000], after which the General Assembly approved the resource requirements [December 23, 2000]. This included a 50-per-cent increase in staff for dpko, and nearly usd 150 million to equip the un Logistics Base in Brindisi, Italy. Some proposals were not ultimately approved. They included improving the co-ordination mechanism for peacekeeping operations, in particular the establishment of Integrated Mission Task Forces or designating the head of dpa as the focal point for post-conflict peacebuilding. Following the Brahimi report, un member states and the un Secretariat continued major reform efforts, including Peace Operations 2010 (2006), containing the dpko reform strategy and the Capstone Doctrine (2008), outlining the most important principles and guidelines for un peacekeepers in the field. Security Council Reform3 With the end of the Cold War, the Security Council had become more active and influential, often overshadowing the General Assembly when dealing with peacekeeping missions or applying economic sanctions. The Council is an exclusive club of 15 members, including five permanent (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States) and 10 non-permanent members. Japan and Germany were largely excluded from this centre of power and insisted that they were entitled to permanent seats as the second and third largest payers of contributions. The so-called “quick fix”, namely adding Germany and Japan as permanent members along with three additional non-permanent seats for the rest of the world, was rejected by the nam. The Council had been expanded in 1964 by adding four more non-permanent members, when un membership had grown to more than 100 countries from the initial 51. In the early 1990s, membership stood at 185. In response to the renewed interest, the General Assembly established an Open-ended Working Group4 to discuss issues of Council reform, including size and composition, voting arrangements such as the veto, and improved working methods and procedures [December 3, 1993]. Most proposed changes required an amendment to the Charter by two-thirds of the members of the General Assembly, including all the permanent members of the Council. 3 Based on Müller, Joachim, Reforming the United Nations: The Struggle for Legitimacy and Effectiveness, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Volume v, 2006, Chapters 1.13 and 2.3. and von Freiesleben, Jonas, “Security Council Reform” in Managing Change at the United Nations, New York: Center for un Reform Education, April 2008, pp. 1 to 20. 4 Full title: Working Group on the Question of Equitable Representation on and Increase in the Membership of the Security Council and Other Matters Related to the Security Council.

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This effort to reform the Security Council was to become the longest negotiation process in un history. Over the years, several groups of member states organized themselves to conduct negotiations; some states belonged to more than one of these groups: – Group of 4 (G4), in which Germany and Japan joined forces with Brazil and India to increase their appeal to the nam. These were hopeful candidates for permanent membership, including veto power. – Uniting for Consensus (UfC), or “Coffee Club”, led by Italy and Pakistan, rejected the addition of new permanent seats. It included regional rivals of G4 members, with Italy opposing Germany, Pakistan opposing India, Mexico and Argentina opposing Brazil, and China and South Korea opposing Japan. In the end, it included between 20 and 30 mid-size countries.5 Some UfC countries supported the introduction of a new class of rotating semipermanent members; others proposed to increase non-permanent members only. – P2 (France and uk) and P3 (China, Russian Federation and United States) favoured moderate expansion to safeguard decision-making efficiency, with some new permanent members. Britain, France and Russia supported permanent membership for Germany, Brazil, India and Japan. The United States supported Japan but not Germany. With regard to the voting arrangement, all permanent members, with the exception of China, defended the veto power of the current permanent members. – nam supported a major enlargement of the Security Council, including new permanent seats for developing countries, with veto rights. nam favoured the eventual elimination of the veto arrangement or limiting the scope of the veto to a few issues, such as the approval of enforcement measures or the use of military force. This would eliminate the veto right for the election of the Secretary-General. – The L69 was a coalition of developing countries formed in 2008, with India and St. Vincent and the Grenadines acting as its focal points. The L69 included G4 members Brazil and India, 11 African countries and several Caribbean countries. L69 was initially the number of a draft resolution proposed by developing countries which regularly met at India’s mission.6 5 Including Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, New Zealand, Spain and Turkey. 6 Sponsors of the draft resolution were Barbados, Benin, Bhutan, Brazil, Burundi, Cape Verde, Fiji, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Liberia, Mauritius, Nauru, Nigeria, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, South Africa, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.

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– G10 was a group of 10 African countries7 established by the African Union (au) to act as a focal point on Security Council reform. The position was defined by the Ezulwini Consensus [March 8, 2005]: insistence on two permanent African seats with veto power. – Trilateral Commission. India, Brazil and South Africa (ibsa) agreed in July 2007 to work together for permanent Security Council seats. Subsequently, Nigeria aligned itself with ibsa. – S5 (Costa Rica, Jordan, Liechtenstein, Singapore, Switzerland) promoted better working methods for the Security Council (March 2006–May 2012). – act (Accountability, Coherence, and Transparency) replaced S5 in May 2013 and comprised 21 member states8 [May 2, 2013]. – Caribbean Community and Common Market9 and the Pacific Small Island Developing States10 became more active. Some of these countries were already allied with the L69. At the initial phase of the negotiations, some agreement was reached on increasing the transparency of the Council’s operations [February 28, 1994]. The Council decided to meet in open session more often. Other measures included the introduction of consultations between members of the Council, troopcontributing countries and the Secretariat on peacekeeping operations, including mandate renewals; regular briefings by the President of the Council for non-members; the publication of provisional agendas of Council meetings; and the monthly circulation of the Council’s tentative forecast of its programme of work. Draft Council resolutions were made available to member states in their provisional form at the same time as Council members received them. Finally, the Arria Formula of having Council members meet informally with non-members under the chairmanship of someone other than the President at a location different from the Council chamber was approved [March 1992]. This formula allowed the Council to hear from anyone it wanted to, without setting a precedent. 7 8

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Algeria, Congo Brazzaville/Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Kenya, Libya, Namibia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda and Zambia. Austria, Chile, Costa Rica, Estonia, Finland, Gabon, Hungary, Ireland, Jordan, Liechtenstein, New Zealand, Norway, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Tanzania and Uruguay. Members are Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Lucia, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago. Fiji, Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.

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Initially, it had been anticipated that the momentum associated with the 50th anniversary of the un in 1995 would result in an agreement on the reform of the Security Council. Disagreement persisted on virtually all of the main issues including the composition and size of the Security Council and the extension of the veto to possible new permanent members [September 15, 1995]. Although no agreement was reached, the General Assembly gave general approval by deciding that the Security Council should be expanded to further strengthen its capacity and effectiveness. Razali Plan In order to move the process forward, Razali Ismail, the President of the General Assembly, who also served as Chairman of the Open-ended Working Group, submitted a draft framework resolution, known as the Razali plan [March 20, 1997]. It was proposed that the membership would increase from 15 to 24 by adding five permanent (one each from the developing states of Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean and two from the industrialized states, generally expected to be Germany and Japan), and four non-permanent members (one each from Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, and Latin America and the Caribbean). The new permanent members would not have veto rights, although the original five permanent members would retain their veto. Finally, ten years after the amendments entered into force, a review conference would be convened. The Razali plan also included a major change in procedure for the adoption of the proposed reform. Initially, the intention had been to obtain consensus support among all member states for a reform of the Security Council. Recognizing that this was practically impossible, the plan proposed to enact the reform in three separate stages. Initially, a framework resolution was to be approved by a majority of two-thirds of members present and voting. This was to be followed by the selection of new permanent members by a two-thirds majority of all members of the Assembly. Finally, the required amendment of the Charter was to be approved again by a two-thirds majority of all members as well as the current permanent members of the Council in accordance with Article 108 of the Charter. The procedural approach was important. Once the lower hurdle of the framework resolution was approved, Germany and Japan were hoping that this could subsequently build momentum based on which others would join in the approval of the Charter amendment during the final stage. Italy, Pakistan and Mexico, which were against any expansion of the permanent category, opposed the Razali plan. Moreover, the Razali plan received a serious blow when the foreign ministers of the nam issued a declaration on

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Security Council reform that emphasized the demand to give new permanent members the same veto power as current ones [April 7–8, 1997]. In 1998, Germany and Japan prepared a new push with a resolution calling for an expansion of the Security Council. As in late 1997, the crucial discussion focused on what majorities would be required to effect change. Germany proposed to require a two-thirds majority of members present and voting. The General Assembly decided, however, not to adopt a resolution without twothirds of the 185 members of the General Assembly [November 23, 1998]. This would be much more difficult to achieve. In fact, this procedural decision was seen a severe setback for Germany and Japan after five years of negotiations and a joint victory for Italy and the nam. Discussion continued in the Open-ended Working Group, but there was not yet even an emerging consensus on how to proceed. The G4 joined forces and lobbied together for permanent seats on the Council, with a seat reserved for an African country as well. A number of mid-size countries, led by Italy and Pakistan and known as “Uniting for Consensus” or the “Coffee Club”, rejected any increase in permanent membership and introduced a proposal for semipermanent membership for which they would also qualify. The World Summit in November 2005 was to agree on a new vision of collective security. It also provided an opportunity to agree on a reform of the Security Council. Negotiations reached a deadlock when the au approved the Ezulwini Consensus, which called for two permanent seats for Africa with a right to veto [March 8, 2005], and Security Council reform was again abandoned after nine months of intense negotiations. The results at the World Summit in September 2005 actually fell short of the agreement already reached in 1995 on the occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the un when the General Assembly gave its general approval for a reform of the Security Council.

Move from Ad Hoc Working Group to Intergovernmental Negotiations By 2007, the G4 had become extremely frustrated with the slow progress of the Security Council reform process over nearly 15 years. Sheikha Haya Rashed Al Khalifa, the President of the General Assembly and chairperson of the Openended Working Group, attempted to restart the process [February 8, 2007]. Rather than indicating areas for possible consensus, the chairperson suggested reaching agreement by moving from consensus-based consultations in the Open-Ended Working Group to intergovernmental negotiations (ign) in the Plenary of the General Assembly. This could lead more readily to votes being taken. The G4 strongly supported the proposal and aimed to stop what was called “the never-ending working group”. Italy and the UfC group finally

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agreed, since the alternative might have been that the G4 stopped the Openended Working Group anyway and negotiated freely. The decision to move to ign was called historic and seen as a move from discussion of procedure to a discussion of substance [September 17, 2007]. No consensus, however, was reached on how to understand the term “intergovernmental negotiations”. It took a year, and tense discussions, before the parameters of the negotiation process were agreed on [September 15, 2008]. General Assembly decision A/DEC/62/557 stipulated that ign should be commenced no later than February 28, 2009, and cover expansion of the Council; extending and/or restraining veto power; regional representation; size and working methods; and relationship between the Security Council and the General Assembly. The negotiations were to seek solutions that could garner the “widest possible political acceptance” by member states. This formulation reflected a political compromise and has inspired contradictory interpretations ever since. Whereas the UfC group interpreted the decision as requiring consensus, the G4 considered it possible to hold votes with two-thirds majority.11 The ign12 were launched by an informal plenary meeting of the General Assembly with the appointment of the chairman, Ambassador Zahir Tanin of Afghanistan [February 19, 2009].13 With no agreement in sight, interest in a new intermediate model was growing [September 9, 2009]. This essentially covered the introduction of a new category of seats with a duration from 3 to 15 years. On completion of this intermediate period, a review conference would take place with the possibility of re-election or conversion of these new seats into permanent seats. The question of a veto for the new seats could be taken up by the review conference. Along with these new seats, some non-permanent members with two-year terms would also be added to the Council. Although there was tentative support from the G4, the UfC group and the Permanent Five (P5), the intermediate model was rejected by the Group of African States, which insisted on two permanent seats with veto rights as outlined in the Ezulwini Consensus [March 8, 2005]. 11

12

13

von Freiesleben, Jonas, “Member States Balk at Latest Report on Security Council Reform”, September 5, 2008 and “Member States Renew Mandate for Working Group on Security Council after Intense Discussions”, September 16, 2008, New York: Center for un Reform Education, at www.centerforunreform.org. Full title: Intergovernmental Negotiations on the Question of Equitable Representation on and Increase in the Membership of the Security Council and Other Matters related to the Council. Lydia Swart, “Countries Welcome Work Plan as Security Council Reform Process Commences New Phase”, New York: Center for un Reform Education, February 24, 2009, at www.centerforunreform.org.

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One of the central issues during the early stage of the ign was for the chair to produce a working paper. This was demanded by the G4/L69, with the impressive support of 138 countries, calling for the text to reflect the progress achieved thus far in the rounds of negotiations as well as the proposals and positions that had been made by member states. It took a year before the Chair, Ambassador Tanin, issued a “negotiation text”, which included a 29-page annex comprising 30 proposals received from individual countries and groupings of member states [May 10, 2010].14 Contributions were re-arranged according to the five key negotiables. The G4 welcomed the text and called for the paper to be shortened to facilitate a narrowing down of positions. UfC viewed the text as a compilation of positions only and emphasized the need to agree on key principles of reform before producing a negotiation text. The UfC opposition to a negotiation text resulted in the launch of a number of individual proposals [September 12, 2011; September 13, 2012]. In March 2011, the G4 circulated a short draft resolution which called for both new permanent, without veto rights, and non-permanent seats. Without the veto, the African Group did not support the initiative. To bring together the positions of the G4 and the African Group, the L69 proposed a draft resolution which called for new permanent seats with the right of veto: two seats each for Africa and Asia, one each for Europe and Latin America and Caribbean, plus one new non-permanent seat for Eastern European and small island developing states. In February 2012, the UfC member Italy proposed a new category of members to be elected for 8 to 10 years with the possibility of immediate re-election. In July 2012, Chairman Zahir Tanin issued his assessment of the negotiations and concluded that no solution had been reached that could garner “the widest possible political acceptance”, the bar set by 62/557 [July 2012]. After six years, Tanin was replaced by E. Courtenay Rattray, Permanent Representative of Jamaica [September 13, 2012]. With no progress on the preparation of a “negotiation text”, the G4 were losing patience. No agreement seemed to be emerging on what kind of text the Chair should produce. Following the failures in 2009 and 2010, a new attempt was launched by Chairman Rattray in early 2015. Member states provided their contributions, which formed the basis for the creation of a “concise text” of 22 pages which was to serve as basis for the ign [July 31, 2015]. Annexed to the text are the inputs of 120 member states. 14

The African Group, Arab Group, Bolivia, Canada and Mexico, Caribbean Community, China, Cuba, Denmark, Eastern European Group, G4, Italy and Colombia, Monaco, nam, North Korea, Liechtenstein, L69, Norway, Pakistan, Organization of Islamic States, Peru, Philippines, P5, Russian Federation, Slovenia, South Korea, S5, Uruguay, uk and France, us, and Venezuela.

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The “concise text” did not reflect any significant shifts in previously stated positions. However, what was considered important was the identification of the text in the annual General Assembly decision which extended the ign to the 70th session [September 14, 2015]. This was the first time that a text on intergovernmental negotiations was mentioned in an official un consensus document. The G4 hailed this as a landmark step which was seen as setting the stage for moving to text-based negotiations. The UfC, however, considered it merely a technical roll-over to the next session, as had been done in previous years. The reference to the text was not considered an endorsement in either substance or procedure. Summary Since their launch in 2009, the ign have not led to any significant results on Security Council reform. The ign replaced the equally unsuccessful Open-Ended Working Group established in 1993. A multitude of options were proposed and considered. Expansion and veto privileges were the most controversial issues. Insufficient political will to compromise among some of the key players may be responsible for the lack of progress. Since progress was not being made, fewer member states stayed actively engaged in negotiations. At this stage, it appears unlikely that the Council will be reformed along the line of the initial proposals to increase permanent membership. Only small steps seem to be possible, such as an increase in the number of temporary members. Some small steps have already been achieved in the reform of working methods to make the Council more accountable and transparent. These changes are important to a large section of the un membership, including the small countries organized in act. Should the outcome be limited to improving working methods, Germany, Japan, India and Brazil would perceive it as a failure of Security Council reform. In Larger Freedom: Integrity and Efficiency On September 11, 2001, a series of co-ordinated suicide attacks were carried out upon the United States [September 11, 2001]. The terrorist attack had profound economic, social, political and military impacts on the United States and many other parts of the world. It had also a major effect on the work of the un. The United States declared war on terrorism and the un expressed broad international support, including military action against the Taliban and Al-Qaida in Afghanistan. The inability of the Security Council to either endorse or prevent military action in Iraq left the un profoundly shaken; many observers questioned the organization’s legitimacy and effectiveness. In March 2003, the heads of state

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of Russia and China called for a reform of the un to uphold its role in world affairs. The Secretary-General noted that the organization had reached a “fork in the road” and announced the launch of a fundamental review of the un in order to set out a new vision of collective security [September 23, 2003]. Proposals were to be considered by the World Summit in September 2005 on the occasion of the un’s 60th anniversary. The Summit had originally been conceived of as a follow-up to the 2000 Millennium Summit and dedicated to the review of the mdgs. The meeting now acquired a more comprehensive purpose and combined development with security concerns [May 6, 2004]. Many developing countries expressed their concern that the issue of development was approached only from a narrow security angle and that the role of economic development in safeguarding collective security would not be adequately addressed. A terrorist attack on the un office in Iraq killed 22 people, including Sergio Vieira de Mello, the un Special Representative [August 19, 2003]. Even prior to this catastrophic event, security measures had been enhanced, including the appointment of a Security Co-ordinator at the level of Assistant SecretaryGeneral. The tragedy promoted a major review of staff safety and security, followed by a massive upgrade and the consolidation of entities into a Department of Safety and Security, headed by an Under-Secretary-General, and an additional 200 posts [December 23, 2004]. Oil-for-Food In the crucial months preceding the 2005 World Summit, questions of integrity, ethics and management competence were raised. The organization faced criticism over allegations of sexual exploitation in peacekeeping missions and corruption in peacekeeping procurement. It was also under investigation for mismanagement and corruption in the un Oil-for-Food Programme in Iraq. The Programme had been established by the Security Council following the 1991 Gulf War to respond to the humanitarian needs of Iraqi civilians, the unintended victims of the international sanctions imposed. The Programme was administered by the un Office of Iraq Programme, under the oversight of the Security Council Iraq Sanctions Committee. Iraq obtained food, medicine and humanitarian goods under the Programme, funded by the supervised sale of Iraqi oil. At a cost of usd 69 billion, the Oil-for-Food Programme was the largest, most complex and most ambitious humanitarian relief effort in the history of the un. The Security Council endorsed an independent inquiry committee (Volcker Committee), charged with the review of the management of the Oil-for-Food Programme, including accusations against members of the Security Council,

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the Iraqi government, several other un agencies, numerous private corporations and un officials [April 22, 2004]. The Committee was chaired by former United States Federal Reserve Chair Paul Volcker. Before the World Summit, the Volcker Committee stated that the Iraqi regime had benefited from systematic sanction violations and kickback schemes and found serious instances of illicit, unethical and corrupt behaviour within the un. In particular, the report concluded that the Secretary-General, the Security Council and the un Secretariat were not fit to meet the challenges posed by the Programme. The Volcker Committee considered that the un required stronger executive leadership, management controls and effective auditing. In addition to the Volcker Committee, in January 2004, the United States Congress launched the bipartisan Task Force on the un, chaired by former Senate majority leader George Mitchell and former House Speaker Newt Gingrich. The Task Force found that the un was in urgent need of sweeping reforms [June 2005]. It considered the un to be bogged down by the deadwood of useless programmes. The problems were seen as stemming from politicization and micro-management by the General Assembly and Security Council as much as from the failures in the Secretary-General’s leadership. Reform initiatives were seen to be blocked by the large number of small member states. The un responded swiftly by implementing management and oversight concerns in parallel to the ongoing investigations. The Secretary-General’s efforts included the development of an anti-fraud and corruption policy based on a model developed by the World Bank. A policy to protect whistle-blowers, financial disclosure policy for senior staff and a supplier code of conduct were implemented. The United States considered these reform efforts to be too little, too late; its relationship with the un was at a low point. In mid-2005, the us House of Representatives passed legislation calling for the withholding of its regular un dues unless the organization adopted measurable reforms. 2005 World Summit The 2005 World Summit took place at un headquarters in New York, attended by 151 heads of state and government, the largest ever assemblage of world leaders [September 14–16, 2005]. The Secretary-General called the Summit “a once-in-a-generation opportunity” and proposed that it agree upon a global “grand bargain” between rich and poor nations, promising more development aid in return for tougher action on human rights, terrorism, nuclear nonproliferation and un management reform. Negotiations among governments were based on the report of the Secretary-­ General “In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All” [March 21, 2005]. The report drew largely on two main reports:

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“A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility” by the High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change [December 2, 2004] and “Investing in Development” by the un Millennium Project, sponsored by undp, an independent advisory body directed by Professor Jeffrey Sachs [January 2005]. The High-Level Panel had been established by the Secretary-General in ­November 2003 to generate a new vision of collective security and develop ideas for improving the effectiveness of the un. The Panel recommended strengthening post-conflict peacebuilding and mediation activities. It called for the establishment a new intergovernmental Peacebuilding Commission, a Peacebuilding Support Office and a Peacebuilding Fund. The report of the Secretary-General excluded a number of controversial recommendations initially proposed by the High-Level Panel. Similar to Brahimi’s analysis, the Panel identified weaknesses in supporting the implementation and co-ordination of peacekeeping missions. The existing Executive Committee on Peace and Security was seen to be an information-sharing body only. To arrive at the necessary decisions, the Panel recommended establishing the new posts of Deputy Secretary-General for Peace and Security. As with the Brahimi report, the proposals were not taken up. Rather, the Secretary-General proposed a policy committee with its own secretariat, tasked with developing coherent policy options. The Secretary-General also did not act on the recommendation to upgrade the un Environment Fund to a specialized un agency for the environment. Other proposals were modified to ensure wider acceptance, including the ­reform of human rights machinery. Instead of introducing universal membership, as suggested by the Panel, the Secretary-General proposed replacing the Human Rights Commission with a smaller Human Rights Council. In addition, the Secretary-General’s reform proposal also picked up on the recommendation for a fundamental overhaul of human resources management, which included a one-time buyout of unqualified staff. Other management issues raised by the Mitchell/Gingrich United States Task Force on the un and an initial response to the ongoing Volcker investigation of the un Oil-for-Food Programme were also reflected. The Summit finally concluded with the adoption of the 178-paragraph, ­40-page outcome document [September 14–16, 2005]. Although the outcome was significant, no grand bargain was achieved, as initially intended. Reactions to the outcome of the 2005 World Summit were mixed. Newt Gingrich and George Mitchell stated that they were dismayed with the results of the Summit and that the outcome document fell significantly short of the recommendations made by their task force. Paul Volcker suggested in a statement to the ­Senate Foreign Relations Committee on un Reform that threatening

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to withhold assessed contributions might be the only way to cut through the un “culture of inaction”. Conversely, Jamaica, representing the Group of 77 developing countries, expressed disappointment that the proposed declaration focused more heavily on the creation of new institutional structures and management reform than on a more expansive treatment of economic and trade issues. us Ambassador John Bolton appeared to be content with the outcome, particularly since it succeeded in keeping out elements that directly conflicted with key us policies.15 A new arrangement for the Human Rights Commission constituted the ­cornerstone of the reform efforts. Developed countries considered the Commission to be fundamentally discredited and in need of replacement. After additional months-long negotiations, the General Assembly decided to replace the Commission on Human Rights with a new Human Rights Council [March 15, 2006]. The new Council has 47 members, whereas the previous Commission had 53. The Council is a subsidiary body of the General Assembly and therefore accountable to the full membership of the un, while the Commission was a subsidiary body of ecosoc. The Council members were to be elected individually by an absolute majority of the General Assembly; Commission members were elected by ecosoc through a majority of those present and voting. Finally, the General Assembly has the right to suspend, by a two-thirds majority, Council members that persistently commit gross and systematic violations of human rights. No process for suspension existed for the old Commission. The us voted against the measure, mainly since the requirement for a two-thirds majority for membership election was not approved, which it considered essential to block human rights violators. Albeit mainly symbolic, an international “responsibility to protect” populations from genocide was recognized in the event of genocide and other large-scale killing, ethnic cleansing or serious violations of humanitarian law, which sovereign governments had proven powerless or unwilling to prevent. The Summit agreed that the Security Council could authorize military intervention under Chapter vii. Rwanda was cited as past case in point for intervention, ­referring to the killing of an estimated 800,000 ethnic Tutsis in 1994. Developing countries, particularly Algeria and Pakistan, were critical of the new concept, which was seen as legitimizing outside military intervention. Russia and China also backed a more cautious approach to intervening inside national borders to prevent human rights violations. Subsequent efforts to

15

Aita, Judy, “World Summit Concludes with Declaration of u.n. Goals”, Washington dc: United States State Department, September 16, 2005.

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o­ perationalize this new commitment were unsuccessful and highlighted the deep divisions ­between member states. The establishment of the new Peacebuilding Commission was one of the main Summit achievements [December 20, 2005]. This proposal had enjoyed significant support among member states before the Summit, including the United States. It was suggested that such a body would have a mandate to prevent the collapse of state institutions, including action without or against the will of member states. The Summit ultimately agreed on a less ambitious approach. The Commission was established as an advisory body with a mandate focusing on assisting in the transitions between conflict and post-conflict peacebuilding and recovery only, and no mandate to address prevention issues. The United States had proposed that the Commission should report to the ­Security Council. This was perceived by some developing countries as an attempt to ensure control over the new Commission by the powerful countries. In June 2005, the special ministerial meeting of the nam emphasized that the General Assembly, where developing countries played a larger role, should oversee the Peacebuilding Commission. Finally, it was agreed that the Commission would report to the General Assembly, Security Council and ecosoc. Requests for assistance from the Commission typically originate from the ­affected country itself. Issues covered include promotion of good governance, strengthening of the rule of law, security sector reform, socio-economic recovery, and modernization of the public and administrative system. The 2005 World Summit agreed to strengthen ecosoc with the introduction of ministerial meetings to monitor the implementation of the internationally agreed-upon development goals, including the mdgs [November 20, 2006]. Every two years, the ministerial meeting should serve as a high-ranking “Forum for Development Co-operation”, which was expected to engage in a high-level dialogue on new trends, promote synergy among providers of development assistance, and strengthen the links between the un’s normative and operational activities. The establishment of the ministerial review expressed the hope that ecosoc would develop into the central forum for intergovernmental oversight and assessment of the implementation of the un’s development agenda. It would be a global platform for the main stakeholders in international development co-operation – approximately 150 bilateral donors, multilateral organizations, international financial and trade institutions and regional organizations. Other than the issues mentioned, progress was limited. The failure to agree on a reform of the Security Council has already been outlined. Most important, no new commitments were made on development funding. In particular, the United States opposed the call for industrialized countries to increase current

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funding levels by meeting the long-established target of 0.7 per cent of gross national product (gnp). Instead, the United States emphasized the Monterrey Consensus, including good governance, rule of law, respect for human rights, and a liberal, market-based economic structure. The issue of non-proliferation and disarmament was omitted from the ­outcome document altogether owing to the lack of consensus. The United States and other nations wanted to strengthen non-proliferation but remove references to nuclear disarmament for big powers. This was objected to by developing countries, which had the opposite priority. The Summit also failed to agree on a definition of terrorism that would open the way to negotiating a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism to serve as a binding and enforceable instrument of international criminal law. Some Islamic nations sought a special reference to liberation groups and the right to resist foreign occupation, which was not accepted [September 8, 2006]. The Summit decided to embark on a mandate review, one of the most contentious parts of the reform initiative [March 2006]. Approximately 9,000 mandates were considered valid, representing requests to the Secretariat for specific actions. The review was to identify outdated or overlapping mandates for potential elimination. This was strongly supported by the United States and developed countries, whereas many developing countries considered the exercise as a pretext for budget cuts and an attempt to eliminate politically inconvenient mandates. The mandate review proceeded slowly. Consultations were marked by deep divisions over the scope and purpose of the exercise in 2007. Due to the different interests involved, the review was going nowhere. This constituted sufficient justification for the General Assembly to discontinue the mandate review [September 15, 2008]. Management Reform The Summit did not approve specific management reform initiatives. The Secretary-General had submitted only a limited number of initiatives and those few were questioned, such as the one-time staff buyout. The United States felt that the progress of the reforms was lagging, despite months of negotiations and meetings, due to the inadequate efforts by the Secretariat and resistance of developing countries. Indeed, the developing countries viewed management reform as strengthening the executive power of the Secretary-General at the expense of their traditional control through the General Assembly. In early 2006, a number of management reform initiatives were finally set in motion. An Ethics Office was established to administer the organization’s new financial disclosure programme and the new whistle-blower protection

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policy [January 1, 2006]. As well, the Office of the Ombudsman was established. An Independent Audit Advisory Committee was established to assist the Secretary-General and the General Assembly in better exercising their governance responsibility. The first meeting of the new Committee was finally held only in January 2008 [December 23, 2005]. The Secretary-General appointed a steering committee of six international experts to conduct an external review of the un’s oversight and audit mechanism as a follow-up to the 2005 World Summit [July 10, 2006]. An review was carried out by PricewaterhouseCoopers; it a­ ttracted a good deal of criticism, in particular from developing countries, and resulted in very limited follow-up. The need for procurement reform became a key priority in 2006 after a number of fraud cases were uncovered in the Oil-for-Food Programme and in peacekeeping operations.16 This included lack of managerial oversight and controls, outdated procurement processes, poor governance structure, and lack of sufficient financial and human resources. The General Assembly approved a procurement reform [December 22, 2006]. This included the implementation of control measures such as financial disclosure of procurement staff [April 10, 2006], whistle-blower protection [December 19, 2005], ethics and client ­service training, certification of procurement staff, post-employment restrictions, zero-tolerance policy for gifts and hospitality, and the promulgation of a Supplier Code of Conduct. Subsequently, an independent bid protest system was established. A few months before the end of his term, the Secretary-General submitted recommendations on further management changes to the General Assembly [March 7, 2006]. He called for a thorough strategic refit covering the Secretariat’s rules, structure, systems, and culture. The specific proposals, however, were less bold. Additional funding of usd 510 million was requested essentially to provide better pay and benefits to staff in the field and to upgrade investments in information and communication technology. Many of the recommended reform initiatives were being implemented or had previously been rejected, such as a proposed buyout plan. Some proposals needed no intergovernmental approval, such as the proposed outsourcing of printing and translation services, the relocation of administrative functions away from high-cost centres, the tightening of procedures for procurement and the delegation of management responsibility from the Secretary-General to the Deputy Secretary-­General.

16

The fraud cases were examined by the Procurement Task Force and resulted in criminal investigations. The Task Force was winding down in early 2009, and the remaining caseload was transferred to the Investigation Division of oios.

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On governance, it was proposed that negotiations on administrative matters should be allowed to take place in smaller meetings by allocating work to ­selected working groups with limited membership or to an elected executive committee. The General Assembly rejected the Secretary-General’s proposals due to the votes of developing countries [May 8, 2006]. The Secretary-General’s request for increased budgetary discretion and the establishment of small governing groups had caused uproar among the G77. It was felt that this would further increase the influence of major donors over the use of budget resources and usurp the power of the General Assembly. This vote broke a decades-long ­tradition to take decisions by consensus in order to ensure support by the main contributors. Quite unusually, a number of proposals also met with resistance from the un Staff Union, which criticized proposals to hand over jobs to private businesses and expressed a vote of “no confidence” in the Secretary-General. 8

Ban Ki-moon (South Korea), 2007–2016: The Limits of the un

Ban Ki-moon was elected the eighth Secretary-General of the un [December 17, 2006]. He previously had been a South Korean diplomat and foreign ­minister. During his first term, Ban has expressed particularly strong views on global warming and identified Darfur as the top humanitarian priority of his administration. He played a large role in convincing Sudan to allow un peacekeepers to enter the Darfur region. The Syrian and Libyan civil wars commanded Ban’s attention at the start of his second term. Since beginning his second term in January 2012, Ban has focused on peace and equality in the IsraeliPalestinian conflict and on equality issues. He increased the role of women in the un. ­During the term of Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, the main change initiative covered management issues, including the restructuring of peacekeeping ­offices and un employment practices, and peace operations and peacebuilding. The system-wide coherence initiative called Delivering as One and the renovation of the headquarters building known as the Capital Master Plan were implemented. Finally, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, ­including the Sustainable Development Goals, was approved during the 70th anniversary of the un in September 2015. Secretariat: Structure, Human Resources and Change Plan The bitter climate of suspicion and mistrust between member states during most of 2006 gave way to a more conciliatory style in 2007, with improved chances for agreement on much-needed decisions. Ban initially struggled to

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adjust to the culture of the un but quickly found his bearings and passed several major reforms. Restructuring During his second month in office, Ban proposed the restructuring of the disarmament process by integrating the Department for Disarmament Affairs into the Department of Political Affairs and downgrading the head of dda to the level of Assistant Secretary-General [February 15, 2007]. Both proposals met with resistance from member states. The developing countries, in particular, were strongly opposed to a downgrading of the dda, stressing that any structural change should lead to a strengthening, not weakening, of the un’s work in the field of disarmament, arms control and non-proliferation. Following ­extensive consultations with member states, the Secretary-General revised his proposal, which was then approved by the General Assembly [March 15, 2007]. The dda was reconstituted as a separate office in the Secretariat, headed by a “high representative” at the Under-Secretary-General level, reporting directly to the Secretary-General. By maintaining budgetary autonomy and the integrity of the existing structures and functions, the new Office of Disarmament was not too different from the previous one, except that more emphasis was now placed on a strengthened advocacy role for the head of the Office to overcome the current stalemate in the field of disarmament. Human Resources In accordance with the call by the 2005 World Summit, the main concern was the comprehensive reform of human resources management. Management was seen to be inefficient and outdated in essentially all aspects including the recruitment of candidates, evaluation practices, staff accountability systems, staff mobility, career development, and the harmonization of conditions of service. In response, the previous Secretary-General had put forward a number of recommendations to specifically address the past shift from a primarily headquarters-based organization to a field-based operation [August 9, 2006]. These included the harmonization of conditions of service, the simplification of contractual arrangements, the establishment of a pool of peacekeeping staff, and the encouragement of staff mobility. The annual cost of the reform proposals was estimated to be usd 224 million per annum, mainly for the harmonization of the conditions of service. Finally, a one-time staff buyout, which had already been rejected by the 2005 World Summit, was proposed. Building on past proposals, the new Secretary-General supported a reform of human resources management. Ban publicly made a full disclosure of his personal financial position and urged his top officials to do the same to demonstrate

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more transparent financial dealings. The General Assembly finally approved the simplification of contractual arrangements, the harmonization of conditions of service, the establishment of a core cadre of 2,500 civilian career peacekeepers from already authorized positions to staff new field offices faster, and the introduction of mandatory staff mobility [December 24, 2008]. Member states were initially divided on the recommendation to establish a core cadre of civilian career peacekeepers. The core cadre was to be financed from already authorized positions in peace operations and subject to rapid ­deployment and rotation. Although the developed countries supported the recommendation to professionalize peacekeeping, the G77 disagreed and argued that peacekeeping should remain a temporary function. Even Japan expressed scepticism, arguing that the establishment of fixed positions for temporary missions might result in future financial difficulties. Change Plan On June 6, 2011, Ban Ki-moon formally announced his candidacy for a second consecutive term as Secretary-General, starting on January 1, 2012. Five days before that, on June 1, 2011, he launched a new management reform initiative by appointing Atul Khare of India to spearhead efforts to build a modern, engaging and efficient Secretariat. Khare had previously held the position of Assistant Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations and was to lead the Change Management Team (cmt), tasked with guiding the implementation of a reform agenda at the un to streamline activities, increase accountability and ensure that the organization became more effective and efficient in ­delivering its many mandates. The cmt consisted of six members seconded by various departments. The cmt’s work was guided by the Change Management ­Advisory Group, chaired by the Deputy Secretary-General and including six Assistant Secretaries-General to serve in their personal capacity. Moreover, the cmt was supported by a network of change management focal points. Each senior manager or head of department appointed a change management focal point to help facilitate the process. The report of the cmt includes 61 recommendations, the majority of which can be implemented under the authority of the Secretary-General, while the remaining ones required member states’ approval [December 2011]. The recommendations were based on an assessment of over 300 reforms proposed by senior managers and presented in four groups: stakeholder and client-­oriented organizational culture; competent and engaging staff; improving w ­ orking methods; and rationalizing structures and functions. They included the streamlining of review and clearance processes (recommendation 9), ­establishing a digital secretariat with the use of digital signatures (recommendation 36) and

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streamlining the internal budgeting process (recommendation 47). To launch the plan, the Secretary-General approved 12 fast-track opportunities, each led by dedicated project leaders.17 A more comprehensive change plan was issued by the newly re-elected ­Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon in January 2012 [January 25, 2012].18 His “FiveYear Action Agenda” sets outs a series of initiatives ranging from sustainable development, to human rights, peacekeeping, working for women, partnerships across the range of un activities, and strengthening the un. The latter includes improving efficiency through innovation and change management, building a modern workforce, making the un more flexible and accountable, launching a second generation of DaO, and enhancing the security of staff. Peacekeeping: Structure, Policy and Conduct Restructuring The new Secretary General responded to the rapid growth in peacekeeping operations in recent years, with an unprecedented 100,000 peacekeepers in the field and the expectation that the number could reach 150,000 by the end of 2007. Ban reorganized and split dpko into two, creating a new, separate dfs [March 15, 2007; June 29, 2007]. dpko was dedicated to policy and planning and dfs for peacekeeping mission management and administration. M ­ oreover, the resources of both departments were increased and the management of peacekeeping missions was progressively decentralized from headquarters to the country level. The new organizational set-up put an additional strain on UN-internal co-ordination. In order to enhance the integration between dpko and dfs, seven Integrated Operational Teams (iots) were established, combining political, military, police, support and administrative specialist officers. iots provide operational guidance and support to field officers and serve as the entry point at un headquarters for troop-contributing countries. Moreover, dfs developed the Global Field Support Strategy to transform service delivery to the field and adapt it to the requirements of peacekeeping operations and new conception adjustments were discussed with member states and partners in the coming years [July 2009].

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18

Digital signature; paper smart meetings; publications board; expanding use of virtual technologies; revised travel policy; evaluation database; expediting military and police recruitment; cost recovery and programme support cost policy; change management focal point network; expanded flexible work arrangements; revisions to supplier registration process; increased procurement outreach via mobile application. See Appendix i.4 for the Secretary-General´s Five-Year Action Agenda, January 25, 2012.

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Rates of Reimbursement to Troop Contributing Countries Countries contributing military personnel and formed police units to un ­operations are eligible for two main kinds of reimbursements: one for the costs of deploying their personnel, and the other for the costs of deploying their equipment. Those payments are determined in accordance with standard rates. For the year 2013–2014, standard personnel reimbursements (pay and ­allowances, specialist supplement, personal kit and equipment, and weaponry) totalled usd 1.3 billion, with an average per person/per month amount of ­approximately usd 1,210. This rate remained essentially unchanged for 20 years. Moreover, the reimbursement structure did not provide financial ­incentives for states to contribute specialized or highly capable military units. Peacekeeping missions were struggling to secure the necessary personnel contributions from member states.19 The reimbursement for personnel was not intended to cover the full cost of deployment. Nevertheless, discussion of a possible adjustment was characterized by a deep divide between developing states, which are the main troopcontributing countries, and the developed states that are the largest financial contributors. The General Assembly convened a Senior Advisory Group (sag) to examine the rates of reimbursement to troop-contributing countries and related issues [June 30, 2011]. The sag included five eminent persons of relevant ­experience appointed by the Secretary-General, five representatives from ­major troop contributors, five representatives from major financial contributors and one member designated by each of the regional groups.20 The former un Deputy Secretary-General and Canadian Deputy Minister of Defence, Louise Fréchette, chaired the sag. The Assembly endorsed the sag’s report [June 6, 2013] issued in October 2012 and approved a new survey of states’ personnel deployment costs to ­determine the rate of reimbursement, although some developing countries 19

20

In contrast, the Contingent-Owned Equipment Working Group has been able to reach agreement on equipment reimbursement rate adjustments every three years, assisted by surveys of state equipment costs. Tekeda Alemu, Prince Zeid Ra’ad Zeid Al-Hussein, Major General Henry Anyidoho, José Luis Cancela, Hans-Joachim Daerr, James Dobbins, Abdullah Hussain Haroon, Paul Johnston, Macharia Kamau, Ellen Løj, Abulkalam Abdul Momen, Lieutenant General Patrick Nash, Lieutenant General Chikadibia Isaac Obiakor, Hardeep Singh Puri, Nicolas de Rivière, Lieutenant General Carlos Alberto Dos Santos Cruz, Major-General Andrii Taran and Jun Yamazaki. Maged Abdelaziz and Jean-Marie Guéhenno were also originally designated members.

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were wary of the survey mechanism. The Assembly also approved the awarding of premiums for units facing exceptional risk levels and for the provision of key enabling capabilities, which were in short supply. The move from a per capita base to a unit-based reimbursement system was seen as introducing financial incentives to better support the un peacekeeping commitments. Other decisions covered the introducing of longer, 12-month rotation period as a cost-saving measure and a penalty in the form of a reimbursement deduction in case of missing or non-functional major equipment. Following arduous negotiations, the Assembly approved an increase in ­reimbursement rates from usd 1,210 to usd 1,332 as from July 1, 2014, to usd 1,365 as from July 1, 2016, and to usd 1,410 as from July 1, 2017 [August 5, 2014]. The decision was based on the survey, announced in March 2014,21 which found that the weighted average monthly deployment cost was usd 1,762. This was the first time in 20 years that the rate had been raised. Staff Conduct Problems with peacekeepers’ conduct were not a new phenomenon. Media and human rights organizations in particular have documented the involvement of peacekeeping personnel in cases of sexual exploitation and abuse, ranging from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Cambodia and Timor-Leste in the 1990s to West Africa in 2002. In response, the General Assembly asked the Secretary-General to take steps to prevent sexual exploitation and abuse in humanitarian and peacekeeping operations [April 15, 2003]. It called upon the Secretary-General and ­troop-contributing countries to hold to account any personnel who committed such acts. The Secretary-General promulgated a zero-tolerance policy on sexual exploitation and abuse that was mandatory for all un staff, irrespective of their type of appointment [October 15, 2003]. Despite this new policy, a significant number of new allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse surfaced. Between May and September 2004, the un Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (monuc) received 72 allegations (68 against military and 4 against civilian ­personnel), which were subsequently investigated by oios. It became clear that the ­measures in place were inadequate and that a fundamental change in ­approach was needed. 21

Results of the revised survey to establish the standard rate of reimbursement to troop-contributing countries, as approved by the General Assembly in its resolution A/RES/67/261, Report of the Senior Advisory Group established pursuant to General Assembly resolution 65/289 to consider rates of reimbursement to troop-contributing countries and other related issues, May 10, 2013.

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As a first step, in July 2004 then Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed Prince Zaid Ra’ad Zeid Al-Hussein, Permanent Representative of Jordan, to address the problem of sexual exploitation and abuse by un peacekeeping ­personnel. Prince Zaid was from a major troop-contributing country and a former civilian peacekeeper. Following a request by the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations, Prince Zaid produced a sweeping strategy, known as the Zaid Report [March 24, 2005]. It recommended engaging troop and police contributors, other member states and the wider un system in a new conduct and disciplining architecture for peacekeeping. Specific recommendations covered rules on standards of conduct; the investigation process; organizational, managerial and command responsibility; and individual disciplinary, financial and criminal accountability. The recommendations were essentially a­ pproved when the Assembly approved a UN-wide strategy for assistance to the victims of sexual exploitation and abuse by un personnel [December 21, 2007]. High-Level Independent Panel on un Peace Operations As a result of the growing demands, peacekeeping operations have increased considerably in recent years. By 2015, the cost of peacekeeping operations had grown to usd 8.2 billion per year, with more than 128,000 civilian and uniformed personnel serving in 39 missions. The un had become the world’s ­second largest troop deployer, after the United States. In addition, the nature of peacekeeping has changed. Many operations were deployed in complex conflict settings, often in insecure environments, in some cases in the absence of an underlying peace process. Many were intractable and not conducive to political resolution. The notions of inter-state and intra-state conflict had blurred. Illicit transnational networks trafficking in drugs, weapons, people and money had embedded themselves in many conflicts. A growing number of violent extremist and terrorist groups represented a threat to international peace and security. At the June 2014 open debate of the Security Council on new trends in un peacekeeping operations, the Secretary-General announced a review of un peacekeeping. On October 31, 2014, he commissioned a High-Level Independent Panel on un Peace Operations (hippo) to conduct an independent assessment of the state of un peace operations and emerging needs. He appointed Jose Ramos-Horta, a Nobel Laureate and former President of TimorLeste, to chair the 16-member panel22 consisting of distinguished individuals 22

Jose Ramos-Horta, Chair, Ameerah Haq, Vice-Chair, Jean Arnault, Marie-Louise Baricako, Radhika Coomaraswamy, Lt. Gen. (Retd.) Abhijit Guha, Andrew Hughes, Alexander Ilitchev, Hilde F. Johnson, Youssef Mahmoud, Ian Martin, Henrietta Joy Abena Nyarko

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with experience in different fields. hippo considered a broad range of issues ­facing peace operations, including the changing nature of conflict, challenges to good offices and peacebuilding, managerial and administrative arrangements, planning, partnerships, human rights, and protection of civilians. The review encompassed both un peacekeeping operations and special political missions, which are referred to collectively as un peace operations. hippo’s much-anticipated report [June 17, 2015]23 was 111 pages long and contained over 100 recommendations; it was based largely on the Agenda for Peace [June 17, 1992], the Brahimi report [August 21, 2000], the High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change [December 2, 2004], and the Prodi report [December 24, 2008]. The panel took a cautious approach to the use of force and concluded that un peace operations are not the appropriate tool for military counter-terrorism operations. hippo called for field-focused and people-centred operations. A number of recommendations that had been ­proposed and failed before were reiterated, such as shifting the focus from ­peacekeeping  reaction to conflict prevention; developing a rapid reaction ­capacity; providing assessed contributions for funding for au peace operations; creating an additional Deputy Secretary-General position responsible for peace and ­security;  and establishing a single peace operations account to finance all peace ­operations. New recommendations focused on making peacekeeping lighter and more flexible, able to operate effectively in high-risk environments. ­Other recommendations addressed the curbing of sexual exploitation and abusive behaviour and were directed at both staff members and member states. S­ pecifically, the Panel called on the Secretariat to bar troopcontributing member states that do nothing to hold their peacekeepers accountable for sexual exploitation, rape, and other abuses. The hippo report was criticized for not being bold enough and being too similar to its predecessors. It was seen as failing to crystallize the main points needed to develop an effective strategy and as limited to a list of technocratic fixes. Some three months later, the Secretary-General proposed a 28-page implementation plan, developed by a team led by former Deputy Secretary-General Louise Fréchette, outlining his priorities and key actions to move the Panel’s

23

Mensa-Bonsu, B. Lynn Pascoe, Lt. Gen. (Retd.) Floriano Peixoto Vieira Neto, Rima Salah and Wang Xuexian. See Appendix i.2: Report of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations (hippo) on Uniting our Strengths for Peace: Politics, Partnership and People, September 2, 2015.

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recommendations forward [September 2, 2015].24 The report first described about 40 Secretariat initiatives, including forthcoming reports (on prevention, mediation, and financing) and ongoing efforts (to deploy light teams of experts; improve un-au collaboration; design compacts with host governments). With regard to the hippo report, the Secretary-General focused mainly on small steps. New ways of planning and conducting peace operations were ­described to make them faster, more responsive, and more accountable to countries and people in conflict. The Secretary-General strongly supported the Panel’s ­recommendations on curbing sexual exploitation and abusive behaviour. Finally, the report did not take up the recommendations that had been put forward before and failed. Both the hippo report and the Secretary-General’s report were submitted to the General Assembly and the Security Council for review and decision, ­although there was no clear plan for member states to carry the recommendations forward. In contrast to the peace operations review carried out through hippo, the related review of peacebuilding activities took a different approach. In 2005, the un had established a peacebuilding architecture (Peacebuilding Commission, Peacebuilding Support Office and Peacebuilding Fund). There was ­general agreement that the initial hopes associated with this new approach were not being realized. The Secretary-General entrusted a seven-expert advisory group25 with the review of the peacebuilding architecture, with Gert Rosenthal of Guatemala as chair [January 22, 2015]. The report of the advisory group covered three areas [June 29, 2015]:26 first, promoting coherence at the intergovernmental level, across the un system and particularly at the operational level; second, deepening partnership and providing predictable resources for sustainable peace; and third, improving leadership and broadening the sense of national ownership and inclusion among affected nations. The report subsequently went into a formal intergovernmental process scheduled to last from November 2015 through March 2016. The differential treatment of the two 24

25

26

See Appendix i.2 for The Future of United Nations Peace Operations: Implementation of the Recommendations of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations, Report of the Secretary-General, September 2, 2015. Anis Bajwa (Pakistan), Saraswathi Menon (India), Funmi Olonisakin (Nigeria), Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah (Mauritania), Charles Petrie (France) and Edith Grace Ssempala (Uganda). See Appendix i.3 for Challenge of Sustainable Peace, Report of the Advisory Group of Experts on the Review of the Peacebuilding Architecture, Summary, June 29, 2005.

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f­undamentally intertwined reforms – peace operations and peacebuilding – limits the possibility of synchronizing the two agendas. System-Wide Coherence and “Delivering as One” One of the main reform follow-ups from the 2005 World Summit was to ­enhance the system-wide coherence of the un’s operational activities.27 The effort included a number of loosely related initiatives which had been under consideration for some time and on which no agreement could be reached during the 2005 World Summit. In response, then Secretary-General Kofi ­Annan called on a High-Level Panel in February 2006 to formulate new institutional proposals for un system coherence in the areas of gender, environment, and country-level operations. The High-Level Panel was co-chaired by active prime ministers, unlike most previous commissions, which had been chaired by ex-presidents. Their report “Delivering as One” was submitted to SecretaryGeneral Kofi Annan [November 20, 2006]. The need for un reform was seen as stemming from the un system’s fragmentation, which limited its effectiveness. The report, however, was not taken up by the General Assembly during the remaining month of the Kofi Annan’s mandate, December 2006. Instead, the new Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, provided his comments on the report to the General Assembly only five months later [April 3, 2007]. Although most European countries gave a ringing endorsement to the High-Level Panel’s recommendations, the developing countries were critical and viewed them as a cost-cutting exercise, which introduced conditionality, reduced flexibility, and translated into decreased funding. To move forward, an informal Working Group on Coherence of the General Assembly was established to consider the Panel’s recommendations. The result of this was rather limited. Most initiatives were not further developed but faded away.28 This did not apply to the gender issue. The High-Level Panel had proposed to establish a single strong un entity to deal with gender issues by consolidating and strengthening a number of existing small entities. This was supported by most of the developed countries, and particularly enthusiastically by the Nordic countries. It also received strong support from the community of ngos, including the civil society campaign for Gender Equality Architecture Reform, an international coalition of over 300 women’s organizations and human rights groups in more than 50 countries. Resistance came from developing countries, 27 28

von Freiesleben, Jonas, “System-wide Coherence” in Managing Change at the United N ­ ations, New York: Center for un Reform Education, April 2008, pp. 37 to 54. These included proposals to establish a world environment organization championed by France but opposed by the United States.

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which considered it an attempt to introduce new conditions on development assistance, and from Japan and Russia. After many years of campaigning and negotiations, the General Assembly established un Women [July 2, 2010]. The new entity consolidated the Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women, the Division for the Advancement of Women, the un Development Fund for Women and the International Institute for Research and Training for the Advancement of Women and was also given a field presence. One of the main focuses of the High-Level Panel was the reform of the un development system. This consists of 38 agencies loosely bound together ­under the auspices of the General Assembly and ecosoc. The Dutch Minister for Development Co-operation, Agnes van Ardenne, stated in February 2006 that it made no sense to carve up development problems among so many un organizations. The result was too much overlap and too little efficiency, too much talk and too little action. As part of a massive overhaul, she suggested that at least a third of the un organizations should be shut down and the remainder merged into large entities. She also made it clear that donors would use “the power of the purse” to put this into effect. The Netherlands is the main contributor to the undp budget.29 Developing countries were opposed; they considered diversity to be a strength which provided a choice among providers and created resource mobilization opportunities. Moreover, developing countries favoured funding that came through the un, as it seemed to come with fewer conditions. This issue of aid effectiveness had been under consideration for a number of years by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. ­Indeed, a new aid paradigm was evolving based on the concepts of partner country leadership, donor alignment with partner countries’ development strategies, harmonization of donor actions, managing for results, and donors and partners being mutually accountable for results [February 28–March 2, 2005]. Aware of the strong opposition by developing countries, the High-Level Panel did not propose outright mergers of un entities. Instead, it focused on enhancing co-ordination and consolidation of un activities, especially at the country level, by establishing the concept of “Delivering as One” (DaO) an ­expanded endorsement of the reform initiative already launched in 1997 [July 14, 1997].30 The mantra of the DaO initiative include four principles: One 29 “Radical u.n. Reform Now”, Washington Times, March 5, 2006. 30 The 1997 reform initiative included the development of the undaf country plans, strengthening of rcs and the establishment of un Houses. undaf was viewed as a mere

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L­ eader, One Programme, One Budget, and One Office. “One leader” described the ­empowerment of the rc as representative of the un system and leader of the un Country Team. The rc would manage the “One Programme” at the country level. The “One Programme” was to be funded by a unified “One Budget” that would merge the resources of all un entities. The “One Office” d­ escribed the consolidation of un agency presence in one location with shared services in the administrative field. In order to move ahead, the Secretary-General mandated the launch of ­voluntary pilot projects in eight countries: Albania, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Pakistan, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uruguay and Vietnam [December 2006]. These countries each interpreted and applied the four DaO principles in their own way and also developed two additional ones after inception: “One Voice”, a joint communication strategy and “One Fund” for the unearmarked funding of DaO activities. Developing countries agreed with this approach, provided that there were no restrictions on the sovereignty of national governments to determine their own development priorities or select their own development partners. Moreover it was argued that there was no “one-size-fits-all” solution and no decision was to be taken until the results of the pilot studies were known. It was also decided that the DaO initiative would come under the leadership of undg. The ceb was requested to simplify and harmonize the business practices in the un system at the headquarters level. ceb developed a plan of action addressing harmonization of performance evaluation systems, employment arrangements and management practices; implementation of the new International Public Sector Accounting Standards; common cost recovery policies; and a study on common treasury services [September 23, 2008]. Most proposals on information technology addressed knowledge sharing; supporting field office procurement; and increasing access for suppliers from developing countries. The plan largely represented “old wine in new bottles”, and did not necessarily constitute new efforts. The overall resource requirements were usd 21.7 million, however, only usd 0.3 million was received from New ­Zealand. Due to the lack of funding, most proposals were shelved. When considering the 2007 triennial comprehensive policy review, the ­General Assembly identified the need for an independent evaluation of lessons learned from the DaO initiative [December 19, 2007]. This was done in three stages: first, an informal progress check called a stocktaking exercise in April 2008; second, a state-led nationwide evaluation of country offices, launched in October 2009; and third, an independent evaluation completed by 2012. patchwork of the development activities of the un entities present in the particular country.

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Stocktaking and State-Led Evaluation The results of the stocktaking exercise in April 2008 were mixed [December 19, 2007]. Progress was reported on increasing national ownership and more closely aligning external assistance with national priorities. The “One Budgetary Framework” had increased the transparency of the un’s work. Increased collaboration was a result of the new authority given to the rc. Progress had come, however, at an increased cost. The DaO generated countless co-ordination meetings at the country and headquarters levels, resulting in high transaction costs. Simplistic assumptions regarding possible cost savings, such as combined physical locations, failed to materialize but sometimes prompted a spike in administrative costs. Greater efforts were needed to use country systems, including procurement and financial systems. This required amending the regulations of the individual agencies, subject to approval by the respective governing bodies, to allow for the use of national systems when engaging in sector support arrangements. Steps were taken to harmonize business practices within the country offices, but very little progress was made in harmonizing business practices at the headquarters level with no institutional follow-up. In July 2010, following the June 2010 intergovernmental conference of ­pilot countries in Hanoi, Vietnam, Helen Clark, the Executive Director of undp, stated that there was no going back to doing business in the old way. She ­argued that the un development system was still too heavy on programme management and project implementation, and too light in its capacity for strategic and policy advice, technical assistance and advocacy. State-led evaluation was launched in October 2009. Each state used a different framework, had a different organization leading its evaluation, and addressed different country-specific needs and policies. Because there was no pre-existing framework for this report, all reports have different structures. None of the reports contain baseline references, but some use the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe’s aid effectiveness indicators as a loose guideline for success. Much of the documentation came from within the un pilot organizations themselves, leading to some inherent bias. Despite the diversity of the pilot projects, some clear messages emerged. The DaO initiative was found to increase government ownership and agency accountability for delivering results (Albania, Vietnam) and to streamline national policy objectives (Uruguay). Greater inter-UN agency co-ordination led to a better relationship and communication between governments and the un (Albania, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Uruguay, Vietnam). The new funding ­allocation mechanisms were considered to lead to financial transparency (­Albania, Rwanda) and increased funding (Cape Verde, Tanzania), whereas other participants assessed the results as below expectations (Albania). The

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“One Fund” was seen to outperformed expectations (Albania, Uruguay). An ­additional need to strengthen capacity for external resource management and aid co-ordination was identified (Tanzania). Although some participants identified improved programming, joint implementation and monitoring (Albania), others called for additional efforts (Cape Verde). The rc was not considered to have sufficient authority (Albania) and agency accountability to the rc was seen to be based on goodwill alone (Tanzania). There was limited progress in the consolidation of management under “One Office” and the harmonization of business procedures (Albania, Rwanda, Uruguay, Rwanda, Vietnam). Structural silos – separate institutions all with vertical chains of command – still existed, leading to duplication of services and resources (­Mozambique, ­Tanzania), whereas other countries expected more progress with the ­functional clustering of staff, and tackling the vertical structure problem in institutions by physically integrating them (Vietnam). The need for lower transaction costs was highlighted (Rwanda). The DaO initiative better addressed cross-cutting issues such as gender, human rights and hiv/aids (Mozambique), reduced duplication and fragmentation in external relationships (Albania) and increased access to a number of agencies (Cape Verde). Independent Evaluation The independent evaluation of lessons learned from DaO pilots was conducted in 2011–2012. The evaluation modalities had been decided in February 2011 by a joint session of the Executive Boards of undp, unfpa, unops, unicef, un Women, and wfp. The evaluation was overseen by a regionally balanced ­Evaluation Management Group (emg) established by the Secretary-General, also including the chairs of the jiu and the un Evaluation Group (uneg) [February 15, 2011]. The emg was to assess the experiences of pilot activities in joint budgeting, programming, communication, leadership, and allocation of resources for development at the national level. In particular, it was to review the efforts to reduce transaction costs, strengthen the joint presence of un agencies, and improve development gains. This was one of the most extensive evaluations of the un in recent years, with a budget of usd 2.2 million. The emg report – over 300 pages long – concluded that the DaO principles could yield many improvements, but also showed the limits of a voluntary ­reform that takes place within established structures [July 26, 2012]. The DaO programming approach was heavy on process and fragmented. While transaction costs for government interactions with the un had gone down, the transaction costs of co-ordinating the un agencies had risen significantly, offsetting any possible gains in efficiency made possible through common services and simplifications of business practices.

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A number of positive observations were made. Governments benefited from stronger ownership of un programmes, greater coherence in advocacy and policy dialogue and access to the full range of expertise of un agencies through joint planning and programming by the un country teams. Joint communication increased the prominence of un concerns. The coverage of cross-cutting issues, such as human rights, gender equality and hiv/aids, had improved, and they became flagship issues for the reform. “One Fund” had been a success and was taken up by 11 more countries outside of the original eight pilot projects. On average, 15 agencies per country participated in One Fund and there were tensions between inclusiveness and the strategic focus on supported programme activities. The funding base, however, was limited, with five donors providing 83 per cent of the funding (Canada, Netherlands, Norway, Spain and United Kingdom). These non-earmarked resources were catalytic for many of the benefits gained by the pilot exercise: it enhanced the rc’s authority and enabled a more co-ordinated approach. Following the end of the pilot phase, it was difficult to sustain the high level of support. Despite those positive results, it was hard to establish that the results achieved were significantly different from those of earlier non-DaO programmes. The result of the independent evaluation was fed into the Quadrennial ­Comprehensive Policy Review process in the fall of 2012 and approved by the General Assembly [December 21, 2012]. The un development system was ­requested to further improve the DaO approach, in particular at the headquarters level, and to assist countries that engaged in the DaO on a voluntary basis. Based on this endorsement, the undg started work to develop the secondgeneration DaO and provide programme countries with standard operating procedures on issues such as DaO-specific joint planning, programming, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, reporting and funding mechanisms. Another attempt was made to simplify and harmonize business practices. Since incremental change appears to be more attractive than inaction, 50 countries have adopted the DaO approach as of July 2015. The DaO pilot initiative had demonstrated that there were clear limits on what can be achieved with voluntary co-ordination within existing ­mechanisms and independent accountability structures.31 If the independent evaluation demonstrated anything, it was the need for fundamental solutions for the highly fragmented un development system. In fact, the evaluation concluded that bolder measures may be required to deliver as one including 31

Weinlich, Silke, and Urs Zollinger, Lessons from Delivering as One – Options for un ­Member States, Bonn, Germany: Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik, Briefing Paper 13, 2012.

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rationalization of the number of un organizations; reform of mandates, governance structures and funding modalities; and a new definition of the range of development expertise expected from the un system. Capital Master Plan The Capital Master Plan (cmp) is a complex, high-profile renovation project involving the modernization, securing and architectural preservation of the iconic un headquarters complex at a cost of usd 2.4 billion, initiated in 1999 and completed in 2015. The un had never undertaken a single construction or renovation project of this scope, and member states expressed doubts right from the start about the Secretariat’s ability to manage the project. The complex includes the 39-storey Secretariat tower, the domed General Assembly Hall, and the conference building constructed in 1950. The rest of the complex – the Dag Hammarskjöld Library, the underground North Lawn Extension, and South Annex – was built between 1960 and 1982. While the un building initially had to host only 50 member states, this number had risen to 192 in 2015. Moreover, the number of un Secretariat staff members who work at headquarters has reached 4,700, and there are also about 1 million visitors per year. After nearly 50 years of use, the Secretary-General proposed a major refurbishment of the un headquarters complex in New York: the cmp [June 28, 2000]. The plan involved upgrading or replacing all major building systems, including the electric, plumbing, fire suppression, heating and air conditioning systems. In order to comply with New York City building codes, sprinklers needed to be installed in the conference building and asbestos had to be ­removed. There was no expansion of the un complex, only refurbishment. Finally, vital un operations had to be sustained at all times, and many of them needed to remain within the un complex during the renovation. The cmp was to be implemented over a period of six years at a cost of usd 964 million, with options for three years implementation of usd 875 million and 12 years of usd 1,054 million. The Secretary-General did not present a funding arrangement but instead offered a number of options: special assessment by member states; interestfree loans by member states; commercial borrowing at market interest rates; and voluntary contributions from public and private sources. The United States, New York State, and New York City were expected to play a key role in the construction and it was anticipated that these three entities would pay a large share of the renovation costs. The General Assembly authorized the Secretary-General to proceed with the preparation of a comprehensive design plan and detailed cost analysis for the cmp and authorized usd 8 million for

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this purpose [December 23, 2000]. This was to be done without prejudice to a final decision by the General Assembly. It was expected that member states would decide by the end of 2001 on the most cost-effective alternative, including the scope of work for the project, the timeframe, the financing plan and the provision of swing space (temporary work space). Governance, Oversight and Management Setup The General Assembly had the sole prerogative to decide on any changes to the cmp’s scope, budget, and implementation strategy. The un Board of External Auditors and oios provided the required oversight. At the request of the United States Congress, the United States gao repeatedly reviewed the cmp as well. The Office of Central Support Services of the Department of Management was responsible for the overall management of the project. In early 2001, a small project team was established to carry out the preliminary design phase. No formal oversight committee or high-level steering committee was established to provide input into decision-making and help oversee the project team’s performance. This is unusual for a complex project like the cmp. Indeed, the General Assembly had asked the Secretary-General to establish an advisory board to advise him on financial matters and on overall project issues, including an effective review of cost forecasts. Only in May 2010 was the ­Advisory Board finally established. Previous attempts had failed when prominent candidates had declined to serve on such a board. Based on the further design work and cost analysis as approved by the General Assembly in December 2000, the Secretary General proposed a second, more detailed, cmp in August 8, 2002. The Assembly approved in principal the baseline scope [December 20, 2002]. The cost estimate had increased from usd 964 million to usd 1,193 million.

Delays and Cost Overruns until Project Approval in December 2007 The project got off to a slow start. In 2001, the cmp Project Team solicited the services of the Renato Sarno Group for all design services, including cost analysis, construction documents, construction bid support, and construction ­administration. The Group submitted its reports only from April to November 2002, partly due to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, which prompted the planning of enhanced security measures at the un complex as part of the cmp. With the approval in principle of the baseline scope in December 2002, the Secretary-General formally established the cmp Office and appointed its ­Executive Director [February 1, 2003]. The Office employed approximately

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40 staff members and contractors. The slow pace of filling vacancies and the delay in the appointment of the Executive Director was noted by the Board of Auditors. In the previous three years, an Executive Director had headed up the project for only 10 months, from September 2005 to June 2006. The firm of G ­ ardiner & Theobald was selected as programme management c­ onsultants [October 2004]. Its responsibility included checking internal project co-­ ordination. By early 2005, the project was in the design development phase. Delays in the procurement of contracts for design development and construction documentation were noted by the Board of Auditors. Proposals were received in April 2003, but contracts were signed only in early 2004 [July 21, 2004]. Deadlines were constantly revised. Despite these revisions, the design development submissions were still delivered later than the extended schedule. This was attributed to extensive cross-contract co-ordination and to ­multiple reviews for accurate scope confirmation involving consultants, cmp staff, the Procurement Division and ola. As a result of the delays, the completion date for design development was extended by one year to December 2005, and the development of construction documents was not completed until early 2007. By 2004, two major issues remained unresolved: funding arrangements and swing space. Initially, it had been anticipated that the United States, as host country, would provide an interest-free loan to fund the renovation. Instead, in March 2004, the United States proposed a loan of usd 1.2 billion to finance the cmp at an interest rate of 5.54 per cent per annum for a maximum period of 30 years [March 5, 2004]. The total principal and interest to be repaid over 30 years would amount to usd 2,511 million. The offer was a great disappointment. In May 2004, given the lack of an attractive host country offer, the ­Secretariat proposed to fund the cmp through assessments from member states using the scale for the regular budget. It took nearly one year for the General Assembly to approve the assessment proposal and reject the loan offer by the host country [June 22, 2005]. With regard to swing space, the Assembly initially endorsed a lease ­arrangement offered by the un Development Corporation (undc), a New York State non-profit corporation tasked with leasing office space to the un. The proposed arrangement included the construction of a new office building (undc-5) by undc on the south-east corner of 42nd Street and First Avenue, next to the un headquarters complex. Afterwards, the new building would be used to consolidate office space outside un headquarters. A number of unresolved legal issues and major cost increases led to abandoning the project in 2005. As a result, a new approach to the swing space option was considered in November 2005: building a new temporary conference swing space building

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on the North Lawn and relocating staff off site in leased space in the New York area [November 11, 2005]. The new project strategy came at a higher cost: usd 1,588 million, compared to the estimate of usd 1,193 million in 2002. The increase largely resulted from higher projected future inflation rates, additions to the scope of work to be done, and a delay in the start of the project. Although it was endorsed by the Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (acabq), the General Assembly was not prepared to approve the revised project with the associated budget increases [December 23, 2005]. The Board of Auditors expressed concern about the lack of decision-making by the General Assembly, which was expected to result in further cost increases. In order to reduce costs, a new swing space strategy was proposed. Renovation was now planned to be carried out in multiple phases during which only part of the staff would have to be moved off site while the rest would move about within the Secretariat building [June 5, 2006]. After several years of ­design and planning, the General Assembly finally approved the cmp, including the project scope, the project schedule with the completion date of 2014 and the budget of usd 1.877 million [December 22, 2006]. To reduce the cost of swing space, renovation of the Secretariat building was proposed to take place in four phases, 10 floors at a time. The recently approved project strategy did not survive long. The General Assembly approved a new accelerated strategy and a fundamental reversal of the plan of one year before: instead of renovating in phases, each building was to be renovated in a single phase [December 10, 2007]. This was anticipated to reduce the risk of construction complications and cut the renovation time from seven to five years. The approved completion dates were mid-2009 for the construction of the temporary North Lawn conference building, mid-2011 for renovation of the Conference Building, early 2012 for renovation of the S­ ecretariat and South Annex buildings, early 2013 for renovation of the Library building, and mid-2013 for renovation of the General Assembly building and disassembly of temporary conference building. Although an increased budget of usd 2.067 million was proposed, the General Assembly confirmed the ­approved budget of usd 1.877 million. Project Implementation as of 2007 As project strategies changed and budgets increased, the project implementation started to advance. In July 2007, Michael Adlerstein was appointed as Executive Director of the cmp at the Assistant Secretary-General level, following the resignation of the former Executive Director in June 2006. In 2007, the Swedish firm Skanska Building ab was awarded the maximum price contract

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for the construction work in the amount of usd 747 million after a competitive bidding process. The contract included the Conference, General Assembly and Secretariat buildings. All major parts of the cmp were properly tendered. The contracting process had been transparent and fair, and the cmp resources were generally utilized in accordance with the un Financial Rules as stated by oios.32 Timely ­approval of contracts, however, was not being achieved: contract ­approval was taking an average of 105 calendar days.33 It was a common practice of the ­Office of the cmp to initiate work before the approval of a change order.34 ­Significant ­weaknesses were identified by oios35 and the Board of Auditors with regard to procedures for amending cmp contracts.36 No effective system had been e­ stablished to minimize the volume of change orders from the outset. This ­resulted in cost overruns, in particular for construction and professional fees. The change ­orders emanated mainly from the end occupiers or users and from incomplete designs. Such changes should have been addressed early in the design phase and the change process. The designs for some phases of the cmp were not completed at the time of initial contract bidding and, in order to protect the project schedule, contracts were knowingly awarded on the basis of incomplete designs. Moreover, many amendments were approved without following the required review process. In response to the Board of Auditors’ recommendation, a post-award review committee was set up to conduct the technical review of change orders and a compliance review of c­ ontract amendments. Initially expected to be operational in October 2009,37 the ­committee only began to operate in April 2010. Both the Board and the ­Advisory Committee were surprised that such a fundamental check on ­potential corruption or waste had yet to be implemented six years into the renovation project.

32

33 34 35 36 37

un document: Audit of Capital Master Plan Procurement and Contract Management, ­including Change Orders, Report of the Office of Internal Oversight Services, A/66/179, July 25, 2011. oios. Audit Report, Assignment Number AC2009/514/02, August 27, 2009. oios. Audit Report, Assignment Number AC2009/514/03, April 8, 2010. un document: The Capital Master Plan for the Period from August 2004 to July 2005, Report of the Office of Internal Oversight Services, A/60/288, August 22, 2005. General Assembly resolution A/RES/67/246, Questions relating to the programme budget for the biennium 2012–2013, December 24, 2012. un document: Implementation of the Recommendations of the Board of Auditors Contained in Its Report on the Capital Master Plan for the Year ended 31 December 2008; Report of the Secretary-General, A/64/368, September 24, 2009, para. 35.

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In 2008, a number of lease arrangements were approved for swing space, including an office building at 380 Madison Avenue for more than 1,800 staff members. In mid-2008 construction started on the temporary North Lawn Building – rather than early 2008 as initially planned – and Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon broke ground, marking the beginning of the renovation of the un headquarters. The North Lawn Building provided swing space in January 2010, six months later than intended. un staff started to move out of the headquarters into the swing space in July 2009. The Secretariat Building was to be renovated by early 2012. There also was a six-month delay before the SecretaryGeneral moved back to his office in December 2012. With regard to the Conference and General Assembly buildings, renovation delays were more significant due to a late start and significant securityrelated scope changes related to the Security Council facility. The Security Council Chamber was located in the Conference building. The initial decision to ­relocate the Council to the temporary North Lawn Building during renovation was rejected for security reasons. Instead the Council was relocated to an ­interim location in the General Assembly Building. As a result, the Conference Building was completed only in December 2012, with occupancy in early 2013 (instead of mid-2011). The General Assembly building was delayed by over two years, with completion by the end of 2015 (instead of mid-2013). The acabq regretted that security concerns were not duly considered earlier on and that the decision to maintain the Security Council within the main complex of buildings had not been part of the initial planning. The timing of that decision was seen to demonstrate a lack of sound planning and co-ordination. Various other factors contributed to delays as well. A re-examination of the security component of the cmp was conducted in 2010. The United States funded additional security upgrades to keep the un headquarters secure from threats emanating from outside its perimeter at a cost of usd 100 million; this was its responsibility under the Host Country Agreement. Because of damage to the complex caused by Hurricane Sandy in 2012, staff members were unable to return from their temporary space to the Conference Building on schedule. Relocation was delayed from January 2013 to May 2013. This, in turn, led to postponing construction of the General Assembly Building because the temporary North Lawn Building was not available to house staff who would be displaced during construction, as it was still in use by the Conference Building staff. By mid-2015, the cmp office closed. The project was behind schedule with completion anticipated by late 2016; in other words, approximately three years behind the cmp schedule approved by the General Assembly in December 2007. Budget increases became apparent between October 2011 and March

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2012 and covered issues outside the initial scope of the cmp (associated costs for usd 147 million, enhanced security upgrade for usd 100 million, secondary data centre for usd 21 million), the adoption of a more expensive accelerated construction strategy, and numerous change orders. The lack of transparent, timely and robust cost forecasting was a barrier to effective decision-making, as noted by the General Assembly in 2012.38 It took until 2012 for the Office of the cmp to establish an appropriate internal control structure, with segregation of duties, to review and evaluate guaranteed maximum price proposals, as demanded by oios.39 The General Assembly initially refused to approve any budget increases and decided that the Secretary-General was to absorb such costs within the cmp approved budget of usd 1877 million [December 10, 2007]. Some savings were identified through value engineering (usd 13 million), but finally the Assembly had no option other than to approve the budget increases to usd 2,370 million [April 24, 2015]. This included an amount of usd 65 million initially allocated to the renovation of the Dag Hammarskjöld Library Building and the South Annex Building, but subsequently removed from the cmp plan since no viable design solution for security requirements could be found. The final budget was 126.3 per cent higher than the initially approved budget of usd 1.877 million [December 10, 2007] and 245.8 per cent higher than the first projections of usd 964 million [June 28, 2000]. Is the un able to implement major projects? In the cmp, the main parts of the headquarters complex (Secretariat building, conference rooms, General Assembly hall) were completely modernized, while the appearance of the un’s public spaces was preserved. The entire complex is greener and more energyefficient, more secure, better ventilated, better lighted, and office space has been optimized. The project has a history of delays, cost increases and a scope reduction.40 Successful project management requires senior management support, thorough planning, competitive bidding, and scope control. This was not always achieved, in particular during the early stages of the project.

