[Dissertation] The Child and the Race: The Doctrines of Recapitulation and Culture Epochs in the Rise of the Child-centered Ideal in American Educational Thought

Citation preview

THE CHILD AND THE RACE

The D o c t r i n e s o f R e c a p i t u l a t i o n and C u ltu r e E pochs i n th e R is e o f t h e C h ild - C e n te r e d I d e a l I n A m erican E d u c a ti o n a l T hought 1875-1900

BY CHARLES EVERETT STRICKLAND

A t h e s i s s u b m itte d i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e d e g re e o f

DOCTOR OP PHILOSOPHY ( E d u c a tio n )

*

a t th e UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN

1963

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

THE CHIU) AND THE RACE The Doctrines of Recapitulation and Culture Epochs in the Rise of the Child-Centered Ideal in American Educational Thought

1875-1900

A t h e s i s s u b m itte d t c th e G raduate S chool of t h e U n iv e r s ity o f W isco n sin i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e re q u ire m e n ts f o r t h e d e g re e o f D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y ,

by Charles Everett Strickland

D egree t o be aw arded J a n u a ry 19-63. June

19—

A ugust

19—

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

To Professors:

Borrovman Krug

Anastine

T h is t h e s i s h a v in g b een ap p ro v ed i n re s p e c t, t o form and m e c h a n ic a l e x e c u tio n i s r e f e r r e d t o yo u f o r judgm ent upon i t s s u t

Approved a s s a t i s f y i n g i n s u b s ta n c e t h e d o c t o r a l t h e s i s re q u ire m e n t o f t h e U n i v e r s i ty o f W isc o n sin . M ajor P r o f e s s o r

D ate o f E x am in a tio n

2 _ _ 19^=-

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

PREFACE The c o u rs e o f A m erican e d u c a t i o n a l th o u g h t i s s tr e w n w ith l o s t c a u s e s .

R e fo rm e rs h av e fro m tim e to

tim e prom oted p r o j e c t s , p la n s and t h e o r i e s t h a t w ere h a i l e d a s s o l v i n g m ost o f th e p ro b lem s a t t e n d a n t upon th e v e ry d i f f i c u l t t a s k o f n u r t u r i n g c h i l d r e n , o n ly t o have t h e i r p r o p o s a l f a l l q u i c k l y by th e w a y s id e .

One su c h

f r u s t r a t e d schem e em erged d u r in g t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , th e d o c t r i n e o f " c u l t u r e e p o ch s* " th e p r i n c i p l e t h a t th e w ork o f t h e s c h o o l s h o u ld be c e n te r e d aro u n d th e c u l t u r a l s t a g e s th ro u g h w hich man had p r o g r e s s e d . More s t r a n g e , p e r h a p s , was t h e s u p p o r t i n g p s y c h o l o g ic a l th e o r y , " r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , 11 w hich p ro p o se d t h a t th e c h i l d r e c a p i t u l a t e s th e e v o l u t i o n a r y s t a g e s o f t h e r a c e .

B oth

d o c t r i n e s h av e lo n g s i n c e p a s s e d i n t o th e lim b o t h a t th e h i s t o r ia n e x p lo re s . T r a n s i e n t th o u g h t h e d o c t r i n e s o f c u l t u r e e p o ch s and r e c a p i t u l a t i o n p ro v ed t o b e , th e y w ere no m ere f a d s . C r e a tiv e and v ig o r o u s t h i n k e r s b e li e v e d t h a t t h e s e tw in t h e o r i e s m ig h t h o ld t h e key t o one o f t h e m ost d i f f i c u l t p ro b lem s r i s i n g o u t o f t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f a s c h o o l f o r a l l . ■The s c h o o l s h o u ld , th e y a d m i t te d , f u l f i l l i t s h i s t o r i c m is s io n , w hich was t o s e r v e t h e s o c i e t y t h a t s u p p o r te d i t . iv

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

V

B u t th e y w ould n o t r e s t u n t i l th e y had done w hat th e y c o u ld t o s e e t h a t t h e s c h o o l a l s o s e r v e d th e i n d i v i d u a l c h ild .

I f , th e y f e l t ,

th e c h i l d somehow d e v e lo p e d a s

s o c i e t y i t s e l f had d e v e lo p e d , th e n a p ro g ram b a s e d on th e n a t u r a l e v o l u t i o n o f m ankind would u s h e r th e c h i l d i n t o a d u l t l i f e w ith o u t m a rrin g h i s own s e l f r e a l i z a t i o n .

A

c u l t u r e - e p o c h s c u r r ic u lu m and a th e o r y o f p s y c h o l o g ic a l r e c a p i t u l a t i o n w ere v e h i c l e s by w hich t h e A m erican F r o e b e l i a n s , t h e H e r b a r t i a n s , G. S t a n l e y H a ll and Jo h n Dewey b r o u g h t one o f t h e m ost p e r v a s i v e i d e a s o f t h e n i n e ­ t e e n t h c e n t u r y , e v o l u t i o n , t o b e a r on one o f t h e m ost p e r ­ s i s t e n t e d u c a tio n a l is s u e s o f th e c e n tu ry , th e c o n f l i c t i n g c la im s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i e t y and th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f n a tu r e and c u l t u r e . The p e r io d o f A m erican h i s t o r y c h o se n f o r e m p h a sis - 1875 t o 1900 — saw t h e e n tr a n c e o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n and c u lt u r e - e p o c h s d o c t r i n e s i n t o e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y .

I t was

a l s o th e p e r io d d u r in g w h ich t h e common s c h o o l i d e a l was r a p i d l y becom ing a r e a l i t y , and th e t r a d i t i o n a l c u r r ic u lu m d i s i n t e g r a t i n g ; th e p e r io d d u r in g w h ich t h e f e l t c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i e t y was h e ig h t e n e d , and t h e p e r io d w h ich saw t h e r i s e o f th e c h i l d - c e n t e r e d i d e a l t o a d o m in a n t i f n o t p re d o m in a n t i n f l u e n c e i n e d u c a t i o n a l th e o ry .

By th e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , th e i n i t i a l cham pions

o f th e c h i l d had f o r m u la te d t h e i r b a s i c view s o f t h e c h i l d -

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

vi c e n t e r e d s c h o o l and t h e i r o p in io n s o f i t s to th e l a r g e r s o c i e t y .

id e a l re la tio n s

R e c a p i t u l a t i o n and c u l t u r e - e p o e h s

d o c t r i n e s p ro v id e d key a s s u m p tio n s . Though t h e h e a r t o f t h e s t o r y t a k e s p la c e i n A m erica d u r in g t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , n e v e r t h e l e s s I h a v e d e v o te d c o n s i d e r a b l e s p a c e t o e x ­ p l o r i n g th e E u ro p e a n d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c h i l d - c e n t e r e d i d e a l and i t s r e l a t i o n s t o t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e c h i l d * s d e v e lo p m e n t somehow p a r a l l e l s t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m an k in d . ?5y r e a s o n s f o r p r o b in g E u ro p e a n th o u g h t a r e n o t s im p ly i n th e i n t e r e s t s o f th o ro u g h n e s s .

R a th e r, th e o r ig in s o f

r e c a p i t u l a t i o n and c u l t u r e e p o ch s s h o u ld b e t r a c e d t o t h e i r E u ro p e a n o r i g i n s b e c a u s e t h e A m erican e d u c a to r s o f t h i s p e r io d w ere e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y d e p e n d e n t upon E u ro p ea n id e a s a s b a s e s fro m w h ic h t o la u n c h t h e i r own t h e o r i z i n g . The A m e ric an sc h o o lm e n p e r s i s t e n t l y and c o n s c i o u s ly i n t e r p r e t e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i r own th o u g h t e i t h e r a s f u l f i l l i n g o r u n d o in g t h e w ork o f R o u s s e a u , P e s t a l o z z i , F r o e b e l , S p e n c e r and D a rw in .

O nly i n Dewey d o e s one d e ­

t e c t t h e b e g in n in g s o f a n im p a tie n c e w ith t h i s ty p e o f c u lt u r a l im p o rta tio n . A w a rn in g a b o u t w o rd s i s a l s o i n o r d e r .

I h av e

a l r e a d y a tte m p te d b ro a d d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e m eaning o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n and c u l t u r e e p o c h s , b u t i t was p r e c i s e l y t h e m ea n in g s o f s u c h w ords t h a t s e t t h e r e f o r m e r s a g a i n s t

t

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

' one a n o t h e r .

vii Two te rm s s t i l l m ore c o n t r o v e r s i a l a p p e a r

i n t h e v e ry t i t l e

o f t h i s w o rk ,

I u s e t h e s e te rm s b e ­

c a u s e th e r e f o r m e r s and t h e i r a n t a g o n i s t s u se d th e m , b u t t h i s h i s t o r y w i l l r e f l e c t , I t r u s t , t h e way i n w h ich " c h i l d , ” and " r a c e , " a s w e l l a s " n a t u r e , " “ c u l t u r e , " " s o c i e t y , " and "com m unity" w ere tr a n s fo r m e d i n e d u c a ­ t i o n a l th o u g h t i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e b i o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l s c i e n c e s t h a t b u rg e o n e d d u r in g th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . F or s u g g e s tin g t h i s d i f f i c u l t t o p ic , f o r c o n s ta n t c r i t i c i s m and e n c o u ra g e m e n t w h ile I e x p lo r e d i t a n d , f i n a l l y , f o r p a t i e n t l y a w a i t in g t h e o u tco m e, my th a n k s go to P r o f e s s o r M erle Borrow m an.

I am g r a t e f u l a l s o t o

P r o f e s s o r Edw ard K rug and my c o l l e a g u e s , C h a r le s o , B u r g e s s , B a rb a ra C ham bers, Howard S . M i l l e r and Raymond J , W ils o n , who r e a d c r i t i c a l l y c e r t a i n p o r t i o n s o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t.

Above a l l , I w ish to ack n o w led g e t h e h e lp

o f my w i f e , E y c k e , w hose c o n t r i b u t i o n s a r e to o many t o e n u m e r a te .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

CHAPTER I

THE CHALLENGE OF EMILE 1.

Community, C u ltu r e and t h e R e a l i z a t i o n o f S e l f Two c e n t u r i e s ago J e a n J a c q u e s R o u sseau f i n i s h e d a

b o o k t h a t w ould make him one o f t h e m ost m a lig n e d b u t i n ­ f l u e n t i a l f i g u r e s i n m odern e d u c a t i o n a l t h o u g h t .

E m ile

im m e d ia te ly a ro u s e d th e i r e o f F re n c h a u t h o r i t i e s ;

on

Ju n e 9 , 1762 I t s a u th o r was f o r c e d t o f l e e w ith a n a r r e s t o r d e r h a n g in g o v e r h i s h e a d , h i s t r a n q u i l i t y s h a t t e r e d , h i s h a p p in e s s a t a n e n d .

Two' d a y s l a t e r t h e b o o k i t s e l f was

p u b l i c l y m u ti l a t e d and b u rn e d by o f f i c i a l s i n P a r i s ; w ith R o u sseau o u t o f t h e way i t m ust h av e seem ed a c lo s e d i n c i ­ d e n t . '1' B u t i f E m ile r a d i c a l l y a l t e r e d t h e c o u rs e o f R o u s s e a u 's l i f e , I t l e f t a l s o a p ro fo u n d i n f l u e n c e on W estern c u ltu re .

