Discussing Socio-economic and Other Global Challeges / Обсуждаем экономические и другие глобальные вызовы : учебно-методическое пособие

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Министерство науки и высшего образования Российской Федерации Сибирский федеральный университет

DISCUSSING SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND OTHER GLOBAL CHALLEGES ОБСУЖДАЕМ ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЕ И ДРУГИЕ ГЛОБАЛЬНЫЕ ВЫЗОВЫ Учебно-методическое пособие

Электронное издание

Красноярск СФУ 2020

УДК 811.111(07) ББК 81.432.1я73 D63

Составитель: Гаврилина Любовь Евгеньевна D63 Discussing Socio-economic and Other Global Challeges / Обсуждаем экономические и другие глобальные вызовы : учеб.-метод. пособие / сост.: Л. Е. Гаврилина. (5,2 Мб). – Красноярск : Сиб. федер. ун-т, 2020. – Систем. требования: PC не ниже класса Pentium I ; 128 Mb RAM ; Windows 98/XP/7 ; Adobe Reader V8.0 и выше. – Загл. с экрана. Предназначено для самостоятельной и аудиторной работы студентов в рамках учебных дисциплин «Иностранный язык» и «Иностранный язык в бизнес пространстве», обучающихся по профилю подготовки 38.05.01 «Экономическая безопасность» по направлению подготовки / специальности 38.05.01.06 «Финансово-экономическое обеспечение федеральных государственных органов, обеспечивающих безопасность Российской федерации». УДК 811.111(07) ББК 81.432.1я73 © Сибирский федеральный университет, 2020 Электронное учебное издание Подготовлено к публикации издательством Библиотечно-издательского комплекса Подписано в свет 11.12.2020. Заказ №12039 Тиражируется на машиночитаемых носителях Библиотечно-издательский комплекс Сибирского федерального университета 660041, г. Красноярск, пр. Свободный, 82а Тел. (391)206-26-16; http://rio.sfu-kras.ru E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS ВМЕСТО ПРЕДИСЛОВИЯ................................................................................ 4 INTRODUCTORY TEST ..................................................................................... 5 Module I. Economic Security ............................................................................... 8 Unit 1. The Idea of Basic Security .................................................................... 8 Unit 2. Security and Insecurity........................................................................ 20 Unit 3. Basic Definitions of Economic Security ............................................. 29 Unit 4. Skill Reproduction Security ................................................................ 41 Unit 5. Right to Free Merdical Service ........................................................... 49 Module II. Work-related Security ....................................................................... 58 Unit 1. Income Security .................................................................................. 58 Unit 2. Employment Security .......................................................................... 66 Unit 3. Work Security ..................................................................................... 73 Unit 4. Workplce Safety .................................................................................. 79 Unit 5. Job Security ......................................................................................... 84 Module III. Economic Security of Firms and Other Global Issues ................... 92 Unit 1. Economic Security of Firms ............................................................... 92 Unit 2. Financial Security of Firms ............................................................... 100 Unit 3. National Security in Different Countries .......................................... 106 Unit 4. Trends in Human Resource Management and Labour Relations ..... 114 TEXTS FOR ADDITIONAL READING ......................................................... 122 APPENDIX ....................................................................................................... 169 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................. 174