38 39

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General Assembly resolution A/RES/66/258, Special Subjects Relating to the Programme Budget for the Biennium 2012–2013, April 9, 2012. un document: Audit of Capital Master Plan Procurement and Contract Management, ­including Change Orders, Report of the Office of Internal Oversight Service, A/66/179, July 25, 2011. Whereas the cmp project, at nearly usd 2.4 billion, was by far the largest project implemented by the un in recent years, the experience of cost increases and delays was echoed in a major information technology project, known as Umoja – Swahili for “unity”.

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2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development The Millennium Development Goals, initially approved in 2001, provided a novel effort to focus the work of the un on a set of eight specific targets in the area of poverty alleviation, education, gender equality, child mortality, maternal health, environmental sustainability, and hiv/aids reduction to be achieved by 2015. Although major improvements were recorded by 2010 on some of the goals and some regions, much more needed to be done. The outcome document of the 2010 mdg Summit asked the Secretary-General to initiate thinking on the global development agenda beyond 2015 that would successfully achieve the mdgs, and not only address the unresolved issues but also reflect new concerns [September 20–22, 2010]. Post-2015 Development Agenda Process Since the initial mdgs had been developed by the un Secretariat with little input, the buzzword for the Post-2015 Development Agenda was consultation. It took over a year, however, for the Secretary-General to set up the first major consultation mechanism by creating the un System Task Team [January 2012]. The Task Team assembled more than 60 un agencies and international organizations and was co-chaired by desa and undp. The team was supported by an inter-agency Technical Support Team (tst), co-chaired by desa and undp, consisting of over 40 un entities and providing technical support, including analytical inputs and background material.41 The task team published its first report, titled “Realizing the Future We Want for All” [June 2012], followed by “A Renewed Global Partnership for Development” and produced a number of thematic think pieces. Four additional bodies assisted the Secretary-General. The first was the High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda in July 2012. Co-chaired by the Presidents of Indonesia (Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono) and Liberia (Ellen Johnson Sirleaf) and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (David Cameron), the Panel assembled 26 representatives from civil

41

Convention on Biological Diversity, ceb, eca, desa, ece, eclac, escap, escwa, fao, ifad, ilo, imf, imo, International Organization for Migration, itu, ocha, ohchr, ohrlls, un Global Compact, un Women, unaids, un Convention to Combat Desertification, unctad, undp, un Department of Public Information, unep, unesco, un Framework Convention on Climate Change (unfccc), unfpa, UNHABITAT, unhcr, unicef, unido, unisdr, un Office for Outer Space Affairs, unops, un Peacebuilding Support Office, unu, unv, unwto, wfp, who, wipo, wmo, World Bank and wto.

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society, the private sector, academia and local and national governments.42 A first meeting was held at the end of September 2012 on the margins of the annual un General Assembly. The Panel’s report “A New Global Partnership: Eradicate Poverty and Transform Economies through Sustainable Development” sets out an agenda to eradicate extreme poverty by 2030 and argues that sustainable development has become the overarching development paradigm [May 30, 2013]. The new Post-2015 Development Agenda was seen to be driven by five transformational shifts: leave no one behind; put sustainable development at the core; transform economies for jobs and inclusive growth; build effective, open and accountable public institutions; and forge a new global partnership. The Panel also called for a data revolution, arguing that more data was needed to inform policy-making and programming, measure new goals and enable people to have the necessary information to hold their governments to account. This idea really took off and resulted in a focus on how to measure progress on a set of post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals (sdgs). The High-Level Panel report fed into the Secretary-General’s recommendations for the General Assembly’s Special Event on Post-2015 Development Agenda [September 24, 2013]. The second body was the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (sdsn), led by Jeffrey Sachs. sdsn is a global, independent network of research centres, universities and technical institutions that works with stakeholders including business, civil society, un agencies and other international organizations. sdsn established 10 global expert groups to support global problem solving in 10 critical areas of sustainable development in August 2012. It proposed a list of indicators for sdgs, provided technical support to the High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda and submitted its report “An Action Agenda for Sustainable Development” to the SecretaryGeneral [May 2014]. The third group was the un Global Compact, which had been actively involved in ensuring that the views and contributions of businesses and the private sector fed into the post-2015 process. It established a task force to conduct 42

Fulbert Gero Amoussouga (Benin), Vanessa Petrelli Corrêa (Brazil), Yingfan Wang (China), Maria Angela Holguin (Colombia), Gisela Alonso (Cuba), Jean-Michel Severino (France), Horst Köhler (Germany), Naoto Kan (Japan), H.M. Queen Rania of Jordan (Jordan), Betty Maina (Kenya), Abhijit Banerjee (India), Andris Piebalgs (Latvia), Patricia Espinosa (Mexico), Paul Polman (Netherlands), Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala (Nigeria), Elvira Nabiullina (Russian Federation), Graça Machel (South Africa), Sung-Hwan Kim (Republic of Korea), Gunilla Carlsson (Sweden), Emilia Pires (Timor-Leste), Kadir Topbaş (Turkey), John Podesta (United States of America), Tawakel Karman (Yemen), Amina J. Mohammed (ex officio).

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consultations among its network of members and issued a report on “Corporate Sustainability and the United Nations Post-2015 Development Agenda” on June 17, 2013. This was followed in July 2014 by a paper on “The Role of Business and Finance in Supporting the Post 2015 Agenda”, considering how businesses can help advance sustainable development through their activities and actions. Fourth, the Secretary-General asked an Independent Expert Advisory Group on the Data Revolution for Sustainable Development to propose ways to improve data for achieving and monitoring sustainable development in August 2014. The group was co-chaired by Enrico Giovannini (Italy), and Robin Li (China).43 The report “A World that Counts: Mobilizing the Data Revolution for Sustainable Development” called for the closing of key data gaps between developed and developing countries, between information-rich and information-poor people, and between the private and public sectors [November 6, 2004]. Sustainable Development Goals Process In parallel to the post-2015 initiative, the un Conference on Sustainable Development, known as Rio + 20, launched the process of developing a set of sdgs [June 20–22, 2012].44 This was to be done through an Open Working Group (owg) of the General Assembly on Sustainable Development Goals. The owg was to be supported by an Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing. Indeed, member states had been unhappy at being essentially left out of the consultation for the Post-2015 Development Agenda which was driven by the un Secretariat [September 20–22, 2010]. This had been the case in the formulation of the mdgs back in 2001, when proposals were presented to member states by the Secretary-General for their approval. 43

44

Enrico Giovannini (Co-Chair, Italy), Robin Li (Co-Chair, China), T.C.A. Anant (India), Shaida Badiee (Iran), Carmen Barroso (Brazil), Robert Chen (United States), Choi Soonhong (Republic of Korea), Nicolas de Cordes (Belgium), Fu Haishan (China), Johannes Jütting (Germany), Pali Lehohla (South Africa), Tim O’Reilly (United States), Sandy Pentland (United States), Rakesh Rajani (Tanzania), Juliana Rotich (Kenya), Wayne Smith (Canada), Eduardo Sojo Garza Aldape (Mexico), Gabriella Vukovich (Hungary), Alicia Barcena (eclac), Robert Kirkpatrick (Global Pulse), Eva Jespersen (undp), Edilberto Loaiza (unfpa), Katell Le Goulven (unicef), Thomas Gass (ex officio) and Amina J. Mohammed (ex officio). The Conference covered economic growth, social justice and environmental stewardship, and also decided, among other things, to strengthen unep and to establish a High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (hlpf), replacing the un Commission on Sustainable Development [July 9, 2013].

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Rio + 20 did not set specific goals but stated that the sdgs needed to be based on Agenda 21, which is the action plan on sustainable development approved by the un Conference on Environment and Development (unced) in 1992, the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, and the outcomes of all major summits in the economic, social and environmental fields. Moreover, the sdgs were to build on the mdgs and to be founded on the three dimensions of economic growth, social justice, and environmental stewardship. Finally, the sdgs were to be coherent with and integrated into the post-2015 development agenda. The owg, tasked with coming up with a set of sdgs, consisted of representatives of 30 member states45 nominated by different regions – an innovative, constituency-based system that was new to the General Assembly [January 22, 2013]. There were 70 states formally represented at the owg – organized geographically and often in pairs or troikas, with each member group generally representing more than one country. The tst, initially established to support the un System Task Team and co-chaired by desa and undp, was now required to also provide technical support to the owg. The owg convened 13 working sessions,46 and covered issues such as sustained and inclusive economic growth, macroeconomic policy questions, means of implementation, global partnership, sustainable cities, sustainable transport, sustainable consumption and production, climate change, disaster risk reduction, social equity, gender equality and women’s empowerment, conflict prevention, postconflict peacebuilding and the promotion of durable peace, rule of law, and governance. The outcome document of the owg was submitted to the General Assembly for negotiation by member states [August 12, 2014]. The Working Group concluded that poverty eradication was the greatest challenge facing the world today and an indispensable requirement for sustainable ­development. In addition to poverty eradication, overarching objectives included changing 45

46

1. Algeria/Egypt/Morocco/Tunisia; 2. Ghana; 3. Benin; 4. Kenya; 5. United Republic of Tanzania; 6. Congo; 7. Zambia/Zimbabwe; 8. Nauru/Palau/Papua New Guinea; 9. ­Bhutan/ Thailand/Vietnam; 10. India/Pakistan/Sri Lanka; 11. China/Indonesia/Kazakhstan; 12. Cyprus/Singapore/United Arab Emirates; 13. Bangladesh/Republic of Korea/Saudi Arabia; 14. Iran/Japan/Nepal; 15. Colombia/Guatemala; 16. Bahamas/Barbados; 17. Guyana/ Haiti/Trinidad and Tobago; 18. Mexico/Peru; 19. Brazil/Nicaragua; 20. Argentina/Bolivia/ Ecuador; 21. Australia/Netherlands/United Kingdom; 22. Canada/Israel/United States of America; 23. Denmark/Ireland/Norway; 24. France/Germany/Switzerland; 25. Italy/ Spain/Turkey; 26. Hungary; 27. Belarus/Serbia; 28. Bulgaria/Croatia; 29. Montenegro/­ Slovenia; 30. Poland/Romania. Meetings on March 14–15, 2013; April 17–19, 2013; May 22–24, 2013; June 17–19, 2013; November 25–27, 2013; December 9–13, 2013; January 6–10, 2014; February 3–7, 2014; March 3–5, 2014; March 31–April 4, 2014; May 5–9, 2014; June 16–20, 2014; July 14–18, 2014.

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unsustainable patterns of consumption and production and promoting sustainable ones and protecting and managing the natural resource bases of economic and social development. A set of 17 goals and 169 targets up to 2030 were suggested. The proposal was essentially identical to the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda finally approved by the un Summit on Sustainable Development [September 25, 2015]. As agreed during the Rio + 20 Conference, an Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing was established by the General Assembly to assist the owg [June 21, 2013]. The Committee comprised 30 experts nominated by regional groups and was mandated to recommend a financing strategy for mobilizing resources to implement the sdgs.47 The Committee concluded that there is no one simple policy solution and that a basket of policy measures would be necessary [August 15, 2014]. Suggested measures included better aligning private incentives with public goals; creating a policy framework that encourages for-profit investment in these areas; mobilizing public resources for essential sustainable development activities; reducing corruption; and ensuring that policies and incentives better match investor preferences with investment needs. Further initiatives were expected from the Third International Conference on Financing for Development, which took place in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [July 13–16, 2015], ahead of the un Summit on Sustainable Development [September 15, 2015]. The Conference assessed the follow-up to similar meetings in Monterrey in 2002 and Doha in 2008. Negotiations also include the financing of the Post-2015 Development Agenda and the sdgs.48 The most contested issue was on financial burden sharing between industrialized and developing countries. Donors pointed to the diminished role of development aid and the importance of other resources 47

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African Group: André Lohayo Djamba (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Admasu Nebebe (Ethiopia), Karamokoba Camara (Guinea), Ahmed Jehani (Libya), Ali Mansoor (Mauritius), Mansur Muhtar (Nigeria), Lydia Greyling (South Africa); Asia-Pacific Group: Ji Zou (China), Lukita Dinarsyah (Indonesia), Mohammad Reza Farzin (Islamic Republic of Iran), Aiboshi Koichi (Japan), Amjad Mahmood (Pakistan), Sung Moon Up (Republic of Korea), Khalid Al Khudairy (Saudi Arabia); Latin American and Caribbean Group: Francisco Gaetani (Brazil), Eduardo Gálvez (Chile), Dulce María Buergo Rodríguez (Cuba), Janet Wallace (Jamaica), Reginald Darius (Saint Lucia), Jorge Valero (Venezuela); Western European and Others Group: Nathan Dal Bon (Australia), Pertti Majanen (Finland), Delphine d’Amarzit (France), Norbert Kloppenburg (Germany), Liz Ditchburn (United Kingdom); Eastern European Group: Emiliya Kraeva (Bulgaria), Tõnis Saar (Estonia), Viktor Zagrekov (Russian Federation), Vladan Zdravkovič (Serbia), František Ružička (Slovakia). In addition, the outcome of the Conference was seen to be instrumental for the success of the forthcoming conference of the unfccc, known as cop 21, in Paris [December 2015].

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such as taxes, remittances or contributions from the private sector and publicprivate partnerships. The conference approved the Addis Ababa Action Agenda. No new commitment was reached to provide resources to fund the sdgs. However, the conference succeeded in outlining a new global framework for financing sustainable development that aligned all financing flows and policies with economic, social and environmental priorities. Finally, the General Assembly established the new hlpf [July 9, 2013] as agreed during the Rio + 20 conference. The hlpf replaced the Commission on Sustainable Development (csd)49 It meets every year under the auspices of ecosoc, and every four years at the level of heads of state and government at the General Assembly. It is the main un platform to follow up on sustainable development commitments and, as of 2016, the Post-2015 Development Agenda and the sdgs. The hlpf held its first meeting under the auspices of the General Assembly with the overall theme “Building the Future We Want: From Rio + 20 to the Post-2015 Development Agenda” [September 24, 2013]. Progress on the Post-2015 Development Agenda was addressed in June–July 2014, and in June–July 2015. Starting in 2016, the hlpf will conduct regular reviews on the follow-up and implementation of sustainable development commitments and objectives. Merging Work Streams During the Special Event to Follow Up Efforts Made Towards Achieving the Millennium Development Goals, convened by the President of the General Assembly to review progress and chart the way forward, a new two-year roadmap was laid out [October 9, 2013]. The meeting decided to merge the two work streams on the Post-2015 Development Agenda and the sdgs into a new process of intergovernmental negotiations, intended to craft a strong post-2015 development agenda that builds on the foundations laid by the mdgs, completes the unfinished business and responds to new challenges. As a result, current efforts were wrapped up. The owg and the Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing completed their work by September 2014. The Secretary-General synthesized the inputs available from the un system consultations by December 2014. The results were submitted to the new intergovernmental negotiations, starting in January 2015 and leading to the un Summit on Sustainable Development [September 25, 2015]. The new member-states-led process still provided for the participation from external stakeholders such as civil society organizations, the private sector and businesses, academia and scientists. The un played a facilitating role 49 The csd was itself originally set up following the 1992 unced in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

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and ­supported member states by providing evidence-based inputs, analytical thinking and field experience. The requested synthesis report on the Post-2015 Development Agenda was provided by the Secretary-General to the General Assembly [December 4, 2014]. The report was rather limited, as it only reflected the various streams of work as an input to the upcoming intergovernmental negotiations. As a conception contribution, a transformative agenda for sustainable development was proposed with a set of six elements to help frame and reinforce the sustainable development agenda (dignity, people, prosperity, planet, justice, partnership). In addition, details were provided on how to mobilize the means and on implementation arrangements. More importantly, the report endorsed the proposals of the owg, in particular the set of 17 sdgs and 169 targets [August 12, 2014]. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the un at 70 Intergovernmental negotiations started in January 2015, building on the outcome document of the owg [August 12, 2014]. The work on the text was done during eight sessions resulting in the outcome document “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” [August 2, 2015]. The document including a set of 17 sdgs and 169 targets up to 2030 and was e­ ssentially identical to the owg’s proposals [August 12, 2014]. The outcome d­ ocument was subsequently approved by the General Assembly [September 1, 2015]. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was finally adopted by the un Summit on Sustainable Development, meeting in New York at the level of heads of state and government to celebrate the 70th anniversary of the un [September 25, 2015].50 Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon described this “a ­defining moment in human history”.51 The 17 sdgs are as follows: Goal 1 Goal 2 Goal 3 Goal 4 Goal 5

50 51

End poverty in all its forms everywhere. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

See Appendix i.1: “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”, September 25, 2015. un meeting coverage: “Unanimously Adopting Historic Sustainable Development Goals, General Assembly Shapes Global Outlook for Prosperity, Peace”, GA/11688, September 25, 2015.

80 Goal 6 Goal 7 Goal 8 Goal 9 Goal 10 Goal 11 Goal 12 Goal 13 Goal 14 Goal 15

Goal 16

Goal 17

chapter 2 Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation. Reduce inequality within and among countries. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development.

The initial enthusiasm at reaching a global consensus in the area of poverty eradication, gender equality, sustainable consumption and production, and climate change was giving way to a more sober assessment. Most importantly, the funding issue had not been resolved. Approximately usd 3 billion was needed annually to implement the sdgs. The new Addis Ababa Action Agenda had not resulted in new commitments to make those resources available [July 13–16, 2015]. Was the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development worth the effort? It had been launched five years before by the 2010 mdg Summit [September 20–22, 2010], which requested the development of a global development agenda beyond 2015 that would succeed the mdgs, and renewed three years ago by the 2012 un Conference on Sustainable Development [June 20–22, 2012] which created the owg of the General Assembly on Sustainable Development Goals. It took some effort to co-ordinate and subsequently merge the two overlapping initiatives. A multitude of consultations and co-ordination efforts were launched – unprecedented in un history. The result can be considered an

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­unmanageably long list of goals and targets, rather than an action plan. Moreover, some of the sdgs are limited to an update and reorientation of the mdgs. For example, rather than halving poverty and hunger, as was stated in the mdgs, the new goal is to end poverty in all its forms. Finally, concern was expressed that growth-oriented economic and social issues dominated the sdgs, relegating environmental aspects to the sidelines. As the Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon noted following the approval of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the true test will be implementation. This requires new funding arrangements, new institutional set-ups for implementation and a system for monitoring results. These still need to be ­fully established and can only be addressed through new and innovative ­reform initiatives. Provided they are forthcoming, the shortcomings of the sdgs process will be forgotten. 9

Concluding Observations

The 70th anniversary of the un provided an opportunity to assess and r­ edirect the organization. The approval of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in September 2015 counts as such an effort. The same applies to the agreement reached at the Climate Change Summit in Paris in December 2015. Acting on the recommendations of the High-Level Independent Panel on un Peace Operations and the Advisory Group on Peacebuilding Architecture will further solidify the change agenda. While the un embarks on those undertakings, it is useful to look back at the history of un reform and examine the ­lessons learned. – What prompts a reform initiative? There are two main drivers: external and internal. The most powerful are catalytic shifts in the political environment in which the un operates, such as the end of the Cold War or new issues such as climate change and global terrorism. Responses to such catalytic shifts often address the un as a whole, in some cases even putting forward a new vision for the organization. Internal drivers for change are perceived institutional shortcomings or concern with regard to specific un activities. The corresponding initiatives may target selected programme issues or be of a more technical nature. Issues of co-ordination, duplication and management are often addressed to increase efficiency and effectiveness. Since its creation, the un has gone through many phases of organizational change. In the 1960, during the East/West divide, reform initiatives aimed to accommodate the East in a Western-dominated un and to develop the concept

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of peacekeeping. This was followed by the focus on development, with the increased prominence of developing countries and the North–South conflict. The response was the expansion of technical assistance programmes and associated restructuring of the un during the 1970s and 1980s. With the end of the Cold War in the 1990s, the un witnessed a massive expansion of peacekeeping, along with the associated restructuring of the Secretariat and policy adjustments. In the 2000s, reforms were launched to improve management, efficiency, and integrity in order to take on new globalized challenges. In the coming years, the new emphasis might well be on restructuring institutions and funding arrangements to support the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, starting with poverty eradication. – What are the interests and constraints? This question addresses the main stakeholders in the reform process. They include the United States as the main military and industrial power with a particular interest in security and human rights. Management and efficiency issues are also high on the agenda of the United States and the other major donors. Developing countries, represented by the G77 with its 130 members, are most concerned with economic issues such as debt relief and development assistance. The G77 overlaps with the group the nam, which is concerned primarily with political and security issues and has 112 members. The European Union with 28 countries, the Nordic countries and the canz group show a mix of both: they support development activities and have an interest in efficiency and human rights. The issue of Security Council reform has led dedicated groupings being formed. They included the Group of 4 (Brazil, Germany, India, Japan) striving for permanent membership and the Uniting for Consensus group, led by Italy, Pakistan and Argentina, which opposed new permanent members. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union and its allies were in the minority and focused on improving their control over the organization. As for constraints, national sovereignty is a key issue in nearly all major un reform initiatives. How does the reform initiative impact on the national space for decision-making or affect sharing in the governance and control of the un? A sample case would be an interventionist initiative such as linking compliance with human rights obligations to the provision of development assistance or restricting the number of member states in a un governing body in order to enhance decision-making efficiency. The countries most preoccupied with issues of national sovereignty are the weakest and the strongest: the developing countries and the United States. Smaller and medium-sized industrial countries appear more ready to accept restrictions in order to strengthen international co-operation. Finally, civil society and the business community can be partners in reform initiatives. Their interest

Summary of Main Reform Initiatives, 1946 to 2015

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is to gain a voice in decision-making and to associate themselves with some of the main policies of the un. – What are the dynamics of the process? un reform is a political process in which numerous interests are considered, rejected and adjusted. In the un setting, this process moves cautiously, aiming to reach consensus. If it is negotiated through an intergovernmental group with representation by the key players, the likelihood of reaching approval at the General Assembly, Security Council or ecosoc is very high. The price to pay, however, is often adjustment to the lowest common denominator. Assurance of widespread support, which comes from an intergovernmental process, is helpful if the reform initiative requires member states’ approval and essential if it requires a Charter amendment. The latter would require a two-thirds majority of the General Assembly, including the five permanent members. A case in point is the efforts to reform the Security Council. Commissions and panels established by member states or the Secretary-General can bring a wide range of expertise to the reform initiative. Members of such groups act in their personal capacity and innovative proposals are developed. In general, actual approval of such proposals is limited to those recommendations that survive the subsequent intergovernmental negotiation process. Essentially, no proposal is approved if it is objected to by either of the two major blocs of countries: US/donors and G77/NAM. Interestingly, unlike those two blocs, the Nordic/EU/CANZ countries generally support change and often appear to search for a compromise between the US/donors and G77/NAM blocs. Proposals from groups or individual member states are rarely submitted directly to the un for decision-making, but are often picked up by commission, panels or intergovernmental groups. Initiatives by the SecretaryGeneral are mainly limited to technical issues and efficiency concern. Whereas such efforts do not always require member states’ approval, they are often submitted to un bodies for endorsement. If the proposals are more ambitious, they often reflect the position of groups of member states put forward in the name of the Secretary-General. Finally, external proposals by ngos or individual experts may add some visionary ideas to the reform process, but are not usually accepted into the un decision-making process. Over time, however, what was once considered visionary can well become a realistic proposal taken up by some of the reform bodies. – What change is achieved? Even when approved, initiatives face the barrier of implementation. Among other things, this is a consequence of the fragmentation of the un into a multitude of semi-independent programmes and funds. The Secretariat can sometimes be seen as prohibiting change. In particular, the heads of programmes, funds and specialized agencies

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r­ esist proposals that appear to limit their autonomy. Nevertheless, reform initiatives have changed the organization over time. Compared to the initial years, the un has expanded in size, become more complex and gained a larger mandate. The expansion, with the exception of peacekeeping in ­recent years, is less than is often assumed. The size of the un peaked in the mid-1980s and has remained rather stable since then. The same is true of the complexity of the organization; the basic structure of commissions, programmes and funds was inherited from its early years. Some aspects have proven to be reform-resistant. This is particularly true of governance, which is frozen in time, especially as concerns the Security Council. It also applies to some aspects of managing the bureaucracy, with staff rules still being rooted in the arrangement developed for the League of Nations. The lessons learned enhance the transparency of the un reform process. As such, they contribute to assessing change efforts and developing new initiatives. One of those opportunities will arise at the end of 2016 when the term of office of Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon ends and a new Secretary-General is appointed. The appointment process has been criticized as exclusive to the permanent members of the Security Council and non-transparent, without a formal search and selection process. The Assembly has taken a small step towards addressing this issue [September 11, 2015]. First, the Assembly determined that the process should be more open than in the past. It requested that the Presidents of the General Assembly and the Security Council should actively request candidates for the post and that their consideration should be open. Second, the Assembly stressed the need to ensure equal and fair distribution of candidates based on gender and geographical balance, while meeting the highest possible requirements. In this regard, member states are invited to consider presenting women as candidates for the position of Secretary-General.

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Chronology of Main Change Events This chronology lists the main change events in the un’s history. Each change event is introduced with keywords. In general, the text starts by identifying the actor and the action. The actor could be a un body, a member state or a group, the Secretary-General, or an expert group. The action could be the passing of a resolution, the submission of a report or the decision of a conference. This is followed by a description of the change event, namely the proposal made, approved or rejected. If applicable, the un documentation that identifies the action is shown, such as a resolution, decision or report number. Crossreferencing within the chronology is provided by identifying a related change event, if applicable, through the corresponding chronology date in square brackets. These dates appear at the end of the change event paragraph. 1941 August 14

1942 January 1

1943 October 30

1944 August 21– October 7

atlantic charter: us President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill issue a joint declaration, including a statement of principles to govern the establishment of a worldwide system of security.

declaration by united nations: 26 allied nations fighting against the Axis powers issue the Declaration by United Nations, including China, United Kingdom, United States and Soviet Union, supporting the Atlantic Charter.

moscow declaration: China, United Kingdom, United States and the Soviet Union agree on the need for an international organization to succeed the League of Nations.

dumbarton oaks: China, United Kingdom, United States, and ussr negotiate proposals and recommend the establishment of an international organization to maintain peace and security in the world during the Washington Conversations on International Peace and Security Organization (Dumbarton Oaks Conference).

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���6 | doi 10.1163/9789004242227_004

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1945 February 4–11 security council: United Kingdom, United States and the Soviet Union agree on the Security Council voting formula during the Yalta Conference. [June 7, 1945] April 9–20 international court of justice: The Committee of Jurists, attended by representatives from 44 nations, drafts the statute for an International Court of Justice (icj). [April 3, 1946] June 7 security council: Agreement is reached on Security Council voting procedures. [February 4–11, 1945; January 17, 1946] April 9–June charter: The un Conference on International Organization, 26 meeting in San Francisco, concludes with the signing of the un Charter by 50 nations. October 24 un established: The un officially comes into existence upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council – China, France, United Kingdom, United States and Soviet Union – and by a majority of the signatories. The original member states are Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Byelorussian ssr, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Liberia, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippine Republic, Poland, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Ukrainian ssr, South Africa, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela and Yugoslavia. Total members: 51. 1946 January 10– February 14 January 17

January 23– February 18

general assembly: First meeting at Westminster Central Hall in London including representatives of 51 nations. security council: First meeting at the Church House in London. [June 7, 1945] ecosoc: First regular session at the Church House in London.

Chronology Of Main Change Events January 24

February 1

February 12

February 13

February 14

February 16

March 21

April 3 April 8–18 June 14

87

atomic energy: The General Assembly establishes the un Atomic Energy Commission. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1 (i). [June 14, 1946] secretary-general: The General Assembly appoints Trygve Lie of Norway as Secretary-General. Official Records of the General Assembly: A/PV.20. [November 10, 1952] league of nations: The General Assembly approves the transfer of certain functions, assets and assets of the League of Nations to the un. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/24 (i). [April 8–18, 1946] un secretariat: The General Assembly approves the o­ rganization of the Secretariat, including the principal administrative units; recruitment and promotion rules; rights and obligations of staff; taxation; classification, salaries and allowances; duration and ­termination of appointments; and retirement and compensation. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/13 (i). headquarters: The General Assembly chooses New York as interim headquarters. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/25 (i). [March 21, 1946] commission structure: The General Assembly establishes the Commission on Narcotic Drugs; Commission on Human Rights; Temporary Social Commission; Statistical Commission; and Temporary Transport and Communication Commission. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/18 (i). [June 21, 1946] headquarters: The temporary un headquarters are established at Hunter College, New York. [February 14, 1946; August 16, 1946] international court of justice: First meeting. [April 9–20, 1945] league of nations: Dissolved. [February 12, 1946] atomic energy: The United States proposes to the un Atomic Energy Commission that an International Atomic Development Authority be established (Baruch plan). [January 24, 1946; December 4, 1954]

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commission structure: ecosoc establishes the Subcommission on Freedom of Information; Commission on the Status of Women; and Sub-commission on Devastated Areas. [February 16, 1946; October 1, 1946] August 16 headquarters: The un headquarters moves to Lake Success. [March 21, 1946; December 14, 1946] September 21 un system: ecosoc establishes the Administrative Committee on Co-ordination (acc) as a forum that convened the executive heads of all the organizations of the un system, under the chairmanship of the Secretary-General, to focus on questions of co-ordination and cross-cutting policy issues. ecosoc resolution: E/RES/13 (iii). [December 14, 1946] October 1 commission structure: ecosoc establishes the Economic and Employment Commission and the Fiscal Commission. ecosoc resolutions: E/RES/1 (iii) and 2 (iii). [June 21, 1946; October 3, 1946] October 3 commission structure: ecosoc establishes the Population Commission. ecosoc resolution: E/RES/3 (iii). [October 1, 1946] October 11 finance: The Committee on Contributions agrees that the expenses of the un should be apportioned broadly according to capacity to pay as the core principle, taking the following factors into account: comparative income per head of population; temporary dislocation of national economies arising out of World War ii; and the ability to secure foreign currency. The United States initially pays 40 per cent of the regular budget. This percentage is subsequently reduced to 33 per cent, 25 per cent, and finally to 22 per cent in 2000. General Assembly document: A/80. [December 23, 2000] November 19 narcotic drugs: The General Assembly transfers powers ­exercised by the League of Nations under the international agreements, conventions and protocols on narcotic drugs to the un. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/54 (i). [March 25, 1961] December 11 children: The General Assembly establishes the un International Children’s Emergency Fund (unicef). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/57 (i).

Chronology Of Main Change Events December 13

December 14

December 14

December 14

December 15

Year-end 1947 March 28

March 28

April 2 October 20

89

trusteeship: The General Assembly establishes the Trusteeship Council. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/63 (i). [April 2, 1947] headquarters: The General Assembly selects New York as permanent headquarters and accepts a usd 8.5 million gift from J.D. Rockefeller, Jr. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/100 (i). [August 16, 1946; February 27, 1952] un system: The General Assembly approves agreements with the International Labour Organization (ilo), the un Food and Agriculture Organization (fao), the un Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (unesco), and the International Civil Aviation Organization (icao). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/50 (i). [September 21, 1946; November 15, 1947] health: The General Assembly establishes the World Health Organization (who). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/61 (i). refugees: The General Assembly approves the constitution of the International Refugee Organization. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/83 (i). membership: new – Afghanistan, Iceland, Siam, Sweden; total – 55.

regional commission: ecosoc establishes the European Economic Commission (ece) located in Geneva and the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ecafe) located in Bangkok. ecafe was renamed un Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (escap) in 1974. ecosoc resolution: E/RES/30 (IV). [February 25, 1948] commodities: ecosoc establishes the Interim Co-ordinating Committee for International Commodity Agreements (iccica), pending the establishment of an International Trade Organization. ecosoc resolution: E/RES/30 (iv). [August 5, 1954] trusteeship council: First meeting. [December 13, 1946] un flag: The General Assembly adopts the un flag. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/167 (ii).

90 1947 (cont.) October 30

November 15

November 21

November 29

Year-end

1948 January 6

February 19– March 6 February 25

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un system: The Protocol of Provisional Application of General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (gatt) is signed. [December 14, 1946; November 15, 1947] un system: The General Assembly approves agreements with the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (ibrd), the International Monetary Fund (imf), the Universal Postal Union (upu) and the International Telecommunication Union (itu). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/124 (ii). [October 30, 1947; December 20, 1951] legal: The General Assembly establishes the International Law Commission. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/174 (ii). partition resolution: The General Assembly approves the division of United Kingdom’s former Palestinian mandate into Jewish and Arab states as of May 1948 when the British mandate is scheduled to end. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/181. membership: new – Pakistan, Yemen, Philippines (formerly Philippine Republic, member since 1945); total – 57.

peacekeeping: The Security Council establishes the un Commission for India and Pakistan (uncip) to investigate and mediate the issues related to the accession of Jammu and Kashmir. uncip’s role is subsequently enlarged and it forms the first team of unarmed military observer to supervise the ceasefire between India and Pakistan (S/RES/47 (1948)), which eventually became the un Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (unmogip). Security Council resolution: S/RES/39 (1948). [January 6, 1948; May 29, 1948] maritime transport: The un Conference drafts the convention for an Inter-governmental Maritime Conference Consultative Organization. regional commission: ecosoc establishes the Economic Commission for Latin America. ecosoc resolution: E/RES/106 (vi). [March 28, 1947; November 26, 1958]

Chronology Of Main Change Events May 29

November 19

December 4

December 9 December 10

Year-end 1949 November 22

December 3

December 8

91

peacekeeping: The Security Council establishes a first group of military observers, headed by un Mediator Count Folke Bernadotte of Wisborg, to supervise the truce following the cessation of hostilities in Palestine. The first group of military observers, which will become the un Truce Supervision Organization, arrived in the region in June 1948. Security Council resolution: S/RES/50 (1948). [January 6, 1948; March 30, 1951] refugees: The General Assembly establishes un Relief for Palestine Refugees. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/212 (iii). [December 3, 1949] technical assistance: The General Assembly authorizes the Secretary-General to provide technical assistance for economic development to governments. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/200 (iii). [November 22, 1949] genocide: The General Assembly approves the genocide convention. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/260 (iii). human rights: The General Assembly adopts the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/217 A (iii). [January 3 and March 3, 1976] membership: new – Burma; total – 58.

technical assistance: The General Assembly authorizes the un Field Service and establishes the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance (epta) to provide technical assistance to developing nations. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/297 (iv). [December 4, 1948; March 1, 1950] refugees: The General Assembly establishes the un Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (unhcr). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/319 (iv). [November 19, 1948; December 8, 1949] refugees: The General Assembly establishes the un Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/302 (iv). [December 3, 1949; December 14, 1950]

92 1949 (cont.) Year-end

1950 February 27

March 1

June 27

July 26

August

November 3

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membership: new – Israel, Thailand (formerly Siam, member since 1946); total – 59.

non-governmental organizations: ecosoc decides to codify developing practice with regard to arrangements for consultation, including principles to govern the relationship, criteria for granting consultative status and the rights and duties of nongovernmental organizations (ngos). ecosoc resolution: E/RES/288 B (x). [May 23, 1968] technical assistance: The Secretary-General establishes the un Field Service. [November 22, 1949] korean war: The Security Council recommends that member states assist the southern part of Korea to repel the armed attack from the north. As a result, un troops engage in the Korean War. The resolution is passed because the Soviet Union is boycotting the Security Council meeting, assuming that the Council could not pass the resolution without all permanent members present. The majority of the members of the Security Council, however, are of the view that absence does not prevent the Security Council from acting validly, a view that is later endorsed by the icj. Security Council resolution: S/RES/83 (1950). [August 1950] peace: The Secretary-General submits his vision on a “TwentyYear Programme for Achieving Peace through the United Nations”. The conflict erupting between East and West over the Korean War makes it impossible for the proposals to be taken up. General Assembly document: A/1304. korean war: The Soviet Union again attends the Security Council and vetoes a draft resolution condemning the North Korean authorities. [June 27, 1950; November 3, 1950] korean war: The General Assembly adopts the “Uniting for Peace” resolution which addresses the aggression by North Korea, following the veto by the Soviet Union of a related draft resolution in the Security Council. The resolution also states that the Assembly may recommend collective action, including the use of force, if the Security Council fails to exercise its responsibility due to lack of unanimity.

Chronology Of Main Change Events

December 1

December 14

Year-end 1951 March 30

July 28

December 20

Year-end 1952 January 11

February 27

93

General Assembly resolution: A/RES/377 A (v). [August 1950; December 1, 1950] korean relief: The General Assembly establishes the un Korea Relief and Reconstruction Agency. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/410 (v). [November 3, 1950] refugees: The General Assembly adopts the statute of the unhcr. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/427 (v). [December 8, 1949; July 28, 1951] membership: new – Indonesia; total – 60.

peacekeeping: The Security Council establishes unmogip, after the termination of uncip, to observe and report ceasefire violations. Security Council resolution: S/RES/91 (1951). [May 29, 1948; November 5, 1956] refugees: The un conference approves the refugee convention defining who is a refugee, their rights and the legal obligations of states. It is initially limited to protecting European refugees after World War ii. The convention enters into force on April 22, 1954. A 1967 Protocol removes the time limits and applies to refugees without any geographic limitations. [December 14, 1950] un system: The General Assembly approves agreement with the World Meteorological Organization. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/531 (vi). [November 15, 1947; February 20, 1957] membership: total – 60.

disarmament: The General Assembly establishes the un Disarmament Commission under the Security Council to replace the Atomic Energy Commission and the Commission on Conventional Armaments. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/502 (VI). [November 4, 1958] headquarters: The new headquarters building in New York is inaugurated. [December 14, 1946]

94 1952 (cont.) November 10

Year-end 1953 April 10

December 9

Year-end 1954 August 5

December 4

Year-end 1955 November 3

Year-end

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secretary-general: Secretary-General Trygve Lie resigns. General Assembly document: A/2361/Add.1. [February 1, 1946; April 10, 1953] membership: total – 60.

secretary-general: New Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld of Sweden replaces Trygve Lie. [November 10, 1952; September 22, 1960] management: The General Assembly approves the restructuring proposed by the Secretary-General (A/2554) to enhance efficiency and economy. Departments are broken down into smaller units, including the Department of Conference and General Services, which is split into two. The personnel office, legal office and finance office are placed under the direct supervision of the Secretary-General. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/784 (viii). [June 14, 1962] membership: total – 60.

commodities: ecosoc establishes the Commission on International Commodity Trade (cict). ecosoc resolution: E/RES/557 F (xviii). [March 28, 1947; June 16, 1964] atomic energy: The General Assembly approves the draft statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency (iaea). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/810 (ix). [June 14, 1946; July 29, 1957] membership: total – 60.

development: The General Assembly approves the statute of the International Finance Corporation (ifc). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/922 (x). [December 14, 1957; April 12, 1960] membership: new – Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Ceylon, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Laos, Libya, Nepal, Portugal, Romania, Spain; total – 76.

Chronology Of Main Change Events 1956 November 5

Year-end 1957 February 20

July 29 December 14

Year-end 1958 June 11

November 4

95

peacekeeping: The General Assembly establishes the un Emergency Force (unef i), the first armed peacekeeping force. The Force is to supervise the withdrawal of the armed forces of France, Israel and the United Kingdom from Egyptian territory and, after the withdrawal, to serve as a buffer between the Egyptian and Israeli forces. unef is withdrawn in May–June 1967 at Egypt’s request. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1000 (es-i). [March 30, 1951; June 11, 1958] membership: new – Japan, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia; total – 80.

un system: The General Assembly approves the agreement with the ifc. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1116 (xi). [December 20, 1951; September 26, 1960] atomic energy: The iaea comes into being. [December 4, 1954; June 12, 1968] development: The General Assembly establishes a Special un Fund for Economic Development (sunfed), which is charged with conducting surveys and analysis for major development projects. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1219 (xii). [November 22, 1949; November 3, 1955] membership: new – Federation of Malaya; total 81.

peacekeeping: The Security Council establishes the un Observation Group in Lebanon. Security Council resolution: S/RES/128 (1958). [November 5, 1956; July 14, 1960] disarmament: The membership of the un Disarmament Commission is increased from 25 to full un membership (81 members). The commission meets only occasionally after 1959 and is replaced by a new commission. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1252 (xii). [January 11, 1952; September 10, 1959]

96 1958 (cont.) November 26

Year-end

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regional commission: The General Assembly establishes the Economic Commission for Africa (eca). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1155 (xiii). [February 28, 1948; August 9, 1973] membership: new – Guinea, United Arab Republic (joining Egypt and Syria, members since 1945); total – 81.

1959 September 10 disarmament: The Disarmament Commission establishes the Ten-Nations Committee on Disarmament (tncd), chaired by the United States and the Soviet Union. The short-lived committee grew out of the 1959 Big Four powers’ (United States, United Kingdom, France, Soviet Union) meeting in Berlin, which decided to resume previously halted disarmament talks and establish a new international negotiating forum. The Committee is succeeded by the Eighteen-Nations Committee on Disarmament (encd). Disarmament Committee resolution: dc/146. [November 4, 1958; December 20, 1961] December 12 outer space: The General Assembly establishes the Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space shortly after the launch of Sputnik. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1472 (xiv). Year-end membership: total – 81. 1960 April 12

July 14

development: ecosoc establishes the Standing Committee for Industrial Development. ecosoc resolution: E/RES/751 (xxix). [November 3, 1955; September 26, 1960] peacekeeping: The Security Council establishes the un Force in the Congo (onuc), a peacekeeping mission with a significant military force, which at its peak numbered nearly 20,000 including contingents from Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Ireland, Liberia, Morocco, Sweden and Tunisia. onuc arranges the withdrawal of Belgian military personnel (later expanded to mercenaries) and provides military assistance to ensure internal stability. The first onuc troops reach Congo on July 15, 1960, and stay until 1964. Security Council resolution: S/RES/143 (1960). [June 11, 1958]

Chronology Of Main Change Events September 4

September 22

September 26

December 15

December 19

Year-end

1961 March 25

April 3

97

us withholding: The us Congress decides to withhold a proportionate share of us funding from the regular budget for programmes related to the Palestine Liberation Organization (plo). secretary-general: The Soviet Union proposes to the General Assembly that the post of Secretary-General be replaced by a troika of one representative each from socialist states, the Western military alliance and the non-aligned states. [April 10, 1953; June 14, 1961] un system: The International Development Association (ida) comes into existence as a member of the World Bank Group. ida is an international financial institution which offers concessional loans and grants to the world’s poorest developing countries. [February 20, 1957; December 20, 1965] development: The General Assembly establishes the un Capital Development Fund and approves concerted action for the economic development of developing countries. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1521 (xv). [April 12, 1960; December 19, 1960] development: The General Assembly establishes the Centre for Industrial Development. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1712 (1961). [December 15, 1960; November 22, 1965] membership: new – Cameroun, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo (Brazzaville), Cyprus, Dahomey, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Malagasy Republic, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, Togo, Upper Volta, Zaire; total – 99.

narcotic drugs: The un Conference adopts the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. The treaty prohibits production and supply of specific narcotic drugs. Its major effects include updating the Paris Convention of July 13, 1931, to include the vast number of synthetic opioids invented in the intervening 30 years. [November 19, 1946; March 1, 1968] un system: The General Assembly approves the agreement with the ida. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1594 (xv). [September 26, 1960; December 20, 1965]

98 1961 (cont.) June 14

September 18

November 3

November 15

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management: The Group of Experts (Group of 8) presents “Review of the Activities and Organization of the Secretariat”. The Group was established by the General Assembly (A/RES/1446 (xiv)) in response to the refusal of the Soviet Union and its allies to share in the cost of peacekeeping operations on the basis that they were dominated by staff from Western allies, especially at the senior level. The Group proposes to address the imbalance in geographic distribution of staff by introducing a new formula for determining the share of positions for each country. Attention is also paid to budgetary matters, including budget stabilization, reducing posts, and approving, together with the annual budget, a budget ceiling for the subsequent year. The Soviet proposal to replace the post of Secretary-General with a troika is rejected. General Assembly document: A/4776. [December 9, 1953; September 22, 1960; November 15, 1961] secretary-general: Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld dies in a place crash. [September 22, 1960; November 3, 1962] secretary-general: New Secretary-General Sithu U Thant of Burma comes into office, replacing Dag Hammarskjöld. [September 18, 1962; December 22, 1971] finance: The Working Group on the Examination of the Administrative and Budgetary Procedures of the un (Group of 15) presents its report. The Group was established by the General Assembly in April 1961 (A/RES/1620 (xv)) in response to a financial crisis resulting from Britain and France’s refusal to pay for unef and the ussr’s refusal to pay for onuc. The missions were voted on by those countries in the Security Council and approved by the General Assembly. The legality of the Assembly’s decision was questioned since the power to approve peacekeeping missions was seen as belonging only to the Security Council. The Working Group recommends requesting an advisory opinion from the icj on the legal nature of financial obligations arising from UNEF and onuc. The Group of 15 is subsequently succeeded by the Group of 21. General Assembly document: A/4971. [October 11, 1946; July 20, 1962]

Chronology Of Main Change Events December 20

Year-end

1962 July 20

August 3

December 19

Year-end

1963 June 27

99

disarmament: The General Assembly establishes encd to replace the short-lived tncd [September 10, 1959]. Like tncd, encd is chaired by the United States and Soviet Union. encd is later succeeded by the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament (ccd). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1722 (xvi). [September 10, 1959; December 12, 1969] membership: new – Mauritania, Mongolia, Sierra Leone, Tanganyika, Syria (separates from United Arab Republic, see 1958), South Africa (formerly Union of South Africa, member since 1945); total – 104.

finance: The icj decides that expenditures for unef and onuc are expenses of the organization. [November 15, 1961; December 19, 1962] planning and co-ordination: ecosoc establishes the Special Committee on Co-ordination (later renamed Committee on Programme and Co-ordination). ecosoc resolution: E/RES/920 (xxxiv). finance: The General Assembly accepts the icj’s advisory opinion that obligations from unef and onuc are expenses of the organization. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1854 A (xvii). [July 20, 1962; June 27, 1963] membership: new – Algeria, Burundi, Jamaica, Rwanda, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda; total – 110.

finance: The General Assembly, at its Special Session on the Financing of Peacekeeping Operations, considers the report of the Working Group on the Examination of the Administrative and Budgetary Procedures of the un (Group of 21) (A/5407). The Working Group is a continuation of the previous Group of 15, increased by six additional members (A/RES/1854 B). The Special Session approves some general principles to serve as guidelines for sharing the costs of future peacekeeping operations and decides to continue the Working Group (A/RES/1880 (S-IV)). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1874 (S-IV). [December 19, 1962; December 15, 1965]

100 1963 (cont.) December 17

Year-end

1964 June 15

June 16

Year-end

1965 November 22

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enlargement: The General Assembly proposes that the Security Council be increased from 11 to 15 members, with 4 additional non-permanent members, and that ecosoc be enlarged from 18 to 27 members. This is in response to the influx of newly independent member states as a result of decolonization. The Charter amendments come into effect on August 31, 1965, after achieving the necessary number of ratifications. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/1991 A (xviii). membership: new – Kenya, Kuwait, Zanzibar, Malaysia (following the merger of Federation of Malaya, member since 1957, with the new Federation of Singapore, Sabah (North Borneo) and Sarawak); total – 113.

group of 77: The Group of 77 (G77) is established by 77 developing countries at the un Conference on Trade and Development (unctad). Beginning with the first ministerial meeting of the G77 in October 1967, a permanent institutional structure gradually develops. Although the members of the G77 increase to 134 countries by 2015, the original name is retained due to its historic significance. [June 16, 1964] trade and development: unctad proposes to establish the conference as an organ of the un to accelerate economic growth in all countries. The proposal included the establishment of a Committee on Commodities, replacing iccica and cict. The Assembly approves the unctad recommendations (A/RES/1995 (is)). [August 5, 1954; December 12, 1967] membership: new – Malawi, Malta, Zambia, United Republic of Tanzania (including Tanganyika and Zanzibar); total – 115

development: The General Assembly establishes the un Development Programme (undp) through the consolidation of the sunfed and epta. This is to consolidate financial resources and reduce duplication. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2029 (xx). [December 19, 1960; December 13, 1966]

Chronology Of Main Change Events December 15

December 20

Year-end

1966 July 19

101

finance: The General Assembly adopts the recommendations of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations (A/5916). The Special Committee was established by the General Assembly (A/RES/2006 (xix)) to undertake a comprehensive review of peacekeeping operations, including ways of overcoming the financial difficulties. The Soviet Union and France were in danger of losing their voting rights due to non-payment for unef and onuc. The Assembly agrees not to apply the corresponding Charter provision in order to avoid a major crisis. Instead, countries that supplied troops agree informally to bear the cost of their participation in peacekeeping operations themselves in order to make up for funding shortfalls due to non-payment. In addition, the Assembly agrees that in future only the Security Council will establish new peacekeeping forces and contributions to peacekeeping will be assessed. The General Assembly also agrees to continue the Special Committee. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2053 (xx). [November 22, 1965; July 19, 1966] un system: The General Assembly establishes the un Industrial Development Organization (unido). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2089 (xx). [April 3, 1961; November 17, 1966] membership: new – The Gambia, Maldive Islands, Singapore (previously part of Malaysia, see 1963), Indonesia (withdraws and resumes in 1966); total – 117.

budget: The Ad Hoc Committee of Experts to Examine the Finances of the un and the Specialized Agencies (Group of 14) presents its report. The Committee was established by the General Assembly (A/RES/2049 (xx)) to examine budget preparation and presentation, inspection and control, and long-term planning and evaluation. The major contributors, in particular the United States, are concerned over the expansion of the budget, in particular in the area of economic and social fields. This is seen as creating inefficiencies, duplications and overlapping of activities. The Committee proposes a budget cycle reform, budget performance reporting, long-term planning, and strengthening evaluation and external control.

102 1966 (cont.)

August 5

November 17

December 13

December 17

Year-end

1967 December 12

December 15

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Additional proposals are made to limit the number and size of meetings and documentation. The proposals launch a major reform effort within the un system. General Assembly document: A/6343. [December 15, 1965; December 19, 1967] ecosoc: The Council reviews its role and functions. It decides to rearrange the programme of work and adjust the meeting patterns of commissions and committees. ecosoc resolution: E/RES/1156 (xli). [May 18 and July 30, 1971] un system: The General Assembly establishes unido as an autonomous body within the un. Its mission is to promote and accelerate the industrialization of developing countries. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2152 (xxi). [December 20, 1965; December 17, 1974] development: The General Assembly establishes the un Capital Development Fund (uncdf) to promote economic development. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2186 (xxi). [November 22, 1965; December 15, 1967] law: The General Assembly establishes a un Commission on International Trade Law. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2205 (xxi). membership: new – Barbados, Botswana, Guyana, Lesotho, Indonesia (resumes membership after having resigned in 1965); total – 122.

trade: The General Assembly establishes the International Trade Centre as a joint operation between unctad and gatt. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2297 (xxii). [June 16, 1964] development: The General Assembly places the administration of uncdf under undp. In 1974, uncdf will shift its focus to assisting least developed countries and financing roads, bridges and irrigation schemes, mostly in Africa. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2321 (xxii). [December 13, 1966; December 1969]

Chronology Of Main Change Events December 19

December 19

Year-end 1968 March 1

May 23

June 12

Year-end

103

restructuring: The General Assembly approves the reorganization of the Secretariat proposed by Secretary-General U Thant, which involves the reduction of senior positions. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2369 (xxii). budget: The General Assembly approves a new budget process involving the submission of a proposed annual budget together with planning estimates for the succeeding one-year period, on the basis of long-term plans developed by programme-formulating bodies, including ecosoc. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2370 (xxii). [July 19, 1966] membership: new – Democratic Yemen; total – 123.

narcotic drugs: The International Narcotics Control Board (incb) is established in accordance with the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. incb consists of 11 experts and is an independent and quasi-judicial monitoring body for the implementation of the un’s international drug control conventions. It supersedes the Permanent Central Narcotics Board and the Drug Supervisory Body, its predecessors under the former drug control treaties as far back as the League of Nations. [March 25, 1961; December 15, 1971]. non-governmental organizations: ecosoc decides on the arrangements for consultation with ngos. ecosoc resolution: E/RES/1296 (xliv). [February 27, 1950] nuclear weapons: The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (npt) is approved and enters into force in 1970. The npt aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, foster the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and further the goal of disarmament. The Treaty establishes a safeguards system under the responsibility of the iaea. [July 29, 1957] membership: new – Equatorial Guinea, Mauritius, Swaziland; total – 126.

104 1969 December 12

December

Year-end

1970 March 16–26

Year-end

chapter 3

disarmament: The General Assembly establishes the ccd, chaired by the United States and the Soviet Union and reporting to the Assembly. The Conference includes 26 members, increasing to 31 in 1975. ccd replaces encd. ccd is subsequently replaced by the Conference on Disarmament (cd). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2602 (xxiv). [December 20, 1961; October 13, 1978] development: Sir Robert Jackson submits his “Capacity Study” at the request of the Governing Council of undp. Jackson examines the implication for the un development system of implementing a major increase in funding. He presents a severe indictment of the existing arrangement, describing it as a non-system, lacking a central brain. He proposes that ecosoc should become the policy centre for development to supervise the specialized agencies. undp is to become a central co-ordination organization of the un system through which all voluntary funds are to be channelled to the specialized agencies. Other issues cover the introduction of country programming, based on indicative planning figures. There is limited success in implanting the central policy and funding mechanism; major undp management reforms, however, are subsequently approved. undp document: DP/5. [December 15, 1967; March 16–26, 1970] membership: new – Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (formerly known as Kingdom of Libya, member since 1955); total – 126.

development: undp, meeting in a special session, recommends a major management reform for undp based on Jackson’s “Capacity Study”. This includes a new system of country programming based on indicative planning figures; and appointing undp resident representatives as co-ordinators of other un agencies in developing countries. The reforms are approved by ecosoc (E/ RES/1530 (xlix)) and the General Assembly (A/RES/2688 (xxv)). [December 1969; May 1, 1974]. membership: new – Fiji, People’s Republic of Congo (formerly Congo (Brazzaville), member since 1960); total – 127.

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1971 May 18 and July 30 ecosoc: The Council adjusts the working arrangement with the General Assembly and approves changes to its programme of work, schedule of sessions, working procedures, and documentation. ecosoc resolutions: E/RES/1622 (li); E/RES/1623 (li). [August 5, 1966; May 18, 1973] October 25 china: The General Assembly recognizes the People’s Republic of China as the only lawful representative of China to the un and expels the Republic of China. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2758 (xxvi). December 14 disaster relief: The General Assembly establishes the Office of Disaster Relief Co-ordinator to mobilize, direct and co-ordinate international relief efforts and to promote disaster prevention, planning and preparedness. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2816 (xxvi). December 15 narcotic drugs: The General Assembly establishes the un Fund for Drug Abuse Control, financed by voluntary contributions mainly from governments, to help states to combat the production, consumption and illegal traffic in narcotic drugs. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/ 2719 (xxv). [March 1, 1968] December 20 enlargement: The General Assembly recommends enlargement of ecosoc from 27 to 54 members. The Charter amendments come into effect on September 24, 1973, after achieving the necessary number of ratifications. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2847 (xxvi). December 22 secretary-general: Kurt Waldheim of Austria is appointed new Secretary-General to succeed Sithu U Thant. Waldheim takes office as of January 1, 1972. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2903 (xxvi). [November 3, 1961; December 15, 1981] Year-end membership: new – Bahrain, Bhutan, Oman, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Congo (formerly Congo (Brazzaville), member since 1960), Arab Republic of Egypt (formerly United Arab Republic); total – 132.

106 1972 June 16

December 13

Year-end 1973 May 18

August 9

October 2 December 6

December 18

Year-end

chapter 3

environment: The un Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm, Sweden, recommends the establishment of the un Environment Programme (unep), located in Nairobi, Kenya, and an Environment Fund. The recommendation is approved by the General Assembly (A/RES/2994 (xxvii)). [October 2, 1973] contribution: The General Assembly decides to reduce the assessed contribution of the United States from 31.5 to 25.0 per cent. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/2961 (xxvii). membership: total – 132.

ecosoc: The Council approves the rationalization of its work including reorganization and reorientation. This includes a focus on major issues and emerging developments, including International Development Strategy. Specific issues addressed include review and appraisal, co-ordination and programming, human rights, structural changes, the relationship between the un and specialized agencies, the work of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs (desa). ecosoc resolution: E/RES/1768 (liv). [May 18 and July 30, 1971; January 29, 1979] regional commission: ecosoc establishes the Economic Commission for Western Asia. ecosoc resolution: E/RES/1818 (lv). [November 26, 1958] environment: The headquarters of unep is opened in Nairobi, Kenya. [June 16, 1972; December 16, 1974] university: The General Assembly approves the charter of the un University, located in Tokyo, Japan. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/3081 (xxxviii). languages: The General Assembly includes Chinese and Arabic as official working languages of the General Assembly and the Security Council in addition to English, French and Spanish. General Assembly resolutions: A/RES/3191 (xxviii); A/RES/3190 (xxxviii); A/RES/3189 (xxxviii). membership: new – Bahamas, Federal Republic of Germany, German Democratic Republic; total – 135.

Chronology Of Main Change Events 1974 May 1

November 16

December 12

December 16

December 17

December 17

December 18

Year-end

107

development: At its sixth special session, the General Assembly adopts the Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order (nieo). nieo covers equitable sharing of world trade in commodities, industrialization, transfer of technology, technical co-operation, and the restructuring of the economic and social sectors of the un system. Whereas developing countries support national control over resources and a policy of national self-reliance, industrialized countries are reluctant and express reservations, which fall short of open opposition. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/3201 (s-vi). [March 16–26, 1970; December 12, 1974] food: The World Food Conference, held in Rome, Italy, recommends establishing a World Food Council (wfc) and an International Fund for Agricultural Development (ifad). [December 17, 1974; November 30, 1977] development: The General Assembly adopts the Charter of the Economic Rights and Duties of States, which also reflects the new emphasis captured in the nieo. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/3281 (xxix). [May 1, 1974; May 28, 1975] environment: The General Assembly establishes a un Habitat and Human Settlements Foundation. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/3325 (xxix). [October 2, 1973; March 20, 1987] food: The General Assembly establishes the wfc, as recommended by the World Food Conference. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/3348 (xxix). [November 16, 1974; November 28, 1975] un system: The General Assembly establishes the World Intellectual Property Organization as a specialized agency. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/3346 (xxix). [November 17, 1966; September 16, 1975] secretariat: The General Assembly approves the statute of the International Civil Service Commission. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/3357 (xxix). membership: new – Bangladesh, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Republic of Benin (formerly Dahomey, member since 1960); total – 138.

108 1975 May 28

chapter 3

development: The Group of Experts on the Structure of the un System submits its report “A New un Structure for Global Economic Co-operation” (Gardner Report) to the seventh special session of the General Assembly. The Group of Experts was established by the General Assembly (GA/RES/3343 (xxix)) in the context of North– South conflict to address problems of development and international economic co-operation and the oil price crisis. Proposals include the restructuring of ecosoc, new consultative procedures, consolidation of development funds in a new un Development Authority, and the creation of a new post of Director-General for Development and International Economic Co-operation to provide leadership to the un system. The Gardner group’s analysis reaffirms and in some cases elaborates on Jackson’s diagnoses of 1969. ecosoc document: E/AC.62.9. [December 1969; December 12, 1974; September 16, 1975] September 16 development: At its seventh special session, the General Assembly considers the Gardner Report. The report provokes considerable controversy and no specific recommendations are approved. Instead, the Assembly establishes the Ad Hoc Committee on the Restructuring of the Economic and Social Sectors of the un System. The Committee is to prepare action proposals to make the un system more responsive to the requirements of the nieo and of the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/3362 (s-vii). [May 28, 1975; December 14, 1977] September 16 un system: The General Assembly converts unido into a specialized agency. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/3362 (s-vii). [December 17, 1974; November 30, 1977] November 28 food: The General Assembly reconstitutes the Committee of Food Aid Policies and Programmes from the former un/fao Intergovernmental Committee of the wfc. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/3404 (xxx). [December 17, 1974] Year-end membership: new – Cape Verde, Comoros, Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, Sao Tome and Principe, Suriname, Madagascar (formerly Malagasy), Lao People’s Democratic Republic (formerly Laos, member since 1955); total – 144.

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109

1976 January 3 and March 3 human rights: Covenants enter into force including the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (January 3) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (March 3), after being ratified by a minimum of 53 member states. [December 10, 1948; December 20, 1993] December 22 oversight: The General Assembly establishes the statutes of the Joint Inspection Unit (jiu). The jiu is composed of eight inspectors and mandated to conduct evaluations, inspections and investigations system-wide to secure administrative efficiency and achieve greater co-ordination between organizations. The jiu has existed on a temporary basis since 1968. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/31/192. [December 1969] Year-end membership: new – Angola, Samoa, Seychelles; total – 147. 1977 June 13–July 1

November 30

December 14

development: Governing Council of undp approves measures to enhance the programme’s effectiveness and to make it more responsive to the needs of developing countries. ecosoc document: E/6013/Rev.1. [September 16, 1975; December 14, 1977] un system: ifad is established as the agreement adopted in June 13, 1976, enters into force. The creation of ifad was initially proposed by the World Food Conference. [September 16, 1975; December 15, 1977] development: The Ad Hoc Committee on the Restructuring of the Economic and Social Sectors of the un System approves its report. The Committee was established in response to the deadlock reached in considering the Gardner Report. After two years of negotiations, the Committee reached a compromise which significantly diluted the initial recommendations of the Gardner report: the role of the General Assembly is strengthened, though no reference is made to the World Bank, imf or gatt; the post of DirectorGeneral for Development and International Economic Co-operation is created, albeit without power. In ecosoc and unctad, things remain the same: developed

110 1977 (cont.)

December 15

Year-end

chapter 3

countries prevented the strengthening of unctad and developing countries prevented the rationalization of the ecosoc subsidiary machinery. The General Assembly subsequently adopts the report (A/RES/32/197). General Assembly document: A/32/34. [June 13–July 1, 1977; December 1978] un system: The General Assembly approves the agreement between the un and ifad, establishing it as a specialized agency. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/32/107. [November 30, 1977; February 12–March 11, 1978] membership: new – Djibouti, Vietnam; total – 149.

1978 February 12–March 11 un system: The conference on the establishment of unido as a specialized agency fails to reach agreement on the draft constitution and submits the issue back to the General Assembly. [December 15, 1975; June 21, 1985] March us reform view: The Committee on Foreign Relations of the us Senate presents proposals on reforming the un. They include strengthening the role of the Security Council, establishing more effective machinery for the peaceful settlement of disputes, creating a peacekeeping reserve composed of national contingents, and making greater use of the icj. With regard to the General Assembly and ecosoc, proposals focus on merging agenda items and eliminating committees and commissions. Emphasis is placed on human rights work, including the establishment of a new senior post of un High Commissioner for Human Rights. Some proposals are taken up later. October 13 disarmament: At its 10th special session, the General Assembly establishes a new Disarmament Commission and cd. The Commission is a subsidiary organ of the Assembly composed of all member states of the un and replacing the previous Disarmament Commission. The cd is a disarmament negotiating forum with a membership of 66 member states, including the five nuclear-weapon states, replacing the ccd. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/S-10/2. [November 4, 1958; December 12, 1969]

Chronology Of Main Change Events December 20

December

Year-end

1979 January 29 and after

March 19

November 14

Year-end

111

management: The General Assembly approves the introduction of the national competitive examination system to recruit young professional staff members. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/33/143. development: sunfed is suspended due to the lack of voluntary funding. Developing countries strongly supported sunfed to facilitate loans to their industries under a un umbrella. For industrial countries, a special fund separate from the World Bank was unacceptable. As a countermeasure, the ida was launched in 1960, as a branch of the World Bank, thus effectively putting an end to sunfed. [December 14, 1977; October 20–23, 1981] membership: new – Dominica, Solomon Islands; total – 151.

ecosoc: The General Assembly decides on the restructuring of the economic and social sectors of the un system as a follow-up to General Assembly resolution A/RES/32/197. The decisions support implementing the nieo and the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States. General Assembly resolutions: A/RES/33/202; following: A/RES/34/215; A/RES/35/203; A/RES/37/442. [May 18, 1973] trade: After three years of negotiations, the un Negotiating Conference on a Common Fund of unctad agrees on the fundamental elements of a Common Fund to help stabilize commodity prices. The Secretary-General hails the agreement as an important step in the direction of an nieo. Conference resolution: TD/IPC/CF/CONF/19. [June 27, 1980] security council: The General Assembly agenda includes the item “Question of Equitable Representation On and Increase in Membership of the Security Council” at the request of Algeria, Argentina, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Guyana, India, Maldives, Nepal, Nigeria, and Sri Lanka. From 1980 to 1991, the item remains on the agenda, but the General Assembly decides to defer its consideration. General Assembly document: A/34/246. [September 26, 1985; December 11, 1992] membership: new – Saint Lucia; total – 152.

112 1980 February 12

June 27

Year-end

1981 October 20–22

December 15

chapter 3

north–south: The Independent Commission on International Development Issues (Brandt Commission) presents its report “North–South, A Program for Survival”. The Commission was initiated by Robert McNamara, President of the World Bank, tasked with examining Third World development, and chaired by Willy Brandt, former Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. With regard to the un, it is argued that the past growth in un organizations and members has led to fragmentation of activities, overlapping of responsibilities, and organizational rivalries. A need is identified for greater co-ordination between un agencies and reduced bureaucratization. As a follow-up, a World Summit of Leaders devoted to North–South issues is held in Cancun, Mexico, in 1981. [October 20–22, 1981] trade: The un Negotiating Conference adopts the agreement on a Common Fund under the Integrated Programme for Commodities. The Common Fund is set up to help finance buffer stocks of commodities in price stabilization schemes. The Conference met under the auspices of unctad. [March 19, 1979; June 19, 1989] membership: new – Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Zimbabwe; total – 154.

development: The North–South Economic Summit, initially proposed by the Brandt Commission, meets in Cancun, Mexico. Leaders of 8 industrialized and 14 developing nations gather to revive the almost broken-down North–south dialogue and to discuss a new Marshall plan for developing countries. No firm proposals materialize. The rich nations do not agree to increase aid transfers to the developing countries or to correct the growing inequalities in world trade. [December 1978] secretary-general: The General Assembly appoints Javier Pérez de Cuéllar from Peru as Secretary-General to succeed Kurt Waldheim. The new Secretary-General takes office on January 1, 1982. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/36/137. [December 22, 1971; December 3, 1991]

Chronology Of Main Change Events Year-end

1982 December 10

Year-end 1983 April

Year-end 1984 September

113

membership: new – Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Vanuatu, Iran (Islamic Republic of) (formerly Iran, member since 1945); total – 157.

law of the sea: The Conference on the Law of the Sea approves the Convention defining the rights and responsibilities of nations with respect to their use of the world’s oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources. The convention enters into force in 1994. membership: total – 157.

security: The Independent Commission on Disarmament and Security (Palme Commission) submits its report “Common Security: A Programme for Disarmament”. Chaired by Olaf Palme, former Prime Minister of Sweden, the Commission proposes an expansion of the un concept of collective security. This is to be underpinned by collective security actions with preventive and enforcement elements, distinct from peacekeeping. Other proposals include the establishment of a stand-by force and a new funding mechanism for collective security operations. Although East–West tension prevents the adoption of specific recommendations, a number of similar proposals are later taken up by the Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali in his “Agenda for Peace”. [June 17, 1992] membership: new – Saint Christopher and Nevis; total – 158.

us reform view: The Heritage Foundation, a conservative us think-tank, issues a critical study on the un system entitled “A World without a un: What Would Happen if the un Shut Down?” It argues that politicization and the doctrine of the nieo are increasingly preventing the un from fulfilling its mandate. It suggests that the un technical agencies should deal exclusively with technical matters and the General Assembly should not be allowed to pose as a legitimate global forum. Finally, it demands that un funding be discontinued to the plo, South West Africa People’s Organization, and the African National Congress. If no major redirection takes

114

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1984 (cont.)

December 17 Year-end

1985 April 9

place, the Reagan administration should withdraw from the un and establish an alternative system. [May 1, 1974] relief: The Secretary-General creates the Office of Emergency Operations in Africa to co-ordinate the activities of all un agencies. membership: new – Brunei Darussalam, Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta, member since 1960); total – 158.

gender: The General Assembly adopts the Statute of the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/39/249. [February 24, 1995] June 21 un system: unido becomes a specialized agency when its constitution receives sufficient ratifications. [February 12–March 11, 1978] August 16 withholding: The us Congress passes legislation known as the Kassebaum-Solomon Amendment. The legislation requires that the us’s assessed contribution to the un regular budget be reduced from 24 to 20 per cent unless the un adopts weighted voting on budgetary matters proportionate to the contribution of each member state. This is to address the lack of us influence over the un budget process. [May 9, 1986; December 19, 1986; December 22, 1987]. September 26 security council: The Security Council, meeting at the foreign minister level for the first time since 1970, discusses ways to strengthen the Security Council. [November 14, 1979; December 11, 1992] December 6 reform view: Maurice Bertrand, a member of the un jiu, issues a report on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the un entitled “Some Reflections on Reform of the un”. The report assesses on the systemic shortcomings of the development structure: decentralized design, extraordinary complexity of intergovernmental and Secretariat structure, meaningless field co-ordination, inordinately ambitious content of programmes, extreme fragmentation of activities, mediocre quality of outputs, and lack of staff qualifications. Bertrand proposes to establish a new economic security council and a new semi-independent commission, inspired by the

Chronology Of Main Change Events

Year-end

1986 May 9

August 18

September 9

December 4

December 19 and after

115

European Community. Finally, new regional development agencies should provide for a necessary transformation from the sector focus. Although the proposals are not accepted, the assessment of the shortcomings becomes the starting point for subsequent reform efforts. General Assembly document: A/40/988. membership: new – Côte d’Ivoire (formerly Ivory Coast, member since 1960); total – 158.

financial crisis: The General Assembly agrees to a package of austerity measures to ease a worsening financial crisis. The Secretary-General announced those measures in January and March 1986, including reductions in travel, consultants, overtime, recruitment, promotions, benefits, and maintenance, generating an estimated usd 30 million in savings (A/40/1102). General Assembly decision: A/DEC/40/476. [August 16, 1985; September 9, 1986] management: The Group of High-Level Intergovernmental Experts (Group of 18) submits its report “Efficiency of the Administrative and Financial Functioning of the un”. The Group of 18 was established by the General Assembly (A/RES/40/237) in response to the financial crisis to review the un’s administrative and financial affairs. The report includes 71 recommendations covering personnel and budget procedures, the structure of the Secretariat, and the intergovernmental machinery. General Assembly document: A/41/49. [December 19, 1986] financial crisis: The Secretary-General makes observations on what he calls the most severe financial crisis in un history. [May 9, 1986; June 23, 1988] development: The General Assembly approves the Declaration on the Right to Development. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/41/128. management: The General Assembly approves a number of reforms proposed by the Group of 18. This includes a new consensus-based, two-tier budget procedure including a new outline budget one year prior to approving the detailed budget, thus giving member states with higher assessment levels a potentially greater

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1986 (cont.)

Year-end

1987 March 20

September 17

voice in the budget process. Other decisions cover the 15-per-cent reduction in posts and the merging of organizational entities. A number of issues are referred to other bodies for further study, such as the proposed reduction in staff benefits and the simplification of the ecosoc committee structure. As it turns out, those recommendations are ultimately not implemented. Nevertheless, the reforms give rise to greater convergence of views among member states. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/41/213; following: A/RES/42/170; A/RES/42/211; A/RES/43/174; A/RES/43/213; A/RES/44/200 A to C; A/RES/45/254 A to C. [August 16, 1985; August 18, 1986; December 21, 1989] membership: new – Saint Kitts and Nevis (formerly Saint Christopher and Nevis, member since 1983); total – 158.

environment: The World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) issues its report “Our Common Future”. Requested by the General Assembly, the Commission was chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland, leader of the Norwegian Labour Party. The report presents a bleak yet constructive assessment of the trends in environmental degradation, economic development and energy consumption, with a focus on the new concept of “sustainable development”. Specifically, it argues that the World Bank, ida and imf should increase financial flows for environmental projects; unep should be strengthened; and proposals for securing revenue from the use of international commons and natural resources should be considered. Although no recommendations are adopted immediately, the growing interest leads to the convening of the un Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, which led to the acceptance of the concept of “sustainable development”. [December 16, 1974; June 3–14, 1992] ussr reform view: Mikhail Gorbachev, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the ussr, issues the widely read article “Reality and Safeguards for a Secure World”. Gorbachev emphasizes the importance of the un, particularly its

Chronology Of Main Change Events

September

December 17

December 22

Year-end

117

peace and security role, and proposes the extensive use of un observers and peacekeeping forces, the holding of Security Council meeting at the ministerial level, the establishment at the un of an intelligence monitoring capability, and the involvement of ngos in conflict resolution. Other proposals call for the establishment of a World Space Organization and a un Tribunal to investigate acts of international terrorism, and the use of savings realized through decreased military spending for a new un fund for humanitarian co-operation. Rather than the novelty of the ideas, it is the fact that the proposals represent a dramatic break from Soviet policy that brings new life to the un. un reform: The un Association of the United States (una-usa) panel on un reform issues its report “A Successor Vision: The un of Tomorrow”. The central recommendation is the creation of a new 25-nation ministerial council to maintain a global watch and identify emerging problems in the field of human security. The panel also suggests the establishment of a commission to co-ordinate the un specialized agencies. Finally, it argues that us-un ties are in disarray and urges the next us administration to pay the arrears of more than $400 million. The Panel is chaired by Elliot L. Richardson, a former us Attorney General and includes, among others, Cyrus R. Vance, former Secretary of State; Robert S. McNamara, the former Defense Secretary and World Bank president; Helmut Schmidt, the former West German Chancellor; Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, the former un High Commissioner for Refugees; and Olusegun Obasanjo, the former President of Nigeria. co-ordination: The General Assembly expands the membership of the Committee on Programme and Co-ordination from 21 to 34 members. General Assembly decision: A/DEC/42/450. withholding: The us Congress decides to amend the condition for the payment of assessed contribution. The revised conditions include the implementation of General Assembly resolution A/RES/41/213, including the consensus-based budget process, the 15-per-cent reduction in un staff, and progress towards limitation on seconded staff. [August 16, 1985; December 19, 1986; June 23, 1988] membership: total – 158.