E m ile a n t i c i p a t e d and i n some m ea su re c o n t r i b u t e d

t o b a s i c i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , a s s o c i a t e d l a t e r w ith t h e names o f M arx, D arw in , F re u d and Dewey.

The econom ic

f a c t o r s o f s o c i a l c h a n g e , t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y o f man, t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e u n c o n s c io u s and t h e i n t e r a c t i n g r e ­ l a t i o n s h i p s o f s e l f and s o c i e t y — t h e s e w ere b a s i c c o n c e p ts

^ Romain H o lla n d , " J e a n - J a c q u e s R o u s s e a u ,” F re n c h T hought i n t h e E i g h t e e n t h C e n tu ry (New Y o rk , 1 9 5 3 )> 1 5 -1 7 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

p e n e t r a t i n g R o u s s e a u 's w o rk . Above a l l , E m ile was a d i s c o u r s e on t h e n a t u r e and n u r ­ tu r e o f th e c h ild .

The book c r i t i c a l l y exam ined s o c i e t y ,

c u l t u r e and t h e s c h o o l i n te rm s o f t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e f u l l and h a rm o n io u s d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l . R o u sseau b e li e v e d t h a t t h e c h i l d was t o r n by c o n f l i c t , b o th w ith h i s fe llo w m a n and w i t h i n h i m s e l f .

E d u c a tio n

s h o u ld i n i t i a t e t h e c h i l d i n t o s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e w ith o u t d i s r u p t i o n i n t h e c o m p le te r e a l i z a t i o n o f s e l f .

R o u s s e a u 's

a s s u m p tio n th r o u g h o u t was t h a t • c o n f l i c t i s n o th in g i n n a t e , b u t a r i s e s fro m bad g o v e rn m e n ts , i g n o r a n t p a r e n t s and p r e c io u s c u l t u r e . He f u r t h e r assum ed t h a t t h e c h i l d , s o ­ c i e t y and c u l t u r e , s h o u ld be c o n s id e r e d n a t u r a l phenom ena, u n i f i e d by t h e m anner i n w h ich t h e y d e v e lo p .

He a rg u e d

t h a t i f t h e s e a s s u m p tio n s a r e v a l i d , and t h e g o a l o f s e l f r e a l i z a t i o n i s w o rth y , t h e n i t i s th e b u s i n e s s o f t h e e d u ­ c a t o r t o en g ag e i n a t w o - p a r t p ro g ram o f r e s e a r c h and r e ­ fo rm .

S choolm en m ust i n v e s t i g a t e , f i r s t , th e d e v e lo p in g

n a tu r e o f t h e c h i l d , a n d , s e c o n d ly , t h e d e v e lo p in g n a tu r e o f s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e , s e a r c h i n g f o r th o s e h a rm o n io u s p a t ­ t e r n s t h a t b in d c h i l d and h u m an ity t o g e t h e r .

The tw o - f o ld

p ro g ram o f r e s e a r c h s h o u ld l e a d t o a tw o - p o in t p ro g ram o f re fo rm .

S o c i e t y and c u l t u r e — t h e w o rld o f "mem" and th e

w o rld o f " th in g s " — s h o u ld b e a l t e r e d t o co n fo rm t o t h e n a t u r a l

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

3 d e v e lo p m e n t, e l s e th e y w i l l c o n tin u e t o t h r e a t e n t h e f u l l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c h i l d .

B u t th e h e a r t o f t h i s r e c o n ­

s t r u c t i o n i s th e p r a c t i c a l re fo rm o f th e s c h o o l.

T ra d i­

t i o n a l a im s , c o n te n t and m ethod m ust g iv e way t o t h a t f r a g i l e b u t somehow d i v i n e t h i n g , t h e d e v e lo p in g c h i l d . D u rin g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , e v e n e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s f r i e n d l y t o R o u s s e a u 's c o n c e p t o f s e l f r e a l i z a t i o n f r e q u e n t l y c h a rg e d t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f E m ile n e g le c t e d th e r o l e t h a t s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e m u st p la y i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a m an.

R o u s s e a u , th e y c o m p la in e d , was a

s e n t i m e n t a l p r i m i t i v i s t , f o r h e b e tr a y e d a n e x c e s s i v e f a i t h i n th e v ir tu e s o f o r i g i n a l n a tu r e :

he was a l s o a n a n a r ­

c h i s t and p h i l i s t i n e who ig n o r e d th e n e c e s s i t y o f s o c i a l l e a r n i n g and t h e v a lu e o f good l i t e r a t u r e .

A f t e r a l l , d id

h e n o t i s o l a t e E m ile fro m h i s f e l l o w men and fro m th e w o rld o f b o o k s u n t i l a c o m p a r a tiv e ly l a t e s t a g e i n d e v e lo p m e n t?

2

E m ile d i s c l o s e s , h o w e v e r, t h a t R o u ssea u was a good d e a l l e s s s e n t i m e n t a l th a n some o f h i s c r i t i c s , and he saw e v e n m ore c l e a r l y t h a n t h e y t h e c r i t i c a l p a r t p la y e d b y s o c i e t y and c u ltu r e i n th e p ro c e ss o f s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n .

R o u ssea u him ­

s e l f r e c o g n iz e d t h a t man was m ore com plex t h a n t h e s im p le p r i m i t i v i s t w ould a d m i t .

He a l s o a ck n o w led g ed t h a t man i s

o

W illia m B oyd, The E d u c a ti o n a l T h e o ry o f J e a n J a c q u e s R o u sse a u (L ond on, l £ i l ) , 351*

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

4 n o t m eant t o b e a n u n l e t t e r e d h e r m i t .

Above a l l , R o u sseau

d id n o t y i e l d t o s e n t i m e n t a l i t y a b o u t s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n , b u t to o k a lo n g , h a rd lo o k a t t h e n a t u r e o f man and s o c i e t y , r e j e c t i n g any s im p le s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e im provem ent o f e d u ­ c a tio n . R o u sseau f i r s t a c h ie v e d a l i t e r a r y r e p u t a t i o n w ith a n e s s a y w r i t t e n i n 17^9 on a t h e s i s p ro p o se d by th e Academy o f D ijo n , and i t was t h i s e s s a y t h a t g av e s u p p o r t t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t he was a s e n t i m e n t a l p r i m i t i v i s t . R o u sseau l e v e l l e d a v i o l e n t , so p h o m o ric a t t a c k on c o n ­ te m p o ra ry s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e i n t h e name o f N a tu r e , t h a t o r i g i n a l , i n n a t e p o t e n t i a l o f a l l l i v i n g t h in g s e x i s t i n g p r io r to c o rru p tin g e x p e rie n c e .

The p r o g r e s s o f t h e a r t s

and s c i e n c e s , he d e c l a r e d , h a s c o n t r i b u t e d more t o t h e c o r r u p t i o n th a n t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f m o r a ls .

V o l t a i r e was

t h e f i r s t b u t n o t t h e l a s t t o lam poon R o u s s e a u 's w ish t o r e t u r n men t o " a l l f o u r s , ” and i t m ust b e s a i d t h a t R o u sseau o f t e n w ro te to o w e l l f o r h i s own g o o d .

The D ijo n

t r a c t m e re ly e x p l o i t e d a s t r a i n o f p r i m i t i v i s m and p i e t i s m t h a t u n d e r la y t h e o f f i c i a l r a t i o n a l i s m o f th e E n l i g h t e n ­ m e n t, and i t s a u th o r l a t e r c o n fe s s e d t h a t o f a l l h i s w r i t i n g s , i t was t h e " w e a k e s t i n a rg u m e n t."

3

3 J L e s t e r G. C ro c k e r, e d . , The C o n fe s s io n s o f J e a n J a c q u e s R o u sseau (New Y o rk , 1 9 5 7 ), H e re a fte r c ite d a s R o u s s e a u , C o n f e s s io n s .

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

5 R o u s s e a u ’ s l a t e r w orks r e v e a l so m e th in g m ore th a n a n a m b itio u s young man e x p l o i t i n g a l i t e r a r y f a d ; h e was a l s o a s o n o f t h e E n lig h te n m e n t, s h a r i n g i t s f a i t h i n p r o g r e s s and R e a so n .

Though a v ag ab o n d , he r e a d t h e

c l a s s i c s a s he w a n d e re d , and th o u g h a p r o v i n c i a l h e p lu n g e d d e e p ly i n t o P a r i s i a n s o c i e t y . has p u t i t ,

As one h i s t o r i a n

"R o u sseau was th e o n ly man o f g e n iu s who

t r a v e r s e d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y s o c i e t y fro m t h e b o tto m t o th e to p .

He was t h e o n ly one who d id n o t t a k e r o o t and

U

s t a y f i x e d . W h e n R o u ssea u f i r s t m et h i g h l y p r e c io u s fo rm s o f a r i s t o c r a t i c c u l t u r e , he r e a c t e d w ith a l l t h e v io le n c e h i s p a s s i o n a t e n a tu r e was c a p a b le o f , and f o r a tim e he b e li e v e d v i r t u e r e s i d e d e x c l u s i v e l y i n t h e p e a s a n t.

T h is c o n v u ls iv e r e a c t i o n p ro d u ce d t h e D ijo n

t r a c t in 1749.

By 17 5 5 » h o w ev er, he had m o d ifie d h i s

p r i m i t i v i s t i c t h e s i s w i t h The D is c o u r s e on t h e O r ig in s o f I n e q u a l i t y among Men.

M o reo v er, a se co n d c r i t i c a l e v e n t

o f h i s l i f e o c c u r re d one y e a r l a t e r , when he a c c e p te d a n i n v i t a t i o n e x te n d e d by Madame d ’E p in a y t o r e s i d e i n a c o t t a g e i n t h e f o r e s t o f M ontm orency.

" I w a s," he l a t e r

com m ented, "w e ary o f s a l o n s , w a t e r f a l l s , g r o v e s , f l o w e r g a r d e n s , and t h e i r s t i l l more w earisom e e x h i b i t o r s ; I was

J a c q u e s B a rz u n , C l a s s i c . R om antic and M odern (G ard en C i t y , N .Y ., 1 9 6 1 ), 2(5.

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

6 t i r e d o f s t i t c h i n g , p i a n o s , s o r t i n g w o o l, m aking bow s, f o o lis h w ittic is m s , in s ip id a f f e c ta tio n s , t r i f l i n g s to r y ­ te lle r s ."

o n A p r i l 9 , 1 7 5 6 , he to o k up ab o d e a t th e

H e rm ita g e and " i t was on t h a t d a y ," h e e x c la im e d , " t h a t I began to l iv e ."

H aving r e e s t a b l i s h e d c o n t a c t w ith

N a tu r e , h i s v i o l e n t d e s p a i r b e g a n t o g iv e way t o a mood o f tem p ered o p tim is m .

"As so o n a s I l o s t s i g h t o f m en,"

h e e x p la in e d , " I c e a s e d t o d e s p i s e them ; a s so o n a s I l o s t s i g h t o f t h e w ick ed I c e a s e d t o h a t e th e m ." ^ I n t h i s r u r a l s e t t i n g R o u sseau fo u n d a n a tm o sp h e re m ore f a v o r a b l e t o a b a la n c e d view o f man and s o c i e t y , a view e x p re s s e d i n E m ile and The S o c i a l C o n t r a c t .

He was

f a r fro m b e l i e v i n g t h a t sm a sh in g g o v e rn m e n ts and l e v e l l i n g s c h o o lh o u s e s w ould im prove m ankind*s l o t .