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ВМЕСТО ПРЕДИСЛОВИЯ Учебное пособие “Discussing Socio-Economic And Other Global Challenges” предназначено для занятий по практическому курсу английского языка в рамках учебных дисциплин «Иностранный язык» и «Иностранный язык в бизнес пространстве» для обучающихся по профилю подготовки 3805010006 Экономическая Безопасность, направлению подготовки/специальности: 38.05.01.06 финансовоэкономическое обеспечение федеральных государственных органов, обеспечивающих безопасность Российской федерации и специальности 380403 Управление персоналом 38.04.03.01, направлению подготовки Менеджмент персонала в современной организации, по профилю подготовки 38.04.04 Государственное и муниципальное управление, направлению подготовки 38.04.04.02 Государственное антимонопольное и тарифное регулирование Институт экономики, государственного управления и финансов. Предлагаемое учебное пособие предназначено главным образом для специалистов и магистрантов, имеющих хорошее знание английского языка в объеме программы вуза или прошедших специальный коррективный курс, что предполагает владение навыками построения предложений на базе всех времен английской грамматики, знакомство с неличными формами глагола и другими грамматическими явлениями, предусмотренными программой курса обучения неязыкового факультета. Текстовой материал представленного пособия и используемая система упражнений направлены на формирование и совершенствование у студентов основных навыков чтения аутентичных текстов, формирование коммуникативных навыков при обсуждении актуальных проблем по специальности, а также развитие навыков письменной речи, в том числе и составление аннотаций, подготовка презентаций, докладов, научных статей. Материал пособия способствует усвоению систематизированных знаний, умений и навыков, позволяющих обучающимся осуществлять эффективную иноязычную и межкультурную профессиональную речевую деятельность. Материал учебного пособия составили актуальные и современные тексты различных жанров из англоязычных и русскоязычных научных, научно-популярных, публицистических и деловых изданий. Тексты, используемые в данном учебном пособии, являются фрагментами текстов, опубликованных в открытых источниках, и используются исключительно в учебно-методических целях. Пособие состоит из 3 модулей в каждом из которых по 5 тем, все разделы снабжены иллюстрациями, схемами, которые помогут при подготовке сообщений, дополнены видеоматериалами. Кроме того, имеются дополнительные тексты для самостоятельного домашнего чтения, которые рекомендуются после прохождения соответствующих разделов основной части. 4

INTRODUCTORY TEST Section 1. Grammar and Vocabulary Task 1. In questions 1 – 21 choose the correct answer A, B, C, D. 1. I suppose, periods of mass insecurity ___ intolerance, extremism and violence. a) have always bred b) would always bred c) has always bred d) didn’t always bred 2. Insecurity induces people to be less innovative than they otherwise __ . a) would have been b) have been c) will be d) would be 3. The production manager ___ papers when we came to the department. a) haven’t prepared b) hadn’t prepared c) doesn’t prepare d) didn’t prepare 4. Unemployment benefits ___ one of the main pillars of the social insurance systems of industrialized countries. a) will be b) are not c) were d) have been 5. The world’s economic prosperity ___ increasingly on the uninterrupted flow of goods and services, people and capital, information and technology. a) depends b) will depend c) depended d) has been depended 6. Big Japanese companies ___ again about uniform pay systems. a) is thinking b) are thinking c) will think d) think 7. The impact of information technology ___ organizational structures eliminating vast numbers of jobs, while making others more demanding and effective. a) is flattened b) will flatten c) has flattened d) flattened 8. Practically in every country of the world, ___ dissatisfaction with the national health care system. a) there are b) there is c) there will be d) there was 9. I ___ some market research on visitors of the Computer exhibition. a) do b) am doing c) am done d) does 10. They would prefer us ___ in an on line international conference. a) take part b) takes part c) to take part d) to have taken part 11. Exports ___ steadily over the past six months. a) were growing b) have been growing c) are growing d) grow

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12. How much money ___ you ___ to offer? a) are going b) want c) suppose d) ready 13. These forecasts ___ by the Financial Times at the beginning of 2019. a) made b) are made c) were made d) have been made 14. During the seminar you ___ about negotiation strategies. a) will be learning b) will learn c) are learning d) were learning 15. If you ___ us a discount we’ll place a bulk order. a) will give b) won’t give c) gave d) give 16. He ___ to the post of Sales director provided there is an increase in productivity. a) was promoted b) has been promoted c) will be promoted d) promotes 17. After six hours of negotiation we ___ to make some progress. a) were able b) could c) can d) are able 18. A lot of accidents at work ___ be avoided. a) should b) can c) could d) may 19. All modern companies want their directors and managers ___ good at organizing teamwork. a) be b) to be c) are d) will be 20. I ___ at night because I contact colleagues in other countries. a) am working b) have worked c) work d) worked 21. Modern accounting firms use spreadsheet software to do complicated ___ . a) verification b) calculations c) multiplication d) installation 22. ___ is essential for a flexible labor force. a) training b) calculating c) entertaining d) evaluating 23. Today ___ manager will tell you that motivation is crucial for employees’ performance. a) many b) much c) any d) some 24. The process of finding people for particular jobs is ___. a) headhunting b) recruitment c) applying d) appointing