118 1988 June 1

June 23

July 29 and after

September 28

September 29

Year-end 1989 April 1

chapter 3

ecosoc: The Special Commission of ecosoc presents its report “In-Depth Study of the un Intergovernmental Structure and Functions in the Economic and Social Fields”. The Special Commission was established by ecosoc (E/RES/1987/112) in accordance with General Assembly resolution A/RES/41/213 to review the proposals of the Group of 18. For ecosoc, more emphasis is put on co-ordination and less on policy making. The Special Commission essentially fails, however, to make recommendations on the controversial proposals to streamline intergovernmental structure. ecosoc document: E/1988/75. [August 18, 1986; July 29, 1988; May 13, 1991] financial crisis: The Secretary-General tells member states that the un could face insolvency in late October or November. [September 9, 1986; December 22, 1987; December 8, 1989] ecosoc: The Council approves measures to revitalize its operations, taking into account the limited results of the Special Commission. Issues covered included policy formulation, monitoring, operational activities, co-ordination, work methods, and organization of work. ecosoc resolution: E/RES/88/77; following: E/RES/89/114. [June 1, 1988] peace and security: The foreign ministers of the five permanent members of the Security Council stress their continued confidence in the un which, they believe, has an increasingly significant role to play in the achievement of international peace and security. nobel peace prize: The un Peacekeeping Forces are awarded the Nobel Peace Prize 1988 in recognition of the contribution and sacrifices made by peacekeepers over several decades. membership: total – 158.

relief: The un launches Operation Lifeline Sudan, a massive humanitarian effort to deliver food and emergency supplies to at least 2.2 million citizens of a country beset by continuing civil strife and natural calamities.

Chronology Of Main Change Events June 19

November 15

December 8

December 21

December 22

Year-end

1990 May

trade: The Common Fund for Commodities enters into force. The Fund establishes a mechanism to finance buffer stocks, in order to contain price fluctuations in the trade of basic commodities. [June 27, 1980] peace and security: The General Assembly calls for a strengthening of the un’s role in maintaining international peace and security. In a powerful symbol of the end of the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union, for the first time, jointly propose a political resolution. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/44/21. financial crisis: The Secretary-General reports to the General Assembly that the possibility of imminent bankruptcy has been a grave concern throughout 1989. [June 23, 1988] budget: The General Assembly approves by consensus the budget for 1990–1991. This is partly credited to the success of a new budget process, approved by the General Assembly in response to the Group of 18’s report. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/44/202 A-C. [December 19, 1986] operational activities: The General Assembly takes note of the “Comprehensive Triennial Policy Review of Operational Activities for Development of the un System” (A/44/324; E/1989/106) and decides on issues relating to resource mobilization; programming of operational activities; provision of technical advice; simplification, decentralization and harmonization of procedures; review and rationalization of field office structures; and role and effectiveness of the resident co-ordinator (rc) system. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/44/211. [December 22, 1992] membership: new – Union of Myanmar (formerly Union of Burma, member since 1948); total – 158.

south reform view: The South Commission issues “The Challenge to the South”. The Commission argues that the momentum gained with the nieo initiative and the Integrated

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1990 (cont.)

August 2 September 19

October 3

November 29

Programme for Commodities has been lost and calls for renewed negotiations on the restructuring of the international financial and trade system. A fundamental transformation of World Bank, imf and gatt is proposed, with a change in voting structure giving increased weight to the South. Other proposals include the establishment of international regimes to exploit global commons such as Antarctica and outer space. The un is seen as playing a pivotal role in managing the international system; it is expected to periodically convene a summit of leaders to review the world economic situation, prospects for development and the environment. [May 1, 1974] gulf war: Iraqi troops invade Kuwait. [November 29, 1990] reform view: Brian Urquhart and Erskine Childers issue “A World in Need of Leadership: Tomorrow’s un”. The study addresses the leadership role of the un following the Cold War. Both authors are senior un staff members and the Ford and Dag Hammarskjöld foundations supported the study. The main recommendations deal with the selection of the SecretaryGeneral, including a call for a single-term appointment for seven years, and the need for a search process. The study coincides with the end of Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar’s term. Although highly praised, the recommendations have little impact. Member states clearly favour a more informal process when selecting the new Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali. east–west: The United States and the Soviet Union issue the joint statement “Responsibility for Peace and Security in the Changing World”, declaring that the confrontational East–West relationship is giving way to co-operation and partnership. General Assembly document: A/45/598; Security Council statement: S/21854. gulf war: The Security Council gives Iraq a deadline of January 15, 1991, to withdraw from Kuwait and authorizes a un coalition force of 34 nations led by the United States. This is seen as a major test of the Security Council’s new unity and assertiveness. Security Council resolution: S/RES/678 (1990). [August 2, 1990; April 13, 1991]

Chronology Of Main Change Events Year-end

1991 January 18–19

February 22–24

121

membership: new – Liechtenstein, Namibia, Federal Republic of Germany (accession by German Democratic Republic, member since 1973), Yemen (merging of Yemen and Democratic Yemen, member since 1967); total – 158.

reform view: The North South Roundtable presents its report “Strengthening the un for the 1990s” in an attempt to bridge the gap between Northern and Southern perspectives for reform in the economic and social fields. The Roundtable brings together academics, researchers and policy-makers from the North and the South to discuss global development issues. It is argued that, with the end of the Cold War, the un is increasingly used to settle conflicts, but less headway is made in the development fields. Technical assistance work is fragmented, lacking financing, strong leadership and co-ordination and is increasingly being taken over by the multilateral development banks. The Roundtable recommends strengthening the un’s political role in the economic and social fields; converting ecosoc into a more relevant forum by focusing on priority policy themes; selecting senior staff based on merits not political considerations; adjusting some un forums to embody weighted representation; and adjusting funding arrangement to provide for more equitable burden-sharing arrangements between donors. The initiative addresses its recommendations to ecosoc. [May 13, 1991] reform view: The Stanley Foundation issues “The un: Structure and Leadership for a New Era”. The report is dedicated to reforming un leadership and structure. The foundation is a private us-based entity that also involves government officials and senior un staff. The foundation calls for establishing a search committee to select the Secretary-General; candidates should be assessed for their ability to lead a large organization and project well on television, charisma, ability to communicate fluently in English and French, and understanding of economics, with diplomatic skills being of secondary importance. Other proposals include a reduction in the number of under-secretaries-general from 20 to 6, the trimming of the General Assembly’s agenda, the simplification of the cumbersome subsidiary bodies, and the empowerment or abolition of ecosoc.

122 1991 (cont.) April 3

April 22

April

chapter 3

iraq sanctions: The Security Council approves the ceasefire agreement following the liberation of Kuwait by the un coalition forces, led by the United States. The Council imposes a disarmament and sanctions regime on Iraq, designed to destroy weapons of mass destruction and the ability to reconstruct them in the future. The resolution also creates the un Special Commission to inspect Iraq’s chemical, biological and nuclear facilities Security Council resolution: S/RES/687 (1991). [November 29, 1990; December 1996]. reform view: The Stockholm Initiative on Global Security and Governance issues “Common Responsibilities in the 1990s”. The Initiative was launched by Willy Brandt, the former Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. The report attaches particular importance to reforming the un. It suggests broadening the mandate of the Security Council and reviewing its composition and the use of vetoes. The proposals include reviewing the method of appointing the Secretary-General and higher-level staff; strengthening and rationalizing activities in the economic and social fields; establishing a global emergency system to anticipate and prevent conflicts; and establishing a global law enforcement arrangement. A reduction in armed forces is proposed to create a peace dividend to be invested in international co-operation. Finally, the Stockholm Initiative calls for a World Summit on Global Governance to strengthen international institutions. nordic reform view: The Nordic un Reform Project issues “The un in Development–Reform Issues in the Economic and Social Fields”. The initiative includes the Nordic European countries and addresses issues of governance, co-ordination, financing and impact of international development efforts. The study notes that the increased prominence of the World Bank and the regional development banks has marginalized the un, and the un development system’s fragmented structure. The proposals include strengthening undp and specialized agencies with a centre-of-excellence role for providing advice and analysis and reducing direct involvement in the execution of technical assistance projects. Fragmentation at the governance level is to be overcome by creating an International Development Council, which would meet in parallel to the General Assembly.

Chronology Of Main Change Events

May 13

June

September 27

November

123

Finally, to create a critical mass, it is proposed that a number of un organizations be merged. The report contributes to the decision to merge the governing bodies of undp, unfpa and unicef. ecosoc: The General Assembly decides to replace the traditional biannual sessions of ecosoc by one substantive session, divided into a high-level meeting with ministerial participation, a co-ordination segment and a segment on operational activities for development. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/45/264. [June 1, 1988; March 2, 1992] reform view: Brian Urquhart and Erskine Childers issue “Towards a More Effective un”, their second report supported by the Ford and Dag Hammarskjöld foundations. The study provides a general outline for reorganization of the un Secretariat. It proposes reducing the number of senior officials who report directly to the Secretary-General and establishing a single deputy to the Secretary-General. Moreover, proposals are advanced to improve the quality and speed of international responses to humanitarian emergencies. [September 19, 1990] peacekeeping: The foreign ministers of the permanent members of the Security Council (China, France, United Kingdom, United States, Soviet Union) reaffirm that a revitalized un has a central and increasingly important part to play in international affairs, and in creating a new international order. They pledge to make preventive diplomacy a top priority and to reinforce peacekeeping and peacemaking. reform view: A group of 30 ambassadors, chaired by Ambassador Peter Wilenski of Australia, prepares a reform agenda for incoming Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali. Transparent appointment of senior officers is recommended, including the announcement of vacancies, and the rationalization of the Secretariat’s structure along functional lines into four departments, each led by a deputy secretary-general. The group proposes to strengthen peacekeeping, preventive diplomacy and conflict resolution. Other proposals include streamlining the work of the General Assembly by discontinuing special sessions, biennializing agenda items, reducing the number of committees and giving a greater voice to ngos and transnational corporations. The appointment of a high-level co-ordinator for humanitarian emergencies is recommended.

124 1991 (cont.) December 3

December 9

December 18

December 19

December 19

Year-end

chapter 3

secretary-general: The General Assembly appoints Boutros Boutros-Ghali of Egypt as new Secretary-General to succeed Javier Pérez de Cuéllar. Boutros-Ghali takes office on January 1, 1992. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/46/21. [December 15, 1981; December 17, 1996] peace and security: The General Assembly adopts a “Declaration on Fact-finding by the un in the Field of the Maintenance of International Peace and Security”, which states that factfinding should be comprehensive, objective, impartial and timely and that the dispatch of fact-finding missions could signal the un’s concern and should aim to build confidence and defuse the dispute or situation while avoiding aggravating it. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/46/59. crime prevention: The General Assembly calls for the creation of a new commission on crime prevention and criminal justice as a functional body of ecosoc. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/46/152. entrepreneurship: The General Assembly asks the un system to promote entrepreneurship, including the provision of technical assistance to interested countries. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/46/166. humanitarian emergency: The General Assembly decides to strengthen the co-ordination of humanitarian emergency assistance. This covers early warning, contingency funding arrangement, rapid response measures, consolidated appeals, the establishment of an inter-agency standing committee, improved country-level co-ordination, and the establishment of the position of a un Emergency Relief Co-ordinator. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/46/182. [June 1992] membership: new – Russian Federation (continues membership of ussr, member since 1945), Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon, member since 1955), Belarus (formerly Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, member since 1945), Ukraine (formerly Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, member since 1945); total – 166.

Chronology Of Main Change Events 1992 January 31

March 2

March 2

March

125

peace and security: The Security Council meets for the first time at the level of heads of state and government under the theme of “The Responsibility of the Security Council in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security”. Initiated by John Major, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, the meeting takes place shortly after the new Secretary-General assumes office. The Council asks the Secretary-General to prepare his recommendations on strengthening the un’s capacity for preventive diplomacy, peacemaking and peacekeeping. Security Council statement: S/23500. [June 17, 1992] restructuring: The General Assembly retroactively endorses the restructuring implemented by the Secretary-General in January. In the economic and social areas, the un Centre on Transnational Corporations is closed down, a number of entities are consolidated into the single large desa, and the post of Director-General for International Co-operation and Economic Affairs is abolished. In the peace and security area, offices are clustered into the Department of Political Affairs (dpa), with a focus on analysis, and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (dpko), with a focus on operations. The status of un disarmament work is reduced [May 6, 1993]. Developing countries criticize the consolidation of organizational entities and object to the abolition of the post of Director-General. Its initial creation was one of the main results of the reforms in the 1970s. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/46/232. [December 14, 1977] ecosoc: undp proposes to replace ecosoc by a Development Security Council, as outlined in its Human Development Report 1992. Such a Council would be responsible for designing a global policy framework for all key economic and social areas, providing a policy co-ordination framework and preparing a global budget of development resource flows. It is proposed that the Council would be made up of 22 members (11 permanent and 11 rotational), unlike ecosoc, which was considered too large and unwieldy. [May 13, 1991; July 6–31, 1992] security council: The informal arrangement known as the Arria Formula is implemented. Considered an improvement of the Council’s working methods, the arrangement gives the Council

126

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1992 (cont.)

April 14

June 3–14

June 17

greater flexibility to be briefed about international peace and security issues. Previously, only delegations, high government officials of Council member states and un officials could speak at regular Council meetings and consultations. subsidiary bodies: The General Assembly identifies a number of subsidiary bodies of ecosoc and the General Assembly for restructuring and revitalization, including the Intergovernmental Committee on Science and Technology for Development, the Committee on Natural Resources, and the Committee on the Development and Utilization of New and Renewable Sources of Energy. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/46/235. sustainable development: The un Conference on Environment and Development, known as Earth Summit, meets in Rio de Janeiro to adopt “Agenda 21” and approves conventions on climate change (the Framework Convention on Climate Change (unfccc)), biodiversity and desertification. Following the Conference, the un establishes the new Commission on Sustainable Development (csd) and the new Department for Policy Co-ordination and Sustainable Development (dpcsd). The Commission reports to ecosoc and is to monitor progress in the implementation of Agenda 21, being serviced by the new department. [December 22, 1992; May 6, 1993] agenda for peace: The Secretary-General submits his report “An Agenda for Peace” to the General Assembly and the Security Council. The report, which covers preventive diplomacy, peacemaking, peacekeeping and post-conflict peacebuilding, breaks new ground. Numerous proposals are advanced, including the development of an early warning system for assessing threats to peace; the establishment of demilitarized zones in conflict areas; and the use of military force in the face of a threat to peace. A controversial proposal is the creation of peace-enforcement units under the command of the Secretary-General. Though developing countries take a cautious attitude towards this activist agenda, the report builds the foundation for the reform process during the coming years. Follow-up decisions are taken by the Security Council and the General Assembly. General Assembly/Security Council document: A/47/277-S/24111. [January 31, 1992; June 30, 1992; December 18, 1992]

Chronology Of Main Change Events June 26

June 30, after

June

127

development: The Secretary-General presents to ecosoc an ambitious vision to reform un development work entitled “The Role of the un System”. Central to this is the concept of a unified un system presence at the country level under a single un representative to ensure greater co-ordination and enhance the SecretaryGeneral’s authority over the specialized agencies. To start with, interim offices are established in six countries of the former Soviet Union. Developing countries, however, object to the idea of a unified un presence; the offices are viewed as quasi-embassies of the un and as infringing on the sovereignty of host countries. In the following discussions, this initiative is scaled down considerably. ecosoc document: E/1992/82. [June 3–14, 1992] agenda for peace: The Security Council defines new policies and arrangements for peacekeeping during monthly in-depth examinations of “An Agenda for Peace”. They include national stand-by arrangements with troop-contributing countries, the use of fact-finding missions, post-conflict peacebuilding, dealing with special economic problems following the imposition of sanctions on a state, co-operation with regional arrangements, provision of humanitarian assistance, the safety of personnel deployed, establishment of a Planning Unit and a Situation Centre at un headquarters operating around the clock, and strengthening of the Secretariat with additional military and civilian staff. Security Council statements: S/24210; following: S/24728; S/24872; S/25036; S/25184; S/25344; S/25493; S/25696; S/25859; S/ PRST/1994/22; S/PRST/1994/36; S/PRST/1994/62. [June 17, 1992; December 18, 1992] humanitarian affairs: The Inter-Agency Standing Committee (iasc) is established to co-ordinate humanitarian policy and assistance. The new committee involves un and non-un entities, the latter including the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Council of Voluntary Agencies, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the American Council for Voluntary International Action (InterAction), and the World Bank. The iasc is set in response to a General Assembly resolution (A/RES/46/182) and operates under the leadership of the Emergency Relief Co-ordinator. The General Assembly subsequently affirms iasc’s role as the primary mechanism for interagency co-ordination and humanitarian assistance (A/RES/48/57). [December 19, 1991; March 2, 1992]

128 1992 (cont.) July 6–31

October

December 11

December 18 and after

chapter 3

ecosoc: The Council meets for the first time in accordance with the new format with a high-level segment, a co-ordination segment and a segment on operational activities. The high-level segment sets out to consider new approaches to the role of the un system in enhancing international co-operation for development. There is renewed interest in the work of ecosoc, with good attendance by member states, usually at the ministerial level. [May 13, 1991; March 2, 1992] south reform view: The South Centre issues “The un at a Critical Crossroads: Time for the South to Act”. The report is prepared at the request of the Group of 77 to formulate positions for the ongoing negotiations on un reform. The report provides a sombre assessment and demonstrates the wide gap between South and North. It argues that the Security Council should be prevented from being an instrument for a few powerful countries acting as a self-appointed directorate. The General Assembly should retain political authority over a single, co-ordinated un system. ecosoc should be strengthened and play a central role in shaping policies for macro-economic co-ordination. The Bretton Woods institutions should be made more democratic and subjected to overall policy co-ordination by the un. security council: The General Assembly places Security Council reform on the agenda under the item “Question of equitable representation on and increase in the membership of the Security Council”. This is supported by India, Japan and a large number of Non-Aligned Movement (nam) countries. The Assembly also calls for proposals on ways to reform the Security Council. With the end of the Cold War, the Security Council has become more active and influential. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/47/62. [November 14, 1979; July 20, 1993] agenda for peace: The General Assembly defines new policies and arrangement for peacekeeping during monthly in-depth examinations of “An Agenda for Peace”. This covers the peaceful settlement of disputes, early warning, collection of information and analysis, fact-finding missions, confidence-building measures, humanitarian assistance, resources and logistical aspects of preventive diplomacy, preventive deployment and the establishment

Chronology Of Main Change Events

December 22

December 22

December 22

129

of demilitarized zones, greater use of the icj in the peaceful settlement of disputes, special economic problems arising from the implementation of preventive or enforcement measures, postconflict peacebuilding, co-operation with regional arrangements and organizations, the safety of un peacekeeping personnel, and the role of the General Assembly in preventive diplomacy. In particular, the Assembly gives the Secretary-General a clear mandate to pursue preventive diplomacy, develop a strategy for the early and peaceful settlement of disputes and strengthen the Secretariat’s capacity to collect information and conduct analysis in order to better serve the organization’s needs for early warning. General Assembly resolutions: A/RES/47/120 A; following: A/RES/47/71; A/RES/47/120 B; A/RES/48/42. [June 17, 1992; June 30, 1992; February 22, 1995] operational activities: The General Assembly takes note of the “Triennial Policy Review of the Operational Activities of the un Development System” (A/47/419) and decides on issues relating to resources for development; human development; programming; rc system and country representation; national execution; and co-ordinated training strategies and national capacity. Specific issues included the harmonization and adaptation of programming cycles; the integration of multilateral non-emergency food aid with national programmes; and common premises and the use of national capacity. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/47/199. [December 22, 1989; December 19; 2007] agenda for development: The General Assembly mandates the Secretary-General to present an “Agenda for Development” to counterbalance the low priority given to development following the issuance of “An Agenda for Peace”. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/47/181. [December 21, 1993] sustainable development: The General Assembly adopts the outcome of the Earth Summit and establishes the new Commission on Sustainable Development, reporting to ecosoc, to monitor progress in the implementation of Agenda 21. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/47/191. [June 3–14, 1992]

130 1992 (cont.) Year-end

1993 April

May 6

chapter 3

membership: new – Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (5 new members following the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, member since 1945), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Moldova, San Marino, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (formerly Czechoslovakia, member since 1945); total – 179.

finance: The Independent Advisory Group on un Financing (Ogata/Volcker group) submits “Financing an Effective un”. The Advisory Group was established by the Secretary-General to examine problems associated with the grave financial crisis, similar to the early 1980s, resulting from the withholding of contributions. The Group is headed by Shijuro Ogata, former Deputy Governor of the Japan Development Bank, and Paul Volcker, former Chairman of the Board of Governors of the United States Federal Reserve Bank. The group proposes to charge interest on late payments. The working capital fund should be increased from usd 100 million to usd 200 million and a revolving reserve fund of usd 400 million should be established for peacekeeping. However, the un should be given no authority to borrow funds. Despite the rather modest recommendations, no agreement can be reached by the main contributing countries on somewhat increasing the SecretaryGeneral’s financial flexibility. restructuring: The General Assembly approves the second round of restructuring proposed by the Secretary-General (A/C.5/47/88). The recently established mega-desa, is again split into three. The new entities include the Department for Policy Co-ordination and Sustainable Development (dpcsd) devoted to economic and social issues and established partly in response to the Earth Summit. The other two are the Department for Development Support and Management Services and the Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/47/212 B. [March 2, 1992; June 3–14, 1992; October 12, 1993]

Chronology Of Main Change Events June 30 and after

July 20 and after

August 24

September

131

security council: The Security Council decides on a change in working methods relating to its annual report, Presidential statements, announcing of its daily work programme, and publishing its tentative monthly work schedule. Security Council statement: S/26015; following: S/26176. [December 11, 1992; July 20, 1993] security council: The Secretary-General submits reports to the General Assembly containing comments by member states on a review of the membership of the Security Council as requested by the General Assembly. Comments are made by 79 member states and three regional groups (African Group, Arab States and Caribbean Community). A number of countries sought permanent membership including Japan, Germany, Brazil, Egypt, India and Nigeria. The proposals reveal deep disagreements with current Security Council composition and procedures. General Assembly documents: A/48/264, following: A/48/264 Add.1, Add. 2, Add. 3, Add. 4, Add. 5. [June 30, 1993; December 3, 1993] oversight: The Secretary-General establishes the Office for Inspection and Investigations (oii) to provide audit, inspection and investigation services to the organization. The Office is part of the Secretariat, reporting to the Secretary-General. Secretary-General’s Bulletin: ST/SGB/262. [July 29, 1994] us reform view: The us Commission on Improving the Effectiveness of the un presents “Defining Purpose: The un and the Health of Nations”. The bipartisan Commission is co-chaired by Representatives James A. Leach and Charles M. Lichtenstein and was initiated back in 1988, when East–West tension eased. The Commission argues that the un lacks the capability to discharge its current obligations and should not be given additional responsibility. With regard to the Security Council, it suggests that a greatly expanded Council could impair its ability to reach consensus. With regard to peacekeeping, it emphasizes that us military personnel should only serve under United States command. Other proposals include the establishment of the Office of Inspector General, the position of High Commissioner for Human Rights, and a un bluehelmet rapid reaction force. Several of these recommendations are taken up in the un reform process.

132 1993 (cont.) October 3

October 12

October 27

December 3

December 20

December 20

chapter 3

somalia operation: The un Operation in Somalia suffers major loses including the deaths of 18 American soldiers in Mogadishu. The operation was intended to alleviate the humanitarian crisis by making it possible for aid agencies to provide assistance. The tragedy is a watershed experience and the Clinton administration becomes cautious about getting involved in similar ventures, announcing restrictive guidelines for approving un missions. restructuring: The Advisory Committee for Administrative and Budgetary Questions (acabq) calls for a clear statement by the Secretary-General of an overall restructuring plan as well as a demonstration that the restructuring would indeed achieve the goal of a more responsive, cost-effective and streamlined Secretariat. General Assembly document: A/48/420. [March 2, 1992; May 6, 1993] withholding: The us Congress decides to withhold 10 per cent of the us’s assessed contribution to the un regular budget until the un has established an independent Inspector General Office. This is in response to the concern of some members of Congress and the administration about apparent lack of oversight and accountability within the un system. [July 29, 1994] security council: The General Assembly establishes the Openended Working Group on the Question of Equitable Representation on and Increase in the Membership of the Security Council and Other Matters related to the Security Council (known as the Working Group) to consider the many proposals by member states on a reform of the Security Council’s size and working methods. General Assembly resolutions: A/RES/48/26. [July 20, 1993; September 15, 1995] governance: The General Assembly transforms the governing bodies of undp, unfpa and unicef into smaller executive boards each composed of 36 members. The change is supported by the smaller countries only reluctantly. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/48/162. [January 26, 1998] human rights: The General Assembly creates the post of High Commissioner for Human Rights. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/48/141. [January 3 and March 3, 1976; September 15, 1997]

Chronology Of Main Change Events December 21

December 29

Year-end

1994 February 28 and after

133

agenda for development: The General Assembly takes note of the Secretary-General’s interim report on the Agenda for Development entitled “Progress in the implementation of General Assembly resolution 47/181” (A/48/689). The Assembly mandated the Secretary-General to present an “Agenda for Development” to counterbalance the low priority given to development following the issuance of “An Agenda for Peace”. The interim report outlines some priority areas and responses received from member states. The Assembly also approves the proposal by the Secretary-General to delay the submission of the “Agenda for Development” until early 1994. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/48/166. [December 22, 1992; May 6, 1994] biodiversity: The Convention on Biological Diversity, known as the Biodiversity Convention, comes into force, having reached the minimum of 30 ratifications. The Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on June 5, 1992, and has three main goals: conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); sustainable use of its components; and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from genetic resources. membership: new – Czech Republic, Slovakia (both successor states of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic) [year-end 1992], Andorra, Eritrea, Monaco, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (following the dissolution of the Socialist ederal Republic of Yugoslavia, member since 1945); total – 184.

security council: The Security Council decides on a change in working methods including the circulation of the blue draft resolution, circulation in informal consultations of all press statements issued by the Security Council in connection with matters of concern to the Security Council; distribution of the texts of statements made by members and non-members during meetings of the Security Council; and greater recourse to open meetings of the Security Council. Security Council statements: S/1994/230; S/1994/329; S/PRST/1994/81. [December 3, 1993; March 29 and May 31, 1995]

134 1994 (cont.) March

April 15

April 30

May 6

chapter 3

reform view: Erskine Childers and Brian Urquhart issue “Renewing the un System”. This is the next in their series of reports supported by the Ford and Dag Hammarskjöld foundations. The study presents recommendations on a reform of the un in the economic and social areas. For the governance level, it proposes establishing a consultative board for the un system, decentralizing governance of development activities to the regional level, and establishing a un Parliamentary Assembly. For the Secretariat level, it proposes creating a common seat for the un system organizations, establishing a single un Development Authority by consolidating all un development funds, establishing unified offices for the un system at the country level, and establishing a new un Humanitarian Security Police Force. Other proposals include establishing a High Commissioner for Human Rights and an Inspector General; converting unctad into a specialized agency and the Trusteeship Council into a un Council on Diversity, and reducing the maximum assessed contribution from 25 per cent to 10 or 12 per cent. Finally, it suggests that major reforms should be enacted during the 50th anniversary of the un in 1995. [June 1991] trade: The World Trade Conference, meeting in Marrakech, Morocco, approves the establishment of the Word Trade Organization (wto), replacing gatt, which was set up in 1948. The wto deals with the regulation of trade between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants’ adherence to wto agreements. withholding: The us Congress decides to cap the payments of peacekeeping assessments at 25 per cent, substantially lower than the 32 per cent assessed set by the un. As a result, us arrears more than double to over usd 1 billion during the course of the 1990s, plunging the un into another financial crisis. agenda for development: The Secretary-General issues the “Agenda for Development”. Unlike the “Agenda for Peace”, the new document does not contain detailed recommendations but is presented as a document for reflection. The Group of 77 is disappointed and does not consider the document sufficiently innovative and action-oriented. Some developed countries criticize the lack of

Chronology Of Main Change Events

June 6–10

June 24

July 29

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proposals for a reform of the un institutions. It is agreed that the final proposals shall be submitted in autumn 1994. General Assembly document: A/48/935. [December 21, 1993; June 6–10, 1994] agenda for development: The President of the General Assembly holds one week of hearings to generate fresh ideas for “An Agenda for Development”. The hearings suggested elevating ecosoc’s status to the same level as the Security Council; linking the wto to ecosoc; establishing a single entity for development and policy co-ordination within the un; paying special attention to African recovery; and increasing resources for development by considering international indirect taxation, such as a tax on crossborder financial transactions. General Assembly document: A/49/320. [May 6, 1994; June 24, 1994] agenda for development: The Ministerial Meeting of the Group of 77 approves a “Declaration on the Occasion of the Commemoration of its 30th Anniversary” expressing their disappointment that the “Agenda for Development” does not include a more action-oriented blueprint, including the liberalization of trade, an increase in the flow of financial resources from the North to the South, and the control of the Bretton Woods institutions by the un. General Assembly/ecosoc document: A/49/205-E/1994/91. [June 6–10, 1994; December 19, 1994] oversight: The General Assembly establishes the Office of Internal Oversight Services (oios) to identify and investigate possible cases of inefficiencies or malfeasance within the organization. oios is to exercise operational independence under the authority of the Secretary-General as it carries out its responsibilities with regard to monitoring, internal audit, inspection and evaluation and investigation. The Office is inaugurated on September 7 (ST/ SGB/273) and replaces the oii. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/48/218 B. [August 24, 1993] population: The International Conference on Population and ­Development, meeting in Cairo, Egypt, sets new policy standards. The Conference recognizes that women’s empowerment and gender ­equality are cornerstones of population and development ­programmes. The approved programme of action steers the work of unfpa.

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criminal tribunal: The Security Council establishes the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda to prosecute persons responsible for genocide and other serious violations of international humanitarian law. The Tribunal covers violations committed in 1994 in Rwanda and neighbouring states and is located in Arusha, Tanzania. Security Council resolution: S/RES/955 (1944). agenda for development: The General Assembly considers the “Agenda for Development” proposed by the Secretary-General (A/49/665). The Secretary-General proposes to increase official development assistance; to move funding from voluntary to assessed contributions; to cancel the debt burden for least developed countries; to revitalize ecosoc; to focus on the empowerment of women, poverty eradication and support for African development; and to consider holding an international conference on the financing of development. The Group of 77 and the European Union express their disappointment about the lack of action-oriented proposals. The United States considers the Agenda too far-reaching, especially the proposals with regard to funding and debt relief. The Assembly does not approve the Agenda as initially anticipated. Instead, an openended working group is established to draw up an action-oriented, comprehensive “Agenda for Development” prior to the end of 1995. However, final agreement is only reached considerably later. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/49/126. [May 6, 1994; June 24, 1994; June 20, 1997] membership: new – Palau; total – 185.

agenda for peace: The Security Council considers the “Supplement to an Agenda for Peace” submitted by the Secretary-General (A/50/60, S/1995/1) as a complement to the “Agenda for Peace”. It proposes establishing a rapid reaction force; a more prominent role of the Secretary-General in preventive diplomacy; and a comprehensive information capacity. Other proposals include curbing the spread of anti-personnel land-mines and the inclusion of reconstruction efforts and rehabilitation government in post-conflict peacebuilding. Finally, it is suggested that the potential impact of sanctions on the target and third countries be assessed prior to imposing such sanctions. The Council does not follow most of

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February

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the recommendations, but agrees to enhance existing stand-by arrangements and emphasizes the need to control the costs of peacekeeping operations. Security Council statements: S/PRST/1995/9; S/PRST/1995/61; S/PRST/1996/13. [June 17, 1992; December 18, 1992; September 15, 1997] gender: The General Assembly improves the status of women in the un Secretariat. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/49/167. [April 9, 1985] governance: The Commission on Global Governance (Carlsson/ Ramphal Commission) issues its report “Our Global Neighbourhood”. The Commission was established in 1992 with the support of the Secretary-General and is co-chaired by Swedish Prime Minister Ingvar Carlsson and former Commonwealth Secretary-General Shridath Ramphal. The report is considered controversial since it calls for increasing the power of the un. Proposals include mandating the Security Council to authorize action in intra-state conflicts; creating a voluntary un force to enhance rapid-response capability; banning the manufacture and export of land-mines; creating an economic security council; charging for the use of global commons, such as sea lanes, ocean fishing and the electromagnetic spectrum; transforming the Trusteeship Council into a body responsible for overseeing the global commons; restricting the appointment of the Secretary-General to a single term of seven years; and reducing the financial assessment of major contributors. Finally, it proposes holding a World Summit on Global Governance to decide on the reform of the un. social development: The World Conference on Social Development, the largest gathering of heads of state and government, meets in Copenhagen. The world summit sets new policy standards and pledges to make the conquest of poverty, the goal of full employment and the fostering of social integration the overriding objectives of development. charter: The Special Committee on the Charter of the un and on the Strengthening of the Role of the Organization presents its report. Among other things, the Committee proposes to amend the Charter by deleting the enemy State clauses from Articles 53, 77 and 107. General Assembly document: A/50/33.

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security council: The Security Council decides to provide greater transparency on procedures of the sanctions committees by issuing press releases after meetings of the committees; making more information available in the Security Council’s annual report to the General Assembly; issuing an annual report to the Security Council for each sanctions committee; and formally agreeing to continue the practice of hearing comments by states and organizations during closed meetings of the sanctions committees. Security Council statements: S/1995/234; S/1995/438. [February 28, 1994; September 15, 1995] oil-for-food: The Security Council establishes the Oil-for-Food Programme to arrange for the provision of food, medicine and humanitarian goods for Iraq, funded by the sale of Iraqi oil. This is to address the impact on ordinary Iraqi citizens of the international economic sanctions imposed by the Security Council in the wake of the first Gulf War with the aim of demilitarizing Saddam Hussein’s Iraq. The programme is administered by the un Office of Iraq Programme, under the oversight of the Security Council Iraq Sanctions Committee, and terminates in 2010. With a cost of usd 69 billion, this is the largest and most complex humanitarian relief effort in the history of the un and was plagued by revelations of major corruption. Security Council resolution: S/RES/986 (1995). [April 3, 1991; April 22, 2004] development: The Group of Seven (G7), a group of the major industrial nations meeting in Halifax, Canada, declares its readiness to work with others in order to set out a fresh approach to international co-operation and define the specific contributions expected of un bodies. future of un: The Independent Working Group on the Future of the un (Qureshi/Weizsäcker Group) submits its report “The un in Its Second Half-Century”. The Group, established by the SecretaryGeneral in 1993, is co-chaired by Moeen Qureshi, former Prime Minister of Pakistan, and Richard von Weizsäcker, former President of Germany, supported by Bruce Russet and Paul Kennedy of Yale University and funded by the Ford Foundation. The Group considers it necessary to reform the basic structures of the un. The central recommendation calls for three related councils: a new economic council, a new social council, and the existing but

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enhanced Security Council. All three bodies should be served by a common secretariat, responsible for the integrated analysis and assessment of the security, economic and social issues affecting human security. In addition, proposals are advanced to establish a un rapid reaction force and to address intra-state conflicts. July 1 ecosoc: The General Assembly approves measures to restructure and revitalize the un in the economic and social fields. The policy-guidance role is expressly assigned to the General Assembly, whereas ecosoc’s co-ordination role is emphasized. The issues covered include funding of operational activities; the coherence of the work of the Second and Third Committees of the General Assembly; further clarifications on ecosoc’s high-level, coordination and operational activities segments; commission and expert groups, including the discontinuation of the wfc; governing bodies of the un development programmes and funds; interagency co-ordination; and relationship between the un and international finance and trade institutions. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/50/227. [May 24, 1996] September women: The Fourth World Conference on Women is held in Bei4–15 jing, China. The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action set strategic objectives for women’s empowerment and are considered the key global policy documents on gender equality. [February 24, 1995] September 15 security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report. Disagreement persists on all of the main issues: size and composition of the Security Council, new categories of membership, limitations in the scope and use of the veto, the extension of the veto to possible new permanent members, and voting majority. Progress is noted on enlarging the Security Council by 5 to 10 new members, for a total of almost 25, and on a change of working methods. Permanent membership for Germany and Japan is supported by many countries but objected to by Italy in particular. Instead, a new concept of semi-permanent members is proposed which would include Italy and Germany. The General Assembly takes note of the report and decides that the Working Group should continue its work for another year (49/499). General Assembly document: A/49/47. [March 29 and May 31, 1995; September 26, 1995]

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1995 (cont.) September 26 security council: The Security Council meets at the level of foreign ministers to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the un. Among other things, the Council takes note of the conclusions of the Open-ended Working Group that the Council should be expanded, and its working methods be reviewed. Security Council statement: S/PREST/1995/48. [September 15, 1995; January 24, 1996] September reform view: Paul Kennedy and Bruce Russet of Yale University issue “Reforming the un”. Both support the Independent Working Group on the Future of the un. Addressing national sovereignty is seen as essential to solving transnational problems. They propose introducing permanent regional membership of the Security Council and restricting the use of the veto to issues of war and peace. On peacekeeping, they recommend establishing a un rapid-reaction force of 10,000 troops. On economic and social issues, they suggest replacing ecosoc with a new, empowered body. A new role for the un is identified: rescuing collapsed states such as Cambodia, Afghanistan, Haiti, and Rwanda. As for finances, the funding share of the United States should be reduced to limit dependency, and new sources of income should be established, such as taxes on the use of global commons, including a levy on currency transactions or airline tickets. [June 1995] October 20 finance: The Secretary-General submits a report on “Improving the financial situation of the un”. He draws attention to the critical financial situation at September 30, 1995: unpaid assessments to the regular budget are at the unprecedented level of usd 0.8 billion, compared to an annual budget of usd 1.1 billion; for peacekeeping, unpaid contributions total usd 2.5 billion. It is emphasized that the un has effectively no reserves and its viability is threatened unless member states pay their assessed contributions. General Assembly document: A/50/666. October 50th anniversary: The General Assembly approves the “Decla22–24 ration on the Occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the un”. In preparing for the anniversary, the Assembly draws on a number of working groups: Agenda for Peace (since 1992), Reform of the Security Council (since 1993), and Agenda for Development (since 1994). Reports of recent reform initiatives include South Centre;

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December 19

December 20

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Independent Advisory Group on un Financing (Ogata/Volcker);us Commission on Improving the Effectiveness of the un (Leach/ Lichtenstein); Commission on Global Governance (Carlsson/ Ramphal); Renewing the un System (Childers/Urquhart); Independent Working Group on the Future of the un (Qureshi/Weizsäcker); and Reforming the un (Kennedy/Russet). Contrary to initial expectations, no decision on a reform of the un is made during the anniversary celebration and the proposals are not taken up in any noticeable way. In contrast to the enthusiasm of the early 1990s, the Assembly adopts a declaration that reflects the lowest common denominator. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/50/6. [October 1992; April 1993; March 1994; September 1993; February 1995; June 1995; September 1995] management: The Secretary-General launches an efficiency effort in the Secretariat. An Efficiency Board acts as a catalyst, covering issues such as streamlining administrative processes, outsourcing routine services, and expanding the use of information technology. In the first year, 400 efficiency measures are identified, of which 80 are implemented. [April 1997] peacekeeping: The Security Council supports the SecretaryGeneral’s efforts to enhance the un’s capacity to plan, rapidly deploy and reinforce peacekeeping operations. This includes the creation of a stand-by component within dpko and the establishment of partnerships between troop-contributing countries that need equipment and countries ready to provide such equipment. Security Council statement: S/PREST/1995/61. development: The General Assembly takes note of the “Triennial Comprehensive Policy Review of Operational Activities for Development of the un” (A/50/202-E/1995/76). Issues covered include role of ecosoc; improved substantive dialogue at the country level; resources; rc system; country strategy note; programme approach; national execution; harmonization and simplification of rules and procedures; staffing at the country level; regional coordination; capacity-building; evaluation, monitoring and review; the Bretton Woods institutions; strengthened national coordination; and common premises and shared services. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/50/120.

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February

March

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budget: The General Assembly approves the budget for 1996– 1997, the first-ever zero nominal growth budget, which reduce staff from over 12,000 to some 9,000 and launches an efficiency review. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/50/215. membership: total – 185.

security council: The Security Council decides on a change in working methods covering the procedures of the sanctions committees, arrangements for consultations and exchange of information with troop-contributing countries, and the simplification of the list of matters of which the Security Council is seized. Security Council statement: S/PREST/1996/13; following: S/RES/1996/54; S/RES/1996/603. [September 26, 1995; September 13, 1996] us reform view: The United States presents “Views on Reform Measures Necessary for Strengthening the un” to the Open-Ended High-Level Working Group on the Strengthening of the un System. The report includes proposals for cost reductions; consolidating the Secretariat into fewer departments; replacing thematic conferences by regular sessions of the General Assembly; introducing a sunset policy for the discontinuation of low-priority activities; and establishing independent audits and investigations. It is further proposed that undp should be the only entity providing technical assistance, taking over such activities currently implemented by the fao, who, unido and other specialized agencies. south reform view: The South Centre issues “For a Strong and Democratic un: A South Perspective on un Reform”. The report outlines the developing countries’ position on institutional un reform. Fundamental reforms are proposed: the General Assembly should fulfil its central role in global policy-making and provide effective checks and balances with respect to the Security Council; the Security Council should enhance its representativeness, end the veto power and abolish permanent seats; ecosoc and unctad should be strengthened; the Bretton Woods institutions should be democratized and their work placed within the framework established by the un. On funding, the maximum assessment should be limited to 10 to 12 per cent to avoid over-dependency on major contributions; voluntary funding should be phased out; and international taxation should be introduced as a new funding source for the un.

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May 24

June 27–29

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trade and development: unctad decides to launch an institutional reform by streamlining and giving a sharper focus to its intergovernmental machinery, secretariat and work programme. ecosoc: The General Assembly decides to streamline the intergovernmental machinery in the economic and social fields. ecosoc’s co-ordinating role vis-à-vis the Second and Third Committees of the General Assembly is strengthened; the wfc discontinued; and three committees reporting to ecosoc are biennialized (the Intergovernmental Committee on Science and Technology for Development, the Committee on Natural Resources, and the Committee on the Development and Utilization of New and Renewable Sources of Energy). This is the limited result of efforts under way since 1993. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/50/227. [December 20, 1993; July 1, 1995] development: The G7, meeting in Lyon, France, is concerned with “Multilateralism and un Reform”. On peace and security, the G7 proposes developing stand-by arrangements and rapidly deployable headquarters teams. In the economic and social fields, it proposes merging the three Secretariat departments responsible for development; enhancing ecosoc’s policy formulation and co-ordination role; merging un funds and programmes into undp; consolidating the un field presence; merging the development function of specialized agencies; and rationalizing the economic analysis of the un, the Bretton Woods institutions and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (oecd). On funding, the G7 suggests adopting a more equitable scale of assessment. us reform view: Senator Jesse Helms, Chairman of the us Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, sets out key demands for un reform in the article “Saving the un: A Challenge to the Next Secretary-General”. Helms argues that the un infringes on national sovereignty, makes problems worse rather than solving them, and results in a power-hungry bureaucracy. His key demands include reducing the assessed budget from usd 1,000 million to usd 250 million, providing for weighted voting in the budget process, and dramatically downsizing the un bureaucracy by at least 50 per cent. Senator Helms, an outspoken critic of the un, announces that he will lead the charge for us withdrawal from the un if his demands are not met. [January 20–21, 2000]

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1996 (cont.) September 13 security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report. Major disagreements remain. Countries from the South demand permanent memberships for each of the regions. In Latin America, the choice is between Brazil, Argentina and Mexico; in Asia, between India, Indonesia and Pakistan; and in Africa between Nigeria, Egypt and South Africa. The proposal to limit the scope and use of veto is widely supported, in particular by the nam movement. All permanent members, however, with the exception of China defend the veto power. The General Assembly takes note of the annual report and extends the Working Group for another year. (A/DEC/50/489). General Assembly document: A/50/47. [January 24, 1996; March 20, 1997] December 17 secretary-general: The General Assembly appoints Kofi Annan from Ghana as new Secretary-General to succeed Boutros Boutros-Ghali. Annan takes office on January 1, 1992. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/51/200. [December 3, 1991; December 17; 2006] December 20 democratization: The Secretary-General submits a report proposing “An Agenda for Democratization” two weeks prior to leaving office. The report is essentially ignored by member states, which are awaiting the new reform proposals of the incoming Secretary-General. General Assembly document: A/51/761. December nordic reform view: The Nordic un Reform Project presents its report “Strengthening the un in the Economic and Social Fields”. The Nordic countries provide a substantial share of un development funding. At the country level, they propose establishing a unified un development system with common representation, premises and administration. At headquarters, they suggest merging departments to provide for integrated support for country-level operations. At the governance level, the Nordic countries propose establishing a unified governing body for a consolidated un development system. On funding, the proposed consolidation of the un is seen as allowing for a transfer of resources from administrative services to operational activities and from headquarters to the country level. It is proposed that term limits be established for senior positions and that a unified personnel management system be created. Finally, the Nordic countries argue that donors will shift funding to other entities if the un reform is inadequate. [April 1991] Year-end membership: total – 185.

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management: The Secretary-General groups un departments, funds and programmes under four Executive Committees, including Peace and Security, Development Operations, Economic and Social Affairs, and Humanitarian Affairs (echa). echa is established alongside the iasc on humanitarian affairs, which has already come into being. A joint iasc/echa Secretariat facilitates the work of both committees. Annan also establishes a Policy Co-ordination Group, a cabinet-style body composed of the top Secretariat officials, and appoints Maurice Strong as Under-Secretary-General for Reform. [June 1992; March 17, 1997] management: The Secretary-General announces track one of his reform programme “Management and Organizational Measures”. This includes merging several units into a new desa, reducing administrative costs from 38 to 25 per cent of the budget, cutting 1,000 regular budget posts, developing a Code of Conduct for un staff, strengthening the role of rcs as leaders of un country teams, and moving towards the use of common premises and services. Although well received, some reservations are expressed by developing countries about the budget cuts and the merging of entities. General Assembly document: A/51/829. [January 1997; April 1997] security council: Ambassador Razali Ismail, Chairman of the Open-ended Working Group and President of the General Assembly, presents an ambitious plan that provides for the enlargement of the Security Council from 15 to 24 members, including five new permanent members without the right to veto. The new arrangement is to be reviewed after 10 years. Recognizing that consensus is impossible to achieve, the proposal suggests a three-stage voting procedure whereby opposition by a small number of countries could be overcome. Known as the Razali plan, the proposal is considered a good starting point for negotiations. A few countries, however, are vehemently opposed, notably Italy, Pakistan and Mexico. Although unsuccessful, the intermediary structure of the Razali plan inspired later proposals. General Assembly document: A/AC.247/1997/CRP 1. [September 13, 1996; April 7–8, 1997] security council: The foreign ministers of the nam countries issue a joint declaration on Security Council reform emphasizing that new permanent members need to have veto power. This is seen as a serious blow to the Razali plan. [March 20, 1997; August 8, 1997]

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management: The un Secretariat announces that the costcutting drive implemented by the un Management Reform Group has resulted in savings of usd 100 million in 1997. Over 550 efficiency projects are being initiated, of which 265 are completed in June 1997. [March 17, 1997] withholding: The us Senate adopts the Helms-Biden agreement imposing conditions and benchmarks for reform on the payments of un contributions and arrears, which have reached usd 1.2 billion. Republican Senator Jesse Helms and Democratic Senator Joseph Biden reach a bipartisan consensus in Congress and the Clinton administration accedes to a long list of conditions, including a freeze of the regular un budget, elimination of 1,000 posts, strengthening of oios, prohibition against United States funds being used for new un global conferences, reduction in the assessed contribution from 25 to 22 per cent for the regular budget and from 31 to 25 per cent for peacekeeping operations, and the write-off of contested arrears of usd 500 million. Although hopeful that the arrears problem can be solved, the un member states take exception to the us conditions. [May 1998] agenda for development: The General Assembly approves the “Agenda for Development” proposed by the Ad Hoc Open-ended Working Group of the General Assembly. This completes a process which started in late 1992. The Agenda is limited to a compendium of agreements reached during recent global conferences. No new commitments are reached due to persistent differences: the G77 supports strengthening the General Assembly and unctad and demands an increase in the flow of resources from the North to the South; the European Union and the United States insist that World Bank, imf and wto must be responsible for economic issues and emphasize the need to identify development resources through a reduction in military budgets in the South or the taxation of the highest income group. Nevertheless, the Agenda also reflects a new emphasis. Whereas previous efforts emphasized the role of governments in organizing the market process, the Agenda describes development as a complex process, which is based on the rights and freedoms of the individual. General Assembly resolution: A/51/240, Annex. [December 19, 1994]

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renewing the un: The Secretary-General unveils his reform package “Renewing the un: A Programme for Reform”. Proposals on management include establishing a un Development Group (undg) by bringing together the un funds, superseding the committee established in January. On peacekeeping, it is proposed to strengthen rapid reaction capability, and to abolish gratis personnel, answerable to their own armed forces. At the country level, greater coherence is to be achieved through a un Development Assistance Framework (undaf), by establishing a single countrylevel office for all un funds, and by empowering the un Special Representative of the Secretary-General. The financial crisis is to be addressed with a revolving fund of usd 1 billion. Several reorganizations are proposed targeting human rights, disarmament, emergency relief, economic and social areas, and drug control and crime prevention by merging existing entities. Some us concerns are addressed, such as establishing a Deputy Secretary-General, cutting posts, creating a code of conduct for staff, and implementing results-based budgeting. In addition, the report proposes discontinuing some global conferences and relocating debates to the General Assembly. Some fundamental proposals include a review of the un system by a Special Commission, reconstitution of the Trusteeship Council to deal with global commons, and holding a Millennium Assembly in 2000. General Assembly document: A/51/950. [March 17, 1997; September 1997] strengthening the un system: The Open-Ended High-Level Working Group on Strengthening of the un System submits its report. The Working Group was established in September 1995 by the General Assembly (A/RES/49/252). The United States initially suggested entrusting it with an umbrella function to coordinate the work of the other reform initiatives. After two years of debate, consensus is achieved on nearly 100 measures, although they mainly address minor issues, such as the structure of the Secretary-General’s annual report. All controversial proposals are ultimately dropped. These include a one-term appointment for the Secretary-General, restrictions on the use of the veto in the Security Council, extending the involvement of civil society in the work of the un, and the creation of a Deputy Secretary-General. Some of those

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1997 (cont.)

August 8

August 14

August

issues are taken up in the Secretary-General’s reform programme. The report is approved in August 1997 by General Assembly resolution A/RES/51/241. General Assembly document: A/51/24. [July 14, 1997] security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report. Issues concerning the required voting majority have not been resolved. Italy, supported by Canada, Egypt, Guatemala, Lebanon, Mexico, Pakistan, Qatar, Syria and Turkey, argues that Article 108 of the Charter applies to all decisions related to revisions of the Charter, namely approval by a two-thirds majority of all members of the Assembly, including the current five permanent members. According to the Razali plan, supported by Japan, Germany and other supporters of expansion, Article 18 applies during the preliminary stages of decision-making, which would require a two-thirds majority of members present and voting – likely to require considerably fewer votes. The General Assembly takes note of the report and extends the Working Group’s mandate for another year (A/DEC/51/476). General Assembly document: A/51/47. [April 7–8, 1997; December 1997] information: The Task Force on the Reorientation of un Public Information Activities submits “Global Vision, Local Voices”. The Task Force was established in April by the Secretary-General to recommend improvements to public information activities. Chaired by Mark Malloch Brown, Vice President for External Relations of the World Bank, the Task Force recommends expanding and upgrading the Department for Public Information by consolidating existing entities, creating regional hubs and establishing partnerships with ngos. One of the major functions of the new department will be delivering strongly news-oriented media services, with a 24-hour approach to global media. The Secretary-General accepts most but not all of the recommendations and submits the report to the Committee on Information of the General Assembly in September 1997. General Assembly document: A/AC.198/1997/CRP.1. reform support: A group of 16 heads of state and government from developed and developing countries issue a statement in Stockholm expressing their full support for the Secretary-General’s

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September 15

September 15

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reform plan. Led by Ingvar Carlsson of Sweden, the group was established in 1995, during the 50th anniversary of the un, to encourage reforms. [July 14, 1997] gratis personnel: The General Assembly establishes guidelines for the use of gratis personnel. It is decided that gratis staff should only be accepted for a specified period of time in the case of new and expanded mandates. Gratis personnel working at the un who fall outside these terms of reference are to be phased out expeditiously. [April 7, 1999] agenda for peace: The General Assembly approves a number of measures proposed by the Open-ended Working Group on the Supplement to an Agenda for Peace. Whereas there is little agreement on preventive diplomacy, peacemaking and post-conflict peacebuilding, agreement is reached on the issues of co-ordination and sanctions. This focuses on the creation of field-based humanitarian co-ordinators in peacekeeping operations, the unintended adverse side-effects of sanctions and the work of the sanctions committees. General Assembly resolution: A/51/242, Annex i and ii. [February 22, 1995] human rights: The Geneva-based human rights programmes are merged into a single Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. [December 20, 1993; March 15, 1996] turner foundation: The un accepts a gift totalling usd 1 billion from us media magnate Ted Turner. The un Foundation is set up to make the financial distribution. Although some member states consider it controversial to accept private funding for un programmes, this major gift signals that the un is opening up to non-governmental actors. G77 reform view: At its ministerial meeting, the G77 approves a set of general principles on un reform to guide the negotiations of the Secretary-General’s reform agenda. Those principles include strengthening the un in the development field and not treating this task as secondary to peacekeeping, human rights and humanitarian functions; no downsizing of the un justified through managerial measures; restoring economic issues to the top of the

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November 12

November

un agenda; strengthening the General Assembly; respecting the principle of equitable geographic distribution of posts; democratizing decision-making in the Bretton Woods organizations by discontinuing weighted voting; and providing stable, predictable and adequate funding to the un. renewing the un: The General Assembly approves the first part of the Secretary-General’s reform initiative after two months of negotiations. This covers establishing desa by consolidating three departments; upgrading the Department of Disarmament Affairs; establishing the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights by merging existing entities; establishing the Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs by scaling down the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (the initial proposal calls for establishing an Office of the Emergency Relief Co-ordinator); establishing the Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention by amalgamating un entities located in Vienna; establishing undg by bringing together the un funds; consolidating the un presence at the country level into a single office under an rc; and consolidating public information activities. The adjustments are expected to result administrative savings of usd 200 million over the next four years. This approval clears the way for further decisions. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/52/12 A. [July 17, 1997; December 19, 1997]. south reform view: The South Centre, at the request of the G77, issues “Renewing the un: Commentary”. The Centre argues that developing countries do not share the policy assumptions that the un should primarily deal with social and political crises in the South under the banner of humanitarian emergencies and human rights and should not challenge the dominant economic paradigm. Specifically, the Centre objects to the replacement of world conferences by regular sessions of the General Assembly, cutbacks in the subsidiary bodies of ecosoc, the introduction of sunset provisions, and results-based budgeting. The Centre cautions against gearing public information to the North-dominated information market, and the excessive influence of big business on the un’s work. The introduction of human rights as a cross-sector issue and the designation of a un country team leader are seen as a

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December 19

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North-driven intrusion into the domestic affairs of developing countries. The Centre proposes making development the main mandate for the new position of Deputy Secretary-General, rather than the handling of complex emergencies and post-conflict peacebuilding. The Centre expresses support for the proposed Special Commission to improve the un system and the holding of a Millennium Assembly. climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in Kyoto, Japan. The Summit adopts the Kyoto Protocol, which outlines the obligation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the Kyoto mechanisms such as emissions trading, clean development mechanisms and joint implementation. The agreement is a protocol to the unfccc. [June 3–14, 1992; October 29–November 10, 2001] renewing the un: The General Assembly approves the second part of the Secretary-General’s reform initiative. This includes establishing the new position of Deputy Secretary-General to manage operations and raise the un’s profile in the economic and social sphere; a development account funded from administrative savings; and a humanitarian affairs segment of ecosoc. It is further decided to streamline some ecosoc subsidiary bodies, enhance information gathering and rapid deployment capacity in the area of peace and security; and approve some restructuring proposals in the area of emergency relief, humanitarian assistance, and natural disaster mitigation. A number of issues are deferred, including proposals for a revolving fund, the new concept of trusteeship, resultsbased budgeting, sunset provisions and the Millennium Assembly. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/52/12 B. [July 17, 1997; November 12, 1997; December 17, 1998] security council: The 10 non-permanent members of the Security Council present proposals to the Permanent Five on improving the Council’s transparency. The proposals are discussed in the Open-ended Working Group, covering issues such as holding of public meetings, participation by non-members, briefing of the President, and improved annual reporting by the Council. [August 8, 1997; April 30 and October 30, 1998] membership: new – Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire, member since 1960); total – 185.

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disarmament: The new Department of Disarmament Affairs and the new Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs are established. [November 12, 1997; December 19, 1997] governance: The first joint session of the Executive Boards of undp and unfpa and unicef is held to review the undaf experience and the impact of reform on development operations. [December 20, 1993] deputy secretary-general: Louise Fréchette of Canada assumes the newly established post of Deputy Secretary-General. [November 12, 1997; December 19, 1997] partnership: The un Fund for International Partnerships is established to engage businesses in un projects for development. [November 12, 1997; December 19, 1997] security council: The Security Council decides on a change in working methods covering monthly tentative forecasts, the circulation of statements by troop-contributing countries, the Secretariat’s briefing notes at meetings with troop-contributing countries, weekly briefing notes on field operations to troop-contributing countries, and the invitation to un bodies and agencies to meetings with troop-contributing countries. Security Council resolutions: S/1998/354; S/RES/1998/1016. [December 1997; May 1998] withholding: us President Clinton does not enact the HelmsBiden authorization bill into law. He objects to the restrictive language on un funding of international family planning organizations attached to the bill and insists on further negotiations. [May 1997] security council: The United States announces its opposition to India’s candidacy for permanent Security Council membership shortly after India explodes nuclear devices, followed not long afterwards by Pakistan. [April 30 and October 30, 1998; August 24, 1998] humanitarian assistance: The Secretary-General presents “Strengthening of the Co-ordination of Emergency Humanitarian Assistance of the un”. This report discusses strengthening the Office of the Emergency Relief Co-ordinator established in the context of the Secretary-General’s reform. The new office is to focus

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August 24

August October 13

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on three core functions: policy development and co-ordination; advocacy of humanitarian issues; and co-ordination of humanitarian emergency response. General Assembly/ecosoc document: A/53/139-E/1998/67. [November 12, 1997; May 14, 2002] criminal court: An international conference in Rome adopts the Rome Statue of the International Criminal Court (icc) with jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. Countries not supporting the adoption include the United States and China. Following 60 ratifications, the Rome Statute enters into force and the icc is formally established in The Hague, Netherlands. [December 31, 2000; July 1, 2002] security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report. There is little progress in the negotiations. Germany and Japan, the main contenders for permanent membership of the Council, are expected to push for action in the General Assembly. Italy and Pakistan, the firmest opponents of expansion of the permanent membership, work to secure the votes to block such a push. The General Assembly takes note of the report and extends the Working Group for another year (A/DEC/52/490). General Assembly document: A/52/47. [May 1998; November 23, 1998] management: The new Strategic Planning Unit is established within the Executive Office of the Secretary-General. management: The Secretary-General presents “Human Resources Management Reform”. The report draws extensively on the work of the Task Force on Human Resources Management, which comprises experts from the public and private sectors. The Secretary-General recognizes the need for a paradigm shift to a new culture of empowerment, responsibility, accountability and continuous learning. Recommendations include proposals to improve recruitment, human resources planning, compensation packages, career development, mobility, performance management and staff-management consultation. Key elements are to be implemented over the next three to five years. General Assembly document: A/53/414. [August 1, 2000]

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November 23

December 15

December 17

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reform implementation: The Secretary-General presents a status report on the implementation of actions approved by the General Assembly based on his reform proposal “Renewing the un: A Programme for Reform”. The status report covers 29 actions, including, among others, Senior Management Group; Strategic Planning Unit; phasing-out of gratis personnel; post-conflict peacebuilding; Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention; undg; country-level co-ordination; human resources management reform; dividend for development; and creation of an electronic un. General Assembly document: A/53/676. [July 17, 1997; November 12, 1997; December 19, 1997] security council: The General Assembly decides to require at least a two-thirds majority of all members of the General Assembly, including the permanent Security Council members in unanimity, to take decisions on Security Council reform in accordance with Article 108 of the Charter (and not two-thirds of members present and voting). This is a joint victory for Italy and the nam and a severe setback for Germany and Japan after five years of negotiations. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/53/30. [August 24, 1998; August 5, 1999] development: The General Assembly takes note of the “Triennial Comprehensive Policy Review of Operational Activities for Development of the un” (A/53/226). Issues covered include reform of un operational activities; funding for un operational activities; undaf; rc system; undg; planning, programming and implementation; capacity-building; humanitarian assistance; regional dimension; South-South co-operation; gender; national execution; monitoring and evaluation. Specifically, the Assembly requests that the un entities emphasize simplification and harmonization in their rules and procedures, calling for concrete steps to decrease duplication and transaction costs. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/53/192. renewing the un: The General Assembly considers several deferred reform proposals. The Assembly only manages to approve the holding of a Millennium Assembly in the year 2000. Other proposals are deferred further, including a Special Commission on the un system, core resources for development, the new concept of trusteeship, a revolving fund, results-based budgeting and sunset provisions. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/53/202. [December 19, 1997] membership: total – 185.

Chronology Of Main Change Events 1999 January 31

April 7

May 28

June

July 28

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global compact: The Secretary-General challenges business leaders at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, to join the Global Compact, a un-sponsored platform to encourage and promote good corporate practices in the areas of human rights, labour and environment protection. [June 1999] gratis personnel: The General Assembly decides to phase out all gratis personnel at the request of developing countries. Gratis personnel are made available under the sponsorship of a member state and are seen as loyal to their national government and not acting as independent civil servants. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/53/218. [September 15, 1997] development: The Ad Hoc Open-ended Working Group of the General Assembly on Financing for Development adopts its report. The Assembly establishes the Working Group (A/RES/52/179) six months after adopting the “Agenda for Development”, when the issue of developing funding was central but remained unresolved. The Working Group identifies a list of ideas for discussion at a high-level meeting on financing for development. This conference is finally held, with the collaboration of the World Bank, imf and wto, in Monterrey, Mexico. The conference was also prepared by a High-Level Panel on Development Financing, appointed by the Secretary-General. General Assembly document: A/54/28. [June 26, 2001; March 18–22, 2002] global compact: The Secretary-General addresses the us Chamber of Commerce in Washington and asks business leaders to consider the Global Compact proposal, whereby businesses would adopt a set of common un principles. [January 31, 1999; July 26, 2000] environment and human settlement: The General Assembly approves recommendations based on the Task Force Report on Environment and Human Settlements (A/53/463). Chaired by Klaus Töpfer, the new Executive Director of unep, the Task Force was established by the Secretary-General as a follow-up to his reform programme. The Assembly establishes an environmental management group to enhance inter-agency co-ordination, institutionalize a ministerial-level environmental forum in conjunction with the meetings of unep’s Governing Council, and enhance co-ordination among environmental conventions. However, the

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1999 (cont.)

August 5

November 19

Year-end

Assembly does not approve unep’s involvement in conflict identification, prevention or resolution, and the closer integration of unep and Habitat. This is strongly objected to by the G77, especially the host country, Kenya. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/53/242. [July 17, 1997] security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report. After the General Assembly decided to require at least a two-thirds majority to take decisions on Security Council reform, member states sent lower-level representatives to the Working Group, signalling their doubts that major reforms would emerge. On the main issues, there is little change in views. Indeed, there is not yet even an emerging consensus on how to proceed. The General Assembly takes note of the report and approves the continuation of the Working Group for another year (A/DEC/53/487). General Assembly document: A/53/47. [November 23, 1989; July 25, 2000] withholding: The Clinton administration and Congress reach agreement on the payment of usd 926 million of un arrears [April 1998]. The agreement provides for fewer restrictions than the initial Helms-Biden plan. The requirement for a reduction in assessment from 25 to 22 per cent for the regular budget and 30 to 25 per cent for peacekeeping is, however, maintained. The first instalment of usd 100 million of the arrears is paid at the end of December 1999, enabling the United States to retain its vote in the General Assembly. [May 1997; December 2000] membership: new – Kiribati, Nauru, Tonga; total – 188.

2000 January 20–21 us reform view: Senator Jesse Helms, Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, addresses the Security Council in a unique event. Senator Helms emphasizes that the un must respect national sovereignty and expressed frustration with what he considers a lack of gratitude by the organization. He suggests that the un could be an instrument to facilitate action by coalitions of the willing, implement sanctions regimes, provide channels of communication in times of crisis, and ensure logistic support to states undertaking collective action in peacekeeping, weapons inspections and humanitarian relief. [September 1996; March 20, 2000]

Chronology Of Main Change Events January

March 15

March 20

March 27

May

157

gavi: The Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (gavi) is established, funded by governments and private sources. Dedicated to immunizing children in developing countries against diphtheria, tetanus, hepatitis B and yellow fever, gavi is set up outside the un system and embeds the basic principles of aid effectiveness. [January 28, 2002; February 24–25, 2003] millennium summit: The General Assembly decides to hold the Millennium Summit from September 6 to 8, 2000, in New York under the overall theme “The Role of the un in the Twenty-First Century”. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/54/254. us reform view: The Security Council visits Washington, dc in return for the visit of Senator Jesse Helms. Senator Helms assures the Security Council that the Senate Foreign Relations Committee extends the hand of friendship and wants to improve the relationship between the United States and the un. [January 20–21, 2000] we the peoples reform: The Secretary-General issues “We the Peoples: The Role of the un in the Twenty-First Century”. The report is summited to the Millennium Summit. Under “freedom from want”, issues related to poverty, education, youth employment, health, hiv/aids, slums, trade access, debt relief, and development assistance are covered. This chapter contains what will later become the Millennium Development Goals (mdgs). Under “freedom from fear”, proposals are advanced in the areas of protecting the vulnerable, intervening in the face of mass murder, curbing the illegal traffic in small arms, and making sanctions less harsh on innocent populations. Under “sustaining our future”, issues related to climate change, water crises, biotechnology, forests, fisheries, and biodiversity are covered. Under “renewing the un”, support is given to a reform of the Security Council, provision of adequate resources, co-operation with civil society, adopting results-based budgeting, and introducing sunset provisions in new mandates. General Assembly document: A/54/2000. [September 8, 2000] oversight: The us General Accounting Office (gao), an investigative arm of Congress, issues “un: Reform Initiatives Have Strengthened Operations, But Overall Objectives Have Not Yet Been Achieved”. The positive report notes that un leadership and operations have been substantially restructured and that human capital reform is under way. Not yet adopted, however, are proposals on results-based budgeting.

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June 29

July 25

July 26

August 1

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capital master plan: The Secretary-General proposes a major refurbishment of the un headquarters complex in New York, known as the Capital Master Plan (cmp). The plan is to be implemented over a period of six years at a cost of usd 964 million. Problems are associated not with the basic construction, but with building systems, including the electric, plumbing, fire suppression, and heating and air conditioning systems, which have passed their economic life expectancy and do not comply with New York City building codes. There is to be no expansion of the un complex, only refurbishment. Finally, vital un operations are to be sustained at all times, many of which need to remain within the un complex during the renovation. General Assembly document: A/55/117 and Add.1 [December 23, 2000]. management: The Secretary-General convenes a first meeting of the High-Level Accountability Panel. Written compacts are established between the Secretary-General and senior managers to hold managers accountable for the delivery of key results. security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its report. The Working Group welcomes the progress achieved so far in the consideration of the issues dealing with the working methods of the Security Council as provisional agreements have been recorded on a large number of issues, but notes that substantial differences of opinion remain on other issues. The General Assembly takes note of the report and approves the continuation of the Working Group for another year (A/DEC/54/488). General Assembly document: A/54/47. [August 5, 1999; September 7, 2000] global compact: The Secretary-General launches the Global Compact, challenging business corporations to translate the Compact’s basic un principles into corporate practice. About 50 transnational companies participate at this initial stage. Many ngos consider this an intrusion by business and charge that the Global Compact provides public relations for corporate malefactors. [June 1999]. management: The Secretary-General presents his report “Human Resources Management Reform”. The report sets out the changing role of the Office of Human Resources Management and outlines the status of reform in human resources management in 10 areas:

Chronology Of Main Change Events

August 8

August 21

September 7

159

human resources planning; streamlined rules and procedures; recruitment, placement and promotion; mobility; contractual arrangements; administration of justice; competencies and continuous learning; performance management; career development; and conditions of service. General Assembly document: A/55/253. [October 13, 1998; August 13, 2004] millennium summit: The Millennium Forum of ngos presents “We the Peoples Millennium Forum: Declaration and Agenda for Action: Strengthening the un for the Twenty-First Century”. The Forum, which brings together over 1,000 ngos, submits the report to the Millennium Summit. The focus is on new institutional arrangements to facilitate participation by civil society in global activities, including creating a un parliamentary body or establishing an international non-violent peace force. Whereas this is not approved by the Summit, other concerns by the Forum are adopted by the Summit, in particular poverty eradication, environmental protection, human rights, and protection of the vulnerable. General Assembly document: A/54/959. [September 8, 2000] peacekeeping: The Panel on un Peace Operations submits “un Peace Operations” (Brahimi Report) for consideration by the Millennium Summit. The Panel was established by the SecretaryGeneral and chaired by Lakhdar Brahimi, former Foreign Minister of Algeria. Following recent failures in peacekeeping, the Panel recommends sweeping changes in peacekeeping strategy, doctrine and operations. The prescription is for greater numbers of wellequipped, well-trained troops, more support staff at headquarters and stronger political, financial and material support from the member states, particularly members of the Security Council. General Assembly/Security Council document: A/55/305-S/2000/809. [November 13, 2000; December 4, 2000] security council: The Security Council meets at the level of heads of state in the course of the Millennium Summit and approves a declaration on the role of the Security Council in the maintenance of international peace and security, particularly in Africa. Security Council resolution: S/RES/1318 (2000). [July 25, 2000; July 20, 2001]

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October 31

October

November 13

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millennium development goals: The Millennium Summit, the largest ever gathering of 147 heads of state or government, adopts the “Millennium Declaration”. The Declaration sets out the mdgs for eradicating extreme poverty and hunger; achieving universal primary education; reducing child mortality; improving maternal health; combating hiv/aids, malaria and other diseases; ensuring environmental sustainability; and developing a global partnership for development. The mdgs are drawn from the report submitted by the Secretary-General and generate an unprecedented level of co-ordinated action within the un system, the donor community, and developing countries. The Declaration also states the commitment to intensify efforts to achieve a reform of the Security Council. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/55/2. [March 27, 2000; August 8, 2000, June 26, 2001] management: The Secretary-General proposes a two-year programme for the reinforcement of the un security management system. General Assembly document: A/55/494. peacekeeping: The Security Council passes a resolution on women, peace and security. Security Council resolution: S/RES/1325 (2000). co-ordination: The Chief Executives Board (ceb) is established and replaces the acc. The ceb is the highest-level co-ordination forum of the un system, chaired by the un Secretary-General and including 29 executive heads of un agencies, funds and programmes. The High-Level Committee on Programmes (hlcp) and the HighLevel Committee on Management (hlcm) report to the ceb. peacekeeping: The Security Council reviews the report “un Peace Operations” submitted by the Panel on un Peace Operations (Brahimi Report) and the report of the Secretary-General on its implementation (S/2000/1081). The Security Council accepts many of the key prescriptions. In particular, the Council recognizes the critical importance of peacekeeping operations’ having a credible deterrent capability. Specifically, the Council supports an increase in staff for dpko and additional equipment for the un Logistics Base in Brindisi, Italy. To provide more flexibility in management and logistics, the Secretariat delegates greater authority to the field

Chronology Of Main Change Events

December 4

December 23

December 23

161

level. At the insistence of developing countries, gratis personnel attached to the Secretariat, under the sponsorship mainly of developed countries, are phased out. Security Council resolution: S/RES/1327 (2000). [August 21, 2000; December 4, 2000; December 2000] peacekeeping: The Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations Council reviews the report “un Peace Operations” submitted by the Panel on un Peace Operations (Brahimi Report) and the report of the Secretary-General on its implementation (A/55/502). The Special Committee gives general support to the proposals advanced under the topics of conflict prevention; peacebuilding strategy; peacekeeping doctrine and strategy; clear, credible and achievable mandates; information and strategic analysis; transitional civil administration; determining deployment timelines; mission leadership; military personnel; civilian police personnel; civilian specialists; rapidly deployable capability for public information; logistics support and expenditure management; funding headquarters support for peacekeeping operations; and integrated mission planning and support. General Assembly document: A/C.4/55/6. [August 21, 2000; November 13, 2000; December 2000] peacekeeping: The General Assembly approves the resource requirements for the implementation of the Brahimi Report. An amount of usd 10 million is approved, including 95 additional posts, or half the resources initially requested by the SecretaryGeneral (A/55/507). This is done on the understanding that a comprehensive review of the management, structure and recruitment processes in peacekeeping operations will be undertaken in 2001 to determine the resource requirements for dpko. The United States and the European Union welcome the resolution as a first step and expressed some regret that the matter does not go any further. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/55/238. [August 21, 2000; November 13, 2000, December 4, 2000] scale of assessment: The General Assembly approves a new scale of assessment which reduces the us’s assessment from 25 to 22 per cent for the regular budget and from 30 to 26 for peacekeeping operations. This is one of the major us conditions for the payment of its arrears. The us Senate votes two months later to make

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2000 (cont.)