U s in g t h e

m a t e r i a l s and t h e m e a s u rin g s t i c k p ro v id e d b y N a tu r e , he s o u g h t t o r e c o n s t r u c t s o c i e t y , c u l t u r e and u l t i m a t e l y man h im s e lf.

P r i m it i v is m p ro v id e d th e c r i t i c a l , c o r r o s i v e

e le m e n t a s w e l l a s th e n e c e s s a r y o p tim ism a b o u t o r i g i n a l N a tu r e ;

t h i s e le m e n t re m a in e d s t r o n g e v e n i n h i s more

s o p h is tic a te d w r itin g s .

S in c e p r i m i t i v i s m was t h e

n e g le c t e d e le m e n t i n e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h o u g h t, R o u sseau a p p a r e n t l y y i e l d e d t o t h e tem p tatio n t o sh o c k b y o v e r s t a t i n g

5

R o u ss e a u , C o n f e s s io n s , 2 1 0 , 2 1 4 -2 1 5 . " J e a n - J a c q u e s R o u s n e a u ,M l o c .~~ c l t . , 1 2 .

R o lla n d ,

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

7 t h e v i r t u e s o f o r i g i n a l m an.

Thus h i s p o l i t i c a l and e d u ­

c a t i o n a l m a n if e s to s b e g a n w ith r i n g i n g c h a l l e n g e s :

"Man

i s b o r n f r e e , and y e t we s e e him e v e ry w h e re i n c h a i n s ;" and "God m akes a l l t h in g s g o o d , b u t man m ed d les w i t h them and th e y become e v i l . " ^

R o u s s e a u ’s f a i t h i n t h e l i b e r t y

and g o o d n e ss o f o r i g i n a l man h a s b e e n c i t e d a s p r o o f o f h is s e n tim e n ta lity , i f n o t h is im b e c ility .

7

W h a te v e r t h e

d e f e c t s o f h i s p o l i t i c a l and e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y , h o w e v er, s e n t i m e n t a l i t y was n o t one o f th em .

He moved beyond t h e

p r i m i t i v i s t who w ould p r e te n d t h a t n a t u r e aa g i v e n i n man was g o o d .

R o u ssea u becam e f a r to o c o n s c io u s o f th e e f f e c t

o f s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e upon t h e way p e o p le b e h a v e d .

He

e x p la in e d t h a t h a v in g exam ined t h e " h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y o f m o ra ls " he was c o n v in c e d " e v e r y t h in g was r a d i c a l l y c o n ­ n e c te d w ith p o l i t i c s , and t h a t , how ever one p r o c e e d e d , no p e o p le w ould b e o t h e r t h a n t h e n a t u r e o f i t s g o v e rn m ent made i t . "

8

Y e t, R o u ssea u n e v e r y i e l d e d t o th e

e q u a l l y s e n t i m e n t a l c o n v i c t i o n h e ld by many E n l i g h t e n ­ m ent t h i n k e r s t h a t men c o u ld b e made good o n ly th ro u g h a s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e g o v e rn e d by R e a s o n .

T h e re w a s, he

g C h a r le s F r a n k e l , e d . , R o u s s e a u ’s The S o c i a l Con­ t r a c t (New Y o rk , 1 9 ^ 7 )» 5 : and E r n e s t R h y s, e d . , and B a rb a ra F o x le y , t r . , R o u s s e a u ’s E m ile (Hew Y o rk , 1 9 1 1 ), 5 : h e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s R o u ss e a u , E m lle^ 7 ' B a rz u n , C l a s s i c , 1 8 . Q R o u ss e a u , C o n f e s s io n s , 2 0 7 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

8 a r g u e d , more t o man th a n a n a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l h i s " p a s s io n s " by R easo n J u s t a s t h e r e was more t o man t h a n a p r i m i t i v e i n c l i n a t i o n t o do g o o d . I f

an y one mood

d o m in ated R o u s s e & ^ s th o u g h t i t was a fu n d a m e n ta l p e s ­ sim ism t h a t c r i t i c a l l y exam ined t h e e a s y a n sw e rs g iv e n by t h e s e n t i m e n t a l p r i m i t i v i s t and t h e s e n t i m e n t a l r a t i o n a ­ l i s t a lik e .

As R o u sseau saw t h e p ro b le m , man i s I n c a p a b le

o f y i e l d i n g u t t e r l y t o t h e d i c t a t e s o f R e a s o n , and he i s a l s o t o r n i n h i s p a s s io n s b e tw e e n

a need t o lo v e h i s f e l l c w -

man and a d e s i r e t o d e s t r o y h im . D is p e n s in g w ith s e n t i m e n t a l i t y and a tt e m p t in g t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e com plex and c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e o f m an, R o u ssea u w orked h i s way p a i n f u l l y to w a rd a new th e s is .

Bad g o v e rn m e n ts and a r i s t o c r a t i c c u l t u r e d i v i d e

man a g a i n s t h i s f e l l o w s a n d , J u s t a s t r a g i c a l l y , a g a i n s t h im s e lf.

G overnm ents m ig h t b e re fo rm e d on t h e b a s i s o f

p o p u la r s o v e r e i g n t y and p r o p e r l y draw n s o c i a l c o n t r a c t , b u t t h e i n d i v i d u a l h i m s e l f m ust u n d e rg o a c h an g e o f h e a r t o r p o l i t i c a l re fo rm i s u s e le s s .

I n s h o r t , r e f o r m m ust

t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e t r u e N a tu re o f m an.

And y e t , when

R o u sseau lo o k e d i n t o t h e h e a r t s o f men he saw l u r k i n g t h e r e s u c h e v i l t h a t i t moved him c l o s e t o d e s p a i r .

He c o u ld

f i n d no e a s y s o l u t i o n s t o th e p ro b le m s o f m ankind e i t h e r i n th e c o u n s e ls o f t h e p r i m i t i v i s t o r r a t i o n a l i s t . R o u ssea u r a i s e d h im s e lf above h i s tim e by h e r o i c e f f o r t ,

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

9 p r o c la im in g a new d o c t r i n e .

I f th e s im p le o p tim ism o f

p r i m i t i v i s m and r a t i o n a l i s m d id n o t , t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f h u m a n ity , i t was a l s o t r u e t h a t c y n ic is m d id n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y c r e d i t man w i t h t h e n a t u r a l p o t e n t i a l o f r i s i n g a b o v e h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and r e s o l v i n g h is c o n f lic ts .

I t was o n ly a p o t e n t i a l , t o b e s u r e ,

n e e d in g c a r e f u l n u r t u r e t o p ro d u c e a d e l i c a t e b a la n c e among a l l t h e f a c u l t i e s .

B ut t h e p o t e n t i a l was t h e r e ,

embedded i n t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f man.

The c h i l d becom es a

man n o t by l e a v i n g h i s o r i g i n a l N a tu re b e h in d , n o r by s im p ly g i v i n g f r e e r e i n t o i t , b u t r a t h e r b y h i s a b i l i t y t o r e a l i z e h i m s e l f th r o u g h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l w i t h t h e a c q u i r e d , o f h i s p a s s i o n w ith h i s e m e rg in g r e a s o n . E m ile I l l u s t r a t e d

t h i s d e l i c a t e I n t e r p l a y b e tw e e n

p r i m i t i v i s m and r a t i o n a l i s m i n th e e d u c a ti o n o f a c h i l d . P r i m i t i v i s m c o n t r i b u t e d , f i r s t o f a l l , a s t r e s s on $ o r i g i n a l N a t u r e . The f i r s t t h i n g R o u sse a u w ould h ave t h e r e a d e r u n d e r s ta n d a b o u t t h e c h i l d i s t h a t “ n a t u r e w ould h a v e th em c h i l d r e n b e f o r e th e y a r e m en. . . . C h ild h o o d h a s i t s own ways o f s e e i n g , t h i n k i n g , f e e l i n g ; n o th in g i s m ore f o o l i s h t h a n t o t r y t o s u b s t i t u t e o u r w a y s; and I s h o u ld no m ore e x p e c t ju d g e m e n t i n a t e n y e a r - o l d c h i l d t h a n I s h o u ld e x p e c t h im t o b e f i v e - f e e t

„9

h i g h ."

The c h i l d i s n o t a man l a c k i n g e x p e r i e n c e ; he

9 R o u s s e a u , E m ile , 5 ^ .

i R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

10 is s u l g e n e ris .

A t t h e same t im e , R o u sse a u d id n o t s u r ­

r e n d e r t o s e n t i m e n t a l i t y a b o u t c h il d h o o d .

E m ile c o u ld n o t

re m a in a c h i l d , and R o u sse a u n e v e r f o r g o t t h a t manhood was th e g o a l o f e d u c a tio n .

By t h e same t o k e n , he d id n o t

deny t h a t ju d g m en t was i m p o r t a n t ; h e m e re ly w ish e d t o p o i n t o u t how a b s u rd i t was t o e x p e c t t h e c h i l d t o h av e i t .

B e­

tw e en t h e p r i m i t i v i s t who w ould g l o r i f y t h e c h i l d and t h e r a t i o n a l i s t who was i m p a t ie n t f o r t h e a r r i v a l o f r a t i o n a l m a t u r i t y , R o u sse a u c h o se t o c o u n s e l p a t i e n c e . A se c o n d p o i n t , c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f i r s t , was t h e c o n c e p t o f d e v e lo p m e n t.

"E v ery a g e ," R o u ssea u p o in te d

o u t, "e v e ry s t a t i o n has a p e r f e c tio n , a rip e n e s s o f i t s „10 ow n." S e e k in g n e i t h e r e s c a p e n o r f l i g h t t o t h e f u t u r e , R o u ssea u was w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t t h e p r e s e n t and w i l l i n g t o a d m it t h a t " c h ild h o o d h a s i t s p la c e i n t h e se q u e n c e o f human l i f e . " ^

.R o u sseau c o n s e q u e n tly d e v o te d w h at he

c a l l e d t h e " s y s te m a t i c " p o r t i o n o f E m ile t o a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e " c o u rse o f n a tu r e ."

12

The c h i l d moves th ro u g h f i v e

d i s t i n c t s t a g e s o f d e v e lo p m e n t — i n f a n c y , c h ild h o o d , y o u t h , a d o le s c e n c e and m anhood;

each o f th e s e s ta g e s

r e c e i v e d fro m R o u ssea u a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n and

10 Ibid. , 122.

11 Ib id . , 44. 12 I b i d . , 2 .

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

3.1 d is c u s s io n .

The p o i n t o f t h i s t r e a tm e n t was t h a t man c a n

no m ore deny h i s o r i g i n a l N a tu re th a n he c a n r e s t on i t s . la u re ls .

I n s t e a d , he i s m eant t o a d v a n c e nn a t u r a l l y "

th r o u g h s u c c e s s iv e s t a g e s t o t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f h i m s e l f . N hen R o u sseau tu r n e d t o a c l o s e r e x a m in a tio n o f t h i s d e v e lo p m e n t, p r i m i t i v i s m form ed t h e b a s e i f n o t t h e w hole s u b s ta n c e o f h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

F i r s t o f a l l , he

i n t e r e s t e d h im s e lf i n th e w h o le ra n g e o f human phenom ena, n o t m e re ly th e c o n s c io u s i n t e l l e c t .

W h ile i t i s t r u e t h a t

L ocke had a l r e a d y c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h e im p o rta n c e o f a sound body a s w e ll a s a sound m in d , R o u ssea u e x p lo r e d f a r d e e p e r i n t o th e u n c o n s c io u s , i n s t i n c t i v e and im p u ls iv e b a s e o f human b e h a v i o u r .