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25. Some ___ may leave the company they found going on to found more companies. a) magnate b) businessman c) tycoons d) entrepreneurs Section 2 Reading Task 1. Read the text and fill in the blanks with the words, choosing one of the suggested variants from answers 26 to32. The development process A few years ago a famous car company launched a new car, based on a completely new 26 ___ . They had done years of technical research and 27 ___ research with focus 28 ___ and 29 ___ panels and analyses of responses questionnaires 30 ___ . Then came the product 31 ___ . 32 ___ of the car were very good until a Swedish newspaper reported the results of its “elk test”. They found that the car had a tendency to tip over if you turned quickly to avoid an elk. This was due to a 33 ___ fault in the car, so they had to recall all the cars they’d sold in order to correct it. 25A version 26A computer 27A clients 28A respondent 29A reports 30A research 31A purchase 32A construction

B design B population B groups B presenter B surveys B development B sales B body

C computer C market C consumers C consumer C answers C test C scales C design

D platform D car D specialist D producer D opinion D launch D invention D power

Task 3. Read the text and fill in the gaps with appropriate words: in advance, time, time management, diary, quality, prioritize, personal organizers, cost, realistic plan, interruptions, distractions, perfectionism, priority. Time management tips Lucy Speed runs seminars on how to manage time. Everyone complain that they never have enough time. Many employees do my ___ courses, to learn how to organize their time. Here are some ideas: 1. Use a ___ to plan your day and week. ___ are good for this. 2. Plan your day ___ . Make a ___ (not just a list) of the things you have to do, in order of importance --- them. Work on things that have the highest ___ first. 3. Avoid ___ and ___ which stop you doing what you have planned. 4. Do jobs to a realistic level of quality in the time available and to a level that is really necessary. Don’t aim at ___ when there is no need for it. Try to balance ___ , ___ and ___ .

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Module I. Economic Security Unit 1. The Idea of Basic Security

In this unit you will...  remember some new vocabulary connected with basic security;  learn to use terms and definitions applied to economic security;  revise Present Tenses;  read about the economic security as a human right;  listen and watch the video connected with the people’s responses about economic security in an open studio at PhillyCAM;  talk on the topic discussed in the text highlighting that basic or economic security matters because without it, incentives to work, learn and develop decrease;  write your own ideas related to human rights observance as a basis for stability. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Necessitous, human freedom, dignity, to be signatory attest, imperil security, assertion, incentives to work, decent life, insecurity, morbidity, sustainable self-respect, to be deprived of something, commitment. Task 2. Look through the text and define the main idea of the text. You can choose from the statements given below: 1. We consider that the concept of freedom is topical, because the contours of basic security are shaped by the nature of freedom and dignity, which matter, to every human being. 2. Our position starts from the assertion that every person everywhere has a right to basic security because without it, incentives to work, learn and develop shrivel, confidence wanes and people lose the sense of control over their lives. 3. Basic security encompasses freedom from morbidity, freedom from fear, control of own development, sustainable self-respect. 8

Task 3. Read the text attentively and answer the following questions. 1. Do you agree with the quotation of Franklyn Roosevelt “Necessitous men are not free men”? 2. Why is economic security very important for all human beings? 3. Do you think that any person everywhere has a right to basic security? 4. What arguments do some researchers give to prove that every person on our planet has the right to basic security? 5. What elements must basic security comprise? 6. Could you explain what sustainable self-respect mean? Economic security or basic security Necessitous men are not free men. – Franklyn Roosevelt. Basic security matters because without it, incentives to work, learn and develop shrivel, and confidence wanes. Without it, people lose all sense of having control over their lives. At the same time, lives become dependent on the generosity of others, and on (rare) good luck. Economic security matters because human freedom and dignity matter to every human being. Equally, it should matter to every state in the world, as the broad range of international instruments to which such states are signatory attests. For these reasons, and particularly in the light of recent economic and social developments that imperil security in new and pervasive ways, security should become a high priority policy matter everywhere. Security matters, also, because freedom and dignity matter. To be clear, real freedom cannot exist unless a certain level of economic security – basic security – exists. One only needs to have clear pictures of freedom and dignity, and of basic security, to see that this is so. Our position starts from the assertion that every person everywhere has a right to basic security. This is more than “limiting the downside risks”. It means limiting the uncertainties people face in their daily lives. It also means providing a social environment in which people – you, me and them – feel they belong to a range of communities, and have a fair and good opportunity to live a decent life and to develop through what the ILO is calling decent work. So, is basic economic security a human right? We believe that it should be, and that it should be seen as a claim right, an ideal to which all policies and institutions should try to move. One must recognize that some insecurity is essential for dynamic societies and economies and for personal development. However, without basic security one cannot make rational decisions. Basic security must encompass:  Freedom from morbidity. People cannot be expected to act freely and responsibly if they are on the margins of survival. They need a distance from catastrophe. Basically free and secure society may be defined in part as one in which all groups have an equal freedom from morbidity (or an equal risk of illness, injury and life-threatening events).  Freedom from fear. The same equality must apply here, if basic security is to prevail. 9