December 23

December 23

December 31

December

Year-end

the substantial second payment of usd 582 million in arrears to the un. The final arrears payment is made in September 2001. General Assembly resolutions: A/RES/55/5 B to F; A/RES/55/235. [November 19, 1999] management: The General Assembly approves the introduction of results-based budgeting after a long negotiation process. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/55/231. capital master plan: The General Assembly authorizes the Secretary-General to proceed with the preparation of a comprehensive design plan and cost analysis and approves usd 8 million for this purpose. This is to be done without prejudice to a final decision of the General Assembly. It is expected that member states will decide on the most cost-effective alternative by the end of 2001, including the scope of work for the project and timeframe, the financing plan and swing space. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/55/238. [June 28, 2000] criminal court: The Clinton administration signs the Rome treaty to establish an icc, but decides not to recommend its ratification by the Senate until certain fundamental concerns are satisfied. The Bush administration, the us administration at the time of the icc’s founding, decides that it will not join the icc. [July 17, 1998] peacekeeping: The un has experienced a rapid rise in peacekeeping operations since the end of the Cold War, increasing from usd 1 billion in 1998 to over usd 3 billion by the end of 2000. Some of the new missions include the un Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, the un Observer Mission in Angola, the un Transitional Administration in East Timor and the un Organization Mission in Democratic Republic of the Congo. By contrast, the regular un budget represents only about 30 per cent of the peacekeeping budget in 2000. The increase in peacekeeping continues in the coming years and will reach over usd 5 billion in 2005. [November 13, 2000; December 4, 2000] membership: new – Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (following the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, member since 1945), Tuvalu; total – 189.

Chronology Of Main Change Events 2001 January 31

January

June 26

July 20

September 6

163

security council: The Security Council decides on a change in working methods covering establishment of a Working Group of the Whole on un Peacekeeping Operations, to address both generic peacekeeping issues relevant to the responsibilities of the Council and technical aspects of individual peacekeeping operations. Security Council statement: S/PRST/2001/3. management: The electronic Integrated Management and Information System (imis) is fully operational and provides digitized budget and management information, linking un operations in New York and worldwide. development finance. The High-Level Panel on Financing for Development (Zedillo panel) presents its report. Established by the Secretary-General as a follow-up to the Millennium Declaration [September 8, 2000], the panel recommends that developing countries set their economic fundamentals in order; that the wto launch a development round; that developing countries create an attractive environment for foreign investment, especially Foreign Direct Investment; that industrial countries provide Official Development Assistance equal to 0.7 per cent of their gross national product (gnp); that international tax sources be explored to finance the supply of global public goods; and that the establishment of an international tax organization be explored. The report is provided to the un International Conference on Financing for Development held in Monterrey, Mexico. General Assembly document: A/55/1000. [March 18–22, 2002] security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its report. The Assembly welcomes the progress so far achieved in the consideration of the issues related to the Security Council’s working methods, as provisional agreements have been recorded on many issues, noting that substantial differences of view remain on other issues. The General Assembly takes note of the report and approves the continuation of the Working Group for another year (A/DEC/55/503). General Assembly document: A/55/47. [September 7, 2000; September 28, 2001] millennium development goals: The Secretary-General presents his “Road Map towards the Implementation of the un Millennium Declaration”. The report outlines how to achieve the

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2001 (cont.) mdgs. It is suggested that member states, international organizations, and the private sector need to join together to meet the lofty commitments. It is noted that the Secretary-General will present a comprehensive report every five years on progress made or not made in reaching the goals. General Assembly document: A/56/326. [September 8, 2000] September 11 september 11: A series of co-ordinated suicide attacks are carried out upon the United States, in which hijackers crash two planes into the World Trade Center in Manhattan, New York City, and another on the Pentagon, while a fourth plane is brought down in Pennsylvania. September 11 has a profound economic, social, political and military impact on the United States and the world. It also has a major effect on the work of the un. September 28 security council: The Security Council establishes a CounterTerrorism Committee. Security Council resolution: S/RES/1373 (2001). [July 20, 2001; January 14, 2002; August 27, 2002] October 29– climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in MarNovember 10 rakech, Morocco. The Summit sets the stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol, which commits its parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets. [December 1–11, 1997; October 23–November 1, 2002] December 21 development assistance: The General Assembly takes note of the “Triennial Comprehensive Policy Review of Operational Activities for Development of the un” (A/56/320) and asks the un entities to emphasize simplification and harmonization in their rules and procedures, calling for decreased duplication and transaction costs. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/56/201. Year-end membership: total – 189. 2002 January 1

training: The Staff College in Turin is inaugurated as an independent entity. January 14 security council: The Security Council decides on a change in and August 27 working methods covering joint meetings of the Working Group on Peacekeeping Operations and troop-contributing countries to strengthen co-operation; criteria for participation in private

Chronology Of Main Change Events

January 28

March 18–22

May 1 May 14

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165

meetings of the Council; and consultation meetings with troopcontributing countries. Security Council resolution: S/RES/2002/56, S/RES/2002/964. [September 28, 2001; September 6, 2002] global fund: The Global Fund to Fight aids, Tuberculosis and Malaria (Global Fund) is established in Geneva following the General Assembly Special Session on hiv/aids in June 2001. The Fund embeds the basic principles of aid effectiveness with an emphasis on streamlined, less bureaucratic structure and processes and stakeholder involvement. It is established outside the un system and has become the main source of international health financing. [January 2000; February 24–25, 2003] development: The un International Conference on Financing for Development approves the Monterrey Consensus. Held in Monterrey, Mexico, the conference provides a general endorsement of the concept of aid effectiveness, a new paradigm including partnership between donor and recipient countries, leadership and ownership by recipient countries of development plans, and good governance. The Conference also reaches agreements on debt relief, fighting corruption, and policy coherence. The Monterrey Consensus has become the major reference point for international development co-operation. General Assembly document: A/CONF.198/11, Chapter 1, resolution 1, annex. management: The Office of Human Resources Management inaugurates a new staff selection system. humanitarian assistance: The Secretary-General presents “Strengthening the Co-ordination of Emergency Humanitarian Assistance of the un”. The report makes recommendations on enhancing regional capacities for responding to humanitarian emergencies, promoting a culture of protection, planning for the transition from relief to development, and strengthening resource mobilization efforts. General Assembly/ecosoc document: A/57/77-E/2002/63. [June 12, 1998] criminal court: The icc starts work at The Hague after 60 countries have ratified the Rome Statute of 1998. For the first time, a permanent international court can prosecute individuals responsible for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.

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2002 (cont.)

July 1 August 1 September 6

October 23– November 1

December 20

December 20

Although considered of limited immediate effectiveness, the establishment of the icc is widely perceived as a historic decision. [July 17, 1998; December 31, 2000]. management: A Staff Ombudsman is appointed to facilitate informal resolution of staff-management disputes. management: A un Security Co-ordinator is appointed at the Assistant-Secretary-General level. security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report. The Working Group welcomes the progress achieved so far in the consideration of the issues dealing with the Security Council’s working methods, as provisional agreements have been recorded on a large number of issues, noting that substantial differences of view remain on other issues. The General Assembly takes note of the report and extends the Working Group for another year (A/DEC/56/477). General Assembly document: A/56/47. [January 14 and August 27, 2002; June 20, 2003] climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in New Delhi, India. The Summit calls for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries. [October 29–November 10, 2001; December 1–12, 2003] strengthening the un: The General Assembly supports the second reform package proposed by the Secretary-General entitled “Strengthening of the un: An Agenda for Further Change” (A/57/387). It proposes to rationalize the network of un information centres around regional hubs; simplify the planning and budgeting process with a shorter medium-term plan combined with a budget outline; and support closer co-operation of un entities at the country level. On staff management, proposals include the establishment of a staff ombudsman, an informal mediation process, a new staff selection system, and staff mobility. The reform process is overseen by the Deputy Secretary-General. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/57/300. capital master plan: The General Assembly approves the proposed baseline scope as presented in the second, more detailed, cmp (A/57/285). The cost estimates have increased from the usd 964 million estimated in June 2000 to usd 1,193 million, including usd 144 million for possible scope options; a six-year construction period is maintained. The General Assembly also asks the

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Secretary-General to establish an advisory board on financial matters and to provide advice on overall project issues. It The Advisory Board is not established until May 2010. Previous attempts failed when prominent candidates declined to serve on such a board. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/57/292. [December 23, 2000; February 1, 2004] membership: new – Switzerland, Timor-Leste; total – 191.

capital master plan: The Secretary-General establishes the cmp Office and appoints its Executive Director. Total strength of the Office includes approximately 40 staff members and contractors. The slow pace of filling vacancies and the delay in the appointment of the Executive Director are noted by the Board of Auditors. In the three years leading up to this date, an Executive Director has headed the project for only 10 months. [December 20, 2002; March 5, 2004] aid effectiveness: The First High-Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness is held by the oecd in Rome, Italy. The Forum brings together the heads of multilateral and bilateral development institutions and aid recipient countries. As a follow-up, the oecd establishes a Working Party on Aid Effectiveness as an international forum to promote the Monterrey Consensus and to accelerate progress towards the mdgs. The Working Party comprises senior policy advisors from 23 oecd members, 23 developing countries and 11 multilateral organizations. [January 2000; September 8, 2000; March 18–22, 2002; June 28, 2002; February 28–March 2, 2005]. iraq war: The 2003 Iraq War starts with the invasion of Iraq by about 300,000 coalition forces from 49 countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Poland, Italy and Spain. The war is opposed in particular by France, Germany, Russia and China. staff conduct. The General Assembly requests that the Secretary-General take measures to prevent sexual exploitation and abuse in humanitarian and peacekeeping operations. It calls upon the Secretary-General and troop-contributing countries to hold to account any personnel who commit such acts. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/57/306. [October 15, 2003; March 24, 2005]

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security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report. The Working Group welcomes the progress achieved so far in the consideration of the issues dealing with the working methods of the Security Council as provisional agreements have been recorded on a large number of issues, but notes that substantial differences of opinion remain on other issues. The General Assembly takes note of the report and decides to continue the Working Group for another year (A/DEC/57/591). General Assembly document: A/57/47. [September 6, 2002; July 21, 2004] June 23 co-ordination: The General Assembly decides on co-ordinating the role of the Assembly, ecosoc and specialized agencies in following up on the outcomes of the major un conferences and summits in the economic and social fields. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/57/270 B. August 19 security: A terrorist attack on the un office in Baghdad, Iraq, kills 22 people, including Sergio Vieira de Mello, the un Special Representative. [December 23, 2004] September 23 fork in the road: The Secretary-General addresses the General Assembly, stating that, following the outbreak of hostilities in Iraq, the un is at a fork in the road. He calls for a radical reform of the un, arguing that the Iraq crisis highlighted the need to rescue the un’s credibility by adapting outdated structures to modern realities. October 15 staff conduct: The Secretary-General promulgates a zerotolerance policy on sexual exploitation and abuse for all un staff, irrespective of their type of appointment. Secretary-General’s Bulletin: ST/SGB/2003/13. [April 15, 2003] December climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in Milan, 1–12 Italy. The Summit agrees to use the Adaptation Fund established in 2001 primarily to help developing countries better adapt to climate change. [October 23–November 1, 2002; December 6–17, 2004] Year-end membership: new – Serbia and Montenegro (formerly part of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, see 2000); total – 192.

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March 5

April 22

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oversight: The us gao issues an assessment of un reform, noting that 60 per cent of the 88 reform initiatives in the 1997 agenda and 38 per cent of the 66 initiatives in the 2002 agenda are in place. It is noted that the recommendations under the SecretaryGeneral’s authority progressed more quickly than those requiring member states’ approval. [July 14, 1997; May 6, 2004] capital master plan: The United States proposes a loan of usd 1.2 billion to finance the cmp at an interest rate of 5.54 per cent per annum for a maximum period of 30 years. The total principal and interest to be repaid over 30 years would amount to usd 2.5 billion. The offer is considered a great disappointment. General Assembly document: A/58/729. [February 1, 2003; July 21, 2004] oil-for-food: The Security Council endorses the Independent Inquiry Committee (Volcker Committee) to review the management of the un Oil-for-Food Programme for Iraq. The Inquiry is charged with examining accusations of corruption and mismanagement against members of the Security Council, the Iraqi government, several un agencies, numerous private corporations, un officials and the Secretary-General’s son. The Committee is headed by Paul Volcker, former us Federal Reserve Chair. The programme was established to respond to the humanitarian needs of Iraqi civilians, the unintended victims of the disarmament and sanctions regime imposed on Iraq designed to destroy weapons of mass destruction. [April 14, 1995; February 2, 2005] summit 2005: The General Assembly decides to convene a World Summit in September 2005 at the commencement of the 60th session of the Assembly. The Summit was originally conceived of as a follow-up to the 2000 Millennium Summit and dedicated to the review of the mdgs. The meeting now acquires a more comprehensive purpose, combining development and security concerns. Many developing countries express their concern that the issue of development is approached only from a narrow security angle and that the role that economic development plays in safeguarding collective security has not been adequately addressed. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/58/291. [September 14–16, 2005]

170 2004 (cont.) May

June 7

July 21

July 21

August 13

October 19–20

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oversight: The Secretary-General sets up three new internal Committees: the Oversight Committee to monitor management responses to recommendations by oios, the Board of Audit and the jiu; a Committee on Management to serve as a catalyst for the implementation of reform decisions; and a Management Performance Board to monitor the performance of individual managers. civil society: The Panel of Eminent Persons on un–Civil Society Relations (Cardoso Panel) presents “We the Peoples: Civil Society, the un and Global Governance”. The Panel was appointed by the Secretary-General and chaired by former Brazilian president Fernando Henrique Cardoso; its task was to produce a set of practical recommendations about how to improve the un’s relationship with civil society and national parliaments. The report is considered controversial, as it speaks of the un as a convener of policy meetings and not as a law-making body. ngos make sharp criticisms and the General Assembly never acts on a follow-up resolution. General Assembly document: A/58/817. security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report. The General Assembly takes note of the report and extends the Working Group for another year (A/DEC/58/572). General Assembly document: A/58/47. [June 20, 2003; February 16, 2005] capital master plan: The Board of Auditors notes delays in the procurement of contracts for design development and construction documentation. Whereas proposals were received in April 2003, contracts were signed only in early 2004. As a result of the delays, the completion date for design development is extended by one year to December 2005, and the development of construction documents is only completed by early 2007. General Assembly document: A/59/161. management: The Secretary-General issues an omnibus report on the status of human resources management reforms, including the staff selection process, opportunities for promotion from the General Service to the Professional category, contractual arrangements, and improving gender representation. General Assembly document: A/59/263. [August 1, 2000] parliamentarians: The Inter-Parliamentary Union holds its first annual conference at the un headquarters at the invitation of the Secretary-General.

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December 2

December 6–17

December 22

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capital master plan: The firm of Gardiner & Theobald is selected as Programme Management consultants for the cmp. Its responsibilities include checking internal project co-ordination. [July 21, 2004; June 22, 2005] threats panel: The Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change issues “A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility”. Established by the Secretary-General in the aftermath of the Iraq war, the Panel is composed of 16 eminent persons and chaired by Anand Panyarachu, former Prime Minister of Thailand. The Panel links security, development and environmental issues and proposes 101 recommendations in preparation for the 2005 Summit. They include establishing a Peacebuilding Commission (pbc) and a new Human Rights Council; recognizing the concept of responsibility to protect; sanctioning pre-emptive wars; agreeing on a definition of terrorism; enhancing nuclear proliferation security; tracing small arms; and increasing development funding. The Panel also proposes two models for Security Council reform that include new seats without veto rights: one model with new permanent seats, the other with new seats renewable every four years. General Assembly document: A/59/565. [March 21, 2005; September 14–16, 2005] climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The Summit agrees to help developing countries to better adapt to climate change. The Summit also discusses the post-Kyoto mechanism, that is, how to allocate emission reduction obligations following 2012, when the first period ends. [December 1–2, 2003; February 16, 2005] development: The General Assembly takes note of the “Triennial Comprehensive Policy Review” (tcpr) submitted by the SecretaryGeneral (A/59/84-E/2004/53, A/59/85-E/2004/68). The Review emphasizes the following issues: gender mainstreaming and the pursuit of gender equality; need for an inclusive approach to the un reforms, involving the entire un development system; recognition that un development co-operation supports national development efforts; and a regular oversight role for ecosoc on the funding of un development co-operation. Further efforts are requested to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of un development co-operation, including the Common Country Assessments and undafs. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/59/250.

172 2004 (cont.) December 23

December 23

Year-end 2005 January 28

January

February 2

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oversight: The General Assembly decides to mandate oios to release its audit reports to member states upon request. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/59/272. security: The General Assembly approves a major overhaul of the un security system following the Baghdad bombing of September 19, 2003. This includes a substantial increase in funding and a clear chain of command with the consolidation the Office of the un Security Co-ordinator, the Security and Safety Services and the civilian security component of dpko into the new Department of Safety and Security. The approval is based on a detailed assessment (A/59/365). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/59/276. [August 19, 2003] membership: total – 192.

reform support: 70 Nobel Laureates announce their support for Secretary-General Kofi Annan, citing his record of reform. [July 14, 1997; December 20, 2002; December 2, 2004] millennium development goals: The un Millennium Project presents “Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals” for submission to the 2005 un Summit. The report was commissioned by the Secretary-General, directed by Jeffrey Sachs of Columbia University, and sponsored by undp. The study examines progress in achieving the mdgs and formulates a global plan to reach the targets by 2015. It states that many successes have already been achieved, and that the mdgs could indeed be reached by 2015. A big push is needed, however, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Donor countries will need to live up to previous promises by providing 0.7 per cent of gnp as development assistance, cancelling debts, and initiating developmentbased trade rounds. Proposals include quick-win actions such as the provision of mosquito nets for children who live in malaria-infested regions and the elimination of school fees for poor children. The report is convincing in its optimism and simplicity. [September 8, 2000; March 21, 2005, September 14–16, 2005]. oil-for-food: The Volcker Committee issues its first interim report. The Iraqi regime and contractors are accused of benefiting from sanction violations, kickbacks, and illicit oil sales or smuggling. The report sharply criticizes Benon Sevan, the Executive Director

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February 16

February 16

February 28– March 2

March 8

March 21

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of the Oil-for-Food Programme, for repeatedly soliciting oil allocations from Iraq and accepting nearly usd 150,000 in bribes. Sevan is subsequently suspended from his position at the un. [April 22, 2004; March 29, 2005] security council: The Coffee Club (Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, Kenya, Algeria, Italy, Spain, Pakistan and South Korea) adopts “Uniting for Consensus”, which supports Model B of the High-Level Panel, namely creating a new category of seats, renewable every four years instead of the two-year non-renewable seats for current non-permanent members. [July 21, 2004; March 8, 2005] climate change: The Kyoto Protocol enters into force. The agreement commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. [December 6–17, 2004; November 28–December 9, 2005] aid effectiveness: The second High-Level Forum on Joint Progress toward Enhanced Aid Effectiveness is held by the oecd in Paris. The Forum approves the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness. A new aid paradigm is evolving, including partner country leadership, donor alignment with partner countries’ development strategies, harmonization of donor actions, managing for results, and donors and partners being mutually accountable for results. By mid-December 2007, 115 countries have endorsed the Paris Declaration. [February 24–25, 2003; January 2006] security council: The African Union (au) approves the Ezulwini Consensus, which calls for two permanent seats for Africa with the right to veto. [February 16, 2005; April 10, 2005; July 6, 18, 21, 2005] in larger freedom: The Secretary-General issues his report to the 2005 World Summit, entitled “In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All”. The report largely reflects the recommendations advanced by the High-Level Threats Panel, the un Millennium Project and the Mitchell/ Gingrich us Task Force on the un. It also includes some initial responses to the ongoing Volcker investigation on the Oil-for-Food Programme. The Secretary-General proposes a broad range of reforms. He excludes controversial recommendations submitted to him, such as establishing a specialized un agency for the environment. Other proposals are modified to ensure wider acceptance, such as reducing

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March 24

March 29

April 10

the size of the new Human Rights Council rather than recommending universal membership. On Security Council reform, the two proposals made by the High-Level Threats Panel are submitted. Management reforms include the review of un mandates over five years old; a one-time staff buyout; and a comprehensive review of oios. General Assembly document: A/59/2005. [December 2, 2004; January 2005; February 2, 2005; March 29, 2005; June 2005; September 14–16, 2005] staff conduct: Prince Zaid Ra’ad Zeid Al-Hussein of Jordan, advisor to the Secretary-General, presents his report addressing the problem of sexual exploitation and abuse by un peacekeeping personnel (Zaid Report). He is a former permanent representative from a major troop-contributing country and a civilian peacekeeper. Prince Zaid presents a sweeping strategy, engaging troop and police contributors, other member states and the wider un system in a new conduct and disciplining architecture for peacekeeping. Specific recommendations cover rules on standards of conduct; the investigation process; organizational, managerial and command responsibility; and individual disciplinary, financial and criminal accountability. General Assembly document: A/59/710. [April 15, 2003; June 22, 2005] oil-for-food: The Volcker Committee issues its second interim report dealing, among other things, with the conduct of the Secretary-General. The investigation finds no evidence that the SecretaryGeneral used his position to influence the procurement process. However, the investigation faults the Secretary-General for failing to begin a serious investigation when his son’s involvement with one of the inspection companies became known. The report also notes that better oversight could have prevented some of the gross mismanagement, and accuses Iqbal Riza, Chief of Staff of the SecretaryGeneral, of shredding thousands of documents from a three-year period after the inquiry into the programme was announced. [February 2, 2005; September 7, 2005] security council: Thousands of Chinese protesters break windows at the Japanese Embassy in Beijing and rampage through Shanghai. The immediate cause of the protest is the revision of a junior-high-school textbook in Japan that is seen as glossing over

Chronology Of Main Change Events

June 22

June 22

June

July

175

Japan’s World War ii record. Japan’s quest for a permanent seat on the Security Council is one of the factors fuelling the protests. [March 8, 2005; July 6, 18, 21, 2005] staff conduct: The General Assembly approves a strategy to eliminate future sexual exploitation and abuse in un peacekeeping operations based on the proposal submitted by the SecretaryGeneral (A/59/19/Rev.1). General Assembly resolution: A/RES/59/300. [March 24, 2005; December 21, 2007] capital master plan: The General Assembly approves the assessment proposal and rejects the loan offer by the host country. In the absence of an attractive host country offer, the Secretariat proposes in May 2004 to fund the cmp through assessments from member states using the scale for the regular budget. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/59/295. [July 21, 2004; November 11, 2005] us reform view: The bipartisan congressional Task Force on the un submits “American Interests and un Reform”. The Task Force, chaired by former Senate majority leader George Mitchell and former House Speaker Newt Gingrich, finds that the un lacks basic management systems and is in urgent need of sweeping reforms. The un Oil-for-Food Programme is seen as flawed by incompetence, mismanagement and alleged corruption. The Task Force identifies improving oversight as the single most important recommendation: this entails creating an independent audit committee, enhancing whistle-blower protection, giving member states access to oversight reports, establishing an ethics office, and broadening the staff financial disclosure policy. On management, the Task Force calls for the creation of the post of chief operating officer, results-based budgeting, zero tolerance of sexual exploitation and abuse, the review of all un mandates five years or older, replacement of the discredited Commission on Human Rights with a new Human Rights Council, and a one-time buyout for all unneeded staff. [March 21, 2005; September 14–16, 2005] withholding: The us House of Representatives passes legislation calling for the withholding of its regular dues unless the un adopts measurable reforms. The ongoing reform efforts are considered to be too little, too late. [March 8, 2005]

176 2005 (cont.) July

July 4

July 6–8

July 6, 18, 21

September 7

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coherence: The un System’s ceb presents “One un: Catalyst for Progress and Change” as a contribution to the 2005 World Summit. The report describes how un system organizations are working together to assist countries in achieving the objectives of the mdgs and ways in which the follow-up to the Millennium Declaration is contributing to greater coherence and effectiveness in the un system’s work. It is argued that much more needs to be done to build One un. [September 14–16, 2005; November 20, 2006] democracy fund: The Secretary-General announces the creation of the un Democracy Fund funded from voluntary contributions. The Fund supports projects that strengthen civil society, promote human rights, and encourage participation in democratic processes. The establishment of such a fund was a key demand of the United States. [March 21, 2005] G8 summit: The Group of 8, meeting at the Gleneagles Summit in Scotland, reach agreement on debt cancellation for developing countries. security council: The negotiations on Security Council reform reach a deadlock a few months before the 2005 Summit. Three alternative draft resolutions are submitted: the G4 (Brazil, Germany, India and Japan) calls for adding six permanent seats with no veto right for the first 15 years; the Uniting for Consensus (UfC) group proposes 10 additional two-year rotating seats subject to renewal; the African group calls for two permanent seats for Africa with the right to veto in accordance with the Ezulwini Consensus. None of the three draft resolutions are put to a vote at the 2005 World Summit. Security Council reform is abandoned after nine months of intense negotiations. General Assembly documents: A/59/L.64; A/59/L.67; A/59/L.68. [April 10, 2005; September 1, 2005] oil-for-food: The Volcker Committee issues its final report “The Management of the un Oil-for-Food Programme” just before the 2005 World Summit. The Committee found serious instances of illicit, unethical and corrupt behaviour within the un. The report clears the Secretary-General of improper influence in awarding contracts, but blames him for mismanagement. The grievous absence of management controls and effective auditing is seen as the most notable structural fault. Urgent thoroughgoing reforms

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are recommended, including creating the post of Chief Operating Officer to handle management responsibilities for the SecretaryGeneral; setting up an Independent Oversight Board to review un auditing, accounting and budgeting activities; and expanding financial disclosure requirements to cover a variety of un staff, including procurement staff. [March 29, 2005] September 1 security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves the annual report. The General Assembly takes note of the report and decides that the Working Group shall continue its work for another year (A/DEC/59/566). General Assembly document: A/59/47. [July 6, 18, 21, 2005; March 17, 2006] September 12 general assembly: The General Assembly establishes an Ad Hoc Working Group (AHWG) on the Revitalization of the General Assembly to identify ways to enhance the Assembly’s role, authority, effectiveness and efficiency by reviewing its agenda and working methods. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/59/313. September 2005 world summit: The World Summit, the largest ever as14–16 semblage of 151 heads of state and government, concludes with the adoption of the 178-paragraph, 40-page “Outcome Document”. The Secretary-General calls the Summit a once-in-a-generation opportunity and proposes that it should agree on a grand bargain, promising aid in return for tougher action on human rights, terrorism, nuclear non-proliferation and management reform. Negotiations among governments are based on the report of the Secretary General “In Larger Freedom”. Reports are available from the Threats Panel, the Millennium Project, the Volcker Committee and the us Task Force on the un. The agreement falls short of a grand bargain. The Human Rights Council, the pbc and the concept of responsibility to protect are approved. No commitment are made on increased development aid or non-proliferation and disarmament. No agreement is reached on a definition of terrorism that would open the way to negotiate a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism. Finally, no management reforms are approved, only follow-up studies dealing primarily with oversight. General Assembly document: A/60/1. [December 2, 2004; February 2, 2005; March 21, 2005; March 29, 2005; June 2005; September 7, 2005]

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2005 (cont.) November 28– climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in Montreal, December 9 Canada. The event marks the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol. [February 16, 2005; November 6–17, 2006] December 19 oversight: The Secretary-General issues instructions on the whistle-blower policy “Protection Against Retaliation for Reporting Misconduct and for Co-operating with Duly Authorized Audits or Investigations” following many months of efforts and wide-ranging consultations with staff and several outside expert bodies. Secretary-General Bulletin: ST/SGB/2005/21. [September 7, 2005; January 1, 2006] December 20 peacebuilding: The General Assembly and the Security Council concurrently establish the pbc as a follow-up to the 2005 World Summit. Its mandate is to advise and propose integrated strategies for post-conflict recovery, focusing its attention on reconstruction, institution-building and sustainable development, in countries emerging from conflict. The establishment of the Commission is a significant structural reform and complements the work of the dpa, dpko and undp. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/60/180; Security Council resolution: S/RES/1645(2005). [December 2000; February 24, 2005; September 14–16, 2005] December 23 oversight: The General Assembly approves the establishment of an Independent Audit Advisory Committee to assist the General Assembly in discharging its oversight responsibilities. The decision is taken as a follow-up to the 2005 World Summit. Terms of reference and membership are to be decided later. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/60/248. [September 14–16, 2005; June 29, 2009] December 23 capital master plan: The General Assembly does not approve the increased budget estimated as proposed by the SecretaryGeneral (A/60/550). The estimate amounts to usd 1,588 million as compared to the previous December 2002 estimate of usd 1,193 million. The increase largely results from higher projected future inflation rates, a delay in the start of the project and a new approach on meeting swing space requirements. Although it is endorsed by acabq, the General Assembly is not prepared to approve the revised project with the associated budget increases. The General Assembly previously endorsed a lease arrangement offered by the un Development Corporation (undc), a New York State

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Year-end 2006 January 1

January

February 24

March 7

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non-profit corporation tasked with leasing office space to the un. A number of unresolved legal issues and major cost increases lead to abandoning the project. The new approach included the building of a new temporary swing space building on the un ground and relocation of staff in leased space in the New York area. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/60/248. [June 22, 2005; June 5, 2006] membership: total – 192.

oversight: The Ethics Office and the Office of the Ombudsman are established as a follow-up to the 2005 World Summit. The Ethics Office is to administer the financial disclosure policy and the whistle-blower protection policy Secretary-General Bulletin: ST/SGB/2005/22. [September 14–16, 2005; December 19, 2005; April 10, 2006] aid effectiveness: A group of European countries and Canada (G13) call for accelerating the ongoing country-level reform and improving the impact of un operational activities in accordance with the oecd’s Paris Declaration on aid effectiveness. They recommend streamlining the fragmented governance and organizational structure of the un operational system, including the elimination of duplications between the General Assembly, ecosoc, the boards of funds and programmes, the governing bodies of specialized agencies, and inter-agency mechanisms. The need to improve the un’s fragmented gender architecture is specifically mentioned. [February 28–March 2, 2005, September 3–4, 2008] peacekeeping: The Secretary-General presents the reform strategy “Peace Operations 2010”. The strategy sets out the policies and procedures to support peacekeeping over the next decade. Reforms focus on five key areas: personnel, doctrine, partnerships, resources and organization. The Director of Change Management in the Office of the Under-Secretary-General is responsible for co-ordinating the reform process. General Assembly document: A/60/696. [December 20, 2005; July 31, 2007] management: The Secretary-General submits proposals for management reform titled “Investing in the un – For a Stronger Organization Worldwide”. The report calls for a thorough strategic refit.

180 2006 (cont.)

March 15

March 17

March

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discretion of the Secretary-General; increasing the working capital fund; establishing a small governing group on management; outsourcing printing and translation services; providing better pay to staff in the field; locating administrative functions away from high-cost centres; and tightening the procedures for procurement. With regard to information technology, it proposes to invest in a new system that integrates various applications and replacing the aging imis system at a preliminary estimate of usd 120 million, ready for introduction in 2009. Many of the reform initiatives are already being implemented or have previously been rejected, such as a proposed buyout plan. General Assembly document: A/60/692. [May 8, 2006] human rights: The General Assembly establishes the new Human Rights Council, reporting to the General Assembly, as a follow-up to the 2005 World Summit. The new Council replaces the previous Human Rights Commission which reported to ecosoc. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/60/251. [September 15, 1997; September 14–16, 2005; December 26, 2007] security council: A group of five small countries (Switzerland, Singapore, Jordan, Costa Rica and Liechtenstein (S5)) submit a proposal to the General Assembly to change the Security Council’s working methods. The group proposes that every veto by the five permanent members of the Security Council should be explained to the General Assembly, and that all member states should be consulted on Security Council resolutions. This is a first attempt to propose changes in working methods from outside the Security Council and is rejected by the Security Council. General Assembly document: A/60/L.49. [September 1, 2005; July 19, 2006] mandate review: The Ad Hoc Working Group of the General Assembly on Mandate Review starts its work as a follow-up to the 2005 World Summit. The Working Group is to review 7,000 mandates that are more than five years old. Initial consultations are marked by deep division over the scope and purpose of the exercise. [September 14–16, 2005; April 2007]

Chronology Of Main Change Events March

April 10

May 8

July 7

July 10

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withholding: The us Congress revisits the legislation on un reform in parallel with the un’s efforts to follow through with the reform pledges of the un World Summit. The withheld contribution is finally released even though the un has not achieved all the reform benchmarks, to avoid confrontation with other member states and a major financial crisis at the un. [July 2005] oversight: The Secretary-General issues the policy on “Financial Disclosure and Declaration of Interest Statements”. Secretary-General’s Bulletin: ST/SGB/2006/6. [January 1, 2006] management: The General Assembly rejects the proposed management reform by the Secretary General. The G77 opposes what is considered a shift in management responsibility from the General Assembly to the Secretariat and major donors. Moreover, the outsourcing proposals meet with resistance from the un Staff Union, which expresses a vote of no confidence in the Secretary-General. With regard to information technology, the Assembly requests a detailed study. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/60/260. [March 7, 2006] information technology: The General Assembly decides to replace imis with a next-generation enterprise resource planning system in response to the proposal by the Secretary-General (A/60/846/Add.1). The Secretary-General is requested to submit a detailed implementation plan including projected resource requirements over the project life cycle. Estimates are now considerably higher than the previous indication of usd 120 million. The Assembly also approves the establishment of the position of a Chief Information Technology Officer (cito) to co-ordinate Information and Communication Technology (ict) operations at the Secretariat. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/60/283. [March 7, 1996; October 2007] oversight: The Steering Committee on the Comprehensive Review of Governance and Oversight within the un and its funds, programmes and specialized agencies submits its report. The Committee of six international experts was appointed by the Secretary-General

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2006 (cont.)

July 19

August 9

September 5

to conduct an external review of the un’s oversight and audit mechanisms as a follow-up to the 2005 World Summit. Recommendations include enhancing oios’s independence, abolishing the jiu, reducing the size of the Fifth Committee to improve decisionmaking, implementing an enterprise-wide risk management framework, and strengthening results-based management. The report attracts a good deal of criticism and follow-up is limited to transferring some management functions from oios to the Department of Management, and strengthening oios’s investigation division. General Assembly document: A/60/883. [September 14–16, 2005] security council: The Security Council approves the practice of holding meeting according to the Arria Formula whereby the Council meets informally with non-members under the chairmanship of someone other than the President at a location different from the Council chamber. Named after Diego Arria of Venezuela, this is a step towards greater transparency and improved consultations. The Council also decides to meet more often in open session and to introduce frequent briefings of the President of the Security Council for non-members. Security Council statement: S/2006/507. [March 17, 2006; September 8, 2006] human resources: The Secretary-General submits “Investing in People”. The report addresses the shift from a headquarters-based to a field-based organization. Proposals include the harmonization of conditions of service, the simplification of contractual arrangements, the establishment of a pool of peacekeeping staff, and the encouragement of staff mobility. The annual cost of the reform is estimated at usd 224 million, mainly to improve the conditions of service. Finally, a one-time staff buyout is proposed, which was already rejected by the 2005 World Summit. There is only limited follow-up by the Assembly, but some of the proposals are considered later. General Assembly document: A/61/255. general assembly: The ahwg on the Revitalization of the Work of the General Assembly adopts its report. The report considers three topics addressed during 12 meetings of the ahwg: role and authority of the Assembly; role of the Assembly in the selection of the Secretary-General; and working methods

Chronology Of Main Change Events

September 8

September 8

November 6–17

November 20

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of the Assembly. The Assembly approves the report and decides to continue the ahwg for another year (A/RES/60/286). General Assembly document: A/60/999. [September 11, 2008] security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report. The General Assembly takes note of the report and decides that the Working Group shall continue its work for another year (A/DEC/60/568). General Assembly document: A/60/47. [February 8, 2007; July 19, 2006] terrorism: The General Assembly adopts the un Global CounterTerrorism Strategy and a Plan of Action. This is the first time that all member states agree to a common approach to fight terrorism. Practical steps include measures ranging from strengthening state capacity to counter terrorist threats to better co-ordinating the un system’s counter-terrorism activities. The adoption of the strategy fulfils the commitment made at the 2005 World Summit. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/60/288. [September 14–16, 2005] climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in Nairobi, Kenya. The Summit agrees on support for developing countries and a clean development mechanism. [November 28–December 9, 2005; December 3–15, 2007]. coherence: The High-Level Panel on System-Wide Coherence in Areas of Development, Humanitarian Assistance and Environment submits its report “Delivering as One”. The Panel was established by the Secretary-General and co-chaired by Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz of Pakistan, Prime Minister Luisa Dias Diogo of Mozambique and Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg of Norway. The Panel addresses a number of loosely related initiatives on which no agreement was reached during the 2005 World Summit. The coherence process was driven by European countries. A total of 48 recommendations are outlined, which are then grouped into eight thematic clusters: “Delivering as One” at the country level, governance and institutional reform, humanitarian issues and recovery, environment, gender, human rights, funding, and business practices. These clusters are discussed by member states during the 61st session of the General Assembly. General Assembly document: A/61/583. [July 1995; September 14–16, 2005; January 2006; December 2006].

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December 17

December 22

December 22

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ecosoc: The General Assembly approves major changes for ecosoc in response to the World Summit Outcome. With respect to the high-level segment of ecosoc, a biennial Development Cooperation Forum is launched, an annual ministerial-level review will be held concluding with a ministerial declaration. In addition, a humanitarian affairs segment will be added to ecosoc and collaboration with the pbc is determined. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/61/16. [September 14–16, 2005] secretary-general: Ban Ki-moon from South Korea is elected Secretary-General to replace Kofi Annan. Ban assumes office on January 1, 2007. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/61/200. [December 17, 1996] procurement: The General Assembly approves a reform of the procurement arrangement based on the proposals submitted by Secretary-General Kofi Annan (A/60/846, Add.5). This has become a priority following the fraud cases in the Oil-for-Food Programme and in peacekeeping operations. Decisions cover financial disclosure of procurement staff, ethics training, post-employment restrictions, zero-tolerance policy for gifts and hospitality, a un supplier code of conduct, an independent bid protest system, strengthening of vendor review systems, risk management, oversight of field procurement activities, acquisition planning and co-ordination and the best value for money principle. The procurement volume amounts to nearly usd 2 billion in 2006. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/61/246. [September 7, 2006; September 14–16, 2006] capital master plan: The General Assembly approves the cmp for the renovation of the Headquarters building, including the final project scope, a project schedule with the completion date of 2014 and a budget of usd 1,877 million based on the proposal by the Secretary-General (A/61/549). To reduce swing space costs, renovation of the Secretariat Building is proposed in four phases, ten floors at time (A/60/874). The new amount compares to the previous estimate of usd 1,588 million in November 2005 and usd 1,193 million in December 2002. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/61/251. [June 5, 2006; December 10, 2007]

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Year-end

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February 15

185

coherence: The Secretary-General launches the “Delivering as One” (DaO) pilot programme in Vietnam in response to the High-Level Coherence Panel. un system activities at the country level are consolidated, with one leader, one programme, one budget and one office. This is essentially an endorsement of the reform process launched in 1997 and seen as preparing the un for changes in the aid environment. Subsequently, seven additional countries join the programme (Albania, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Pakistan, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uruguay). The pilot projects are guided by undg. [November 20, 2006; April 3, 2007] membership: new – Montenegro, Republic of Serbia (following the separation of Montenegro from Serbia and Montenegro in 2003); total – 193.

security council: The Chairperson of the Open-ended Working Group restarts the consultations on Security Council reform following the failed attempt to reach agreement during the 2005 World Summit. The five facilitators appointed to assist in the consultations subsequently conclude that the deep divisions among countries prevent agreement on any permanent reform. In order to break the impasse, the facilitators note that there is considerable interest in an intermediate approach to be reviewed in a number of years. Member states’ reaction to the report varies greatly; the G4 and the African Group in particular are critical of intermediary arrangements. General Assembly document: A/61/47. [September 8, 2006; September 14, 2007] restructuring: The new Secretary-General introduces his first set of reform initiatives. He proposes to augment dpko with the new Department of Field Support (dfs). dpko will focus on policy planning and implementation for peacekeeping activities, and dfs will serve as the co-ordinator on administrative matters. The Secretary-General also proposes to integrate the dda into the dpa and downgrade the head of dda. The proposals are met with scepticism by many developing countries. General Assembly document: A/61/749. [March 15, 2007]

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March 15

March 15

March

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environment: The Conference for Global Ecological Governance, held in Paris and attended by practically all European countries, calls for the transformation of unep into a full-fledged international organization, following the model of the who. disarmament: The General Assembly rejects the SecretaryGeneral’s restructuring proposal and, instead, establishes the Office of Disarmament Affairs (oda) to replace dda. The new office retains the budgetary autonomy, structures and functions of the former dda. The new High Representative of oda is appointed at the rank of Under-Secretary-General and reports directly to the Secretary-General. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/61/257. [February 15, 2007] peacekeeping: The General Assembly approves in principle the Secretary-General’s proposal to augment dpko with the new dfs. The Assembly asks the Secretary-General to submit a comprehensive report on the details of the restructuring. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/61/256. [February 15, 2007; June 29, 2007] coherence: The G77 and the nam meet with the SecretaryGeneral to convey their concern over proposals put forward by the High-Level Coherence Panel. The initiative is seen as a cost-cutting exercise that introduces unacceptable conditionality, reduces flexibility, marginalizes developing countries, and translates into decreased funding. [December 2006; April 3, 2007] coherence: The Secretary-General submits his comments on the report of the High-Level Coherence Panel. He echoes the call to overcome the current fragmentation and gives broad, although cautious, support to the Panel’s recommendations. The SecretaryGeneral also endorses the “One un” pilot projects initiated by the previous Secretary-General. He proposes a somewhat different emphasis, recommending that the slogan “One un” should be changed to “Delivering as One”. No final recommendations are issued on certain controversial issues that are considered to fall under the authority of member states. General Assembly document: A/61/836. [March 2007; April 20, 2007]

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internal justice: The General Assembly creates a new system of internal justice for the un Secretariat to provide additional accountability for managers and to protect un staff facing disciplinary action. The system includes the un Dispute Tribunal and the un Appeals Tribunal. It is supported by the new Office of the Administration of Justice. The previous internal justice system was criticized for being slow, cumbersome, ineffective, and lacking in professionalism. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/61/261. [July 1, 2009] coherence: The ceb of the un system approves the development of a plan of action to harmonize business practices in the un system The focus is on needs at the country level that require central harmonization. Areas addressed include human resources, finance and budget, information technology, a nd procurement. The goal is to have some of the projects completed in nine months, with the most complex ones taking two to three years. [April 3, 2007; February 7, 2008] mandate review: The Ad Hoc Working Group on Mandate Review re-launches its work after the process stalled in early 2007. The intention is to move from format to substance; limited progress is achieved. [March 2006; September 15, 2008] oversight: The General Assembly approves the terms of reference and membership of the Independent Audit Advisory Committee. The Committee was previously approved in principle as a follow-up to the 2005 World Summit. The first Committee members are appointed in November 2007 and the first meeting is held in January 2008. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/61/275. [December 23, 2005] restructuring: The General Assembly approves the peacekeeping restructuring including dpko and dfs. To enhance the integration of the two departments, seven Integrated Operational Teams are established, which combine political, military, police, support, and administrative specialist officers. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/61/279. [March 15, 2007]

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peacekeeping: The Security Council establishes the un-au Mission in Darfur (unamid) to address the humanitarian crisis in the western region of Sudan. This is the first joint un-au peacekeeping operation, replacing a previous mission led solely by the au. unamid is tasked with securing the implementation of the Darfur Peace Agreement, protecting civilians, and supporting humanitarian assistance. Security Council resolution: S/RES/1769 (2007). [February 24, 2006; December 24, 2008] September 14 security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report and decides to move towards intergovernmental negotiations. This was strongly supported by the G4 and seen as a change from the consensus-based consultations in the Ad Hoc Working Group to the negotiations-based Plenary of the General Assembly. This is expected to allow for majority decisions. No consensus, however, is reached on how to understand the term intergovernmental negotiations. The General Assembly takes note of the report and decides that the Working Group shall continue its work another year (A/DEC/61/560). General Assembly document: A/61/47. [February 8, 2007; December 2007] October 29 information technology: The Secretary-General proposes the development of a new-generation Enterprise Resource Planning (erp) system, deployed in all offices of the un Secretariat, including offices away from headquarters, regional commissions, and peacekeeping and political missions. The cost of the project is estimated at between usd 150 and 250 million. The Assembly requests additional information and defers the decision. General Assembly document: A/62/510. [July 7, 2006; April 10, 2008] December climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in Bali, In3–15 donesia. The Summit agrees on a timeline and structured negotiations on the post-2012 framework, the end of the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. [November 6–17, 2006; December 1–12, 2008] December 10 capital master plan: The General Assembly approves the accelerated strategy and a fundamental reversal of the plan from one year before: instead of renovating in phases, each building is to be renovated in one phase. This is seen as reducing the risk of construction complications and expected to cut the renovation time from seven to five years. The approved completion dates

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December 21

December 26

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are mid-2009 for the construction of the temporary North Lawn conference building, mid-2011 for renovation of the Conference building, early 2012 for renovation of the Secretariat and South Annex buildings, early 2013 for renovation of the Library building, mid-2013 for renovation of the General Assembly building and disassembly of the temporary conference building. Although an increased budget of usd 2,067 million is proposed, the General Assembly confirms the approved budget of usd 1,877 million. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/62/87. [December 22, 2006; June 2008] operational activities: The General Assembly approves the 2007 tcpr based on the report of Secretary-General Kofi Annan (A/62/73-E/2007/52). The tcpr provides policy guidance to the un operational system on development. Issues include the funding of operational activities, coherence, South-South co-operation, women’s empowerment, transition from relief to development, and further alignment of the undaf cycle with national processes. The tcpr provides a legislative framework for the DaO pilot projects. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/62/208. [February 7, 2008; December 21, 2012] staff conduct: The General Assembly approves a un-wide strategy for assistance to victims of sexual exploitation and abuse by un personnel, largely reflecting the recommendations of the Zaid Report. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/62/214. [March 24, 2005; June 22, 2005; February 11, 2008] withholding: The us Congress specifies that the funds appropriated to the Human Rights Council will not be made available unless the Secretary of State certifies that funding the Council is in the national interest of the United States or the United States is a member of the Council. [March 15, 2006; June 17, 2011] security council: Germany launches an overarching process outside the Ad Hoc Working Group, aiming to develop a text based on which intergovernmental negotiations can commence. The approach is criticized by Italy and Pakistan, which argue that a basic framework for negotiations must be agreed upon before any actual text can be considered. As a result, the German initiative stalls. [September 14, 2007; September 15, 2008] membership: total – 193.

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coherence: The Deputy Secretary-General presents to the Assembly a stocktaking report on how the DaO pilot projects are functioning. The report identifies a number of problems, including the difficulty of fitting the initiative into the ongoing programme cycles, the slow speed of reform at un headquarters, and the higher cost associated with participating during the initial pilot period, particularly for the specialized agencies. Nevertheless, consultations indicate an increasing appreciation for the pilot projects. [November 20, 2006; April 20, 2007; December 19, 2007; April 2008] staff conduct: The Secretary-General issues a new policy on “Prohibition of Discrimination, Harassment, including Sexual Harassment, and Abuse of Authority” to ensure that all staff members of the Secretariat are treated with dignity and respect and are aware of their roles and responsibilities. Secretary-General bulletin: ST/SGB/2008/5. [December 21, 2007] information technology: The Secretary-General presents an updated, more detailed proposal for a new erp system at a cost of usd 286 million, to be deployed as of end-2010. General Assembly document: A/62/510/Rev. 1. [October 29, 2007; December 24, 2008] inter-agency structure: undg is integrated as a third pillar into the ceb structure, alongside the hlcp and the hlcm. undg continues to focus on coherence at the country level. hlcp and hlcm co-ordinate issues that have un system-wide, interagency implications, such as the harmonization of systems and procedures. management: The General Assembly holds a thematic debate on management reform. However, little is decided. Member states support the modernization of human resources management and encourage further efforts to achieve a better gender balance. coherence: The ceb endorses a plan of action on the harmonization of business practices. The initiatives, some of which have been part of previous reform initiatives, include reviewing the staff regulations of the un system organizations, implementing the International Public Sector Accounting Standards (ipsas), enhancing the un system-wide financial database, harmonizing ict business practices, and preparing a feasibility study for a un system directory.

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The total cost of the plan is estimated at usd 21.7 million to be financed through voluntary contributions. Only usd 270,000, however, is provided and the action plan is essentially abandoned due to the lack of funding. [February 7, 2008; September 15, 2008] June capital master plan: Construction starts on the temporary North Lawn building, providing swing space in January 2010. [December 10, 2007; May 2010] September aid effectiveness: The Third High-Level Forum on Harmoni3–4 zation, organized by the oecd, takes place in Accra, Ghana. The Forum provides a mid-term review of the implementation of the Paris Declaration. Many attendees express disappointment with the progress achieved and note that co-ordination among donors appear to have diminished between the Paris and Accra forums. [February 28–March 2, 2005; January 2006; January 29–December 1, 2011] September 11 general assembly: The ahwg on the Revitalization of the Work of the General Assembly adopts its report. The report considers three clusters addressed during seven ahwg meetings: Cluster i (working methods, documentation, agenda); Cluster ii (selection of the Secretary-General); and Cluster iii (role and authority of the General Assembly). The Assembly approves the report and decides to continue the ahwg for another year (A/ RES/62/272). General Assembly document: A/62/952. [September 5, 2006; September 10, 2009] September 15 mandate review: The General Assembly discontinues the mandate review, recognizing that the ahwg was unable to achieve progress. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/62/278. [April 2007] September 15 security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report. It agrees to consult on the framework and modalities of the intergovernmental negotiations within the Working Group. The results of those consultations are to be presented no later than February 1, 2009, and intergovernmental negotiations shall be commenced in informal plenary of the General Assembly no later than February 28, 2009. The decision calls for the “widest possible political acceptance” by member states, a formulation that reflects a political compromise and inspires contradictory

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2008 (cont.) interpretations subsequently. Key elements for negotiations include expansion of the Council; extending and/or restraining veto power; regional representation; size and working methods; and relationship between the Security Council and General Assembly. The move to intergovernmental negotiations is considered historic and finally brings the never-ending working group to an end. The General Assembly takes note of the report (A/DEC/62/557). General Assembly document: A/62/47. [December 2007; February 19, 2009] September 15 coherence: The un Evaluation Group (uneg) presents its synthesis report on the DaO pilot projects at the request of undg. The report provides an assessment by the pilot government, complemented with feedback from un country teams. The feedback is mixed. Progress is reported on increasing national ownership and better aligning external assistance with national priorities. This has come, however, at an increased transaction cost. The “One Programme” is being developed essentially in parallel with and as a duplication of the existing undaf processes. This adds an extra layer of reporting which is time-consuming for government counterparts and un staff. At the management level, the lack of harmonization of business practices between different organizations remains a major obstacle to cohesiveness. ceb document: 2008/HLCP-XVI/CRP.2. [April 2008; September 15, 2008] September 15 coherence: The General Assembly adopts a resolution on system-wide coherence. Following a series of informal consultations held in 2007 and 2008 on the recommendations of the Highlevel Coherence Panel, the Assembly narrows down the scope of the process from eight thematic clusters to four: Delivering as One at the country level, funding, governance and institutional reform, and gender. Cautious support is given to establishing a consolidated gender entity. With regard to DaO, the Assembly states that the anticipated evaluation will help it to form a comprehensive view. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/62/277. [September 15, 2008; September 23, 2008] September millennium development goals: The un High-Level Event 22–26 on the mdgs takes place in New York. The event involves governments, foundations, businesses and civil society. New financial commitments of usd 16 billion are announced to meet the mdgs, including some usd 1.6 billion to bolster food security, more than usd 4.5 billion for education and $3 billion to combat malaria.

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September 23 coherence: The ceb submits a plan of action to simplify and harmonize the business practices in the un system at the headquarters level. Proposals include the progressive harmonization of performance evaluation systems, employment arrangements and management practices; consistent implementation of ipsas; a common cost recovery policy; a feasibility study on a common treasury service; knowledge sharing; and supporting field office procurement. The plan largely represents “old wine in new bottles”. The overall resource requirements are usd 21.7 million; however, only usd 0.3 million has been received from New Zealand. Due to the lack of funding, most proposals are shelved. ceb document: 2008/HLCM/10. [September 15, 2009; September 14, 2009] December 2 development: The International Conference on Financing for Development, held in Doha, Qatar, approves the Doha Declaration, which reaffirms the Monterrey Consensus and calls for a un conference to examine the impact of the world financial and economic crisis on development. General Assembly document: A/CONF.212/L.1/Rev.1. [March 18–22, 2002] December climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in Poznan, 1–12 Poland. The Summit focuses primarily on negotiating a successor to the Kyoto Protocol and agrees on principles for the financing of a fund to help the poorest nations cope with the effects of climate change. [December 3–15, 1007; December 7–18, 2009] December 24 information technology: The General Assembly approves the launch of a new erp system at a cost of usd 286 million, with phase 1 to be finished by end-2010 and phase 2 by end-2012. Since the current proposal is considered insufficient, the Assembly only approves the start-up phase at usd 25 million. The new erp system is to replace the aging imis The Assembly also establishes the new position of cito heading the new Office of Information and Communication Technology. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/63/262. [April 10, 2008; October 8, 2009] December 24 human resources: The General Assembly approves a human resources management reform to be implemented as of July 1, 2009. This includes the simplification of contractual arrangements, the harmonization of conditions of service, the establishment of a core cadre of 2,500 civilian career peacekeepers from already

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authorized positions to staff new field offices faster, the introduction of mandatory staff mobility, and issues of geographic and gender balance. General Assembly Resolution: A/RES/63/250. peacekeeping: The African Union–un Panel on Modalities for Support to African Union Peacekeeping Operations issues its report (known as the Prodi Report). The panel is chaired by Romano Prodi, former Prime Minister of Italy, and includes six members appointed by the Secretary-General in consultation with the au. The report addresses the limitations of au operations due to inadequate equipment and transportation capabilities, and comes up with two main recommendations: to establish a multi-donor trust fund to support au peacekeeping capacity, and to use assessed contributions to support un-authorized au operations, provided there is an agreement that the mission transitions to un management within six months. There has been no follow-up to the financing proposals. Security Council/General Assembly document: S/2008/813-A/63/666. [July 31, 2007; July 2009] membership: total – 193.

responsibility to protect: The Secretary-General proposes ways to operationalize the new concept of “Responsibility to Protect”. The concept was approved in principle at the 2005 World Summit and aims to prevent genocide, ethnic cleansing, war crimes and crimes against humanity. Proposals include appointing factfinding missions to investigate alleged violations, notice to leaders on whether states fail to meet obligations, targeted diplomatic sanctions, developing a guide for the application of coercive force, and establishing a un rapid-response military capacity to confront atrocity crimes. Also proposed is the creation of a new un office covering these issues. General Assembly document: A/63/677. [September 14–16, 2005] security council: The General Assembly appoints Ambassador Zahir Tanin of Afghanistan as Chair of the intergovernmental negotiations. The G4 and a number of the original sponsors of the L69

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ask the Chair to prepare a composite paper as the basis for negotiations. These countries hope that text-based negotiations can start in March 2009. It takes one year until the first text for negotiations is submitted by the Chair. [September 15, 2008; September 9, 2009] July 1 internal justice: The Office of Administration of Justice and its un Dispute Tribunal and un Appeals Tribunal become operational to address disputes among staff and managers. July peacekeeping: dpko and dfs submit the paper “A New Partnership Agenda: Charting a New Horizon for un Peacekeeping”. With the unprecedented deployment of 116,000 personnel across 15 missions, it is argued that the scale and complexity of peacekeeping are mismatched with existing capabilities. dpko and dfs call for clear political strategy and direction; cohesive mission planning and management; faster deployment; clarity and delivery on critical roles; crisis management; projecting future needs; a capabilitydriven approach; expanding the peacekeeping partnership; and a new field support strategy. [December 24, 2008; January 26, 2010] September 10 general assembly: The ahwg on the Revitalization of the Work of the General Assembly adopts its report. The report considers three topics addressed during ahwg eight meetings: implementation of Assembly resolutions and the Assembly agenda; operational and technical issues, including information on the Assembly voting system, in the framework of the cmp; the role of the Assembly and its relationship with the organization’s other principal organs, and the Assembly’s visibility and public outreach capacity; the role and responsibilities of the General Assembly in the process of appointing Secretaries-General of the un; strengthening the institutional memory of the Office of the President of the Assembly and enhancing its functions and relationship with the Secretariat. The Assembly approves the report and decides to continue the ahwg for another year (A/RES/63/309). General Assembly document: A/63/959. [September 11, 2008; September 8, 2010] September 14 coherence: The General Assembly adopts a resolution on systemwide coherence. Following a series of informal consultations held in 2009, the Assembly supports the creation of a composite entity to deal with women’s issues by consolidating existing entities,

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September 9

October 8

December 7–18

December 22

to be led by an Under-Secretary-General, and asks the SecretaryGeneral to produce a comprehensive proposal. The Assembly also requests the Secretary-General to create a central repository of information on operational activities for development and urgently undertake arrangements for an independent evaluation of lessons learned from the programme country pilots of “Delivering as One”. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/63/311. [September 23, 2008; December 22, 2009; July 2, 2010] security council: The Open-ended Working Group approves its annual report. The Working Group decides to continue intergovernmental negotiations on Security Council reform in an informal plenary of the General Assembly. So far, the negotiations have not resulted in any agreement; however, interest in an intermediary model is growing. The General Assembly takes note of the report and decides to extend the Working Group for another year (A/DEC/63/565). General Assembly document: A/63/47. [February 19, 2009; May 10, 2010] information technology: The Secretary-General presents the first progress report on the erp project, named Umoja, which means “unity” in Swahili. Project costs are revised upward to usd 323 million as compared to the previous estimate of usd 286 million. General Assembly document: A/64/380. [December 24, 2008; July 1, 2013; November 20, 2015] climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in Copenhagen, Denmark. The Summit recognizes that actions should be taken to keep the mean temperature increase to below 2°C, but does not approve any legally binding commitments to reducing co2 emissions. The Summit is notable in that it refers to a commitment by developed countries to make available usd 30 billion for climate financing in the period 2010–2012. [December 1–12; 2008; November 29–December 10, 2010] coherence: The Secretary-General reports on system-wide coherence related to development as a follow-up to the General Assembly’s request (A/RES/63/311). The report covers governance of operational activities; modalities for a common country programmes; establishing an independent system-wide evaluation mechanism; financial reporting on operational activities; a central repository on

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January 29

May 10 and after

May

July 2

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operational activities; independent evaluation of lessons learned from DaO country pilots; and harmonization of business practices. General Assembly document: A/64/589. [September 14, 2009; July 2010] membership: new – Bolivia (Plurinational State of) (formerly Bolivia, member since 1945); total – 193.

peacekeeping: dfs develops the “Global Field Support Strategy” aimed at transforming service delivery in the field and adapting it to the requirements of peacekeeping operations. General Assembly document: A/64/633. [July 2009] management: The Secretary-General outlines a framework to make staff and managers more accountable for their performance. General Assembly document: A/64/640. security council: Ambassador Tanin, Chair of the intergovernmental negotiations, presents a first text as a basis for negotiations. The text is 30 pages long and comprises 30 proposals made by member states; it is supposed to form the basis of the negotiations. The text is much welcomed as an important step by those in favour of new permanent seats. This is followed by Revision 1 (June 2010), Revision 2 (July 2010), and Revision 3 (March 2011). The multitudes of often clashing proposals reconfirm the large differences. Member states end up disagreeing about the different revisions of the text and ways to streamline it from 30 pages into a shorter, more operational text, throwing the negotiations into suspense mode. [February 9, 2009; September 13, 2010] capital master plan: The Secretary-General establishes an advisory board to provide advice on financial matters and overall project issues. The board was initially requested by the General Assembly. Previous attempts failed when prominent candidates declined to serve on such a board. [June 2008; December 2012] un women: The General Assembly establishes the un Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, known as un Women. The new entity is intended to give women’s issues a stronger voice within the un system and is established by merging four

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2010 (cont.) parts of the un system, namely the Division for the Advancement of Women, the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women, the Office of the Special Advisor on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women, and the un Development Fund for Women. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/64/289. [September 14, 2009; June 1, 2011] July coherence: State-led evaluations of DaO pilot projects are completed. All evaluations were carried out using different frameworks, with different organization leading their evaluation, and each programme having different country-specific needs and policies. None of the reports contain baseline references, but some use the Paris Declaration indicators as a loose guideline for success. Much of the documentation comes from within the un pilot organizations themselves, leading to some inherent bias. Despite the diversity of the pilot projects, some clear messages emerge. [December 22, 2009; February 15, 2011] September 8 general assembly: The ahwg on the Revitalization of the Work of the General Assembly adopts its report. The report considers four topics addressed during seven ahwg meetings: implementation of Assembly resolutions on revitalization and Assembly working methods, including operational and technical issues like voting and balloting; the role of the Assembly and its relationship with the un’s other principal organs; the role and responsibilities of the Assembly in the process of selecting and appointing the Secretary-General; and strengthening the institutional memory of the Office of the President of the Assembly. The Assembly approves the report and decides to continue the ahwg for another year (A/RES/64/301). General Assembly document: A/64/901. [September 10, 2008; July 29, 2011] September 13 security council: The General Assembly approves a simple roll-over resolution to continue the intergovernmental negotiations for another year. General Assembly document: A/64/568. [May 10, 2010; September 12, 2011] September sustainable development agenda: The 2010 un Summit on 20–22 the mdgs adopts a global action plan to achieve the eight anti-poverty goals by the 2015 target date. Among other things, the Summit

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asks the Secretary-General to initiate thinking on a Post-2015 Development Agenda. In response, the Secretary-General establishes the un System Task Team (unstt) which brings together un agencies and international organizations; the High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda; and the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (sdsn), composed of research centres to advise the Secretary-General on the development of the Agenda. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/65/1. [January 30, 2012; May 30, 2013; June 2013] November 5 climate change: The High-Level Advisory Group on Climate Change Financing presents its report ahead of the World Climate Change Summit in Cancun, Mexico. The Group was established by the Secretary-General to study climate change financing in response to the Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen [December 18, 2009] and was co-chaired by Jens Stoltenberg, Prime Minister of Norway, and Meles Zenawi, Prime Minister of Ethiopia. The Group concludes that it is challenging but feasible to mobilize usd 100 billion annually for climate actions in developing countries by 2020. Although the Report does not provide a blueprint on how to achieve this target, various funding approaches are examined, including carbon market auctions; revenue from shipping and airline taxes; carbon taxation; international financial transaction tax; debt swaps; insurance schemes; and multilateral funds (most notably, imf Special Drawing Rights). [December 10, 2010] November 29– climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in CanDecember 10 cun, Mexico. The Summit establishes the Green Climate Fund, which calls for usd 100 billion per annum. However, neither the funding nor a commitment to a second period of the Kyoto Protocol is agreed upon. [December 7–18, 2009; November 5, 2010; November 28– December 9, 2011] December 24 human resources: The General Assembly reforms the human resources management system and harmonizes the different standards applied to un staff’s salaries and benefits in more than 600 duty stations. General Assembly resolutions: A/RES/65/247; A/RES/65/248. Year-end membership: total – 193.

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un women: un Women becomes operational, with headquarters in New York. [July 2, 2010] coherence: The Secretary-General establishes the Evaluation Management Group (emg) to assess the experiences of DaO pilot activities in joint budgeting, programming, communication, leadership, and allocation of resources for development at the national level. The emg team is composed of two evaluation professionals from the eight DaO countries, one expert each from two pilot countries, five evaluation experts nominated by the regional groups, one from each region, as well as the chairs of the jiu and uneg. This is one of the most extensive evaluations for the un in recent years and has a budget of usd 2.2 million. General Assembly document: A/65/737. [July 2010; June 12, 2012] human rights: General Assembly approves the first five-year review of the functioning of the Human Rights Council. The Assembly agrees to maintain the Council’s status as a subsidiary organ of the General Assembly and adopts several procedural changes to the Council’s work. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/65/281. [March 15, 2006; December 26, 2007] peacekeeping: The General Assembly convenes a Senior Advisory Group (sag) to examine the rates of reimbursement to troop-contributing countries and related issues. The sag includes five eminent persons with relevant experience appointed by the Secretary-General, five representatives from major troop contributors, five representatives from major financial contributors and one member designated from each of the regional groups. Former un Deputy Secretary-General and Canadian Deputy Minister of Defence, Louise Fréchette, chairs the Group [May 2013]. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/65/289. [June 6, 2013] general assembly: The ahwg on the Revitalization of the Work of the General Assembly adopts its report. The report ­considers four topics addressed during six ahwg meetings: the role and authority of the Assembly and its relationship with the organization’s other principal organs and with other groups outside the

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un; implementation of Assembly resolutions and the agenda; working methods of the Assembly and operational and technical issues, including information on the Assembly voting system; the framework of the cmp; the role and responsibility of the Assembly in the process of selecting and appointing the Secretary-General; and strengthening the institutional memory of the Office of the President of the Assembly. The Assembly approves the report and decides to continue the ahwg for another year (A/RES/65/315). General Assembly document: A/65/909. [September 8, 2010; September 11, 2012] September 1 development: The Secretary-General presents “Innovative Mechanisms of Financing for Development”. The report is a follow-up to the Doha Declaration on Financing for Development. It reviews innovative financing mechanisms and examines their potential contribution to achieving the mdgs, in particular in the areas of health and environment. The report also highlights the implications of innovative financing mechanisms for aid architecture and aid effectiveness. General Assembly document: A/66/334. [December 2, 2008] September 12 security council: The General Assembly approves a simple roll-over resolution to continue the intergovernmental negotiations for another year. General Assembly decision: A/DEC/65/554. [September 13, 2010; July 2012] November 29– aid effectiveness: The Fourth High-Level Forum on Aid EfDecember 1 fectiveness, organized by the oecd, is held in Busan, Korea. The Forum, which brings together over 3000 delegates, establishes a framework for development co-operation that embraces traditional donors, South-South co-operators, Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa, civil society organizations and private funders. [September 3–4, 2008] November 28– climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in DurDecember 9 ban, South Africa. The Summit adopts the governing instrument for the Green Climate Fund. The fund is to distribute usd 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts. [November 29–December 10, 2010; November 26–December 7, 2012]

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management: The inter-agency hlcm approves “Improved Efficiency and Cost Control Measures”. The report outlines initiatives that promise efficiency gains and cost avoidance: collaborative procurement; common treasury systems; effective information and communication technology service sourcing; reduced travel expenses; outsourcing/out-posting; freezing of posts; and delaying of recruitment. Individual organizations are challenged to implement at least three initiatives voluntarily. No recognizable followup is noted. ceb document: CEB/2011/HLCM/31. [December 2011] withholding: The United States decides to withhold 15 per cent of its contributions to any UN agency if the agency does no take steps to make audit reports publicly available and implement best practices for protecting whistle-blowers from retaliation. management: The Change Management Team (cmt) presents its report “The Change Plan – Proposals by the Change Management Team to the Secretary-General”. Established by the SecretaryGeneral, the cmt is led by Atul Khare and supported by six Assistant Secretaries-General, serving in their personal capacity. Over 300 recommendations proposed by senior manager were assessed. The Change Plan includes 61 recommendations, aiming to promote a modern, engaged and efficient Secretariat. To launch the Plan, the Secretary-General approves 12 fast-track opportunities which cover issues such as introducing digital signatures, paper-smart meetings, expanding the use of virtual technologies, revising the travel policy, establishing an evaluation database, and expanding flexible work arrangements. The report is shown in Appendix I.3. [December 12, 2011; January 25, 2012] membership: new – South Sudan (seceded from Sudan), Republic of the Union of Myanmar (formerly Union of Myanmar, see 1989); total – 193.

management: The Secretary-General outlines a “Five-Year Action Agenda” which sets outs a series of initiatives ranging from sustainable development, to human rights, peacekeeping, working for women, partnerships across the range of un activities, and strengthening the un. The latter includes improving efficiency through innovation and change management, building a modern

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workforce, making the un more flexible and accountable, launching a second generation of DaO, and enhancing the security of staff. [December 2011] sustainable development agenda: The High-Level Panel on Global Sustainability launches its report “Resilient People, Resilient Planet: A Future Worth Choosing”. Established by the SecretaryGeneral, the Panel is co-chaired by Tarja Halonen, President of Finland, and Jacob Zuma, President of South Africa, as a follow-up to the Climate Change Copenhagen Summit for submission to the Rio+20 Summit. The Panel formulates a blueprint for sustainable development and low-carbon prosperity. This includes a sustainable path to enhance human well-being, further global justice, strengthen gender equality and preserve the Earth’s life-support systems for future generations. Among one of the 56 recommendations, the Panel proposes to create a set of sustainable development goals (sdgs). General Assembly document: A/66/700. [September 20–22, 2010; January 2012] sustainable development agenda: The Secretary General establishes the unstt on the Post-2015 Development Agenda. The unstt supports un system-wide efforts as a follow-up to the 2010 High-Level Plenary Meetings of the General Assembly on the mdgs. The unstt is chaired by desa and undp and brings together more than 60 un entities. Members of the unstt prepare 18 think pieces that explore how different themes could potentially be reflected in a post-2015 framework. [January 30, 2012; June 20–22, 2012]. coherence: The Secretary-General presents the “Independent Evaluation of Lessons Learned from Delivering as One”. The evaluation was requested by the General Assembly. While its efforts are mostly positively assessed, the expectation that transaction costs would be lower is not met and challenges remain in the areas of planning, monitoring and harmonizing business practices. It is argued that bolder measures are required to put the un on track for reform, including rationalization of the number of un entities; reform of mandates, governance structures and funding modalities; and a new definition of the range of development expertise expected from the un system. General Assembly document: A/66/859. [February 15, 2011; July 26, 2012]

204 2012 (cont.) June 20–22

June

July 26

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sustainable development agenda: The un Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, endorses the outcome document “The Future We Want”. The Conference covers economic growth, social justice and environmental stewardship, and decides, among other things, to strengthen unep and to establish an hlpf on Sustainable Development, replacing the un Commission on Sustainable Development. The Conference also launches a process for developing a set of sustainable development goals (sdgs). This is to be done through an Open Working Group (owg) of the General Assembly on sdgs. The owg is to be supported by an Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing. Indeed, member states are unhappy at essentially being left out of the consultation for the Post-2015 Development Agenda, which was driven by the un Secretariat. This had been the case in the formulation of the mdgs back in 2001, when the Secretary-General presented proposals to member states for their approval. The result of the Conference is subsequently approved by the General Assembly (A/RES/66/288). [September 22, 2010; January 30, 2012; January 2012; September 24, 2012] sustainable development agenda: The unstt on the Post2015 Development Agenda issues its first report “Realizing the Future We Want for All”. The report outlines a vision for the post2015 development agenda and suggests the following key dimensions: inclusive economic and social development, environmental sustainability and peace and security. [June 20–22, 2012; September 24, 2012] coherence: The Evaluation Management Group (emf) presents its findings and lessons to ecosoc. The comprehensive report (over 300 pages long) concludes that the DaO principles could yield many improvements but also showed the limits of a voluntary reform that takes place within established structures. Reforms advanced very slowly and within narrow boundaries, with high transaction costs. The emf concludes that bolder measures may be required in order to deliver as one, including: rationalization of the number of un organizations; reform of mandates, governance structures and funding modalities; and a new definition of the range of development expertise expected from the un system. [June 12, 2011]

Chronology Of Main Change Events July

September 11

September 13

September 24

November 26– December 7

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security council: Ambassador Zahir Tanin, chair of the intergovernmental negotiations, asks the membership if he may produce a more concise text for further negotiations. This greatly upsets the UfC grouping, while the G4 argues that he should produce the text without asking for permission. [September 12, 2011; September 13, 2012] general assembly: The ahwg on the Revitalization of the Work of the General Assembly adopts its report. The report considers four topics addressed during six ahwg meetings: the role and authority of the Assembly and its relationship with the un’s other principal organs and other groups outside the un; the working methods of the Assembly; the implementation of Assembly resolutions, and the agenda; other operational and technical issues, including options for more time-saving, efficient and secure balloting in the Assembly; the role and responsibility of the Assembly in the selection and the appointment of the Secretary-General, as well as in the selection of candidatures for other executive heads of the un system; and the functions of the Office of the President of the Assembly, including strengthening its institutional memory and its relationship with the Secretariat. The Assembly approves the report and decides to continue the ahwg for another year (A/RES/66/294). General Assembly document: A/66/891. [July 29, 2011; July 25, 2013] security council: The General Assembly approves a simple roll-over resolution to continue the intergovernmental negotiations for another year. This is also the end of Zahir Tanin’s six-year-long chairmanship. General Assembly decision: A/DEC/66/566. [July 2012; May 2, 2013] sustainable development agenda: The Special Ministerial Meeting of ecosoc strengthens ecosoc’s role in formulating the Post-2015 Development Agenda. [June 2012; January 22, 2013] climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in Doha, Qatar. The Summit approves Songdo, Incheon City, Republic of Korea, as the host city of the Green Climate Fund. Little progress is made, however, towards formalizing the funding arrangement. [November 28–December 9, 2011; November 11–23, 2013]

206 2012 (cont.) December 21

December

Year-end 2013 January 22

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operational activities: The General Assembly approves the 2012 “Quadrennial Comprehensive Policy Review of Operational Activities for Development of the un system” (qcpr) on the basis of the Secretary-General’s report (A/67/93-E/2012/79). This is the first quadrennial cycle qcpr, which replaces the former tcpr conducted since 1980. The qcpr is the Assembly’s primary policy instrument to define how the un development system operates. The Assembly addresses, among other things, the DaO concept and the evaluation of the pilot initiatives. Particular attention is paid to the possible implications of the changing development landscape for the un development systems, including the growth of many new institutional actors, and emergence of new centres of economic dynamism. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/ 67/226. [December 19, 2007] capital master plan: With the cmp being implemented in stages, the Secretary-General moves back to his office in the Secretariat building. Reoccupation of the Secretariat building is completed by August 2013 and the renovation of the General Assembly building is ready in September 2014. [May 2010; April 24, 2015] membership: total – 193.

sustainable development agenda: The General Assembly establishes the owg of the General Assembly on sdgs as a follow-up to Rio+20 Conference. The owg is to propose sdgs for integration into the Post-2015 Development Agenda to be considered by the General Assembly. The owg includes 30 members and uses a new constituency-based system of representation, which provides for the sharing of most seats by several countries. The same arrangement is used when establishing the Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing. The SecretaryGeneral establishes a tst, with more than 40 un entities as members, to provide inputs to the owg. The tst is established under the umbrella of the unstt on the Post-2015 Development Agenda. The tst issues briefs on more than 25 thematic areas covered by the owg. General Assembly decision: A/DEC/67/555. [June 20–22, 2012; July 23, 2013]

Chronology Of Main Change Events March

May 2

May 30

June 6

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sustainable development agenda: The unstt on the Post2015 Development Agenda issues its second report “A Renewed Global Partnership for Development”. The Task Team provides recommendations on key dimensions and a potential format for a global partnership in the post-2015 era. [September 24, 2012; May 30, 2013] security council: act (Accountability, Coherence and Transparency), a new group of 21 member states, officially launches its initiative to ensure better working methods for the Security Council. This is a follow-up to the multi-year efforts of the S5. [September 13, 2012; August 29, 2013] sustainable development agenda: The High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda presents its report. The Panel is part of the Secretary-General’s post-2015 initiative mandated by the 2010 mdg Summit, and is chaired by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, President of Indonesia, President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf of Liberia, and Prime Minister David Cameron of the United Kingdom. The Panel sets out an agenda to eradicate extreme poverty by 2030 and argues that sustainable development has become the overarching development paradigm. The new Post2015 Development Agenda is seen as driving five transformational shifts: leave no one behind; put sustainable development at the core; transform economies for jobs and inclusive growth; build effective, open and accountable public institutions; and forge a new global partnership. [September 20–22, 2010, March 2013; June 6, 2013]. peacekeeping: The Assembly endorses the report of the sag issued in October 2012 and approves a new survey of states’ personnel deployment costs to determine the rate of reimbursement, although some developing countries are wary of the survey mechanism. The Assembly also approves the awarding of premiums for units facing exceptional levels of risks and for the provision of key enabling capabilities that were in short supply. The move from a per capita basis to a unit-based reimbursement system is seen as introducing financial incentives to better support the un peacekeeping commitments. Other decisions cover the introduction of longer, 12-month rotation periods as a cost-saving measure and a penalty in the form of a deduction from the reimbursement in case of missing or non-functional major equipment. General Assembly resolution: A/RES//67/261. [June 30, 2011; August 5, 2014]

208 2013 (cont.) June 6

June 17

June 21

June 26

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sustainable development agenda: The sdsn submits its report “An Action Agenda for Sustainable Development”. The network was established by the Secretary-General following the Rio+20 Conference and is composed of academics and scientists, led by Professor Jeffrey Sachs, Special Advisor on the mdgs. The network recommends the adoption of a science-based and actionoriented agenda, integrating four interdependent dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social, environmental, and governance). [May 30, 2013; June 17, 2013] sustainable development agenda: The un Global Compact presents its report “Corporate Sustainability and the un Post-2015 Development Agenda: Perspectives from un Global Compact Participants on Global Priorities and How to Engage Business Towards Sustainable Development Goals” to the Secretary-General. The report argues that companies are ready to change how they do business and to contribute by transforming markets from within and making production, consumption and the allocation of capital more inclusive and sustainable. [June 6, 2013; June 21, 2013] sustainable development agenda: The General Assembly establishes the Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing as a follow-up to Rio+20 Conference. The Committee has 30 members and uses a new constituencybased system of representation, which provides for the sharing of most seats by several countries, as was done for the owg of the General Assembly on sdgs. General Assembly decision: A/DEC/67/559. [June 17, 2013; June 26, 2013] sustainable development agenda: The Secretary-General issues “A Life of Dignity for All: Accelerating Progress Towards the Millennium Development Goals (mdgs) and Advancing the un Development Agenda Beyond 2015”. The report is submitted to the 2013 High-Level Meeting of the General Assembly on the mdgs; it was mandated by the 2010 High-Level Plenary Meeting of the General Assembly on the mdgs. The report draws on inputs from the High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda, the undg consultations, the Global Compact, and

Chronology Of Main Change Events

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July 1

July 9

July 23

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the sdsn. The progress achieved so far is described. It is argued that renewed efforts are essential to achieve the mdgs by the end of 2015. For the new post-2015 era, the development of a universal, integrated and human rights-based agenda for sustainable development is recommended. General Assembly document: A/68/202. [May 30, 2013, June 21, 2013; June 2013]. sustainable development agenda: The un Regional Commissions release a joint publication “A Regional Perspective on the Post-2015 un Development Agenda”. The report identifies priority areas for a global development agenda, assesses the implementation of the mdgs, discusses regional specificities, and recommends adapting global goals to regional and national goals. [June 26, 2013; July 9, 2013] information technology: Umoja, the new un erp solution, goes live for pilot deployment at the un Interim Force in Lebanon and the Office of the un Special Co-ordinator for Lebanon. Throughout 2014 and until mid-2015 all un offices deploy Umoja [December 24, 2008]. The Umoja project is plagued by budget increases reaching over usd 400 million, delays in development and deployment by five years and multiple accusations of corruption. [October 8, 2009; November 20, 2015] sustainable development agenda: The General Assembly establishes the hlpf on Sustainable Development, replacing the csd, as a follow-up to Rio+20. The Forum is the main un platform to follow up on sustainable development commitments and, as of 2016, the Post-2015 Development Agenda and the sdgs. The hlpf meets every four years at the level of heads of state and prime ministers in the context of the General Assembly and once a year in the context of ecosoc. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/67/290. [June 20–22, 2012; June 2013; July 23, 2013] sustainable development agenda: The owg on sdgs presents a progress report at the midpoint of its stocktaking exercise. Work centres around the need to balance the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development, guided by the imperative of poverty eradication. General Assembly document: A/67/941. [July 9, 2013; January 22, 2013; October 9, 2013]

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general assembly: The ahwg on the Revitalization of the Work of the General Assembly adopts its report. The report considers four topics addressed during six ahwg meetings: the role and authority of the Assembly and its relationship with the un’s other principal organs and other groups outside the un; the working methods of the Assembly; the role and responsibility of the Assembly in the selection and appointment of the Secretary-General and other executive heads of the un system; and the functions of the Office of the President of the Assembly, including strengthening institutional memory and its relationship with the Secretariat. The Assembly approves the report and decides to continue the ahwg for another year (A/RES/67/297). General Assembly document: A/67/936. [September 11, 2012; July 17, 2014] August 29 security council: General Assembly approves a simple rollover resolution to continue the intergovernmental negotiations for another year. General Assembly decision: A/DEC/67/561. [August 29, 2013; September 8, 2014] September 24 sustainable development agenda: The hlpf holds its first meeting under the auspices of the General Assembly with the overall theme “Building the Future We Want: From Rio+20 to the Post-2015 Development Agenda”. General Assembly document: A/68/588. [July 23, 2013; October 9, 2013] October 9 sustainable development agenda: The Special Event to Follow Up Efforts Made Towards Achieving the Millennium Development Goals, convened by the President of the General Assembly to review progress made towards achieving the mdgs and to chart the way forward, lays out a new two-year roadmap. The meeting decides to merge the two work streams on the Post-2015 Development Agenda and on the sdgs into a new process of intergovernmental negotiations, intended to craft a strong post-2015 development agenda that builds on the foundations laid by the mdgs, completes the unfinished business and responds to new challenges. As a result, current efforts are wrapped up. The owg and the Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing complete their work by September 2014. The SecretaryGeneral synthesizes the inputs available from the un system

Chronology Of Main Change Events

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November 11–23

Year-end

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consultations by December 2014. The results are submitted to the new intergovernmental negotiations, starting in January 2015 and leading to the un Summit on Sustainable Development. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/68/6. [July 23, 2013; September 24, 2013; May 9, 2014; August 12, 2014; August 15, 2014; December 4, 2014] security council: The President of the General Assembly, John Ashe, announces that he has created an Advisory Group to produce a text for the intergovernmental negotiations that reflects the ideas put forward so far and identifies available options. The previous proposal by Ambassador Tanin, Chair of the intergovernmental negotiations, was not supported. [August 29, 2013; September 8, 2014] climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in Warsaw, Poland. The Summit agrees to work towards curbing emissions as soon as possible, with an ideal date in the first quarter of 2015. The Warsaw Mechanism is proposed to provide expertise and aid to developing countries to cope with loss and damage from such natural extremities as heat waves, droughts and floods and threats such as rising sea levels and desertification. [November 26–December 7, 2012; December 1–12, 2014] membership: total – 193.