H is f a s c i n a t i o n f o r t h e i n v e s t i ­

g a t i o n o f p a s s i o n , so w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e C o n fe s13 s io n s , s t r u c k r a t i o n a l i s t s a s u n seem ly i f n o t m o rb id . S t i l l m ore s h o c k in g was R o u s s e a u ’s a s s e r t i o n t h a t p a s s i o n was n o t m e re ly so m e th in g t o b e c o n t r o l l e d o r c o n q u e re d b y R eason.

I t c o u ld n o t b e l e f t b e h in d i n a r u b b i s h h e ap l i k e

a p a i r o f w o rn -o u t s h o e s .

P a s s io n was a f o r c e t h a t i n t e r ­

a c te d w ith R easo n i t s e l f i n g u id in g t h e c o n d u c t o f m an.

13

R o u sseau w r o te , " I am commencing a n u n d e r t a k in g , h i t h e r t o w ith o u t p r e c e d e n t , and w h ich w i l l n e v e r f i n d a n i m i t a t o r . I d e s i r e t o s e t b e f o r e my f e l l o w s t h e l i k e ­ n e s s o f a man i n a l l t h e t r u t h o f N a t u r e . . . . I have u n v e ile d my in m o st s e l f e v e n a s Thou h a s t s e e n i t , 0 E t e r n a l B e in g .” C o n f e s s io n s , 1 .

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

12 R o u ssea u d id n o t h im s e lf p e r c e i v e t h e t h r e a t p o se d by t h i s 14 " b i o l o g i c a l " view t o t h e n e a t , N ew to n ian u n i v e r s e , but t h a t d id n o t p r e v e n t him fro m s t r e s s i n g E m i l e 's f u l l e m o tio n a l and p h y s i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t.

R o u sse a u r e s o l v e d t o

h o ld b a c k n o th in g r e l e v a n t t o e d u c a t i o n , and s e x r e ­ c e iv e d a f r a n k t r e a tm e n t a s E m ile a p p ro a c h e d m anhood. R o u s s e a u 's t o t a l , o r " o rg a n is m ie " view o f d e v e lo p m e n t a l s o fo c u s e d a t t e n t i o n on i t s i n n a t e q u a l i t i e s .

"The

i n n e r g ro w th o f o u r o rg a n s and f a c u l t i e s i s t h e e d u c a ­ t i o n fro m N a t u r e ," h e a s s e r t e d , and a s s u c h i s " w h o lly b eyond o u r c o n t r o l . "

The a rra n g e m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n a l e x -

* p e r i e n c e m ust f o l lo w N a tu re b e c a u s e i t "m u st f o l lo w t h e le a d o f i t h a t w h ich i s beyond o u r c o n t r o l . " *5 P r i m i t i v i s m a p p e a re d t r iu m p h a n t . was t h e new e le m e n t o f t h e E m ile .

C e rta in ly , i t

The id e a o f o rg a n is m ie

g ro w th s p r i n g i n g w ith u n c o n t r o l l a b l e f o r c e fro m w i t h i n th e c h i l d seem ed t o b e t h e p e r f e c t n e g a t i o n o f t h e E n l i g h t e n ­ m ent d o c t r i n e s o f r e f o r m b a s e d on t h e p l a s t i c i t y o f human n a tu re .

B u t no s o o n e r had t h e a u th o r o f t h e E m ile made

14

235.

15 Ib id . , 6. 16

C o n d i l l a c , H e l v e t l u s and V o l t a i r e r e p r e s e n t e d t h i s p o i n t o f v ie w . S . J . C u r t i s and M .E .A . B o u ltw o o d , A S h o r t H i s t o r y o f E d u c a ti o n a l I d e a s (L ondon, 1 9 5 6 ),

56¥-555.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

13 t h i s b l u n t an n o u n cem en t t h a n h e b e g a n t o ta k e i t b a c k , p ie c e b y p ie c e .

He d id n o t t a k e i t a l l b a c k , f o r he had

no d e s i r e t o a d o p t r a t i o n a l i s m J u s t a f t e r he had r e ­ nounced i t , b u t he c h ip p e d away a t t h e p r i m i t i v i s t c o n c e p t o f i n n a t e g ro w th u n t i l t h e r e w as l e f t o n ly t h a t f r a g i l e b u t c r i t i c a l and i r r e d u c i b l e t h i n g known a s t h e d e v e lo p in g S e lf. R o u sse a u f r e e l y a d m itte d t h a t i f t h e e n v iro n m e n t w e re n o t a l l - d e t e r m i n i n g i t n e v e r t h e l e s s c o u ld b l o c k o r fo rw a rd n a t u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t.

H is r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e

" e d u c a ti o n fro m men and t h i n g s ” w arn ed him o f i t s n e g a tiv e in f lu e n c e .

p o s s ib ly

E d u c a ti o n , b ad a s i t had b e e n i n t h e

p a s t , n e v e r t h e l e s s was n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v id e p r o t e c t i o n f o r th e c h i l d .

" P r e j u d i c e , a u t h o r i t y , n e c e s s i t y , e x a m p le ,

a l l t h e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n t o w h ic h we a r e p lu n g e d , w ould s t i f l e N a tu re i n h im and p u t n o t h in g i n h e r p l a c e ."

N a tu re

"w ould b e l i k e a s a p l i n g ^ t h a t ? c h a n c e had sown i n t h e m id s t o f t h e h ig h w a y , b e n t h i t h e r and t h i t h e r and so o n c ru s h e d b y t h e p a s s e r s - b y . " ^ R o u sse a u w as p r e p a r e d t o make s t i l l a n o th e r c o n c e s ­ s io n to th e r a t i o n a l i s t .

E d u c a tio n m u st n o t m e re ly p r o t e c t

t h e c h i l d fro m e v i l i n f l u e n c e s b u t p r o v id e p o s i t i v e n o u ris h m e n t f o r t h e c h i l d ' s g r o w th .

^

C l e a r l y , R o u sse a u

R o u s s e a u , E m ile , 5> 6 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

14 d id n o t t h i n k i n n a t e g ro w th a lo n e w ould p ro d u c e a m an.

The

c h i l d i s h o r n o n ly w i t h t h e " f e e l i n g ” o f s e l f , and e v en t h i s em erges o n ly g r a d u a l l y .

A f u l l - g r o w n man a t h i r t h

"w ould v b e i n a s t a t e o f a lm o s t p r i m i t i v e ig n o r a n c e and s t u p i d i t y n a t u r a l t o man b e f o r e h e h a s l e a r n t a n y th in g «18 fro m e x p e r ie n c e o r fro m h i s f e l l o w s . " The a u th o r o f E m ile had made c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n c e s ­ s i o n t o t h e b e l i e f i n e n v ir o n m e n ta l i n f l u e n c e , c o n s i s t e n t n o n e th e le s s w ith h i s o r i g i n a l p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t e d u c a ti o n m u st r e s p e c t u n c o n t r o l l a b l e , I n n a t e d e v e lo p m e n t.

But i f

e d u c a ti o n s h o u ld f o i l e d t h e c h i l d 's i n n e r im p u ls e R o u ssea u d id n o t th e r e b y c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e c h i l d h im s e lf s h o u ld d i r e c t t h e p r o c e s s o f e d u c a t i o n .

R o u sse a u w ould

h a v e b e e n s e n t i m e n t a l in d e e d t o t h i n k t h a t a n I n f a n t c o u ld s u r v i v e w it h o u t a d u l t p r o t e c t i o n and n o u r is h m e n t, and h e ack n o w led g ed t h e a b s u r d i t y o f t h i s v ie w .

N ot c o n te n t

w i t h t h a t , h o w e v e r, he f u r t h e r a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e c h i l d “w ould d i e o f w an t b e f o r e be knew h i s

n e e d s

H e re ,

R o u s s e a u 's d i s t i n c t i v e p o i n t o f view b e g a n t o e m e rg e . w as m aking t h e v e ry u n p r i m i t i v i s t i c a s s e r t i o n t h a t th e c h i l d c o u ld n o t g u id e h i m s e l f , f o r h e la c k e d R e a s o n . "R e a so n a lo n e t e a c h e s u s t o know good and e v i l , " and

18 I b i d . , 2 8 - 2 9 . 19 I b i d . , 6 .

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

He

15 " b e f o r e t h e a g e o f R easo n we do good o r i l l w ith o u t know ing i t , and t h e r e i s no m o r a l i t y i n o u r a c t i o n s M o r e o v e r , R easo n i s n e c e s s a r y t o c h o o se among o u r p a s s i o n s .

R e­

f u s i n g s e n t i m e n t a l i t y , R o u ssea u c o n c lu d e d s a d l y t h a t some p a s s i o n s w ould " e n s la v e and d e s t r o y u s ."

S e lfis h n e s s —

t h e e x c e s s i v e d e s i r e f o r pow er o v e r o t h e r s — c o n s t a n t l y t h r e a t e n s t o u n d erm in e t h e b a s e o f o u r h a p p in e s s .

Am­

b i t i o n — a n e x c e s s o f d e s i r e o v e r power — c o n s t a n t l y d e s t r o y s t h a t h arm o n io u s b a la n c e w hich b r i n g s c o n te n tm e n t. E m ile a lo n e c o u ld n e v e r co p e w ith t h e s e c o n f l i c t i n g p a s ­ s i o n s , u n le s s h e w ere rem oved fro m c o n t a c t w ith men; b u t a s a h e r m it he w ould f a i l t o r e a l i z e f u l l d e v e lo p m e n t a s a m an.

No, E m ile m ust b e t a u g h t .

He m ust l e a r n t h e law

o f r e s i g n a t i o n and l e a r n t o s e p a r a t e s e l f - l o v e , a n a t u r a l 21 and t h e r e f o r e good e m o tio n , fro m s e l f i s h n e s s . I n t h i s m an n er, R o u ssea u s a i l e d o u t o f a sm o o th ly f lo w in g r i v e r , bounded on one s i d e b y c o m p la c e n t r a t i o n a ­ l i s m w h ich was c o n f i d e n t t h a t a good e d u c a ti o n w ould make a good m an, and bounded on t h e o t h e r b y c o m p la c e n t

I b id ., 34. 21 I b i d . , 1 0 8 , 1 7 3 -1 7 5 . “When I w ant t o t r a i n a n a t u r a l m an," R o u sseau d e c l a r e d , " I do n o t w ant t o make h im a s a v a g e and se n d him b a c k t o t h e w oods, b u t t h a t l i v i n g i n t h e w h i r l o f s o c i a l l i f e i t i s enough t h a t he s h o u ld n o t l e t h im s e lf b e c a r r i e d away by t h e p a s s io n s and p r e j u d i c e s o f m en." E m ile , 2 1 7 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

16 p r i m i t i v i s m w hich b e l i e v e d man n eeded no e d u c a ti o n t o make h im g o o d .

As lo n g a s R o u ssea u re m a in e d on t h a t r i v e r , h e

c o u ld la n d s a f e l y o n e i t h e r s h o r e i n t h e e v e n t o f t r o u b l e . I n s t e a d R o u ssea u c h o se t o s a i l d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e c h o p p y , open s e a s o f p e s s im is m , k e p t a f l o a t o n ly b y h i s w i t and h i s f r a g i l e hope t h a t , somehow, th e e v i l i n man was n o t in b o rn .