 Control of own development. This must include the capacity to acquire education, and make decisions in real freedom.  Sustainable self-respect. There is a “poverty of dignity”, as well as a poverty of food or income. The person who is deprived of food may rob or may fall prey to social illness. The person who is deprived of dignity may take more violent action. This last aspect is easily taken for granted or ignored altogether, but is of increasing significance given the growing sophistication of information manipulation, the growing concentration of the mass media, and the global pressures to “consume”. People in all parts of the world are being encouraged to consume more and to act more opportunistically. It has been said that the pressure to be constantly “active” is a form of “infantilism” – individualism mixed with instantaneity – which undermines the processes by which we gain respect and social responsibility. More generally, the above elements comprise a set of commitments to what the philosopher Isaiah Berlin described as “negative liberty” and “positive liberty”, the former concerning the absence of illegitimate constraints, the latter the opportunity for making real choices about substantial matters of personal development. “Negative liberty” – the absence or negation of controls – is not sufficient for real basic security. Indeed, freedom purely in its negative sense is a form or expression of insecurity. The autonomous individual is in extremis in chronic insecurity, without networks of reciprocity that provide security. Task 4. Look through the text if necessary and find the English equivalents of the following Russian phrases: иметь значение, быть лишенным чего-то, самоуважение, стимул к работе; свобода и достоинство; получать образование, система/ряд обязательств, первый/бывший, подрывать, быть на грани выживания, ставить под угрозу, утверждение, достойная жизнь, неопределенность, подписавшая сторона/лицо имеющее право подписи. Task 5. Finish the statements according to the text: 1. Control of own development must include… 2. People cannot be expected to act freely and responsibly if they are… 3. The pressure to be constantly “active” is a form of “infantilism”… 4. One must recognize that some insecurity is 5. However, without basic security… 6. Basic security matters because without it… 7. The person who is deprived of dignity may take… 8. Our position starts from the assertion… Task 6. Look at the following prefixes and their use in the above economic terms/phrases and memorize them: A prefix comes at the beginning of a word and usually has a specific meaning, for example inter = between. 10

Prefix

Meaning of prefix

Example of use

In

Having negative meaning

insecurity, inequality, inflexible, inactive

In

Provided into a place, On a plane, etc.

Inter

between

Intra Trans

within across

co/com/con

with

up un

to improve having negative meaning

down

down (from internet)

inflow of funds from abroad, input in-flight entertainment interactive, international interdependent, interorganizatonal e.g. company intranet transmit, transfer, transaction combine, compatible, connect, configure update, upgrade, upkeep unproductive, unreliable download, downtime, i.e. when the network is down (not working)

Task 7. Complete the words in the following sentences by adding the prefix inter- intra-, trans-, com-, con-, up- or down-. 1. Last month computer ___ time cost the company over € 10.000 in lost production. 2. The computers in the production department have now been successfully ___ connected with those in the planning department. 3. Once you have completed payment details, the data will be ___ mitted via a secure link. 4. We cannot network these computers because the systems are not ___ patible. 5. Many companies distribute internal documents on their own ___ net. 6. Once the home page has been completed, we'll be ready to ___ load the site. 7. Cables are being laid throughout the building, as the network requires physical ___ nections. 8. Using the network, he was able to ___ bine the data from different reports. Task 8. Find as many words as you can, using a dictionary. Many words in the field of economics come from American English. Some terms are given in the table: British English timetable Flexitime CV (Curriculum vitae) Covering letter Labour Trade unions

