Djibouti 1590845250, 9781590845257

Citation preview

ANDTHEI

mm]

JAMES A^SrOW, editori

Boston. Public Library

Boston, ai|l }o A|i

EAST, FACTS

AND 6

FICURES

Dr.

Harvey Sicherman, president

and director of the Foreign Policy Research

Institute,

is

the author of

such books as America the Vulnerable:

How

to Fix

Palestinian

and Peace

e

as

ituatecl

between

is

it

as

and

Them (2002) and Autonomy, Self-Government (

1

993).

Europe, and the Far East, the

birthplaee

the

of

reli^^ions

and Islam) and the eradle

Christianity,

Mesopotamia,

Persia),

humanity some

this

re0on and

(notably

Judaism.

of civilizations its

(E^^ypt.

peoples have given

most precious possessions. At the same time,

of its

the Middle blast has

had more than

its

share of contlicts. The area

strewn with the ruins of fortifications and the cemeteries of

combatants, not 'foday.

to

speak of modern arsenals

more than

Middle East

('an

ever.

affect

throughout their

much

way onto

for war.

Americans are aware that events

of the region.

and economic presence

Developments there regularly

the front pages of our newspapers

our television

sets.

in the

our security and prosperity. The United

States has a considerable militaiy, political,

of

Military Problems

Middle East has played a unique role in world histoiy. Often

deserihed

is

Afriea,

Our

find

and the screens

Introduction to say that

still, it is fair

most Middle Eastern countries remain

a myster\^ their cultures and religions barely knowm, their peoples

and is to

politics

confusing and strange. The purpose of this book series

change

that, to

educate the reader in the basic facts about the

23 states and many peoples that make up the region. (For our purpose, the Middle East also includes the North African states linked by ethnicity, language,

and

religion to the Arabs, as well as

Somalia and Mauritania, which are African but share the Muslim

and are members

religion

Arab League.)

of the

of the series is the integration of geography, histor\^;

economics and

student

will learn

much

politics;

A

notable feature

demography, and

The

careful

know about

ever so

culture and religion.

that he or she needs to

important lands.

A

few general obsenmtions are in order as an introduction to the

subject matter.

The East

has

first

is full

literature

to

do with

histor\'

of ancient sites to

Middle East's

antiquity.

and

politics.

and peoples wlio trace

Many commentators

political conflicts to

distant past. WTiile historv’

The modern Middle

is

their lineage

also

attribute

and the

grievances and rivalries from the

often invoked, the truth

is

that the

modern Middle East political system dates only from the 1920s and was largely created by the British and the French, the \1ctors of World War Such states as Algeria. Iraq. Israel. Jordan. Kuwait. I.

Saudi Arabia. Syria. Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates did not

1914

— they

became independent between 1920 and 1971. Others, such as Eg\^pt and Iran, were dominated by outside powders until well after World War 11. Before 1914. most of the region's states w^ere either controlled by the Turkish-run Ottoman Empire or ow^ed allegiance to the Ottoman sultan. (The sultan was

exist before

also the caliph or highest religious authority in Islam, in the line of

Introduction the prophet the majority

Muhammad's sueeessors, aeeording to the beliefs of of Muslims known as the Sunni.) It was this imperial

was ended by the largely British militaiy vietory over the Ottomans in World War 1. Few of the leaders who emerged in the wake of this event were happy with the territories they were assigned or the borders, whieh were often drawn by Muslim system

Europeans.

change

that

Yet, the

system has endured despite many

efforts to

it.

The second observation has

to

do with economies, demography,

and natural resources. The Middle Eastern peoples

live in

a region

parched deserts and

of often dramatic geographical contrasts: vast

some with year-round snow; stone-hard volcanic and lush semi-tropical valleys: extremely dry and extremely

high mountains, rifts

wet conditions, sometimes separated by only a few miles; large

permanent

rivers

and wadis, riverbeds dry as a bone

until winter

rains send torrents of Hood from the mountains to the sea. In

ancient times, a very skilled agriculture

breadbasket of the fabrics, foods,

Roman

made

Empire, and

its

the Middle East the

trade carried luxury

and spices both East and West.

Most recently, however, the Middle East has become more

known and

for a single

commodity

—

oil,

which

is

largely concentrated in the Persian Gulf

unevenly distributed

and Arabian Peninsula

(although large pockets are also to be found in Algeria, Libya, and

other

sites).

fields in the

'fhis

There are also new. potentially lucrative offshore gas Eastern Mediterranean.

uneven distribution of wealth has been compounded by

demographies. Birth rates are veiy high, but the countries with the

most

oil

are oltcn lightly populated. Over the last decade. Middle

East populations under the age of 20 have grown enormously. will

these young peoj)lc be ediu'ated?

9

Where

will

How

they work? The

Introduction failure of

most governments

and jobs

has also

Israel)

Many have gone

contributed to large out-migrations.

many

such as

exceptions

notable

(with

in the region to give their people skills

Europe;

to

others work in other Middle Eastern countries, supporting

from

their families

afar.

Another unsettling situation

is

the hea\y pressure both people

and industry have put on

vital resources.

plague

quality,

the

Air

region.

public

Chronic water shortages sanitation,

and health

services in the big cities are also seriously overburdened. There are

solutions

approach that

A

is

but

problems,

these

to

they

require

a

cooperative

sorely lacking.

third important obsen^ation is the role of religion in the Middle

who should know

East. Americans,

take separation of church and state for

granted,

that

most countries

in the region either

proclaim their countries to be Muslim or allow a very large role for that religion in public

life.

Among

those with predominantly Muslim

populations, Turkey alone describes

avowedly religious parties Christian-dominated state.

as secular and prohibits

in the political system.

and

important

role in culture, daily

to recall that Islamic

Judaism and

Lebanon was a

continues to be a Jewish

Israel

While both strongly emphasize secular

an enormous

tice

state,

itself

life,

and

politics, religion

legislation.

It

law {Sharia) permits people

Christianity in

Muslim

plays also

is

to prac-

states but only as Dhimmi.

protected but very second-class citizens.

Fourth, the American student of the

modern Middle East

impressed by the varieties of one-man. centralized

will

be

rule, veiy unlike

the w^orkings of W^estern democracies. There are monarchies,

some

with traditional methods of consultation for tribal elders and even ordinarA' citizens, in

limited but

still

Saudi Arabia and

many

Gulf States; kings with

important parliaments (such as in Jordan and

10

Introduction Morocco); and military and civilian dictatorships, Syria) even operating

on the hereditary principle (Hafez

son Bashar succeeded him). Turkey although a special role

government can

some (such as

is

is

al

Assad's

a practicing democracy,

given to the military that limits what any

do. Israel operates the freest

democracy, albeit

constricted by emergency regulations (such as military censorship)

due

to the Arab-lsraeli conllict.

In

conclusion,

the

MoDEf^iN

Middle East Nations series

engage imagination and interest simply because

such great importance

to the

We

covers an area of

United States. Americans

relative latecomers to the affairs of this region,

there will endure.

it

at the Foreign Policy

may be

but our involvement

Research Institute hope

that these books will kindle a lifelong interest in the fascinating significant Middle East.

will

and

A mosque

in

Djibouti City, the capital of Djibouti. A great majority of

Djiboutians are Muslims. Throughout the country’s history they have

had good trade relations with the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula, located directly across the Bab

here

an

is

el

Mandeb

old saying in Djibouti, a tiny eountry in a rocky

and inhospitable corner country, even the jackal

reputation live.

With

—

if

its

Strait.

largely

of Africa: “Before crossing this

makes

undeserved

his will.” Djibouti has a

—of being a difficult place to

small population and size

(it

is slightly

smaller

than the state of Massachusetts), perhaps Djibouti has not yet been afforded a large itive traits.

For example,

enough audience

many

to

people do not

hear of

know

country has a rich geological history, and that of the world’s 1'he

most important crossroads from

few Westerners

who know

it

its

pos-

that this

sits at

one

trade.

Djibouti well generally

speak of d place of continual interest and importance.

Because of

its

strategic position

known as the throw across the Bab el

on what

Horn of Africa, practically a stone’s Mandeb Strait from the Arabian Peninsula, a keystone in political empires

is

Djibouti has been

and commercial ventures

'

for

14

Djibouti centuries.

From

the earliest days of ancient Egv^pt,

whose people

mythologized the land, through the different eras of the Greeks,

Romans, and Muslim

traders. Djibouti

has been a major gateway

to

both the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.

Long before the early traders crossed the Bab first

of the

human

race

present-day countPy^ Valley. where

may have roamed

lies

adjacent

many seminal

to

el

Mandeb, the

Djibouti's deserts.

the

The

famous Great Rift

scientific discoveries

have been made.

This valley cleaves Africa from Egypt to South Africa: within reaches, paleontologists have found fossils

some

human

of the earliest

on record. “Lucy," the famous skull unearthed

in

its

1974 that

Anthropologist Donald

C.Johanson presents the ancient remains of “Lucy,” a

human

ances-

tor his research team

discovered Ethiopia,

in

in

Hadar,

1974.

Similar discoveries of

human ancestors have been made in Ethiopia as well as neighboring

countries leading

like Djibouti,

many

scientists

to believe that

humankind originated in

the Afar Triangle.

Place in the is

believed to be the oldest

known human remains, was dug up

Djibouti’s northern neighbor. Ethiopia.

discovery's location

spectacular finds in Djibouti

itself,

future digs in the countr\^ will reveal

human

in is

Djibouti as well as

country directly north of Djibouti. Scientists have also

Eritrea, a

made

The

Afar Triangle, a region that includes

in the

World

life

and

and are hopeful that

more about the

origins of

civilization.

The key moments

of Djibouti’s history

prehistoric eras, however. In

modern

were not just during the

had been an

times, Djibouti

important yet often ov^erlooked outpost of the French empire, which acquired the colony to keep the British from gaining strategic control of the region. Today, with France no longer a colonial force.

Djibouti

still

plays a vital role in today’s world affairs, hosting U.S.

and German troops taking part

in the

“war on terrorism." which

was begun in response to the September 2001 attacks on New York and Washington. D.C. Djibouti offers a safe base of operations that is close enough to often-hostile countries like Afghanistan and Iraq. Djibouti and her neighbors also have a strategic position along the shipping lanes through which pass great quantities of

oil.

Not

surprisingly, regional tensions are of great concern to the West.

Conilicts

between and within bordering countries

Ethiopia,

and Somalia

(located

like

Eritrea,

on the southeastern border) have

often obstructed Western trade. For Djiboutians, the conilicts have

been

much more

detrimental.

quences of regional ious wars in the

One

of the

most

contlict is the refugee crisis.

Horn

of Africa, at times as

significant conse-

As a

result of var-

many

as 200.000

refugees have lived in Djibouti. This presence of the refugees has

helped ('ontribute to the grinding poverty that daily reality for almost ever\^

Djiboul

i

is.

unfortunately, a

one of the over 470.000 who

call

home.

Djibouti has long been an important port

empire maintenanc'c and

military'

and staging area

campaigns, but

it

for

also has other

if

^6

Djibouti

Pedestrians walk through a street intersection

seaport helps make

this capital city a

in

center for trade, though many say

Djibouti’s best natural and historical attractions

facets that are often overlooked of its two

main

tribes, the

is

lie

has benefited by

many

in

the country.

by historians, such as the history

later

home

ehanged

sitting at the

to “the Territory of

to a rich cultural

greatly the product of its central location. tr\^

elsewhere

Afars and Issas. Pre\iously named

Freneh Somaliland, whieh was Afars and Issas." Djibouti

Djibouti City, Djibouti. The

It

is

life,

which

is

clear that the eoun-

erossroads of eivilizations for

millennia.

Visitors

who do

not venture beyond the drab

Djibouti City typically

beauty.

It

is

home

fail

number

of different birds, including

and a landseape that wdthin a

spaee contains a giant

of

to see that Djibouti is a place of great

to a vast

several rare speeies.

downtown

salt lake,

a desolate lava

relatively tiny

field,

and a game

World

Place in the reserve. For those tourists

Djibouti also

is

adventurous enough

reported to offer

some

to

of the best

make

the

trip,

scuba diving

in

the world. Yet with its

all

of this history, culture,

tiny area, Djibouti

many

has yet

to

and

biodiversity

packed into

appear on the radar screens of

scholars and travelers. Djibouti's hidden treasures

day be completely revealed, but that a large

for the

moment,

it

may one

remains a place

segment of the world has not yet encountered.

'(]

Two camels greet each other in the desert. Camels are still a popular mode of transport in Djibouti, particularly in the volcanic desert region,

which covers

t

is

a large portion of the country’s

truly a valley of hell here,

western

hemmed

in

half.

by stark moun-

and where everything seems tormented by an

tains,

endless and hopeless struggle,” wrote French traveler Henri

de Monfried about Djibouti in 1937. He had several other complaints: Ev'eiywhere there are thorns: on the ground, on the bushes, on the trees: everything

seems

to

want

to scratch, to tear, to

souls in glassy hues of metallic oxide, rocks jutting out like sters from the Apocalypse, trees with tortured boughs, stuff of

seems

When

nightmares and,

to personify the

it

comes

in the distance, the

it

harm;

mon-

is all

the

howling of hyenas

dismal voice of this harrowing nature.

to climate

and landscape, Djibouti has

never had a good reputation. Colonists from Europe arrived in the region during the

who

19th and 20th centuries

experienced an exceedingly dry climate, with an annual rainfall

of only

5 inches (12.7 centimeters). They only

saw

20

Djibouti Djibouti as desolate

see the er.

Its

charms that

and dangerous, and

for the

today's visitors have just

most part

now begun

failed to

to discov-

reputation for ha\dng a singularly fierce environment

somewhat misleading, seedy port

for there

city of Djibouti

is

more beyond the somewhat

is

and the beaches that flank

it.

Djibouti

actually boasts a surprising diversity of physical settings, emdron-

ments. and that could

wildlife,

as well as a unique form of potential energy

someday meet

the countiy^'s power needs.

Geology Although an obscure topic the earth's formation

and

its

to

most people, geology

continual changes

—

— the study of a fascinating

is

discipline that in recent years

turned

its

countr\^

sights

on

Djibouti.

has

The

has become of great

interest to geologists

because

it

is

situated at the meeting point of

three

of

plates,

the

which

have

around the planet years,

The

tectonic

world’s

creating

shifted

for millions of

and destroying

basin of Lake Assal, Djibouti’s lowest

point at 509 feet (155 meters) below sea level,

was formed by

a volcanic eruption.

The country’s subterranean

activity,

which causes volcanoes to erupt about every 50 years,

is

a potential

geothermal energy.

source of

The Land A map

showing Djibouti’s

major geographic features.

The

country’s largest

geographic zone volcanic desert

is

in

the the west.

landnutsses. Because Djibouti has such a unique orientation with the earth’s plates, there

is

almost no other place on the planet

where someone can witness geological history

present ly

but

rilts

making." The

plains, salt lakes,

and great

are illustrations of the massive disruptions

— past and

country’s volcanoes, valleys, cleaving

“in the

sunken

— under the surface of Djibouti. These movements are slowsurely changing the country's — and the planet’s — future.

Scientists even speculate that in a few million years the plates will

have caused Djibouti to

sea as

j)art

of a

to split

new

from Africa, and that

it

will lloat

out

continent.

Vok'anoes erupt about every 50 years

in Djibouti; the last

major

explosion took plac'c in 1978 at Ardoukoba near Lake Assal. The

h

22

Djibouti constant volcanic eruptions take their

but while the investors,

energy

it

on Djibouti's economy,

toll

subterranean activity

may

also potentially pro\ides a rare

knowm

as "geothermal energ\\" This

scare

and

off

property

efficient

hpe

kind of

of energ\".

which

only Iceland and a few other countries use. takes the heat that

escapes from the earth's crust to generate

and pro\ide

electricity

need of ener-

residential heating. WTiile Djiboutians are not really in

gy for heating, they could definitely use the electrical power. Unfortunately, like so many other worthwhile projects in Djibouti, the development of

methods

to tap into the energs" is

hampered by

the countr\"'s lack of funds. Djibouti thus can scarcely hope for

geothermal energv^ in the near future.

Geography The 8.880 square miles (23.000 square kilometers)

of Djibouti,

including the 8 square miles (20 sq km) of water, are located in a the Afar Triangle,

dramatic Great

a triangular depression that

Rift Valley,

is

which nearly runs the

part of the

entire length of

was formed millions of year ago when under the sea pushed rock and lava up to the sur-

the continent. This region

volcanic acti\ity face.

As testimony that the

countr\^

emerged from the

the lakes are saltwater instead of freshwater. Salt

throughout the countrv\

and

for

centuries

it

sea. is

most

of

abundant

has pro\ided

Djiboutian merchants with a saleable commodity.