2014 January 30–31 science: The Scientific Advisory Board (sab) holds its inaugural meeting in Berlin, Germany. The sab is a new body created by the Secretary-General, composed of 26 internationally leading scientists and located in the unesco office in Paris. The sab is tasked with providing advice to the Secretary-General and the Executive Heads of un organizations on strengthening the interface between science, policy and society, particularly in areas relevant to sustainable development. May 9 sustainable development agenda: The ceb focuses on how the un system can support member states in the transition to the post-2015 development agenda during its session in Rome, Italy. The Board also discusses implementation of the mdgs, and financing for sustainable development. ceb document: CEB/2014/1. [October 9, 2013; May 2014]

212 2014 (cont.) May

July 17

August 5

August 12

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sustainable development agenda: The sdsn, led by Jeffrey Sachs, submits its report “An Action Agenda for Sustainable Development” to the Secretary-General. sdsn is a global, independent network of research centres, universities and technical institutions that works with stakeholders including business, civil society, un agencies and other international organizations. The Network proposes a list of indicators for the sdgs, and provides technical support to the High-Level Panel on the Post-2015 Development Agenda. [May 9, 2014; August 12, 2014] general assembly: The ahwg on the Revitalization of the Work of the General Assembly adopts its report. The report addresses four topics addressed during six ahwg meetings: the role and authority of the Assembly; the working methods of the Assembly; the selection and appointment of the Secretary-General and other executive heads of the un system; and the institutional memory of the Office of the President of the Assembly. The Assembly approves the report and decides to continue the ahwg for another year (A/RES/68/307). General Assembly document: A/68/951. [July 25, 2013; September 11, 2015] peacekeeping: Following arduous negotiations, the Assembly approves an increase in the rate of reimbursement to troop-contributing countries from usd 1,210 to usd 1,332 as from July 1, 2014, to usd 1,365 as from July 1, 2016, and usd 1,410 as from July 1, 2017. The increase is based on a survey mandated by the General Assembly following consideration of the report from the sag. The result of the survey (A/68/813) was announced in March 2014 and identified an average monthly deployment cost of usd 1,762. This is the first time in 20 years that the rate has been revised upwards. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/68/281. [June 6, 2013] sustainable development agenda: The owg on sdgs presents its proposals to the Intergovernmental Negotiation on the Post-2015 Development Agenda launched in January 2015. The owg proposes 17 sdgs with 169 associated targets. Grounded in the outcome document of the un Conference on Sustainable Development, the owg emphasizes poverty eradication, environmental sustainability, inclusive growth, equality, and a peoplecentred agenda for sustainable development. General Assembly Document: A/68/970. [May 2014; August 15, 2014]

Chronology Of Main Change Events August 15

October 31

September 8

November 6

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sustainable development agenda: The Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing delivers its report to the post-2015 intergovernmental negotiation. The Committee proposes a basket of more than 100 options for policy-makers, together with recommendations for a global partnership that encompasses key aspects of aid, trade, debt, taxation, and financial market stability. It recognized that all sources of financing would need to be employed, public and private, national and international. General Assembly document: A/69/315. [June 21, 2013; August 12, 2014; November 6, 2014; January 19–21, 2015] peace operations: The Secretary-General commissions a High-Level Independent Panel on un Peace Operations (hippo) to conduct an independent assessment of the state of un peace operations and emerging needs. He appoints Jose Ramos-Horta, a Nobel Laureate and former President of Timor-Leste, to chair the 16-member Panel consisting of distinguished individuals with experience in different fields. hippo considers a broad range of issues facing peace operations, including the changing nature of conflict, good offices and peacebuilding challenges, managerial and administrative arrangements, planning, partnerships, human rights and protection of civilians. The review encompasses both un peacekeeping operations and special political missions, which are referred to collectively as un peace operations. [June 17, 2015]. security council: General Assembly approves a roll-over resolution to continue the intergovernmental negotiations for another year. General Assembly decision: A/DEC/68/557. [October 22, 2013; December 10, 2014] sustainable development agenda: The Independent Expert Advisory Group on the Data Revolution for Sustainable Development presents its report “A World that Counts: Mobilizing the Data Revolution for Sustainable Development”. The Advisory Group was established by the Secretary-General in August 2014 to propose ways to improve data in order to achieve and monitor sustainable development. The group was co-chaired by Enrico Giovannini (Italy), and Robin Li (China). The Advisory Group calls for the

214 2014 (cont.)

December 1–12

December 4

December 10

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closing of key data gaps between developed and developing countries, between information-rich and information-poor people and between the private and public sectors. [August 15, 2014; December 4, 2014] climate change: The Climate Change Summit is held in Lima, Peru. The Summit formulates the elements of the new agreement, scheduled to be agreed in Paris in December 2015 and agrees on the ground rules governing how all countries can submit contributions to the new agreement during the first quarter of the next year. These Intended Nationally Determined Contributions form the foundation for climate action post-2020 when the new agreement is to come into effect. [November 11–23, 2013; November 30–December 7, 2015] sustainable development agenda: The Secretary-General presents his synthesis report on the post-2015 sustainable development agenda entitled “The Road to Dignity by 2030: Ending Poverty, Transforming All Lives and Protecting the Planet” as his contribution to the Post-2015 intergovernmental negotiation launched in January 2015. The report is rather limited, reflecting only the various streams of work as an input to the upcoming intergovernmental negotiations. As a conceptual contribution, a transformative agenda for sustainable development is proposed with a set of six elements to help frame and reinforce the sustainable development agenda (dignity, people, prosperity, planet, justice, partnership). In addition, details are provided on how to mobilize the means and on implementation arrangements. More importantly, the report endorses the proposals of the owg on sdgs in particular the set of 17 goals and 169 targets up to 2030. General Assembly document: A/69/700. [October 9, 2013; November 6, 2014; January 19–21, 2015] security council: The Advisory Group submits a paper providing a six-page-long, clear and concise overview of the main positions of member states. The non-paper is provided in addition to Rev. 2 and Rev. 3, which retain the full positions and language of member states. No agreement is reached on using the non-paper as a basis for further discussion within the context of the intergovernmental negotiations. [May 19, 2010; October 22, 2013; September 8, 2014; May 14–15, 2015] membership: total – 193.

Chronology Of Main Change Events 2015 January 16

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sustainable development agenda: The Stakeholder Preparatory Forum on Post-2015 Development Agenda brings together major groups and stakeholders to share their positions and priorities for the Post-2015 intergovernmental negotiations, which begin immediately after the Forum. Participants also learn how they can effectively engage in the negotiation process going forward. The forum is being organized by the desa and the un Non-Governmental Liaison Service. [December 4, 2014; January 19–21, 2015] January 19–21 sustainable development agenda: The first session of the and after Intergovernmental Negotiations on the Post-2015 Development Agenda takes place and is dedicated to stocktaking. Additional sessions cover declaration (February 17–20); sdgs and targets (March 23–27); means of implementation and global partnership for sustainable development (April 21–24); follow-up and review (May 18–22); and intergovernmental negotiations on the outcome document (June 22–25; July 20–24; July 27–31). [December 4, 2014; January 16, 2015; August 2, 2015] January 22 peacebuilding: The Secretary-General entrusts a seven-expert advisory group with the review of the peacebuilding architecture. The group is chaired by Gert Rosenthal of Guatemala and includes Anis Bajwa (Pakistan), Saraswathih Menon (India), Funmi Olonisakin (Nigeria), Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah (Mauritania), Charles Petrie (France), and Edith Grace Ssempala (Uganda). [June 30, 2015] February 7 un reform: The Elders, an independent group of world leaders who play an advisory role to the un, call for a series of un reforms, addressing the membership of the Security Council, and the selection process for the next Secretary-General. The group includes Kofi Annan, Gro Harlem Brundtland, Martti Ahtisaari and Graça Machel. April 24 capital master plan: The General Assembly approves a budget increase from usd 1,877 million to eur 2,370 million. The Assembly initially refuses to approve a budget increase and decides that the Secretary-General must absorb the additional costs. This becomes increasingly unrealistic. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/69/274. [December 10, 2007; December 2012]

216 2015 (cont.) May 14–15

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security council: Member states meet to examine a new text prepared by the Chair, Ambassador E. Courtenay Rattray, with input from around 115 countries. The 22-page Populated Framework Document indicates no significant shifts in stated positions since the 2005 World Summit. [December 10, 2014; July 31, 2015] peace operations: hippo releases its much-anticipated report, which is 111 pages long and contains over 100 recommendations. The report is based largely on the Agenda for Peace, the Brahimi report, the High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, and the Prodi report. The panel takes a cautious approach to the use of force and concludes that un peace operations are not the appropriate tool for military counter-terrorism operations. hippo calls for field-focused and people-centred operations. A number of the recommendations have been put forward and failed before, namely shifting the focus from peacekeeping reaction to conflict prevention; developing a rapid-reaction capacity; providing assessed contributions to fund au peace operations; creating an additional Deputy Secretary-General position responsible for peace and security; and establishing a single peace operations account to finance all peace operations. New recommendations focus on making peacekeeping lighter and more flexible, capable of operating effectively in high-risk environments. Other recommendations address curbing sexual exploitation and abusive behaviour, and are directed to both staff and member states. Specifically, the Panel calls on the Secretariat to bar troop-contributing member states that do nothing to hold their peacekeepers accountable for sexual exploitation, rape, and other abuses. The hippo report is criticized for not being bold enough and too similar to its predecessors. It is seen as failing to crystallize the main points needed to develop an effective strategy and limited to a list of technocratic fixes. General Assembly/Security Council document: A/70/95-S/2015/446. [June 17, 1992; August 21, 2000; December 2, 2004; December 24, 2008; October 31, 2014; June 29, 2015; September 2, 2015] peacebuilding: The expert advisory group (Rosenthal group) on the review of the peacebuilding architecture submits its report covering three areas: first, promoting coherence at the intergovernmental level, across the un system and particularly at the operational level; second, deepening partnership and providing predictable resources for sustainable peace operations; and third,

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July 31

August 2

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improving leadership and broadening the sense of national ownership and inclusion among affected nations. The report subsequently goes into a formal intergovernmental process from November 2015 to March 2016. General Assembly/Security Council document: A/69/968-S/2015/490. [January 22, 2015; June 17, 2015; September 2, 2015]. development finance: The Third International Conference on Financing for Development is held in Addis Ababa to assess the progress made in the implementation of the Monterrey Consensus and the Doha Declaration. The conference is also to agree on the financing of the Post-2015 Agenda for Sustainable Development to be adopted on September 25 by the un Summit on Sustainable Development and is instrumental in the success of the forthcoming conference of the unfccc, known as Conference of the Parties 21, in Paris in December. The most contested issue concerns financial burden sharing between industrialized and developing countries. No new commitment is reached to provide resources to fund the sdgs. Instead, developed countries are reminded of their previous commitment to mobilize usd 100 billion a year by 2020. The conference succeeds, however, in outlining a new global framework for financing sustainable development that aligns all financing flows and policies with economic, social and environmental priorities. The General Assembly adopts the global action agenda for financing sustainable development on July 27, 2015 (A/RES/69/313). [September 25, 2015] security council: Ambassador Sam Kutesa, President of the General Assembly, circulates a new 22-page text to serve as a basis for intergovernmental negotiations. Annexed to the text are the inputs of 120 member states. The text was developed in light of consultations with member states over the past several months. The text does not reflect any significant shifts in previously stated positions. [May 14–15, 2015; September 14, 2015] sustainable development agenda: The Intergovernmental Negotiations on the Post-2015 Development Agenda approve “Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”. The Agenda includes a set of 17 sdgs and 169 targets up to 2030. The Agenda expands on the success of the mdgs, which have a target date of 2015. [January 19–21; September 1, 2015].

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sustainable development agenda: General Assembly approves “Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” for adoption by the un Summit on Sustainable Development. The agenda was previously approved by the Intergovernmental Negotiations on Post-2015 Development Agenda. The Agenda includes a set of 17 sdgs and 169 targets up to 2030. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/69/315, Annex. [August 2, 2015; September 25, 2015] September 2 peace operations: The Secretary-General proposes a 28-page implementation plan for hippo. The plan is developed by a team led by former Deputy Secretary-General Louise Fréchette to move the Panel’s recommendations forward. In addition to recalling about 40 ongoing initiatives of the Secretariat, the report focuses mainly on small steps. It describes new ways of planning and conducting peace operations to make them faster, more responsive, and more accountable to countries and people in conflict. The Secretary-General strongly supports hippo’s recommendations on curbing sexual exploitation and abusive behaviour. Finally, the report does not take up the recommendations that had been put forward before and failed. The report is shown in Appendix I.2. General Assembly/Security Council document: A/70/357-S/2015/682. [June 17, 2015] September 11 general assembly: The Assembly adopts the report of the ahwg on Revitalization of the Work of the General Assembly (A/69/1007). The Assembly determines that the process of appointing the Secretary-General should be much more open than in the past. It requests that the Presidents of the General Assembly and the Security Council should actively solicit candidates for the post and that their consideration should be open. The resolution also stresses the need to ensure equal and fair distribution based on gender and geographic balance, while meeting the highest possible requirements, on the appointment of executive heads of the organization, including the Secretary-General; in this regard, it invites member states to consider presenting women as candidates for the position of Secretary-General. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/69/321. [July 17, 2014]

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September 14 security council: General Assembly approves the annual roll-over decision to continue the intergovernmental negotiations for another year. For the first time, the decision identifies a text on the intergovernmental negotiations in an official un consensus document. The G4 hails this as a landmark step which changes the dynamics of the intergovernmental negotiations and sets the stage for moving to text-based negotiations during the 70th session. UfC, however, views this as a technical roll-over only to the next session as has been done in previous years. The reference to the text is not considered an endorsement in either substance or procedure. General Assembly decision: A/DEC/69/560. [July 31, 2015] September 25 sustainable development agenda: The un Summit on Sustainable Development, meeting at un headquarters in New York, approves “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”, including a set of 17 sdgs and 169 targets up to 2030. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon describes this “a defining moment in human history” The sdgs define a global consensus in the areas of poverty eradication, climate action, and gender equality. Approximately usd 3 billion is needed every year to implement the sdgs, and the funding arrangement is not yet agreed upon. The report is shown in Appendix I.1. General Assembly resolution: A/RES/70/1. [September 1, 2015] November 20 information technology: The Umoja erp system is rolled out for extension 1 (human resources and travel); the roll-out is to be completed throughout the un Secretariat by mid-2016. [July 1, 2013] November 30– climate change: The Climate Change Summit in Paris approves December 12 the 31 page Paris Agreement, a transformational action plan. After more than 20 years of negotiations, 195 countries pledge to curb greenhouse gas emissions – primarily of carbon dioxide – to avoid dangerous and irreversible levels of climate change, including rising sea levels, severe droughts and flooding, widespread food and water shortages, and more destructive storms. Specifically, countries agree to keep a global temperature rise below 2°C above the pre-industrial level and to drive efforts to limit the temperature increase even further, to 1.5°C. This implies a fundamental shift from fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) as primary energy sources to

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wind, solar and nuclear energy, with the aim of reaching zero carbon emissions produced by human activities in the second half of this century. That task falls largely to businesses and investors, operating under public emission reduction plans that countries are expected to put into effect. Starting in 2018, countries are to report every five years on how they are doing in cutting emissions compared to their plans. Countries will update and, if they are able to do so, expand their plans every five years, starting in 2020. The Paris Agreement also urges developed countries to honour and scale up their 2009 pledge to spend usd 100 billion a year by 2020 to help developing countries mitigate the effects of climate change and leapfrog fossil fuels by moving straight to renewables. Moreover, countries pledge to double spending on clean-energy research and development over the next five years. Major challenges lie ahead. The Paris agreement is unenforceable. Individual countries’ plans are voluntary; only the process of monitoring, verifying and reporting is mandatory. The current pledges of emission reductions are insufficient and, if implemented, are expected to lead to unacceptable warming of 2.7 to 3.5°C. Indeed, the tighter temperature target of 1.5°C is considered totally unrealistic. Nevertheless, it is hoped that global peer pressure will encourage countries to act. Rather than government pledges, climate action may increasingly be initiated by cities, regions, civil society and business. A coalition led by Bill Gates vows to invest billions in developing renewable energy. [December 1–12, 2014] membership: total – 193.

Appendix I Reform Documents

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Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development September 25, 20151

Contents Preamble 225 People 225 Planet 225 Prosperity 225 Peace 225 Partnership 226 Declaration 226 Introduction 226 Our Vision 227 Our Shared Principles and Commitments 228 Our World Today 229 The New Agenda 230 Means of Implementation 235 Follow-Up and Review 237 A Call for Action to Change Our World 237 Sustainable Development Goals and Targets 238 Goal 1. End Poverty in All Its Forms Everywhere 240 Goal 2. End Hunger, Achieve Food Security and Improved Nutrition and Promote Sustainable Agriculture 241 Goal 3. Ensure Healthy Lives and Promote Well-Being for All at All Ages 241 Goal 4. Ensure Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education and Promote Lifelong Learning Opportunities for All 242 Goal 5. Achieve Gender Equality and Empower All Women and Girls 243 Goal 6. Ensure Availability and Sustainable Management of Water and Sanitation for All 244 Goal 7. Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable, Sustainable and Modern Energy for All 244 1 General Assembly resolution, “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,” A/RES/70/1, September 25, 2015.

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appendix i.1 Goal 8. Promote Sustained, Inclusive and Sustainable Economic Growth, Full and Productive Employment and Decent Work for All 245 Goal 9. Build Resilient Infrastructure, Promote Inclusive and Sustainable Industrialization and Foster Innovation 246 Goal 10. Reduce Inequality within and among Countries 246 Goal 11. Make Cities and Human Settlements Inclusive, Safe, Resilient and Sustainable 247 Goal 12. Ensure Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns 248 Goal 13. Take Urgent Action to Combat Climate Change and Its Impacts 249 Goal 14. Conserve and Sustainably Use the Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources for Sustainable Development 249 Goal 15. Protect, Restore and Promote Sustainable Use of Terrestrial Ecosystems, Sustainably Manage Forests, Combat Desertification, and Halt and Reverse Land Degradation and Halt Biodiversity Loss 250 Goal 16. Promote Peaceful and Inclusive Societies for Sustainable Development, Provide Access to Justice for All and Build Effective, Accountable and Inclusive Institutions at All Levels 251 Goal 17. Strengthen The Means of Implementation and Revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development 252 Means of Implementation and the Global Partnership 254 Follow-Up and Review 258 National Level 260 Regional Level 260 Global Level 261

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Preamble This Agenda is a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity. It also seeks to strengthen universal peace in larger freedom. We recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development. All countries and all stakeholders, acting in collaborative partnership, will implement this plan. We are resolved to free the human race from the tyranny of poverty and want and to heal and secure our planet. We are determined to take the bold and transformative steps which are urgently needed to shift the world on to a sustainable and resilient path. As we embark on this collective journey, we pledge that no one will be left behind. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 targets which we are announcing today demonstrate the scale and ambition of this new universal Agenda. They seek to build on the Millennium Development Goals and complete what they did not achieve. They seek to realize the human rights of all and to achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls. They are integrated and indivisible and balance the three dimensions of sustainable development: the economic, social and environmental. The Goals and targets will stimulate action over the next 15 years in areas of critical importance for humanity and the planet.

People

We are determined to end poverty and hunger, in all their forms and dimensions, and to ensure that all human beings can fulfil their potential in dignity and equality and in a healthy environment.

Planet

We are determined to protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable consumption and production, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change, so that it can support the needs of the present and future generations.

Prosperity

We are determined to ensure that all human beings can enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives and that economic, social and technological progress occurs in harmony with nature.

Peace

We are determined to foster peaceful, just and inclusive societies which are free from fear and violence. There can be no sustainable development without peace and no peace without sustainable development.

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Partnership

We are determined to mobilize the means required to implement this Agenda through a revitalized Global Partnership for Sustainable Development, based on a spirit of strengthened global solidarity, focused in particular on the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable and with the participation of all countries, all stakeholders and all people. The interlinkages and integrated nature of the Sustainable Development Goals are of crucial importance in ensuring that the purpose of the new Agenda is realized. If we realize our ambitions across the full extent of the Agenda, the lives of all will be profoundly improved and our world will be transformed for the better.

Declaration Introduction

1. We, the Heads of State and Government and High Representatives, meeting at United Nations Headquarters in New York from 25 to 27 September 2015 as the Organization celebrates its seventieth anniversary, have decided today on new global Sustainable Development Goals. 2. On behalf of the peoples we serve, we have adopted a historic decision on a comprehensive, far-reaching and people-centred set of universal and transformative Goals and targets. We commit ourselves to working tirelessly for the full implementation of this Agenda by 2030. We recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development. We are committed to achieving sustainable development in its three dimensions – economic, social and environmental – in a balanced and integrated manner. We will also build upon the achievements of the Millennium Development Goals and seek to address their unfinished business. 3. We resolve, between now and 2030, to end poverty and hunger everywhere; to combat inequalities within and among countries; to build peaceful, just and inclusive societies; to protect human rights and promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls; and to ensure the lasting protection of the planet and its natural resources. We resolve also to create conditions for sustainable, inclusive and sustained economic growth, shared prosperity and decent work for all, taking into account different levels of national development and capacities. 4. As we embark on this great collective journey, we pledge that no one will be left behind. Recognizing that the dignity of the human person is fundamental, we wish to see the Goals and targets met for all nations and peoples and for all segments of society. And we will endeavour to reach the furthest behind first.

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5. This is an Agenda of unprecedented scope and significance. It is accepted by all countries and is applicable to all, taking into account different national realities, capacities and levels of development and respecting national policies and priorities. These are universal goals and targets which involve the entire world, developed and developing countries alike. They are integrated and indivisible and balance the three dimensions of sustainable development. 6. The Goals and targets are the result of over two years of intensive public consultation and engagement with civil society and other stakeholders around the world, which paid particular attention to the voices of the poorest and most vulnerable. This consultation included valuable work done by the Open Working Group of the General Assembly on Sustainable Development Goals and by the United Nations, whose Secretary-General provided a synthesis report in December 2014.



Our Vision

7. In these Goals and targets, we are setting out a supremely ambitious and transformational vision. We envisage a world free of poverty, hunger, disease and want, where all life can thrive. We envisage a world free of fear and violence. A world with universal literacy. A world with equitable and universal access to quality education at all levels, to health care and social protection, where physical, mental and social well-being are assured. A world where we reaffirm our commitments regarding the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation and where there is improved hygiene; and where food is sufficient, safe, affordable and nutritious. A world where human habitats are safe, resilient and sustainable and where there is universal access to affordable, reliable and sustainable energy. 8. We envisage a world of universal respect for human rights and human dignity, the rule of law, justice, equality and non-discrimination; of respect for race, ethnicity and cultural diversity; and of equal opportunity permitting the full realization of human potential and contributing to shared prosperity. A world which invests in its children and in which every child grows up free from violence and exploitation. A world in which every woman and girl enjoys full gender equality and all legal, social and economic barriers to their empowerment have been removed. A just, equitable, tolerant, open and socially inclusive world in which the needs of the most vulnerable are met. 9. We envisage a world in which every country enjoys sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth and decent work for all. A world in which consumption and production patterns and use of all natural resources – from air to land, from rivers, lakes and aquifers to oceans and seas – are sustainable. One in which democracy, good governance and the rule of law, as well as an enabling environment at the national and international levels, are essential for sustainable development, including sustained and inclusive economic growth, social development, environmental protection and

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the eradication of poverty and hunger. One in which development and the application of technology are climate-sensitive, respect biodiversity and are resilient. One in which humanity lives in harmony with nature and in which wildlife and other living species are protected.



Our Shared Principles and Commitments

10. The new Agenda is guided by the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, including full respect for international law. It is grounded in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,2 international human rights treaties, the Millennium Declaration3 and the 2005 World Summit Outcome.4 It is informed by other instruments such as the Declaration on the Right to Development.5 11. We reaffirm the outcomes of all major United Nations conferences and summits which have laid a solid foundation for sustainable development and have helped to shape the new Agenda. These include the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development,6 the World Summit on Sustainable Development, the World Summit for Social Development, the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development,7 the Beijing Platform for Action8 and the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development. We also reaffirm the follow-up to these conferences, including the outcomes of the Fourth United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries, the third International Conference on Small Island Developing States, the second United Nations Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries and the Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction. 12. We reaffirm all the principles of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, including, inter alia, the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, as set out in principle 7 thereof.

2 General Assembly resolution, “Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” A/RES/217 A (iii), December 10, 1948. 3 General Assembly resolution, “Millennium declaration,” A/RES/55/2, September 8, 2000. 4 General Assembly resolution, “2005 World Summit Outcome,” A/RES/60/1, September 16, 2005. 5 General Assembly resolution, “Declaration on the Right to Development,” A/RES/41/128, annex, December 4, 1986. 6 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3–14 June 1992, vol. i, Resolutions Adopted by the Conference (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.93.I.8 and corrigendum), resolution 1, annex i. 7 Report of the International Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, 5–13 September 1994 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.95.XIII.18), Chapter i, resolution 1, annex. 8 Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4–15 September 1995 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.96.IV.13), Chapter i, resolution 1, annex ii.

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13. The challenges and commitments identified at these major conferences and summits are interrelated and call for integrated solutions. To address them effectively, a new approach is needed. Sustainable development recognizes that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, combating inequality within and among countries, preserving the planet, creating sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth and fostering social inclusion are linked to each other and are interdependent.



Our World Today

14. We are meeting at a time of immense challenges to sustainable development. Billions of our citizens continue to live in poverty and are denied a life of dignity. There are rising inequalities within and among countries. There are enormous disparities of opportunity, wealth and power. Gender inequality remains a key challenge. Unemployment, particularly youth unemployment, is a major concern. Global health threats, more frequent and intense natural disasters, spiralling conflict, violent extremism, terrorism and related humanitarian crises and forced displacement of people threaten to reverse much of the development progress made in recent decades. Natural resource depletion and adverse impacts of environmental degradation, including desertification, drought, land degradation, freshwater scarcity and loss of biodiversity, add to and exacerbate the list of challenges which humanity faces. Climate change is one of the greatest challenges of our time and its adverse impacts undermine the ability of all countries to achieve sustainable development. Increases in global temperature, sea level rise, ocean acidification and other climate change impacts are seriously affecting coastal areas and low-lying coastal countries, including many least developed countries and small island developing States. The survival of many societies, and of the biological support systems of the planet, is at risk. 15. It is also, however, a time of immense opportunity. Significant progress has been made in meeting many development challenges. Within the past generation, hundreds of millions of people have emerged from extreme poverty. Access to education has greatly increased for both boys and girls. The spread of information and communications technology and global interconnectedness has great potential to accelerate human progress, to bridge the digital divide and to develop knowledge societies, as does scientific and technological innovation across areas as diverse as medicine and energy. 16. Almost 15 years ago, the Millennium Development Goals were agreed. These provided an important framework for development and significant progress has been made in a number of areas. But the progress has been uneven, particularly in Africa, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States, and some of the Millennium Development Goals remain off-track, in particular those related to maternal, newborn and child health and to reproductive health. We recommit ourselves to the full realization of all the Millennium Development Goals, including the off-track Millennium Development Goals, in particular by

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providing focused and scaled-up assistance to least developed countries and other countries in special situations, in line with relevant support programmes. The new Agenda builds on the Millennium Development Goals and seeks to complete what they did not achieve, particularly in reaching the most vulnerable. 17. In its scope, however, the framework we are announcing today goes far beyond the Millennium Development Goals. Alongside continuing development priorities such as poverty eradication, health, education and food security and nutrition, it sets out a wide range of economic, social and environmental objectives. It also promises more peaceful and inclusive societies. It also, crucially, defines means of implementation. Reflecting the integrated approach that we have decided on, there are deep interconnections and many cross-cutting elements across the new Goals and targets.



The New Agenda

18. We are announcing today 17 Sustainable Development Goals with 169 associated targets which are integrated and indivisible. Never before have world leaders pledged common action and endeavour across such a broad and universal policy agenda. We are setting out together on the path towards sustainable development, devoting ourselves collectively to the pursuit of global development and of “win-win” cooperation which can bring huge gains to all countries and all parts of the world. We reaffirm that every State has, and shall freely exercise, full permanent sovereignty over all its wealth, natural resources and economic activity. We will implement the Agenda for the full benefit of all, for today’s generation and for future generations. In doing so, we reaffirm our commitment to international law and emphasize that the Agenda is to be implemented in a manner that is consistent with the rights and obligations of States under international law. 19. We reaffirm the importance of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as other international instruments relating to human rights and international law. We emphasize the responsibilities of all States, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations, to respect, protect and promote human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, disability or other status. 20. Realizing gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls will make a crucial contribution to progress across all the Goals and targets. The achievement of full human potential and of sustainable development is not possible if one half of humanity continues to be denied its full human rights and opportunities. Women and girls must enjoy equal access to quality education, economic resources and political participation as well as equal opportunities with men and boys for employment, leadership and decision-­making at all levels. We will work for a significant increase in investments to close the gender gap and strengthen support for institutions in relation

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to ­gender equality and the empowerment of women at the global, regional and national levels. All forms of discrimination and violence against women and girls will be eliminated, including through the engagement of men and boys. The systematic mainstreaming of a gender perspective in the implementation of the Agenda is crucial. 21. The new Goals and targets will come into effect on 1 January 2016 and will guide the decisions we take over the next 15 years. All of us will work to implement the Agenda within our own countries and at the regional and global levels, taking into account different national realities, capacities and levels of development and respecting national policies and priorities. We will respect national policy space for sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, in particular for developing States, while remaining consistent with relevant international rules and commitments. We acknowledge also the importance of the regional and subregional dimensions, regional economic integration and interconnectivity in sustainable development. Regional and subregional frameworks can facilitate the effective translation of sustainable development policies into concrete action at the national level. 22. Each country faces specific challenges in its pursuit of sustainable development. The most vulnerable countries and, in particular, African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States, deserve special attention, as do countries in situations of conflict and post-conflict countries. There are also serious challenges within many middle-income countries. 23. People who are vulnerable must be empowered. Those whose needs are reflected in the Agenda include all children, youth, persons with disabilities (of whom more than 80 per cent live in poverty), people living with hiv/aids, older persons, indigenous peoples, refugees and internally displaced persons and migrants. We resolve to take further effective measures and actions, in conformity with international law, to remove obstacles and constraints, strengthen support and meet the special needs of people living in areas affected by complex humanitarian emergencies and in areas affected by terrorism. 24. We are committed to ending poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including by eradicating extreme poverty by 2030. All people must enjoy a basic standard of living, including through social protection systems. We are also determined to end hunger and to achieve food security as a matter of priority and to end all forms of malnutrition. In this regard, we reaffirm the important role and inclusive nature of the Committee on World Food Security and welcome the Rome Declaration on Nutrition and the ­Framework for Action.9 We will devote resources to developing rural areas and s­ ustainable agriculture and fisheries, supporting smallholder farmers, especially 9 World Health Organization, Report of the Director-General, “Outcome of the Second International Conference on Nutrition,” eb 136/8, December 30, 2014, annexes i and ii.

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­ omen farmers, herders and fishers in developing countries, particularly least develw oped countries. 25. We commit to providing inclusive and equitable quality education at all levels – early childhood, primary, secondary, tertiary, technical and vocational training. All people, irrespective of sex, age, race or ethnicity, and persons with disabilities, migrants, indigenous peoples, children and youth, especially those in vulnerable situations, should have access to life-long learning opportunities that help them to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to exploit opportunities and to participate fully in society. We will strive to provide children and youth with a nurturing environment for the full realization of their rights and capabilities, helping our countries to reap the demographic dividend, including through safe schools and cohesive communities and families. 26. To promote physical and mental health and well-being, and to extend life expectancy for all, we must achieve universal health coverage and access to quality health care. No one must be left behind. We commit to accelerating the progress made to date in reducing newborn, child and maternal mortality by ending all such preventable deaths before 2030. We are committed to ensuring universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning, information and education. We will equally accelerate the pace of progress made in fighting malaria, hiv/aids, tuberculosis, hepatitis, Ebola and other communicable diseases and epidemics, including by addressing growing anti-microbial resistance and the problem of unattended diseases affecting developing countries. We are committed to the prevention and treatment of non-communicable diseases, including behavioural, developmental and neurological disorders, which constitute a major challenge for sustainable development. 27. We will seek to build strong economic foundations for all our countries. Sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth is essential for prosperity. This will only be possible if wealth is shared and income inequality is addressed. We will work to build dynamic, sustainable, innovative and people-centred economies, promoting youth employment and women’s economic empowerment, in particular, and decent work for all. We will eradicate forced labour and human trafficking and end child labour in all its forms. All countries stand to benefit from having a healthy and well-educated workforce with the knowledge and skills needed for productive and fulfilling work and full participation in society. We will strengthen the productive capacities of least developed countries in all sectors, including through structural transformation. We will adopt policies which increase productive capacities, productivity and productive employment; financial inclusion; sustainable agriculture, ­pastoralist and fisheries development; sustainable industrial development; universal access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy services; sustainable transport systems; and quality and resilient infrastructure.

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28. We commit to making fundamental changes in the way that our societies produce and consume goods and services. Governments, international organizations, the business sector and other non-State actors and individuals must contribute to changing unsustainable consumption and production patterns, including through the mobilization, from all sources, of financial and technical assistance to strengthen developing countries’ scientific, technological and innovative capacities to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production. We encourage the implementation of the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns. All countries take action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries. 29. We recognize the positive contribution of migrants for inclusive growth and sustainable development. We also recognize that international migration is a multidimensional reality of major relevance for the development of countries of origin, transit and destination, which requires coherent and comprehensive responses. We will cooperate internationally to ensure safe, orderly and regular migration involving full respect for human rights and the humane treatment of migrants regardless of migration status, of refugees and of displaced persons. Such cooperation should also strengthen the resilience of communities hosting refugees, particularly in developing countries. We underline the right of migrants to return to their country of citizenship, and recall that States must ensure that their returning nationals are duly received. 30. States are strongly urged to refrain from promulgating and applying any unilateral economic, financial or trade measures not in accordance with international law and the Charter of the United Nations that impede the full achievement of economic and social development, particularly in developing countries. 31. We acknowledge that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change10 is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change. We are determined to address decisively the threat posed by climate change and environmental degradation. The global nature of climate change calls for the widest possible international cooperation aimed at accelerating the reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions and addressing adaptation to the adverse impacts of climate change. We note with grave concern the significant gap between the aggregate effect of parties’ mitigation pledges in terms of global annual emissions of greenhouse gases by 2020 and aggregate emission pathways consistent with having a likely chance of holding the increase in global average temperature below 2 degrees Celsius, or 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. 32. Looking ahead to the twenty-first session of the Conference of the Parties in Paris, we underscore the commitment of all States to work for an ambitious and universal climate agreement. We reaffirm that the protocol, another legal instrument or agreed 10

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outcome with legal force under the Convention applicable to all parties shall address in a balanced manner, inter alia, mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology development and transfer and capacity-building; and transparency of action and support. 33. We recognize that social and economic development depends on the sustainable management of our planet’s natural resources. We are therefore determined to conserve and sustainably use oceans and seas, freshwater resources, as well as forests, mountains and drylands and to protect biodiversity, ecosystems and wildlife. We are also determined to promote sustainable tourism, to tackle water scarcity and water pollution, to strengthen cooperation on desertification, dust storms, land degradation and drought and to promote resilience and disaster risk reduction. In this regard, we look forward to the thirteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity to be held in Mexico. 34. We recognize that sustainable urban development and management are crucial to the quality of life of our people. We will work with local authorities and communities to renew and plan our cities and human settlements so as to foster community cohesion and personal security and to stimulate innovation and employment. We will reduce the negative impacts of urban activities and of chemicals which are hazardous for human health and the environment, including through the environmentally sound management and safe use of chemicals, the reduction and recycling of waste and the more efficient use of water and energy. And we will work to minimize the impact of cities on the global climate system. We will also take account of population trends and projections in our national rural and urban development strategies and policies. We look forward to the upcoming United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development to be held in Quito. 35. Sustainable development cannot be realized without peace and security; and peace and security will be at risk without sustainable development. The new Agenda recognizes the need to build peaceful, just and inclusive societies that provide equal access to justice and that are based on respect for human rights (including the right to development), on effective rule of law and good governance at all levels and on transparent, effective and ­accountable ­institutions. Factors which give rise to violence, insecurity and injustice, such as inequality, corruption, poor governance and illicit financial and arms flows, are addressed in the Agenda. We must redouble our efforts to resolve or prevent conflict and to support post-conflict countries, including through ensuring that women have a role in peacebuilding and State-building. We call for further effective measures and actions to be taken, in conformity with international law, to remove the obstacles to the full realization of the right of self-determination of peoples living under colonial and foreign occupation, which continue to adversely affect their economic and social development as well as their environment. 36. We pledge to foster intercultural understanding, tolerance, mutual respect and an ethic of global citizenship and shared responsibility. We acknowledge the natural and

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cultural diversity of the world and recognize that all cultures and civilizations can contribute to, and are crucial enablers of, sustainable development. 37. Sport is also an important enabler of sustainable development. We recognize the growing contribution of sport to the realization of development and peace in its promotion of tolerance and respect and the contributions it makes to the empowerment of women and of young people, ­individuals and communities as well as to health, education and social inclusion objectives. 38. We reaffirm, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, the need to respect the territorial integrity and political independence of States.



Means of Implementation

39. The scale and ambition of the new Agenda requires a revitalized Global Partnership to ensure its implementation. We fully commit to this. This Partnership will work in a spirit of global solidarity, in particular solidarity with the poorest and with people in vulnerable situations. It will facilitate an intensive global engagement in support of implementation of all the Goals and targets, bringing together Governments, the private sector, civil society, the United Nations system and other actors and mobilizing all available resources. 40. The means of implementation targets under Goal 17 and under each Sustainable Development Goal are key to realizing our Agenda and are of equal importance with the other Goals and targets. The Agenda, including the Sustainable Development Goals, can be met within the framework of a revitalized Global Partnership for Sustainable Development, supported by the concrete policies and actions as outlined in the outcome document of the third International Conference on Financing for Development, held in Addis Ababa from 13 to 16 July 2015. We welcome the endorsement by the General Assembly of the Addis Ababa Action Agenda,11 which is an integral part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. We recognize that the full implementation of the Addis Ababa Action Agenda is critical for the realization of the Sustainable Development Goals and targets. 41. We recognize that each country has primary responsibility for its own economic and social development. The new Agenda deals with the means required for implementation of the Goals and targets. We recognize that these will include the mobilization of financial resources as well as capacity-building and the transfer of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries on favourable terms, including on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed. Public finance, both domestic and international, will play a vital role in providing essential services and public goods 11

The Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development (Addis Ababa Action Agenda), adopted by the General Assembly on 27 July 2015 (resolution 69/313, annex).

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and in catalysing other sources of finance. We acknowledge the role of the diverse private sector, ranging from micro-enterprises to cooperatives to multinationals, and that of civil society organizations and philanthropic organizations in the implementation of the new Agenda. 42. We support the implementation of relevant strategies and programmes of action, including the Istanbul Declaration and Programme of Action,12 the sids Accelerated Modalities of Action (samoa) Pathway13 and the Vienna Programme of Action for Landlocked Developing Countries for the Decade 2014–2024,14 and reaffirm the importance of supporting the African Union’s Agenda 2063 and the programme of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development,15 all of which are integral to the new Agenda. We recognize the major challenge to the achievement of durable peace and sustainable development in countries in conflict and post-conflict situations. 43. We emphasize that international public finance plays an important role in complementing the efforts of countries to mobilize public resources domestically, especially in the poorest and most vulnerable countries with limited domestic resources. An important use of international public finance, ­including official development assistance (oda), is to catalyse additional resource mobilization from other sources, public and private. oda providers reaffirm their respective commitments, including the commitment by many developed countries to achieve the target of 0.7 per cent of gross national income for official development assistance (oda/gni) to developing countries and 0.15 per cent to 0.2 per cent of oda/gni to least developed countries. 44. We acknowledge the importance for international financial institutions to support, in line with their mandates, the policy space of each country, in particular developing countries. We recommit to broadening and strengthening the voice and participation of developing countries – including African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries, small island developing States and middle-income countries – in international economic decision-making, norm-setting and global economic governance. 45. We acknowledge also the essential role of national parliaments through their enactment of legislation and adoption of budgets and their role in ensuring accountability for the effective implementation of our commitments. Governments and public 12 13 14 15

Report of the Fourth United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries, Istanbul, Turkey, 9–13 May 2011 (A/CONF.219/7), Chaps. i and ii. General Assembly resolution, “sids Accelerated Modalities of Action (samoa) Pathway,” A/RES/69/15, November 14, 2014, annex. General Assembly resolution, “Programme of Action for Landlocked Developing Countries for the Decade 2014–2024,” A/RES/69/137, December 12, 2014, annex ii. General Assembly resolution, “Information and communication technology strategy,” A/57/304, April 15, 2003, annex.

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institutions will also work closely on implementation with regional and local authorities, subregional institutions, international institutions, academia, philanthropic organizations, volunteer groups and others. 46. We underline the important role and comparative advantage of an adequately resourced, relevant, coherent, efficient and effective United Nations system in supporting the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and sustainable development. While stressing the importance of strengthened national ownership and leadership at the country level, we express our support for the ongoing dialogue in the Economic and Social Council on the longerterm positioning of the United Nations development system in the context of this Agenda.



Follow-Up and Review



A Call for Action to Change Our World

47. Our Governments have the primary responsibility for follow-up and review, at the national, regional and global levels, in relation to the progress made in implementing the Goals and targets over the coming 15 years. To support accountability to our citizens, we will provide for systematic follow-up and review at the various levels, as set out in this Agenda and the Addis Ababa Action Agenda. The high-level political forum under the auspices of the General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council will have the central role in overseeing follow-up and review at the global level. 48. Indicators are being developed to assist this work. Quality, accessible, timely and reliable disaggregated data will be needed to help with the m ­ easurement of progress and to ensure that no one is left behind. Such data is key to decision-making. Data and information from existing reporting mechanisms should be used where possible. We agree to intensify our efforts to strengthen statistical capacities in developing countries, particularly African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries, small island developing States and middle-income countries. We are committed to developing broader measures of progress to complement gross domestic product.

49. Seventy years ago, an earlier generation of world leaders came together to create the United Nations. From the ashes of war and division they fashioned this Organization and the values of peace, dialogue and international cooperation which underpin it. The supreme embodiment of those values is the Charter of the United Nations. 50. Today we are also taking a decision of great historic significance. We resolve to build a better future for all people, including the millions who have been denied the chance to lead decent, dignified and rewarding lives and to achieve their full human potential. We can be the first generation to succeed in ending poverty; just as we may

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be the last to have a chance of saving the planet. The world will be a better place in 2030 if we succeed in our objectives. 51. What we are announcing today – an Agenda for global action for the next 15 years – is a charter for people and planet in the twenty-first century. Children and young women and men are critical agents of change and will find in the new Goals a platform to channel their infinite capacities for activism into the creation of a better world. 52. “We the peoples” are the celebrated opening words of the Charter of the United Nations. It is “we the peoples” who are embarking today on the road to 2030. Our journey will involve Governments as well as parliaments, the United Nations system and other international institutions, local authorities, indigenous peoples, civil society, business and the private sector, the scientific and academic community – and all people. Millions have already engaged with, and will own, this Agenda. It is an Agenda of the people, by the people and for the people – and this, we believe, will ensure its success. 53. The future of humanity and of our planet lies in our hands. It lies also in the hands of today’s younger generation who will pass the torch to future generations. We have mapped the road to sustainable development; it will be for all of us to ensure that the journey is successful and its gains irreversible.



Sustainable Development Goals and Targets

54. Following an inclusive process of intergovernmental negotiations, and based on the proposal of the Open Working Group on Sustainable Development Goals,16 which includes a chapeau contextualizing the latter, set out below are the Goals and targets which we have agreed. 55. The Sustainable Development Goals and targets are integrated and indivisible, global in nature and universally applicable, taking into account different national realities, capacities and levels of development and respecting national policies and priorities. Targets are defined as aspirational and global, with each Government setting its own national targets guided by the global level of ambition but taking into account national circumstances. Each Government will also decide how these aspirational and global targets should be incorporated into national planning processes, policies and strategies. It is important to recognize the link between sustainable development and other relevant ongoing processes in the economic, social and environmental fields.

16

Contained in the report of the Open Working Group of the General Assembly on Sustainable Development Goals, A/68/970 and Corr.1; see also, General Assembly document, “Report of the Open Working Group on Sustainable Development Goals,” A/68/970/add. 1–3, October 27, 2014; August 25, 2015; September 28, 2015.

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56. In deciding upon these Goals and targets, we recognize that each country faces specific challenges to achieve sustainable development, and we underscore the special challenges facing the most vulnerable countries and, in particular, African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States, as well as the specific challenges facing the middle-income countries. Countries in situations of conflict also need special attention. 57. We recognize that baseline data for several of the targets remains unavailable, and we call for increased support for strengthening data collection and capacity-building in Member States, to develop national and global baselines where they do not yet exist. We commit to addressing this gap in data collection so as to better inform the measurement of progress, in particular for those targets below which do not have clear numerical targets. 58. We encourage ongoing efforts by States in other forums to address key issues which pose potential challenges to the implementation of our Agenda, and we respect the independent mandates of those processes. We intend that the Agenda and its implementation would support, and be without prejudice to, those other processes and the decisions taken therein. 59. We recognize that there are different approaches, visions, models and tools available to each country, in accordance with its national circumstances and priorities, to achieve sustainable development; and we reaffirm that planet Earth and its ecosystems are our common home and that “Mother Earth” is a common expression in a number of countries and regions. Sustainable development goals Goal 1 Goal 2 Goal 3 Goal 4 Goal 5 Goal 6 Goal 7 Goal 8 Goal 9

End poverty in all its forms everywhere End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation

240 Goal 10 Goal 11 Goal 12 Goal 13 Goal 14 Goal 15

Goal 16

Goal 17

appendix i.1 Reduce inequality within and among countries Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts* Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development

* Acknowledging that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.



Goal 1. End Poverty in All Its Forms Everywhere

1.1 By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day 1.2 By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions 1.3 Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all, including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poor and the vulnerable 1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance 1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters 1.a Ensure significant mobilization of resources from a variety of sources, including through enhanced development cooperation, in order to provide adequate and predictable means for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, to implement programmes and policies to end poverty in all its dimensions 1.b Create sound policy frameworks at the national, regional and international levels, based on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies, to support accelerated investment in poverty eradication actions

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Goal 2. End Hunger, Achieve Food Security and Improved Nutrition and Promote Sustainable Agriculture

2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round 2.2 By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons 2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment 2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality 2.5 By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed 2.a Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in developing countries, in particular least developed countries 2.b Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets, including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha Development Round 2.c Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility



Goal 3. Ensure Healthy Lives and Promote Well-Being for All at All Ages

3.1 By 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births

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3.2 By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births 3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of aids, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases 3.4 By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being 3.5 Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug abuse and harmful use of alcohol 3.6 By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents 3.7 By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programmes 3.8 Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality essential health-care services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential medicines and vaccines for all 3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination 3.a Strengthen the implementation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in all countries, as appropriate 3.b Support the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the communicable and non-communicable diseases that primarily affect developing countries, provide access to affordable essential medicines and vaccines, in accordance with the Doha Declaration on the trips Agreement and Public Health, which affirms the right of developing countries to use to the full the provisions in the Agreement on TradeRelated Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights regarding flexibilities to protect public health, and, in particular, provide access to medicines for all 3.c Substantially increase health financing and the recruitment, development, training and retention of the health workforce in developing countries, especially in least developed countries and small island developing States 3.d Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for early warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks



Goal 4. Ensure Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education and Promote Lifelong Learning Opportunities for All

4.1 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes 4.2 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education 4.3 By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university

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4.4 By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship 4.5 By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations 4.6 By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy 4.7 By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development 4.a Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all 4.b By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries 4.c By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing States



Goal 5. Achieve Gender Equality and Empower All Women and Girls

5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation 5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation 5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate 5.5 Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life 5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences

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5.a Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws 5.b Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women 5.c Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels



Goal 6. Ensure Availability and Sustainable Management of Water and Sanitation for All

6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all 6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally 6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity 6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate 6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes 6.a By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies 6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management



Goal 7. Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable, Sustainable and Modern Energy for All

7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services 7.2 By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix 7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency 7.a By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced

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and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology 7.b By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their respective programmes of support



Goal 8. Promote Sustained, Inclusive and Sustainable Economic Growth, Full and Productive Employment and Decent Work for All

8.1 Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least developed countries 8.2 Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-intensive sectors 8.3 Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial services 8.4 Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production, with developed countries taking the lead 8.5 By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value 8.6 By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training 8.7 Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms 8.8 Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment 8.9 By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products 8.10 Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to banking, insurance and financial services for all

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8.a Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries 8.b By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization



Goal 9. Build Resilient Infrastructure, Promote Inclusive and Sustainable Industrialization and Foster Innovation

9.1 Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and transborder infrastructure, to support economic development and human wellbeing, with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all 9.2 Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and, by 2030, significantly raise industry’s share of employment and gross domestic product, in line with national circumstances, and double its share in least developed countries 9.3 Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit, and their integration into value chains and markets 9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities 9.5 Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging innovation and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers per 1 million people and public and private research and development spending 9.a Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States 9.b Support domestic technology development, research and innovation in developing countries, including by ensuring a conducive policy environment for, inter alia, industrial diversification and value addition to commodities 9.c Significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020



Goal 10. Reduce Inequality within and among Countries

10.1 By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40 per cent of the population at a rate higher than the national average

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10.2 By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status 10.3 Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies and practices and promoting appropriate legislation, policies and action in this regard 10.4 Adopt policies, especially fiscal, wage and social protection policies, and progressively achieve greater equality 10.5 Improve the regulation and monitoring of global financial markets and institutions and strengthen the implementation of such regulations 10.6 Ensure enhanced representation and voice for developing countries in decisionmaking in global international economic and financial institutions in order to deliver more effective, credible, accountable and legitimate institutions 10.7 Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies 10.a Implement the principle of special and differential treatment for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, in accordance with World Trade Organization agreements 10.b Encourage official development assistance and financial flows, including foreign direct investment, to States where the need is greatest, in particular least developed countries, African countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their national plans and programmes 10.c By 2030, reduce to less than 3 per cent the transaction costs of migrant remittances and eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5 per cent



Goal 11. Make Cities and Human Settlements Inclusive, Safe, Resilient and Sustainable

11.1 By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums 11.2 By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with disabilities and older persons 11.3 By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries 11.4 Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage 11.5 By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross

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domestic product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations 11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management 11.7 By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities 11.a Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, periurban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning 11.b By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, holistic disaster risk management at all levels 11.c Support least developed countries, including through financial and technical assistance, in building sustainable and resilient buildings utilizing local materials



Goal 12. Ensure Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns

12.1 Implement the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries 12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources 12.3 By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses 12.4 By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment 12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse 12.6 Encourage companies, especially large and transnational companies, to adopt sustainable practices and to integrate sustainability information into their reporting cycle 12.7 Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with national policies and priorities 12.8 By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature 12.a Support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological capacity to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production 12.b Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products

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12.c Rationalize inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption by removing market distortions, in accordance with national circumstances, including by restructuring taxation and phasing out those harmful subsidies, where they exist, to reflect their environmental impacts, taking fully into account the specific needs and conditions of developing countries and minimizing the possible adverse impacts on their development in a manner that protects the poor and the affected communities



Goal 13. Take Urgent Action to Combat Climate Change and Its Impacts17

13.1 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries 13.2 Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning 13.3 Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning 13.a Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible 13.b Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities



Goal 14. Conserve and Sustainably Use the Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources for Sustainable Development

14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution 14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans 14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels 14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement sciencebased management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, 17

Acknowledging that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.

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at least to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological characteristics 14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information 14.6 By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate and effective special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries subsidies negotiation18 14.7 By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism 14.a Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing States and least developed countries 14.b Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets 14.c Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by implementing international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which provides the legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of “The future we want”



Goal 15. Protect, Restore and Promote Sustainable Use of Terrestrial Ecosystems, Sustainably Manage Forests, Combat Desertification, and Halt and Reverse Land Degradation and Halt Biodiversity Loss

15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements 15.2 By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally

18

Taking into account ongoing World Trade Organization negotiations, the Doha Development Agenda and the Hong Kong ministerial mandate.

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15.3 By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradationneutral world 15.4 By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development 15.5 Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species 15.6 Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed 15.7 Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products 15.8 By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species 15.9 By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts 15.a Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems 15.b Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation 15.c Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities



Goal 16. Promote Peaceful and Inclusive Societies for Sustainable Development, Provide Access to Justice for All and Build Effective, Accountable and Inclusive Institutions at All Levels

16.1 Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere 16.2 End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children 16.3 Promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access to justice for all 16.4 By 2030, significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows, strengthen the recovery and return of stolen assets and combat all forms of organized crime 16.5 Substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all their forms

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16.6 Develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions at all levels 16.7 Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels 16.8 Broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance 16.9 By 2030, provide legal identity for all, including birth registration 16.10 Ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms, in accordance with national legislation and international agreements 16.a Strengthen relevant national institutions, including through international cooperation, for building capacity at all levels, in particular in developing countries, to prevent violence and combat terrorism and crime 16.b Promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies for sustainable development



Goal 17. Strengthen the Means of Implementation and Revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Finance

17.1 Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue collection 17.2 Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance commitments, including the commitment by many developed countries to achieve the target of 0.7 per cent of gross national income for official development assistance (oda/gni) to developing countries and 0.15 to 0.20 per cent of oda/gni to least developed countries; oda providers are encouraged to consider setting a target to provide at least 0.20 per cent of oda/gni to least developed countries 17.3 Mobilize additional financial resources for developing countries from multiple sources 17.4 Assist developing countries in attaining long-term debt sustainability through coordinated policies aimed at fostering debt financing, debt relief and debt restructuring, as appropriate, and address the external debt of highly indebted poor countries to reduce debt distress 17.5 Adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for least developed countries

Technology

17.6 Enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nations level, and through a global technology facilitation mechanism

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17.7 Promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries on favourable terms, including on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed 17.8 Fully operationalize the technology bank and science, technology and innovation capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries by 2017 and enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology

Capacity-Building

17.9 Enhance international support for implementing effective and targeted capacitybuilding in developing countries to support national plans to implement all the Sustainable Development Goals, including through North-South, South-South and triangular cooperation

Trade

17.10 Promote a universal, rules-based, open, non-discriminatory and equitable multilateral trading system under the World Trade Organization, including through the conclusion of negotiations under its Doha Development Agenda 17.11 Significantly increase the exports of developing countries, in particular with a view to doubling the least developed countries’ share of global exports by 2020 17.12 Realize timely implementation of duty-free and quota-free market access on a lasting basis for all least developed countries, consistent with World Trade Organization decisions, including by ensuring that preferential rules of origin applicable to imports from least developed countries are transparent and simple, and contribute to facilitating market access



Systemic Issues Policy and Institutional Coherence



Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships

17.13 Enhance global macroeconomic stability, including through policy coordination and policy coherence 17.14 Enhance policy coherence for sustainable development 17.15 Respect each country’s policy space and leadership to establish and implement policies for poverty eradication and sustainable development

17.16 Enhance the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development, complemented by multi-stakeholder partnerships that mobilize and share knowledge, expertise, technology and financial resources, to support the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals in all countries, in particular developing countries 17.17 Encourage and promote effective public, public-private and civil society partnerships, building on the experience and resourcing strategies of partnerships

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Data, Monitoring and Accountability

17.18 By 2020, enhance capacity-building support to developing countries, including for least developed countries and small island developing States, to increase significantly the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other characteristics relevant in national contexts 17.19 By 2030, build on existing initiatives to develop measurements of progress on sustainable development that complement gross domestic product, and support statistical capacity-building in developing countries



Means of Implementation and the Global Partnership

60. We reaffirm our strong commitment to the full implementation of this new Agenda. We recognize that we will not be able to achieve our ambitious Goals and targets without a revitalized and enhanced Global Partnership and comparably ambitious means of implementation. The revitalized Global Partnership will facilitate an intensive global engagement in support of implementation of all the Goals and targets, bringing together Governments, civil society, the private sector, the United Nations system and other actors and mobilizing all available resources. 61. The Agenda’s Goals and targets deal with the means required to realize our collective ambitions. The means of implementation targets under each Sustainable Development Goal and Goal 17, which are referred to above, are key to realizing our Agenda and are of equal importance with the other Goals and targets. We shall accord them equal priority in our implementation efforts and in the global indicator framework for monitoring our progress. 62. This Agenda, including the Sustainable Development Goals, can be met within the framework of a revitalized Global Partnership for Sustainable Development, supported by the concrete policies and actions outlined in the Addis Ababa Action Agenda, which is an integral part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The Addis Ababa Action Agenda supports, c­ omplements and helps to contextualize the 2030 Agenda’s means of implementation targets. It relates to domestic public resources, domestic and international private business and finance, international development cooperation, international trade as an engine for development, debt and debt sustainability, addressing systemic issues and science, technology, innovation and capacitybuilding, and data, monitoring and follow-up. 63. Cohesive nationally owned sustainable development strategies, supported by integrated national financing frameworks, will be at the heart of our efforts. We reiterate that each country has primary responsibility for its own economic and social development and that the role of national policies and development strategies cannot be overemphasized. We will respect each country’s policy space and leadership to implement policies for poverty eradication and sustainable development, while remaining

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consistent with relevant international rules and commitments. At the same time, national development efforts need to be supported by an enabling international economic environment, including coherent and mutually supporting world trade, monetary and financial systems, and strengthened and enhanced global economic governance. Processes to develop and facilitate the availability of appropriate knowledge and technologies globally, as well as capacity-building, are also critical. We commit to pursuing policy coherence and an enabling environment for sustainable development at all levels and by all actors, and to reinvigorating the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development. 64. We support the implementation of relevant strategies and programmes of action, including the Istanbul Declaration and Programme of Action, the sids Accelerated Modalities of Action (samoa) Pathway and the Vienna Programme of Action for Landlocked Developing Countries for the Decade 2014–2024, and reaffirm the importance of supporting the African Union’s Agenda 2063 and the programme of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development, all of which are integral to the new Agenda. We recognize the major challenge to the achievement of durable peace and sustainable development in countries in conflict and post-conflict situations. 65. We recognize that middle-income countries still face significant challenges to achieve sustainable development. In order to ensure that achievements made to date are sustained, efforts to address ongoing challenges should be strengthened through the exchange of experiences, improved coordination, and better and focused support of the United Nations development system, the international financial institutions, regional organizations and other stakeholders. 66. We underscore that, for all countries, public policies and the mobilization and effective use of domestic resources, underscored by the principle of national ownership, are central to our common pursuit of sustainable development, including achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. We recognize that domestic resources are first and foremost generated by economic growth, supported by an enabling environment at all levels. 67. Private business activity, investment and innovation are major drivers of productivity, inclusive economic growth and job creation. We acknowledge the diversity of the private sector, ranging from micro-enterprises to cooperatives to multinationals. We call upon all businesses to apply their creativity and innovation to solving sustainable development challenges. We will foster a dynamic and well-functioning business sector, while protecting labour rights and environmental and health standards in accordance with relevant international standards and agreements and other ongoing initiatives in this regard, such as the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights19 19

Human Rights Council document, “Report of the Special Representative of the SecretaryGeneral on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other business

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and the labour standards of the International Labour Organization, the Convention on the Rights of the Child20 and key multilateral environmental agreements, for parties to those agreements. 68. International trade is an engine for inclusive economic growth and poverty reduction, and contributes to the promotion of sustainable development. We will continue to promote a universal, rules-based, open, transparent, predictable, inclusive, nondiscriminatory and equitable multilateral trading system under the World Trade Organization, as well as meaningful trade liberalization. We call upon all members of the World Trade Organization to redouble their efforts to promptly conclude the negotiations on the Doha Development Agenda.21 We attach great importance to providing trade-related capacity-building for developing countries, including African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries, small island developing States and middle-income countries, including for the promotion of regional economic integration and interconnectivity. 69. We recognize the need to assist developing countries in attaining long-term debt sustainability through coordinated policies aimed at fostering debt financing, debt relief, debt restructuring and sound debt management, as appropriate. Many countries remain vulnerable to debt crises and some are in the midst of crises, including a number of least developed countries, small island developing States and some developed countries. We reiterate that debtors and creditors must work together to prevent and resolve unsustainable debt situations. Maintaining sustainable debt levels is the responsibility of the borrowing countries; however we acknowledge that lenders also have a responsibility to lend in a way that does not undermine a country’s debt sustainability. We will support the maintenance of debt sustainability of those countries that have received debt relief and achieved sustainable debt levels. 70. We hereby launch a Technology Facilitation Mechanism which was established by the Addis Ababa Action Agenda in order to support the Sustainable Development Goals. The Technology Facilitation Mechanism will be based on a multi-stakeholder collaboration between Member States, civil society, the private sector, the scientific community, United Nations entities and other stakeholders and will be composed of a United Nations inter-agency task team on science, technology and innovation for the Sustainable Development Goals, a collaborative multi-stakeholder forum on science, technology and innovation for the Sustainable Development Goals and an online platform.

20 21

enterprises, John Ruggie; Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations ‘Protect, Respect and Remedy’ Framework”, A/HRC/17/31, annex, March 21, 2001. United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1577, No. 27531. General Assembly document, “Ministerial Declaration of the Fourth Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization, held in Doha from 9 to 13 November, 2013,” A/C.2/57/7, annex, November 26, 2001.

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– The United Nations inter-agency task team on science, technology and innovation

for the Sustainable Development Goals will promote coordination, coherence and cooperation within the United Nations system on science, technology and innovation-related matters, enhancing synergy and efficiency, in particular to enhance capacity-building initiatives. The task team will draw on existing resources and will work with 10 representatives from civil society, the private sector and the scientific community to prepare the meetings of the multi-stakeholder forum on science, technology and innovation for the Sustainable Development Goals, as well as in the development and operationalization of the online platform, including preparing proposals for the modalities for the forum and the online platform. The 10 representatives will be appointed by the Secretary-General, for periods of two years. The task team will be open to the participation of all United Nations agencies, funds and programmes and the functional commissions of the Economic and Social Council and it will initially be composed of the entities that currently integrate the informal working group on technology facilitation, namely, the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the Secretariat, the United Nations Environment Programme, the United N ­ ations Industrial Development Organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, the International Telecommunication Union, the World Intellectual Property Organization and the World Bank. – The online platform will be used to establish a comprehensive mapping of, and serve as a gateway for, information on existing science, technology and innovation initiatives, mechanisms and programmes, within and beyond the United Nations. The online platform will facilitate access to information, knowledge and experience, as well as best practices and lessons learned, on science, technology and innovation facilitation initiatives and policies. The online platform will also facilitate the dissemination of relevant open access scientific publications generated worldwide. The online platform will be developed on the basis of an independent technical assessment which will take into account best practices and lessons learned from other initiatives, within and beyond the United Nations, in order to ensure that it will complement, facilitate access to and provide adequate information on existing science, technology and innovation platforms, avoiding duplications and enhancing synergies. – The multi-stakeholder forum on science, technology and innovation for the Sustainable Development Goals will be convened once a year, for a period of two days, to discuss science, technology and innovation cooperation around thematic areas for the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals, congregating all relevant stakeholders to actively contribute in their area of expertise. The forum will provide a venue for facilitating interaction, matchmaking and the establishment of networks between relevant stakeholders and multi-stakeholder partnerships in order to identify and examine technology needs and gaps, including on scientific

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cooperation, innovation and capacity-building, and also in order to help to facilitate development, transfer and dissemination of relevant technologies for the Sustainable Development Goals. The meetings of the forum will be convened by the President of the Economic and Social Council before the meeting of the high-level political forum under the auspices of the Council or, alternatively, in conjunction with other forums or conferences, as appropriate, taking into account the theme to be considered and on the basis of a collaboration with the organizers of the other forums or conferences. The meetings of the forum will be co-chaired by two Member States and will result in a summary of discussions elaborated by the two coChairs, as an input to the meetings of the high-level political forum, in the context of the follow-up and review of the implementation of the post-2015 development agenda. – The meetings of the high-level political forum will be informed by the summary of the multi-stakeholder forum. The themes for the subsequent multi-stakeholder forum on science, technology and innovation for the Sustainable Development Goals will be considered by the high-level political forum on sustainable development, taking into account expert inputs from the task team. 71. We reiterate that this Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals and targets, including the means of implementation, are universal, indivisible and interlinked.



Follow-Up and Review

72. We commit to engaging in systematic follow-up and review of the implementation of this Agenda over the next 15 years. A robust, voluntary, effective, participatory, transparent and integrated follow-up and review framework will make a vital contribution to implementation and will help countries to maximize and track progress in implementing this Agenda in order to ensure that no one is left behind. 73. Operating at the national, regional and global levels, it will promote accountability to our citizens, support effective international cooperation in achieving this Agenda and foster exchanges of best practices and mutual learning. It will mobilize support to overcome shared challenges and identify new and emerging issues. As this is a universal Agenda, mutual trust and understanding among all nations will be important. 74. Follow-up and review processes at all levels will be guided by the following principles: (a) They will be voluntary and country-led, will take into account different national realities, capacities and levels of development and will respect policy space and priorities. As national ownership is key to achieving sustainable development,

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(d) (e) (f)

(g)

(h)

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the outcome from national-level processes will be the foundation for reviews at the regional and global levels, given that the global review will be primarily based on national official data sources. They will track progress in implementing the universal Goals and targets, including the means of implementation, in all countries in a manner which respects their universal, integrated and interrelated nature and the three dimensions of sustainable development. They will maintain a longer-term orientation, identify achievements, challenges, gaps and critical success factors and support countries in making informed policy choices. They will help to mobilize the necessary means of implementation and partnerships, support the identification of solutions and best practices and promote the coordination and effectiveness of the international development system. They will be open, inclusive, participatory and transparent for all people and will support reporting by all relevant stakeholders. They will be people-centred, gender-sensitive, respect human rights and have a particular focus on the poorest, most vulnerable and those furthest behind. They will build on existing platforms and processes, where these exist, avoid duplication and respond to national circumstances, capacities, needs and priorities. They will evolve over time, taking into account emerging issues and the development of new methodologies, and will minimize the reporting burden on national administrations. They will be rigorous and based on evidence, informed by country-led evaluations and data which is high-quality, accessible, timely, reliable and disaggregated by income, sex, age, race, ethnicity, migration status, disability and geographic location and other characteristics relevant in national contexts. They will require enhanced capacity-building support for developing countries, including the strengthening of national data systems and evaluation programmes, particularly in African countries, least developed countries, small island developing States, landlocked developing countries and middle-income countries. They will benefit from the active support of the United Nations system and other multilateral institutions.