Somehow, i t had b e e n a c q u i r e d , o r , m ore p r o p e r l y ,

e x p e r ie n c e had d i s t o r t e d p a s s i o n s o r i g i n a l l y g o o d .

"Our

n a t u r a l p a s s io n s a r e few i n num ber; th e y a r e t h e m eans t o fre e d o m , th e y te n d t o s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n .

A l l th o s e w hich

e n s l a v e and d e s t r o y us h a v e a n o th e r s o u r c e ; n a t u r e d o e s n o t b e sto w them on u s ; we s e i z e on them i n h e r d e s p i t e . "

22

Man, i f n o t p la g u e d b y t h e t a i n t o f o r i g i n a l s i n , h a r b o r s a t l e a s t some f a t a l s e n s i t i v i t y t o d i s t o r t i o n t h a t p e r ­ s i s t e n t l y d e s tro y s h a p p in e s s .

R o u sseau c o u ld o n ly hope

t h a t th ro u g h a com plex i n t e r a c t i o n o f f e e l i n g , r e a s o n and w i l l , man c o u ld c u t th r o u g h t h e t a n g l e t h a t o b s c u re d h i s n a tu ra l s e l f . E m ile d o e s n o t , t h e r e f o r e , m e re ly " u n f o ld " fro m w ith in .

He d e v e lo p s th r o u g h l e a r n i n g a s t h e s e l f i n t e r ­

a c t s w i t h t h i n g s and m en.

i s o l a t e d , t h e c h i l d m ig h t grow

p h y s i c a l l y , b u t h e w ould re m a in a p r i m i t i v e , a " p e r f e c t

22

I b i d ., 173.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

17 id io t."

Y e t R o u sse a u w ould re m in d h i s f e l l o w p h ilo s o p h e s

t h a t man i s n o t m e r e ly a m ac h in e i n t o w h ic h one c a n p o u r id e a s .

He h a s , fro m h i r t h , a n a t u r a l s e l f , n e e d in g p r o ­

t e c t i o n , n o u ris h m e n t and e v e n d i r e c t i o n , b u t t h a t s u b ­ j e c t i v e s e l f , d e p e n d e n t a s i t i s upon s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e f o r i t s f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n , re m a in s somehow t h e c r i t e r i o n a g a i n s t w h ich c u l t u r e , s o c i e t y and e d u c a ti o n m u st b e ju d g e d .

2.

R o u sse a u and t h e U ses o f t h e P a s t

S in c e R o u sse a u p ro c la im e d t h e p e r f e c t i b i l i t y o f t h e c h i l d and n o t i t s

p e r f e c tio n , he l a i d o u t a tw o -p a rt

p ro g ram by w h ich t h e c h i l d m ig h t b e h e lp e d a lo n g t h e ro a d to s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n .

The f i r s t p a r t c a l l e d f o r c o n tin u e d

in v e s ti g a t i o n in to th e n a tu re o f th e c h i l d .

"We know

n o th in g o f c h i l d h o o d ,” R o u sse a u e x c la im e d i n a m anner c a l c u l a t e d t o i n f u r i a t e s c h o o lm e n .

"And w ith o u r m is ­

ta k e n n o t io n s t h e f u r t h e r we a d v a n c e t h e f u r t h e r we go a3t r a y .

The w i s e s t w r i t e r s d e v o te th e m s e lv e s t o w h at a

man o u g h t t o know , w i t h o u t a s k i n g w h a t a c h i l d i s c a p a b le of le a rn in g . . . .

I t i s t o t h i s s t u d y t h a t I hav e c h i e f l y

d e v o te d m y s e lf ." 23

E m ile p r o v id e d a n ex am p le o f t h e k in d

23 I b i d . , 1 .

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

18 o f t h i n g R o u ssea u had i n m in d .

S im p ly o b s e rv e t h e c h i l d ,

s p e c u l a t e on t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s and r e ­ p o r t th e r e s u l t s . d id m ore th a n t h a t .

B u t R o u s s e a u 's t r e a t i s e on e d u c a ti o n I t a ls o la id o u t a s e r ie s o f educa­

t i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e s s u i t a b l e t o t h e n a t u r a l g ro w th o f t h e c h i l d and t h e n a t u r a l p r o c e s s o f l e a r n i n g , e x p e r ie n c e s c a l c u l a t e d t o fo rw a rd t h e g o a l o f s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n .

T h u s,

r e f o r m o f t h e s c h o o l c o n s t i t u t e d th e se c o n d p a r t o f R o u s s e a u 's p r a c t i c a l p ro g ra m . I n e x p l o r i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c h i l d and r e c o n ­ s t r u c t i n g e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , R o u sse a u fo u n d h i s t o r y 24 I n v a lu a b le . N ot a l l m odern h i s t o r i a n s w ould l i k e t h e way R o u ssea u i n t e r p r e t e d h i s t o r y n o r t h e way h e s o u g h t t o u s e i t i n t h e r e f o r m o f e d u c a t i o n , b u t i t c a n n o t b e m ain ­ t a i n e d t h a t he Ig n o re d t h e p a s t .

He f r e q u e n t l y drew on

s u c h h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l a s was avallabOLe, r a i l e d a g a i n s t c h r o n i c l e r s f o r n o t p r o v i d in g m ore i m p o r t a n t , i . e . , s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l , i n f o r m a t i o n , and r e f e r r e d o f t e n t o h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n s f o r norm s o f n a t u r a l phenom ena.

W ith o t h e r

t h i n k e r s o f t h e E n lig h te n m e n t, R o u ssea u b e g a n t o f e e l t h a t th e l i m i t s o f s p e c u l a t i v e r e a s o n had b e e n r e a c h e d o il

F o r a view o f R o u ssea u a s " u n h i s t o r i c a l , " s e e R o b e rt U l i c h , H i s t o r y o f E d u c a ti o n a l T h o u g h t (New Y o rk , 1 9 5 0 ) , 2 2 2 . A r th u r L o v e jo y a rg u e s f o r R o u s s e a u 's i n t e r e s t i n h i s t o r y i n "T he S u p p o sed P r i m i t i v i s m o f R o u s s e a u 's D i s ­ c o u r s e o n I n e q u a l i t y , " E s s a y s i n t h e H i s t o r y o f I d e a s (New Y o rk , 1 9 5 5 ), 1 4 -3 7 , e s p e c i a l l y p . 1 8 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

19 ■with r e s p e c t t o m a n 's e s s e n t i a l N a tu r e .

C a s tin g a b o u t f o r

e m p i r i c a l d a ta t h a t m ig h t th ro w new l i g h t o n t h e s u b j e c t , R o u ssea u and h i s f e l l o w p h llo s o p h e s tu r n e d i n c r e a s i n g l y t o r e p o r t s t h a t v o y a g e rs w ere b r i n g i n g b a c k fro m c o n t a c t w ith p r i m i t i v e p e o p le s , and a l s o t o su c h i n f o r m a ti o n a s was a v a i l a b l e fro m th e p a s t .

E x i s t i n g p r i m i t i v e s r e p r e s e n te d

e a r l i e r fo rm s w hich c i v i l i z e d man had a l r e a d y l e f t b e ­ h in d , 25 Y e t R o u sseau was n o t c o n te n t w ith t h e s im p le t h e s i s t h a t w h a te v e r was p r i m i t i v e was n a t u r a l .

I n The D is c o u r s e

o n t h e O r i g i n s o f I n e q u a l i t y among Men, R o u sseau a n t i c i ­ p a te d C h a r le s D arw in b y n e a r l y a c e n t u r y , a rg u in g t h a t t h e e s s e n c e o f man l i e s i n h i s d e v elo p m e n t fro m p r i m i t i v e o rig in s .

E is fam ed " s t a t e o f n a t u r e , " t o w h ich h e hoped

m ankind c o u ld r e t u r n , was f a r fro m a n o r i g i n a l c o n d i t i o n . R o u ssea u w ould s t r i p away a r i s t o c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n , n o t th r o u g h n e g a t in g m a n k in d ’s d e p a r t u r e fro m a n o r i g i n a l s t a t e , b u t r a t h e r by r e c a p t u r i n g th e e s s e n c e o f h i s t r u e , o r n a t u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t.

At a c e r t a i n p o i n t , m ankind had

r e g r e t t a b l y w andered fro m th e t r u e p a th and R ousseau hoped

oc

J C a r l B e c k e r, The H e a v e n ly C ity o f t h e E ig h te e n th C e n tu ry P h ilo s o p h e r s (New H aven, 1 9 5 &T-8&5 and H oxie N e a l F a i r c h i l d , The N oble S av ag e (New Y o rk , l § 6l ) , c h . IV .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

20 fco p u t him b a c k on i t .

26

E m ile , w h ich fo llo w e d th e D is c o u r s e by s e v e n y e a r s , b e t r a y s th r o u g h o u t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e e a r l i e r w o rk .

The

D is c o u r s e a p p e a r s i n s e v e r a l d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s and i n a m ore s u b t l e fo rm a s w e l l .

The s t a g e s o f m a n k in d ’s d e v e lo p ­

m ent and t h e s ta g e s , o f E m ile ’s g ro w th b e a r a m arked r e ­ se m b la n c e ; so m ark ed , i n f a c t , t h a t t h e l e s s o n s R o u ssea u r e a d i n h i s t o r y h e a p p l i e d r e a d i l y t o i n t e r p r e t i n g and g u id in g E m i l e ’s d e v e lo p m e n t.

The s e r i e s o f s t a g e s i n t h e

D is c o u r s e and t h e s e r i e s o f s t a g e s i n E m ile a r e e a c h f i v e i n number and r u n r o u g h ly p a r a l l e l , e s p e c i a l l y w ith r e s p e c t to t h e s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s e x h i b i t e d .

M ankind’s f i r s t s t a g e

i s one o f b r u t i s h , s t u p i d c o n te n tm e n t; t h e i n f a n t E m ile i s e q u a l l y i g n o r a n t and h a p p y .

As m ankind moves i n t o th e

se c o n d s t a g e , i n c r e a s i n g num bers and a n e m e rg in g c o m p e ti­ t i v e s t r u g g l e f o r t h e a v a i l a b l e m eans o f l i v e l i h o o d c a l l f o r t h t h e b e g in n in g s o f t h e p r a c t i c a l a r t s and a l s o one o f m an’s d i s t i n c t i v e q u a l i t i e s , i n t e l l i g e n c e .

U n f o r tu n a te ly ,

a d i s t u r b i n g th o u g h b a r e l y p e r c e p t i b l e e le m e n t h a s e n te r e d t h e p i c t u r e , f o r t h e b r u t e ’s n a t u r a l k in d n e s s to w a rd h i s f e l l o w b e in g s e ro d e s s l i g h t l y , s u c c e e d e d by a n o th e r n a t u r a l

F o r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f R o u s s e a u ’s D i s c o u r s e , I am in d e b te d t o L o v e jo y ’s e s s a y , "The S upposed P r i m i t i v i s m o f R o u s s e a u ’s D is c o u r s e on I n e q u a l i t y , " l o c . c i t .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

21 human q u a l i t y , s e l f - l o v e .

So w ith E m ile .

From t h e a g e s

o f f i v e t o tw e lv e , h e i s a c q u i r i n g a g ro w in g a w a re n e s s o f s e l f , t o g e t h e r w ith a p r o f i c i e n c y i n la n g u a g e and th e s i m p l e s t o f th e p r a c t i c a l a r t s , th o u g h t h e t u t o r h a s p r o ­ t e c t e d him fro m h a rm fu l s o c i a l c o n t a c t — t h e ’Vworld o f m en."„ 27 R o u s s e a u ’s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e t h i r d s t a g e — b o t h i n t h e c h i l d and i n m ankind — i s e s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . One o f t h e c h i e f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s " g o ld e n ag e" o f man was t h e em erg en ce o f a s o c i a l m o r a l i t y and t h e b e ­ g i n n in g s o f a s im p le s o c i e t y .