This

and

is

not to suggest, however, that Djibouti

lava: the countr>' is actually

distinct geographical zones.

The

is

nothing but

salt

comprised of three separate and first

zone

is

the coastal plains,

which cover approximately 140 miles (225 km)

of the country's

coastline. Here, the land is distinguished

by long stretches of most-

deserted sandy beaches, as well as

that in certain places

ly

good

soil

for agriculture. In the coastal plains, there are

is

9 square miles

(24 square kilometers) of actual farmland, certainly not a sufficient

The Land portion to support several

Not surprisingly,

many

23

hundred thousand people. traees of Djibouti's aneient history ean

be found here, as inland tribes and traders from aeross the water set

up towns

— and

of the eountry. try's

eventually eities

Hard as

it

may be

extreme heat, the weather

— in

this

one temperate region

to believe, eonsidering the

eoun-

eool in this region.

is relatively

The

sea breezes moderate the high temperatures, whieh ean reaeh 1

13°F (45°C) in the summertime. In the north of the

eountry

lie

the mountain ranges. Impressive

peaks shoot out of the ground here; the highest mountain region (2,011

in the

Moussa Ali. whieh reaehes a height of over 6,600 feet meters). The region also has some forests and patehes of

is

The Geography Location: eastern

between

Area:

slightly

total:

land:

of Djibouti

Africa, bordering the Gulf of

Aden and

the Red Sea,

Eritrea and Somalia

smaller than Massachusetts

8,880 square miles (23,000 sq km) 8,872 square miles (22,980 sq km)

water: 8 square miles (20 sq km)

Borders:

Eritrea,

68 miles (109 km); Ethiopia, 217 miles (349 km); Somalia, 36

miles (58 km); coastline, 195 miles (314

Climate:

km)

desert; torrid, dry

Terrain: coastal

plain

and plateau separated by central mountains

Elevation extremes: lowest point: Lac Assal (Lake Assal)

— 509

feet (155 meters)

below sea

level

—

highest point; Moussa Ali 6,654 feet (2,028 meters) Natural hazards: earthquakes; droughts; occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean bring heavy rains and flash floods Source: Adapted from

CIA World Factbook, 2002.

24

Djibouti An

Afar

his

camel.

nomad poses in front Over the centuries,

of

the intensive grazing of camels

and other pastoral animals has contributed to the depletion of Djibouti’s grassland.

dense vegetation, but

anyone

to live, except for the Afars

centuries. This region juniper,

has generally been a

it

and acacia

called

it

their

also the site of Foret de Day.

is

trees,

cover for the wildlife.

who have

along with

Among

place for

difficult

home

where

bamboo and palms,

for fig.

provide

the species that live there are gazelle,

baboons, monkeys, wild pigs,

civet cats (skunk-like

mammals), and

hvrax (rabbit-sized, hoofed mammals). Although about 56 percent of Djibouti's land

has some

cent of the country"

is

sort of tree growth, only

about

considered proper forestland, and

concentrated in these mountains.

1

perit

is

The Land The

most prevalent ecological

forests face Djibouti’s

endangered

wildlife

it

crises

and depleted grassland. Although the govern-

ment formally outlawed hunting

in 1971, the practice

still

goes on

during Djibouti's frequent droughts. Hunters have done the most

damage

extensive

in the areas

where the majority

of forest wildlife

Intensive grazing has also put pressure on the forests.

lives.

estimated that the country

heads of animals

cattle,

is

home

to

1.5 million

for eveiy Djiboutian citizen. Herders, especially goat

forests greatly suffer for

To the west

is

sheep, goats, and camels, and that there are two

sheep owners, are evermore desperate

and the

an astounding

It

is

geographic zones

the third

to

and

use suitable grazing land,

it.

and by

far the largest of Djibouti’s

— the volcanic desert. The region consists of arid,

rocky wasteland, and

is

primarily

what

gives the country

its

reputation as a harsh, inhospitable place. The desert, which can

support virtually no economic activity except salt,

has been compared

to the surface of the

scape here, especially along the

much

for the

production of

moon. The land-

salt lakes, is so otherworldly that

of the original science-fiction movie. Planet of the Apes,

was

filmed here. Real-life scientists, too, have thought to take advan-

tage of the Djiboutian desert’s lunar appearance; the Sj)ace Agency,

once tests

an organization much

attempted

to

'fhc

j)roved

to

because high

salt

tests,

be

the

in the

however,

unsuccessful

iron

('ontent

oxide

and

of the

soil

interfered with the eciuij)ment’s radar.

Few

United States’ NASA,

conduct

on a lunar module

desert,

like the

European

foreigners have ventured

across the land, but those

who

Due

to the slow but steady

shifting of tectonic plates

beneath the earth’s surface, in a few million years Djibouti as we currently know it will no longer exist.

16

Djibouti have usually return with a harrowing account. Sean Rorison. a visitor traveling

by truck through the desert, offered

this descrip-

tion:

The landscape

is

stark yet beautiful

— post-apocal\'ptic

There are gigantic dried-up lakes, revealing only

in

many

ways.

of white salt

fields

The road from Dikhil to Galafi goes into a valley for several hours, which is definitely below sea level. It was so hot in this valley that my fingertips would burn if I touched the windeposits sitting on the desert

floor.

dow. ... To naxigate through this area without

it

would be impossible

1

The only creatures outside on the barren gravel and rock and salt were the occasional camel, and some odd-looking plant formations that think.

must be sucking up the

last of the

water from the dried-up lakes.

Wildlife Despite

amount to

its

harsh climate. Djibouti

is

home

also

of wdldlife. Djibouti's northern forests

most humans

to a surprising

—w’hile

— are home to a large number of African animals,

although the variety of creatures and habitats hardly Africa’s

more-famous

Tanzania.

mated

Much

to desert

inhospitable

rivals those of

safari destinations in Ethiopia.

Kenya, and

of Djibouti's wildlife consists of those species accli-

and mountain

climates: thus large populations of

antelopes and or\^ are found throughout the countr\\ Monkeys

and baboons are common, sometimes even

too.

and are found

in Djibouti towm. Also

common

in the forests

and

are a wide variety

of reptiles, including deadly snakes, \ipers. cobras,

and mambas,

as well as more-docile species such as tortoises. Hyenas and jackals are a familiar sight,

though they are hated

on domestic animal herds. Leopards are

for the toll

still

they take

seen occasionally,

although they have been hunted nearly out of existence in Djibouti. Djibouti has fascinating

and diverse

birdlife:

some 342

species

—wiiich six times the size and home to manv more bird-w^atchers — home to onlv some

have been sighted.

(In contrast.

England

is

is

The Land 250 reported

species.) Djibouti

has

its

own

species of bird as well,

a kind of partridge called the Djibouti francolin. The species

is

currently endangered, with only approximately 1,500 francolins

remaining. But the most impressive attraction Djibouti offers to bird-lovers

across the

is

the annual migration of birds coming from Arabia,

Bab

el

Mandeb,

to Djibouti

and the

rest of Africa. Every

November an estimated quarter of a million birds fly this route as they head south for the winter. Serious bird-watchers come from all over the world every year to watch this spectacle.

year,

from September

to

Finally, Djibouti boasts a rich

undersea

life

that

is

slowly but

surely luring intrepid scuba divers from around the world.

ernment hopes tourist

to

revenue.

The gov-

develop the scuba diving industry as a source of Djibouti's

unique location between the Indian

Ocean and the Red Sea means that

its

marine

life is

very diverse,

enriched by species only seen in the Gulf of Tadjoura. This part of the sea

is

graced with huge expanses of coral, so plentiful that

it

has even been used as a building material! The coral attracts dozens upon dozens of

fish,

such as angel and butterfly

ciated for their beauty as well as their taste

and

fish,

appre-

price value

on the

world market. Huge schools of snapper, sturgeon, and barracuda

pass regularly through Djibouti’s water, making diver’s paradise,

but a fisherman’s as

well.

it

not just a scuba

27

A

tower with architectural

The kingdom

of

carvings, located

Aksum expanded from

the territory of Djibouti

the

in

first

in

Aksum,

Ethiopia.

Ethiopia and incorporated

century

B.c.

Over the course

of the next 1,000 years, this great trading empire had several including Christianity and Islam.

official religions,

ibouti

is

one of the world’s youngest independent

republics, but the region itself toric

Djibouti

human

Rift Valley,

Jordan River

in its stretch.

If

you were

is

fact, his-

where some

history began.

the huge geological feature that

slices the continent of Africa

valley of the

hardly new. In

and the surrounding region

scientists believe

The Great

is

to

almost in two, extends from the

South

Africa, with a few

to look at a

the continent, the valley

is

breaks

topographical map

clearly visible,

and

of

gives the

impression that someone stabbed Egypt with a giant knife a billion

years ago and dragged

of rock Africa.

and

And

soil it

is

call

it

through thousands of miles

before finally pulling

it

out again in South

out of this dramatic feature, which sits to the

west of Djibouti, evolved.

it

that

the

earliest

humans might have

Those who believe that humankind originated here

“the Cradle of Humanity.”

Z9

30

Djibouti

human

Paleontologists gathered significant evidence about

was one

gins with a discovery in Ethiopia in 1974 that

famous

scientific

of the

ori-

most

breakthroughs of the 20th centur\^ In the Hadar

which

Valley of Ethiopia,

Johanson discovered a

lies in

the Afar Triangle, scientist Donald

skull

that

was

at

the time the oldest

human-like remains ever found. Later investigations showed her

to

be a female, after which she was christened "Lucy" by Johanson, the world press,

and the

scientific

community. Believed

lived 3.2 million years ago. Lucy's diseover\^

to

have

stunned scientists

all

over the world; no one had before seen the remains of a creature so old yet so advanced.

a

Homo

The

Lucy was

classified as

an Australopithecus, not

sapiens, the scientific nomenclature for

between the two species acknowledged that Lucy

distinction

had a brain the rest of her

use tools

size of a chimpanzee's,

community

— two

modern humans.

in

East Africa were able to walk upright and

capabilities that

in the histor\^ of

human

but also that she and the

marked a

significant step forward

evolution.

Since the discover}^ of Lucy, scientists have begun to turn their attention to other sites in the Afar Triangle, including locations in Djibouti. earliest

It is

here that scientists have discovered some of the

ver\-

examples of organized farming. The period that these

humans lived in was another important stage in human histor\^ Once humans were able to settle down and farm a piece of land, they had more time to develop all sorts of new technologies and skills. To modern people these developments may seem primitive, but they also paved the way for many subsequent forms of technolog\^ In 1984. conclusive proof that Djibouti was an early site of

human of

settlement

was

discovered. At the

towm

French researchers discovered remains of

Homo

of

Hara

Homo

Ide,

a team

sapiens and

modern man) dating back 1.5 million years. And in the late 1980s. at the remote Lac Abbe (Lake Abbe) on the border with Ethiopia, an area described as a “slice of the erectus (an ancestor of

History

moon on

the crust of the earth," scientists

of prehistoric settlements.

made more

discoveries

Amon^^ the most important things dicov-

ered were gigantic 4,000-year-old millstones (circular stones used

grinding of grains)

for the

of

made from

made

basalt, as well as tools

obsidian, both of which suggests the practice of agriculture and development

settled

8000 B.C.-1500

during the Neolithic era

in the region

B.C.).

many

through

inhabitants

work toward

Paleontologists continue to

may still about how the

covering what other secrets Djibouti's basic questions

(circa

soil

and

hold,

dis-

to sort

region's earliest

lived.

The Kingdom of Aksum own government,

Djibouti, as a discrete piece of territoi^^ with its is

a relatively

Djibouti

new

was a

entity.

Long before becoming an independent

part of the ancient Ethiopian

kingdom

of

Aksum, an

early African empire established in the second century b.c.

one form or another,

lasted, in

Aksumites

for well over

region

and even held

Peninsula. By the

event, as the region

history.

of the

century

b.c.,

to the

its

the to

As

is

a fascinating chapter in African in the trading routes

and Europe, the kingdom grew

early days,

Aksum kingdom's

home

late

of the surrounding

Red Sea on the Ai'abian

between

fantastically

Greek and Roman writers gave great prosperity

and wealth.

became the as the Middle Ages many Europeans believed

years as a Christian state, the kingdom's riches legend.

through

the land

Because of its central position

wealthy. Even in

much

territory across the

Aksum kingdom

Arabia. India, Africa,

timony

a thousand years. The

we now call Djibouti had the kingdom of Aksum, an entirely predictable was located directly to Aksum's south.

first

been absorbed into

The era

and which

originally lived in the Ethiopian highlands, but

groulh and conquest eventually took over

state,

of the Christian king. Prcster (Priest)

myths possessed a vast fortune

of gold.

tes-

In its

stuff of it

to

be

John, who according

^

32

Djibouti

The ston^ eially

as

it

of Christianity in

relates to the arrival

Although

region.

was an

it

Aksum

is

an interesting one. espe-

and eventual spread

of Islam in the

espeeially diverse kingdom, with at one

time minorities of Nubians (ancestors of modern-da}^ Egv^tians and

Sudanese). Jews, and even Buddhists eventually

became

in its cities.

Christian. Before they were brought

Aksum

under an

Christian state, however. Aksum's citizens adhered to a

official

polytheistic religion related Arabian Peninsula.

when

IMng

All that

a Syrian bishop

Ezana though

to

Eritrea, differs

changed

in the fourth centur\" a.d..

named Fmmentius converted Emperor But the ChristianiU' of the Aksumites.

Christianity.

fairly close to

to the pre-Islamic religions of the

modern Christian

from the Christian

practice in Ethiopia

faith practiced

and

by most of the

world today.

One

primar\' difference between this form of Christianity

orthodox faith relates

and

still

mainstream Christians believed

to doctrine:

had two natures (human and dhine).

believe that Christ

The Christian Aksums. however, (mono =

the

Monophysite

"single." physite = "nature") doctrine of Jesus Christ,

major dhision

The other major

present-day version. Amharic. they traced their origins

Testament. By extension, of the

still

is

millennium.

was a

cultural one.

spoke a Semitic language

still

spoken today

(its

in Ethiopia),

way back to King Da\1d of the Old they saw themselves as the official inher-

all

the

new covenants

Ethiopian Church

first

difference between the sects

Aksum

which

entirely dhdne. This heresy led

during the

in the religion

Because the Christians of

itors

to

testified

meant they regarded Christ as being to a

and the

of the

New

Testament. Today, the

claims to hold the Ark of the Covenant, in

which the Hebrews kept the Ten Commandments WTitten on stone tablets. Scholars

have requested

to see the

ark in order

Church's claims, but only a special guardian of the Ark ted to see the sacred

relic.

to test the is

permit-

History

A

Ark of the Covenant, which appears among the ruins The Ark, recorded in the Old Testament as the place

sculpture relief of the

a synagogue

in Israel.

of

where the Ten Commandments are stored, is revered in Jewish and Christian tradition. The Ethiopian Church, which claims descent as far back as King David, has stated that it guards the Ark in one of its churches.

The Arrival of Islam While Aksurn was growing and thriving as a Christian trading empire, events aeross the Red Sea were taking plaee that would threaten the kingdom. Around a.d. 570, the prophet

was born inlluenee

in

the town of

Muhammad

would lead

to the

Mecca on

Muhammad

the Arabian Peninsula.

The

had on his followers and subsequent events

restrneturing of a

number

of Afriean kingdoms.

Orphaned as a ehild, Muhammad had an unele who took him into his home and trained him as a merehant and a trader. When he was 25. Muhammad married the widow Khadija. who had been

33

34

Djibouti wealthy by her

left

Muhammad

first

husband. Of the

she and

six ehildren that

had, only their four daughters survived, the two boys

dying in infaney. Despite these tragedies, the eouple enjoyed a very eomfortable existence, with great prosperity and respect

among

their friends in Mecca.

After

some 15

and experience went

in

years, however,

visions.

A

Muhammad

began

to

hear

v^oices

deep spiritual unrest followed and he

search of solitude so that he might better understand what

was happening

to

him. He found a

cav^e in the

mountains above

Mecca, where the angel Gabriel appeared and told him to pass on the

wisdom and teachings Others joined

angel's visit

of Allah (God).

Muhammad when

and the teachings

they heard his recitations of the

that the angel

commanded him

The prophet Muhammad Allah’s holy word in this engraving.