75. The Goals and targets will be followed up and reviewed using a set of global indicators. These will be complemented by indicators at the regional and national levels which will be developed by Member States, in addition to the outcomes of work undertaken for the development of the baselines for those targets where national and global baseline data does not yet exist. The global indicator framework, to be developed by the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators, will

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be agreed by the Statistical Commission by March 2016 and adopted thereafter by the Economic and Social Council and the General Assembly, in line with existing mandates. This framework will be simple yet robust, address all Sustainable Development Goals and targets, including for means of implementation, and preserve the political balance, integration and ambition contained therein. 76. We will support developing countries, particularly African countries, least developed countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in strengthening the capacity of national statistical offices and data systems to ensure access to high-quality, timely, reliable and disaggregated data. We will promote transparent and accountable scaling-up of appropriate public-private cooperation to exploit the contribution to be made by a wide range of data, including earth observation and geospatial information, while ensuring national ownership in supporting and tracking progress. 77. We commit to fully engage in conducting regular and inclusive reviews of progress at the subnational, national, regional and global levels. We will draw as far as possible on the existing network of follow-up and review institutions and mechanisms. National reports will allow assessments of progress and identify challenges at the regional and global level. Along with regional dialogues and global reviews, they will inform recommendations for follow-up at various levels.



National Level



Regional Level

78. We encourage all Member States to develop as soon as practicable ambitious national responses to the overall implementation of this Agenda. These can support the transition to the Sustainable Development Goals and build on existing planning instruments, such as national development and sustainable development strategies, as appropriate. 79. We also encourage Member States to conduct regular and inclusive reviews of progress at the national and subnational levels which are country-led and country-driven. Such reviews should draw on contributions from indigenous peoples, civil society, the private sector and other stakeholders, in line with national circumstances, policies and priorities. National parliaments as well as other institutions can also support these processes.

80. Follow-up and review at the regional and subregional levels can, as appropriate, provide useful opportunities for peer learning, including through voluntary reviews, sharing of best practices and discussion on shared targets. We welcome in this respect the cooperation of regional and subregional commissions and organizations. Inclusive regional processes will draw on national-level reviews and contribute to follow-up and review at the global level, including at the high-level political forum on sustainable development.

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81. Recognizing the importance of building on existing follow-up and review mechanisms at the regional level and allowing adequate policy space, we encourage all Member States to identify the most suitable regional forum in which to engage. United Nations regional commissions are encouraged to continue supporting Member States in this regard.



Global Level

82. The high-level political forum will have a central role in overseeing a network of follow-up and review processes at the global level, working coherently with the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council and other relevant organs and forums, in accordance with existing mandates. It will facilitate sharing of experiences, including successes, challenges and lessons learned, and provide political leadership, guidance and recommendations for follow-up. It will promote system-wide coherence and coordination of sustainable development policies. It should ensure that the Agenda remains relevant and ambitious and should focus on the assessment of progress, achievements and challenges faced by developed and developing countries as well as new and emerging issues. Effective linkages will be made with the follow-up and review arrangements of all relevant United Nations conferences and processes, including on least developed countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries. 83. Follow-up and review at the high-level political forum will be informed by an annual progress report on the Sustainable Development Goals to be prepared by the Secretary-General in cooperation with the United Nations system, based on the global indicator framework and data produced by national statistical systems and information collected at the regional level. The high-level political forum will also be informed by the Global Sustainable Development Report, which shall strengthen the science-policy interface and could provide a strong evidence-based instrument to support policymakers in promoting poverty eradication and sustainable development. We invite the President of the Economic and Social Council to conduct a process of consultations on the scope, methodology and frequency of the global report as well as its relation to the progress report, the outcome of which should be reflected in the ministerial declaration of the session of the high-level political forum in 2016. 84. The high-level political forum, under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council, shall carry out regular reviews, in line with General Assembly resolution 67/290 of 9 July 2013. Reviews will be voluntary, while encouraging reporting, and include developed and developing countries as well as relevant United Nations entities and other stakeholders, including civil society and the private sector. They shall be State-led, involving ministerial and other relevant high-level participants. They shall provide a platform for partnerships, including through the participation of major groups and other relevant stakeholders.

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85. Thematic reviews of progress on the Sustainable Development Goals, including cross-cutting issues, will also take place at the high-level political forum. These will be supported by reviews by the functional commissions of the Economic and Social Council and other intergovernmental bodies and forums which should reflect the integrated nature of the Goals as well as the interlinkages between them. They will engage all relevant stakeholders and, where possible, feed into, and be aligned with, the cycle of the high-level political forum. 86. We welcome, as outlined in the Addis Ababa Action Agenda, the dedicated followup and review for the financing for development outcomes as well as all the means of implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals which is integrated with the follow-up and review framework of this Agenda. The intergovernmentally agreed conclusions and recommendations of the annual Economic and Social Council forum on financing for development will be fed into the overall follow-up and review of the implementation of this Agenda in the high-level political forum. 87. Meeting every four years under the auspices of the General Assembly, the highlevel political forum will provide high-level political guidance on the Agenda and its implementation, identify progress and emerging challenges and mobilize further actions to accelerate implementation. The next high-level political forum under the auspices of the General Assembly will be held in 2019, with the cycle of meetings thus reset, in order to maximize coherence with the quadrennial comprehensive policy review process. 88. We also stress the importance of system-wide strategic planning, implementation and reporting in order to ensure coherent and integrated support to the implementation of the new Agenda by the United Nations development system. The relevant governing bodies should take action to review such support to implementation and to report on progress and obstacles. We welcome the ongoing dialogue in the Economic and Social Council on the longer-term positioning of the United Nations development system and look forward to taking action on these issues, as appropriate. 89. The high-level political forum will support participation in follow-up and review processes by the major groups and other relevant stakeholders in line with resolution 67/290. We call upon those actors to report on their contribution to the implementation of the Agenda. 90. We request the Secretary-General, in consultation with Member States, to prepare a report, for consideration at the seventieth session of the General Assembly in preparation for the 2016 meeting of the high-level political forum, which outlines critical milestones towards coherent, efficient and inclusive follow-up and review at the global level. The report should include a proposal on the organizational arrangements for State-led reviews at the high-level political forum under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council, including recommendations on voluntary common reporting

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guidelines. It should clarify institutional responsibilities and provide guidance on annual themes, on a sequence of thematic reviews, and on options for periodic reviews for the high-level political forum. 91. We reaffirm our unwavering commitment to achieving this Agenda and utilizing it to the full to transform our world for the better by 2030. 4th plenary meeting 25 September 2015



Instruments Mentioned in the Section Entitled “Sustainable Development Goals and Targets”

World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2302, No. 41032) General Assembly resolution, “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015– 2030,” A/RES/69/283, annex ii, June 3, 2015. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1833, No. 31363) General Assembly resolution, “The Future We Want”, A/RES/66/288, annex, July 27, 2012.

appendix i.2

The Future of United Nations Peace Operations: Implementation of the Recommendations of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations (hippo) Report of the Secretary-General September 2, 20151

Contents i Background 266 ii Introduction 266 iii Priorities for United Nations Peace Operations in Today’s World 268 Pursuit of Political Settlements 268 Protection of Civilians 269 Tailored and Appropriate Responses 270 Accountability 271 Global-Regional Partnerships 272 Renewed Focus on Prevention and Mediation 273 iv Implementing Our Priorities: An Agenda for Action 273 a Strengthening the Range of United Nations Responses: Capacities for Conflict Prevention and Mediation 274 Regional Offices 274 Strengthening Preventive Capacities of United Nations Country Teams 274 Human Rights Up Front 275 Early Action Through “Light Teams” 275 b Reinforced Global-Regional Partnerships 275 The African Union as a Key Partner 276

1 The future of United Nations peace operations: implementation of the recommendations of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations, Report of the Secretary-General, A/70/357-S/2015/682, September 2, 2015.

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���6 | doi 10.1163/9789004242227_006

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c Tailored Peace Operations 277 Analysis and Planning 278 Sequenced Mandates 279 Dialogue Between the Security Council, the Secretariat and Troop and Police Contributors 279 Engaging on National Priorities and Building Support for Action 280 Delivering Coherent Responses 280 Assessing Impact and Transitioning 282 Financing and Structures 283 d Agile Field Support 283 Empowering the Field 283 Standing Administrative Measures for Start-Ups and Emergencies 284 Rapidly Deployable Headquarters 285 Specialized Support Packages 285 e Speed, Capabilities and Performance of Uniformed Capabilities 285 Rapid Deployment of Uniformed Capabilities 285 Uniformed Capability Development and Performance 286 Training 288 f Safety and Security 289 Medical Standards and Capabilities 290 g Leadership and Accountability 291 Leadership 291 Sexual Exploitation and Abuse 292 Human Rights Standards 294 Environmental Awareness 294 v Conclusions: A Call for Change 295

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i Background 1. On 31 October 2014, I commissioned a High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations to conduct a comprehensive assessment of United Nations peace operations today and how they can be made more effective, efficient and responsive in a changing world. On 16 June 2015, the Panel delivered its report (A/70/95-S/2015/446). I thank and congratulate President José Ramos-Horta and the rest of the Panel for the excellent report that they have produced, after extensive consultations with Member States, other organizations and civil society groups. The present report constitutes my response to and agenda with which to take forward the recommendations of the Panel.

ii Introduction 2. “To save succeeding generations from the scourge of war”: the opening words of the Charter capture the purpose of the United Nations. Seventy years later, that objective has never appeared as urgent or as challenging. Since 2008 the number of major violent conflicts has almost tripled. Long-simmering d­ isputes have escalated or relapsed into wars, while new conflicts have emerged in countries and regions once considered stable. Labels assigned to conflict, such as “internal”, “inter-State”, “regional”, “ethnic” or “sectarian”, have become increasingly irrelevant as transnational forces of violent extremism and organized crime build on and abet local rivalries. Environmental degradation and resource deprivation are not contained by borders. Exclusion at home is driving tension abroad. The number of people displaced by war is approaching 60 million, and global humanitarian needs for 2015 amount to close to $20 billion. 3. Violent crises are drawing unprecedented levels of international engagement. United Nations special political missions and peacekeeping operations today deploy more than 128,000 people in 39 missions, more than at any time in their history. African and European regional organizations are undertaking crisis management operations across, and on occasion beyond, their continents. Multiple mediators, envoys and observers range the globe. International and national non-governmental organizations are deploying to conflict zones to help to de-escalate and monitor violence. Many of those efforts are contributing to saving lives and to mitigating the impact of violence. 4. However, the proliferation of conflict is outpacing our efforts. Millions of people continue to live in fear and misery. Failure to prevent or halt war in the Syrian Arab Republic, in South Sudan and elsewhere dominates public consciousness. In an era of social media, the horrifying excesses of violent extremism visit our homes daily. Divisions and competition between States are hindering coherent international responses where they are most needed. A profound uncertainty is emerging among our populations over the adequacy of global, regional and national institutions at a time when demands placed on them are greater than ever.

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5. Since its founding, the United Nations has worked to prevent, mitigate and resolve violent conflict through a range of actions, from support to human rights and inclusive development to prevention, peacemaking, peacekeeping, peacebuilding and longerterm recovery and reconstruction. Too often, however, efforts have been fragmented and unequal to the task. The limits of our engagement are reflected in United Nations peace operations, the most visible face of the Organization. Over six decades, they have shown a remarkable capacity to adjust to evolving situations and new demands, guided by well-established principles. However, missions are struggling to cope with the spread and intensity of conflicts today, and the lack of unity among Member States over their scope and application is thwarting their adaptation. Within peace operations, the shameful actions of some individuals are tarnishing the efforts of tens of thousands. I am convinced that we can and must do more to tackle such profound challenges. 6. The report of the Panel provides a solid foundation to do so. The Panel considers different environments and tasks that diverse peace operations confront today and offers bold and balanced recommendations to strengthen them. It urges us to restore the search for peaceful political settlement to the centre of United Nations efforts to prevent and resolve conflicts and protect civilians. It emphasizes partnerships with regional organizations, host Governments and local communities to achieve this. It calls for the “full spectrum” of peace operations to be used more flexibly, “a continuum of responses and smoother transitions between different phases of missions” enabled by a “field-focused administrative framework”. The Panel stresses the urgent need for new approaches to preventing conflicts and mediating disputes before violence erupts. 7. Those messages are complemented by other reviews before Member States in the coming months. The Advisory Group of Experts on the Review of the Peacebuilding Architecture points to fragmentation that weakens international efforts, and contends that sustaining peace must be a core task of the United Nations. The global study on the implementation of resolution 1325 (2000) examines progress in placing women at the centre of the United Nations peace and security agenda. The upcoming World Humanitarian Report and Summit will focus on the impact of conflict and exclusion on the safety and dignity of the most vulnerable. Later in 2015, I will introduce a plan of action that includes practical measures to prevent violent extremism. 8. There is a collective call for urgent change in how we conceive of our peace and security instruments, how we apply them and how we work together to maximize impact. Drawing on the Panel’s recommendations, the present report sets out priorities and the key actions required to bring them about. My action plan centres on three pillars: renewed focus on prevention and mediation; stronger regional-global partnerships; and new ways of planning and conducting United Nations peace operations to make them faster, more responsive and more accountable to the needs of countries and people in conflict. Some actions reflect my long-standing priorities, including the

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strong preventive focus of my Human Rights Up Front initiative. Others build on lessons, sometimes painful, from efforts to respond to conflict over the past eight years of my tenure. Some steps I have already initiated, while others require longer-term efforts and sustained attention. Together, they represent a comprehensive effort to strengthen United Nations peace operations and the Organization’s ability to address conflict. 9. To reflect the Panel’s recommendations, and to capture the holistic and tailored way in which United Nations peace and security tools must be used if we are to achieve better and more sustained effect, I use the term “peace operations” throughout the present report. The term refers to all field-based peace and security operations mandated or endorsed by the Security Council and/or the General Assembly, including peacekeeping operations and special political missions, as well as the envoys and regional offices carrying out my good offices.

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Pursuit of Political Settlements

10. The Panel reminds us that a negotiated political settlement is the fundamental objective of United Nations peace operations. The type of political settlement matters. Widespread violations of human rights often trigger a United Nations peace operation, and progress in the protection of those rights is a basis for its exit. The United Nations thus advocates for political settlements that promote peaceful and inclusive societies and help to advance human rights. This is not a lofty ideal; it makes hard practical sense, and is at the heart of the operational aspects of Human Rights Up Front. Societies with effective, inclusive and accountable institutions are more likely to withstand crises and peacefully manage disputes. Communities that recognize the dignity of each individual stand less chance of fuelling resentments that can manifest in extremism. 11. Political solutions to conflict rest, ultimately, on a country’s people and leaders. Effective conflict response, as the Panel notes, needs to take account of national and local priorities and needs. It must be directed at building domestic capacity to protect and strengthen inclusive peace. However, we must be honest about the challenges that this involves. Countries in conflict are de facto divided communities, reflecting a breakdown of consensus about which priorities and whose needs matter. Finding solutions may mean bringing in multiple voices and competing claims. It must mean that the United Nations speaks to all parties and all those exerting influence on them. 12. The ability of United Nations missions to engage all partners in crafting and maintaining political solutions is determined by their political weight. Peace operations do not deploy without significant international backing. However, support is not always

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sustained or accompanied by coordinated pressure on warring parties or those assisting them. In Darfur, United Nations peacekeepers work in a vacuum of political negotiations. In the Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen, my Envoys search for ways to initiate political processes, even as Member States and regional actors reinforce military and financial ­support to opposing sides. I fully endorse the Panel’s call for the Security Council to bring its collective political leverage to bear on behalf of political solutions. 13. Many of our missions grapple today with the consequences of political failure and the preference for quick fixes. In many cases, international efforts reproduce earlier formulas for conflict resolution: disarmament, elections, infrastructure and institutions, which are critical for a country’s recovery, as seen in Guinea-Bissau and Liberia. However, they must be built on political foundations and result in mechanisms that can accommodate diversity and differences. Technical interventions alone cannot replace the difficult task of assisting parties in finding political solutions. 14. The Panel’s call to place the search for political solutions at the heart of United Nations peace operations means that our engagement must be designed and implemented in ways that help conflict parties to arrive at and sustain a political settlement. Where short-term prospects are limited and support from parties, particularly the host State, for a United Nations peace operation is partial or wavering, I will provide frank assessments and recommendations to the Security Council as to what peace operations can be reasonably requested to deliver and where priorities should lie. 15. Political efforts must be backed by firm resolve, including, where required, the use of force. As we learned in Côte d’Ivoire, this can be essential to deterring and responding to violence against a political process. In some cases, the Security Council may request a United Nations peace operation to undertake specific and clearly delineated enforcement tasks in support of a political settlement that has broad international and domestic backing. However, a United Nations peace operation is not designed or equipped to impose political solutions through sustained use of force. It does not pursue military victory. As the Panel rightly recognizes, United Nations peace operations are not the appropriate tool for military counter-terrorism operations. They do deploy in violent and asymmetric threat environments, however, and must be capable of operating effectively and as safely as possible therein. In situations of grave risk to civilians, peace operations must be able to respond promptly and capably. Troop and police contributors should commit to and be ready to meet these requirements in operations with Chapter vii mandates. They must know and be consulted from the start on what will be expected of them and the responsibilities and risks entailed.



Protection of Civilians

16. I am proud of the progress that we have made in putting human rights at the centre of our peace and security efforts. They are an integral component of every United Nations peace operation and a core consideration for United Nations development

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and humanitarian activities. We have improved our ability to assess the potential of disputes turning violent and to draw the attention of national Governments and the Security Council to human rights violations. The success of such efforts relies on working closely with local communities and non-governmental organizations with deep knowledge of challenges and opportunities to advance people’s rights. 17. All United Nations peace operations today have the obligation to advocate the protection of civilians. This is a mission-wide task. Many non-military tools are available, including strong political advocacy, credible reporting and liaison with communities. Many missions support national authorities in carrying out their protection responsibilities, including through support to police, rule of law and security institutions and national action plans to better protect children and address sexual violence. I have directed that mission-wide strategies and coherent monitoring and reporting arrangements be put in place to reinforce the collective impact of critical protection activities. 18. Where missions have an explicit mandate to protect civilians, uniformed personnel must play their part, including, where necessary, through the use of force. This has been defined to mean preventive, pre-emptive and tactical use of force to protect civilians under threat of physical violence. The source and the nature of violence are not the determinant for action. Guns, machetes, rape, improvised explosives: these and more are used against civilians by all manner of armed actors. Missions must have the capabilities and command structures required to respond effectively, and uniformed personnel must comply with orders to prevent, deter and protect civilians against attacks. 19. Improvements made over the past 15 years to policies, rules of engagement and training are helping missions to protect civilians. However, as the Panel argued, wide and universal participation in missions is also vital to their effectiveness and credibility. Within Member States lie capabilities that can improve mission presence on the ground, risk assessments, communication, mobility and engineering. I call upon all Member States to contribute to peace operations by providing practical and political support. 20. I reaffirm my commitment to informing the Security Council of situations of escalating risk to civilians or serious shortfalls in the capability of missions to fulfil protection mandates. I stand ready to provide regular briefings to the Council on high-risk situations. I will investigate and inform the Council and Member States of any incident in which a mission, military unit or police contingent fails to act. In turn, I call upon the Council to respond actively and consistently to my requests for political and operational support, particularly in contexts where State parties are involved in attacks against civilians.



Tailored and Appropriate Responses

21. Peace operations offer a unique platform to draw together a wide range of United Nations capacities, serve as catalysts for bilateral and non-governmental attention

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and facilitate actions by United Nations and non-United Nations partners. This may be their greatest potential to address today’s complex crises, but we are failing to fully realize it. 22. One reason is our well-meaning attempt to neatly characterize conflicts and develop specific tools for each. However, conflicts rarely comply with categories. Violence erupts and subsides, stalemates persist for years, and lapses and relapses occur. Rebel groups may use terrorist tactics; national forces may prey on the populations that they exist to protect. An effective peace operation must be able to look ahead and constantly adjust its response using all United Nations instruments. 23. Similarly, we continue to frame mission mandates and postures in national terms, when the transnational nature of today’s conflicts threatens entire regions. Transforming peace operations into instruments that can address the regional dimensions of conflict requires a change in mindset across the Organization. 24. Today, as the Panel notes, more than half of United Nations Secretariat staff work in field operations, yet our administrative and financial policies and procedures, as well as intergovernmental processes, are not systematically configured to support dynamic field environments. As Secretary-General, I have tackled that disconnect. The establishment of the Department of Field Support was designed to accelerate our ability to deliver rapidly and effectively. That work needs to be completed. With the support of Member States, much can be done to design more appropriate responses, accelerate deployment, better prepare our personnel, adapt support to field conditions and needs and empower missions to make operational decisions in a timely manner. 25. A number of initiatives are under way to help to improve the global management of the Organization, including Umoja, the introduction of a career development and mobility framework and forthcoming proposals for a global service delivery model. I am committed to ensuring that those initiatives meet field needs. In the following section, I set out additional steps to better craft and tailor United Nations peace operations.

Accountability

26. A United Nations peace operation must reflect the values that it promotes. If we are not capable of interacting with our hosts, their citizens and their resources with respect, our actions will have little consequence. Strong leadership and accountability are essential. As the Panel emphasizes, a single act of misconduct can undermine the support of local populations and sully the international reputation of the United Nations. It is essential that United Nations personnel, both civilian and military, conduct themselves in a manner consistent with our values. The human rights record and performance of contributing countries is an integral part of this. 27. Sexual exploitation and abuse by a small minority of United Nations personnel continues to shame our Organization. Such abuse scars the lives of men, women and children. It is one of my greatest disappointments. I will continue to do everything within my authority to stamp out this scourge, and I set out below the additional steps

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that I am taking to do so. Member States must also assume their responsibilities. The Security Council must signal the importance that it assigns to high standards of accountability, and contributors must ensure that allegations of misconduct are investigated promptly and criminal accountability is enforced.



Global-Regional Partnerships

28. The Panel’s call for stronger global-regional partnerships is central to effective international peace and security engagements. Chapter viii of the Charter provides the foundation, but its operationalization depends on our collective will and ability to put in place predictable and efficient responses from diverse partners. We have made significant progress over the past 15 years: cooperation frameworks have been instituted between the United Nations and the African Union, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the European Union, the League of Arab States, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organization of American States, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Collective Security Treaty Organization, and regular secretariat-to-secretariat dialogue is held with a similar set of partners. 29. The structures, mandates and operations of our regional partners vary widely. Our interests and approaches sometimes differ. Our roles also vary. Sometimes the United Nations is called to convene and lead a peace and security response. Other times, it supports and enables the actions of others. A pragmatic and case-by-case approach is needed, starting with early communication and procedures for crisis consultation. 30. We also need to move away from improvisation in how we work together. Political strategies are left unaddressed at times or not pursued and coordinated consistently. People, troops, police, equipment and capabilities and support cooperation are generated and negotiated anew by each organization. We must build on our experience to establish standing arrangements and procedures that can be applied flexibly when operations are sequenced or parallel and support collaboration when the United Nations and regional organizations engage in the same mediation processes. 31. In situations of major conflict and mass violations of human rights, as the Panel notes, national, multinational and regional responses are often faster to deploy and more capable of combating well-equipped and determined belligerents. I welcome African Union efforts to fully operationalize the African Standby Force and the commitment by the European Union to engaging European Union Battlegroups, where appropriate, for crisis management. I intend to explore with those key partners how said capacities may serve as bridging forces pending the mobilization and deployment of a United Nations mission. 32. The international peace and security responsibilities shouldered by the African Union and regional economic communities and regional mechanisms in Africa have

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grown enormously in recent years. They represent a significant human and financial burden for African countries. We need to look for ways to share that burden. I am committed to strengthening arrangements that enable effective delivery by the African Union for our collective benefit and, where United Nations peace operations deploy alongside or after African Union missions, to reinforcing the political and operational benefits of cooperation.



Renewed Focus on Prevention and Mediation

iv

Implementing Our Priorities: An Agenda for Action

33. Ultimately, we cannot respond to the number and intensity of today’s crises by focusing only on conflict management. Prevention and mediation must return to the fore, a point also made by the Panel. The strengthening of United Nations prevention and mediation efforts, including envoys, regional offices, standing Headquarters capacity for good offices, standby mediation experts and support to United Nations country teams, has been one of my priorities. Mediation support capacity, for example, enabled more than 100 mediation advisers to deploy in 2014 in order to assist United Nations efforts or those of our partners to find political solutions. 34. At the rhetorical level, there is strong support for early warning and conflict prevention. However, this is not always translated into early action. Member States, which have the primary responsibility for preventing conflict, are often reluctant to attract a global spotlight on disputes at home and in their neighbourhood. The Security Council has at times been hesitant to consider crises at an early stage. The good offices of the Secretary-General have proven to be a powerful preventive tool. However, even discreet engagement, through dialogue and facilitation, human rights monitoring, expert teams and capacity-building, requires political support to be effective. When we engage too late or with insufficient support, our tools may no longer be sufficient to prevent violence, and they are then wrongly blamed for failing. 35. It is time to fulfil our commitment to prevention as the core function of the Organization. Strong Member State political support for United Nations prevention and mediation efforts can send a powerful signal that the global system is intent on reducing armed conflict. It can build confidence in the capacity of international organizations to advance peace. I set out below concrete steps that I believe are essential to expanding the range of United Nations capacities to tackle crises before they become conflicts that we struggle to resolve.

36. The present section sets out a near-term agenda to make United Nations peace operations fit for purpose, which I am acutely aware will extend beyond my tenure.

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I focus on steps that are being or can be taken forward in 2016, while offering thoughts on those actions to be considered by my successor and Member States.

a

Strengthening the Range of United Nations Responses: Capacities for Conflict Prevention and Mediation

37. Strengthening United Nations tools to prevent and mediate crises is helping to create faster and more cost-effective responses to conflict, yet successful early action, such as in Guinea, has failed to ignite political urgency for prevention. It is time we invest in making our tools more predictable and effective. I fully endorse the Panel’s call for a significant strengthening of and more reliable resourcing through the regular budget for the Secretariat’s core prevention and mediation capacities. 38. One of the most powerful prevention tools is the Security Council’s early engagement. Where united and resolute, the Council can bring important political and other resources to bear on a deteriorating situation. I will continue to explore different ways to bring the Council’s attention to such situations, including informal briefings and discussions and continued use of the “any other business” agenda item in informal consultations. In other contexts, however, discreet approaches stand a greater chance of success. I will elaborate further on those in my forthcoming report to the Council on conflict prevention.



Regional Offices



Strengthening Preventive Capacities of United Nations Country Teams

39. Regional offices have become one of the most effective operational tools of the United Nations in helping to defuse tensions and supporting national actors in reaching political settlements. As the recent engagement of the United Nations Office for West Africa in Burkina Faso, in partnership with the African Union and the Economic Community of West African States, demonstrates, they work with national actors, United Nations country teams, missions and regional partners to act early in a crisis and put in place joined-up responses. In West and Central Africa, as well as in Central Asia, they also contribute to developing collective responses to a range of longer-term transnational challenges, from organized crime to managing scarce natural resources. In addition, such offices are cost-effective: their annual budgets range from $3 million to $10 million. 40. Given the unique role that regional offices play, I strongly support the Panel’s call for the establishment of additional such offices where they might be of benefit. I am exploring with regional and national partners in North Africa and West Asia, as well as in Southern Africa, the establishment of such offices in those regions. As a crucial operational arm of the Organization’s core prevention mandate, regional offices should be resourced accordingly.

41. United Nations development actors play a critical role in drawing the attention of the United Nations to a deteriorating situation. They are often the first to face a

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burgeoning political crisis, and they support national counterparts in identifying risks to development and develop strategies to address them. In recent years we have made good progress in reinforcing their capacity, including through the deployment of peace and development advisers, human rights advisers and mediation expertise. We have also reinforced the capacities of resident coordinators in such situations. 42. The adoption of the sustainable development goals, notably goal 16, on peaceful and inclusive societies, offers a tremendous opportunity to strengthen collaboration between development and peace and security actors. In my capacity as Chair of the United Nations System Chief Executives Board for Coordination, I intend to engage leaders of the United Nations system organizations at upcoming Board sessions on how the United Nations system can be brought together to strengthen preventive and peacebuilding work. I have also requested the United Nations Development Group to take forward a review of current capacities of agencies, funds and programmes, which will feed into those and subsequent discussions.



Human Rights Up Front



Early Action through “Light Teams”

b

Reinforced Global-Regional Partnerships

43. My Human Rights Up Front initiative is another step to prioritize and reinforce system-wide prevention efforts. It seeks to strengthen the capacity of the United Nations system to identify earlier signs of serious human rights abuses and potential conflict and enable proactive and more effective responses that draw on all United Nations tools. I am pleased at the Panel’s strong endorsement of the initiative and will continue to strengthen it, including by institutionalizing regular reviews of high-risk situations by senior managers. Such reviews will ensure that United Nations action in the field is early, informed and driven by human rights priorities.

44. In situations of crisis or mission transition or when the United Nations in-country representative and presence require enhanced support, “light teams” of experts can help to bring together United Nations development, human rights and peace and security activities to craft a tailored approach to a specific situation. Operating under my good offices, these small, flexible and time-limited teams can deploy early and at low cost to work discreetly, under or in close consultation with resident coordinators, as appropriate, and national authorities to assess the situation, support national processes and facilitate engagement with partners. I appreciate the Panel’s endorsement of this important concept and will continue to make use of it when appropriate.

45. The establishment of effective global-regional partnerships will be a critical undertaking for Member States, regional partners and the United Nations in coming years. My report concerning cooperation between the United Nations and regional partners

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on mediation (A/70/328) reflects our experiences to date and how we can strengthen collective efforts. 46. Over the next year I intend to further institutionalize cooperation with those regional partners with which we work particularly closely, so as to enable consultation, common early warning and conflict analysis, and coordinated responses to the specific dynamics and needs of each region. With the European Union, we will fully implement agreed priorities to further strengthen our strong strategic partnership for 2015–2018. I share the Panel’s view that United Nations cooperation with the League of Arab States should be further strengthened, and our two secretariats are exploring the potential deployment of a small United Nations liaison presence.



The African Union as a Key Partner

47. With most United Nations peace operations in Africa, significant African Union peace operations under way and common mediation efforts across the continent, the African Union is the key regional partner of the United Nations. Our cooperation is underpinned by principles that apply to other regional partners, including consultative decision-making and appropriate common strategies for an integrated response to conflict, based on respective comparative advantage, transparency, accountability and respect for international norms and standards. The United Nations Secretariat and the African Union Commission are taking steps to finalize, in 2016, a Joint United Nations-African Union Framework for an Enhanced Partnership in Peace and Security, which will provide a blueprint for early and continuous engagement between our organizations before, during and after conflict and with a view to finding political solutions to the crises that we face. Principles of the Framework underpin the work of the United Nations Office to the African Union and the Peace and Security Department of the African Union, and the Framework has demonstrated the value of collaborative approaches. 48. If the United Nations is to fulfil its commitment to partnership with the African Union, we need to optimize the full range of potential support modalities, which may include a combination of voluntary, assessed and bilateral support. I concur with the Panel’s call for sustained, predictable and flexible funding mechanisms to support African Union peace operations. In that regard, I commend the African Union’s commitment to self-reliance, including to financing 25 per cent of future African Union peace operations. I urge Member States to give urgent consideration to how the United Nations can respond to that initiative. In support thereof, and further to my letter dated 2 January 2015 to the President of the Council (S/2015/3), I have requested the Secretariat to carry out, jointly with the African Union and in consultation with other partners, a review and assessment of various mechanisms currently available to finance and support African Union peace operations authorized by the Council. The

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review will be informed by the results of the recent strategic review of the United Nations Support Office for the African Union Mission in Somalia. 49. I recognize, as does the African Union, that any financing provided by the United Nations will depend on institutional capability to effectively plan, deploy and conduct peace operations and will be contingent on compliance with United Nations norms, standards and financial rules and regulations. Recent reform and restructuring initiatives of the African Union Commission are laying the foundations for more effective institutional processes. We are supporting a major effort by the Commission to identify an effective mission support concept for the African Union and the capacities needed to implement it. As part of that, we are exploring how the African Union could gain access to United Nations system contracts. In the meantime, we will ensure that the strategic deployment stocks of the United Nations remain available as a mechanism to provide the African Union with ready access to the goods and services required to establish and maintain its operations. 50. The United Nations will continue to provide technical and planning expertise to assist the African Union in conflict prevention, mediation, military and police planning, financial and logistics management, security sector reform, disarmament, demobilization and reintegration and mine action. We will also continue to support the African Union’s commitment to integrating human rights in its operations and to ensure that international human rights, humanitarian and refugee law standards are adhered to by forces deployed by the African Union so as to facilitate United Nations support in line with the human rights due diligence policy on United Nations support to non-United Nations security forces. Specific areas of work that we have agreed to support include predeployment training, monitoring and oversight mechanisms and screening of personnel. 51. I fully anticipate that United Nations and African Union peace operations will continue to deploy in sequence or in parallel in coming years. It is incumbent upon us to institutionalize consultative processes and, where appropriate, joint mechanisms. We have agreed to develop, by early 2016, a shared vision for benchmarks to guide transitions from African Union to United Nations operations, drawing on lessons from the Central African Republic, Mali and Somalia. We have also agreed to initiate joint work on standardizing the process of rehatting uniformed personnel from African Union to United Nations operations, which will address, inter alia, training, equipment, sustainment and performance standards, conduct and accountability, and logistics support requirements.

c

Tailored Peace Operations

52. The demands, impact and cost of today’s peace operations require comprehensive strengthening of the ways in which we plan and conduct operations. The call for tailored peace operations that can respond effectively across the lifetime of a conflict is one of the Panel’s recommendations that I will prioritize.

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Analysis and Planning

53. I fully endorse the Panel’s view, echoed by the Advisory Group of Experts on the Review of the Peacebuilding Architecture, that conflict analysis should systematically include considerations of human rights and threats to civilians, as well as the political, security, social, economic, gender and regional dimensions of a conflict. To that end, over the next six months, existing conflict analysis methodologies will be revised and new guidelines issued to enable systematic application of joined-up conflict analysis, as well as to strengthen and institutionalize the system-wide analysis and response mechanisms – the regional quarterly review and the Senior Action Group – set up under my Human Rights Up Front initiative. 54. The United Nations has a system-wide policy on integrated assessment and planning that provides a good basis for planning in contexts of peace operations. It needs to be consistently implemented and continually refined. As recommended by the Panel, and to support a strategic and coherent approach to United Nations conflict response from the earliest stage, I am establishing a small centralized analysis and planning capacity in my office within existing resources. That entity will draw on and compile information and analysis across the system to prepare strategic considerations and options for possible United Nations responses. It will translate my guidance into strategic directives that set out overall parameters for potential United Nations engagement, trigger strategic assessments where required and designate roles and responsibilities, including the lead department. The small capacity will also serve to ensure that integrated planning complies with my strategic directives and relevant planning policies across an operation’s lifetime. 55. Lead departments are responsible for taking forward integrated strategic assessments and planning processes. An empowered planner, working from the lead department and with planners across the system, will develop coherent and prioritized strategic plans. The Secretariat is compiling a list of senior planners, drawing on capacities within and outside the system. I also agree with the Panel’s recommendation to transfer responsibility for operational mission planning, as soon as feasible, to the field. Missions will be responsible for the preparation of mission and component operational plans that are coherent, interoperable and tailored to their operating environment. Lead departments at Headquarters will be responsible for review and approval, after assessing whether operational plans reflect strategic planning directives, are joined-up and reflect available resources. The Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department of Field Support have already begun to jointly approve military, police and support concepts. 56. Effective planning also requires capable and multidisciplinary planners. I am committed to enhancing training in conflict analysis and assessments, as well as strategic and operational planning, so that United Nations personnel are equipped to work capably together. I call upon Member States to support those efforts.

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Sequenced Mandates



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57. Quality analysis allows me to provide the Council with frank and well-considered advice that it needs in assessing options to respond to crisis. The decision to launch a peace operation, therefore, must be made in the context of sustained dialogue on emerging priorities and how the United Nations can address them. I support the Panel’s suggestion that the Council consider how it can better prioritize and sequence tasks that it sets for peace operations. Some recent Council mandates have taken welcome steps in that direction. 58. On the basis of clear political objectives, the Council may decide to establish an initial mandate and request me to return after a defined period with more comprehensive proposals for prioritized mission tasks, including assessment of the military, police, substantive and support capabilities required for implementation and options for rapid generation and deployment. 59. Where a significant presence is immediately required, for example in situations characterized by urgent protection needs, the Council may initially restrict the mandate to political, security and protection tasks, with the understanding that any further tasks are contingent on progress on the most immediate threats to civilians. In such cases, my reports would include a regular assessment of the mission’s political and protection effect, the extent to which the mission has the capabilities to fulfil its protection mandate and the additional political and practical support required. Such reports would also track progress towards a political process and identify options for changes to the mission’s strategy and mandate where progress is not forthcoming. When political openings occur, I would identify priority actions that a mission can take to support and advance them. 60. A benefit of sequenced approaches, in addition to better use of limited resources and better risk management, is that they enable United Nations peace operations to consult early with national and regional stakeholders in the design and delivery of mandated tasks. Sequencing also allows the Council greater potential to engage host States and regional partners on expectations and commitments. I welcome an early opportunity to discuss such options with the Council.

61. Sustained dialogue between the Council, the Secretariat and contributors is essential for shared understanding of appropriate responses and their implications for the mandate and conduct of a peace operation. That dialogue should begin before the mission is established. One option that could be considered is for the Secretariat to brief potential contributors together with Council members on its assessment of a conflict before an operation is authorized. This could serve to alert potential contributors and allow them to consider what capabilities might be required. It would also give

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the Council an opportunity to obtain insights on the challenges and opportunities involved in mandating certain tasks and in generating the required capabilities under specific time frames. 62. As the Council moves closer to authorizing or changing the mandate of an operation, a subsequent set of triangular consultations could be held to ensure clarity on planned priorities, operational implications and required capabilities. Such discussions would accompany ongoing memorandum of understanding negotiations between individual contributors and the Secretariat. To ensure full clarity on our mutual commitments, I have instructed the Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department of Field Support to include in each memorandum of understanding the relevant statement of unit requirements, which details the capabilities and standards to be provided and tasks to be undertaken. 63. Once the mandate of a peace operation is established, the Secretariat will regularly brief contributors and seek their views in assessing progress. It is incumbent upon us to immediately explain any changes or requirements that have implications for troops and police.



Engaging on National Priorities and Building Support for Action



Delivering Coherent Responses

64. Consent of national authorities is the basis for United Nations engagement in a country. I intend to explore with relevant host Governments the establishment of compacts as a way to ensure understanding of our mandates and status-of-mission agreements and, as appropriate, support coordinated international engagement. However, the support of local populations is essential for effective action. United Nations peace operations must foster public support immediately on deployment, and strategic communication and community engagement are essential. Where security conditions permit, peace operations will recruit national staff and community liaison officers, particularly women, from the outset. Public opinion surveys undertaken by many peace operations are a valuable means of regularly assessing progress and evolving community priorities. I have instructed that they be conducted regularly.

65. Once Security Council and national priorities are defined, my priority is the delivery of coherent United Nations responses. Integrated approaches allow us to create new ways of working together and enable specialist support to be provided from across the system. They are potentially more cost-effective where participating mission components and agencies co-locate staff, share services and put in place cost-sharing arrangements. I intend to accelerate the establishment of platforms for coordinated work in cross-cutting areas. The Global Focal Point for the Police, Justice and Corrections brings together the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, the United Nations Development Programme, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for

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Human Rights, the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (un-Women) and others to provide joint support in the areas of the rule of law and human rights in 19 countries with peace operations, as well as in other conflict and post-conflict settings. I intend to enhance that arrangement by strengthening its capacity for joint programme design and implementation. 66. Protection functions will also benefit from a more coherent framework of support to deliver greater impact. Beginning with careful and considered outreach to communities at the local level and extending to strong mission information management that informs action and feeds into protection responses, and reporting to the Council, a shared platform will strengthen response, monitoring and the coherence of multiple reporting functions, including for children and armed conflict and conflict-related sexual violence. Going forward, all peace operations with a protection of civilians mandate should have a senior protection of civilians adviser, located in the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General, to coordinate the development of mission-wide strategies and guidance for all components, in liaison with relevant protection actors, including the humanitarian protection cluster. With due consideration for the requirements of flexibility to respond to differing contexts, a dedicated capacity for specialized protection functions relating to child protection and conflict-related sexual violence will be consolidated within mission human rights components. The head of the component will be responsible, through the head of mission, for the implementation of those specialized mandates and ensure that the Special Representatives of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict and on Sexual Violence in Conflict have the engagement, information and support required for the delivery of their respective mandates. 67. Coherent mechanisms to support women’s full participation in peace and security are vital. Building on the successful pilot in Haiti, I have decided to henceforth request that the Senior Gender Adviser of United Nations peace operations be located in the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General, supported by gender expertise embedded in functional mission components. I am pleased that un-Women, the Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department of Political Affairs are putting in place arrangements to strengthen the provision of substantive and technical support to missions and to make full use of respective comparative advantages. My forthcoming report on the implementation of Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) details collective efforts to advance the women and peace and security agenda. 68. Jobs and livelihoods are another key concern for communities and one in which United Nations agencies and others have comparative advantages. Collaboration between the United Nations and the World Bank has been increasing, and the two organizations have a shared set of partnership objectives. To strengthen cooperation across security and justice sectors, core government functions and employment, I have instructed my senior management to propose a mechanism that brings together the

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United Nations, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and key regional banks to engage coherently in crisis countries. 69. I welcome the call by both the Panel and the Advisory Group of Experts to address shortfalls in financing the different activities needed to achieve and sustain peace. Efforts to deliver programmes demanded more frequently by Security Council mandates have been limited to an extension of the traditional resourcing model. Nevertheless, constructive options to apply available resources in enlisting partners to support mandate delivery exist. In that context, I am taking steps to ensure that forthcoming mission budget requests include the full range of resources required to implement mandates and that missions closely coordinate with the United Nations country teams in that work. We also need to look at how pooled country-level funds can support the delivery of coordinated support in cross-cutting areas and help to manage often volatile aid allocations. 70. My Peacebuilding Fund has become a proven instrument to assist with rapid, coherent and risk-tolerant funding that yields impact in sensitive political environments. It urgently needs additional resources to continue operations at the current level of $100 million per year. Going forward, I will actively explore, in close consultation with Member States and through appropriate intergovernmental bodies, options to provide predictable resources for the Fund. I intend to bring persistent financing gaps to the attention of the Council and the Peacebuilding Commission.



Assessing Impact and Transitioning

71. Regular assessment of mission progress enables operations to adapt their responses to a fast-evolving environment. While significant steps have been taken to establish integrated field assessments, the tools required to do so remain incomplete. Progress is often as complex to measure as it is to obtain. Better impact assessment could facilitate realistic benchmarks for missions, and a more results-focused formulation of budgets could better inform regular assessment and resource management. 72. Periodic independent evaluations could complement a more impact-focused approach. I am mindful that a myriad of routine and ad hoc assessments are undertaken by multiple Headquarters entities. I have instructed the streamlining of reviews to permit more systematic independent evaluations and will provide details in my forthcoming report on the overview of the financing of peacekeeping operations. 73. Ongoing analysis and impact measurement are equally essential to the successful transition of peace operations. They must be undertaken with national and United Nations partners that may take on and advance work initially carried out by peace operations. They should incorporate the assessment of capacities and resources of those actors. Côte d’Ivoire, Haiti and Liberia will be early cases for that approach, building on effective transitions in Sierra Leone and Timor-Leste. Sustained political engagement after transitions is also essential. The Peacebuilding Commission, as well as regional

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organizations and regional offices, holds significant potential and can play a valuable role in that regard.



Financing and Structures

74. Some of the existing financing arrangements applicable to the Secretariat are an obstacle to tailored peace operations and present challenges and cost inefficiencies with regard to efforts to draw on all tools available to the Organization. My report on the review of arrangements for funding and backstopping special political missions (A/66/340), which remains before the General Assembly for its consideration, presents options that address many of the obstacles to tailored peace operations. I support the Panel’s call to Member States to take immediate action on this critical issue. A tailored and coherent approach to peace operations will also require overcoming current hurdles to providing specialist support to field missions, whether human rights, mediation or electoral assistance to peacekeeping missions and military advice or rule of law support to special political missions. 75. As the Panel observes, the structure of the Secretariat may itself also present a challenge to a more coherent approach. Structures, in and of themselves, will not solve problems of coherence, speed and efficiency, but they can help to reduce inefficiency and support cooperation in planning and deploying peace operations. The Panel’s recommendation to restructure the Secretariat’s peace and security architecture will require a more comprehensive consideration that I will encourage my successor to undertake. Secretariat restructuring will be a necessary but insufficient condition to realize a tailored approach to peace operations and better calibrated responses to conflict.

d

Agile Field Support Empowering the Field

76. Tailored peace operations will remain an elusive goal unless we change the way in which we support missions. The current administrative framework for peace operations is often slow, cumbersome and averse to risk. The average length of time to recruit and deploy rostered civilian staff to a peace operation is 180 days, 120 of which are required to complete reference checks, medical clearance and travel to the duty station. At least 20 distinct steps are involved in engaging and deploying uniformed personnel, requiring the coordination of four different divisions within three separate departments. Current processes, when applied to volatile, poorly resourced and often remote environments, are proving ineffective. A collective change of culture, policies and approaches is needed. 77. We must look to best global practice in the administration of field-based organizations. That approach, practiced in most of our countries, is directed at aligning authorities and accountability with responsibilities. I intend to further empower field

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missions so that they can carry out their responsibilities and utilize resources effectively and accountably. 78. All United Nations managers must demonstrate responsible stewardship of funds and resources entrusted to the Organization. Increased authority of field managers will be accompanied, therefore, by strong efforts to strengthen mission management capabilities. I will hold managers accountable and will establish clear chains of command and guidance on the exercise of authorities. Accountability arrangements will include clear reporting requirements, efficient monitoring and support, and regular assessment of performance, as well as corrective action to support enhanced authority and decision-making responsibilities. 79. A tailored peace operation requires a dynamic workforce that can be adapted and resized to meet specific needs at any given time. The Organization should be able to quickly recruit and deploy qualified individuals under the most appropriate contractual modalities, discipline them for cause and terminate them if they are no longer required for the mandate or context. This is not possible under current arrangements. The recruitment of National Professional Officers is subject to the same criteria as that of international staff even in countries emerging from prolonged conflict, where conditions have not allowed them to meet those criteria. I intend to complete a review of the key processes that may not be supportive of our field operations by September 2016 and have requested a broader review of Secretariat policies and procedures, to be completed by September 2017. 80. I am committed to ensuring that field perspectives and needs are reflected in administrative policies and procedures. To that end, I am instituting formalized internal consultative mechanisms and representative field participation to ensure that policies and procedures are applicable to all Secretariat staff, including those working in the field, and that, where required, relevant field-specific arrangements are established.



Standing Administrative Measures for Start-Ups and Emergencies

81. I am putting in place, by the end of 2015, standing administrative measures for startup and crisis situations to go into effect for six months on a renewable basis upon the establishment of a peace operation or my certification of a crisis or emergency. Those measures include some exceptional measures approved in such situations as the Ebola crisis response, the Haiti earthquake of 2010 and more recent mission start-ups. Other obstacles to rapid and predictable response, such as the three-month limit on temporary duty assignments of personnel from Headquarters, were established through decisions of the General Assembly. As those impediments constrain the effective use of United Nations personnel surge support, I intend to present proposals to the Assembly in the context of my forthcoming report on the overview of the financing of peacekeeping operations.

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Rapidly Deployable Headquarters



Specialized Support Packages

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82. The Department of Field Support and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations will finalize, by early 2016, a concept and standard operating procedures for a rapidly deployable integrated civilian, military and police headquarters capacity that can be fully functional within 8 to 12 weeks of the issuance of a mandate. This will build on prior efforts, including by incorporating standardized designs, the use of strategic deployment stocks and modular solutions, standard operating procedures to facilitate the fast-track deployment of civilian, military and police personnel, and standby arrangements for the construction and sustainment of integrated headquarters and other mission components.

83. Force and police generation will remain the main vehicle to generate uniformed capabilities for peace operations. However, in start-up or emergency situations or when there are particularly challenging environments to navigate, a broader range of support options will need consideration. Logistics ­capabilities located elsewhere in the system, such as in the United Nations O ­ ffice for Project Services, can provide important enablers, and I will continue to draw on established arrangements that provide for their rapid engagement. 84. I will also invite regional partners and Member States that have c­ apabilities in key enabling areas to propose and provide specialist support packages to address specific substantive and support needs, particularly for short-duration tasks to address urgent field requirements or temporary gaps. They include engineering capabilities for infrastructure construction; immediate medical facilities and medical evacuation solutions; and strategic airlift support.

e

Speed, Capabilities and Performance of Uniformed Capabilities

85. The timely deployment and the effective performance of uniformed capabilities are where partnership between troop and police contributors and the Secretariat stands or fails. To improve the consistency and coordination of capability development initiatives, I intend to establish, with interested Member States, a single capability and performance framework for uniformed personnel. The Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations has a unique contribution to make to that work.



Rapid Deployment of Uniformed Capabilities

86. The Panel made a number of important recommendations to accelerate military and police deployment to peace operations, all of which I am pursuing. A small Strategic Force Generation and Capability Planning Cell has been established, through extrabudgetary resources, to engage current and potential troop and police contributors on a more timely and sustained basis on required capabilities, including female

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personnel. The Cell also manages the new Peacekeeping Capability Readiness System, which replaced the previous Standby Arrangements System. I will propose the institutionalization of that important function in my forthcoming request under the support account for peacekeeping operations. 87. The case for rapidly available capacity is incontestable. The political commitment and financial incentives to realize it, however, have been decades-long obstacles. Building on past experience, I am establishing three complementary rapidly deployable capacities that, with Member State support, can provide the basis for timely response when needed. All will draw on the integrated mission headquarters noted above. First, the Secretariat is developing requirements for standby units for a range of capabilities and will invite Member States and regional organizations to establish arrangements that could enable those capabilities to be drawn on under defined conditions and during defined time periods. Those standby capabilities will become part of the Peacekeeping Capability Readiness System and provide the backbone to early deployment. 88. Second, I will continue to explore arrangements for the rapid and time-bound transfer of assets and capabilities from existing missions to meet crises or start-up needs. While such inter-mission cooperation arrangements are not a substitute for properly resourced missions, they provide the means to respond quickly to changing circumstances, as during the crisis in Côte d’Ivoire in 2011 and the elections in Liberia. The quick reaction force subsequently deployed in the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire has significant potential to support nearby peace operations. I intend to build on that innovation and explore similar capacities in other regions, where authorized by the Council. 89. Third, pre-established arrangements between Member States, regional organizations and the Secretariat for strategic deployment capacity and the provision of key enablers are an emerging means of assisting faster deployment to start-up or crisis situations. We will continue to engage interested and capable Member States for the provision of national enabling capabilities through stand-alone agreements and the Peacekeeping Capability Readiness System. 90. A longer-term option is the small United Nations “vanguard capability” for mission start-ups or reinforcement, as proposed by the Panel, an intriguing concept to establish standby regional strategic reserve contingents that could deploy from a regional hub and be self-sustaining for up to 180 days. I have instructed the Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department of Field Support to explore the concept further for discussion with Member States.



Uniformed Capability Development and Performance

91. High-tempo environments call for a broader range of capabilities, including specialist functions, and a high degree of operational readiness. In asking contributors

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to do more, the Security Council and the Secretariat must also do more to support contributors in meeting capability and performance requirements. 92. Progress has been made, in cooperation with Member States, in establishing clear military unit standards and capabilities for most types of military units. Increasingly customized and precise unit requirements are being detailed for each peace operation. Such steps are facilitating triangular capacity-building initiatives between the Secretariat, troop contributors and countries with specific specialist capabilities. I welcome such initiatives and invite other Member States with the requisite skills and capacity to support similar developments of other specialist enabling capabilities, such as medical and signals units. 93. Development of police capabilities requires a similar concerted effort. The central pillars of the police strategic guidance framework will be in place by the end of 2015 and will provide a sound basis for cooperation between Member States and the Secretariat on the articulation of standards, tasks and training requirements of formed police units, specialized teams and individual police officers. Guidance and new modalities for planning and recruitment will be critical to improving coherence and interoperability. To support that effort, I have instructed the Police Division to undertake an external review of functions, structure and capacity and to present the results in my forthcoming report on United Nations policing. 94. New capabilities will continue to be required for United Nations peace operations. An effective system for the acquisition, analysis and operationalization of information for peace operations in complex environments is lacking. I have tasked the Secretariat with developing parameters for an information and intelligence framework that can support field missions in operating effectively and safely. I welcome further discussions with Member States on that urgent capability gap. 95. We must continue to work together to respond to the need for greater mobility in field operations. Operational effectiveness in high-tempo contexts, including the ability to protect civilians, requires proactive and forward-leaning postures, as well as flexible support mechanisms. I have directed the Secretariat to undertake a comprehensive review of issues related to in-mission mobility, as well as command and control of military enabling assets, by the second quarter of 2016. 96. The Department of Field Support and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations will consult with Member States to propose revisions of accommodation definitions and standards to focus on the provision of high-quality adaptable solutions that ensure acceptable living conditions for short- and long-term deployments while providing the mobility necessary to adapt to dynamic mission requirements, in advance of the meeting of the Working Group on Reimbursement of Contingent-Owned Equipment to be held in 2017. 97. All of the steps above are intended to ensure effective performance in the field, whose measurement requires clear performance standards. Building on the recent development of an operational readiness assurance framework, the proposed capability

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and performance framework should take forward their development. While predeployment preparations, supported by Secretariat visits, remain critical to ensuring operational readiness, regular assessments of units and equipment should also be conducted in missions. Such assessments would allow early identification of deficiencies, including as a result of operating in austere environments, enable contributors to be alerted and quickly address problems, and ensure that contingents receive the support or remedial training required. The critical role of the Office for the Peacekeeping Strategic Partnership in supporting field performance should be reinforced. 98. Every contributor must communicate, during negotiations over possible deployment, national caveats regarding the use of military or police contingents. The decision process in selecting forces for peace operations will take those caveats into account, including whether to proceed with deployment. Additional caveats beyond those explicitly agreed by the Secretariat cannot be accepted after deployment. I have instructed all missions to communicate to Headquarters any incidents of refusal to follow orders given by the Force Commander or the Police Commissioner, whether on grounds of new national caveats or others. The Secretariat will immediately inform the concerned Member State and, on a regular basis, the Security Council and, where no remedial action is forthcoming, will repatriate the unit concerned.

Training

99. The complexities of today’s operations require a collective effort to enhance the training of uniformed personnel for United Nations peace operations. The limited time available for predeployment training must be maximized to increase readiness and familiarity with United Nations standards and requirements. I am taking forward three interlinked initiatives to enhance predeployment training, set out below, and encourage Member States to support them. 100. First, as from January 2016, I will request Member States to provide certification for all uniformed personnel who have completed United Nations-specified predeployment training as part of force and police generation processes. The Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department of Field Support are strengthening their mobile training teams to provide targeted support to interested Member States in meeting that requirement. 101. Second, I have requested the two Departments to support the establishment of bilateral and regional training partnerships. That capacity would act as a hub to match Member States’ training capacity to needs, particularly in support of new and emerging troop and police contributors. 102. Third, I intend to establish a pilot train-the-trainer centre, supported by voluntary contributions, for uniformed personnel. The centre will reinforce the role of the United Nations in setting training standards and allow for earlier and more consistent engagement with Member States in the preparation of uniformed personnel.

The Future of United Nations Peace Operations

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Safety and Security

289

103. The deterioration of the global security environment has increased the complexity and the scale of security challenges for United Nations peace operations. The United Nations is a direct target for attack by some parties that do not view the Organization as an impartial entity or that consider its presence as an impediment to their objectives. The threat is aggravated, in certain contexts, by blurred lines between criminal and extremist groups and competition between them. Intense conflict has also increased the risk of indirect attacks against peace operations personnel. That threat environment will not improve significantly in the short term. Our focus must be on increasing the capability of the United Nations system to “stay and deliver” while ensuring the safety and security of United Nations personnel. 104. The increasing use of armoured vehicles and technology, improved communications, information gathering and analysis, training and quality medical care, as well as guard units, are some of the most effective ways to keep our personnel safe, and I will continue to pursue advances across all of those fronts. 105. To better integrate security efforts, I am taking forward the consolidation of all Secretariat security resources under the Department of Safety and Security, in line with General Assembly resolution 59/276, which will improve our ability to analyse threats and risks and deploy personnel according to field needs and priorities. Implementation of that ambitious initiative will begin early in 2016. It will be bolstered by the roll-out at the end of 2015 of a new security risk management policy and process that incorporates enhanced security threat assessment and management tools. Demand for regional analysis is being addressed through additional security analysts, the deployment of physical security specialists to regional offices, and increased surge support from Headquarters. 106. The new tools, together with enhanced implementation of the programme criticality framework, will support managers in making informed and time-sensitive decisions in high-risk environments as to which activities to undertake and how to manage risks to personnel. Gender-specific risk considerations are currently being developed to ensure that the security needs of female staff are met. A system-wide crisis management policy and department-specific operating procedures will be finalized to enable effective and coherent responses. 107. I strongly believe that the adoption of widely available and cost-effective technologies can make huge strides towards improving the safety and security of United Nations personnel and assets, as well as our capacity to protect civilians and to implement mandates effectively. The Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department of Field Support have put in place a strategy to implement the key recommendations of the recent Expert Panel on Technology and Innovation in United Nations Peacekeeping, and I look forward to progress in that regard. 108. Information management tools to improve data collection and recording of security incidents are one example of the benefits of technology. Those tools will be fully

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operational in selected missions by the end of 2015 and will help in determining proactive security responses. They will also strengthen the Organization’s capacity to systematically follow up with host Governments on their responsibility to investigate and prosecute perpetrators of crimes against United Nations personnel. I urge host States to cooperate in that regard. Furthermore, I have instructed the Department of Management, in coordination with the United Nations Operations and Crisis Centre and other entities, to take responsibility for the consolidated management of information regarding fatalities to ensure that administrative processes, including facilitating support to next of kin, are appropriately and consistently handled. The Panel has called for rates of compensation for death and disability to be given due consideration by the General Assembly, and I encourage Member States to do so. 109. Member States deploying uniformed personnel to peace operations also bear responsibility for ensuring that military and police operating in high-risk environments have the tactics, techniques and procedures necessary to do so effectively. The United Nations can and does provide on-demand specialized training and guidance, for example to manage risks of improvised explosive devices. However, it is up to Member States to ensure that blue helmets have the training required to operate in conflict, and lives are needlessly lost when that is not the case.



Medical Standards and Capabilities

110. Good medical and health care saves lives. Today’s peace operations urgently require medical capabilities that can meet emergency and trauma care needs. The new edition of the Medical Support Manual, which will be issued shortly, sets out revised international standards for casualty response required in all field missions. In addition, I initiated the establishment of a medical performance framework for United Nations peace operations. This will focus initially on level ii hospitals, United Nationsoperated level I clinics and aero-medical evacuation teams and will be progressively expanded to include all field health-care capabilities, both civilian and military. In cooperation with interested Member States, the project will define and set standards for the performance of care, the processes governing field hospitals and clinics, and ways in which emergency and trauma health care is delivered in the field. The results of the project will be fed into the meeting of the Working Group on Reimbursement of Contingent-Owned Equipment to be held in 2017. 111. I share contributors’ concerns at the challenges experienced by some missions in consistently responding to medical emergencies and in evacuating casualties. I requested the Department of Field Support, as a matter of priority, to review its aviation and casualty evacuation guidelines and internal procedures to ensure that missions can meet international standards of casualty evacuation. This will require a collective effort. Missions must improve their coordination processes and mechanisms to be able to respond quickly and predictably to casualties. Contributing countries

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must ensure that their troops are trained to perform emergency trauma care and that their level i clinics are capable of stabilizing casualties. Host States must support requests for medical and casualty evacuation support, including air space access. The Department is addressing, on a mission-by-mission basis, current impediments to night flight operations for purposes of casualty evacuation. In some missions, the composition of air fleets and medical facilities may need to be revisited to ensure that there are sufficient resources to meet emergency requirements in addition to more routine tasks.

g Leadership and Accountability Leadership

112. I am mindful of the immense responsibility that rests on leaders of United Nations peace operations. I welcome the Panel’s emphasis on the importance of selecting the right leaders and ensuring that they have the support necessary to provide political direction and executive management of often large and complex operations. 113. I will continue to appoint mission leaders on the basis of merit and the specific requirements of each situation, which will be reflected in tailored post profiles and competencies. They will include political acumen, mediation expertise, regional knowledge, management skills and linguistic capabilities. Candidates for mission leadership positions should also be assessed for their human rights commitment. The outreach mechanisms and predictable assessment and recruitment procedures that I have introduced over the past eight years have gone some way in strengthening leadership appointments and include efforts to attract the best force commanders and police commissioners. I encourage Member States to support those efforts. 114. Improving the representation of women in senior leadership has been a longstanding priority of mine. Gender diversity in leadership teams brings important perspectives and enables missions to engage a broader section of the population. Currently 23 per cent of heads of mission and 17 per cent of deputy heads of mission are female. I encourage Member States to share profiles of qualified women candidates for consideration as part of a global response to bring women to the fore. 115. Heads of peace operations need to be assisted by leadership teams with relevant experience and skills, particularly in United Nations policies and administrative systems. Leaders need to be able to draw on and work as part of a mutually reinforcing management team that includes deputies, chiefs of staff, mission support and individual components. I recognize that establishing and maintaining leadership teams with complementary competencies is a challenge. I have instructed my staff to develop leadership team profiles and competencies to provide criteria against which the rotating recruitment and selection of individual senior managers can be considered. My special representatives will also be consulted on senior appointments to their teams.

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116. The leadership of the United Nations country team is an important component of any such team. In non-mission settings, where the Resident Coordinator leads the country’s team’s approach to a crisis, it is particularly critical. I welcome the attention given by the Panel and the peacebuilding review to the importance of that post. A rigorous assessment process already exists to identify prospective resident coordinators, and I intend to further strengthen procedures to assess the ability of candidates to operate in politically sensitive and crisis environments. 117. I will strengthen comprehensive leadership training for incoming senior mission leaders using both United Nations System Staff College and Headquarters resources. A voluntary mentoring programme is currently being piloted to provide follow-up support after deployment; pending results and available resources, it could be made mandatory. 118. Performance management is another way of strengthening support provided to senior leaders. I am refining the senior manager compact for heads of mission to better reflect their multiple responsibilities, including directing mission-wide strategies and mainstreaming gender. Performance assessment tools are also being revised to ensure feedback on performance, as well as to strengthen interaction between field and Headquarters leadership. The results of such assessments will have an impact on decisions regarding appointment renewal.



Sexual Exploitation and Abuse

119. I have made it abundantly clear that the United Nations prohibits sexual exploitation and abuse. I am grateful for the endorsement by the General Assembly of the steps outlined in my most recent report on special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse (A/69/779) to further implement zero tolerance, and measures are already under way to put them in place. Most peace operations have already set up standing task forces on sexual exploitation and abuse. By the end of 2015 immediate response teams will be set up to gather and preserve evidence within 72 hours of receipt of an allegation. I have informed field operations and Member States that investigations of sexual exploitation and abuse allegations must be concluded within six months. Better follow-up and investigation requires Member State cooperation, and I urge troop-contributing countries to embed national investigation officers in their contingents. 120. I have clearly communicated my intent to impose strong sanctions against those who commit acts of misconduct and those who fail to take action against them, including mission leadership and command authorities. I have strengthened administrative sanctions against United Nations staff members found to have committed sexual exploitation and abuse, including placing them on administrative leave without pay pending completion of investigations. I have begun suspending payments where there

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are credible allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse implicating individual contingents or police personnel. I will repatriate contingents where there is a demonstrated pattern of abuse or non-response to allegations of misconduct and, as previously reported, consider terminating the deployment of uniformed personnel where there is a documented pattern of non-compliance with United Nations standards of conduct. I urge Member States to hold courts martial in host countries as a measure of visible accountability. 121. Detailed guidance to missions on standards and procedures for alerting United Nations Headquarters to instances of criminal misconduct by civilian, military or police personnel will be disseminated to missions early in 2016. Such cases will be referred to judicial authorities of host countries and, where relevant, the contributing country, for pursuit of criminal accountability under national law. Genuine accountability, however, rests on the cooperation of Member States. I urge Member States to demonstrate their commitment to ridding the United Nations of the scourge of sexual exploitation and abuse by concluding their discussions, pending since 2006, on a proposed international convention to ensure accountability of United Nations personnel in connection with crimes committed in peacekeeping operations. Continued failure to do so sends a terrible signal to the world. 122. I will continue to bring public light to misconduct. I have committed to publicly disclosing the nationality of personnel contributed by Member States being investigated for sexual exploitation and abuse and, in accordance with General Assembly resolution 69/307, will consult Member States on the reporting methodology that I am putting in place for that purpose. I have requested that issues of misconduct, including sexual exploitation and abuse, be added to the agenda of meetings of the Council to highlight developments on sexual exploitation and abuse. I have also proposed that the issue be placed on the agenda of meetings of the Council with troop and police contributors and that the Council review follow-up action on all reported cases. I urge the Council to take those initiatives forward. 123. We must reach out to affected communities and other partners. Missions have been instructed to put in place, by the second quarter of 2016, a framework to provide community-based mechanisms where people can more readily come forward to raise complaints regarding United Nations personnel. The creation of an adequately resourced victim assistance programme is under way with the development of terms of reference for a trust fund to support awareness-raising and community outreach and support to identified providers of services to victims. I shall report on its progress in my next report on special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. 124. Strengthened sexual exploitation and abuse prevention requires constant awareness-raising and training. The development of a mandatory e-learning programme on

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sexual exploitation and abuse for all field personnel is in progress, and a pilot will be rolled out in May 2016. I am expanding the vetting of civilian personnel to ensure that they do not have a history of sexual misconduct during prior service in the United Nations. Specific means for vetting military contingent and formed police unit personnel will be developed by the end of 2015. 125. I share the Panel’s assessment that United Nations peace operations must immediately inform relevant Governments and regional organizations of allegations of human rights violations and sexual exploitation and abuse by non-United Nations forces. I await the findings of the independent review panel on the United Nations response to allegations of sexual abuse by foreign military forces in the Central African Republic, on the basis of which I will establish procedures for external engagement with parallel presences and a dedicated system-wide lead to drive forward zero tolerance.



Human Rights Standards



Environmental Awareness

126. Since 2011, policies that require human rights screening of all United Nations civilian and uniformed personnel, as well as human rights due diligence for the provision of United Nations operational or training support to non-United Nations security forces, have been in place. I have tasked relevant United Nations entities with ensuring the systematic application of those policies. I call upon Member States to ensure the nomination and deployment of military and police personnel who meet United Nations standards as part of force generation and rehatting processes. I also call upon Member States, when their security forces receive United Nations operational or training support, to provide up-to-date relevant information to inform United Nations risk assessments under the due diligence policy. 127. State parties repeatedly listed in my annual reports on children and armed conflict and on conflict-related sexual violence will henceforth not be accepted for participation in United Nations peace operations. I have requested those troop and police contributors that are currently listed to engage with my respective Special Representatives in order to be delisted, by making and implementing specific time-bound commitments and concrete action plans to address violations for which they are listed. Failure to cease systematic violations and implement action plans expeditiously will result in their suspension from peace operations.

128. The environment has been one of my priorities as Secretary-General, and I am fully committed to ensuring that United Nations peace operations are a sustainable presence. A review of my 2009 environmental policy for United Nations field missions will be completed early in 2016 and will include measures to improve the health and safety of mission personnel and local populations while reducing harmful environmental

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impact from mission activities. It will be complemented by a new waste management policy for missions. 129. I also welcome the Panel’s recommendation that environmental impact assessments be carried out as part of the assessment and planning of new missions and regularly during the mission’s lifetime. I have requested the United Nations Environment Programme to provide support in establishing environmental baselines and monitoring benchmarks in peace operations. Some field missions have dedicated environmental units to develop and implement mission-specific environmental policies and oversee environmental compliance, although significant challenges remain.

v

Conclusions: A Call for Change

130. I approach my final year as Secretary-General with profound concern over the many challenges facing us. The scale and complexity of conflict today and the suffering that it creates threaten the international order established 70 years ago. We urgently need new and stronger ways to address international peace and security challenges. We must harness the full range of tools available: political, security, development, human rights and humanitarian, and we need to change the way in which we do business within and across that range. 131. The present report sets out how United Nations peace operations, when designed and conducted in more people-focused and targeted ways, can contribute to this global effort. It sets an agenda for action that reflects what I as Secretary-General can do to advance earlier, more tailored and more effective United Nations prevention and conflict responses. It provides a balanced and prioritized set of reforms to address the most urgent challenges facing peace operations today, while offering a basis for more long-term transformation. With smart and targeted investments in critical areas, substantial improvements can be achieved. 132. However, United Nations peace operations are only one of the tools that we urgently need. Without focused commitment on the part of Member States, the whole United Nations system, regional partners and other organizations to advancing and consolidating peace, today’s conflicts will rage into tomorrow, and yesterday’s conflicts will violently return. Peace operations are a collective tool. They are a vital part of a global commitment to preventing and resolving conflict, protecting civilians and sustaining peace. Adapting them requires a system-wide effort and the active engagement and support of the entire membership. I urge Member States to join me in this endeavour. 133. I recognize that it is no easy task. The global political and economic environment is perilously stretched. Resources are limited and the demands are many. Scepticism

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runs high. Yet those who gathered 70 years ago to create the United Nations also confronted a divided and distraught world. Those strains reinforced countries’ determination to invest in international peace and security. They understood that there is simply no alternative: we must, together, renew our resolve to “save succeeding generations from the scourge of war”.

Appendix I.3

Challenge of Sustaining Peace: Report of the Advisory Group of Experts on the Review of the Peacebuilding Architecture June 30, 20151

Summary The report was prepared at the request of the President of the General Assembly and the President of the Security Council by a seven-member advisory group of experts designated by the Secretary-General. It represents the first stage of a two-stage review of the role and positioning of the Peacebuilding Commission, the Peacebuilding Fund and the Peacebuilding Support Office, in addition to the operational entities of the United Nations active in peacebuilding. It is intended to nourish the second, intergovernmental stage, which it is hoped will lead to specific action to strengthen the Organization’s approach to sustaining peace In the view of the Advisory Group, the Organization’s peacebuilding architecture cannot be understood as limited to the Peacebuilding Commission, the Peacebuilding Fund and the Peacebuilding Support Office. Rather, the shortcomings in efforts to fill the gaping hole in the Organization’s institutional machinery for building peace are systemic in nature. They result from a generalized misunderstanding of the nature of peacebuilding and, even more, from the fragmentation of the United Nations into separate silos. On the first point, for many States Members of the United Nations and United Nations entities alike, peacebuilding is left as an afterthought: underprioritized, underresourced and undertaken only after the guns fall silent. Sustaining peace, however, is among the core tasks established for the Organization by the vision set out in the Charter of the United Nations of saving succeeding generations from the scourge of war. It must be the principle that flows through all the Organization’s engagements, informing all its activities – before, during and after violent conflicts – rather than being marginalized. On the second point, several principal intergovernmental organs, and especially the Security Council, hold pieces of the peacebuilding puzzle, each from the vantage point of its particular responsibilities under the Charter. The fragmentation between them is reproduced throughout the United Nations: within the Secretariat, between the 1 Challenge of sustaining peace, Report of the Advisory Group of Experts on the Review of the Peacebuilding Architecture, Summary, A/69/968–S/2015/490, June 30, 2015. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���6 | doi 10.1163/9789004242227_007

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S­ ecretariat and the rest of the Organization, and in operations on the ground where peacebuilding actually takes place. This problem has long been recognized, but periodic attempts to tackle it have been frustrated. The human and financial costs of lapse and relapse into conflict have become intolerable and call for urgent resolution. In Section i of the report, the concept of “sustaining peace” is introduced. In Section ii, the Advisory Group outlines, in broad strokes, the changing global context for conflict and peacebuilding. After two decades of steady decline, major civil conflicts are once more on the rise. Worse, those conflicts have become more complex, increasingly fragmented and intractable. The drivers of violence – some radically new, some long-standing – raise serious implications for United Nations, international and regional efforts to support national processes to move beyond conflict. A broader, comprehensive approach of sustaining peace is called for, all along the arc leading from conflict prevention (on which, in particular, the United Nations system needs to place much greater emphasis), through peacemaking and peacekeeping, and on to post-conflict recovery and reconstruction. The success of such an approach critically relies on uniting the peace and security, human rights and development pillars of the Organization. A second critical determinant of success is fostering inclusive national ownership. In the aftermath of violence, neither a cohesive nation State nor an inclusive system of governance can be taken as a given. The national responsibility to drive efforts to sustain peace must therefore be broadly shared across all key social strata and divides. A wide spectrum of political opinions and national actors, in particular women and young people, must be heard. Success also depends on establishing and adhering to realistic timelines for United Nations peace operations and other peacebuilding engagements – and even more so for development assistance. Sustaining peace after conflict is a particularly lengthy and costly challenge. Evidence strongly suggests that undue haste and a narrow focus on cessation of hostilities rather than addressing root causes are significant factors in relapse. In Section iii of the report, the Advisory Group presents an assessment not only of what the Organization has done well, but, more importantly, what it has done poorly. A major conclusion, expressed quite candidly, is that, by allowing the Organization’s overall fragmentation to continue, Member States are themselves part of the problem. The flipside is that they can and must be part of the solution. Simply put, they must accept the need for the various parts of the United Nations to work together on peacebuilding and find ways to assist them to do so. Without a successful formula through which to unite the common efforts of the three pillars, United Nations efforts to sustain peace will continue to fail. In Section iv, the Advisory Group presents specific proposals to build coherence in delivering sustainable peace, which are described below.

Challenge of Sustaining Peace



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Promoting Coherence at the Intergovernmental Level

The Peacebuilding Commission should become the advisory bridge between the relevant intergovernmental organs that it was always intended to be. Its main functions would continue to be engaging in advocacy, providing assistance in marshalling resources, providing assistance in improving coordination within and outside the Organization, engaging in strategic thinking and formulating policy recommendations and offering a meeting place for interested parties. The Commission should, however, undertake more of its work through its full membership, become much more flexible and transparent in its working practices and place greater emphasis on advising and advocating. Through its full membership, it should also be accountable to the relevant principal intergovernmental organs and realize the bridging between them in that way. The success of the above will particularly depend on a deepened commitment from the main intergovernmental peacebuilding actor, the Security Council, which should regularly request and draw upon the advice of the Peacebuilding Commission on the peacebuilding dimensions of mandates, with the Commission in turn supported by a strengthened and upgraded Peacebuilding Support Office working closely with relevant United Nations entities. The Council should also consider passing to the Commission’s responsibility continued accompaniment of countries on the Council’s agenda where and when peace consolidation has sufficiently progressed.