T h is m o r a l i t y was n o t t h e

n a iv e k in d n e s s f e l t by t h e b r u t e , b u t a m o r a l i t y b a s e d b o th o n a l t r u i s m and t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f m u tu a l d e p e n d e n c e . The se c o n d q u a l i t y o f t h i s i d e a l s t a g e was a h a rm o n io u s b a la n c e b e tw e e n m a n k in d ’s n e e d s and h i s d e s i r e s , b e tw e e n h is o r i g i n a l g o o d n e ss and h i s d e v e lo p in g i n t e l l i g e n c e .

T y p ic a l ­

l y , R o u sse a u la u d e d n e i t h e r t h e v i r t u e s o f t h e p r i m i t i v e n o r th e v ir tu e s o f th e r a t i o n a l i s t b u t a d e li c a t e s y n th e s is b e tw e e n t h e tw o .

R o u ssea u c a l l e d t h i s s t a g e i n m ankind t h e 28 " y o u th o f t h e w o r ld ." E m ile ’s t h i r d s t a g e , fro m tw e lv e t o f i f t e e n y e a r s ,

i s one o f h a p p y , i s o l a t e d y o u t h , b u t w ith t h e b e g in n in g s 27

L o v e jo y , "The S u pposed P r i m i t i v i s m ," l o c . c i t . , 2 9 - 3 0 ; and R o u ss e a u , E m ile , 2 9 , 4 1 - 4 5 .

28

L o v e jo y , "The S u p p o sed P r i m i t i v i s m ," l o c . c i t . ,

3 0 -3 1 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

22 o f a s o c i a l e d u c a tio n .

I n t h i s t r e a t m e n t , R o u ssea u

d e m o n s tra te d t h e U3es o f h i s t o r y i n p r o v i d in g ty p e s o f e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e .

E m ile , f o r e x a m p le , a p p ro a c h e d

s o c i a l m o r a l i t y much a s i t h a d , i n R o u sse a u * s o p i n io n , b e e n a p p ro a c h e d h i s t o r i c a l l y b y m a n k in d .

He m ust l e a r n

h i s econom ic d e p e n d e n ce upon h i s n e ig h b o r , and he s h o u ld do t h i s b y e n g a g in g i n p r a c t i c a l t a s k s h i m s e l f .

R o u sseau

b e l i e v e d t h a t p r i m i t i v e man i n h i s e a r l y s t a g e s and t h e c h i l d b e f o r e a d o le s c e n c e h a v e t h i s i n common:

n e ith e r

h a s an y g e n u in e i n c l i n a t i o n o r need t o p u rs u e o t h e r t h a n p r a c t i c a l t a s k s ; n e i t h e r h a s a n y g e n u in e i n t e r e s t i n c o o p e r a t i n g w ith h i s f e l l o w s .

R o u ssea u d id n o t deny t h a t

t h e young E m ile i s te m p te d t o p r a t t l e b i g w ords r a t h e r t h a n t o l e a r n t h e " p o s i t i o n o f t h e f o r e s t fro m M ont­ m o re n c y ."

N e i th e r d id R o u ssea u d eny t h a t t h e p r e ­

a d o l e s c e n t i s i n t e r e s t e d i n o t h e r human b e i n g s .

R o u s s e a u ’s

p o i n t was t h a t E m ile i s i n t r i g u e d by vague t a l k b e c a u s e he w is h e s t o a p p e a r w is e w ith o u t r e a l l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; h e i s a t t r a c t e d by o t h e r s m e re ly b e c a u s e he d e s i r e s t o u s e them f o r h i s own p u r p o s e s .

The f i r s t i s t h e b e g in n in g o f a r t i ­

f i c i a l c u l t u r e , w h ile t h e se c o n d i s t h e s e e d - b e d o f g re e d an d o p p r e s s i o n .

B o th t e n d e n c i e s a r e t o b e e x p e c te d d u r in g

e a r l y s t a g e s o f d e v e lo p m e n t i n t h e c h i l d , b u t t h e t u t o r must d en y them o p p o r t u n i t y f o r f u l f i l l m e n t l e s t E m i l e 's t r u e n a tu re be d i s t o r t e d .

R o u ssea u b e l i e v e d t h e young c h i l d

l a c k s t r u e r e a s o n and t r u e s o c i a l m o r a l i t y , a lth o u g h g iv e n

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

23 a p o p p o r t u n i t y he w i l l make p r e t e n s e to b o th v i r t u e s i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y h i s own s e l f i s h e n d s .2 ^ E ven when t h e tim e a r r i v e s t o s t a r t th e c h i l d on t h e ro a d t o s o c i a l m o r a l i t y , R o u sseau a d v is e d n e i t h e r se rm o n s n o r good l i t e r a t u r e .

E m i l e 's p r a c t i c a l c o n c e rn

f o r h im s e lf p r o v id e s t h e b e s t o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n i t i a t e him i n t o t h e w o rld o f m en.

"Y our m ain o b j e c t , " R o u sseau

t o l d e d u c a t o r s , " s h o u ld b e t o k e ep o u t o f y o u r s c h o l a r ’s way a l l i d e s o f s u c h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a s he c a n n o t u n d e r ­ s t a n d , b u t when t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f know ledge com pels you t o show him t h e m u tu a l d e p e n d e n ce o f m ankind, i n s t e a d o f sh o w in g him i t s m o ra l s i d e , t u r n h i s a t t e n t i o n a t f i r s t to w a rd s I n d u s t r y and t h e m e c h a n ic a l a r t s w hich make men u s e f u l t o one a n o t h e r ."

R o u ssea u w ould le a d t h e c h i l d

f ro m one w orkshop t o a n o t h e r , l e t t i n g him t r y h i s h an d '' a t e v ery t r a d e .

T h is d e v ic e w ould p ro v e u s e f u l t o E m ile ,

b u t , m ore i m p o r t a n t , i t w ould show him men a t t h e i r b e s t 30 an d i n t h e i r t r u e r e l a t i o n t o one a n o t h e r . The c h i l d ’s n a t u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t n e c e s s i t a t e d a l s o a d e la y i n p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n y c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l s o t h e r th a n t h e im m e d ia te ly p r a c t i c a l , b u t R o u ssea u had i n mind more t h a n a- r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f th e c u r r i c u lu m .

The v e ry

2 ^ R o u s s e a u , E m ile , 1 4 7 -1 4 9 .

30 I b id ., 148-149.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

24 s t r u c t u r e and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f know ledge i t s e l f m ust b e r e v i s e d t o ta k e a c c o u n t o f t h e c h i l d 's d e v e lo p in g n a t u r e , R o u ssea u w ould c a l l e v e ry b o d y o f know ledge b e f o r e t h e t r i b u n a l o f p s y c h o lo g y , dem anding a n e x p l a n a t i o n and — i f p o s s i b l e — a j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f i t s d i s t i n c t i o n s and m e th o d s ,

"T h e re i s a s e r i e s o f a b s t r a c t t r u t h s b y m eans

o f w h ich a l l t h e s c i e n c e s a r e r e l a t e d t o common p r i n c i p l e s and a r e d e v e lo p e d e a c h .in i t s t u r n , " he e x p l a i n e d , r e l a t i o n s h i p i s t h e m ethod o f p h i l o s o p h e r s . c o n c e rn e d w ith i t a t p r e s e n t .

" T h is

We a r e n o t

T h e re i s q u i t e a n o th e r

m ethod by w h ich e v e r y c o n c r e t e exam ple s u g g e s t s a n o th e r and a lw a y s p o i n t s t o t h e n e x t i n t h e s e r i e s .

T h is s u c ­

c e s s i o n , w h ich s t i m u l a t e s t h e c u r i o s i t y and so a r o u s e s t h e a t t e n t i o n r e q u i r e d by e v e r y o b j e c t i n t u r n , i s t h e o r d e r f o llo w e d b y m ost men, and i t i s t h e r i g h t o r d e r f o r a l l c h i l d r e n ." ^ 1 R o u sse a u a l s o demanded t h a t t h e d i v i s i o n s among s u b j e c t s b e sw e p t away i f th e y h a v e no m eaning i n th e c h i l d 's e x p e r i e n c e .

" I s t h e r e , " h e a s k e d , "no way o f

c o r r e l a t i n g so many le s s o n s s c a t t e r e d th r o u g h so many b o o k s , no way o f f o c u s i n g them on some common o b j e c t , e a s y t o s e e , i n t e r e s t i n g t o f o l l o w , and s t i m u l a t i n g e v e n 32 to a c h ild ? " R o u sse a u fo u n d t h i s c e n t e r o f i n t e r e s t i n

31 I b i d . , 1 3 5 . 32 I b i d . , 1 4 7 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

25 E m i l e 's p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s a n d , l a t e r , when E m i l e 's i m a g i n a t io n p r e p a r e d him t o v e n tu r e beyond h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s , t h e t u t o r c o u ld p la c e i n h i s h a n d s D a n ie l D e f o e 's R o b in so n C ru s o e , a p o r t r a y a l o f u s e f u l a c t i v i t i e s .

" I t w ill fu rn is h

E m ile w ith m a t e r i a l , b o th f o r w ork and p l a y , d u r in g t h e no

w h o le p e r io d we a r e c o n s i d e r i n g . "

So p o w e rfu l was

R o u s s e a u 's p le a f o r a p s y c h o l o g ic a l o r d e r i n g and " c o r ­ r e la tio n " o f s u b je c t m a tte r , th a t H e rb a rtia n s l a t e r i n ­ c o r p o r a te d t h e id e a o f " c o r r e l a t i o n " and e v e n R o b in so n C ru so e i t s e l f i n th e c u r r i c u lu m . E m ile ’s b u c o li c l i f e ,

i s o l a t e d fro m h i s f e l l o w men

and en g ag ed i n p r a c t i c a l t a s k s , had b e e n a h a p p y o n e , b u t i t w ould s o o n e n d .

The f o u r t h s t a g e was a p p r o a c h i n g .

H i s t o r i c a l l y , i t had b e e n a n unhappy e v e n t .

W ith t h e i n ­

t r o d u c t i o n o f l a r g e - s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n and t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , c o m p e ti t io n becam e t h e law o f l i f e and s e l f - l o v e g o t o u t o f h a n d .

I t was Thomas H o b b e s'

n o t R o u s s e a u ’s s t a t e o f n a t u r e — a "w ar o f a l l a g a i n s t a ll."

A new e n v iro n m e n t e n c o u ra g e d one s i d e o f m a n 's

e v o lv in g n a t u r e ; s e l f - l o v e q u i c k l y d e v e lo p e d i n t o s e l f i s h a m b itio n f o r w h ich i n t e l l i g e n c e was m e re ly a t o o l .

H a r­

m onious b a la n c e was d e s tr o y e d a n d , w ith i t , h a p p i n e s s . R o u ssea u ended t h e D is c o u r s e o n a p e s s i m i s t i c n o t e , f o r

33 I b i d . , 1 4 7 -1 4 8 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

26 t h e r e seem ed no e s c a p e fro m t h e f o u r t h s t a g e e x c e p t c i v i l s o c i e t y , a rem edy w orse t h a n t h e d i s e a s e ; i t m e re ly l e g a 34 l i z e d g re e d and s u p p o rte d a n a r i s t o c r a t i c c u l t u r e . I n E m ile ‘s d e v e lo p m e n t, t h e end o f t h e t h i r d s t a g e i s e q u a l l y o m in o u s. has a rr iv e d .