In

receives

the beginning of the

seventh century,

Muhammad

preached

message, which

Allah’s

became known as the Qur’an. Islam was born and eventually spread from the Arabian Peninsula to Djibouti, though

many

Christians of the

Aksum

Empire resisted conversion for centuries.

to

History became the Qur'an (or Koran), the holy book of Islam. The new faith was quickly growing, and it was so eagerly embraced by those who heard it that the local authorities soon felt their security was threatened. Sometime in 622, Muhammad left Mecca for Medina (in Arabia), where the new religion became an even stronger force. Muhammad and his followers began sacred Muslim traditions, begin. His recitations

such as praying which was

first

Ka’aha

in the direction of the

stone in Mecca,

held sacred by the non-Muslim tribes of Arabia but

became the holiest site of Islam. At this point the new Islam was born. Muhammad would live only 10 years after

eventually faith of

he dictated the Qur'an, but the seeds of Islam as an expansionist religion

were planted. His followers supported themselves and their

by warring on traveling caravans of non-believers. Perhaps

faith

Muhammad’s been

tem

beliefs

would have died with him

for the devotion of his followers

and

their

in

632 had

it

not

newly instituted sys-

of caliphs (Arabic for “deputies of the prophet”). This hierarchy

allowed for a continual, stable chain of

command

the faith: thus organized, these Arabian

Muslims could make war

for followers of

on neighboring tribes until they had forcibly converted not just the Arabian Peninsula but empires

But while Islam enjoyed a rapid brought the new time, even of

Aksum

(now

like Persia

rise over a

faith quite literally to the

Iran) to Islam.

few centuries that

doorstep of Europe

Spain was held by the Moors of North

Africa), the

avoided forced conversion for a long time.

(Its

(for

a

kingdom stamina

against the conquest perhaps resulted from the popularity of a leg-

Muhammad

end that

had found sanctuaiy

in

modern-day Ethiopia

after lleeing persecution in Arabia. Historians believe that the stories

of the

extend

Aksums' kindness toward mercy

to

Qur’an succeeded tradition

of their

these in

Muhammad

non-believers).

making headway

coiwinced Muslims to

Eventually,

in the region.

non-Islamic ancestors,

the

however,

the

Continuing the

recently

converted

3f

56

Djibouti

Muslim Arabs continued

along the Red Sea coast, includ-

to trade all

ing the area of Djibouti. There they settled

towns

A

in the ninth

certain peace

century along what

seemed

is

and developed many port

now the county's

coastline.

but soon religious practice would

to prevail,

be changed in the entire region forever.

Muslims advanced on the kingdom

In 975,

Aksum's neighboring Muslims conquered

state, situated in

Zeila, Adal's

main

of Adal.

which was

present-day Somalia. The

port town, just

40 miles (64

km) east of the present-day Djibouti border. Their success was marily due to the

Aksum kingdom

pri-

being distracted by the separate

invasions of pagan warriors. The \dctory over Zeila set the stage for Djibouti’s

fall

to the

Muslim conquerors, although the subsequent

mass conversion of Christians to Islam occurred in some areas taking centuries to complete.

over a long period,

was hardly a smooth transition, it was not long before a stabilizing force came to Djibouti in the form of the Ottoman Empire, a vast Muslim kingdom Although the introduction of Islam

to

Djibouti

that lasted from the late 13th to the early 20th centur^^ Ha\4ng swept

through modern-day Turkey (then Byzantium, the eastern part of the

Roman

the

Ottoman Empire took Eg\pt

down

Empire) and the

city of

in

Constantinople (now Istanbul),

1517 and spread

the eastern coast of North Africa

its

influence

and through the Arabian

Peninsula. During most of the Ottomans' reign, regions along the

— including the land that became Djibouti and the surrounding areas — were generally Ottoman in name only. Sultans

empire's outskirts

representing the empire collected taxes for the Ottomans, but the empire's involvement in government

was minimal.

The Ottomans were knowm. among other things, for their military' prowess and vast inlluence; however, their power became too unwieldy. They w'ere eventually threatened most by the major

European

powders, w'hich since the 15th century

expansion unrivalled in the world’s history.

It

had undergone an

was not long

before

History the militarily efficient Western nations picked off the

Empire's possessions one by one, and set their eyes on

many

spoils of their victoiy

were acquired 1,

after the

— northern

Africa.

in

among

the

Most possessions

Ottoman’s devastating losses

but Europe had become involved

Ottoman

in

World War

North Africa decades

earlier.

The Birth of French Somaliland In

modern

times, the

most important improvement

of the trade

channel between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean was the construction of the Suez Canal, which opened

up land

dividing the

Red

Sea and the Mediterranean. Construction of the canal began

in

1859 and ended 10 years

at

the time, the British region,

later.

The two most dominant powers

and the French, wanted control

primarily to facilitate the developing trade. With

Belgium, and Germany, Britain and France were “Great Game,” the object of which

most AiVican

territories to their

Djibouti, with its it

of parts of this

it

looked as

to see

empires

prime location, was a

was not an economically For a while,

was

who

all

Italy,

playing the

could add the

in the shortest time.

And

prize, despite the fact that

rich place. if

Britain were destined to

win the

prize.

With Britain’s extensive holdings along the Arabian side of the Red Sea, including the

Somali coast,

it

Yemeni port of Aden, as well as much

seemed

all

of the

but a foregone conclusion. But the

make a last-minute play for the land that would become Djibouti, and wound up purchasing the land in 1862 French were able

to

from local sultans representing the Ottoman Empire. (The territory

was later shrunk under an agreement with the Ethiopians.) Thus was born French Somaliland (which became the Territory of At'ars and Issas, then finally the Re])nblic of Djibouti). The French made their first they purchased

was

larger than the Djibouti of today;

it

settlements in French Somaliland at the town of Oboek. In 1892, after looking for a better port

from whic'h

to

reach the Red Sea. they

^

38

Djibouti

moved

their eapital

south

to the port city of Djibouti town,

founded

in 1888.

One

French did when they

settled

to begin constructing a railroad that

would

of the first things that the

Djibouti town

was

stretch into the highlands of Ethiopia to that country’s

Addis Ababa.

An

means

efficient

new

capital,

was key

of transport

to

the

continuing development of French Somaliland: East African traders

had

between Ethiopia and the Djibouti coast

plied the route

centuries, but goods

now had

move more

to

It

what became the Franco-Ethiopian Railroad

years, but

proved to be a great economic success for

During the

first

half of the 20th centur^^

midst of the great powers

it

— some

took 20 in

1917

planners.

its

As a French colony, Djibouti struggled in the

quickly.

for

attain stability.

to

found

itself

once again

battling for supremacy,

others for survival. Soon after the fascist leader Benito Mussolini

ascended

to

power

primary goal. followers,

II

in 1925,

Diice (the Leader), as he

was determined

Ai'rican territory.

economic value

he made the acquisition of Ethiopia a

It

to

participate

Italy to

by his adoring

the scramble for

was

in taking over Ethiopia: rather

little it

strategic or

simply repre-

have her own overseas empire.

Throughout the 1930s. French and

Italian forces clashed over

on a regular basis.

With the outbreak of World War

11.

French Somaliland experi-

own trauma. Alter France’s rapid capitulation in 1940 to invading German forces, its colony fell under the administra-

enced the

called in

did not matter that there

sented an opportunity for

territories

was

its

tion of

what was

supported and

called the Vichy

followed

the

Government

mandates

of

in France,

the

Nazi

which

regime.

Consequently. Djibouti was subject to a British naval blockade

between the finally

fall

of France until

broken when

December 1942. The blockade was

Allied forces, along \\4th Free

French

fighters,

liberated Djibouti from Vichy-Nazi domination. In return for the

39

Italian

dictator Benito Mussolini

(left)

and German dictator Adolf Hitler ride

through the streets of Munich, Germany, an alliance

in

Horn

June

1936 that lasted through World

campaign for territories trol of

in

in

1

War

940. The II.

two

leaders formed

During Mussolini’s

Africa, Italy clashed with France in the 1930s for con-

of Africa lands. France later

fell

to the Nazis and

became Vichy

France, putting Djibouti briefly under a different administration.

support, a battalion of Djiboutian troops fought in

Allies' military

the

campaign

to liberate

France

in 1944.

Crisis and Independence

With order restored fulfill

to

France. Djibouti

Madagascar

Fkist.

able to

her role as something of a “service station” for ships moving

through the Red Sea. especially to

was once again

off Africa's

for

French ships making their way

eastern coast and Vietnam in the Far

Djibouti City grew notic'cably.

and the colony was reorganized

40

Djibouti in

1957 as the French Territory of Afars and Issas (named

two main

tribes,

after the

one Ethiopian and the other Somali, who

tiny country home).

With

its

new

identity, Djibouti

call

the

enjoyed a great

deal of local autonomy. In 1967, Djiboutian citizens voted 60 per-

cent in favor of allowing the French to stay on as nominal rulers, partly in reward for their earlier

show

of leniency.

However, the second half of the 20th centur\^ was not the stable era that the people of Djibouti hoped

it

would

be.

Two

events

— the

closure of the Suez Canal in 1967 and a series of regional wars

would keep Djibouti from enjoying a much-needed period of peace. Since

its

construction, the Suez Canal has been one of the most

important sea passages in the entire world. Although

has diminished somewhat

usefulness

with the latest generation

of supertankers

and other cargo ships too wide and too deep

pass through

locks, its existence

to

An

in recent years

its

its

has always contributed

Djibouti's livelihood. Without the trade passing

Egyptian tank

sits

incapacitated

in

the Sinai desert after a successful

during the 1967 Six-Day War. Djibouti did not fight

in

much

through the

Israeli

attack

the war, though trade suffered

greatly after sunken ships blocked the Suez Canal, shutting

it

down

to

for eight years.

History canal, far fewer ships

would pass by

The Suez Canal was Israel fought

of the

new Jewish

world, destroying got a

chance

later ealled the all

mueh

of

of its

Israel

in

Sbc-Day War against neigh-

were geared

for the destruetion

turned the tables on the Ai*ab

eombined

ground

to leave the

in a

air forces before

they even

stunning military vietory that

possession of the Sinai Peninsula as well.

The war elosed Suez Canal and shutting down the

whom

But

state.

found the Jewish state

1967 when

at the eeuter of a global crisis in

what was

boring Arab eountries,

Djibouti.

for eight years, costing Djibouti

port's usefulness as a

moving from the Mediterranean

to the

way

revenue

station for ships

Indian Ocean.

But while the crises of the Middle East would have some

effeet

on Djibouti's well-being, the conOiets of northern Africa would be a heavier burden on the world's newest independent nation.

Independence eor Djibouti In 1967, Djiboutians voted to ers;

keep the French on as colonial lead-

hy 1977, Djibouti was one of the very few foreign-held pieees of

land remaining on the entire eontinent of Africa. But during that year the government deeided to begin a

On

the night of

June

new

era of independenee.

27, the Freneh tri-eolored Hag

was

furled,

and the new Oag of Djibouti was raised over the country. American journalist David

Lamb, an accomplished reporter based

in Afriea,

describes the event in The Africans: There was no great sense ot excitement on that June evening .

.

Several hundred chairs were lined

up near the

and a handful of buildings were whitewashed airport

at

piers for the

in 1977.

.

ceremony

the last minute.

The new

passenger terminal opened and the La Siesta hotel put up a "No

vacancy" sign. The Freneh aircraft carrier Foch anchored a few miles out

to

sea in the unlikely event an evacuation of the expatriates would be necessaiyc

.

.

.

There was a shooting outside the barbed-wire perimeter that

claimed one

life

Somali Coast

when something

—an outfit

called the Front for the Liberation of the

pledged to overthrowing the government that had

m

42

Djibouti not yet even taken office

—demanded permission to enter Djibouti.

Gouled

[Hassan Gouled Aptidon. the president-to-be] smoothed out the problem

some

with

milling

left

members were outside the barricade with their camels and guns. By eleven invited guests were in their seats. The women, stout and big-

skillful negotiating,

o'elock the

and most

of the front's 3.000

chested. wore colorful print-cloth dresses,

chewing khat

[qat].

and the men

sat glassy-eyed,

a narcotic weed imported from Ethiopia.

At precisely one minute past midnight. France's high commissioner.

Camille d'Ornano. offered a crisp salute as the French tri-color

[flag]

was

lowered and folded for the last time in Africa. Hassan Gouled Aptidon.

who would move

out of his

home and was now the

little

seaside mansion the next day.

independent nation, the Republic of Djibouti.

into the

French governor's

president of Africa's .

.

fiftieth

.

And so the former Territory^ of Afars and Issas became officially known as the Republic of Djibouti, an independent nation. Although they had no

would

official

remain involved

still

government positions. French

in Djibouti, providing

officials

economac assis-

new nation was who would manage to at

tance and military protection. At the helm of the

Hassan Gouled Aptidon. a popular

keep his country's head above water, though to accomplish

least

this

ruler

he upset some by using

But little

brutal tactics.

as an independent nation did not start smoothly for this

life

month after Djibouti announced its indebloody Ogaden War broke out. the culmination of

port countryy Just a

pendence. the hostilities

some

fairly

between Somalia and Ethiopia that had been brewing

for

was over the possession of the Ogaden region, which Somalian troops had entered and claimed in 1977. Somalia had gained independence in 1960. and in fighting the Ogaden War was looking to expand its borders. The war had several

time.

The

immediate

conilict

effects

on Djibouti

—

all

of

which were bad.

First, the

was waged between two much-larger forces, threatened the survival of the newborn state — some historians would even say it nearly smothered the infant Djibouti in its crib. During its cam-

war. which

4d

pai^n against Ethiopia, Somalia considered incorporating Djibouti into the countiy.

The annexation was

logical,

two-thirds of Djibouti's population traced

Somali

tribes,

or clans.

being gobbled up by

its

The only

Somalia argued, since

its

aneestry to various

factors keeping Djibouti from

larger neighbor

were the

fierce desire of

Djiboutians of all ethnic stripes to remain neutral and independent,

and a garrison

of 4,000 French troops.

The second and more devastating

war was that it absolutely ravaged the eountry’s eeonomy. Service on the all-important Addis Ababa-Djibouti rail line was interrupted during the war. which in turn disrupted almost all economic activity at the Djibouti port.

No longer were ships eoming

Passengers board a train railroad, crossing

trade.

Many

in

result of the

in to take

Ethiopian goods away

Djibouti headed to Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia. This

500 miles (805 km) of desert and rough

terrain, facilitates Djiboutian

Ethiopian exports are shipped to the Djibouti port so that they can be

delivered to the rest of the world.

44

Djibouti for export;

gone too were the port

fees,

duties,

Djibouti relied upon. Following the 1977-78 War,

by Ethiopia, Djibouti was bankrupt Then, nationwide poverty was

and

won

in everything

made worse by

levies that

convincingly

but

its

name.

the sudden influx of

refugees streaming over the border. The refugees were trying to get

away from what had become a treacherous zone in the global cold war between the two superpowers— United States and the former Soviet Union and their African allies. Djibouti could ill afford to cope with such an onslaught of desperate people, especially under

—

its

existing

A

economic circumstances.

realignment of the region's politics followed the end of the

Ogaden War, but

Djibouti

sion, a reoccurring

problem

tear the country apart. ly

still

faced unresolved issues. Ethnic ten-

As long as control

divided between the Issas

still

threatened to

of the nation

was not even-

in Djibouti's histor\^

and

Al'ars,

tensions would remain high.

was an Issa, but while in office he was not show favoritism to the Issas or the Afars.

President Aptidon

aware of the need

to

He might have learned a lesson from the post-independence

Djibouti leader Hassan

Gouled Aptidon (1977-99)

enjoyed a popular presidency despite the country’s

—

chronic

ills

wars

Somalia and Ethiopia, and the regular clashes

in

between the

a struggling

Issas

economy, the refugees from

and the minority Afar

clan.

History

4f

experiences of several countries in Africa: in

newly

showed to

or

many

cases,

installed

leaders

much

favoritism

too

members of clan, and

their

own

tribe

civil

wars

or the toppling of their

own

helped cause either

was the

1

republic, Rhodesia

Zimbabwe)

any doubt that the Issas had

rule

upper hand

in

country

979, two years after Djibouti became an official in

regimes. Although no one had

the

last

on the continent of Africa to become independent, though

doing

so

in

Djibouti

(now

briefly reverted to

under a

British governor.

govern-

ment, Aptidon started out with a strategy to keep the people

and a staff that were reasonably own clansmen and Afars. But the harmo-

pacified, appointing a cabinet

integrated between his

ny would not

last for long.

The Afars and Issas have never seen eye to eye on many issues in Djibouti, and the enmity between them seems as old as the hills. So in 1978 it was not a surprise when Aptidon’s government experienced the

first

of

many

kicking out Afar cabinet

ethnic crises, with the

members and prime

new

president

ministers on two

occasions.