Improving the Peacebuilding Capability of the United Nations System

A range of measures is vital to improving delivery on the ground. The United Nations system needs to pay more attention to the timing and management of transitions between various forms of United Nations engagement: between different kinds of mission and from United Nations country teams to missions and back. Enhancing the authority and capacity of United Nations leaders on the ground in conflict-prone and conflict-affected countries, ensuring that there is continuity in leadership across different engagements and providing United Nations leaders with the resources necessary to carry out their mandates are all critical to serving people in need and enhancing the Organization’s credibility. Lastly, sustaining peace – which, fundamentally, concerns reconciliation and building a common vision of a society – must be understood as a task that only national stakeholders can undertake. The United Nations and international actors can accompany and facilitate the process, but not lead it.

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Partnering to Sustain Peace

The scale of the challenge of sustaining peace means that the United Nations cannot succeed alone. Closer strategic and operational partnerships with the international financial institutions and with regional and subregional organizations are critical. The United Nations must accord priority to developing and deepening both.



Ensuring More Predictable Peacebuilding Financing

A decade of focus notwithstanding, financing for efforts to sustain peace remains scarce, inconsistent and unpredictable. Here also, strategic partnerships and pooling of funding between the United Nations, the World Bank and other bilateral and multilateral financial institutions will maximize impact and share risk. The Peacebuilding Fund should play to its comparative advantage as a rapid, impactful, procedurally light and risk-taking investor of first resort in efforts to sustain peace. Providing the Fund annually with a symbolic 1 per cent of the value of the total United Nations budget for peace operations as core funding from assessed contributions would help to close the gap between mandates and programme resources. Providing assessed contributions for the programmatic dimensions of peace operation mandates would also assist in that regard.



Improving Leadership and Broadening Inclusion

Building national leadership is an integral part of a reconciliation and nation-building agenda. The United Nations must focus particular support thereon. It should also accord priority support to broadening inclusion so that peacebuilding processes are nationally owned in the fullest sense. Efforts must particularly accelerate to attain and then surpass the target set by the Secretary-General of allocating 15 per cent of United Nations-managed funds to post-conflict peacebuilding projects that advance gender equality, empower women and address women’s specific needs in peacebuilding contexts. If all those measures are implemented together, they will represent a fundamental redefinition of and reorientation in the Organization’s work: one through which the challenge of sustaining peace is genuinely seen as central to the vision set out in the Charter of saving succeeding generations from the scourge of war.

appendix i.4

The Secretary-General’s Five-Year Action Agenda January 25, 20121

Contents Generational Imperatives and Opportunities 302 i Sustainable Development 302 ii Prevention 304 iii Building a Safer and More Secure World by Innovating and Building on Our Core Business 304 iv Supporting Nations in Transition 305 v Working with and for Women and Young People 306 Enablers 306 i Harnessing the Full Power of Partnership Across the Range of un Activities 306 ii Strengthening the United Nations 307

1 http://www.un.org/sg/priorities/ (November 18, 2015).

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The currents of change are transforming our human and physical geography. Demographic transformation, the emergence of new centres of economic dynamism, accelerating inequality within and across nations, challenges to the existing social contract by a disillusioned, mobilized citizenry, technological and organizational transformation linking people directly as never before and climate change are all placing the foundations of our world and our global system under unprecedented stress. They are driving not just incremental but exponential change. They are deeply connected and increasingly complex. To ensure that our generation and future generations benefit from the opportunities presented by this changing reality and are able to mitigate increased risks, the global community will need to work together in unprecedented ways. The United Nations is uniquely positioned to facilitate such action because it can provide integrated solutions across interconnected issues areas such as development, peace and security, human rights and humanitarian action. It can facilitate universal dialogue to arrive at joint solutions and mobilize new constituencies to join Governments 2 and international organizations to address global problems and share burdens, and it can legitimize new norms, structures and processes for international cooperation. The next five years will be crucial for defining and agreeing on a common vision for the future, making path-shaping investments, broadening the base of constituencies working together and adopting a flexible but robust international architecture that can address the increasing stresses on our international system. The un can play a central role in strengthening international governance and establishing constructive patterns of collaboration to manage unprecedented threats and demands for change and to take advantage of new generational opportunities. This agenda sets out a series of actions that I believe the global community must take over the next five years. This will require mobilizing all the human, financial and political resources available to the United Nations in order to catalyse the type of global collaboration that is possible, necessary and timely. It will also require our renewed commitment to mobilize the international support measures required to address the socioeconomic development needs of countries in special situations. This agenda describes specific measures regarding each of the five generational opportunities and two primary enablers that I laid out in my speech to the General Assembly this past September.



Generational Imperatives and Opportunities

i

Sustainable Development

1. Accelerate progress on the millennium development goals – Keep the world solidly on track to meet poverty reduction targets focusing on inequalities, making particular efforts in countries with special needs and in those which have not achieved sufficient progress.

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– Complete the final drive to eliminate by 2015 deaths from top killers: malaria; polio; new paediatric hiv infections; maternal and neonatal tetanus; and measles. – Fully implement the global strategy on women and children’s health to save tens of millions of lives, including through the provision of reproductive health services to meet unmet global needs. – Unlock the potential of current and future generations by putting an end to the hidden tragedy of stunting of almost 200 million children by mobilizing financial, human and political resources commensurate with the challenge. – Stimulate generational progress by catalysing a global movement to achieve quality, relevant and universal education for the twenty-first century. 2. Address climate change – Facilitate mitigation and adaptation action on the ground: – Promote climate financing by operationalizing the Green Climate Fund and set public and private funds on a trajectory to reach the agreed amount of $100 billion by 2020. Ensure effective delivery of all fast-start financing. Deepen understanding of the economic costs of climate change, and the corresponding financing needs, including through mapping regional and subregional vulnerability hotspots. – Facilitate and execute agreements on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (redd+) to protect forests and sustain the livelihoods of the people who depend on them. – By 2015, secure a comprehensive climate change agreement applicable to all parties with legal force under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. – Strengthen, defend and use climate science to make and promote evidencebased policy. 3. Forge consensus around a post-2015 sustainable development framework and implement it – Define a new generation of sustainable development goals building on the mdgs and outline a road map for consideration by Member States. – Mobilize the un system to support global, regional and national strategies to address the building blocks of sustainable development: – Energy: Mobilize a broad multi-stakeholder coalition under the Sustainable Energy for All initiative to achieve universal access to modern energy services, double the rate of improvement in energy efficiency and double the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix, all by 2030. – Food and nutrition: Adopt globally agreed goals for food and nutrition security, mobilize all key stakeholders to provide support to smallholder farmers and food processors and bolster the resilience of communities and nations experiencing periodic food crises. – Water: Launch and execute a un-wide initiative to provide universal access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation globally.

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appendix i.4 – Oceans: Agree to a compact on oceans that will address overfishing and pollution by improving the governance of oceans and coastal habitats and by developing an institutional and legal framework for the protection of ocean biodiversity. – Transport: Convene aviation, marine, ferry, rail, road and urban public transport providers, along with Governments and investors, to develop and take action on recommendations for more sustainable transport systems that can address rising congestion and pollution worldwide, particularly in urban areas. – Work with Member States to make Antarctica a world nature preserve.

ii Prevention 1. Support the development and implementation of national disaster risk reduction plans that address growing challenges of climate change, environmental degradation, urbanization and population growth. Special emphasis should be placed on the least 6 developed and most vulnerable countries, including by providing a platform for South-South cooperation and facilitating the use of innovative methods and technologies. 2. Prioritize early warning and early action on preventing violent conflict by: – Mapping, linking, collecting and integrating information from across the international system – Supporting national capacities for facilitation and dialogue – Ensuring that un good offices, mediation, crisis response and peacebuilding services are easily and rapidly deployable 3. Advance a preventive approach to human rights by: – Developing a policy framework that identifies basic elements needed to prevent human rights violations – Establishing a preventive matrix that will chart progress and gaps in the use of a range of human rights instruments – Advancing the responsibility to protect agenda 4. Build resilience to external economic and financial shocks by helping countries identify vulnerabilities rapidly and adopt adequate social safety nets and policies that promote job-led growth.

iii

Building a Safer and More Secure World by Innovating and Building on Our Core Business

1. Construct an enhanced partnership for peacekeeping, building on a renewed commitment to: – Share the burden and strongly collaborate with regional organizations

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– Ensure that peacekeepers have the necessary capacities and support to meet

with increased speed and nimbleness the demands of increasingly complex operations – Enhance the ability of the un to provide civilian protection 2. Build a more global, accountable and robust humanitarian system: – Enhancing collaboration among humanitarian organizations, particularly from the global South, at the local, national and regional levels, to strengthen community resilience and emergency response, and establishing a monitoring system to assess progress on the implementation of preparedness measures – Building a shared international commitment to strengthen aid transparency and commitment, including by promoting a global declaration and agenda for humanitarian aid transparency and effectiveness – Expanding support for pooled funding mechanisms, including the Central Emergency Response Fund, and identifying with stakeholders additional sources and methods of innovative financing for emergency preparedness – Convening a world humanitarian summit to help share knowledge and establish common best practices among the wide spectrum of organizations involved in humanitarian action 3. Revitalizing the global disarmament and non-proliferation agenda in the field of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction as well as conventional arms, and strengthening the role of the un in dealing with related emerging issues, including nuclear security and safety and arms trade, as well as outstanding regional issues. 4. Enhance coherence and scale up counter-terrorism efforts to better support Member States in their implementation of the un Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy and their own national counter-terrorism plans. This should include consideration by relevant intergovernmental bodies of creating a single un counter-terrorism coordinator. 5. Address the heightened threat of organized crime, piracy and drug trafficking by mobilizing collective action and developing new tools and comprehensive regional and global strategies. This will require integrating rule of law, public health and human rights responses.

iv

Supporting Nations in Transition

1. Develop best practices and scale up un capacity and support in key areas of comparative advantage, including peacebuilding, human rights, the rule of law, electoral assistance, national reconciliation, dispute resolution, anti-corruption measures, constitution-making and power-sharing arrangements and democratic practices. 2. Support “transition compacts” with agreed strategic objectives and mutual accountability in fragile and conflict environments.

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3. Advocate for and establish an age of accountability by combating impunity for serious international crimes through strengthening the international criminal justice system, supported and enhanced by capacity-building measures to strengthen national judiciaries. 4. Deepen strategic and operational collaboration with international and regional organizations, including international financial institutions and regional development banks, and other stakeholders.

v

Working with and for Women and Young People

1. Deepen the un campaign to end violence against women by enhancing support for countries to adopt legislation that criminalizes violence against women and provides reparations and remedies to victims, provide women with access to justice and pursue and prosecute perpetrators of violence against women. 2. Promote women’s political participation worldwide by encouraging countries to adopt measures that guarantee women’s equal access to political leadership, managing elections to promote women’s engagement and building the capacity of women to be effective leaders. Place a special focus on the Secretary-General’s seven-point action plan on women’s participation in peacebuilding. 3. Develop an action agenda for ensuring the full participation of women in social and economic recovery through a multi-stakeholder partnership with government, the private sector and civil society. This should include recommendations on inheritance laws, wages, childcare, work-sharing and taxes. 4. Address the needs of the largest generation of young people the world has ever known by deepening the youth focus of existing programmes on employment, entrepreneurship, political inclusion, citizenship and protection of rights, and education, including on reproductive health. To help advance this agenda, the un system will develop and implement an action plan, create a youth volunteer programme under the umbrella of the un Volunteers and appoint a new Special Adviser for Youth.

Enablers i

Harnessing the Full Power of Partnership Across the Range of un Activities

1. Scale up un capacity to engage in transformative multi-stakeholder partnerships with the private sector, civil society, philanthropists and academia across a broader range of issue areas by creating a new un Partnership Facility, which will catalyse commitments and promote accountability.

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2. Consolidate functions to create a coherent capacity for partnering consisting of the Global Compact and the un Partnership Facility and coordinate system-wide partnership efforts. 3. Enhance un capacity to engage with traditional and new constituencies using the full range of outreach tools, including social media.

ii

Strengthening the United Nations

1. Ensure the more effective delivery of mandates and do more within recognized resource constraints through innovation and change management initiatives, including by facilitating a review of the current budget process. 2. Build a modern workforce supported by a global Secretariat that shares financial, human and physical resources, knowledge and information technology more effectively, including through the robust implementation of the Umoja initiative. 3. Make the United Nations more open, flexible and accountable, including by adopting a results-based planning, accountability and management system, streamlining budgeting and implementing a system-wide risk management approach. 4. Launch a second generation of “Delivering as one”, which will focus on managing and monitoring for results, ensuring increased accountability and improved outcomes. 5. Enhance the safety and security of un staff by mainstreaming security resource and personnel decisions through all relevant planning and budget processes, increasing security threat analysis capabilities at more un field locations and improving national and international staff security training to match the threat environments in which the un operates. The un must also increase its support for staff affected by trauma.

Appendix ii Supporting Information

∵

Appendix ii.1

Charter of the United Nations Contents

Preamble 312 i Purposes and Principles 312 ii Membership 314 iii Organs 314 iv The General Assembly 315 v The Security Council 318 vi Pacific Settlement of Disputes 321 vii Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression 322 viii Regional Arrangements 325 ix International Economic and Social Cooperation 326 x The Economic and Social Council 327 xi Declaration Regarding Non-Self-Governing Territories 330 xii International Trusteeship System 331 xiii The Trusteeship Council 334 xiv The International Court of Justice 335 xv The Secretariat 336 xvi Miscellaneous Provisions 337 xvii Transitional Security Arrangements 338 xviii Amendments 338 xix Ratification and Signature 339

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Preamble we the peoples of the united nations, determined

– to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and

– to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and – to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and – to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, and for these ends

– to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, and

– to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and – to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and

– to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples,

have resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish these aims Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations.

Chapter i: Purposes and Principles

Article 1

The Purposes of the United Nations are: 1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the

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suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace; 2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace; 3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and 4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends.



Article 2

The Organization and its Members, in pursuit of the Purposes stated in Article 1, shall act in accordance with the following Principles. 1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members. 2. All Members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall fulfil in good faith the obligations assumed by them in accordance with the present Charter. 3. All Members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered. 4. All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations. 5. All Members shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the present Charter, and shall refrain from giving assistance to any state against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action. 6. The Organization shall ensure that states which are not Members of the United Nations act in accordance with these Principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security. 7. Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the Members to submit such matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice the application of enforcement measures under Chapter vii.

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Chapter ii: Membership

Article 3



Article 4



Article 5



Article 6

The original Members of the United Nations shall be the states which, having participated in the United Nations Conference on International Organization at San Francisco, or having previously signed the Declaration by United Nations of 1 January 1942, sign the present Charter and ratify it in accordance with Article 110.

1. Membership in the United Nations is open to a other peace-loving states which accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations. 2. The admission of any such state to membership in the Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.

A Member of the United Nations against which preventive or enforcement action has been taken by the Security Council may be suspended from the exercise of the rights and privileges of membership by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The exercise of these rights and privileges may be restored by the Security Council.

A Member of the United Nations which has persistently violated the Principles contained in the present Charter may be expelled from the Organization by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.

Chapter iii: Organs

Article 7



Article 8

1. There are established as the principal organs of the United Nations: a General Assembly, a Security Council, an Economic and Social Council, a Trusteeship Council, an International Court of Justice, and a Secretariat. 2. Such subsidiary organs as may be found necessary may be established in accordance with the present Charter.

The United Nations shall place no restrictions on the eligibility of men and women to participate in any capacity and under conditions of equality in its principal and subsidiary organs.

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Chapter iv: The General Assembly Composition



Article 9

1. The General Assembly shall consist of all the Members of the United Nations. 2. Each Member shall have not more than five representatives in the General Assembly. Functions and Powers



Article 10



Article 11

The General Assembly may discuss any questions or any matters within the scope of the present Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any organs provided for in the present Charter, and, except as provided in Article 12, may make recommendations to the Members of the United Nations or to the Security Council or to both on any such questions or matters.

1. The General Assembly may consider the general principles of co-operation in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments, and may make recommendations with regard to such principles to the Members or to the Security Council or to both. 2. The General Assembly may discuss any questions relating to the maintenance of international peace and security brought before it by any Member of the United Nations, or by the Security Council, or by a state which is not a Member of the United Nations in accordance with Article 35, paragraph 2, and, except as provided in Article 12, may make recommendations with regard to any such questions to the state or states concerned or to the Security Council or to both. Any such question on which action is necessary shall be referred to the Security Council by the General Assembly either before or after discussion. 3. The General Assembly may call the attention of the Security Council to situations which are likely to endanger international peace and security. 4. The powers of the General Assembly set forth in this Article shall not limit the general scope of Article 10.

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Article 12



Article 13



Article 14



Article 15

1. While the Security Council is exercising in respect of any dispute or situation the functions assigned to it in the present Charter, the General Assembly shall not make any recommendation with regard to that dispute or situation unless the Security Council so requests. 2. The Secretary-General, with the consent of the Security Council, shall notify the General Assembly at each session of any matters relative to the maintenance of international peace and security which are being dealt with by the Security Council and similarly notify the General Assembly, or the Members of the United Nations if the General Assembly is not in session, immediately the Security Council ceases to deal with such matters.

1. The General Assembly shall initiate studies and make recommendations for the purpose of: a. promoting international co-operation in the political field and encouraging the progressive development of international law and its codification; b. promoting international co-operation in the economic, social, cultural, educational, and health fields, an assisting in the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion. 2. The further responsibilities, functions and powers of the General Assembly with respect to matters mentioned in paragraph 1(b) above are set forth in Chapters ix and x.

Subject to the provisions of Article 12, the General Assembly may recommend measures for the peaceful adjustment of any situation, regardless of origin, which it deems likely to impair the general welfare or friendly relations among nations, including situations resulting from a violation of the provisions of the present Charter setting forth the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations.

1. The General Assembly shall receive and consider annual and special reports from the Security Council; these reports shall include an account of the measures that the Security Council has decided upon or taken to maintain international peace and security.

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2. The General Assembly shall receive and consider reports from the other organs of the United Nations.



Article 16



Article 17

The General Assembly shall perform such functions with respect to the international trusteeship system as are assigned to it under Chapters xii and xiii, including the approval of the trusteeship agreements for areas not designated as strategic.

1. The General Assembly shall consider and approve the budget of the Organization. 2. The expenses of the Organization shall be borne by the Members as apportioned by the General Assembly. 3. The Assembly shall consider and approve any financial and budgetary arrangements with specialize agencies referred to in Article 57 and shall examine the administrative budgets of such specialized agencies with a view to making recommendations to the agencies concerned. Voting



Article 18



Article 19

1. Each member of the General Assembly shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the General Assembly on important questions shall be made by a two- thirds majority of the members present and voting. These questions shall include: recommendations with respect to the maintenance of international peace and security, the election of the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the election of the members of the Economic and Social Council, the election of members of the Trusteeship Council in accordance with paragraph 1 (c) of Article 86, the admission of new Members to the United Nations, the suspension of the rights and privileges of membership, the expulsion of Members, questions relating to the operation of the trusteeship system, and budgetary questions. 3. Decisions on other questions, including the determination of additional categories of questions to be decided by a two-thirds majority, shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting.

A Member of the United Nations which is in arrears in the payment of its financial contributions to the Organization shall have no vote in the General Assembly if the

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amount of its arrears equals or exceeds the amount of the contributions due from it for the preceding two full years. The General Assembly may, nevertheless, permit such a Member to vote if it is satisfied that the failure to pay is due to conditions beyond the control of the Member. Procedure



Article 20



Article 21



Article 22

The General Assembly shall meet in regular annual sessions and in such special sessions as occasion may require. Special sessions shall be convoked by the  SecretaryGeneral at the request of the Security Council or of a majority of the Members of the United Nations.

The General Assembly shall adopt its own rules of procedure. It shall elect its President for each session.

The General Assembly may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions.

Chapter v: The Security Council Composition



Article 23

1. The Security Council shall consist of fifteen Members of the United Nations. The Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America shall be permanent members of the Security Council. The General Assembly shall elect ten other Members of the United Nations to be non-permanent members of the Security Council, due regard being specially paid, in the first instance to the contribution of Members of the United Nations to the maintenance of international peace and security and to the other purposes of the Organization, and also to equitable geographical distribution. 2. The non-permanent members of the Security Council shall be elected for a term of two years. In the first election of the non- permanent members after the increase

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of the membership of the Security Council from eleven to fifteen, two of the four additional members shall be chosen for a term of one year. A retiring member shall not be eligible for immediate re-election. 3. Each member of the Security Council shall have one representative. Functions and Powers



Article 24



Article 25



Article 26

1. In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the United Nations, its Members confer on the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and agree that in carrying out its duties under this responsibility the Security Council acts on their behalf. 2. In discharging these duties the Security Council shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. The specific powers granted to the Security Council for the discharge of these duties are laid down in Chapters vi, vii, viii, and xii. 3. The Security Council shall submit annual and, when necessary, special reports to the General Assembly for its consideration.

The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance with the present Charter.

In order to promote the establishment and maintenance of international peace and security with the least diversion for armaments of the world’s human and economic resources, the Security Council shall be responsible for formulating, with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee referred to in Article 47, plans to be submitted to the Members of the United Nations for the establishment of a system for the regulation of armaments. Voting



Article 27

1. Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members.

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3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the permanent members; provided that, in decisions under Chapter vi, and under paragraph 3 of Article 52, a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting. Procedure



Article 28



Article 29



Article 30



Article 31



Article 32

1. The Security Council shall be so organized as to be able to function continuously. Each member of the Security Council shall for this purpose be represented at times at the seat of the Organization. 2. The Security Council shall hold meetings at which each of its members may, if it so desires, be represented by a member of the government or by some other specially designated representative. 3. The Security Council may hold meetings at such places other than the seat of the Organization as in its judgment will best facilitate its work.

The Security Council may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions.

The Security Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President.

Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security Council may participate, without vote, in the discussion of any question brought before the Security Council whenever the latter considers that the interests of that Member are specially affected.

Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security Council or any state which is not a Member of the United Nations, if it is a party to a dispute under consideration by the Security Council, shall be invited to participate, without vote, in the discussion relating to the dispute. The Security Council shall lay down such conditions as it deems just for the participation of a state which is not a Member of the United Nations.

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Chapter vi: Pacific Settlement of Disputes

Article 33



Article 34



Article 35

1. The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice. 2. The Security Council shall, when it deems necessary, call upon the parties to settle their dispute by such means.

The Security Council may investigate any dispute, or any situation which might lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute, in order to determine whether the continuance of the dispute or situation is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security.

1. Any Member of the United Nations may bring any dispute, or any situation of the nature referred to in Article 34, to the attention of the Security Council or of the General Assembly. 2. A state which is not a Member of the United Nations may bring to the attention of the Security Council or of the General Assembly any dispute to which it is a party if it accepts in advance, for the purposes of the dispute, the obligations of pacific settlement provided in the present Charter. 3. The proceedings of the General Assembly in respect of matters brought to its attention under this Article will be subject to the provisions of Articles 11 and 12.



Article 36

1. The Security Council may, at any stage of a dispute of the nature referred to in Article 33 or of a situation of like nature, recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment. 2. The Security Council should take into consideration any procedures for the settlement of the dispute which have already been adopted by the parties. 3. In making recommendations under this Article the Security Council should also take into consideration that legal disputes should as a general rule be referred by the parties to the International Court of Justice in accordance with the provisions of the Statute of the Court.

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Article 37



Article 38

1. Should the parties to a dispute of the nature referred to in Article 33 fail to settle it by the means indicated in that Article, they shall refer it to the Security Council. 2. If the Security Council deems that the continuance of the dispute is in fact likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, it shall decide whether to take action under Article 36 or to recommend such terms of settlement as it may consider appropriate.

Without prejudice to the provisions of Articles 33 to 37, the Security Council may, if all the parties to any dispute so request, make recommendations to the parties with a view to a pacific settlement of the dispute.

Chapter vii: Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression

Article 39



Article 40



Article 41

The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security.

In order to prevent an aggravation of the situation, the Security Council may, before making the recommendations or deciding upon the measures provided for in Article 39, call upon the parties concerned to comply with such provisional measures as it deems necessary or desirable. Such provisional measures shall be without prejudice to the rights, claims, or position of the parties concerned. The Security Council shall duly take account of failure to comply with such provisional measures.

The Security Council may decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to be employed to give effect to its decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the United Nations to apply such measures. These may include ­complete or partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of communication, and the severance of diplomatic relations.

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Article 42



Article 43

323

Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such action may include demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of the United Nations.

1. All Members of the United Nations, in order to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security, undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its call and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, armed forces, assistance, and facilities, including rights of passage, necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security. 2. Such agreement or agreements shall govern the numbers and types of forces, their degree of readiness and general location, and the nature of the facilities and assistance to be provided. 3. The agreement or agreements shall be negotiated as soon as possible on the initiative of the Security Council. They shall be concluded between the Security Council and Members or between the Security Council and groups of Members and shall be subject to ratification by the signatory states in accordance with their respective constitutional processes.



Article 44



Article 45

When the Security Council has decided to use force it shall, before calling upon a Member not represented on it to provide armed forces in fulfillment of the obligations assumed under Article 43, invite that Member, if the Member so desires, to participate in the decisions of the Security Council concerning the employment of contingents of that Member’s armed forces.

In order to enable the Nations to take urgent military measures, Members shall hold immediately available national air-force contingents for combined international enforcement action. The strength and degree of readiness of these contingents and plans for their combined action shall be determined, within the limits laid down in the special agreement or agreements referred to in Article 43, by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee.

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Article 46



Article 47



Article 48



Article 49



Article 50

Plans for the application of armed force shall be made by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee.

1. There shall be established a Military Staff Committee to advise and assist the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Council’s military requirements for the maintenance of international peace and security, the employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of armaments, and possible disarmament. 2. The Military Staff Committee shall consist of the Chiefs of Staff of the permanent members of the Security Council or their representatives. Any Member of the United Nations not permanently represented on the Committee shall be invited by the Committee to be associated with it when the efficient discharge of the Committee’s responsibilities requires the participation of that Member its work. 3. The Military Staff Committee be responsible under the Security Council for the strategic direction of any armed forces placed at the disposal of the Security Council. Questions relating to the command of such forces shall be worked out subsequently. 4. The Military Staff Committee, with the authorization of the Security Council and after consultation with appropriate regional agencies, may establish regional sub-committees.

1. The action required to carry out the decisions of the Security Council for the maintenance of international peace and security shall be taken by all the Members of the United Nations or by some of them, as the Security Council may determine. 2. Such decisions shall be carried out by the Members of the United Nations directly and through their action in the appropriate international agencies of which they are members.

The Members of the United Nations shall join in affording mutual assistance in carrying out the measures decided upon by the Security Council.

If preventive or enforcement measures against any state are taken by the Security Council, any other state, whether a Member of the United Nations or not, which finds

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itself confronted with special economic problems arising from the carrying out of those measures shall have the right to consult the Security Council with regard to a solution of those problems.



Article 51

Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of selfdefense shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security.

Chapter viii: Regional Arrangements

Article 52



Article 53

1. Nothing in the present Charter precludes the existence of regional arrangements or agencies for dealing with such matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security as are appropriate for regional action, provided that such arrangements or agencies and their activities are consistent with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. 2. The Members of the United Nations entering into such arrangements or constituting such agencies shall make every effort to achieve pacific settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such regional agencies before referring them to the Security Council. 3. The Security Council shall encourage the development of pacific settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such regional agencies either on the initiative of the states concerned or by reference from the Security Council. 4. This Article in no way impairs the application of Articles 34 and 35.

1. The Security Council shall, where appropriate, utilize such regional arrangements or agencies for enforcement action under its authority. But no enforcement action shall be taken under regional arrangements or by regional agencies without the authorization of the Security Council, with the exception of measures against any enemy state, as defined in paragraph 2 of this Article, provided for pursuant to Article

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107 or in regional arrangements directed against renewal of aggressive policy on the part of any such state, until such time as the Organization may, on request of the Governments concerned, be charged with the responsibility for preventing further aggression by such a state. 2. The term enemy state as used in paragraph 1 of this Article applies to any state which during the Second World War has been an enemy of any signatory of the present Charter.



Article 54

The Security Council shall at all times be kept fully informed of activities undertaken or in contemplation under regional arrangements or by regional agencies for the maintenance of international peace and security.

Chapter ix: International Economic and Social Cooperation

Article 55

With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and well-being which are necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, the United Nations shall promote: a. higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress and development; b. solutions of international economic, social, health, and related problems; and international cultural and educational cooperation; and c. universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.



Article 56



Article 57

All Members pledge themselves to take joint and separate action in cooperation with the Organization for the achievement of the purposes set forth in Article 55.

1. The various specialized agencies, established by intergovernmental agreement and having wide international responsibilities, as defined in their basic instruments, in

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economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related fields, shall be brought into relationship with the United Nations in accordance with the provisions of Article 63. 2. Such agencies thus brought into relationship with the United Nations are hereinafter referred to as specialized agencies.



Article 58



Article 59



Article 60

The Organization shall make recommendations for the coordination of the policies and activities of the specialized agencies.

The Organization shall, where appropriate, initiate negotiations among the states concerned for the creation of any new specialized agencies required for the accomplishment of the purposes set forth in Article 55.

Responsibility for the discharge of the functions of the Organization set forth in this Chapter shall be vested in the General Assembly and, under the authority of the General Assembly, in the Economic and Social Council, which shall have for this purpose the powers set forth in Chapter x.

Chapter x: The Economic and Social Council Composition



Article 61

1. The Economic and Social Council shall consist of fifty-four Members of the United Nations elected by the General Assembly. 2. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 3, eighteen members of the Economic and Social Council shall be elected each year for a term of three years. A retiring member shall be eligible for immediate re-election. 3. At the first election after the increase in the membership of the Economic and Social Council from twenty-seven to fifty-four members, in addition to the members elected in place of the nine members whose term of office expires at the end of that year, twenty-seven additional members shall be elected. Of these twenty-seven additional members, the term of office of nine members so elected shall expire at the

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end of one year, and of nine other members at the end of two years, in accordance with arrangements made by the General Assembly. 4. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have one representative. Functions and Powers



Article 62



Article 63



Article 64

1. The Economic and Social Council may make or initiate studies and reports with respect to international economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related matters and may make recommendations with respect to any such matters to the General Assembly, to the Members of the United Nations, and to the specialized agencies concerned. 2. It may make recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all. 3. It may prepare draft conventions for submission to the General Assembly, with respect to matters falling within its competence. 4. It may call, in accordance with the rules prescribed by the United Nations, international conferences on matters falling within its competence.

1. The Economic and Social Council may enter into agreements with any of the agencies referred to in Article 57, defining the terms on which the agency concerned shall be brought into relationship with the United Nations. Such agreements shall be subject to approval by the General Assembly. 2. It may coordinate the activities of the specialized agencies through consultation with and recommendations to such agencies and through recommendations to the General Assembly and to the Members of the United Nations.

1. The Economic and Social Council may take appropriate steps to obtain regular reports from the specialized agencies. It may make arrangements with the Members of the United Nations and with the specialized agencies to obtain reports on the steps taken to give effect to its own recommendations and to recommendations on matters falling within its competence made by the General Assembly. 2. It may communicate its observations on these reports to the General Assembly.

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Article 65



Article 66

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The Economic and Social Council may furnish information to the Security Council and shall assist the Security Council upon its request.

1. The Economic and Social Council shall perform such functions as fall within its competence in connection with the carrying out of the recommendations of the General Assembly. 2. It may, with the approval of the General Assembly, perform services at the request of Members of the United Nations and at the request of specialized agencies. 3. It shall perform such other functions as are specified elsewhere in the present Charter or as may be assigned to it by the General Assembly. Voting



Article 67

1. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the Economic and Social Council shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting. Procedure



Article 68



Article 69



Article 70

The Economic and Social Council shall set up commissions in economic and social fields and for the promotion of human rights, and such other commissions as may be required for the performance of its functions.

The Economic and Social Council shall invite any Member of the United Nations to participate, without vote, in its deliberations on any matter of particular concern to that Member.

The Economic and Social Council may make arrangements for representatives of the specialized agencies to participate, without vote, in its deliberations and in those of the commissions established by it, and for its representatives to participate in the deliberations of the specialized agencies.

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Article 71



Article 72

The Economic and Social Council may make suitable arrangements for consultation with non-governmental organizations which are concerned with matters within its competence. Such arrangements may be made with international organizations and, where appropriate, with national organizations after consultation with the Member of the United Nations concerned.

1. The Economic and Social Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President. 2. The Economic and Social Council shall meet as required in accordance with its rules, which shall include provision for the convening of meetings on the request of a majority of its members.

Chapter xi: Declaration Regarding Non-Self-Governing Territories

Article 73

Members of the United Nations which have or assume responsibilities for the administration of territories whose peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-government recognize the principle that the interests of the inhabitants of these territories are paramount, and accept as a sacred trust the obligation to promote to the utmost, within the system of international peace and security established by the present Charter, the wellbeing of the inhabitants of these territories, and, to this end: a. to ensure, with due respect for the culture of the peoples concerned, their political, economic, social, and educational advancement, their just treatment, and their protection against abuses; b. to develop self-government, to take due account of the political aspirations of the peoples, and to assist them in the progressive development of their free political institutions, according to the particular circumstances of each territory and its peoples and their varying stages of advancement; c. to further international peace and security; d. to promote constructive measures of development, to encourage research, and to co-operate with one another and, when and where appropriate, with specialized international bodies with a view to the practical achievement of the social, economic, and scientific purposes set forth in this Article; and

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e. to transmit regularly to the Secretary-General for information purposes, subject to such limitation as security and constitutional considerations may require, statistical and other information of a technical nature relating to economic, social, and educational conditions in the territories for which they are respectively responsible other than those territories to which Chapters xii and xiii apply.



Article 74

Members of the United Nations also agree that their policy in respect of the territories to which this Chapter applies, no less than in respect of their metropolitan areas, must be based on the general principle of good-­neighborliness, due account being taken of the interests and well-being of the rest of the world, in social, economic, and commercial matters.

Chapter xii: International Trusteeship System

Article 75



Article 76

The United Nations shall establish under its authority an international trusteeship system for the administration and supervision of such territories as may be placed thereunder by subsequent individual agreements. These territories are hereinafter referred to as trust territories.

The basic objectives of the trusteeship system, in accordance with the Purposes of the United Nations laid down in Article 1 of the present Charter, shall be: a. to further international peace and security; b. to promote the political, economic, social, and educational advancement of the inhabitants of the trust territories, and their progressive development towards selfgovernment or independence as may be appropriate to the particular circumstances of each territory and its peoples and the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned, and as may be provided by the terms of each trusteeship agreement; c. to encourage respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion, and to encourage recognition of the interdependence of the peoples of the world; and d. to ensure equal treatment in social, economic, and commercial matters for all Members of the United Nations and their nationals, and also equal treatment for

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the latter in the administration of justice, without prejudice to the attainment of the foregoing objectives and subject to the provisions of Article 80.



Article 77



Article 78



Article 79



Article 80

1. The trusteeship system shall apply to such territories in the following categories as may be placed thereunder by means of trusteeship agreements: a. territories now held under mandate; b. territories which may be detached from enemy states as a result of the Second World War; and c. territories voluntarily placed under the system by states responsible for their administration. 2. It will be a matter for subsequent agreement as to which territories in the foregoing categories will be brought under the trusteeship system and upon what terms.

The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become Members of the United Nations, relationship among which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality.

The terms of trusteeship for each territory to be placed under the trusteeship system, including any alteration or amendment, shall be agreed upon by the states directly concerned, including the mandatory power in the case of territories held under mandate by a Member of the United Nations, and shall be approved as provided for in Articles 83 and 85.

1. Except as may be agreed upon in individual trusteeship agreements, made under Articles 77, 79, and 81, placing each territory under the trusteeship system, and until such agreements have been concluded, nothing in this Chapter shall be construed in or of itself to alter in any manner the rights whatsoever of any states or any peoples or the terms of existing international instruments to which Members of the United Nations may respectively be parties. 2. Paragraph 1 of this Article shall not be interpreted as giving grounds for delay or postponement of the negotiation and conclusion of agreements for placing ­mandated and other territories under the trusteeship system as provided for in Article 77.

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Article 81



Article 82



Article 83



Article 84



Article 85

333

The trusteeship agreement shall in each case include the terms under which the trust territory will be administered and designate the authority which will exercise the administration of the trust territory. Such authority, hereinafter called the administering authority, may be one or more states or the Organization itself.

There may be designated, in any trusteeship agreement, a strategic area or areas which may include part or all of the trust territory to which the agreement applies, without prejudice to any special agreement or agreements made under Article 43.

1. All functions of the United Nations relating to strategic areas, including the approval of the terms of the trusteeship agreements and of their alteration or amendment, shall be exercised by the Security Council. 2. The basic objectives set forth in Article 76 shall be applicable to the people of each strategic area. 3. The Security Council shall, subject to the provisions of the trusteeship agreements and without prejudice to security considerations, avail itself of the assistance of the Trusteeship Council to perform those functions of the United Nations under the trusteeship system relating to political, economic, social, and educational matters in the strategic areas.

It shall be the duty of the administering authority to ensure that the trust territory shall play its part in the maintenance of international peace and security. To this end the administering authority may make use of volunteer forces, facilities, and assistance from the trust territory in carrying out the obligations towards the Security Council undertaken in this regard by the administering authority, as well as for local defense and the maintenance of law and order within the trust territory.

1. The functions of the United Nations with regard to trusteeship agreements for all areas not designated as strategic, including the approval of the terms of the trusteeship agreements and of their alteration or amendment, shall be exercised by the General Assembly. 2. The Trusteeship Council, operating under the authority of the General Assembly, shall assist the General Assembly in carrying out these functions.

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Chapter xiii: The Trusteeship Council Composition



Article 86

1. The Trusteeship Council shall consist of the following Members of the United Nations: a. those Members administering trust territories; b. such of those Members mentioned by name in Article 23 as are not administering trust territories; and c. as many other Members elected for three-year terms by the General ­Assembly as may be necessary to ensure that the total number of members of the Trusteeship Council is equally divided between those Members of the United Nations which administer trust territories and those which do not. 2. Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall designate one specially qualified person to represent it therein. Functions and Powers



Article 87

The General Assembly and, under its authority, the Trusteeship Council, in carrying out their functions, may: a. consider reports submitted by the administering authority; b. accept petitions and examine them in consultation with the administering authority; c. provide for periodic visits to the respective trust territories at times agreed upon with the administering authority; and d. take these and other actions in conformity with the terms of the trusteeship agreements.



Article 88

The Trusteeship Council shall formulate a questionnaire on the political, economic, social, and educational advancement of the inhabitants of each trust territory, and the administering authority for each trust territory within the competence of the General Assembly shall make an annual report to the General Assembly upon the basis of such questionnaire.

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Voting



Article 89

1. Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the Trusteeship Council shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting. Procedure



Article 90



Article 91

1. The Trusteeship Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President. 2. The Trusteeship Council shall meet as required in accordance with its rules, which shall include provision for the convening of meetings on the request of a majority of its members.

The Trusteeship Council shall, when appropriate, avail itself of the assistance of the Economic and Social Council and of the specialized agencies in regard to matters with which they are respectively concerned.

Chapter xiv: The International Court of Justice

Article 92



Article 93

The International Court of Justice shall be the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It shall function in accordance with the annexed Statute, which is based upon the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice and forms an integral part of the present Charter.1

1. All Members of the United Nations are ipso facto parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice. 2. A state which is not a Member of the United Nations may become a party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice on conditions to be determined in each case by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.

1 See Appendix ii.3.

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Article 94



Article 95



Article 96

1. Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with the decision of the International Court of Justice in any case to which it is a party. 2. If any party to a case fails to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a ­judgment rendered by the Court, the other party may have recourse to the Security Council, which may, if it deems necessary, make recommendations or decide upon measures to be taken to give effect to the judgment.

Nothing in the present Charter shall prevent Members of the United Nations from entrusting the solution of their differences to other tribunals by virtue of agreements already in existence or which may be concluded in the future.

1. The General Assembly or the Security Council may request the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on any legal question. 2. Other organs of the United Nations and specialized agencies, which may at any time be so authorized by the General Assembly, may also request advisory opinions of the Court on legal questions arising within the scope of their activities.

Chapter xv: The Secretariat

Article 97



Article 98



Article 99

The Secretariat shall comprise a Secretary-General and such staff as the Organization may require. The Secretary-General shall be appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. He shall be the chief administrative officer of the Organization.

The Secretary-General shall act in that capacity in all meetings of the General Assembly, of the Security Council, of the Economic and Social Council, and of the Trusteeship Council, and shall perform such other functions as are entrusted to him by these organs. The Secretary-General shall make an annual report to the General Assembly on the work of the Organization.

The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security.

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Article 100



Article 101

337

1. In the performance of their duties the Secretary-General and the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any government or from any other authority external to the Organization. They shall refrain from any action which might reflect on their position as international officials responsible only to the Organization. 2. Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to respect the exclusively international character of the responsibilities of the Secretary-General and the staff and not to seek to influence them in the discharge of their responsibilities.

1. The staff shall be appointed by the Secretary-General under regulations established by the General Assembly. 2. Appropriate staffs shall be permanently assigned to the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and, as required, to other organs of the United Nations. These staffs shall form a part of the Secretariat. 3. The paramount consideration in the employment of the staff and in the determination of the conditions of service shall be the necessity of securing the highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity. Due regard shall be paid to the importance of recruiting the staff on as wide a geographical basis as possible.

Chapter xvi: Miscellaneous Provisions

Article 102



Article 103



Article 104

1. Every treaty and every international agreement entered into by any Member of the United Nations after the present Charter comes into force shall as soon as possible be registered with the Secretariat and published by it. 2. No party to any such treaty or international agreement which has not been registered in accordance with the provisions of paragraph i of this Article may invoke that treaty or agreement before any organ of the United Nations.

In the event of a conflict between the obligations of the Members of the United Nations under the present Charter and their obligations under any other international agreement, their obligations under the present Charter shall prevail.

The Organization shall enjoy in the territory of each of its Members such legal capacity as may be necessary for the exercise of its functions and the fulfilment of its purposes.

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Article 105

1. The Organization shall enjoy in the territory of each of its Members such privileges and immunities as are necessary for the fulfillment of its purposes. 2. Representatives of the Members of the United Nations and officials of the Organization shall similarly enjoy such privileges and immunities as are necessary for the independent exercise of their functions in connection with the Organization. 3. The General Assembly may make recommendations with a view to determining the details of the application of paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article or may propose conventions to the Members of the United Nations for this purpose.

Chapter xvii: Transitional Security Arrangements

Article 106



Article 107

Pending the coming into force of such special agreements referred to in Article 43 as in the opinion of the Security Council enable it to begin the exercise of its responsibilities under Article 42, the parties to the Four-Nation Declaration, signed at Moscow, 30 October 1943, and France, shall, in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 5 of that Declaration, consult with one another and as occasion requires with other Members of the United Nations with a view to such joint action on behalf of the ­Organization as may be necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security.

Nothing in the present Charter shall invalidate or preclude action, in relation to any state which during the Second World War has been an enemy of any signatory to the present Charter, taken or authorized as a result of that war by the Governments having responsibility for such action.

Chapter xviii: Amendments

Article 108

Amendments to the present Charter shall come into force for all Members of the United Nations when they have been adopted by a vote of two thirds of the members of the General Assembly and ratified in accordance with their respective constitutional processes by two thirds of the Members of the United Nations, including all the permanent members of the Security Council.

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Article 109

1. A General Conference of the Members of the United Nations for the purpose of reviewing the present Charter may be held at a date and place to be fixed by a twothirds vote of the members of the General Assembly and by a vote of any nine members of the Security Council. Each Member of the United Nations shall have one vote in the conference. 2. Any alteration of the present Charter recommended by a two-thirds vote of the conference shall take effect when ratified in accordance with their respective constitutional processes by two thirds of the Members of the United Nations including the permanent members of the Security Council. 3. If such a conference has not been held before the tenth annual session of the General Assembly following the coming into force of the present Charter, the proposal to call such a conference shall be placed on the agenda of that session of the General Assembly, and the conference shall be held if so decided by a majority vote of the members of the General Assembly and by a vote of any seven members of the Security Council.

Chapter xix: Ratification and Signature

Article 110



Article 111

1. The present Charter shall be ratified by the signatory states in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. 2. The ratifications shall be deposited with the Government of the United States of America, which shall notify all the signatory states of each deposit as well as the Secretary-General of the Organization when he has been appointed. 3. The present Charter shall come into force upon the deposit of ratifications by the Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America, and by a majority of the other signatory states. A protocol of the deposited shall thereupon be drawn up by the Government of the United States of America which shall communicate copies thereof to all the signatory states. 4. The states signatory to the present Charter which ratify it after it has come into force will become original Members of the United Nations on the date of the deposit of their respective ratifications.

The present Charter, of which the Chinese, French, Russian, English, and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall remain deposited in the archives of the Government of the

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United States of America. Duly certified copies thereof shall be transmitted by that Government to the Governments of the other signatory states. in faith whereof the representatives of the Governments of the United Nations have signed the present Charter. done at the city of San Francisco the twenty-sixth day of June, one thousand nine hundred and forty-five.

appendix ii.2

Provisional Rules of Procedure of the Security Council1 Contents

i Meetings 342 ii Agenda 342 iii Representation and Credentials 343 iv Presidency 344 v Secretariat 345 vi Conduct of Business 346 vii Voting 348 viii Languages 348 ix Publicity of Meetings, Records 349 x Admission of New Members 350 xi Relations with Other United Nations Organs 351

1 S/96/Rev.7: Article 30 of the Charter stipulates that the Security Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, and in 1946 the Council adopted its Provisional Rules of Procedure (S/96). Subsequently the Provisional Rules of Procedure were modified on several occasions; the last revision was made in 1982 (S/96/Rev.7) in order to add Arabic as the sixth official language, in conformity with General Assembly resolution 35/219 of 17 December 1980. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���6 | doi 10.1163/9789004242227_010

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Chapter i: Meetings

Rule 1



Rule 2



Rule 3



Rule 4



Rule 5

Meetings of the Security Council shall, with the exception of the periodic meetings referred to in rule 4, be held at the call of the President at any time he deems necessary, but the interval between meetings shall not exceed fourteen days.

The President shall call a meeting of the Security Council at the request of any member of the Security Council.

The President shall call a meeting of the Security Council if a dispute or situation is brought to the attention of the Security Council under Article 35 or under Article 11 (3) of the Charter, or if the General Assembly makes recommendations or refers any question to the Security Council under Article 11 (2), or if the Secretary-General brings to the attention of the Security Council any matter under Article 99.

Periodic meetings of the Security Council called for in Article 28 (2) of the Charter shall be held twice a year, at such times as the Security Council may decide.

Meetings of the Security Council shall normally be held at the seat of the United Nations. Any member of the Security-Council or the Secretary-General may propose that the Security Council should meet at another place. Should the Security Council accept any such proposal, it shall decide upon the place and the period during which the Council shall meet at such place.

Chapter ii: Agenda

Rule 6



Rule 7

The Secretary-General shall immediately bring to the attention of all representatives on the Security Council all communications from States, organs of the United Nations, or the Secretary-General concerning any matter for the consideration of the Security Council in accordance with the provisions of the Charter.

The provisional agenda for each meeting of the Security Council shall be drawn up by the Secretary-General and approved by the President of the Security Council.

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Only items which have been brought to the attention of the representatives on the Security Council in accordance with rule 6, items covered by rule 10, or matters which the Security Council had previously decided to defer, may be included in the provisional agenda.



Rule 8



Rule 9



Rule 10



Rule 11



Rule 12

The provisional agenda for a meeting shall be communicated by the Secretary-General to the representatives on the Security Council at least three days before the meeting, but in urgent circumstances it may be communicated simultaneously with the notice of the meeting.

The first item of the provisional agenda for each meeting of the Security Council shall be the adoption of the agenda.

Any item of the agenda of a meeting of the Security Council, consideration of which has not been completed at that meeting, shall, unless the Security Council otherwise decides, automatically be included in the agenda of the next meeting.

The Secretary-General shall communicate each week to the representatives on the Security Council a summary statement of matters of which the Security Council is seized and of the stage reached in their consideration.

The provisional agenda for each periodic meeting shall be circulated to the members of the Security Council at least twenty-one days before the opening of the meeting. Any subsequent change in or addition to the provisional agenda shall be brought to the notice of the members at least five days before the meeting. The Security Council may, however, in urgent circumstances, make additions to the agenda at any time during a periodic meeting. The provisions of rule 7, paragraph 1, and of rule 9, shall apply also to periodic meetings.

Chapter iii: Representation and Credentials

Rule 13

Each member of the Security Council shall be represented at the meetings of the Security Council by an accredited representative. The credentials of a representative on the Security Council shall be communicated to the Secretary-General not less than

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twenty-four hours before he takes his seat on the Security Council. The credentials shall be issued either by the Head of the State or of the Government concerned or by its Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Head of Government or Minister of Foreign Affairs of each member of the Security Council shall be entitled to sit on the Security Council without submitting credentials.



Rule 14



Rule 15



Rule 16



Rule 17

Any Member of the United Nations not a member of the Security Council and any State not a Member of the United Nations, if invited to participate in a meeting or meetings of the Security Council, shall submit credentials for the representative appointed by it for this purpose. The credentials of such a representative shall be communicated to the Secretary-General not less than twenty-four hours before the first meeting which he is invited to attend.

The credentials of representatives on the Security Council and of any representative appointed in accordance with rule 14 shall he examined by the Secretary-General who shall submit a report to the Security Council for approval.

Pending the approval of the credentials of a representative on the Security Council in accordance with rule 15, such representative shall be seated provisionally with the same rights as other representatives.

Any representative on the Security Council, to whose credentials objection has been made within the Security Council, shall continue to sit with the same rights as other representatives until the Security Council has decided the matter.

Chapter iv: Presidency

Rule 18



Rule 19

The presidency of the Security Council shall be held in turn by the members of the Security Council in the English alphabetical order of their names. Each President shall hold office for one calendar month.

The President shall preside over the meetings of the Security Council and, under the authority of the Security Council, shall represent it in its capacity as an organ of the United Nations.

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Rule 20

Whenever the President of the Security Council deems that for the proper fulfillment of the responsibilities of the presidency he should not preside over the Council during the consideration of a particular question with which the member he represents is directly connected, he shall indicate his decision to the Council. The presidential chair shall then devolve, for the purpose of the consideration of that question, on the representative of the member next in English alphabetical order, it being understood that the provisions of this rule shall apply to the representatives on the Security Council called upon successively to preside. This rule shall not affect the representative capacity of the President as stated in rule 19, or his duties under rule 7.

Chapter v: Secretariat

Rule 21



Rule 22



Rule 23



Rule 24



Rule 25



Rule 26

The Secretary-General shall act in that capacity in all meetings of the Security Council. The Secretary-General may authorize a deputy to act in his place at meetings of the Security Council.

The Secretary-General, or his deputy acting on his behalf, may make either oral or written statements to the Security Council concerning any question under consideration by it.

The Secretary-General may be appointed by the Security Council, in accordance with rule 28, as rapporteur for a specified question.

The Secretary-General shall provide the staff required by the Security Council. This staff shall form a part of the Secretariat.

The Secretary-General shall give to representatives on the Security Council notice of meetings of the Security Council and of its commissions and committees.

The Secretary-General shall be responsible for the preparation of documents required by the Security Council and shall, except in urgent circumstances, distribute them at least forty-eight hours in advance of the meeting at which they are to be considered.

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Chapter vi: Conduct of Business

Rule 27



Rule 28



Rule 29



Rule 30



Rule 31



Rule 32



Rule 33

The President shall call upon representatives in the order in which they signify their desire to speak.

The Security Council may appoint a commission or committee or a rapporteur for a specified question.

The President may accord precedence to any rapporteur appointed by the Security Council. The Chairman of a commission or committee, or the rapporteur appointed by the commission or committee to present its report, may be accorded precedence for the purpose of explaining the report.

If a representative raises a point of order, the President shall immediately state his ruling. If it is challenged, the President shall submit his ruling to the Security Council for immediate decision and it shall stand unless overruled.

Proposed resolutions, amendments and substantive motions shall normally be placed before the representatives in writing.

Principal motions and draft resolutions shall have precedence in the order of their submission. Parts of a motion or of a draft resolution shall be voted on separately at the request of any representative, unless the original mover objects.

The following motions shall have precedence in the order named over all principal motions and draft resolutions relative to the subject before the meeting: 1. To suspend the meeting; 2. To adjourn the meeting; 3. To adjourn the meeting to a certain day or hour; 4. To refer any matter to a committee, to the Secretary-General or to a rapporteur; 5. To postpone discussion of the question to a certain day or indefinitely; or 6. To introduce an amendment.

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Any motion for the suspension or for the simple adjournment of the meeting shall be decided without debate.



Rule 34



Rule 35



Rule 36



Rule 37



Rule 38

It shall not be necessary for any motion or draft resolution proposed by a representative on the Security Council to be seconded before being put to a vote.

A motion or draft resolution can at any time be withdrawn so long as no vote has been taken with respect to it. If the motion or draft resolution has been seconded, the representative on the Security Council who has seconded it may require that it be put to the vote as his motion or draft resolution with the same right of precedence as if the original mover had not withdrawn it.

If two or more amendments to a motion or draft resolution are proposed, the President shall rule on the order in which they are to be voted upon. Ordinarily, the Security Council shall first vote on the amendment furthest removed in substance from the original proposal and then on the amendment next furthest removed until all amendments have been put to the vote, but when an amendment adds to or deletes from the text of a motion or draft resolution, that amendment shall be voted on first.

Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security Council may be invited, as the result of a decision of the Security Council, to participate, without vote, in the discussion of any question brought before the Security Council when the Security Council considers that the interests of that Member are specially affected, or when a Member brings a matter to the attention of the Security Council in accordance with Article 35 (1) of the Charter.

Any Member of the United Nations invited in accordance with the preceding rule, or in application of Article 32 of the Charter, to participate in the discussions of the Security Council may submit proposals and draft resolutions. These proposals and draft resolutions may be put to a vote only at the request of a representative on the Security Council.

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Rule 39

The Security Council may invite members of the Secretariat or other persons, whom it considers competent for the purpose, to supply it with information or to give other assistance in examining matters within its competence.

Chapter vii: Voting

Rule 40

Voting in the Security Council shall be in accordance with the relevant Articles of the Charter and of the Statute of the International Court of Justice.

Chapter viii: Languages

Rule 41



Rule 42



Rule 43



Rule 44



Rule 45



Rule 46

Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish shall be both the official and the working languages of the Security Council.

Speeches made in any of the six languages of the Security Council shall be interpreted into the other five languages.

[Deleted]

Any representative may make a speech in a language other than the languages of the Security Council. In this case, he shall himself provide for interpretation into one of those languages. Interpretation into the other languages of the Security Council by the interpreters of the Secretariat may be based on the interpretation given in the first such language.

Verbatim records of meetings of the Security Council shall be drawn up in the languages of the Council.

All resolutions and other documents shall be published in the languages of the Security Council.

Provisional Rules Of Procedure Of The Security Council



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Rule 47

Documents of the Security Council shall, if the Security Council so decides, be published in any language other than the languages of the Council.

Chapter ix: Publicity of Meetings, Records

Rule 48



Rule 49



Rule 50



Rule 51



Rule 52



Rule 53

Unless it decides otherwise, the Security Council shall meet in public. Any recommendation to the General Assembly regarding the appointment of the Secretary-General shall be discussed and decided at a private meeting.

Subject to the provisions of rule 51, the verbatim record of each meeting of the Security Council shall be made available to the representatives on the Security Council and to the representatives of any other States which have participated in the meeting not later than 10 a.m. of the first working day following the meeting.

The representatives of the States which have participated in the meeting shall, within two working days after the time indicated in rule 49, inform the Secretary-General of any corrections they wish to have made in the verbatim record.

The Security Council may decide that for a private meeting the record shall be made in a single copy alone. This record shall be kept by the Secretary-General. The representatives of the States which have participated in the meeting shall, within a period of ten days, inform the Secretary-General of any corrections they wish to have made in this record.

Corrections that have been requested shall be considered approved unless the President is of the opinion that they are sufficiently important to be submitted to the representatives on the Security Council. In the latter case, the representatives on the Security Council shall submit within two working days any comments they may wish to make. In the absence of objections in this period of time, the record shall be corrected as requested.

The verbatim record referred to in rule 49 or the record referred to in rule 51, in which no corrections have been requested in the period of time required by rules 50 and 51,

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respectively, or which has been corrected in accordance with the provisions of rule 52, shall be considered as approved. It shall be signed by the President and shall become the official record of the Security Council.



Rule 54



Rule 55



Rule 56



Rule 57

The official record of public meetings of the Security Council, as well as the documents annexed thereto, shall be published in the official languages as soon as possible.

At the close of each private meeting the Security Council shall issue a communiqué through the Secretary-General.

The representatives of the Members of the United Nations which have taken part in a private meeting shall at all times have the right to consult the record of that meeting in the office of the Secretary-General. The Security Council may at any time grant access to this record to authorized representatives of other Members of the United Nations.

The Secretary-General shall, once each year, submit to the Security Council a list of the records and documents which up to that time have been considered confidential. The Security Council shall decide which of these shall be made available to other Members of the United Nations, which shall be made public, and which shall continue to remain confidential.

Chapter x: Admission of New Members

Rule 58



Rule 59

Any State which desires to become a Member of the United Nations shall submit an application to the Secretary-General. This application shall contain a declaration made in a formal instrument that it accepts the obligations contained in the Charter.

The Secretary-General shall immediately place the application for membership before the representatives on the Security Council. Unless the Security Council decides otherwise, the application shall be referred by the President to a committee of the Security Council upon which each member of the Security Council shall be represented. The committee shall examine any application referred to it and report its conclusions thereon to the Council not less than thirty-five days in advance of a regular session of

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the General Assembly or, if a special session of the General Assembly is called, not less than fourteen days in advance of such session.



Rule 60

The Security Council shall decide whether in its judgement the applicant is a peaceloving State and is able and willing to carry out the obligations contained in the Charter and, accordingly, whether to recommend the applicant State for membership. If the Security Council recommends the applicant State for membership, it shall forward to the General Assembly the recommendation with a complete record of the discussion. If the Security Council does not recommend the applicant State for membership or postpones the consideration of the application, it shall submit a special report to the General Assembly with a complete record of the discussion. In order to ensure the consideration of its recommendation at the next session of the General Assembly following the receipt of the application, the Security Council shall make its recommendation not less than twenty-five days in advance of a regular session of the General Assembly, nor less than four days in advance of a special session. In special circumstances, the Security Council may decide to make a recommendation to the General Assembly concerning an application for membership subsequent to the expiration of the time limits set forth in the preceding paragraph.

Chapter xi: Relations with Other United Nations Organs

Rule 61

Any meeting of the Security Council held in pursuance of the Statute of the International Court of Justice for the purpose of the election of members of the Court shall continue until as many candidates as are required for all the seats to be filled have obtained in one or more ballots an absolute majority of votes.

appendix ii.3

Statute of the International Court of Justice Contents i Organization of the Court (Article 2–33) 353 ii Competence of the Court (Article 34–38) 359 iii Procedure (Article 39–64) 361 iv Advisory Opinions (Article 65–68) 365 v Amendment (Article 69–70) 366

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Statute Of The International Court Of Justice



353

Article 1

the international court of justice established by the Charter of the United Nations as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations shall be constituted and shall function in accordance with the provisions of the present Statute.

Chapter i: Organization of the Court

Article 2



Article 3



Article 4



Article 5

The Court shall be composed of a body of independent judges, elected regardless of their nationality from among persons of high moral character, who possess the qualifications required in their respective countries for appointment to the highest judicial offices, or are jurisconsults of recognized competence in international law.

1. The Court shall consist of fifteen members, no two of whom may be nationals of the same state. 2. A person who for the purposes of membership in the Court could be regarded as a national of more than one state shall be deemed to be a national of the one in which he ordinarily exercises civil and political rights.

1. The members of the Court shall be elected by the General Assembly and by the Security Council from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration, in accordance with the following provisions. 2. In the case of Members of the United Nations not represented in the Permanent Court of Arbitration, candidates shall be nominated by national groups appointed for this purpose by their governments under the same conditions as those prescribed for members of the Permanent Court of Arbitration by Article 44 of the Convention of The Hague of 1907 for the pacific settlement of international disputes. 3. The conditions under which a state which is a party to the present Statute but is not a Member of the United Nations may participate in electing the members of the Court shall, in the absence of a special agreement, be laid down by the General Assembly upon recommendation of the Security Council.

1. At least three months before the date of the election, the Secretary-General of the United Nations shall address a written request to the members of the P ­ ermanent

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Court of Arbitration belonging to the states which are parties to the present Statute, and to the members of the national groups appointed under Article 4, paragraph 2, inviting them to undertake, within a given time, by national groups, the nomination of persons in a position to accept the duties of a member of the Court. 2. No group may nominate more than four persons, not more than two of whom shall be of their own nationality. In no case may the number of candidates nominated by a group be more than double the number of seats to be filled.



Article 6



Article 7



Article 8



Article 9



Article 10

Before making these nominations, each national group is recommended to consult its highest court of justice, its legal faculties and schools of law, and its national academies and national sections of international academies devoted to the study of law.

1. The Secretary-General shall prepare a list in alphabetical order of all the persons thus nominated. Save as provided in Article 12, paragraph 2, these shall be the only persons eligible. 2. The Secretary-General shall submit this list to the General Assembly and to the Security Council.

The General Assembly and the Security Council shall proceed independently of one another to elect the members of the Court.

At every election, the electors shall bear in mind not only that the persons to be elected should individually possess the qualifications required, but also that in the body as a whole the representation of the main forms of civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world should be assured.

1. Those candidates who obtain an absolute majority of votes in the General ­Assembly and in the Security Council shall be considered as elected. 2. Any vote of the Security Council, whether for the election of judges or for the ­appointment of members of the conference envisaged in Article 12, shall be taken without any distinction between permanent and non-permanent members of the Security Council.

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3. In the event of more than one national of the same state obtaining an absolute majority of the votes both of the General Assembly and of the Security Council, the eldest of these only shall be considered as elected.



Article 11



Article 12



Article 13

If, after the first meeting held for the purpose of the election, one or more seats remain to be filled, a second and, if necessary, a third meeting shall take place.

1. If, after the third meeting, one or more seats still remain unfilled, a joint conference consisting of six members, three appointed by the General Assembly and three by the Security Council, may be formed at any time at the request of either the General Assembly or the Security Council, for the purpose of choosing by the vote of an absolute majority one name for each seat still vacant, to submit to the General Assembly and the Security Council for their respective acceptance. 2. If the joint conference is unanimously agreed upon any person who fulfills the required conditions, he may be included in its list, even though he was not ­included in the list of nominations referred to in Article 7. 3. If the joint conference is satisfied that it will not be successful in procuring an election, those members of the Court who have already been elected shall, ­within a period to be fixed by the Security Council, proceed to fill the vacant seats by selection from among those candidates who have obtained votes either in the General Assembly or in the Security Council. 4. In the event of an equality of votes among the judges, the eldest judge shall have a casting vote.

1. The members of the Court shall be elected for nine years and may be re-elected; provided, however, that of the judges elected at the first election, the terms of five judges shall expire at the end of three years and the terms of five more judges shall expire at the end of six years. 2. The judges whose terms are to expire at the end of the above-mentioned initial periods of three and six years shall be chosen by lot to be drawn by the SecretaryGeneral immediately after the first election has been completed. 3. The members of the Court shall continue to discharge their duties until their places have been filled. Though replaced, they shall finish any cases which they may have begun. 4. In the case of the resignation of a member of the Court, the resignation shall be addressed to the President of the Court for transmission to the Secretary-General. This last notification makes the place vacant.

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Article 14



Article 15



Article 16



Article 17



Article 18



Article 19



Article 20

Vacancies shall be filled by the same method as that laid down for the first election, subject to the following provision: the Secretary-General shall, within one month of the occurrence of the vacancy, proceed to issue the invitations provided for in Article 5, and the date of the election shall be fixed by the Security Council.

A member of the Court elected to replace a member whose term of office has not expired shall hold office for the remainder of his predecessor’s term.

1. No member of the Court may exercise any political or administrative function, or engage in any other occupation of a professional nature. 2. Any doubt on this point shall be settled by the decision of the Court.

1. No member of the Court may act as agent, counsel, or advocate in any case. 2. No member may participate in the decision of any case in which he has ­previously taken part as agent, counsel, or advocate for one of the parties, or as a member of a national or international court, or of a commission of enquiry, or in any other capacity. 3. Any doubt on this point shall be settled by the decision of the Court.

1. No member of the Court can be dismissed unless, in the unanimous opinion of the other members, he has ceased to fulfill the required conditions. 2. Formal notification thereof shall be made to the Secretary-General by the Registrar. 3. This notification makes the place vacant.

The members of the Court, when engaged on the business of the Court, shall enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities.

Every member of the Court shall, before taking up his duties, make a solemn declaration in open court that he will exercise his powers impartially and conscientiously.

Statute Of The International Court Of Justice



Article 21



Article 22



Article 23



Article 24



Article 25

357

1. The Court shall elect its President and Vice-President for three years; they may be re-elected. 2. The Court shall appoint its Registrar and may provide for the appointment of such other officers as may be necessary.

1. The seat of the Court shall be established at The Hague. This, however, shall not prevent the Court from sitting and exercising its functions elsewhere whenever the Court considers it desirable. 2. The President and the Registrar shall reside at the seat of the Court.

1. The Court shall remain permanently in session, except during the judicial vacations, the dates and duration of which shall be fixed by the Court. 2. Members of the Court are entitled to periodic leave, the dates and duration of which shall be fixed by the Court, having in mind the distance between The Hague and the home of each judge. 3. Members of the Court shall be bound, unless they are on leave or prevented from attending by illness or other serious reasons duly explained to the President, to hold themselves permanently at the disposal of the Court.

1. If, for some special reason, a member of the Court considers that he should not take part in the decision of a particular case, he shall so inform the President. 2. If the President considers that for some special reason one of the members of the Court should not sit in a particular case, he shall give him notice accordingly. 3. If in any such case the member of the Court and the President disagree, the matter shall be settled by the decision of the Court.

1. The full Court shall sit except when it is expressly provided otherwise in the present Statute. 2. Subject to the condition that the number of judges available to constitute the Court is not thereby reduced below eleven, the Rules of the Court may provide for allowing one or more judges, according to circumstances and in rotation, to be dispensed from sitting. 3. A quorum of nine judges shall suffice to constitute the Court.

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Article 26



Article 27



Article 28



Article 29



Article 30



Article 31

1. The Court may from time to time form one or more chambers, composed of three or more judges as the Court may determine, for dealing with particular categories of cases; for example, labour cases and cases relating to transit and communications. 2. The Court may at any time form a chamber for dealing with a particular case. The number of judges to constitute such a chamber shall be determined by the Court with the approval of the parties. 3. Cases shall be heard and determined by the chambers provided for in this article if the parties so request.

A judgment given by any of the chambers provided for in Articles 26 and 29 shall be considered as rendered by the Court.

The chambers provided for in Articles 26 and 29 may, with the consent of the parties, sit and exercise their functions elsewhere than at The Hague.

With a view to the speedy dispatch of business, the Court shall form annually a chamber composed of five judges which, at the request of the parties, may hear and determine cases by summary procedure. In addition, two judges shall be selected for the purpose of replacing judges who find it impossible to sit.

1. The Court shall frame rules for carrying out its functions. In particular, it shall lay down rules of procedure. 2. The Rules of the Court may provide for assessors to sit with the Court or with any of its chambers, without the right to vote.

1. Judges of the nationality of each of the parties shall retain their right to sit in the case before the Court. 2. If the Court includes upon the Bench a judge of the nationality of one of the parties, any other party may choose a person to sit as judge. Such person shall be chosen preferably from among those persons who have been nominated as candidates as provided in Articles 4 and 5. 3. If the Court includes upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of the parties, each of these parties may proceed to choose a judge as provided in paragraph 2 of this Article.

Statute Of The International Court Of Justice

359

4. The provisions of this Article shall apply to the case of Articles 26 and 29. In such cases, the President shall request one or, if necessary, two of the members of the Court forming the chamber to give place to the members of the Court of the nationality of the parties concerned, and, failing such, or if they are unable to be present, to the judges specially chosen by the parties. 5. Should there be several parties in the same interest, they shall, for the purpose of the preceding provisions, be reckoned as one party only. Any doubt upon this point shall be settled by the decision of the Court. 6. Judges chosen as laid down in paragraphs 2, 3, and 4 of this Article shall fulfill the conditions required by Articles 2, 17 (paragraph 2), 20, and 24 of the present Statute. They shall take part in the decision on terms of complete equality with their colleagues.



Article 32



Article 33

1. Each member of the Court shall receive an annual salary. 2. The President shall receive a special annual allowance. 3. The Vice-President shall receive a special allowance for every day on which he acts as President. 4. The judges chosen under Article 31, other than members of the Court, shall receive compensation for each day on which they exercise their functions. 5. These salaries, allowances, and compensation shall be fixed by the General Assembly. They may not be decreased during the term of office. 6. The salary of the Registrar shall be fixed by the General Assembly on the proposal of the Court. 7. Regulations made by the General Assembly shall fix the conditions under which retirement pensions may be given to members of the Court and to the Registrar, and the conditions under which members of the Court and the Registrar shall have their travelling expenses refunded. 8. The above salaries, allowances, and compensation shall be free of all taxation.

The expenses of the Court shall be borne by the United Nations in such a manner as shall be decided by the General Assembly.

Chapter ii: Competence of the Court

Article 34

1. Only states may be parties in cases before the Court.

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2. The Court, subject to and in conformity with its Rules, may request of public international organizations information relevant to cases before it, and shall ­receive such information presented by such organizations on their own initiative. 3. Whenever the construction of the constituent instrument of a public international organization or of an international convention adopted thereunder is in question in a case before the Court, the Registrar shall so notify the public international organization concerned and shall communicate to it copies of all the written proceedings.



Article 35



Article 36

1. The Court shall be open to the states parties to the present Statute. 2. The conditions under which the Court shall be open to other states shall, subject to the special provisions contained in treaties in force, be laid down by the Security Council, but in no case shall such conditions place the parties in a position of inequality before the Court. 3. When a state which is not a Member of the United Nations is a party to a case, the Court shall fix the amount which that party is to contribute towards the expenses of the Court. This provision shall not apply if such state is bearing a share of the expenses of the Court

1. The jurisdiction of the Court comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters specially provided for in the Charter of the United Nations or in treaties and conventions in force. 2. The states parties to the present Statute may at any time declare that they recognize as compulsory ipso facto and without special agreement, in relation to any other state accepting the same obligation, the jurisdiction of the Court in all legal disputes concerning: a. the interpretation of a treaty; b. any question of international law; c. the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of an international obligation; d. the nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach of an ­international obligation. 3. The declarations referred to above may be made unconditionally or on ­condition of reciprocity on the part of several or certain states, or for a certain time. 4. Such declarations shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall transmit copies thereof to the parties to the Statute and to the Registrar of the Court.

Statute Of The International Court Of Justice

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5. Declarations made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice and which are still in force shall be deemed, as between the parties to the present Statute, to be acceptances of the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice for the period which they still have to run and in accordance with their terms. 6. In the event of a dispute as to whether the Court has jurisdiction, the matter shall be settled by the decision of the Court.



Article 37



Article 38

Whenever a treaty or convention in force provides for reference of a matter to a tribunal to have been instituted by the League of Nations, or to the Permanent Court of International Justice, the matter shall, as between the parties to the present Statute, be referred to the International Court of Justice.

1. The Court, whose function is to decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are submitted to it, shall apply: a. international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting states; b. international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law; c. the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations; d. subject to the provisions of Article 59, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law. 2. This provision shall not prejudice the power of the Court to decide a case ex aequo et bono, if the parties agree thereto.

Chapter iii: Procedure

Article 39

1. The official languages of the Court shall be French and English. If the parties agree that the case shall be conducted in French, the judgment shall be delivered in French. If the parties agree that the case shall be conducted in English, the judgment shall be delivered in English. 2. In the absence of an agreement as to which language shall be employed, each party may, in the pleadings, use the language which it prefers; the decision of the Court shall be given in French and English. In this case the Court shall at the same time determine which of the two texts shall be considered as authoritative.

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3. The Court shall, at the request of any party, authorize a language other than French or English to be used by that party.



Article 40



Article 41



Article 42



Article 43



Article 44

1. Cases are brought before the Court, as the case may be, either by the notification of the special agreement or by a written application addressed to the Registrar. In either case the subject of the dispute and the parties shall be indicated. 2. The Registrar shall forthwith communicate the application to all concerned. 3. He shall also notify the Members of the United Nations through the Secretary-General, and also any other states entitled to appear before the Court.

1. The Court shall have the power to indicate, if it considers that circumstances so require, any provisional measures which ought to be taken to preserve the respective rights of either party. 2. Pending the final decision, notice of the measures suggested shall forthwith be given to the parties and to the Security Council.

1. The parties shall be represented by agents. 2. They may have the assistance of counsel or advocates before the Court. 3. The agents, counsel, and advocates of parties before the Court shall enjoy the privileges and immunities necessary to the independent exercise of their duties.

1. The procedure shall consist of two parts: written and oral. 2. The written proceedings shall consist of the communication to the Court and to the parties of memorials, counter-memorials and, if necessary, replies; also all papers and documents in support. 3. These communications shall be made through the Registrar, in the order and within the time fixed by the Court. 4. A certified copy of every document produced by one party shall be communicated to the other party. 5. The oral proceedings shall consist of the hearing by the Court of witnesses, experts, agents, counsel, and advocates.

1. For the service of all notices upon persons other than the agents, counsel, and advocates, the Court shall apply direct to the government of the state upon whose territory the notice has to be served.

Statute Of The International Court Of Justice

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2. The same provision shall apply whenever steps are to be taken to procure evidence on the spot.



Article 45



Article 46



Article 47

The hearing shall be under the control of the President or, if he is unable to preside, of  the Vice-President; if neither is able to preside, the senior judge present shall preside.