The " c r i t i c a l moment" o f a d o le s c e n c e

"As t h e r o a r i n g w aves p re c e d e t h e te m p e s t,

s o t h e murmur o f r i s i n g p a s s i o n s a n n o u n c e s t h i s tu m u ltu o u s c h a n g e ; a s *u p p r e s s e d e x c ite m e n t w arn s us o f t h e a p p ro a c h in g d a n g er.

A ch an g e o f te m p e r, f r e q u e n t o u t b u r s t s o f a n g e r ,

a p e r p e t u a l s t i r r i n g o f t h e m in d , make th e c h i l d a lm o s t u n g o v e rn a b le .

He becom es d e a f t o t h e v o ic e h e u se d to

o b e y ; h e i s a l i o n i n f e v e r ; he d i s t r u s t s h i s k e e p e r and r e f u s e s t o be c o n t r o l l e d . "

The c h i e f d a n g e r i s t h a t

E m ile 1s s e l f - l o v e w i l l becom e p e r v e r t e d i n t o s e l f i s h n e s s . " S e l f - l o v e , w h ic h c o n c e rn s i t s e l f o n ly w ith o u r s e l v e s , i s c o n t e n t t o s a t i s f y o u r own n e e d s , b u t s e l f i s h n e s s , w h ic h i s a lw a y s co m p a rin g s e l f w ith o t h e r s i s n e v e r s a t i s f i e d and n e v e r c a n b e ; f o r t h i s f e e l i n g , w hich p r e ­ f e r s o u r s e l v e s t o o t h e r s , r e q u i r e s t h a t th e y s h o u ld p r e ­ f e r us t o th e m s e lv e s , w hich i s i m p o s s i b l e ."

O b v io u sly

E m ile i s doomed b y h i s own p a s s i o n t o f o l lo w t h e sa d d e v e lo p m e n t o f m ankind i n t o i t s f o u r t h s t a g e u n l e s s h i s

•ail

*

L o v e jo y , "The S u p p o sed P r im itiv is m " l o c . c i t . , 34 .

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

27 t u t o r c a n g u id e him .,

"The w in d s a r e u n lo o s e d ; k e ep y o u r

hand upon t h e h elm o r a l l i s

lo s t

." 3 5

B u t R o u sse a u had h o p e s t h a t E m ile* w ith t h e h e lp o f th e t u t o r * c o u ld a v o id t h e p i t f a l l s o f h i s t o r y .

A d o le sc e n c e

b r i n g s d a n g e r , h u t i t b r i n g s o p p o r t u n it y a s w e l l ; i t i s l i t e r a l l y a se c o n d b i r t h .

"We a r e born* so t o s p e a k ,

tw ic e o v e r ; b o r n i n t o e x i s t e n c e and b o r a i n t o l i f e ; b o r n a human b e i n g , and b o r n a m an."

As a y o u th , E m ile was

h a p p y , b u t f o r a l l t h a t , R o u sseau r e a l i z e d t h a t E m ile had n o t a c h ie v e d h i s f u l l s e l f . a c h ild .

"Man i s n o t m eant t o re m a in

He le a v e s c h ild h o o d b e h in d him a t th e tim e

o r d a in e d b y N a t u r e ."

R o u ssea u d id n o t d e p lo r e t h e c h i l d ’s

n e a r l y t o t a l p r e o c c u p a t io n w ith h im s e lf and w ith p r a c t i c a l a f f a i r s , b u t n e i t h e r d id he t h i n k t h i s p r e o c c u p a tio n d e ­ f in e d th e g o a l o f e x is te n c e .

E m ile i s now p r e p a re d t o ta k e

a g e n u in e ly u n s e l f i s h I n t e r e s t i n o t h e r s and t o lo o k b e ­ yond t h e p r a c t i c a l a r t s .

H is own g ro w th p r o v id e s th e

s i g n a l , a lth o u g h t h e t u t o r ’s a r t and w isdom a r e needed t o e n s u r e a f a v o r a b l e o u tc o m e .

I n n a t e g ro w th no more d e ­

te r m in e s a h appy f u t u r e f o r E m ile th a n n a t u r a l d e v elo p m e n t k e p t m ankind o n i t s p r o p e r p a t h . 3^ Though i t a p p e a r s R o u ssea u u se d h i s t o r y a s a c lu e to p s y c h o l o g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t, i t c o u ld a l s o h av e b e e n t h a t th e

35 R o u s s e a u , E m ile * 1 7 2 -1 7 4 . 36 I b i d . , 1 7 2 .

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

28

r e v e r s e was t r u e ; t h a t i s , i t i s e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e t h a t R o u sseau f i r s t made a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l d e v e lo p ­ m ent and t h e n a p p li e d t h e p s y c h o l o g ic a l f i n d i n g s t o a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e p a s t .

The q u e s t i o n o f w h ic h came

f i r s t i s , h o w e v er, o f l i t t l e

im p o r ta n c e .

The m ain t h i n g

i s R o u s s e a u 's s u g g e s t i o n t h a t th e two p r o c e s s e s — i n d i ­ v i d u a l and s o c i a l — a r e r o u g h ly p a r a l l e l , s p r i n g i n g p o s s i b l y fro m a common s o u r c e .

W hether h i s t o r y a c t u a l l y

p ro v id e d t h e c lu e t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t, o r w h e th e r h i s t o r y and p s y c h o lo g y s im p ly s u b s t a n t i a t e d R o u s s e a u 's b e ­ l i e f i n a u n i v e r s a l law o f d e v e lo p m e n t, t h e p a r a l l e l i s m a p p a r e n t l y l e n t c o n fid e n c e t o h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p r o ­ c e s s e s o f g ro w th and l e a r n i n g i n E m i l e 's d e v e lo p m e n t and s u g g e s te d a p p r o p r i a t e e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s .

The p a r a l ­

l e l i s m a l s o w arned o f t h e d a n g e rs t o b e e x p e c te d when E m ile r e a c h e s a d o le s c e n c e .

I n t h i s t r e a t m e n t , R o u ssea u d id more

t h a n f o r g e a l i n k b e tw e e n t h e c h i l d on one hand and t h e " p r i m i t i v e " o r " s a v a g e " on t h e o t h e r . '

C om paring c h i l d r e n

t o p r i m i t i v e s o r s a v a g e s was a l i t e r a r y d e v ic e f a i r l y common i n p r i m i t i v i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n ­ t u r y and l a t e r fo u n d e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e r o m a n tic is m o f W ordsw orth and C o l e r i d g e .

R o u s s e a u 's o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n

was s u g g e s t i n g a p a r a l l e l d e v elo p m e n t away fro m s a v a g e r y i n t h e r a c e and away fro m c h ild h o o d i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l . ^

^

S e e F a i r c h i l d , The N oble S a v a g e , c h s . I and X .

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

29 I t I s q u ite a p p a re n t th a t h is to r y , as a re fe re n c e p o i n t by w h ic h t o I n t e r p r e t and g u id e E m ile ’s d e v e lo p m e n t, had a v e ry b ro a d m ean in g f o r R o u s s e a u .

I t w as v e ry com­

p r e h e n s i v e , e x te n d in g i n tim e beyond w r i t t e n r e c o r d s and i n s c o p e beyond p o l i t i c s , k in g s and w a r s .

I t p a r to o k

m ore o f a n th r o p o lo g y o r h i s t o r i c a l s o c i o lo g y t h a n h i s t o r y i n th e u s u a l s e n s e .

B u t R o u ssea u had a u s e f o r t h e l a t t e r

a l s o , o n ce E m ile becam e a n a d o l e s c e n t .

The l i t e r a t u r e o f

t h e p a s t and t h e w ork o f h i s t o r i a n s p r o p e r w ould p ro v e I n v a l u a b le f o r a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f men, now s o I m p o r ta n t t o E m ile .

When E m ile " b e g in s t o b e aw are o f h i s m o ra l

n a t u r e , he s h o u ld s t u d y h i m s e l f i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s f e llo w - m e n ," R o u sseau a d v i s e d . h i s w h o le l i f e . "

" T h is I s t h e b u s i n e s s o f

E m ile s h o u ld u n d e rs ta n d why m ankind d e ­

c l i n e d fro m a n i d e a l s t a t e o f n a t u r e , and t o t h i s end he s h o u ld " b e g in w i t h a kn o w led g e o f t h e human h e a r t . "

Much

o f t h i s s t u d y w i l l b e im m e d ia te and f i r s t h a n d , b u t m ore w i l l b e v i c a r i o u s , f o r E m ile s h o u ld b e h o ld many human a c t i o n s o n ly fro m a d i s t a n c e .

" T h is i s t h e tim e f o r

h i s t o r y ; w ith i t s h e lp he w i l l re a d t h e h e a r t s o f men w ith o u t an y l e s s o n s i n p h ilo s o p h y ; w i t h i t s h e lp h e w i l l view »38 th em a s a m ere s p e c t a t o r . " W ith in t h i s c o n t e x t , R o u s s e a u 's su p p o se d a t t a c k on t h e p a s t c a n b e u n d e rs to o d i n r e a l i t y a s a n a t t a c k on t h e ♦

R o u s s e a u , E m ile , 1 9 8 -1 9 9 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

c o n te m p o ra ry p r a c t i c e s o f h i s t o r i a n s , who a r e “f o r e v e r s l a n d e r i n g m a n k in d .”

S h o u ld E m ile r e a d o n ly a b o u t w a r s ,

g re e d and I n t r i g u e , h e w ould f a i l t o u n d e r s ta n d t h a t th e p a s t c o n t a i n s a l s o t h e r e c o r d o f e n t i r e p e o p le s s t r u g g l i n g f o r l i b e r t y and h a p p i n e s s .

R o u sse a u * s p o i n t was t h a t

h i s t o r y s h o u ld n e i t h e r g l o r i f y n o r s l a n d e r m ankind b u t m e re ly p r e s e n t th e f a c t s w h ic h E m ile c a n t h e n w eig h f o r h im s e lf.

L a t e r , E m ile c a n e v e n b e n e f i t by t h e c l a s s i c s .

T hey e x h i b i t a “ s i m p l i c i t y o f t a s t e w h ich g o e s s t r a i g h t t o t h e h e a r t ." ^ 9 R o u ssea u d id n o t , t h e r e f o r e , i g n o r e s o c i a l o r c u l ­ t u r a l v a lu e s i n h i s t r e a t i s e on e d u c a t i o n .

R a t h e r , he

s e a r c h e d f o r a s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e t h a t w ould n o u r is h n a tu ra l s e lf - r e a liz a tio n .

H is s u g g e s t i o n o f a p a r a l l e l ,

n a t u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t b e tw e e n t h e c h i l d and t h e r a c e p e r ­ m it t e d h im t o k e ep i n v i o l a t e t h e g o a l o f s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n , w it h o u t n e g l e c t i n g t h e im p o rta n c e o f s o c i e t y o r c u l t u r e a s m eans t o t h i s e n d .