Other pressing issues during Aptidon’s years were not the

outcome Djibouti

of ethnic tension, but poverty. Not counting refugees,

had a population

of

around 450,000 when

pendence, and most of them lived in Djibouti City

shantytowns and squatters' camps on the

it

won

its

inde-

— typically in vast

city's outskirts.

Even though the departure of the French meant that there were now openings

in the civil service

and

professions, the vast majority of Djiboutians

employment

at the port or along the

in other prestigious

had

either to

hope

for

62 miles (100 km) of railroad

track leading from the port to the Ethiopian border. Those

who

couldn’t find jobs in these two fields, or land the few available

46

Djibouti positions in the

civil

senice, had to simply scratch whatever farm-

ing income they could out of the country's arid climate. cost of living,

A

high

combined with accusations that government aid and

subsidized housing programs were favoring the Issas, would contribute to the Afars' growing discontent over the next decade.

Meanwhile, Aptidon continued his long stretch as president. In 1981 he banned

all

a six-year term, and

opposition political parties and

won

election to

again in 1987. Despite the suppression of

opposition groups, the 1980s

was a decade

Djibouti, with the country's citizens feet.

won

working

of relative peace for to get

However, the next decade would pose a whole

back on

new

their

series of

challenges.

The Afar Uprising In late 1991,

what would be

war broke out between the Afars and the Issas

in

called the Afar Uprising, the result of tensions that

had been building up since before Djibouti claimed

its

independ-

ence. For three years, fighting raged between government forces

and Afar

rebels, killing

thousands of people and displacing many

more. The fighting completely destabilized a country committed to

making the most

of its tough circumstances. According to the

Horn

of Africa Bulletin, in the country's northern regions, where

many

Djiboutians struggle to raise livestock, rain did not

entire

year.

an

Within sLx months, half of the countrv^'s animal stocks died.

Compounding ty.

fall for

the crisis were the killings, destruction of proper-

forced migrations of Djiboutians.

and a slew

of other

human

abuses the government committed against Afar rebels. These abuses caused aid from Western countries to dry up just as the rights'

was experiencing a catastrophic drought. In 1994, it was not hard to see that Djibouti was in a precarious position. At the end of that year, a peace accord was finally signed with the rebels: one of the most important terms of the accord was that Afar leaders

nation

History

Iraqi in

Saddam Hussein

president

delivers a public statement in

August 2002. After Saddam ordered

Kuwait

in

Iraqi

Baghdad

forces to invade neighboring

1990, President Aptidon allowed French and U.S. forces to set

up operations

in

Djibouti. The country’s assistance helped

improve the

government’s public image, which suffered from brutal counterattacks

ordered against Afar rebels during the 1991

uprising.

received a place in government. At this time, perhaps the only thing that

eyes of the West in general and

France

participation in the 1991 Persian Gulf led coalition.

Although Aptidon

redeemed Djibouti in

particular

War between

told his people that

military strike against Iraqi president

Saddam

Iraq

in the

was

and a

its

U.S.-

he was against a

Hussein,

who had

recently rolled his tanks into neighboring Kuwait, he also allowed the

FYeneh

to build

for a strike

on

up

their military forces in the country in preparation

Iraq,

and

in addition

allowed American naval vessels

access to the port. Also, in a canny maneuver he negotiated for Djibouti to be paid for the assistance

the lime

Saddam’s next possible

Saudi Arabia agreed Djibouti's port.

to

pay

it

provided to Saudi Arabia, at

target.

for the

As part

of the agreement.

renovation and modernization of

47

4$

Djibouti

Omar

Ismael

Guelleh replaced Hassan Gouled Aptidon

as president of Djibouti

May

in

1999.

In

accordance with

campaign promises, Guelleh has worked toward more peace resolutions

in

war-torn Somalia.

He

also has

maintained positive relations with Western powers, particularly during the U.S.-led

began

in late

200

Although

“war on terrorism,” which

1

announced an end

accords

peace

the

to civil

war

would be sporadic outbreaks

in Djibouti, there

in the years since.

The country would remain unstable

in the latter

half of that decade. While independent sition

parties

political

struggled to solve

and the Issas

its

still

had been

many

legalized,

1994

of

and oppo-

government leaders

problems. Relations between the Afars

had not improved,

social unrest

was always

imminent, and the economy was teetering on collapse. People

worked

for or

depended on the government would receive

checks months

late.

office

years

miming

he would have

through yet another regional In

their pay-

With the country's problems hanging over

Aptidon. the president decided against

but before leaving

who

in the next election,

to na\4gate the

country

crisis.

1998, war broke out between Ethiopia and Eritrea. Five

had won independence from Ethiopia, but a land on the border remained in dispute. The war,

earlier. Eritrea

small piece of

which lasted over two years,

some 70,000 people and displaced many more, a good portion of whom wound up in Djibouti's refugee camps. However, though Djibouti was burdened with even more refugees, it also gained from the spoils of the EthiopiaEritrea war; with Eritrea

killed

now obstructing

its

enemy’s access

to the

HlSTOR^ Red Sea, Ethiopia had

on Djibouti’s port and

to rely entirely

As a result, Djibouti gained greater port revenue, employment, and trade. railroad line.

The 22-year

rule of

Hassan Gouled Aptidon

came to an 1999. The candi-

finally

and multi-party elections of date, Ismael Omar Guelleh, ran on a platform that included helping next-door neighbor Somalia, which at this point had fallen apart and was in the hands of rival warlords with their own priend with the

free

vate armies. Guelleh sought to pull Somalia out of reconciling Djibouti under the idea of a

“civil

and

inte-

society”

market. He

the 1999 election easily with 74 percent of the vote.

that Guelleh

was Aptidon’s nephew and

20 years probably did not hurt the al

while

common

grating the region’s economies into a single

won

its crisis

his

main advisor

for over

results. However, internation-

conducted openly, and that inconsistencies were

due

fact

monitors reported that the electoral contest was

election

solely

The

in

most cases

problems.

to technical

Djibouti has remained relatively stable since Guelleh’s ascent to

power. Guelleh’s presidency

reminiscent of Aptidon’s in

is

has managed the country’s international

affairs,

specifically with

the assistance Djibouti has provided to the West.

agreed to play

its

part in the U.S.-led “war

began following the 2001 Washington.

were stationed

in

Djibouti,

helicopters. In 2003, the

ment

in a

war

in Iraq,

skillfully justified the

ple,

who hope

to Djibouti.

in

in

March

for deploy-

of that year. Guelleh

presence of the foreign troops to his peo-

new

employment. Already there is

attacks

along with a contingent of attack

which began

that this

on terrorism,” which

American forces there prepared

has

U.S. government

2002,

The countiy

New York and American and German troops

terrorist

In the spring of

how he

is

relationship will

some

mean more

aid

and

sign of that happening, as the

presently considering an increase of foreign aid

49

Fl'y

p*‘

ll'\ .-.

i^-T '

'T.

J

J

J

!^P^jrT\2

Muslims pray

at the

Ka’aba

in

Mecca. Believers from Djibouti and

around the world arrive to Mecca to satisfy the requirements of the hajj, or pilgrimage. Those who successfully make the journey earn the

title

of

Hajji.

^ibouti’s

political

republic,

is

system, based on the Freneh model of a

a legacy of the eolonial era. There

dent and prime minister legislature

ing of 65

a presi-

serve for six-year terms,

and a single-house Chamber

and a

of Deputies, consist-

members, who are elected by popular vote and serve

five-year terms. Further five

who

is

down

the ladder, Djibouti also has

administrative regions, and a Freneh-style system of

law that ineorporates Islamic law and tradition. There

is

eivil

also

a judicial system, although most foreign observers do not

consider

it

a legitimately independent body.

Djiboutian politics has greatly suffered from the rivalries

between the Afars and

Issas, their disputes often boiling over

with tragic results. The most effeetive stabilizing foree has

been the party known as the Rassemblement Populaire

le

Progres (RPP); in English, the “Popular Rally for Progress."

n

Djibouti Established in 1979, the party

Mars and

disputes between clearly

was

specifically designed to resolve

At the time, disputes were

Issas.

imminent, as Djibouti had at an Issa president, Hassan

Gouled Aptidon, and an Mar prime minister, Aptidon,

who was

and internal

was a canny

leader

who

tained a balance in his government between tribe to

Dini

Ahmed.

through two decades of regional

to lead Djibouti

strife,

Ahmed

nearly always main-

members

of his

own

and the Mars. Unfortunately, the harsh methods that he used

accomplish this balance were not always well received by the

people of Djibouti, and in 1980, a disgruntled Dini and several other Afars walked out of the government. In response, Aptidon declared the

RPP

the country's only legal party the following year. Not sur-

prisingly, the

RPP won subsequent

By 1990, the

situation

elections in 1982

No matter how the fence and kept his twin

had gotten out

cleverly Aptidon played both sides of

and 1987.

of control.

constituencies from going for each others' throats, he could not

keep the

lid

on Djibouti's ethnic tensions any

longer. In

1991 the

Afar rebellion broke out. as people both inside and outside Djibouti called for political

an end

to the

one-party system and the legalization of

opposition parties. The government cracked

down hard on

Former Djibouti prime minister Ahmed Dini Ahmed, an Afar, resigned from his position

in

1

980, complaining that

showed favoritism to members. Following his departure Ahmed became leader of Front President Aptidon Issas tribe

pour

la

Restauration de IVnite et de

la

Democratie (FRUD), a rebel group that 1991 helped begin the three-year-long

Afar Uprising.

in

Politics, Relicion,

The was

flag

and the Economy

of Djibouti

officially

on June 27,

1

hoisted

977, to

mark the country’s independence. The blue stripe represents

the Issas clan, the

green stripe the Afars,

and the red star

symbol of

is

a

unity.

the Afar rebels in Djibouti town,

and an armed insurgency was

launched against the government, former prime minister,

Ahmed

led

by none other than the

Dini.

For a while, Dini found success as leader of the Afar group. Front

pour

la

known

Restauration for its

cle

VUnite

et

de

la

Democratie (more commonly

acronym, FRUD). The rebellion spread

fast

through-

out the traditional Alar tribal areas in the northern part of the country. After four alties,

months

France stepped

between the two officially

end the

of

much bloodshed and

in as a

sides. In conllict

many

casu-

peace broker and initiated talks

1992, Djibouti's government hoped to

with a completely

approved by a popular referendum constitution supported a

too

(vote

new

by the entire

constitution, citizenry).

The

more democratic government by allowing

other opposition j^arties to operate. (The arrangement, however,

turned out

were

to

be not as democratic as

legalized,

and through a

it

promised: only four parties

series of maneuverings. Aptidon

ensured that the new constitution reserved most of the power the president.)

for

f4

Djibouti

The new Uprising.

legislation also failed to put a final

was not

It

until the middle of

forces were able to recapture

much

end

to the Afar

1993 that government

of the territory they

had

lost in

FRUD movement 1994. FRUD signed a

the north to the insurgents, at which point the

was both defeated and

divided. Later, in

peace accord with the Aptidon government: two of

its

members

joined the cabinet. Aptidon's

nephew and handpicked

successor.

Omar

Ismael

Guelleh. replaced the president in 1999 at the end of his final six-

year term. Guelleh had been the cabinet director for two decades,

and

he took the reins of power

in the multi-party elections

in

Djibouti with a healthy percentage of the vote, beating the only

other candidate for the position.

Moussa Ahmed

of the

Idriss

Opposition djiboutienne unifee (ODU).

No

parties boycotted or protested the

1999

elections,

surprising for a countiy in which one party had for so

kept

a

grip

tight-fisted

on power.

observers believe that the voting

was

addition,

In

which was

many

years

international

carried out in a fair

manner

without interference from the government. The multi-party national

assembly elections of 2003, held

democratic

affair,

in

January, also proved

to

be a

according to spectators.

Fair elections do not necessarily equate a free state, however.

Since Guellah's ascension in 1999. international observ^ers have

been

critical of his

rights

conduct, especially of his violations of citizens'

and censorship

free countries,

of the press. In the United States

and other

almost eveiy'one takes for granted that a newspaper

can publish whatever

it

wants about the government

does not contain slander or

libel),

(as long

as

it

but during Guellah’s presidency,

Djiboutians have not enjoyed freedom of the press. The government controls the eountiy^'s principal newspaper.

La Nation de

Djibouti.

Furthermore, the government of Djibouti does not respect the rights ol people to

speak out against

it.

and people who

criticize

and the Economy

Politics, Religion,

the government have been

mueh on human

out ever hearing so

2000

report

Department

known

to

wind up

as the eharge rights

in jail for years with-

against them. In

filed

the

Djibouti,

in

U.S.

its

State

stated:

The Government's human problems remain.

.

.

.

rights record

remained poor

The Government continued

.

.

.

and serious

harass and intimi-

to

date political opponents, and to arrest and detain persons arbitrarily.

Prolonged detention and incommunicado problems. The judiciaiy

ensure

citizens'

is

detention remained

[solitary]

not independent of the executive and does not

due process.

Religion Djibouti has been

But what does it

mean

it

an Islamic

mean

in Djibouti, a

territory for at least 1,000 years.

to follow Islam

— and specifically, what does

country with a unique Islamic history?

Islam grew out of the Arabian Peninsula over 1,300 years ago,

and today almost

1

billion

people are Muslims.

It

shares company

with Christianity and Judaism as one of the three major monotheistic religions (faiths

many

that believe in one god).

and

similarities in doctrine

belief

As such, there are

between Islam and the

other religions, but there also visible differences. 1'he central prayer

simple one

known as

but Allah, and ly

and statement

the

Shahada, which

Muhammad

is

is

a

no god

His Prophet." The word Allah

literal-

Muslims include several

their holy literature, including the

they believe that the Qur'an

Muslims

states: “There is

translates as “the one God.”

is

texts in

Old Testament scriptures, but

the holiest.

Its

authority

lies in

the

was dictated by Muhammad, whom Muslims regard as greatest and last of all prophets. Muslims also include the

fact that

the

of belief for

it

teachings of Jesus in their doctrine, believing that he prophet, thougli not the Son of

God as Christians

Muslims share with the monotheistic

was a

great

affirm.

religions a belief in angels.

5*5

Djibouti An a I

elaborately decorated page from

Qur'an manuscript, dating from the 2th century. Unlike the Bible, a holy

text that

is

written by several

authors, the Qur'an

is

the pure, untouched

which stems

originally

angel Gabriel.

And

Muhammad's

from

like Christians.

believed to be

word

original \dsion of the

Muslims look forward

"day of judgment” on which the world as

of Allah.

we know

it

a

to

final

ends and the

wicked and the just get their ultimate and deser\^ed reward.

But

where the

this is basieally

similarities end.

scribe to the five pillars of Islam, the recite the

Shahada. The remaining four

Salat (prayer):

One

of first-time visitors to

the

first

first

of

of the

first

any Muslim

of

whieh

Muslims sub-

is to

believe

and

pillars are as follows:

things that eatches the attention city is the regular call to prayer,

which occurs before dawm. These

calls

come

five

times a

day and are broadeast from mosques, or Muslim houses of worship,

and remind

all

Muslims

direetion of Meeca.

to stop

and say

what they are doing, bow down

their devotions.

Muslims

in

if

Muslims are not

must still pray five times a day. Djibouti and elsewhere do not interrupt

within earshot of a mosque, they (Often, though.

Even

in the

Politics, Relicion,

and instead “make up”

their daily routine

and the Economy

their prayers later at

home.)

Zakat

(charity): In

some ways,

many branches

of the

this is similar to the guidelines

of Protestant Christianity that encourage

regular “tithing,” or donation of a fixed portion of one's income. For

Muslims, charity

one of the highest virtues, whether

is

who needs

giving to a poor beggar or helping a traveler

stay for the night.

And

incomes

a purifying effect on the givers,

least

involves

a place to

while the doctrine that people should give a

fixed proportion of their

every

it

it

to the

poor

is

considered to have

also has a practical benefit. With

Muslim required to give money in theory— eliminates the need

to the poor, the practice

— at

for social welfare in Islamic

societies.

Sawm

(fasting):

Along with giving

to charity,

required to fast regularly, as the practice fying.

During

(which to

is

Ramadan,

the ninth

is

month

considered to be puriof the Islamic calendar

based on the cycles of the moon), Muslims are supposed

avoid eating, drinking, or smoking tobacco from

down. As one might imagine, this can be a the hot, desert regions where Islam ful

Muslims are also

stay inside

all

is

difficult

practiced:

day and then break the

sunup task in

most

fast at night

to

sun-

many

of

of the faith-

by enjoying

great feasts with their families.

Hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca): This

most

central, pillar of Islamic faith.