The hearing in Court shall be public, unless the Court shall decide otherwise, or unless the parties demand that the public be not admitted.

1. Minutes shall be made at each hearing and signed by the Registrar and the President.

2. These minutes alone shall be authentic.

Article 48



Article 49



Article 50



Article 51



Article 52

The Court shall make orders for the conduct of the case, shall decide the form and time in which each party must conclude its arguments, and make all arrangements connected with the taking of evidence.

The Court may, even before the hearing begins, call upon the agents to produce any document or to supply any explanations. Formal note shall be taken of any refusal.

The Court may, at any time, entrust any individual, body, bureau, commission, or other organization that it may select, with the task of carrying out an enquiry or giving an expert opinion.

During the hearing any relevant questions are to be put to the witnesses and experts under the conditions laid down by the Court in the rules of procedure referred to in Article 30.

After the Court has received the proofs and evidence within the time specified for the purpose, it may refuse to accept any further oral or written evidence that one party may desire to present unless the other side consents.

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Article 53



Article 54



Article 55



Article 56



Article 57



Article 58



Article 59



Article 60



Article 61

1. Whenever one of the parties does not appear before the Court, or fails to defend its case, the other party may call upon the Court to decide in favour of its claim. 2. The Court must, before doing so, satisfy itself, not only that it has jurisdiction in accordance with Articles 36 and 37, but also that the claim is well founded in fact and law.

1. When, subject to the control of the Court, the agents, counsel, and advocates have ­completed their presentation of the case, the President shall declare the hearing closed. 2. The Court shall withdraw to consider the judgment. 3. The deliberations of the Court shall take place in private and remain secret.

1. All questions shall be decided by a majority of the judges present. 2. In the event of an equality of votes, the President or the judge who acts in his place shall have a casting vote.

1. The judgment shall state the reasons on which it is based. 2. It shall contain the names of the judges who have taken part in the decision.

If the judgment does not represent in whole or in part the unanimous opinion of the judges, any judge shall be entitled to deliver a separate opinion.

The judgment shall be signed by the President and by the Registrar. It shall be read in open court, due notice having been given to the agents.

The decision of the Court has no binding force except between the parties and in respect of that particular case.

The judgment is final and without appeal. In the event of dispute as to the meaning or scope of the judgment, the Court shall construe it upon the request of any party.

1. An application for revision of a judgment may be made only when it is based upon the discovery of some fact of such a nature as to be a decisive factor, which fact was,

Statute Of The International Court Of Justice

365

when the judgment was given, unknown to the Court and also to the party claiming revision, always provided that such ignorance was not due to negligence. 2. The proceedings for revision shall be opened by a judgment of the Court expressly recording the existence of the new fact, recognizing that it has such a character as to lay the case open to revision, and declaring the application admissible on this ground. 3. The Court may require previous compliance with the terms of the judgment before it admits proceedings in revision. 4. The application for revision must be made at latest within six months of the discovery of the new fact. 5. No application for revision may be made after the lapse of ten years from the date of the judgment.



Article 62



Article 63



Article 64

1. Should a state consider that it has an interest of a legal nature which may be affected by the decision in the case, it may submit a request to the Court to be permitted to intervene. 2. It shall be for the Court to decide upon this request.

1. Whenever the construction of a convention to which states other than those concerned in the case are parties is in question, the Registrar shall notify all such states forthwith. 2. Every state so notified has the right to intervene in the proceedings; but if it uses this right, the construction given by the judgment will be equally binding upon it.

Unless otherwise decided by the Court, each party shall bear its own costs.

Chapter iv: Advisory Opinions

Article 65

1. The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at the request of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations to make such a request. 2. Questions upon which the advisory opinion of the Court is asked shall be laid before the Court by means of a written request containing an exact statement of the question upon which an opinion is required, and accompanied by all documents likely to throw light upon the question.

366

appendix ii.3



Article 66



Article 67



Article 68

1. The Registrar shall forthwith give notice of the request for an advisory opinion to all states entitled to appear before the Court. 2. The Registrar shall also, by means of a special and direct communication, notify any state entitled to appear before the Court or international organization considered by the Court, or, should it not be sitting, by the President, as likely to be able to furnish information on the question, that the Court will be prepared to receive, within a time-limit to be fixed by the President, written statements, or to hear, at a public sitting to be held for the purpose, oral statements relating to the question. 3. Should any such state entitled to appear before the Court have failed to receive the special communication referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article, such state may express a desire to submit a written statement or to be heard; and the Court will decide. 4. States and organizations having presented written or oral statements or both shall be permitted to comment on the statements made by other states or organizations in the form, to the extent, and within the time-limits which the Court, or, should it not be sitting, the President, shall decide in each particular case. Accordingly, the Registrar shall in due time communicate any such written statements to states and organizations having submitted similar statements.

The Court shall deliver its advisory opinions in open court, notice having been given to the Secretary-General and to the representatives of Members of the United Nations, of  other states and of international organizations immediately concerned.

In the exercise of its advisory functions the Court shall further be guided by the provisions of the present Statute which apply in contentious cases to the extent to which it recognizes them to be applicable.

Chapter v: Amendment

Article 69

Amendments to the present Statute shall be effected by the same procedure as is ­provided by the Charter of the United Nations for amendments to that Charter, subject however to any provisions which the General Assembly upon recommendation of the

Statute Of The International Court Of Justice

367

Security Council may adopt concerning the participation of states which are parties to the present Statute but are not Members of the United Nations.



Article 70

The Court shall have power to propose such amendments to the present Statute as it may deem necessary, through written communications to the Secretary-General, for consideration in conformity with the provisions of Article 69.

appendix ii.4

United Nations Member States

By Date of Admission and Percentage Share of the Regular Budget Assessment Country name

Date of admission

Budget assessment 2015 in %

Afghanistan Albania Algeria Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia1 Australia Austria Azerbaijan2 Bahamas Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belarus3 Belgium Belize Benin4 Bhutan Bolivia (Plurinational State of)5 Bosnia and Herzegovina6

November 19, 1946 December 14, 1955 October 8, 1962 July 28, 1993 December 1, 1976 November 11, 1981 October 24, 1945 March 2, 1992 November 1, 1945 December 14, 1955 March 2, 1992 September 18, 1973 September 21, 1971 September 17, 1974 December 9, 1966 October 24, 1945 December 27, 1945 September 25, 1981 September 1960, 20 September 1971, 21 November 1945, 14 May 22, 1992

0.005 0.010 0.137 0.008 0.010 0.002 0.432 0.007 2.074 0.798 0.040 0.017 0.039 0.010 0.008 0.056 0.998 0.001 0.003 0.001 0.009 0.017

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 2 Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 3 Formerly known as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic and Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 4 Formely known as Dahomey. 5 Formerly known as Bolivia. 6 Former member of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

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369

United Nations Member States Country name

Date of admission

Budget assessment 2015 in %

Botswana Brazil Brunei Darussalam Bulgaria Burkina Faso7 Myanmar8 Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile9 China Colombia Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo10 Congo11 Costa Rica Côte D’Ivoire12 Croatia13 Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic14 Denmark Djibouti

October 17, 1966 October 24, 1945 September 21, 1984 December 14, 1955 September 20, 196 April 19, 1948 September 18, 1962 December 14, 1955 September 20, 1960 November 9, 1945 September 16, 1975 September 20, 1960 September 20, 1960 October 24, 1945 October 24, 1945 November 5, 1945 November 12, 1975 September 20, 1960

0.017 2.934 0.026 0.047 0.003 0.001 0.001 0.004 0.012 2.984 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.334 5.148 0.259 0.001 0.003

September 20, 1960 November 2, 1945 September 20, 1960 May 22, 1992 October 24, 1945 September 20, 1960 January 19, 1993 October 24, 1945 September 20, 1977

0.005 0.038 0.011 0.126 0.069 0.047 0.386 0.675 0.001

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

7 Formerly known as Upper Volta. 8 Formerly known as Union of Burma. 9 Formerly known as Republic of China. 10 Former known as Zaire and prior to this the Republic of the Congo. 11 Formerly known as People’s Republic of Congo and prior to this Congo (Brazzaville). 12 Formerly known as Ivory Coast. 13 Former member of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. 14 Former member of Czechoslovakia.

370

appendix ii.4

(cont.) Country name

Date of admission

Budget assessment 2015 in %

Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt15 El Salvador Eritrea Estonia16 Ethiopia Fiji Finland France Gabon Gambia Georgia17 Germany18 Ghana Greece Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guinea Bissau Equatorial Guinea Guyana Haiti Honduras Hungary Iceland

December 18, 1978 October 24, 1945 December 21, 1945 October 24, 1945 October 24, 1945 May 28, 1993 September 17, 1991 November 13, 1945 October 13, 1970 December 14, 1955 October 24, 1945 September 20, 1960 September 21, 1965 July 31, 1992 September 18, 1973 March 8, 1957 October 25, 1945 September 17, 1974 November 21, 1945 December 12, 1958 September 17, 1974 November 12, 1968 September 20, 1966 October 24, 1945 December 17, 1945 December 14, 1955 November 19, 1946

0.001 0.045 0.044 0.134 0.016 0.001 0.040 0.010 0.003 0.519 5.593 0.020 0.001 0.007 7.141 0.014 0.638 0.001 0.027 0.001 0.001 0.010 0.001 0.003 0.008 0.266 0.027

15 16 17 18

15 16 17 18

Former member of the United Arab Republic together with Syria and prior known as Egypt. Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The two German states, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, united to form one sovereign State.

371

United Nations Member States Country name

Date of admission

Budget assessment 2015 in %

India Indonesia19 Iran (Islamic Republic of)20 Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan21 Kenya Kiribati Democratic People’s Republic of Korea Republic of Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan22 Lao People’s Democratic Republic23 Latvia24 Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libya25 Liechtenstein Lithuania26 Luxembourg

October 30, 1945 September 28, 1950 October 24, 1945 December 21, 1945 December 14, 1955 May 11, 1949 December 14, 1955 September 18, 1962 December 18, 1956 December 14, 1955 March 2, 1992 December 16, 1963 September 14, 1999 September 17, 1991

0.666 0.346 0.356 0.068 0.418 0.396 4.448 0.011 10.833 0.022 0.121 0.013 0.001 0.006

September 17, 1991 May 14, 1963 March 2, 1992 December 14, 1955

1.994 0.273 0.002 0.002

September 17, 1991 October 24, 1945 October 17, 1966 November 2, 1945 December 14, 1955 September 18, 1990 September 17, 1991 October 24, 1945

0.047 0.042 0.001 0.001 0.142 0.009 0.073 0.810

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

19 Withdrew from United Nations membership from 1965 to 1966. 20 Formerly known as Iran. 21 Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 22 Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 23 Formerly known as Laos. 24 Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 25 Formerly known as Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and prior the Kingdom of Libya. 26 Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

372

appendix ii.4

(cont.) Country name

Date of admission

Budget assessment 2015 in %

The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia27 Madagascar28 Malawi Malaysia29 Maldives Mali Malta Marshall Islands Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Micronesia, Federated States of Republic of Moldova30 Monaco Mongolia Montenegro31 Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger

April 8, 1993

0.008

September 20, 1960 December 1, 1964 September 17, 1957 September 21, 1965 September 28, 1960 December 1, 1964 September 17, 1991 October 27, 1961 April 24, 1968 November 7, 1945 September 17, 1991 March 2, 1992 May 28, 1993 October 27, 1961 June 28, 2006 November 12, 1956 September 16, 1975 April 23, 1990 September 14, 1999 December 14, 1955 December 10, 1945 October 24, 1945 October 24, 1945 September 20, 1960

0.003 0.002 0.281 0.001 0.004 0.016 0.001 0.002 0.013 1.842 0.001 0.003 0.012 0.003 0.005 0.062 0.003 0.010 0.001 0.006 1.654 0.253 0.003 0.002

27 28 29 30 31

27 Former member of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. 28 Formerly known as Malagasy Republic. 29 Formerly known as Federation of Malaya. 30 Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 31 Former member of Serbia and Montenegro, and prior to this of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and prior to this of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

373

United Nations Member States Country name

Date of admission

Budget assessment 2015 in %

Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Palau Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines32 Poland Portugal Qatar Romania Russian Federation33 Rwanda Saint Kitts and Nevis34 Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa San Marino Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia35 Seychelles Sierra Leone

October 7, 1960 November 27, 1945 October 7, 1971 September 30, 1947 December 15, 1994 November 13, 1945 October 10, 1975 October 24, 1945 October 31, 1945 October 24, 1945 October 14, 1945 December 14, 1955 September 21, 1971 December 14, 1955 October 24, 1945 September 18, 1962 September 23, 1983 September 18, 1979 September 16, 1980 December 15, 1976 March 2, 1992 September 16, 1975 October 24, 1945 September 28, 1960 November 1, 2000 September 21, 1976 September 27, 1961

0.090 0.851 0.102 0.085 0.001 0.026 0.004 0.010 0.117 0.154 0.154 0.921 0.209 0.226 2.438 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003 0.001 0.864 0.006 0.040 0.001 0.001

32 33 34 35

32 33

Formerly known as Philippine Republic. Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The membership of the Soviet Union in the Security Council and all ­other United Nations organs is continued by the Russian Federation. 34 Formerly known as Saint Christopher and Nevis. 35 Former member of Serbia and Montenegro, prior to this of the Federal Republic of ­Yugoslavia and, prior to this of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

374

appendix ii.4

(cont.) Country name

Date of admission

Budget assessment 2015 in %

Singapore36 Slovakia37 Slovenia38 Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa39 South Sudan40 Spain Sri Lanka41 Sudan Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland Syrian Arab Republic42 Tajikistan43 United Republic of Tanzania44 Thailand45 Timor-Leste Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago

September 21, 1965 January 19, 1993 May 22, 1992 September 19, 1978 September 20, 1960 November 7, 1945 July 14, 2011 December 14, 1955 December 14, 1955 November 12, 1956 December 4, 1975 September 24, 1968 November 19, 1946 September 10, 2002 October 24, 1945 March 2, 1992 December 14, 1961 December 16, 1946 September 27, 2002 September 20, 1960 September 14, 1999 September 18, 1962

0.384 0.171 0.100 0.001 0.001 0.372 0.004 2.973 0.025 0.010 0.004 0.003 0.960 1.047 0.036 0.003 0.009 0.239 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.044

36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

Former member of Malaysia. Former member of Czechoslovakia. Former member of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Formerly known as Union of South Africa. Seceded from Sudan. Formerly known as Ceylon. Former member of the United Arab Republic together with Egypt and prior to this known as Syria. Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Created by merging two states, Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Formerly known as Siam.

375

United Nations Member States Country name

Date of admission

Budget assessment 2015 in %

Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan46 Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine47 United Arab Emirates United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland United States of America Uruguay Uzbekistan48 Vanuatu Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Viet Nam Yemen49 Zambia Zimbabwe

November 12, 1956 October 24, 1945 March 2, 1992 September 5, 2000 October 25, 1962 October 24, 1945 December 9, 1971 October 24, 1945

0.036 1.328 0.019 0.001 0.006 0.099 0.595 5.179

October 24, 1945 December 18, 1945 March 2, 1992 September 15, 1981 November 15, 1945 September 20, 1977 September 30, 1947 December 1, 1964 August 25, 1980

22.000 0.052 0.015 0.001 0.627 0.042 0.010 0.006 0.002

46 47 48 49

46 47 48 49

Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Formerly known as the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Former member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Established through the merger of two states, Yemen and Democratic Yemen.

Appendix ii.5

Security Council Membership The permanent members are: China, France, United Kingdom, Union of Soviet ­Socialist Republics (Russian Federation as of 24 December 1991) und the United States of America. In addition to the permanent members, the non-permanent are shown below. 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1

Australia, Brazil, Egypt, Mexico, Netherlands, Poland Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Colombia, Poland, Syrian Arab Republic Argentina, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Syrian Arab Republic, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic1 Argentina, Canada, Cuba, Egypt, Norway, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic2 Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, India, Norway, Yugoslavia Brazil, Ecuador, India, Netherlands, Turkey, Yugoslavia Brazil, Chile, Greece, Netherlands, Pakistan, Turkey Chile, Colombia, Denmark, Lebanon, Pakistan Brazil, Colombia, Denmark, Lebanon, New Zealand, Turkey Belgium, Brazil, Iran (Islamic Republic of), New Zealand, Peru, Turkey Australia, Belgium, Cuba, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Peru, Yugoslavia Australia, Colombia, Cuba, Iraq, Philippines, Sweden Canada, Colombia, Iraq, Japan, Panama, Sweden Argentina, Canada, Italy, Japan, Panama, Tunisia Argentina, Ceylon,3 Ecuador, Italy, Poland, Tunisia Ceylon,4 Chile, Ecuador, Liberia, Turkey, United Arab Republic5 Chile, Ghana, Ireland, Romania, United Arab Republic,6 Venezuela

2 3 4 5 6

1 Later known as Ukraine. 2 Ibid. 3 Later known as Sri Lanka. 4 Ibid. 5 Formerly established by a union of Egypt and Syria and later resuming its separate membership in the United Nations with the former Egypt known as Arab Republic of Egypt. 6 Ibid.

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Security Council Membership 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 7 8 9 10 11

377

Brazil, Ghana, Morocco, Norway, Philippines, Venezuela Bolivia, Brazil, Czechoslovakia, Ivory Coast, Morocco, Norway Bolivia, Ivory Coast, Jordan, Malaysia, Netherlands, Uruguay Argentina, Bulgaria, Japan, Jordan, Mali, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Uganda, Uruguay Argentina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, Ethiopia, India, Japan, Mali, Nigeria Algeria, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Ethiopia, Hungary, India, Pakistan, ­Paraguay, Senegal Algeria, Colombia, Finland, Hungary, Nepal, Pakistan, Paraguay, Senegal, Spain, Zambia Burundi, Colombia, Finland, Nepal, Nicaragua, Poland, Sierra Leone, Spain, Syrian Arab Republic, Zambia Argentina, Belgium, Burundi, Italy, Japan, Nicaragua, Poland, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Syrian Arab Republic Argentina, Belgium, Guinea, India, Italy, Japan, Panama, Somalia, Sudan, Yugoslavia Australia, Austria, Guinea, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Panama, Peru, Sudan, Yugoslavia Australia, Austria, Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic,7 Cameroon Costa Rica, Indonesia, Iraq, Kenya, Mauritania, Peru Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic,8 Cameroon,9 Costa Rica, Guyana, Iraq, Italy, Japan, Mauritania, Sweden, United Republic of Tanzania Benin, Guyana, Italy, Japan, Libyan Arab Republic,10 Pakistan, Panama, ­Romania, Sweden, United Republic of Tanzania Benin, Canada Germany, India, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya,11 Mauritius, ­Pakistan, Panama, Romania, Venezuela Bolivia, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Gabon, Germany, India, Kuwait, Mauritius, Nigeria, Venezuela Bangladesh, Bolivia, Czechoslovakia, Gabon, Jamaica, Kuwait, Nigeria, ­Norway, Portugal, Zambia Bangladesh, German Democratic Republic, Jamaica, Mexico, Niger, Norway, Philippines, Portugal, Tunisia, Zambia

7 Later known as Belarus. 8 Ibid. 9 Later known as the United Republic of Cameroon. 10 Later known as Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and after as Libya. 11 Later known as Libya.

378 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Appendix ii.5 German Democratic Republic, Ireland, Japan, Mexico, Niger, Panama, ­ hilippines, Spain, Tunisia, Uganda P Guyana, Ireland, Japan, Jordan, Panama, Poland, Spain, Togo, Uganda, Zaire Guyana, Jordan, Malta, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Poland, Togo, Zaire, Zimbabwe Burkina Faso, Egypt, India, Malta, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Peru, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic,12 Zimbabwe Australia, Burkina Faso, Denmark, Egypt, India, Madagascar, Peru, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic13 Australia, Bulgaria, Congo, Denmark, Ghana, Madagascar, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, United Arab Emirates, Venezuela Argentina, Bulgaria, Congo, Germany, Ghana, Italy, Japan, United Arab ­Emirates, Venezuela, Zambia Algeria, Argentina, Brazil, Germany, Italy, Japan, Nepal, Senegal, Yugoslavia, Zambia Algeria, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Ethiopia, Finland, Malaysia, Nepal, ­Senegal, Yugoslavia Canada, Colombia, Cote d’Ivoire, Cuba, Ethiopia, Finland, Malaysia, ­Romania, Yemen, Zaire Austria, Belgium, Cote d’Ivoire, Cuba, Ecuador, India, Romania, Yemen, Zaire, Zimbabwe Austria, Belgium, Cabo Verde, Ecuador, Hungary, India, Japan, Morocco, Venezuela, Zimbabwe Brazil, Cabo Verde, Djibouti, Hungary, Japan, Morocco, New Zealand, ­Pakistan, Spain, Venezuela Argentina, Brazil, Czech Republic, Djibouti, New Zealand, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Rwanda, Spain Argentina, Botswana, Czech Republic, Germany, Honduras, Indonesia, Italy, Nigeria, Oman, Rwanda Botswana, Chile, Egypt, Germany, Guinea-Bissau, Honduras, Indonesia, Italy, Poland, Republic of Korea

12 13

12 Later known as Ukraine. 13 Ibid.

Security Council Membership 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

379

Chile, Costa Rica, Egypt, Guinea-Bissau, Japan, Kenya, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Korea, Sweden Bahrain, Brazil, Costa Rica, Gabon, Gambia, Japan, Kenya, Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden Argentina, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Gabon, Gambia, Malaysia, Namibia, Netherlands, Slovenia Argentina, Bangladesh, Canada, China, Jamaica, Malaysia, Mali, Namibia, Netherlands, Tunisia, Ukraine Bangladesh, Colombia, Ireland, Jamaica, Mali, Mauritius, Norway, Singapore, Tunisia, Ukraine Bulgaria, Cameroon, Colombia, Guinea, Ireland, Mauritius, Mexico, Norway, Singapore, Syrian Arab Republic Angola, Bulgaria, Cameroon, Chile, Germany, Guinea, Mexico, Pakistan, Spain, Syrian Arab Republic Algeria, Angola, Benin, Brazil, Chile, Germany, Pakistan, Philippines, ­Romania, Spain Algeria, Argentina, Benin, Brazil, Denmark, Greece, Japan, Philippines, ­Romania, United Republic of Tanzania Argentina, Congo, Denmark, Ghana, Greece, Japan, Peru, Qatar, Slovakia, United Republic of Tanzania Belgium, Congo, Ghana, Indonesia, Italy, Panama, Peru, Qatar, Slovakia, South Africa Belgium, Burkina Faso, Costa Rica, Croatia, Indonesia, Italy, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya,14 Panama, South Africa Austria, Burkina Faso, Costa Rica, Croatia, Japan, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya,15 Mexico, Turkey, Uganda, Viet Nam Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Gabon, Japan, Lebanon, Mexico, Nigeria, Turkey, Uganda Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Colombia, Gabon, Germany, India, Lebanon, Nigeria, Portugal, South Africa Azerbaijan, Colombia, Germany, Guatemala, India, Morocco, Pakistan, Portugal, South Africa, Togo Argentina, Australia, Azerbaijan, Guatemala, Luxembourg, Morocco, Pakistan, Republic of Korea, Rwanda, Togo

14 15

14 Later known as Libya. 15 Ibid.

380 2014 2015

Appendix ii.5 Argentina, Australia, Chad, Chile, Jordan, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Nigeria, Republic of Korea, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia16 Angola, Chad, Chile, Jordan, Lithuania, Malaysia, New Zealand, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia,17 Spain, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

16 17

16 Declined to take the seat – see A/68/599. 17 Ibid.

appendix ii.6

United Nations Peacekeeping Operations 1940s Name

Purpose

Start/End

un Truce Supervision Organization (untso) un Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (unmogip)

Monitor Arab-Israeli ceasefire; first un ­peacekeeping mission Monitor India-Pakistan ­ceasefire in Kashmir

1948/ongoing

Purpose

Start/End

1948/ongoing

1950s Name

Supervise withdrawal of troops 1956/1967 from Suez Crisis; first armed peacekeepers United Nations Observation Group Prevent troops and weapons 1958/1958 in Lebanon (unogil) entering Lebanon during crisis United Nations Emergency Force i (unef i)

1960s Name

Purpose

Start/End

1960/1964 Prevent foreign intervention in and preserve territory of the Congo Monitor ceasefire during United Nations Security Force in 1962/1963 West New Guinea (West Irian) ­transition of West Irian from (unsf) Dutch rule to Indonesian 1963/1964 United Nations Yemen Observation Supervise disengagement of Mission (unyom) Saudi Arabia and Egypt from Yemen’s civil war United Nations Operation in the Congo (onuc)

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382

appendix ii.6

1960s (cont.) Name

Purpose

Start/End

United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (unficyp) Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the ­Dominican Republic (domrep) United Nations India-Pakistan ­Observation Mission (unipom)

Prevent conflict between Greek 1964/ and Turkish Cypriots ongoing 1965/1966 Monitor situation caused by rival governments in Dominican Republic Supervise India-Pakistan cease- 1965/1966 fire outside of Kashmir

1970s Name

Purpose

Start/End

United Nations Emergency Force ii Supervise withdrawal of forces 1973/1979 (unef ii) from Sinai after Egypt, Syria and Israel battle 1974/ongoing United Nations Disengagement Maintain ceasefire between Observer Force (undof) Syria and Israel on the Golan Heights 1978/ongoing United Nations Interim Force in Supervise Israeli withdrawal Lebanon (unifil) from Lebanon; keep the international peace and security; help the Lebanese Government restore its effective authority in the area

1980 Name

Purpose

Start/End

United Nations Good Offices ­Mission in ­Afghanistan and ­Pakistan (ungomap) United Nations Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group (uniimog)

Enforce Afghanistan and Pakistan from mutual non-interference Supervise Iran-Iraq ceasefire

1988/1990

1988/1991

383

United Nations Peacekeeping Operations Name

Purpose

Start/End

United Nations Angola Verification Mission i (unavem i) United Nations Transition ­Assistance Group (untag) United Nations Observer Group in Central America (onuca)

Supervise withdrawal of Cuban 1989/1991 troops from Angola Supervise Namibian’s elections 1989/1990 and transition to independence Monitor ceasefire in Nicaragua 1989/1992

1990 Name

Purpose

Enforce Kuwait-Iraqi border after Gulf War Enforce ceasefire in Angolan civil war Enforce ceasefire in El Salvador civil war Implement ceasefire and help promote referendum on area’s future Prepare way for un Transitional Authority in Cambodia Protect area of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Republic of Macedonia, follow up by United Nations ­Preventive ­Deployment Force (­u npredep), 1995/1999 United Nations Transitional Assist reorganization of ­Authority in Cambodia (untac) Cambodia United Nations Operation in Enforce ceasefire; reorganized ­Somalia i (unosom i) as Unified Task Force (unitaf) Monitor referendum for United Nations Observer Mission to Verify the Referendum in Eritrea independence of Eritrea from Ethiopia (unover) United Nations Operation in Monitor ceasefire in ­Mozambique (onumoz) ­Mozambique’s civil war United Nations Iraq-Kuwait ­Observation Mission (unikom) United Nations Angola Verfication Mission ii (unavem ii) United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador (onusal) United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (minurso) United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia (unamic) United Nations Protection Force (unprofor)

Start/End 1991/2003 1991/1995 1991/1995 1991/ongoing

1991/1992 1992/1995

1992/1993 1992/1993 1992/1993

1992/1994

384

appendix ii.6

1990 (cont.) Name

Purpose

United Nations Operation in ­Somalia ii (unosom ii) United Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda (unomur) United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia (unomig) United Nations Mission in Liberia (unomil) United Nations Mission in Haiti (unmih) United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (unamir)

Stabilize Somalia and assist 1993/1995 humanitarian efforts Enforce ceasefire between Rwanda1993/1994 and rebel group based in Uganda Enforce ceasefire between 1993/2009 Georgia and Abkhaz separatists Monitor ceasefire and elections 1993/1996 in Liberia Stabilize Haiti after coup 1993/1996

Monitor ceasefire; promote relief efforts after Rwanada genocide United Nations Aouzou Strip ObMonitor Libya’s withdrawal server Group (unasog) from disputed territory given by International Court of Justice to Chad United Nations Mission of Observ- Monitor ceasefire in Tajikistan ers in Tajikistan (unmot) civil war United Nations Angola Verification Monitor ceasefire and Mission iii (unavem iii) ­disarmament, follow-up by United Nations Observer Mission in Angola (monua), 1997/1999 United Nations Confidence Restora­ Implement ceasefire tion Operation in Croatia (uncro) United Nations Preventive Deploy- Monitor border between ment Force (unpredep) ­Macedonia and Albania; follow up to United Nations Protection Force (unprofor), 1992/1995 United Nations Mission in Bosnia Monitor human rights, and Herzegovina (unmibh) ­demining, relief Supervise integration of region United Nations Transitional into Croatia ­Administration for Eastern ­Slavonia, Baranja, and Western Sirmium (untaes) United Nations Mission of Monitor demilitarization of the ­Observers in Prevlaka (unmop) Prevlaka peninsula, Croatia

Start/End

1993/1996

1994/1994

1994/2002 1995/1997

1995/1996 1995/1999

1995/2002 1996/1998

1996/2002

385

United Nations Peacekeeping Operations Name

Purpose

Start/End

United Nations Support Mission in Haiti (unsmih) United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala (minugua) United Nations Observer Mission in Angola (monua)

Modernize police and army of Haiti Monitor ceasefire in ­Guatemala’s civil war Monitor ceasefire and ­disarmament; follow up from United Nations ­Angola ­Verification Mission iii ­(unavem iii), 1995/1997 Help stabilize Haiti

1996/1997

Modernize Haiti’s police forces

1997/2000

Monitor Croatian police

1998/1998

United Nations Transition Mission in Haiti (untmih) United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (miponuh) United Nations Civilian Police Support Group (unpsg) United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic (minurca) United Nations Observer Mission in Sierra Leone (unomsil) United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (unmik)

Maintain security and stability in Central African Republic Monitor disarmament and ­demobilization in Sierra Leone Exercise ­administrative ­authority, including ­administration of justice in Kosovo United Nations Mission in Sierra Help stabilize and disarm Sierra Leone (unamsil) Leone United Nations Mission in East Oversee popular consultaTimor (unamet) tion on political relation to Indonesia; follow-up by United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (untaet), 1999/2002 United Nations Transitional Admin- Transition East Timor to istration in East Timor (untaet) ­independence; follow-up to United Nations Mission in East Timor (unamet), 1999/1999; follow up by United Nations ­Mission of Support in East Timor­ ­(unmiset), 2002/2005

1997/1997 1997/1999

1997/1997

1998/2000 1998/1999 1999/ongoing

1999/2005 1999/1999

1999/2002

386

appendix ii.6

1990 (cont.) Name

Purpose

Start/End

United Nations Peacebuilding Support Office in Guinea-Bissau (unogbis) United Nations Mission in ­Democratic Republic of the Congo (monuc)

Facilitate elections in Guinea- 1999/ongoing Bissau and implementation of the Abuja Agreement Monitor ceasefire in ­Democratic 1999/2010 Republic of the Congo; follow-up by United ­Nations ­Organization ­Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo monusco, 2010/ongoing

2000 Name

Purpose

Start/End

United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (unmee) United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor (unmiset)

Enforce ceasefire between Ethiopia and Eritrea Ensure security and stabilise the nascent state during the postindependence period; follow-up to United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (untaet), 1999/2002 Oversee ceasefire and train national police Facilitate implementation of peace process Return stability to Haiti

2000/2008

United Nations Mission in Liberia (unmil) United Nations Operation in Cote d’Ivoire (unoci) United Nations Stabilization ­Mission in Haiti (minustah) United Nations Operation in ­Burundi (onub)

United Nations Mission in the Sudan (unmis)

Help implement the Arusha accords; follow-up by United Nations Integrated Office in Burundi (binub), 2006/2010 Support implementation of the Comprehensive Peace ­Agreement, humanitarian

2002/2005

2003/ongoing 2004/ongoing 2004/ongoing 2004/2006

2005/ongoing

387

United Nations Peacekeeping Operations Name

Purpose

Start/End

assistance, and protection and promotion of human rights 2006/2012 United Nations Integrated Mission Support the government in in Timor-Leste (unmit) consolidating stability, enhancing a culture of democratic governance, and facilitating political dialogue among Timorese stakeholders, in their efforts to bring about a process of national reconciliation and to foster social cohesion 2006/2010 United Nations Integrated Office in Assist efforts towards peace Burundi (binub) and stability after decades of factional and ethnic fighting between Hutus and Tutsis; follow up to United Nations Operation in Burundi (onub), 2004/2006 2007/ongoing United Nations African Union Mis- Monitor arms trade and sion in Darfur (unamid) shipping, to cause and keep a ceasefire Protect refugees and displaced 2007/2010 United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad persons; support humanitarian assistance in eastern Chad and (minurcat) the north-eastern Central African Republic

2010 Name

Purpose

Start/End

United Nations Organization ­Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (monusco)

Monitor ceasefire in the 2010/ongoing ­Democratic Republic of the Congo, follow-up to the United Nations Mission in ­Democratic Republic of the Congo ­(monuc), 2009/2010

388

appendix ii.6

2010 (cont.) Name

Purpose

Start/End

United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei (unisfa) United Nations Mission in the ­Republic of South Sudan (unmiss) United Nations Support Mission in Libya (unsmil) United Nations Support Mission in Syria (unsmis)

Monitor ceasefire in Abyei

2011/ongoing

Assist the new state of South Sudan Assist the state of Libya

2011/ongoing 2011/ongoing

Monitor the ceasefire agreement 2012/2012 in Syria

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Weinlich, Silke and Urs Zollinger, Lessons from Delivering as One – Options for UN M ­ ember States, Bonn, Germany: Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik, 2012. Weiss, Thomas G., “The United Nations at Fifty: Recent Lessons”, Current History, Мау 1995, рр. 223–228. Weiss, Thomas G., “Humanitarian Shell Games: Whither UN Reform?” Security Dialogue, vol. 29, no. 1, 1998, pp. 9–23. Weiss, Thomas G., “The Illusion of UN Security Council Reform”, The Washington Quarterly, vol. 26, no. 4, Autumn 2003, pp. 147–161. Weiss, Thomas G., “Compromise and Credibility: Security Council Reform”, Security Dialogue, vol. 36, no. 2, 2005, pp. 131–154. Weiss, Thomas G., Overcoming the Security Council Reform Impasse – The Implausible versus the Plausible, Occasional Papers Dialogue on Globalization, no. 14, New York: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, January 2005. Weiss, Thomas G., “Toward a Third Generation of International Institutions: Obama´s UN Policy”, Washington Quarterly, vol. 32, no. 3, 2009, pp. 343–364. Weiss, Thomas G., “The John W. Holmes Lecture: Reinvigorating the International Civil Service”, Global Governance, vol. 16, no. 1, January-March 2010, pp. 39–57. Weiss, Thomas G., “Fundamental UN Reform: A Non-Starter or Not?” Global Policy, vol. 2, no. 2, 2011, pp. 196–202. Weiss, Thomas G., “A Pipe Dream? Reforming the United Nations”. Harvard International Review, vol. 33, no. 1, 2011, pp. 53–58. Weiss, Thomas G., What´s Wrong with the United Nations and How to Fix It, Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2012. Weiss, Thomas G., Jatiana Carayannis and Richard Jolly, “The Third UN”, Global G ­ overnance, vol. 14, no. 1, 2009, 223–242. Wilcox, Francis O. and C.M. Marcy, Proposals for Changes in the United Nations, ­Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1955. Wilenski, Peter, “Тhе Structure of the UN in the Post-Cold War Period”, in Adam ­Roberts and Benedick Kingsbury, eds., Divided World: The UN’s Roles in International Relations, Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1993. Williams, Abiodun, “Strategic Planning in the Executive Office of the UN SecretaryGeneral”, Global Governance, vol. 16, no. 4, October-December 2010, pp. 435–449. World Commission оn Environment and Development (Brundland Commission), Our Соmmоn Future, New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. World Federalist Association, Тhe Тhird Global Structures Convocation: Нuman Rights, Global Governance and Strengthening the United Nations, Washington, DC: World Federalist Association, 1994. Yamashita, Hikaru, “The Group of 8 and Global Peacekeeping, 2004–2010”, Global G ­ overnance, vol. 19, no. July-September 3, 2013, pp. 333–352. Zifcak, Spencer, United Nations Reform: Heading North or South? New York: Routledge, 2009.

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Selected UN Reports

1950, July 26: Twenty-Year Programme for Achieving Peace through the United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General, A/1304. 1961, July 14, Review of the Activities and Organization of the Secretariat, Report of the Group of Experts (Group of 8), A/4776. 1961, November 15: Examination of the Administrative and Budgetary Procedures of the United Nations, Report of the Working Group (Group of 15), A/4971. 1963, June 27: Examination of the Administrative and Budgetary Procedures of the UN, Report of the Working Group (Group of 21), A/5407. July 19: Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of Experts to Examine the Finances of the UN and the Specialized Agencies (Group of 14), A/6343. 1969, December: A Study of the Capacity of the United Nations, Report of Sir Robert Jackson, DP5, 1969. 1975, May 28: A New United Nations Structure for Global Economic Co-operation, ­Report  of the Group of Experts on the Structure of the United Nations System, E/AC.62.9. 1977, December 14: Restructuring of the Economic and Social Sectors of the United Nations System, Report of the Ad Hoc Committee (Gardner report), A/32/34. 1985, December 6: Some Reflections on Reform of the United Nations, Report of Inspector Maurice Bertrand of Joint Inspection Unit, A/40/988. 1986, August 18: Efficiency of the Administrative and Financial Functioning of the United Nations, Report of the Group of High-Level Intergovernmental Experts (Group of 18), A/41/49. 1987, September 18: Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich, The Reality and Guarantees of A Secure World, А/42/574-S/19143. 1988, June 1: In-Depth Study of the UN Intergovernmental Structure and Functions in the Economic and Social Fields, Report of the Special Commission of the ECOSOC, E/1988/75. 1992, June 1: An Agenda for Peace, Report of the Secretary-General, A/47/277-S/24111. 1992, June 26: The Role of the UN System, Report of the Secretary-General, E/1992/82. 1995, February 22: Supplement to an Agenda for Peace, Report of the Secretary-General, A/50/60-S/1995/1. 1996, December 20: An Agenda for Democratization, Report of the Secretary-General, A/51/761. 1997, March 17: Management and Organizational Measures, Report of the SecretaryGeneral, A/51/829. 1997, June 20: Agenda for Development, Report of the Ad Hoc Open-ended Working Group of the General Assembly, A/51/240, Annex.

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1997: July 14: Renewing the United Nations: A Programme for Reform, Report of the ­Secretary-General, A/51/950. 1997, July 18: Report of the Open-Ended High-Level Working Group on the Strengthening of the United Nations System, A/51/24. 1997, August 14: Global Vision, Local Voices, Report of the Task Force on the Reorientation of United Nations Public Information Activities, A/AC.198/1997/CRP.1. 1998, June 12: Strengthening of the Coordination of Emergency Humanitarian Assistance of the United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General, A/53/139-E/1998/67. 1998, October 13: Human Resources Management Reform, Report of the SecretaryGeneral, A/53/114. 2000, March 27: “We the Peoples”: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century, Report of the Secretary-General. 2000, August 1: Human Resources Management Reform, Report of the Secretary-­ General, A/55/253. 2000, August 8: We the Peoples Millennium Forum: Declaration and Agenda for Action: Strengthening the UN for the Twenty-First Century, Report of the Millennium Forum, A/54/959. 2000, August 21: UN Peace Operations, Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations (Brahimi report), A/55/305-S/2000/809. 2001, June 26: Financing for Development, Report of the High-Level Panel (Zedillo panel), A/55/1000. 2001, September 6: Road Map towards the Implementation of the UN Millennium Declaration, Report of the Secretary-General, A/56/326. 2002, May 14: Strengthening the Coordination of Emergency Humanitarian Assistance of the United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General, A/57/77-E/2002/63. 2002, September 9: Strengthening of the United Nations: An Agenda for Further Change, Report of the Secretary-General, A/57/387. 2004, June 7: We the Peoples: Civil Society, the UN and Global Governance, Report of the Panel of Eminent Persons on UN-Civil Society Relations (Cardoso Panel), A/58/817. 2004, December 2: A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility, Report of the HighLevel Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, A/59/565. 2005, March 21: In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All, Report of the Secretary-General, A/59/2005. 2006, February 24: Peace Operations 2010, Report of the Secretary-General, A/60/696. 2006, March 7: Investing in the UN – For a Stronger Organization Worldwide, Report of the Secretary-General, A/60/692. 2006, July 10: Comprehensive Review of Governance and Oversight Within the United Nations and its Funds, Programmes and Specialized Agencies, Report of the SecretaryGeneral, A/60/883.

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2006, August 9: Investing in People, Report of the Secretary-General, A/61/255. 2006, November 20: Delivering as One, Report of the High-Level Panel on System-Wide Coherence in Areas of Development, Humanitarian Assistance and Environment, A/61/583. 2008, December 24: Report of the African Union-United Nations Panel on Modalities for Support to African Union Peacekeeping Operations (Prodi Report), A/63/666-S/2008/813. 2009, December 22: Follow-up to General Assembly Resolution 63/311 on System-Wide Coherence Related to Operational Activities for Development, Report of the SecretaryGeneral, A/64/589. 2010, January 26: Global Field Support Strategy, Report of the Secretary-General, A/64/633. 2011, September 1: Innovative Mechanisms of Financing for Development, Report of the Secretary-General, A/66/334. 2012, January 30: Resilient People, Resilient Planet: A Future Worth Choosing, Report of the High-Level Panel on Global Sustainability, A/66/700. 2012, June 12: Independent Evaluation of Lessons Learned from Delivering as One, Report of the Secretary-General, A/66/859. 2013, June 26: A Life of Dignity for All: Accelerating Progress Towards the Millennium ­Development Goals (MDGs) and Advancing the UN Development Agenda Beyond 2015, Report of the Secretary-General, A/68/202. 2014, August 14: Report of the Open Working Group of the General Assembly on Sustainable Development Goals, A/68/970. 2014, August 15: Report of the Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing, A/69/315. 2014, December 4: The Road to Dignity by 2030: Ending Poverty, Transforming All Lives and Protecting the Planet, Synthesis report of the Secretary-General on the Post-2015 Sustainable Development Agenda, A/69/700. 2015, June 17: Report of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations on Uniting Our Strengths for Peace: Politics, Partnership and People, A/70/95-S/2015/446. 2015, June 30: Challenge of Sustaining Peace, Report of the Advisory Group of Experts on the Review of the Peacebuilding Architecture, A/69/968-S/2015/490. 2015, September 2: The future of United Nations Peace Operations: Implementation of the Recommendations of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations, Report of the Secretary-General, A/70/357-S/2015/682.

C

Selected UN Resolutions

1946, February 13: Organization of the Secretariat, General Assembly resolution A/ RES/13 (I).

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1946, February 13: Committee Structure of the General Assembly, General Assembly ­resolution A/RES/18 (I). 1946, February 14: Question of the Headquarters of the United Nations, General Assembly resolution A/RES/25 (I). 1946, September 14: Co-ordination Committee, ECOSOC resolution E/RES/13 (III). 1946, October 1: Sub-Commissions of the Economic and Employment Commission, ­ECOSOC resolution E/RES/1 (III). 1946, December 13: Approval of Trusteeship Agreements, General Assembly resolution A/RES/63 (I). 1946, December 14: Agreements with Specialized Agencies, General Assembly resolution A/RES/50. 1946, December 14: Establishment of the World Health Organization, General Assembly resolution A/RES/61 (I). 1946, December 14: Headquarters of the United Nations, General Assembly resolution A/RES/100 (I). 1947, March 28: Interim Coordinating Committee for International Commodity Arrangements, ECOSOC resolution E/RES/30 (IV). 1947, November 15: Agreements with Specialized Agencies, General Assembly resolution A/RES/124 (II). 1948, January 20: The India-Pakistan Question, Security Council resolution S/RES/39 (1948). 1948, May 29: The Palestine Question, Security Council resolution S/RES/50 (1948). 1948, November 19: Assistance to Palestine Refugees, General Assembly resolution A/RES/212 (III). 1948, December 4: Technical Assistance for Economic Development, General Assembly resolution A/RES/200 (III). 1948, December 10, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly resolution A/RES/217 A (III). 1949, November 22: United Nations Field Service and United Nations Panel of Field Observers, General Assembly resolution A/RES/297 (IV). 1949, December 8: Assistance to Palestine Refugees, General Assembly resolution A/RES/302 (IV). 1950, March 3: Review of Consultative Arrangements with Non-governmental Organizations, ECOSOC resolution A/RES/288 (X). 1950, November 3: Uniting for Peace, General Assembly resolution A/RES/277 (A) (V). 1951, March 30: The India-Pakistan Question, Security Council resolution S/RES/91 (1951). 1953, December 9: Organization of the Secretariat, General Assembly resolution A/RES/784 (VIII). 1956, November 5: Question Considered by the Security Council at its 749th and 750th Meetings, Held on 30 October 1962, General Assembly resolution A/RES/1000 (ES-1) [Establishment of the UN Emergency Force (UNEF)].

416

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1957, December 14: Financing of Economic Development, General Assembly resolution A/RES/1219 (XII). 1958, November 4: Question of Disarmament, General Assembly resolution A/RES/1252 (XII). 1963, June 27: General Principles to Serve as Guidelines for the Sharing of the Costs of Future Peace-keeping Operations Involving Heavy Expenditures, General Assembly resolution A/RES/1874 (S-IV). 1963, December 17: Question of Equitable Representation on the Security Council and the Economic and Social Council, General Assembly resolution A/RES/1991 (XVIII). 1964, December 30: Establishment of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development as an Organ of the General Assembly, General Assembly resolution A/RES/1995 (XIX). 1965, November 22: Consolidation of the Special Fund and the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance in a United Nations Development Programme, General Assembly resolution A/RES/2029 (XX). 1965, December 15: Comprehensive Review of the Whole Question of Peace-keeping Operations in All their Aspects, General Assembly resolution A/RES/2053 (XX). 1865, December 20: Establishment of the United Nations Organization for Industrial Development, General Assembly resolution A/RES/2089 (XX). 1966, November 17: United Nations Industrial Development Organization, General Assembly resolution A/RES/2152 (XXI). 1967, December 19, United Nations Regular Budget, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/2370 (XXII). 1970, July 22: The Capacity of the United Nations Development System, ECOSOC resolution E/RES/1530 (XLIX). 1970, December 11: The Capacity of the United Nations Development System, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/2688 (XXV). 1971, December 20, Enlargement of the Economic and Social Council, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/2847 (XXVI). 1972, December 15: United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/2994 (XXVII). 1974, May 18: Rationalization of the Work of the Council, ECOSOC resolution, E/RES/1768 (LIV). 1974, May 1: Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/3201 (S-VI). 1974, December 12: Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/3281 (XXIX). 1974, December 16: Habitat: United Nations Conference on Human Settlements, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/3325 (XXIX).

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417

1974, December 18: Statute of the International Civil Service Commission, General ­Assembly resolution, A/RES/3357 (XXIX). 1975, September 16: Development and International Economic Co-operation, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/3362 (S-VII). 1976, December 22: Statute of the Joint Inspection Unit, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/31/192. 1977, December 20: Restructuring of the Economic and Social Sectors of the United Nations System, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/32/197. 1979, January 28: Restructuring of the Economic and Social Sectors of the United Nations System, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/33/202. 1986, December 19: Review of the Efficiency of the Administrative and Financial Functioning of the United Nations, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/41/213. 1987, December 11: Implementation of General Assembly Resolution 41/213 in the Economic and Social Fields, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/42/170. 1988, July 29: Revitalization of the Economic and Social Council, General Assembly resolution, E/RES/88/77. 1991, December 9: Declaration on Fact-finding by the United Nations in the Field of the Maintenance of International Peace and Security, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/46/59. 1992, March 2: Revitalization of the United Nations Secretariat, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/46/232. 1992, April 13: Restructuring and Revitalization of the United Nations in the Economic, Social and Related Fields, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/46/235. 1992, June 30: Note on Security Council´s Consideration of the Item Entitled “An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-Keeping”, S/24210. 1992, October 29: Note on Security Council´s Consideration of the Item Entitled “An  ­Agenda  for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-Keeping”, S/24728. 1992, December 11: Question of Equitable Representation On and Increase in the Membership of the Security Council, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/47/62. 1992, December 14: Comprehensive Review of the Whole Question of Peace-keeping ­Operations in All their Aspects, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/47/71. 1992, December 18: An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy and Related Matters, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/47/120 A. 1992, December 22: An Agenda for Development, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/47/181. 1992, December 23: Review of the Efficiency of the Administrative and Financial Functioning of the United Nations and Programme Budget for the Biennium 1992–1993, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/47/212 A.

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1993, May 6: Review of the Efficiency of the Administrative and Financial Functioning of  the United Nations and Programme Budget for the Biennium 1992–1993, A/RES/47/212 B. 1993, December 3: Question of Equitable Representation On and Increase in the Membership of the Security Council, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/48/26. 1993, December 14: Strengthening of the Coordination of Humanitarian Emergency Assistance of the United Nations, General Assembly resolution, A/RES/48/57. 1993, September 20: An Agenda for Peace, General Assembly resolution A/RES/47/120 B. 1993, December 20: High Commissioner for the Promotion and Protection of All Human Rights, General Assembly resolution A/RES/47/141. 1993, December 20: Further Measures for the Restructuring and Revitalization of the  United Nations in the Economic, Social and Related Fields, General Assembly resolution A/RES/47/162. 1993, December 23: Review of the Efficiency of the Administrative and Financial Functioning of the United Nations, General Assembly resolution A/RES/47/218 A. 1994, July 29: Review of the Efficiency of the Administrative and Financial Functioning of the United Nations, General Assembly resolution A/RES/47/218 B. 1995, February 22: An Agenda for Peace, Statement by the President of the Security Council, S/PRST/1995/9. 1995, April 14: Iraq, Security Council resolution S/RES/986/1995. 1995, December 14: Declaration on the Occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the United Nations, General Assembly resolution A/RES/50/6. 1995, December 19: An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peacekeeping, Statement by the President of the Security Council, S/PRST/1995/61. 1996, March 28: An Agenda for Peace: Peacekeeping, Statement by the President of the Security Council, S/PRST/1996/13. 1996, May 24: Further Measures for the Restructuring and Revitalization of the United Nations in the Economic, Social and Related Fields, General Assembly resolution A/RES/50/227. 1997, June 20: Agenda for Development, General Assembly resolution A/RES/51/240, Annex. 1997, July 31: Strengthening of the United Nations System, General Assembly resolution A/RES/51/241, Annex. 1997, September 15: Supplement to an Agenda for Peace, General Assembly resolution A/RES/51/242, Annex I and II. 1997, November 12: Renewing the UN: A Programme for Reform, General Assembly resolution A/RES/52/12 A. 1997, December 19: Renewing the UN: A Programme for Reform, General Assembly resolution A/RES/52/12 B.

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1998, November 23: Security Council: Increase in Membership, General Assembly resolution A/RES/53/30. 1998, December 17: UN Millennium Assembly, General Assembly resolution A/RES/53/202. 1999, April 7: Gratis Personnel Provided by Governments, General Assembly resolution A/RES/53/218. 1999, July 28: UN Reform: Measures and Proposals, General Assembly resolution A/RES/53/242. 2000, September 8: Millennium Declaration, General Assembly resolution A/RES/55/2. 2000, November 13: Implementation of the Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations, Security Council resolution S/1327 (2000). 2000, December 23: Questions Relating to the Programme Budget for the Biennium 2000– 2001, IV Capital Master Plan, General Assembly resolution A/RES/55/238. 2000, March 18–22: Report of the International Conference on Financing for ­Development, Monterrey, Mexico, 18–22 March 2002, General Assembly document A/CONF.198/11, Chapter 1, resolution 1, annex. 2002, December 20: Strengthening of the United Nations: An Agenda for Further Change, General Assembly resolution A/RES/57/300. 2005, September 16: 2005 World Summit Outcome, General Assembly resolution A/RES/60/1. 2005, December 20: The Peacebuilding Commission, General Assembly and Security Council resolution A/RES/60/180-S/RES/1645 (2005). 2006, March 15: Human Rights Council, General Assembly resolution A/RES/60/251. 2006, July 7: Investing in the United Nations: For a Stronger Organization Worldwide, General Assembly resolution A/RES/60/283. 2006, September 8: The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, General Assembly resolution A/RES/60/288. 2006, November 20: Strengthening of the Economic and Social Council, General Assembly resolution A/RES/61/16. 2006, December 22: Procurement Reform, General Assembly resolution A/RES/61/246. 2007, March 15: Strengthening of the Capacity of the Organization on Peacekeeping Operations, General Assembly resolution A/RES/61/256. 2007, April 4: Administration of Justice at the United Nations, General Assembly resolution A/RES/61/261. 2007, June 29: Strengthening the Capacity of the United Nations to Manage and Sustain Peacekeeping Operations, General Assembly resolution A/RES/61/279. 2007, December 21: United Nations Comprehensive Strategy on Assistance and Support to Victims of Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by United Nations Staff and Related P­ ersonnel, General Assembly resolution A/RES/62/214.

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2008, September 15: System-wide Coherence, General Assembly resolution A/RES/62/277. 2008, November 29-December 2: Doha Declaration on Financing for Development: outcome document of the Follow-up International Conference on Financing for Development to Review the Implementation of the Monterrey Consensus, General Assembly document A/CONF.212/L.1/Rev.1. 2009, September 14: System-wide Coherence, General Assembly resolution A/RES/63/311. 2010, July 2: System-wide Coherence, General Assembly resolution A/RES/64/289. 2010, September 22: Keeping the Promise: United to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals, General Assembly resolution A/RES/65/1. 2010, December 24: Human Resources Management, General Assembly resolution A/RES/65/247. 2010, December 24: United Nations Common System: Report of the International Civil Service Commission, General Assembly resolution A/RES/65/248. 2012, July 27: The Future We Want, General Assembly resolution A/RES/66/288. 2013, July 9: Format and Organizational Aspects of the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development, General Assembly resolution A/RES/67/290. 2014, June 30: Rates of Reimbursement to Troop Contributing Countries, General Assembly resolution A/RES/68/281. 2015, July 27: Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development, General Assembly resolution A/RES/69/313. 2015, September 25: Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, General Assembly resolution A/RES/70/1.

Index A Successor Vision: The un of Tomorrow (una-usa) 25, 117 A World in Need of Leadership: Tomorrow’s un (Urquhart/Childers) 120 Accountability of managers 197 Ad Hoc Committee of Experts to Examine the Finances of the un and the Specialized Agencies (Group of 14) 19, 101 Ad Hoc Committee on the Restructuring of the Economic and Social Sectors of the un System 22, 109 Ad Hoc Open-ended Working Group of the General Assembly Financing for Development 155 Ad Hoc Working Group of the General Assembly on Mandate Review 49, 180, 187 Ad Hoc Working Group on the Revitalization of the General Assembly 177, 182, 191, 195, 198, 200, 205, 210, 212, 218 Adlerstein, Michael 69–70 Administrative Committee on Co-ordination (acc) 15, 88 Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (acabq) 69 Advisory Group on the Review of the Peacebuilding Architecture (Rosenthal)  215, 216 Aga Khan, Prince Sadruddin 117 Agenda 21 see Conference on Environment and Development Agenda for Democratization 144 Agenda for Development 28–29, 129, 133–134, 136, 146 Agenda for Peace 26–29, 58, 126–128 Supplement 28, 136, 149 Aid Effectiveness 61, 63, 167, 173, 179, 191 Annan, Kofi 30–51, 144, 184, 215 Anti-fraud and corruption policy 45 Atlantic Charter 12, 85 au-un Panel on Modalities for Support to African Union Peacekeeping Operations (Prodi) 194 Aziz, Shaukat see High-Level Panel on System-Wide Coherence

Bernadotte of Wisborg, Count Folke 15, 91 Bertrand, Maurice see Some Reflections on Reform of the un Board of External Auditors 67–69 Bolton, John 47 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros 25–30, 124, 144 Brahimi, Lakhdar see Panel on un Peace Operations Brandt, Willy see Independent Commission on International Development Issues Brundtland, Gro Harlem see World Commission on Environment and Development Budget reform budget cycle 19, 101, 103 budget practices 23, 33 result-based budgeting 162 Bush Administration 30 Cameron, David see High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda Capacity Study 20, 104 Capital Master Plan (cmp) 66–72 advisory board 67, 197 baseline 67, 166 budget increase 68–70, 72, 178, 215 Gardiner & Theobald 68 Hurricane Sandy 71 loan proposal 68, 169, 175 oversight 67 procurement 68–70, 170 Renato Sarno Group 67 reoccupation of Secretariat 206 reversal of plans 69–70, 188 security 71 Skanska Building ab 69–70 Cardoso, Fernando Henrique see Panel of Eminent Persons on un-Civil Society Relations Carlsson, Ingvar see Commission on Global Governance Centre on Transnational Corporations (ctc) 26, 125

422 Challenge to the South (South Commission) 119 Change Management Team (Khare) 53–54, 202 Charter of the Economic Rights and Duties of States 21, 107 Charter ratification 86 Chief Executive Board (ceb) 160 Childers, Erskine see A World in Need of Leadership; ­Towards a More Effective un; Renewing the un System China 105 Churchill, Winston 12 Clark, Helen 63 Climate Change Summit Bali 188 Buenos Aires 171 Cancun 199 Copenhagen 196 Doha 205 Durban 2001 Kyoto 151 Marrakech 164 Milan 168 Montreal 178 Nairobi 183 New Delhi 166 Paris 219 Poznan 193 Warsaw 211 Clinton Administration 30 Commission on Global Governance ­(Carlsson/Ramphal) 29, 137 Commission on Human Rights 15, 87 Commission on Sustainable Development (csd) 126, 129, 204 Commission structure 15, 88 Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 96 Common Country Assessment 32 Common Fund for Commodities 111, 112, 119 Conference for Global Ecological Governance 186 Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) 25, 76, 126 Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) 75–77, 204

Index Conference on the Human Environment 21 Convention on Biological Diversity 133 Declaration by United Nations 12, 85 Delivering as One (DaO) 60–66 Chief Executives Board (ceb) 62, 176 efficiency and cost control 202 harmonization of business practices 62, 187, 190, 193 independent evaluation 64–66, 200, 203–204 pilot projects 62, 185 stocktaking 63–64, 190 synthesis report 192 see also High-Level Panel on System-Wide Coherence Democracy Fund 176 Department for Economic and Social Development (desa) 26 Department of Field Support (dfs) 54, 185 Department of Peacekeeping Operations (dpko) 26 Deputy Secretary-General for Peace and Security proposal 46 Development Capital Development Fund (uncdf) 20, 102 Centre for Industrial Development 97 International Development Association 97 Special un Fund (sunfed) 95, 111 un Capital Development Fund 97 un Development Programme (undp) 20, 100 un Industrial Development Organization (unido) 20, 101, 102, 108, 114 Diogo, Luisa Dias see High-Level Panel on System-Wide Coherence Director-General for International Cooperation and Economic Affairs 22, 26,   125 Disarmament Commission 93 Conference on Disarmament (cd) 110 encd 99, Disarmament Commission 110 restructuring 49, 152, 186 Ten-Nation Committee 96 Dumbarton Oaks 12, 85

Index East–West antagonism 17 Economic Security Council proposal 29 ecosoc 3–4, 15, 48 reform 29, 86, 106, 139, 184, 205 Special Commission 118 Efficiency Board 141 Elders (Annan, Brundtland, Ahtisaari, Machel) 215 Enlargement Committee on Programme and Coordination (cpc) 117 Disarmament Commission 95 ecosoc 105 Security Council 100 Entrepreneurship 124 Ethics Office 49, 179 Fiftieth Anniversary of the un 140 Financial crisis 23, 118, 119 Financial disclosure 45, 50 Five-Year Action Agenda 54, 202 For a Strong and Democratic un: A South Perspective on un Reform (South Centre) 142 Fork in the Road 44, 168 Forum for Development Co-operation 48 Fourth World Conference on Women 139 Fréchette, Louise 55, 152 Gardner see Group of Experts on the Structure of the un System General Assembly 1–2, 86 Genocide Convention 13, 91 Gingrich, Newt see Task Force on the un Giovannini, Enrico see Independent Expert Advisory Group Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (gavi) 157 Global Commons proposal 29 Global Compact 33, 74–75, 155, 158 Global Fund to Fight aids, Tuberculosis and Malaria (Global Fund) 165 Gorbachev, Mikhail see Reality and Safeguard for a Secure World Governance of undp, unfpa, unicef 27, 132

423 Gratis personnel 149, 155 Group of 77 (G77) 21–22, 47, 51, 100, 149, 150 Group of Eight (G8) 176 Group of Experts on the Review of the Activities and Organization of the Secretariat (Group of 8) 98 Group of Experts on the Structure of the un System (Gardner) 22, 108, 109 Group of High-Level Intergovernmental Experts (Group of 18) 23, 115 Group of Seven (G7) 138, 143 Gulf War 120 Halonen, Tarja see High-Level Panel on Global Sustainability Hammarskjöld, Dag 16–17, 94, 98 Headquarters established 14, 87, 88, 89, 93 Helms, Jesse, Senator 31, 156, 157 see Saving the un: A Challenge to the Next Secretary-General Helms-Biden Act 33–34 High Commissioner for Human Rights 30, 132 High-Level Advisory Group on Climate Change Financing (Stoltenberg/ Zenawi) 199 High-Level Independent Panel on un Peace Operations (Ramos-Horta) 57–60, 216, 218 High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda (Yudhoyono/Sirleaf/Cameron) 73–74, 199, 207 High-Level Panel on Financing for Development (Zedillo) 163 High-Level Panel on Global Sustainability (Halonen/Zuma) 203 High-Level Panel on System-Wide Coherence in Areas of Development, Humanitarian Assistance and Environment (Aziz/Diogo/ Stoltenberg) 60, 183 High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (hlpf) 78, 204, 209, 210,   215 Human resources reform 52–53, 153, 158, 170, 193, 199

424 Human Rights Commission 47, 180 Council 47, 180, 200 Declaration 91 Humanitarian assistance Inter-Agency Standing Committee (iasc) for co-ordination 27, 127 strengthening of co-ordination 124, 165 Humanitarian Security Police Force proposal 29 Independent Advisory Group on un Financing (Ogata/Volcker) 29, 130 Independent Audit Advisory Committee 50, 178, 187 Independent Commission on Disarmament and Security (Palme) 23, 113 Independent Commission on International Development Issues (Brandt) 23, 112 Independent Expert Advisory Group on the Data Revolution for Sustainable Development (Giovannini, Li) 75, 213 Independent Inquiry Committee (Volcker)  44–46, 169 final report 176 first interim report 172 second interim report 174 Independent Working Group on the Future of the un (Qureshi/Weizsäcker) 29, 138 Information technology 181, 188, 190, 193, 196, 209, 219 see Umoja Innovative Mechanisms of Financing for Development 201 Integrated Management and Information System (imis) 163 Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing  204, 208, 213 Interim Co-ordinating Committee for International Commodity Agreements (iccica) 89 Internal justice 33, 187, 195 International Atomic Energy Agency (iaea) 14, 87, 94–95 International Civil Service Commission (icsc) 107 International Conference on Financing for Development 77, 80, 165, 193, 217

Index International Court of Justice (icj)  4–5, 87 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 109 International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights 109 International Criminal Court (icc) 153, 162, 165 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 136 International Finance Corporation (ifc) 94, 95 International Fund for Agricultural Development (ifad) 107, 110 International Law Commission 90 International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women 114 Iraq sanctions 122 war 167 Jackson, Sir Robert see Capacity Study Joint Inspection Unit (jiu) 19, 109 Kassebaum-Solomon Amendment see withholding Kennedy, Paul see Reforming the un Khare, Atul see Change Management Team Ki-moon, Ban 51–81, 184 Kissinger, Henry 21 Korean conflict Korean relief 93 Security Council consideration 15, 92 Uniting for Peace 15, 92 Kutesa, Sam 217 Kyoto Protocol 173 Law of the Sea 113 Leach, James A. see us Commission on Improving the Effectiveness of the un League of Nations 12, 87 Li, Robin see Independent Expert Advisory Group

Index Lichtenstein, Charles M. see us Commission on Improving the Effectiveness of the un Lie, Trygve 13–16, 94 Malloch-Brown, Mark see Task Force on the Reorientation of un Public Information Activities Management Reform Group 146 Maritime transport 90 McNamara, Robert S. 112, 117 Military observers 90, 91 un Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan 15, 93 un Observer Group in Lebanon 15, 95 Millennium Development Goals (mdgs) 35, 160 2010 Summit 198 High-Level Event 192 Road Map towards the Implemen­ tation of the un Millennium Declaration 163–164 un Millennium Project (Sachs) 46, 172 Millennium Summit 34–35, 159 Mitchell, George see Task Force on the un Monterrey Consensus 49 Moscow Declaration 85 Narcotic drugs Commission on Narcotic Drugs 15, 87, 88 International Narcotics Control Board (incb) 103 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 97 transfer from League of Nations 88 un Fund for Drug Abuse Control 105 New International Economic Order (nieo) 21, 107 Nobel Peace Prize 118 Non-governmental organization (ngo) 92 Non-proliferation of nuclear weapons 49, 103 North-South issues 23 Obasanjo, Olusegun 117 Office for Inspection and Investigation (oii) 27, 131

425 Office for Research and Collection of Information (orci) 24 Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs (ocha) 152 Office of Disaster Relief Co-ordination 105 Office of Emergency Operations in Africa 114 Office of Internal Oversight Services (oios) 27, 67, 135 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (ohrlls) 149 Ogata, Shijuro see Independent Advisory Group on un Financing Oil-for-Food Programme 31, 44–45, 138 see Independent Inquiry Committee Ombudsman 33, 50, 166, 179 Open Working Group of the General Assembly on Sustainable Development Goals (sdgs) 75–76, 204, 206 General Assembly approval 218 progress report 209 proposal 212 Summit approval 219 Working Group approval 217 see also Transforming Our World Open-ended High-Level Working Group on Strengthening of the un System 147 Operation Lifeline Sudan 118, 132 Palestine partition 90 Palme, Olaf see Independent Commission on Disarmament and Security Panel of Eminent Persons on un-Civil Society Relations (Cardoso) 170 Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change (Panyarachu) 46, 58, 171 Panel on un Peace Operations (Brahimi)  35–36, 58, 159, 160, 161 Panyarachu, Anand see Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change Parliamentary Assembly proposal 29 Peace Operation 2010 179 Peacebuilding 46, 48, 59, 171, 178 Peacekeeping 8–9, 16, 90, 91 Darfur 188 financing 18–19

426 Peacekeeping (cont.) Global Field Support Strategy 197 operations reform 141 reimbursement 55–56, 200, 207, 212 restructuring 54, 95 un Emergency Force (unef) 16, 95 un Force in the Congo (onuc) 16, 96 Pérez de Cuéllar, Javier 22–26, 112, 124 Procurement reform 50, 184 Prodi, Romano see au-un Panel Quadrennial Comprehensive Policy Review of Operational Activities for Development of the un System 206 see Triennial Policy Review Quiet Revolution 31–34 Qureshi, Moeen see Independent Working Group on the Future of the un Ramos-Horta, Jose see High-Level Independent Panel on un Peace Operations Ramphal, Shridath see Commission on Global Governance Rapid reaction force proposal 29 Rattray, E. Courtenay 42 Reagan administration 23 Reality and Safeguard for a Secure World (Gorbachev) 24–25, 116 Rediscovery of un 24–25 Reforming the un (Kennedy/Russet) 29, 140 Refugees International Refugee Organization 89 relief for Palestine refugees 14, 91 un High Commissioner for Refugees (unhcr) 14, 91, 93 Regional Commissions Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (escap) 15, 89 Economic and Social Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (eclac) 90 Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (escwa) 106 Economic Commission for Africa (eca) 96 Economic Commission for Europe (ece) 15, 89

Index Renewing the un System (Urquhart/ Childers) 29, 134 Renewing the un: Commentary (South ­Centre) 150, 151 Renovation of headquarters see Capital Master Plan (cmp) Responsibility to Protect 47, 194 Richardson, Elliot L. 25, 117 Right to Development Declaration 115 Road to Dignity by 2030 79, 214 Roosevelt, Franklin D. 12 Rosenthal, Gert see Advisory Group on the Review of the Peacebuilding Architecture Russet, Bruce see Reforming the un Sachs, Jeffrey 74 see Millennium Development Goals (mdgs), un Millennium Project Saving the un: A Challenge to the Next Secretary-General (Helms) 143 Scale of assessment 14, 33, 88, 161 Schmidt, Helmut 117 Scientific Advisory Board 211 Secretariat 5–8 initial organisation 14, 87 restructuring 16–17, 24, 26–27, 32, 52 Secretary-General appointment 29, 84 Secretary-General reform proposals In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All 45–46, 173 Investing in People 52–53, 182 Investing in the un: For a Stronger Organization Worldwide 50–51, 179 Management and Organizational Measures 31, 145 Renewing the un: A Programme for Reform 31, 147 Strengthening of the un: An Agenda for Further Change 33, 166 We the Peoples: The Role of the un in the Twenty-First Century 34, 157 Security Co-ordinator 166 Security Council 2–3, 86 meeting at heads of state and government 125 Security Council reform 29–30,36–42

Index Accountability, Coherence, and Transparency (act) 38, 207 Arria Formula 38, 125, 182 Charter amendment 36 concise text 42–43 Ezulwini Consensus 38, 41, 173 G10 38 Group of 4 (G4) 37 intergovernmental negotiations 40–41, 188 L69 37 negotiation text 42, 197 Non-Aligned Movement (nam) 36–37 Open-ended Working Group 36, 132 overarching process 189 Razali plan 39–40, 145, 148 sanction committees 138 transparency 38 Trilateral Commission 38 Uniting for Consensus 37, 40, 173, P2 37, P3 37 working methods 131, 133, 142, 152, 163, 164 World Summit 2005 40, 176 September 11 43, 164 Sexual exploitation and abuse preventive measures 167 un-wide strategy 189, 190 Zaid report 57, 174 zero-tolerance policy 56–57, 168 Sirleaf, Ellen Johnson see High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda Somalia operation 30 Some Reflections on Reform of the un ­(Bertrand) 25, 114 Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations 101 Staff buyout 49 Staff College Turin 164 Steering Committee on the Comprehensive Review Governance and Oversight 181 Stockholm Initiative on Global Security and Governance 25, 122 Stoltenberg, Jens see High-Level Advisory Group on Climate Change Financing; High-Level Panel on System-Wide Coherence Strengthening the un for the 1990s (North South Roundtable) 25, 121

427 Strengthening the un in the Economic and Social Fields (Nordic un Reform Project) 25, 144 Summit 2006, 169 Supplier Code of Conduct 50 Sustainable Development process 73–81 A Life of Dignity for All 208 Global Compact report 74–75, 208 Jeffrey Sachs report 211 merging streams 78–79 regional commissions report 209 Special Event by President of General Assembly 210 Sustainable Development Solutions Network (sdsn) 74, 199, 208 synthesis report 79, 214 un System Task Team (unstt) 73, 199, 203, 204, 207 see Transforming Our World Tanin, Zahir 41–42, 194, 205 Task Force on Environment and Human Settlements (Töpfer) 155 Task Force on the Reorientation of un Public Information Activities (MallochBrown) 32, 148 Task Force on the un (Mitchell/Gingrich) 45–46, 175 Technical assistance Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance (epta) 15 first efforts 13, 15, 91 un Field Service 15, 92 Terrorism 44, 49, 164, 168, 183 Töpfer, Klaus see Task Force on Environment and Human Settlements Towards a More Effective un (Urquhart/ Childers) 123 Trade Commission on International Commodity Trade (cict) 94 International Trade Centre (itc) 20, 102 un Commission on International Trade Law 102 un Conference on Trade and Development (unctad) 100 Transforming Our World: The 2013 Agenda for Sustainable Development 79–81, 217–219 Treaty of Versailles 12

428 Triennial Policy Review of Operational Activities of the un System 119, 129, 141, 154, 164, 171 see Quadrennial Comprehensive Policy Review Troika proposal 17 Trusteeship Council 4, 15, 89 Turner Foundation 33, 149 Twenty-Year Programme for Achieving Peace through the United Nations 13, 92 U Thant 17–20, 98 Umoja 196, 209, 219 un at the Critical Crossroads: Times for the South to Act 29 (South Centre) 128 un Children´s Fund (unicef) 13–14, 88 un Development Assistance Framework (undaf) 32 un Development Corporation (undc) 68–69 un Development Group (undg) 34, 62 un Environment Programme (unep) 21, 106 un Flag 14, 89 un Habitat and Human Settlements Foundation (Habitat) 107 un House 32 un in Development: Reform Issues in the Economic and Social Fields (Nordic un Reform Project) 25, 122 un Structure and Leadership for a New Era (Stanley Foundation) 25, 121 un System 9–11, 88, 89, 90, 93 un University (unu) 106 un Women 61, 197, 200 Uniting for Peace resolution see Korean conflict Universal Declaration of Human Rights 13 Urquhart, Brian see A World in Need of Leadership; Towards a More Effective un; Renewing the un System us Commission on Improving the Effectiveness of the un (Leach, Lichtenstein) 29, 131 us reform view Committee on Foreign Relations of the us Senate 110 Heritage Foundation 23, 113 reform measures 142

Index Van Ardenne, Agnes 61 Vance, Cyrus R. 117 Vieira de Mello, Sergio 44 Volcker, Paul see Independent Advisory Group on un Financing; Independent Inquiry Committee Waldheim Kurt 20–22, 105, 112 Weizsäcker, Richard von see Independent Working Group on the Future of the un Whistle-blower policy 45, 50, 178 Wilenski, Peter 25–26, 123 Withholding 23, 33, 97, 114, 117, 132, 134, 152, 156, 175, 181, 189, 202 Working Group on Coherence of the General Assembly 60 Working Group on the Examination of the Administrative and Budgetary Procedures of the un (Group of 15) 18, 98 Working Group on the Examination of the Budgetary Procedures of the un (Group of 21) 18, 99 World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) 25, 116 World Conference on Social Development 137 World Health Organization (who) 14 World Intellectual Property Organization (wipo) 107 World Summit 2005 177 World Trade Organization (wto) 134 Yudhoyono, Bambang see High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda Zedillo, Ernesto see High-Level Panel on Financing for Development Zenawi, Meles see High-Level Advisory Group on Climate Change Financing Zuma, Jacob see High-Level Panel on Global Sustainability