E m ile a d v is e d t h e e d u c a to r t h a t h e

c o u ld s a f e l y a c c e p t t h e c h i l d * s d e v e lo p in g i n t e r e s t s a s c l u e s t o t h e c o n te n t and m eth o d s o f e d u c a t i o n , b e c a u s e th e s e i n t e r e s t s p a r a l l e l c lo s e ly th e le g itim a te , b ecau se n a t u r a l , d e v e lo p m e n t o f s o c i e t y an d c u l t u r e i t s e l f .

39 I b i d . , 1 9 9 -S O l, 3G8.

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

The

31 young c h i l d h a s no i n t e r e s t i n e i t h e r m o r a l i t y o r b o o k s , b u t i f t h e t e a c h e r w ould b e p a t i e n t , t h e c h i l d would i n tim e e x h i b i t s e n t im e n t s n e c e s s a r y t o make him a w o rth y member o f a c iv iliz e d s o c ie ty . I r o n i c a l l y , R o u sse a u r e c e i v e d no c r e d i t f o r t h e id e a o f e v o l u t i o n a r y c o rr e s p o n d e n c e o r p a r a l l e l i s m among t h o s e who l a t e r made e x t e n s i v e u se o f i t . s e l f was p a r t l y t o b la m e .

R o u sseau him ­

He d id n o t s t a t e w h at he was

up t o , p e rh a p s b e c a u s e o f a n u n d e r s ta n d a b le r e l u c t a n c e t o e x p o se t h e b a r e , a n a l y t i c a l b o n e s o f h i s a rg u m e n t.

Not

u n t i l a g ro u p o f German p o e ts and p h ilo s o p h e r s p ic k e d up t h e id e a and e l a b o r a t e d i t , d id e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m e r s r e f e r t o a d e v e lo p m e n ta l bond b e tw e e n t h e c h i l d and man­ k i n d , and o n ly a f t e r t h e r i s e o f em b ry o lo g y was th e te rm " r e c a p i t u l a t i o n " u sed t o d e s c r i b e i t .

M o reo v er, t h e c o n ­

c e p t p ro v e d so f l e x i b l e t h a t i t s e r v e d a s a c o n v e n ie n t w eapon to r e f u t e R o u s s e a u 's own o b s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t th e p s y c h o l o g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c h i l d and h i s s u g g e s tio n s f o r a n a p p r o p r i a t e e d u c a ti v e e x p e r i e n c e . D e s p ite ig n o r a n c e o r i n g r a t i t u d e , h o w e v er, n i n e ­ t e e n t h c e n t u r y e d u c a to r s fo llo w e d . R o u ssea u i n g r a d u a l l y p e r c e i v i n g t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f a c o rre s p o n d e n c e th e o r y f o r a c h ild -c e n te re d s c h o o l.

I f o n ly i t w ere t r u e , t h e bond

b e tw e e n t h e c h i l d and t h e r a c e w ould p r o v id e a c lu e t o a b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e n a t u r e o f c h i l d d e v elo p m e n t

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

32 and p r o v id e a l s o a s t a n d a r d b y w h ich t o s e l e c t a p r o p e r e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e .

M o re o v er, i t w ould q u i e t th o s e

more c o n s e r v a t iv e f o r c e s who saw i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i d e a l o f s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n th e s e e d s o f a n a rc h y o r p h i l i s t i n i s m . The c o n c e p t o f c o rr e s p o n d in g d e v elo p m e n t th u s p ro v ed a p e r f e c t weapon f o r th o s e r e f o r m e r s who r o s e t o th e c h a l ­ le n g e o f E m ile .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

CHAPTER II

RECONSTRUCTING THE CURRICULUM: THE EMERGENCE OF THE CULTURE-EPOCHS DOCTRINE

1800-1870 1.

P e s t a l o z z i , H e r b a r t and F r o e b e l

P ro b in g w ith a s h a r p p en b e n e a th t h e s u r f a c e o f th e s n c i e n r e g im e , R o u sse a u ta p p e d a s tr e a m o f i d e a s t h a t had c o u rs e d u n d e rg ro u n d f o r d e c a d e s .

H is w r i t i n g s lo o s e d

upon t h e m odern e r a a movement t h a t c o n s i s t e d o f a d e ­ t e r m i n a t i o n to m ea su re c i v i l i z a t i o n s e v e r e l y a g a i n s t t h e s ta n d a rd s o f N a tu re .

The s t r e a m g u sh ed f o r t h , s p i l l i n g

i n t o v a l l e y s s h a p e d b y t h e d i s c o n t e n t o f s o c i e t y w ith i t ­ s e lf.

G a th e r in g s t r e n g t h a s i t c o u rs e d th ro u g h t h e e i g h ­

t e e n t h c e n t u r y , n a t u r a l i s m becam e a r a g i n g t o r r e n t d u r in g t h e F re n c h R e v o lu tio n , h u r l i n g i t s e l f a g a i n s t t h e w a l l s o f t r a d i t i o n i n t h e n a m e .o f man*s n a t u r a l r i g h t s .

N ap o leo n

c o n v e r te d t h e r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t t r a d i t i o n i n t o dream s o f .... e m p ire , f u r t h e r d i s c r e d i t i n g R o u ssea u * s v i s i o n . A lth o u g h R o u sse a u d id n o t l i v e t o s e e t h e u s e s made o f h i s w o rk , h i s name was l in k e d t o t e r r o r and c o n q u e s t b y g e n e r a t i o n s o f men s t i l l q u a k in g fro m th e s h o c k o f 33

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

34 p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l.

I n Germany e s p e c i a l l y , i n t e l l e c t u a l s

who had f i r s t w elcom ed a g e n t l e s tr e a m t h a t p ro c la im e d f a i t h i n t h e n a t u r e o f man r e c o i l e d i n h o r r o r a s i t b e ­ came a d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e .

R o u s s e a u ’s m o st a r d e n t a d ­

m ir e r s among t h e r o m a n tic p o e ts and i d e a l i s t i c p h i l o s o ­ p h e r s e x a g g e r a te d h i s p r i m i t i v i s m and e m p h a siz e d t h e i r d is a g r e e m e n ts w ith h im .

A r e a c t i o n had s e t i n , and men

h a s te n e d t o h o l s t e r s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e a g a i n s t t h e f o r c e 2 o f R o u sseau ’s id e a s . P o s t - r e v o l u t i o n a r y Germany was a l s o , h o w e v er, an age o f re fo rm .

Few o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s who c r i t i c i z e d

R o u sse a u w ish e d t o s e e a r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu ry .

No l e s s th a n th e G enevan, many r o m a n tic s and

i d e a l i s t s a b h o rre d o p p r e s s i v e g o v e rn m e n ts and " a r t i f i ­ c ia l" c u ltu r e .

They to o p ro c la im e d i n d i v i d u a l s e l f -

r e a l i z a t i o n a s t h e g o a l o f human e n d e a v o r, and th e y w ould 1

J a c q u e s B a rz u n , C l a s s i c , R o m an tic and M odern (G a rd e n C i t y , N .Y ., 1 9 6 1 ), 2 S f f . o F o r a b r i e f a c c o u n t o f F i c h t e ’s c o n v e r s io n fro m t h e I d e a l s o f t h e F re n c h r e v o l u t i o n t o t h o s e o f a " f a n t a s ­ t i c a l German p a t r i o t , " s e e H enry D . A ik e n , The Age o f I d e o lo g y (New Y o rk , 1 9 5 6 ), 5 5 - 5 4 . K a n t, f o r a l l h i s sy m p ath y w i t h R o u s s e a u ’ s d e m o c r a tic t h o u g h t, w r o te i n 1803 t h a t man h a s a n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t f o r fre e d o m , b u t c o n t r a r y t o R o u s s e a u , i t i s n e i t h e r n o b le n o r t o b e t r u s t e d un­ l e s s s h a p e d th r o u g h e d u c a t i o n . As f o r a b e l i e f I n t h e n a t u r a l g o o d n e ss o f m an, K a n t rem a rk ed t h a t " I t i s p ro b ­ a b l y m e re ly a g o o d - h e a r te d p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o f t h e m o r a l i s t s fro m S e n e c a t o R o u s s e a u , i n o r d e r t o i n c i t e t o t h e c u l t i ­ v a t i o n o f t h e s e e d w h ic h we p e rh a p s p o s s e s s ." Edw ard F . B u c h n e r, e d . , The E d u c a ti o n a l T h e o ry o f Im m anual Kant( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1 9 0 4 ), 1 0 5 , I I 8 - 1I 9 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

35 ju d g e s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e a s in s t r u m e n t s t o t h i s e n d . German p o e ts and p h i lo s o p h e r s a l s o a d o p te d R o u s s e a u 's f a i t h i n a u n i v e r s a l law o f n a t u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t a s t h e k e y t o r e s o l u t i o n o f c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l on o n e hand and s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e on t h e o t h e r .

Specu­

l a t i o n a b o u t t h e n a t u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l an d t h e n a t u r a l e v o l u t i o n o f s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e c o n tin u e d apace.

The movement o f r o m a n tic is m and i d e a l i s m p ro d u ce d

a s e r i e s o f t r e a t i s e s o n t h e n u r t u r e o f t h e c h i l d and h i s t o r i e s o f l i t e r a t u r e , k n o w le d g e , and s o c i a l i n s t i t u ­ tio n s .

M ost o f t h e German t h i n k e r s fo u n d f a u l t o n ly w ith

R o u s s e a u 's p e s s im is m a b o u t t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f c o n te m p o ra ry s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e .

Upon e x a m in a tio n ,

t h e y c o n c lu d e d t h a t m ankind i n G erm any, a t l e a s t , had n o t w andered a s f a r fro m t h e t r a c k o f n a t u r a l d e v elo p m e n t a s R o u ssea u b e l i e v e d .

T h u s, e v e n a s t h e a r m ie s o f E u ro p e

g a th e r e d a g a i n s t N a p o le o n , German I n t e l l e c t u a l s w ere q u i e t l y p o n d e rin g t h e th em es l a i d down i n E m ile .

3

I n t h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l a tm o s p h e re R o u s s e a u '3 s u g ­ g e s te d bond b e tw e e n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c h i l d and t h e ^ R . G .C o llin g w o o d , The I d e a o f H i s t o r y (New Y o rk , 1 9 5 6 ), 8 6 -1 2 1 : J . T h eo d o re M erz, A H i s t o r y o f E u ro p e a n T h o u g h t i n t h e N i n e te e n t h C e n tu ry (L ondon, 1 8 9 5 -1 9 1 4 ), I I I , TT5, 2 5 ? : A r t h u r L o v e j o y , " H e rd e r and t h e E n lig h te n m e n t P h ilo s o p h y o f H i s t o r y , " E s s a y s i n t h e H i s t o r y o f I d e a s (New Y o rk , 1955)> 166 - 1 8 9 .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

36 e v o l u t i o n o f t h e r a c e r e c e i v e d m ore e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t . Two v e r s i o n s o f t h e th e o r y em erged g r a d u a l l y , s i m i l a r to t h e p r i m i t i v i s t i c and r a t i o n a l i s t i c e le m e n ts o f E m ile . The p h ilo s o p h e r s K a n t, F i c h t e and H e g e l i n t e r p r e t e d t h e id e a a s a p r i n c i p l e o f l e a r n i n g .

The c h i l d s h o u ld h e

e d u c a te d a s God h a s e d u c a te d m an k in d , b e c a u s e th e c h i l d I; l e a r n s a s m ankind l e a r n e d A s e c o n d , p r i m i t i v i s t i c v e r s i o n , em erged fro m a German r e v i v a l o f p a n th e is m and