Muslim must

—

if

he

is

financially

is

Once

the final, in his

life,

millions of l^ray at

it

is

every male

and physically capable

pilgrimage to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina.

can make the pilgrimage, but

and perhaps

— make a

Women,

too,

not required of them. Every year

Muslims make the journey

at

an appointed time

to

a series of holy sites in an impressive display of humanity

sj

f5

Djibouti

and devotion.

make

considered a great achievement for a Muslim to

It is

the pilgrimage, and those

who

ha\^e

white skullcaps and take the honorific

As a life,

religion that

from sunup

force

to

completed

title

sundown and beyond. Islam it.

often

wear

of Hajji.

encompasses so many aspects

on those who embrace

it

of the believer's

exerts a powerful

However. Islam in Djibouti, wiiich

is

practiced by an estimated 96 percent of the population, takes

its

own unique form. Perhaps because of the countr\"'s exposure to many different cultures over the centuries, or perhaps because

so of

the strong pulls of tribal loyalty that often take precedence over religious

commitments. Djibouti's practice of the

attract the

Saudi Arabia. For example, unlike

Muslim countries. Islamic restricted to family

law.

does not

extreme interpretations one finds in other Muslim coun-

tries like Iran or

tribal

religion

and

known as

law^ in Djibouti

ci\1l

— known

many

other

as Sharia

—

is

matters, and competes with traditional

xeer. for jurisdiction within the French-

inlluenced state legal system.

This does not

mean

Djiboutian society practices complete toler-

wnmen. wiro form of Sharia and

ance. especially townrd

still

under the

are not even allow'ed to travel

local

without a male

relative. Yet there are

face official discrimination

no formal religious police

units enforcing Islamic dress codes as there are in other

Muslim

countries. Wiien authorities do enforce the precepts of Sharia. citizens often find

wnys

to

evade the law. For example, w^hen

fundamentalists tried in 1995 to prohibit bars from serxing alcohol, the offending institutions simply started classifying themselves as

restaurants to avoid prosecution.

The nomadic people Islam that all

is

of Djibouti's hinterlands practice a form of

even further removed from orthodox\^ Wdiile they are

professed Muslims and exhibit great reverence,

remains a mixture of Islam and ancient

their

tribal religion dating

faith

back

Politics, Relicion, to the

and the Economy

time before monotheistie worship. The main feature of these

aneient practices, which are followed by both Afars and Issas, intense devotion of

f9

whom

— bordering on worship — to dead

ancestors,

is

an

many

are considered saints.

Religious Celebrations

on the Islamic

Djibouti’s biggest celebrations of the year focus

holidays that are based on the Muslim calendar, which coincides

with the cycles of the

moon

rather than the Western 365-day

calendar. Subsequently, the dates of these events vary from year to year.

The most important

Djibouti

and the

Muslims

religious observances for

rest of the world are

Ramadan, Eid

al-Fitr,

in

and Eid

al-Adha.

Ramadan to sunset.

is

The

food, as well as

month during which Muslims

a

fast dictates that

fast

they abstain from

from sunrise

all

liquids

and

smoking. These restrictions are based on the belief

that the spirit can be purified by denying the

body material and

worldly pleasure. Along with denying themselves food and drink,

Muslims must also behave Islamic doctrine,

in a spiritual

self-denial

have a

religions

Judaism

or

Lent

— Ramadan

is

one of

more extreme periods

of the

most

Muslims,

treat

time of abstinence with respect.

Streets

empty, as

ritual

annual

fast

and period

of

in

three faiths. People in Djibouti, like

rumors, or simply acting

— such as Yom Kippur

Christianity

the

false

covetous manner.

Though most in

to

the good done in a day’s fasting can be

all

undone by gossiping or spreading in a

manner. According

many

arc

this

great

relatively

According to the Qur'an, during

Ramadan the

fasting begins as

soon as

one can distinguish a black thread from a white thread in daylight.

people use the

day’s

60

Djibouti

The

parts of a slaughtered sheep

lie

on the ground during

a celebration of Eid

al-Adha, a Muslim holiday of sacrifice. Muslims are required to save a portion of

the slaughtered animal for the poor. Djiboutians practice the sacrifice as a to

remember

the sacrifice the patriarch

Abraham intended

way

for his son Ishmael.

time for meditation and serious concentration on the Qur'an. This quiet

period lasts the entire day:

when

night

festival

in

arrives,

families

gather for a large dinner.

Perhaps the most Djiboutian calendar of

is

like

Muslims

Christmas

to give to the

give children presents

The other great ("Festival

prophet

in the West.

Islamic

and

is

celebration

is in spirit

considered obligatory- for

poor during this time, and parents usually

and new

of the Sacrifice"),

God. Muslims in

It

clothes.

festival of the Islamic

Abraham and

the

the celebration feast of Eid al-Fitr at the end

Ramadan. Lasting three days, the joyous

much

to

important

calendar

is

Eid al-Adha

commemorating the Old Testament

his willingness to sacrifice his son Ishmael

many

countries, including Djibouti, follow^ the

Politics, Relicion,

and some

tradition faithfully,

a

will eat

families saerifice

eommemoration

live goat, in

an animal, sueh as

who

of the event. Today, the family

the animal does not typieally perform the actual slaughter,

more and more Djiboutians

since

and th Economy

merchants carry out

this function.

live

in

cities

The four-day

festival

approximately two months and ten days after Eid

marks the

last

day of the

where meat

al-Fitr.

occurs also

It

hajj season.

Economy It is

almost hard to believe

struggling economy.

and the country

ment

rate.

If it

how

Djibouti suiwives with such a

The average DJiboutian makes $1,300 a

suffers from a devastating 50-percent

were not

year,

unemploy-

for Djibouti’s strategic location in the

Sea, or the natural harbor that graces Djibouti town,

it

Red

would have

no means of income. With droughts routinely ravaging the

virtually

country, prospects for agriculture are scarce. Djibouti only has a

grand

total of

6,000 acres of arable land. For an illustration of just

how hard-pressed in

addition

to

Djibouti’s farms are to feed

its

large

average American farm

is

refugee population

469

its

470,000 people-

— consider

that

the

acres. In other words, Djibouti

has

about a dozen or so American farms’ worth of cultivatable land.

Other

factors, too,

have conspired

to

keep Djibouti poor. The

Afar Uprising, for example, delivered a serious blow to the econo-

my. During that time, a bad situation turned

government expenditures skyrocketed

for the v/orse

to fight the insurgency,

as

and

foreign countries withheld their aid in protest of the government's

response

to the rebellion. Djibouti’s agriculture

any goods ple

work

though sitting

for export, despite

in that sector.

rec'cnl

the fact that a huge

produces barely

number

of peo-

There are few other natural resources, and

explorations have suggested that Djibouti

may be

on some potentially valuable natural gas reseiwes, they

have not yet been tapped.

&i

62

Djibouti

Train passengers

on the Addis Ababa-Djibouti

line

buy meat from vendors.

Because Djiboutians deal with a lack of natural resources, they make good use of the

that brings Ethiopian

rail line

With

all

goods such

as meat, coffee, dried beans,

these factors working against

Djibouti's

and

salt.

economy,

though, the government and the people continue to adapt for their

makes good use of its railroad, which allows trade and the port of Djibouti, which grants access to the

survival. Djibouti

with Ethiopia:

rest of the world. to

Using these two assets

tandem. Djibouti

is

able

eke out a role in the world economy. Djibouti's export

ral

in

numbers prove how

little

revenue

its

few natu-

resources generate: exports to the United States average around

a scant SI 00.000 per year, while imports average $26.6 million. Fortunately, resources,

neighboring Ethiopia

is

endowed with natural

and wdth the Addis Ababa-Djibouti

railroad, Djibouti is

able to profit from the shipping of Ethiopian goods such as coffee, dried beans, salt,

exported.

and cereals

The Djiboutian

to its port,

industr\^ benefits

from where they are

from a large community

^ndthe Economy

Politics, Relicion, of expatriates,

or

foreigners

managing expertise as

living

well as extra

who

overseas,

money

bring

eign

its

port

made

Lately Djibouti has brought in for-

facilities.

managers from Dubai

their

to the country. Indeed,

particularly in the years since the Afar Uprising. Djibouti has

excellent use of

65

in the

United Arab Emirates

increase the efficiency of operations. Today the port

major transshipment hub of the Red Sea. and

it

is

will

to further

considered a

mostly

likely

remain Djibouti’s most valuable asset.

But the

fact of the

matter

that despite

is

Djibouti cannot reliably sustain

plus a large

on foreign

number

aid.

of refugees

and thus

is

its

strategic location.

an economy of 470.000 people

— on

own. Djibouti

its

pressured

implement the economic

to

reforms that large donor countries and organizations

Bank have

petitioned

for.

like the

World

Although the country has always had a

The Economy Gross domestic product (GDP*): $586 GDP per capita: $1,400 Inflation:

relies greatly

of Djibouti million

2%

Natural resources: geothermal areas Agriculture (3% of GDP): fruits, vegetables,

goats, sheep, camels

Industry (10% of GDP):construction, agricultural processing Services (87% of GDP): government, other

Foreign trade: Imports $440

— Exports — $260

million: foods, beverages,

transport equipment, chemicals,

petroleum products (1999) million: reexports, hides

and

skins, coffee (in transit)

(1999)

Currency exchange rate:U.S. *GDP, or gross domestic product,

$1 is

= 175 Djiboutian francs (2003)

the total value of goods and services produced All figures

Sources:

in a

country annually.

are 2001 estimates unless otherwise noted.

World Bank; CIA World Factbook, 2002; Bloomberg.com.

64

Djibouti

—

economy with people free to start and operate businesses without undue interference from the government its economic policies have only recently focused on getting the most out of its meager resources. The most serious economic crisis of recent years occurred in fairly liberal

—

1996. After years of employing quick-fix solutions to economic

problems, the government in Djibouti town finally announced the

be cut. and with

inevitable: the

budget would have

and payments

to ordinary Djiboutians.

to

it.

services

The extremely unpopular

was greeted with a general strike and protests in the streets. Later that same year, however, the government collaborated with France, the biggest aid contributor to Djibouti, and with international lending authorities at the World Bank and the IMF decision

(International

Monetary Fund)

to find

longer-term solutions to their

financial woes.

As a result

and

of these meetings. Djibouti

credits from France

able to obtain loans

and the two lending organizations under

the condition that the government

among them

was

was

to

make

various reforms,

de-centralizing the economy, taking whatever steps

possible to improve livestock

and agriculture production, and turn-

ing the countix^ into a free-trade zone to attract foreign investment.

The government

also initiated a plan to privatize

sendees and turn them over

would be able

to

to investors

run them more

many

who — experts hoped

efficiently

and

strategy has already been implemented at the port, its

handling capacity,

investors

at

a

profit.

This

which increased

though not as dramatically as foreign

had hoped.

The future ity of

state-owned

of Djibouti's

economy, as always, rests on the

the Persian Gulf region. Periods of peace in the Gulf

stabil-

and the

resolutions of the region's conflicts have helped preseiwe Djibouti

as a center of free trade, banking, and ser\dces. However, following the September 2001 teiTorist attacks on American

soil.

Djibouti has

Politics, Relicion,

found

itself in

a different situation. The countiy's participation in

U.S.-led military

most

likely

and the Economy

help

campaigns against

terrorists

and

their allies will

economy. As part of its commitment

its

to the inter-

national “war on terrorism,” Djibouti has agreed to the stationing of U.S.

armed

American dollars U.S.

The Djibouti government hopes that spent by the American soldiers, as well as by the

forces

government

on

to

its soil.

house and feed them,

Djibouti’s foreign earnings.

will give

an extra boost

to

6f

A

group of Djiboutian

fertility rate

is

women

very high

in

feed babies at a city hospital. The

Djibouti; with an expanding youth

population, child heath care, education, and the

economy remain

central issues.

IV

hat does

it

mean

to

be a Djiboutian? With

tribal loyalty

taking such precedence, the question does not have an

easy answer. Issas

first

Many

citizens consider themselves Afars

and Djiboutians second. The

and

conflicting lifestyles of

people in the cities and rural areas further complicate the idea of a national identity.

There

are, however, a

few elements that identify nearly

Djiboutians. Islam, for example,

Muslims

making

up

96

Djiboutians also have their al practices,

is

extremely popular, with

percent

of

the

population.

own unique pastimes and

cultur-

from their love of henna tattoos and body art

their fondness for

all

chewing the narcotic

leaf

known as

to

qat.

Afars and Issas Besides the estimated 200,000 or so refugees living in the

country at any one time or another, Djibouti’s population

is

68

Djibouti primarily a diverse group of Afars dwellers.

and

Issas,

and

and country

city

Of the population group that does not include the

refugees, estimated at over

470,000

in

2002, approximately 60 per-

cent are considered Issas, or Somali, and 35 percent are considered

members of Afar, or Ethiopian, tribes. The remaining 5 percent is made of various minority groups who have settled in Djibouti over and French people.

the years, including Arabs, Italians,

The population

growing at a rate of 2.6 percent, a rate that

is

would be higher were mortality rate, which

Indeed,

all

it

is

not for the countr\^'s startlingly high infant-

the product of poverty

and poor health

care.

Djiboutians suffer as a result of the country’s poverty;

everything from literacy rates to

life

expectancy are impeded by the

country's chronic lack of funds and resources, despite the efforts of foreign

powers

to lend

a hand.

There have always been tensions between the Afars and the Issas,

although neither group has ever sought to return en masse

to their ethnic

homelands

of Ethiopia

always kept a separate identity

in Djibouti.

many

facing the two groups

is

they

discrimination.

are

vdctims

of

that

and Somalia, as they have

The biggest problem

Afars have long believed that

Despite

attempts at reconciliation, the Afars have

felt

the

government's

their second-class

status so keenly that they have sometimes resorted to open,

armed

rebellion, as in the Afar Uprising of the 1990s.

The

tribal

warfare tradition

Afars and the Issas. (Some Afar

is

deeply entrenched

men

still file

among

the

their teeth into fierce

points as a display of their warrior heritage.) Although the two

groups are thought

to

both descend from

speak languages that are

and

fairly similar,

and

common

ancestors, to

to organize their tribes

families in similar ways, they have participated in a legendary

lend that goes back so far

its

origins are uncertain.

Throughout the

19th centur\^ Western travelers reported on the fierce fighting

between the two groups, descriptions of which make the Afar

The People

This

map shows

lives in

the distribution of people

the capital

city,

Djibouti.

in

69

Djibouti. Two-thirds of the population

JO

Djibouti Two

Afar fighters display their swords.

Comprising roughly one-third of Djibouti’s population, the Afars have

ancestral ties to Ethiopia. Their rivalry

with the Issas

is

centuries old; the Afar

Uprising, which began tribe relations for

in

much

1991,

damaged

of the 1990s.

Uprising of the early 1990s look calm by comparison. During a battle

between the two

have been

killed in

tribes in 1935.

300 people were reported

to

one assault.

The Afars are a nomadic people who are thought

to

have come

dowai from the highlands of southeast Ethiopia centuries ago, bringing uith

them

their

unique nomadic

lifestyle. In

tend to stay within their owti subtribe, w^hich along male family

lines.

is

general, Afars

organized closely

Within the Afars are two main classes of

people, the Asaimara. or "Red Men." w^ho constitute the tribe’s

and the Adoimara. or "WTiite Men." w^ho make up the peasant class and do not owm property. In general. Afar nomads tend to nobilit\\

keep

to

themselves and their group: even marriages are

controlled within the lines of class

and

tribe.

strictly

The main occupations

The People of the Afars

ji

— herding goats and eamels and mining salt— suit their

solitary lifestyle.

The Issas also lead a pastoral different fashion. loyalty rests

rer, a significantly larger

The

elders

tribe,

and

group than the sub-

rer is a large congregation of families all

claiming descent from the

a larger

but organize themselves in a

For the Issas and other Somalis in Djibouti,

on the

tribe of the Afars.

life,

same male

ancestor.

Each

rer is part of

with a leadership structure based on councils of male

advisors.

Despite the differences between the Afars and Issas, they both

have a few fundamental things in common. Along with adhering the precepts of Islam, the Afars

and Issas

to

believe strongly in the

traditions of genealogy, or family ties. Class distinctions, practiced

An

aerial

causeway

view of Djibouti and is

its

port.The large white building

at the

near end of the

the president’s residence; before independence, the building belonged to

the French governor.

jz

Djibouti in

both

tribes, prohibit virtually

other words, a

move out

of

it

member

any kind of upward ^

of a lower class has very

mobility. In

little

chance

to

through marriage alliances or by other means.

A

Djiboutian student

finishes a class project.

Many

Djiboutian

girls

are taken out of school early in their childhood

to take care of domestic duties. Child labor has

long been prevalent

in

the country, cutting

short the education of

both boys and

girls.

The People Both

mon

town and

in

for Afars

Generally,

move

will

in the

and Issas

remote parts of the rountry,

with their extended families.

when a woman marries

(nsually in her late teens), she

honse

into the

will

com-

live

to

husband, which often holds his

of her

entire extended family. Students

study

is

it

most often stay with

who have moved

relatives rather

men and women

own. Similarly, nnmarried

to the city to

than

live

on

their

generally don't live by

themselves, but remain living with their extended families.

Education

More than 40 percent of the entire country’s population is under age 14. Because the numbers of the country's youth are always expanding, education

is

as

vital

government acknowledges that

an issue as ever

its

citizens

for Djibouti. Its

must be

trained to be

productive and also that, once they are trained, they enter a peaceful

and

stable environment in

Like

many

show

their talents

can be put

to use.

other institutions in the country, the Djiboutian edu-

cational system tistics

which

is

based on the French colonial model. But the

sta-

that the French educators of the colonial administration

did not leave behind a great legacy. At the time of independence in

1977, there were very few high school graduates amongst the native

population and only three Djiboutians with university degrees. The

new for

president,

who would

take over that year and run the country

two decades, only had a sixth-grade education! Today, just 39

percent of Djibouti’s school-age population attends primary school,

and only 14 percent Djibouti

is

doing

is

its

enrolled in secondary school.

best to rectify this situation, and strives to

ensure that every child receives

at least

an adequate education. The

educational system in Djibouti aims to give

all

children from about

the age of six to the age of eleven a primary school education. there, students go at

which

j)oint

on

they

to a

From

lycee, or secondary school, until age 15.

may have

the option of continuing on with their

73

Djibouti

74

studies. Students ehoose to go to a university or get a vocational,

or trade, education, which better

is

considered less prestigious but offers

employment prospects. Those who opt

for

a more compre-

hensive education have few options, however, as Djibouti has no university of

own. Students have

its

secondary schooling, often Djibouti signed

to

to go overseas for their post-

whom

France or Morocco, with

an educational exchange agreement

in 2000.

Unfortunately,

many

factors

conspire to keep Djibouti from

achieving

The People

of Djibouti

Population: 472,810 Ethnic groups: Somali 60%,Afar 35%, French, Arab, Ethiopian, and

Language: French cial),

(official),

6%

Arabic

(offi-

aspires. Child labor

has

long

been prevalent

the

in

before they have completed the

basic requirements in school.

Somali, Afar

Discrimination against females

structure:

0-14 years; 42.6% 5-64 years: 54.5%

is

65 years and over: 2.9%

job

Population growth rate: 2.59% Birth rate: 40.33 births/

also a major problem,

young

1

1,

000 population live

births

and women in the market. Because a girls

Djiboutian

girl

less of

employment as an

to find paid

birth:

total population: 5

1

.6

years

educated and more face a

females: 53.52 years

her family's

Total fertility rate: 5.64 children

tually.

life

the

born/woman (

1

995

est.)

are 2002 estimates unless otherwise indicated.

Source: Adapted from

CIA World Factbook, 2002.

likely

to

of domestic duty in

males: 49.73 years

All figures

has even

adult, she is less likely to be

expectancy at

Literacy: 46.2%

for

a chance than a Djiboutian boy

rate: 14.43/1,000 population

Infant mortality rate: 99.7/1,000

Life

ment

country, forcing kids to work

Religions: Muslim 94%, Christian

Death

excellence to which the govern-

Italian

5%

Age

educational

the

home — and evenhome of her hus-

band's family. The

final factor

working against Djibouti's educational system lifestyle

of

is

the nomadic

many

citizens.

The People which make

it

virtually impossible for

many

75*

ehildren ever to see

the inside of a elassroom.

Qat

Commonly used Arabian Peninsula,

aeross qat, or

eastern Afriea and

Catha

Yemen on whose

edidis, is a plant

the

leaves,

Ethiopian smugglers carry sacks of qat leaves, a popular stimulant, to the Djibouti

border. Eight tons of qat arrives daily to Djibouti by plane, and a

afternoon and evening

is

devoted to chewing the

dens. The government, concerned about tried to

make the drug

illegal in

1977.

how

qat

leaf at

home

hampers

in

good portion of the mabrazes, or qat

productivity, unsuccessfully

~

J6

Djibouti

Djiboutian

women

in

traditional

costume perform

a tribal dance. The age-old

dances of

Arab and African influences. Many dances celebrate special events of passage; war dances prepare tribesmen for an upcoming battle.

Djibouti exhibit both

and

rites

when chewed, produce

a mildly stimulating

effect.

plant of South America, from which cocaine

the effect of qai on the user lar in

is

a

national

is like

extracted,

the coca

though

less potent. Qat-chewing, also

Somalia. Ethiopia, and Yemen,

considered

is

It

addiction

is

and

is

so

common

estimated,

popu-

that

it

is

by some

accounts, to be responsible for at least a whopping 40 percent of the average household's budget expenses. Eight tons of qai are

down

in ever\^

day from Ethiopia: when

it

arrives to Djibouti town,

The People almost always at 1:20 to

Many

a halt.

where they chewing

of the city’s activities

come

Djiboutis will then retire to their mabraz, or qat den,

will sit

around

smoking

qat,

f.m., virtually all

Although this

for as long

like

five

and drinking

cigarettes,

may seem

as

hours

at

a stretch,

tea.

a charming custom to some, and

qat generates government revenue as a taxed import, the widesread

use of the drug hampers the country’s economic productivity and social unity. Not only

does this leisure activity consume

much

of

the small income of the average Djiboutian, the consumption of qat also causes constant domestic strife, largely because of the

toll it

takes on family budgets. In addition, untold working hours and productivity are that the drug

chewed away

may worsen

them from improving their respective

Some

in the habit.

ethnic tensions

people even argue

— or at the very least keep

— since members of a tribe chew exclusively at

mabrazes and nowhere

believe, further isolates the Afars

understanding between the two

and

else.

The

practice,

some

Issas, sustaining the lack of

tribes.

The government has attempted on more than one occasion

to

address the qat problem; most notably, the Aptidon regime tried

to

ban the drug outright

in 1977.

But as the United States learned

when

was made keep a populace from getting what

during the years between 1920 and 1933, illegal, it is

so

much

nearly impossible to

of

it

enjoys and wants. Aptidon’s attempt to outlaw qat

met with almost immediate

massive protests broke out in

failure:

absolutely every quarter of society. up,

A

and the government was forced

bition.

Ironically, the protests

members

alcohol

qat black market also

to give

managed

of rival ethnic tribes to fight a

up

its

spmng

agenda of prohi-

to briefly bring together

common

cause.

Arts and Culture Despite

its

poverty and other problems. Djibouti has developed a

sophistic'ated culture that is particularly evident in its handicrafts.

77

ys

Djibouti

One

practical craft that is

unique

to Djibouti is the

wea\1ng of

fid-

dimas, or Afar mats. These mats, which women design and weave out of palm-tree leaves, serve a variety of purposes. People use them as prayer rugs, sleeping mattress, or even wTaps for the deceased.

handwoven Persian carpets, a popular commodity societies, Afar mats have many different patterns, each

Similar to Islamic

which has a special

significance.

those that signify good luck,

Among

fertility,

craft inspires a lot of

of

the various designs are

and the mat-maker's place

origin. Djiboutians take pride in their

of

of

mats, and the mat-making

good-natured competition among weavers,

all

make the most beautiful and elaborate /iddima. The best mats often make for valuable gifts. Some families demand at least striving to

50 mats

for just

Henna

women

is

one bridal dowiy.

a popular form of body

makeup

in Djibouti.

The

henna plant leaves and crush them to extract a brown dye. To darken the dye, they mix in lemon juice or kohl, a traditional kind of eye makeup. Women most commonly draw the elaborate henna designs on their hands or feet. pick

The music and dance lions

Fashion generally follows Islamic

custom

in Djibouti.

Women

cover themselves with long skirts or dresses, over which they wear a shammOy a see-through, brightly colored piece of fabric.

A traditional

men

garment

the foutahy a thin strip of cloth that is worn as a long skirt.

for

is

the

of

Afars

tradi-

and Issas

show both African and Ai'ab inlfuences. Djibouti is known for its traditional tribal

accompanied

by

rhythmic

drumming, that mark events

and

dances,

special

of passage.

rites

Dances include the barimo, formed

women

at

per-

weddings by men and pairs:

in

rain dance:

the hinvo, a

and the bani horra

and the wiwileh, war dances designed

to

gear

up

those

The People preparing for an upcoming battle.

number manage to

Besides these traditional dances, Djibouti also boasts a

modern musicians. Some of the most popular artists combine modern soul and jazz styles with traditional Djiboutian rhythms, and regularly perform concerts across Europe.

of

79

A

young

woman

classroom.

In

trains

on

a

sewing machine

in

a Djibouti City

addition to maintaining the primary industries of

shipping and fishing, city leaders focus on textiles and other

developing industries.

jibouti’s

harsh climate has not entirely eliminated the

nomadie

lifestyle of

J

many eity.

fighting drought

the trihespeople, hut

and starvation

to

it

has persuaded

move

to the eapital

Two-thirds of the eountry’s population, whieh the

Central Intelligenee Ageney (CIA) estimated at 472,810 in

2002,

lives in Djibouti

town. These numbers

make

Djibouti

the most highly urbanized eountry on the continent of Afriea.

Poverty to

is

widespread among

adapt their

eity dwellers,

tribal lifestyle to

modern

There are four major towns that Djibouti

in

population;

Oboek,

eity

fall

Dikhil,

as

many

struggle

life.

behind the port of Ali

Sabieh,

and

Tadjoura. Dikhil, loeated in the desert along the border with

had an estimated 87,900 people in 2003, making it Djibouti’s seeond-largest eity. Oboek and Tadjoura, loeated Ethiopia,

on the Gulf of Tadjoura, reeeive many

visitors to the

country

with their natural attraetions and old Arabian arehiteeture.

81

Djibouti

Port of Djibouti Since

it

became the

capital city of

French Somaliland

among many

Djibouti town has been the object of criticism

on

ers stopping there

their

Lamb

David

city just after the

somewhere

to

else,

foreign-

as well as those

years at a colonial posting. American jour-

living there for several

nalist

way

in 1892,

described his mLxed impression of the capital

country gained

its

independance. In his account,

town

Djibouti

had only two

factories,

one

for bottling

Coca-Cola, the other for bottling

and almost everydhing except a few home-grown tomatoes was

Pepsi,

imported: table salt from Holland, vegetables and eggs from Ethiopia,

meat from Kenya, drinking water from France. Djibouti

.

.

.

was a wonderfully seedy

.

plaee.

.

.

.

.

.

There was a

dingy^

square. Place Menelik, suiTounded by cafes and bars nestled under

urine-drenched arches. French soldiers and Chilians sat at the tables there, shirts

unbuttoned

heat, swilling

to the waist,

sweating in the 100-degree evening

lukewarm beer and ehasing away the swarming beggars

with a wave of a hand. At night the foreigners retreated behind louvered shutters in shabby villas on streets like the

Avenue Pasteur. The Africans

made

of packing crates.

.

.

lived

Rue de Beauchamps and

on the other side of toum,

in

shacks

.

was reminiscent of Saigon circa 1950. The elegance was gone, but a faded charm lingered. EverAdhing needed painting and sweeping. The sun beat dowm like a hammer, and evenmne moved The atmosphere

slowly,

of Djibouti

concerned with

little

exeept the arrival of siesta time, which

stretched from eleven-thirty to four.

Beyond the echoes

of its colonial past. Djibouti does not

the prominence and rich history" of most capital

cities. It is

to ignore the fact that the city's original inception over

have

hard

a century

ago was for the convenience of the ruling colonial power. There very" little in

the

way

of former imperial grandeur,

is

such as the

once-grand palaces of other colonial capitals that have since been converted to

museums.

Djibouti towm

is laid

out in a series of

^

Communities

Leopard skins are displayed ed

in

the country

—

in

zones, or quarters, district:

market stand

2003, the capital

and businesses generally

ness

at a

rely

city

Djibouti City, Djibouti. Industry

only had

on imports for

among them

in

two main

factories. City

the Place Menelik, the city's busi-

du Serpent, the wealthy district domiresidents: and the Place Rimbaud, home to

a majority of the natives. Also, unlike

many

town's tirehiteeture rials,

cut

coral

is

capitals of the old

French empire, Djibouti

more Arab than French. The building mate-

blocks and cement also

made from

coral,

are

completely indigenous to the region. Most buildings are square, two-story affairs, often with terraces running the entire perimeter of the structures.

To keep the buildings and houses

town naturally cool built thick walls

in

the sweltering

summer

and have whitewashed them

limit-

merchants

their sources of revenue.

the Plateau

nated by rich foreign

is

of Djibouti

heat, people have

to better relleet the

84

Djibouti sun’s hot rays. Perforated

window

screens,

many

with intricate

designs, help to keep the air circulating in the home.

Shipping and fishing are the

Because many of the fair

amount

city’s Issas

city’s

activities.

are dev^out Muslims, they enjoy a

of success as traders

merchants from across the Bab

main economic

and intermediaries with the Arab

el

Mandeb. Those able

away

to get

from their shipping and fishing duties can enjoy Djibouti town’s beaches, which most agree are the

The surrounding water marine

A

life

'~-2;

in

Obock

proclaims

of the

most

spots.

startlingly beautiful

Comte (Count) Leonce

Lagarde as the

The French first settled French Somaliland at Obock in moved the capital to the port of Djibouti, which better access to the Bab el Mandeb Strait. Djibouti.’’

thirty years later, they

offered

some

most picturesque

on the planet.

faded plaque

“founder of i

offers

city’s

Communities Other Cities and Towns Although Djibouti town

is

the country's biggest attraction and

holds the largest segment of the population, other communities

have their merits. Obock, the

French

presents

territory,

Djiboutian

six years after

a

administrative capital of the

glimpse of modern

fascinating

Located across the Gulf of Tadjoura from

history.

Djibouti town,

first

still

Obock became a bustling town of 2,000 people just the French bought what we now call Djibouti from

the local sultans.

Today Obock still

is

home

a

is

shadow

of

its

former

self,

though the town

is

a great deal of historic architecture, which some say

to

more impressive than the architecture

a limited way, Obock

is

opening

itself

up

of Djibouti town. And, in to the tourist trade

jumping-off point for scuba diving tours. Divers come from the world to see the spectacular marine

of the

life

as the

all

over

Red Sea coral

reefs.

named

Directly across the Tadjoura Gulf lies a settlement

the gulf. Tadjoura of

which

Djibouti.

of Afars

is

that

is it

striking for a variety of reasons, not the least

has traditionally been an Arabian center

The Arabian sultans who

and Issas

to the

sold

French had their headquarters there.

African coast, and there are references to

it

in

back as the 12th century. Today the town

munity, and

it

in

what was then the Territory

also one of the oldest surviving towns or trading posts

far

after

It is

on the East

Arabian literature as

is largely

an Afar com-

manufactures the beautiful, long daggers called

poignards that are carried by

all

Afar tribesmen. Nonetheless, the

town’s architecture reOects the country's Arabian heritage, perhaps

more than any place

else in Djibouti.

Lying approximately 75 miles (120 km) southwest of Djibouti

which

City

is

'I'he

F'rench set

Dikhil,

is

an important town

for

a

up an administrative post here

number in 1928,

of reasons.

and today

st

s6

Djibouti An

Ethiopian

man

washes

a

refugee

camp outside Most of the

young

child in a

Djibouti City.

country’s refugees

come

from Ethiopia and Somalia, and the camps are administered by international agencies such as the

United Nations,

which runs

it

remains a regional

capital. Also,

ket center for the local

on a still

nomadic

it

this

one.

has been a meeting and mar-

tribes

throughout histor\\ Perched

and surrounded by an ancient palm grove, it is a thri\ing population center. In 2003. some 35,000 people rock\" ledge

lived in Dikhil. despite the greater

Djibouti towm offers.

emplo}Tnent opportunities that

Communities Refugee Camps Typically, refugee

Djibouti

is

camps

an exception;

200,000 refugees

in

the

are not major population centers, but

at times there

country,

have been as

mostly from

many

Ethiopia

as

and

Somalia. Generally located in remote areas far from Djibouti town, the refugee zones often place imity.

members

of rival tribes in close prox-

Not surprisingly, these zones are where most of Djibouti’s

regional conflicts have developed.

The camps are administered by a

variety of international bodies

and non-governmental organizations, including the United Nations. Predictably, refugees living in these

camps

are completely depend-

ent on foreign and external sources of food and water since they are in the

middle of the Djiboutian desert, where raising animals or

farming

is

not an option. For the most part, Djibouti has done

best to keep the refugee population from beeoming a permanent

its fix-

ture in their country: the government has successfully repatriated, or sent

home

to a

refugees since the

more first

stable situation,

hundreds

of

thousands of

group of refugees sought asylum

in 1988.

57

Hundreds of Djiboutians march through the capital city’s streets in 1939, protesting Italy’s territorial demands on what was then French Somaliland. Throughout its history as an independant republic, Djibouti has had improved relations with Western countries, especially with the United States and France.

^^^'ibouti

is

a small country living in one of the world’s

roughest neighborhoods. of time

and

If it

did not devote a great deal

toward foreign

energy"

the tiny eountry

affairs,

could very well get sucked into the turbulence around

— and

Surrounded by

ethnically linked

have been broken up by

eivil

wars

those have seen internal disputes (Somalia), Djibouti

has

still

(Eritrea

spill

managed

of international eonflict with

to

— eountries

it.

that

and Ethiopia) and

over their

own borders

to navigate the

modest suecess, finding

waters assis-

tanee from the United Nations and regional agencies devoted to

establishing

adroitly

handled

and maintaining peace. Djibouti has its

also

diplomatie relations with the West, and

has avoided demonstrating the anti-American and anti-

European attitude that has caused many

become

isolated.

of its neighbors to

90

Djibouti Relations with the West achieving independ-

Since

Since Djibouti

became an

ence in

independent nation, the French have set up “listening

sought

has

to

maintain good

rela-

tions with the Western powers,

posts/’ highly classified

including the United States and

intelligence operations that

many

Djibouti

1977,

France,

believe allow Paris to

the

country’s

approach

colonial overlord. Its

on radio and telephone communications throughout the Middle East. listen in

has been somewhat of a surprise, given that after gaining

many

for-

and economic

ties

their independence,

mer

former

colonies have striven to cut off diplomatic

with their mother countries to prove that they can

make

their

own

way. Perhaps the leaders of Djibouti acknowledged that with the country’s trying financial circumstances, taking an independent

path would involve taking some major economic risks. For years, the government had welcomed a garrison of French troops numbering around 4,000, which eventually declined to 2,600. Their presence has been a major help in fending off the

advances of ambitious neighbors. Describing the small country’s situation after gaining

its

independence, a French naval

a British photojournalist: "Djibouti lions are waiting to

pounce

on.

is

officer told

as helpless as a goat that two

We guard

the goat."

Of course, the French do not just guard Djibouti

for the

sheer

pleasure of protecting a former colony. Their stake in Djibouti allows

them

to control,

should they ever need or want

to,

the strate-

Bab el Mandeb, which connects the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. The French militar\^ also operates several permanent

gically critical

bases in Djibouti. Since the United States and Djibouti established diplomatic in 1977. Djibouti

has continually

relied

ties

on American aid through

Foreign Relations the

US Agency

for International

Development (USAID).

In 2000, the

United States provided approximately $7 million in aid to Djibouti for

various pro^^rams. Djibouti

is

one of few Muslim countries that

have a strong relationship with the United States, and has a long history of supporting U.S. policy in the Middle East. During the

was highly supportive of the American army from Kuwait, which it had recently

Persian Gulf War, Djibouti effort to

oust the Iraqi

invaded.

It

offered itself as a base for

with the alliance against to

regroup

for the

Saddam

French troops, who fought

Hussein.

It

also

became a

place

armies from several coalition countries, includ-

ing the United States. Djibouti has continued to support the United States in the 21st

President Ismael

announced

in

Omar

Guelleh

December 2002

that Djibouti would remain committed to helping Western coalition forces

terrorism.”

The

in

the “war on

U.S.

and French

militaries have bases in Djibouti,

from which

intelligence has

been

gathered about possible terrorist

Horn

activity in the

Djibouti’s

of Africa.

government hopes to

receive international aid

exchange for

its

with the West.

in

cooperation

91

92

Djibouti century. After the terrorist attaeks of September

ernment expressed again.

Djibouti

its

deep regret and sympathy

1.

2001, the gov-

to the U.S.

came through by providing assistance

Western forees searching attaeks. Since

1

for the

Once

to

the

al-Qaeda masterminds behind the

August 2002, the country has allowed 800 American

soldiers to be stationed at Djibouti town's Le Monier barraeks,

and

another contingent set up operations at Obock aeross the Gulf of Tadjoura. Djibouti.

Germany

also

had more than 1,200

The U.S. and German

militaries

soldiers stationed in

used Djibouti as a base

down al-Qaeda members, who have have training camps in the Horn of Afriea as well

of operations to try to traek

been reported

to

as in regions of the Middle East. The United States believed that those fleeing Afghanistan, where their U.S. forees in late 2001, were possibly

eamps were bombarded by headed to the Horn of Afriea

Some even suspected

that the al-Qaeda leader,

to find

refuge.

Osama

bin Laden, might use this region as an escape route. In

March 2003, a second war

in Iraq

broke out and Ameriean forees

stationed in Djibouti were deployed to the Persian Gulf.

The people of

of Djibouti

American troops on

more U.S.

soldiers

reporters. "For us.

were generally positive about the presenee

their soil.

eoming

it's

to

Wlien asked about the prospeet of towm. one local Djiboutian told

good because we can make conversation with

them and maybe have some jobs when more to

of jobs, however,

and trained on

offer

like

a limited

which meant many Djiboutians looking

work were disappointed.

tioned to

them come. We

have Americans here." The U.S. bases only could

number for

of

In return for allowing troops to be sta-

its soil,

reopen the Djibouti towm

the United States

office of the

made

Agency

initial

plans

for International

Development, wdiich in the mid-1990s had been shut down due

to

a lack of funding.

Despite its

its

friendly gestures towmrd

Western nations, ineluding

eooperation with the United States in the ‘war on terrorism,"

9^

Djibouti has always refused to recognize Israel as an official country.

Like

its

Arab neighbors across the Bab

Djibouti has never

had

el

Mandeb

strait,

relations with the Jewish state, asserting

that Israel occupies land rightfidly belonging to the

Arabs of the

region.

African Neighbors of the Horn Djibouti’s relations with neighboring countries

a tricky

A

affair.

Since achieving independence, Djibouti has sought

peaceful street message greets pedestrians

the

Horn

a

in

Arta, Djibouti,

where

leaders of

2000 to reconcile warring factions in Somalia provisional government. Djibouti has remained involved in

of Africa assembled

and establish

have always been

in

healing war-torn Somalia through organizations like the Intergovernmental

Authority for Development (IGAD) located

in

Djibouti.

in

Eastern Africa,

whose headquarters

is

94

Djibouti to

remain neutral even as

its

neighbors have waged war for

decades, but the government has been hard-pressed to reconcile rival

peoples while preser\dng

neutral role. During the 1980s,

its

what further complicated the issue the Cold

War on

was the influence of The Cold War was a shifting

for Djibouti

the region’s disputes.

power struggle between the Western powers, States,

and the Communist

Each power was seeking

for

bloc, led

ways

to

led

by the United

by the former So\det Union.

edge the other’s influence out

of regions across the globe, including the

Horn

of Africa.

’

*1

;

Ethiopian soldiers march toward Tigray, just south of the Eritrean border, during the

border war between the two countries (1998-2000). Djibouti managed to take some of Eritrea’s trade during the conflict, though the country also suffered another

war

refugees.

wave of

Foreign Relations

become

Neutrality has

less feasible as Djibouti struggles to live

dangerous environment of the Horn of

in the

Africa. Nonetheless,

since 1986 Djibouti has worked actively to decrease tension in the

and promote

region

working with the East African organ-

stability,

IGAD (Intergovernmental Authority on Development)

ization

bring warring parties together. Through

has earned from of the storm”

its

and

mediating

gatehouse on the Red Sea.”

1977-78 was the

of

first

major

diplomatic capabilities. Shortly after the country state,

this

role, Djibouti

African neighbors such nicknames as “the eye

“a neutral

The Ogaden War

its

to

war broke out between

its

test of Djibouti’s

became an

official

neighbors Ethiopia and

Somalia. The conflict had been brewing for ages; the Ogaden region of southeastern Ethiopia, near the

an Islamic stronghold which

is

(in

Somalian border, has long been

contrast with the rest of the countiy,

predominantly Christian). Eventually, fighting broke out

as a Somali guerrilla group, supported by the aid and quiet approval of the Somali government, began a series of cross-border raids into Ethiopia.

And suddenly,

the Ethiopians found themselves

on the losing end of a war they did not want and the time

— so

it

seemed

at

— could not win.

Ethiopia had

little

chance of keeping the Ogaden

until

it

decid-

ed to appeal to the Soviet Union for help. Although the Soviets had traditionally

able ally

backed Somalia, they saw Ethiopians as a more

and switched

sides.

suit-

With the Soviet's valuable support,

mounted a devastating assault on the Ogaden. The Ethiopian victories produced the large numbers of refugees who soon entered Djibouti. The end of the war came quickly, and by early 1978, with the help of Soviet equipment and Cuban troops, the Ethio})ians had driven the Somalis back to the border. On an entirely separate front. Ethiopia and its allies were able to crush Eritrean nationalists and reclaim land Eritreans had won two the Ethiopians

years

earlier.

9T

^6

Djibouti Djibouti

had great

difficulties

coping with the war so soon after

independence. Waves of refugees streamed into the country,

its

though Djibouti could

afford to take care of them.

ill

Even worse,

during the war the railway from Addis Ababa to Djibouti was temporarily cut

down most

of the

Ogaden War was an unmitigated

disas-

destroying trade and shutting

off,

port’s activity. In short, the

from which Djibouti took years

ter

Many

years

was

that

to

later, in

1998, another war broke out in the region

have profound consequences

A

with neighboring states.

which had won

Eritrea, five

years

for Djibouti's relations

border conflict between Ethiopia and

independence from

its

its

larger neighbor

broke out over territory that the new state con-

earlier,

sidered rightfully least

to recover.

its

70,000 were

own. Over the next two and a half years, at

killed,

tory inhospitable,

land mines rendered huge swaths of

and untold thousands

of people

terri-

were made

refugees, swelling Djibouti's foreign population even further.

However, Djibouti was able

During the

one material benefit of this war.

fighting, Ethiopia lost its

Eritrea's coast,

avenues.

to find

As a

and so had

to

the

result,

access to the Red Sea along

turn exclusively to Djibouti’s trade port

Djibouti

of

and the Addis

Ababa-Djibouti railroad thrived. In 1998 alone, port

traffic tripled,

and the

business and

countix^ started to experience

an upturn

employment prospects. On the dowmside, with Ethiopia had soured Djibouti has done its role

all

its

relations wath both Somalia

and

Eritrea.

possible to repair relations as well reclaim

civil

society in Somalia,

broken doum into a bloody

some semblance

which

in recent years

has

war fought by rampaging warlords. setting up conferences aimed at estab-

civil

Djibouti has been pivotal in

the

Djibouti's close dealings

as peacemaker of the region. The government has called for

a return to a

lishing

in

of order in Somalia. At the first meeting,

Djibouti-sponsored

Arta

Abdulkassim Salat Hassan w'as

Peace v^oted

Conference

in

2000,

the interim president of

Foreign Relations Somalia’s newly formed Transitional National Government. The

Intergovernmental Authority for Development (IGAD) in Eastern Afriea,

made up

of seven

member

states,

has also worked toward

reconciling Somalia’s warring factions. Along with promoting peace

and aims

stability,

the organization, headquartered in Djibouti, also

to find multilateral solutions to the

common

in this part of the world.

resource shortages so

a

CHRONOLOCY

ca. 3,200,000 b.c.: “Lucy,” believed to have lived

one of the oldest known human-like creatures, in

is

the Afar Triangle near Djibouti.

ca. 1,500,000 B.c. : Ancestors of

modern man

settle

around Lac Abbe

in

today’s Djibouti.

4000

B.c. : Settlers

in

Djibouti construct giant basalt millstones and obsidian

tools.

2nd century 1st

century

B.c.

:

B.c.:

The kingdom

The kingdom

of

Aksum

of Aksum

develops

in

modern-day

Ethiopia.

grows to incorporate what today

is

called Djibouti.

4th century 570:

a.d.: Christianity

Muhammad

ca. 700:

Aksum

is

born

in

is

established

in

the kingdom of Aksum.

Mecca on the Arabian

Peninsula.

begins 300-year decline; Islam begins to spread along the

African coast.

975: Muslim warriors advance on kingdom of Aksum, but

fail

to convert the

region of Djibouti.

1542: After nearly three centuries of resisting Islam, Djibouti and other small states of the

Horn

of Africa finally convert.

1862: France purchases Djibouti from is

1

local

Ottoman

sultans;

French Somaliland

born.

869: The Suez Canal

is

opened, vastly increasing the strategic importance of

French Somaliland. I

892: The French move the colonial

1

897:

1

9 7: The Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad

1

957: French Somaliland

Work

capital to Djibouti

begins on the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad.

1

much

town.

is

its

1967: An independence referendum

Djibouti’s

completed.

re-organized as the Territory ofAfars and

greater freedom to run

percent; the Six-Day

is

War

closes

own

fails

Issas,

with

affairs.

by a margin of 60 percent to 40

down Suez

Canal, which

in

turn injures

economy.

1977: After an independence referendum passes, the modern Republic of Djibouti

is

born on June 27; war breaks out between Ethiopia and Somalia

over the Ogaden region.

CHRONOLOOY 1

978 The Ogaden War :

caused by the 1

98

1 :

ends; Djibouti struggles to handle thousands of refugees

fighting.

Opposition parties are banned; incumbent President Aptidon wins a

six-year

term of

1987 Aptidon ;

1991: Fierce

is

office.

once again re-elected to another six-year term of

fighting breaks

office.

out between Afar rebels and the Aptidon

government. 1

994 Peace agreement :

is

signed between Afar rebels and the government;

leaders of the insurgency are allowed positions

1998 War breaks out between ;

in

the

new government.

Ethiopia and Eritrea; 70,000 people are killed

and hundreds of thousands of refugees stream into Djibouti.

1999 Aptidon steps down and :

chief of

staff,

Ismael

Omar

is

replaced

in

an election by

his

nephew and

Guelleh.

2000

:

In

2002

:

President Guelleh negotiates deal with United States to station troops

August, Djibouti hosts the Somali National Peace Conference

fighting the

“war on terrorism”

search of any al-Qaeda

in

members

Djibouti;

in

in

Arta.

August, U.S. troops arrive

that might be hiding

in

the

Horn

in

of

Africa.

2003

:

In

In

January, a coalition led by Guelleh wins Djibouti’s multi-party elections.

March, a second war breaks out

possible deployment to the Persian

2004

:

in

Dj ibouti and Ethiopia integrate their

electric

power

is

Iraq

and U.S. troops

power networks.

cheaper than Djibouti’s oil-based

encourage Djibouti suppliers to invest

2005 : The World Health Organization and vaccinations. Djibouti

is

Djibouti await

in

Ethiopia’s hydro-

electricity,

which

will

Ethiopian business.

the Ministry of Health begin polio

forced by local women’s groups to

low female circumcision.

in

Gulf.

officially disal-

C LOSSARY AfarTriangle

St

— part

of the Great

P.ift

Valley, a

geologic depression

in

Horn

the

of Africa that contains Djibouti as well as Eritrea and part of Ethiopia.

Afars

—the minority

tribal

group

in

Aksum — a

many

are

nomads with

ancestral

huge empire that encompassed Djibouti and much of the Horn of

Africa for centuries before the

fiddimas

—

also

known

out of palm

Great

Djibouti;

to Ethiopian tribes.

ties

coming of

Islam.

as Afar mats; small, colorful mattresses intricately

woven

leaves.

Rift Valley

—

a massive geological split in the continent of Africa running

through the eastern part of the continent from Egypt to South Africa. hajj

—the pilgrimage to Mecca, which every capable male Muslim make

Horn

at least

of Africa

once

required to

is

in his life.

—the geographic reference to the area containing

Djibouti,

Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia.

Issas

—the main Somali

tribal

group

fervent Muslims, they have had

in

Djibouti; traditionally

nomadic and

power over the Afars throughout much

of

Djibouti’s history.

Ka’aba

—the sacred stone

in

Mecca; Muslims face

in its

direction during daily

prayers.

lycee

—

a French-style

secondary school that every Djiboutian

is

supposed to

attend.

—the hometown

Mecca

of the prophet

Muhammad, from which he

eventually

fled persecution.

Med ina — the

city

where

Islam

was founded; next to Mecca, the

holiest city of

Islam.

Monophysite

who obsidian

— meaning “one form” or “one

believe

—

a

polytheistic

in tl;ie

total

and complete

divinity of Jesus Christ.

dark glass formed by the cooling of molten

—

believing

in

more than one

Qur'an — the Muslim holy book;

term applied to those

nature,” the

lava.

god.

dictated by the prophet

Muhammad

in

the

seventh century a.d.

Ramadan

—the month

of the Islamic calendar during which Muslims fast from

sunrise to sunset.

iOC

GLOSSARY —

rer

a large congregation of families; the

—the

Shahada Sharia

—

a

legal

fundamental social unit of the

central prayer and basic statement of belief of

civil legal

all

Issas.

Muslims.

code based on the Qur'an that supplements the Djiboutian

system.

tectonic plates continents

topographical

—

the large geological pieces of the earth’s crust on which the

sit.

—

having a

map

design based on the natural features of the

earth.

—

xeer

traditional tribal law that

is

often used to settle

civil

disputes

in

Djibouti.

FURTHER READING Caputo,

Philip.

Horn of Africa.

Celati, Gianni. Adventures

New York: Vintage

In Africa,

Books, 2002.

trans. Adria Berhardi. Chicago:

Chicago

University Press, 2000.

Connah, Graham.

/Afr/'con Civilizations:

Precolonial Cities

and

States

in

Tropical Africa.

Cambridge, England; Cambridge University Press, 1987. Finlay,

Hugh. A/r/co on a Shoestring. Melbourne: Lonely Planet Publications, 2001.

Grove, A. T. The Changing Geography of Africa. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press,

994.

I

Hamaleinen, Eritrea

Pertti,

and

and Frances Linzee Gordon. Lonely Planet Guide

Djibouti.

to Ethiopia,

Melbourne: Lonely Planet Publications, 1999.

Kaplan, Marion. Focus Africa: A Photojournalist’s Perspective. London: Elm Tree

Books, 1983.

Lamb, David. The

Africans.

New York: Vintage

Toggia, Pietro, Lauderdale, Pat, and

of Africa.

Books, 1987.

Abebe Zegeye,

eds. Crisis

Kent:Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2000.

and

Terror in the

Horn

INTERNET RESOURCES Djibouti has almost

no Internet

about

and very few

this tiny land,

access; so not surprisingly, there are few Internet resources in English.

The

following are the

most

useful sites:

http://www.arab.net/djibouti/index.html This site offers a basic overview of Djibouti, as well as general information

about the Arab world.

http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/dj.html

An

up-to-date fact sheet on Djibouti provided by the CIA. Includes

map

of the

country.

http://allafrica.com/djibouti/

A

useful resource for information

to

more

on current events

in

Djibouti. Includes links

general sites covering eastern Africa and the rest of the continent.

http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/africa/djibouti/

An

informative tourist site published by Lonely Planet Guides. Features write-

ups of Djibouti’s most popular tourist attractions.

Publisher's Note:

The websites

listed

time of publication. The publisher

is

on

this

page were

active at the

not responsible for websites that

have changed

their

of publication.

The publisher reviews and updates the websites each time the book is reprinted.

address or discontinued operation since the date

INDEX 1

977-78 War. See Ogaden War

Djibouti francolin, 27

See also wildlife Adal, 36

Djibouti (Republic of Djibouti)

Addis Ababa-Djibouti

62,96 Addis Ababa

38,

rail line,

43—44,

climate,

43

(Ethiopia), 38,

1

,

68-70

flag,

See o/so Afars (tribe); Issas (tribe) 6, 24,

Dini,

government,

77

5 1-55, 65,

maps, 21,69

,

52-53

69 70 74 8

population, 45, 61,63, 68,

,

,

,

1

85,

,

86,87

See also Afar Uprising

(kingdom), 29, 3 1-33, 34 35-36

24-25, 26-27

wildlife,

,

Djibouti town, 13

See also history Ali

47, 48—49, 64-65,

5,

geographic features, 21, 22-26

See o/so Afar Uprising; Issas (tribe)

Ahmed, Ahmed

1

89-97

67-68, 70-73, 85

63 64

96

53

foreign relations,

44-^6, 49, 52-55, 59,

agriculture, 22,

77,

,

Afar Uprising, 46-47, 52-55, 6

1

9-20, 23 1

,

Afars (tribe),

1

economy, 43—44, 6 -65, education, 72 73-75

Afar Triangle, 14 15,22,30

Aksum

23

area, 22,

45,

/

,

6 37, 38, 39, 45, 69 71 ,

,

,

81-84,92

Sabieh,8l

Aptidon, Hassan Gouled, 42, 44

^

5 46, ,

47 48 ,

49,52,53

,

drought, 46, 6 See also climate

See also government archaeology, 30-3

economy, 43—44, 6 -65, education, 72, 73-75

I

1

See also history architecture, 8

1

,

83-84, 85

Eritrea,

See also arts (and culture)

96

15,48,89, 94,96

Ethiopia,

/

4

,

1

5,

48-49, 62 70 86 87, 89, 94 ,

,

,

and the Ogaden War, 42—44, 95-96

Ardoukoba, 2 area, 22,

77,

23

See o/so

arts (and culture),

76 77-79

Aksum (kingdom)

Ethiopian Church, 32, 33

,

See also architecture

ethnic groups. See Afars (tribe); Issas (tribe)

Ezana (Emperor), 32

Bab

el

Mandeb

Strait,

/

3

,

14, 27,

84 90 ,

fiddimas, 78

Chamber

of Deputies, 5

See also arts (and culture)

See also government Christianity, 3 1-33,

34

,

flag,

36,

95

1

1

5,

47, 89

with Africa, 93-97

See also Islam climate,

53

foreign relations,

with the United States, 49, 64—65, 90-93

9-20, 23

Cold War, 93

Foret de Day, 24

currency, 63

France,

1

5,

37^2,

47, 5

1

,

53, 64, 73, 85-86,

90-91 Dikhil, 81,

85-86

Djibouti City. See Djibouti

Franco-Ethiopian Railroad. See Addis

town

Numbers

Ababa-Djibouti in

bold

italic refer to captions.

rail line

INDEX French Somaliland, Front pour

1

37-39, 82, 84 91

6,

(IGAD), 93, 95,97

,

Restauration de I’Unite et de

la

See also foreign relations

la

Democratie (FRUD), 52, 53-54

9

Iraq, 47, 49,

and 2003 war against, 92

See also Afar Uprising

Frumentius, 32

geographic features, 21 22-26

56-59

See also Christianity

,

20-22, 25, 29-3

3,

I

Germany,

1

Israel,

I

38-39, 92

5,

See also Aptidon, Hassan Gouled Britain, 37,

45

Great

Rift Valley,

14-15, 22, 29

,

1

,

38, 39,

85, 92

Khadija,

Hassan, Abdulkassim

Muhammad

46^7, 52-55,

Afar Uprising,

5,

1

37—42, 5

French Somaliland,

geological,

6,

1

1

See also French Somaliland

Lake Abbe, 30-3

37-39, 82, 84, 89

1

legal

1

3-

Hitler, Adolf,

1

4, 3

1

,

system, 5

47

literacy rate,

37, 38,

1

,

58

See also government

Ottoman Empire, 36-37

I

I

Lake Assal, 20, 2

Lamb, David, 4 —42, 82

I

independence, 4 -H6 Persian Gulf War,

war on

Lagarde, Leonce (Comte), 84

,

,

,

20-22, 25, 29-3

3,

1

1

68-70 34 35-36 85-86

6

(kingdom), 29, 3 1-33,

French control,

40^

1

,

85,

96

74

See also education “Lucy,” 14-15,30

39

holidays, Islamic, 57,

59-6 maps, 21,69

See also Islam

Horn

Osama, 92

See also terrorism,

trade,

,

33-34

bin Laden,

history

Aksum

14 30

96

Salat,

See also Somalia

as

C„

Koran. See Qur'an

30

Ide,

-*54, 59,

See also “Lucy”

49, 54, 91

See also

Hara

1

89

Johanson, Donald

See also geographic features

48 government

44-^6, 48, 5

6,

of Africa,

Mecca, 33-34, 35,57

3

I

Hussein, Saddam, 47, 9

See also

Muhammad

Medina, 35, 57

See also Iraq

Monfried, Henri de, 19

Moussa Ahmed, 54 independence, 4 —46

Moussa

Idriss,

Ocean,

industry,

14, 27, 37,

23

Muhammad, 33-35, 55-56

90

63 81 83 ,

Ali,

See also geographic features

1

Indian

67-68,

See o/so Afar Uprising; Afars (tribe) Italy,

Guelleh, Ismael Omar,

1

71-73

Great

See also

40, 41, 93

Issas (tribe),

government, 5 1-55, 65, 77

Gulf of Tadjoura, 27, 8

59-61

holidays, 57, pillars of,

geology,

35-36, 5/, 67, 78, 84, 95

Islam, 33, 34,

See also Christianity

See also Islam

,

Intergovernmental Authority for Development

ior

Mussolini, Benito, 38,

39

sl2

*

tJ

INDEX Obock, 37,81,84,85,92 Ogaden War, 42^4, 95-96

See also legal system

Six-Day War, 40, 41

Opposition djiboutienne unifee

(ODU), 54

Somalia.

5,

1

49, 50, 86, 87, 89, 93,

Ottoman Empire, 36-37

Soviet Union, 96, 97

Suez Canal, 37, 40—41

See also history

Persian Gulf War, 47, 9

Tadjoura, 8

Place Menelik (Djibouti town), 82, 83

Territory ofAfars and

political parties, 46, 48, 49,

51-53, 54

1

,

85 Issas,

See also government

terrorism,

tourism.

85,86,87

trade,

I

war 7,

1

3-

1

on,

1

5,

49, 64-65,

75-77

4, 3

1

,

37, 38,

United States,

1

5,

volcanoes, 20, 21-22, 25 le

Progres (RPP), 5 1-52

See also political parties

refugees,

1

5,

1

,

49, 62-63, 85,

47, 49, 64—65, 90-93, 94

See also Islam

Sea. 14,

40-^

United Nations, 86, 87, 89

Qur'an, 34. 35,55,56,59, 60, 62,

Red

91-93

27, 85

96

See also refugees

Rassemblement Populaire

16,40,42

See also France

population, 45, 63, 65, 67-68, 69, 70-73, 74, 8

qat. 67,

96-97

and the Ogaden War, 42—44, 95-96

See also political parties

27,37,63,65,87,92

See also geology wildlife,

44, 45, 46, 48, 63, 67-70, 86. 87,

94,95,96 Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), 45

24-25, 26-27

women’s

rights, 58.

74

See also Islam

World War 37 World War 11,38,39 I,

Rorison, Sean, 26 xeer (tribal law), 58

See also legal system

Sharia (Islamic law), 58

106

PICTURE CREDITS 2:

© OTTN

53

© OTTN

3;

Marion Kaplan Photography

56

Erich Lessing/Art Resource,

12:

Wolfgang Kaehler/Corbis

60

Paula Bronstein/Getty Images

14:

Bettmann/Corbis

62

Francoise de Mulder/Corbis

16:

Wolfgang Kaehler/Corbis

66

Marion Kaplan Photography

PhotoSphere

69

© OTTN

20:

Marion Kaplan Photography

70

Chris Rainier/Corbis

21:

© OTTN

71

Marion Kaplan Photography

24:

Marion Kaplan Photography

72

Marion Kaplan Photography

28:

Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis

75

Francoise de Mulder/Corbis

33:

Ted Spiegel/Corbis

76

Marion Kaplan Photography

34:

Bettmann/Corbis

80

Marion Kaplan Photography

39:

U.S.

83

Wolfgang Kaehler/Corbis

1

8:

Publishing

Publishing

Department of Defense

Publishing

NY

Publishing

40:

Hulton/Archive/Getty Images

84

Marion Kaplan Photography

43:

Tyler Hicks/Liaison/Getty Images

86

Francoise de Mulder/Corbis

44:

Alain Nogues/Corbis

88

Bettmann/Corbis

47:

INA/Getty Images

91

Reuters

48:

Alex Wong/Getty Images

93

Tyler Hicks/Liaison/Getty Images

50:

Hulton/Archive/Getty Images

94

Greg Marinovich/Getty Images

52:

AFP/Corbis

Cover photos:

Sygma

(front) Top:

Kaplan Photography

NewMedia

Inc./Corbis

Wolfgang Kaehler/Corbis, Bottom: AFP/Corbis; (back) Marion

CONTRIBUTORS The Foreign Policy Research Institute (FPRI) sensed as editorial consultants lor the Modern Middle East Nations series. F^PRl is one of the nation's oldest "think tanks.” The Institute’s Middle East Program focuses on Gulf security, monitors the Arab-lsraeli peace process, and sponsors an annual conference for teachers on the Middle East, plus periodic briefings on key developments in the region.

Among the FPRI's trustees is a former Secretaire of State and a former Secretary of the Navy (and among the FPRI's former trustees and interns, two current Undersecretaries of Defense), not to mention two university presidents emeritus, a foundation president, and several active or retired corporate CEOs. The scholars of FPRI include a former aide to three U.S. Secretaries of State, a Pulitzer Prize-winning historian, a former president of Swarthmore College and a Bancroft Prize-winning historian, and two former staff members of the National Security Council. And the FPRI counts among its extended network of scholars especially its Inter-University Study Groups representatives of diverse disciplines, including political science. histoiyL economics, law. management, religion, sociology, and psychology.

—

—

president and director of the Foreign Policy Research He has extensive experienee in wTiting. research, and analysis of U.S. foreign and national security policy, both in government and out. He serried as Special Assistant to Secretaiy' of State Alexander M. Haig Jr. and as a member of the Policy Planning Staff of Secretary of State James A. Baker III. Dr. Sicherman was also a consultant to Secretarv' of the Navy John F. Lehman Jr. (1982-1987) and Secretary^ of State George Shultz (1988). A graduate of the University of Scranton (B.S., Histor\T 1966), Dr. Sicherman earned his Ph.D. at the University of Pennsylvania (Political Science. 1971), where he received a Salvatori Fellowship. He is author or editor of numerous books and articles, including America the Vulnerable: Our Military Problems and How to Fix Them (FPRI. 2002) and Palestinian Autonomy. Self-Government and Peace (Weshiew Press. 1993). He edits Peacefacts. an FPRI bulletin that monitors the Arab-lsraeli peace process.

Dr. Harvey Sicherman

is

Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

From his first trips to Eg\pt and Kenya as a high school student. James Morrow has been fascinated by the Middle East and Africa. In the years since, he has had numerous opportunities to study and wTite about the region, first as a student at Georgetown University’s School of Foreign Ser\Tce and later as a journalist for a wide range of publications, including U.S. News & World Report. National Review, and The Australian newspaper. He currently dhides his time between Sydney. Australia, and New York City. wTth his wife Claire (without her research assistance this book w’ould not have been possible), and their son Nicholas.

10S i

*

Hi

1

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY

A

o 9999 3 9; 05109 502 2

VVI Nolc* Bof’

hU

WVN

.

“ .

•

Jbrary. the Ubrery* '

Sale of

cljiboutimodernmiOOjaine .IjiboutimodernmiOOjame

djibOutiPiodDrnmiOCjjmo

E

Editorial Consultant:

The Foreign

Policy

Research Institute Founded

in 1955,

the Foreign

Policy Research Institute (FPRI),

one of the

nation's oldest

promotes and civic literacy the classroom by "teaching

"think tanks," international in

DJIBOUTI On the eastern

coast of Africa, tucked between Somalia and

Ethiopia, lies the Republic of Djibouti. Its capital city of the

same name

a primary port of the Horn of Africa, which through the Bab el Mandeb Strait, located between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Besides is

daily receives ships passing

the port activities, however, this tiny, resource-poor country has few means to drive its economy. Once a colonial outpost of the French empire, Djibouti won its independence in 1 977. As a young republic, it found itself amidst regional conflict, and has since faced a constant influx of refugees from Somalia and Ethiopia. In 1991, the country suffered through

its

own

civil

groups, the Afars and the tribes

work taflVSOxI its

its

two

rival

remain high as the

final reconciliation.

Djibouti depends largely

developing

war between

Issas. Tensions

on foreign assistance to continue

fledgling industries.Through diplomatic efforts,

the government aims to establish a lasting peace region and within

its

own

borders.

A\A$ON CREST PUBLISHERS www.masoncrest.com

in

the

the teachers." It brings the insights of scholarship to bear on issues in American foreign policy. The FPRI's Middle East Program focuses on Gulf security, monitors the ArabIsraeli peace process, and sponsors an annual conference for teachers on the Middle East, plus periodic briefings on key developments in the region.