American English schedule Flextime Resume Cover letter Labor Labor unions 11

Task 9. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: incentives, dignity, insecurity, margins of survival, to be deprived of something, undermine, a set of commitments, reciprocity, provide security, to take for granted. Task 10. Speak on the topic discussed in the text. GRAMMAR REVISION Present Tenses Uses The present tenses are used to express a range of meanings. The present continuous describes: 1. an activity at or around the time of speaking. I’m afraid Mr. Bread can’t see you right now. He’s interviewing someone. 2. a fixed future plan. Next year we are planning to use a new interactive system in our HR department. The present simple describes: 1. a regular or characteristic happening. How often does DHS use data analysis, exploration and identification? The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) annually identifies and maintains a list of critical infrastructure entities that meet the criteria specified in Executive Order (EO) 13636, Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity. The present perfect describes: 1. an activity at a non-specific time in the past. Our company has evolved over a period of years with input from many investors. 2. an activity which started in the past and continues to the present DHS has been working with international partners and the private sector to secure global systems of travel and trade in many ways since last year. Form Present Simple, Present continuous and Present Perfect (Positive, Negative, Question) Present simple active: We receive new goods from our contractors. The supervisor does not prepare papers. Where do you apply high taxation? Present simple passive: The market is flooded with various Wi-Fi software tools. In the United States, children's economic security is indicated by the income level and employment security of their families. Where are big companies involved? Multinationals are involved in many activities: buying, selling, marketing and production. Present continuous active: With the help of different amplifiers, the users are now changing their location without disruption in their network access. The government is setting up new enterprise scheems right now. What is making all these amazing features working so well? 12

Present continuous passive: So many features in our mobile are being used these days which most of us have never dreamed off. At present the majority of employees are not being payed. Why are those departments being moved? Present perfect simple active: Since 2017, DHS has significantly expanded its ability to track and disrupt terrorist and criminal financing. They have not discussed the project yet. Has Mobile Technology groomed a lot in past few years? Present perfect simple passive: Economic security has been proposed as a key determinant of international relations, particularly in American foreign policy after September 11, 2001. The decision has not been made. What has been expected from the courses on time management at your work? Present perfect continuous active: The supervisor has been checking the line managers today. I have not been working on this project since last year. How long have they been talking on the phone? Note: the present perfect continuous passive is very rare used. Sample sentences for you to translate and explain the use of tenses. Ageing The world is growing older. Globally the median age is expected to continue to rise, reaching 37 by 2050. Although developing countries have a low median age, they are already home to most people over the age of 60 in the world, even though the share of that age group is highest in affluent industrialized countries. In India, whereas the population is projected to grow by 49% between 1991 and 2015, the population aged 60 or over will grow by 107%. Population ageing poses growing challenges of perceived “dependency”, strains on pension systems and challenges for labour market policy, notably in the sphere of training and retraining. It will also strengthen pressure to review the role of “care work” in all parts of the world. Task 11. Choose the correct verb form in each of the following. 1. Social security schemes are classified/is being classified by the type of political system. 2. Nowadays, this technology is used/being used as office or home network in many electronic devices. 3. Thus, in Ukraine in 2002, although nearly one in every five industrial workers was entitled/has been entitled to a housing benefit or subsidy, less than half actually received it. 4. For security purposes the employees change/are changing their passwords regularly. 5. Each of these tools is specifically designed / has been specifically designed for different types of networks, operating systems and usage type. 6. The reality is that in the early years of the 21st century powerful interests press/are pressing governments all over the world to cut public social spending. 7. Someone is always finding/finds a better and more efficient method of doing the same task. 13

8. Quite a number of startups as well as incumbent equipment vendors are offering/offer optical access products. 9. Many of these threats are being addressed / are addressed by upscaling Internet security services. 10. And since new network services such as online purchases and broadcast communication are becoming/become commonplace, new security threats are being created/are creating and leveraged every day. Task 12. Complete the answers by putting the verb in brackets into the appropriate present tense in the active or passive. An interviewer is talking to Peter Maurer the President of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), asking some questions connected with the mission of the organization and his approach to economic security. 1. A: What is the mission of ICRC? B: Our organization’s mission ___ to protect victims of international and internal armed conflicts. (to be) 2. A: What citizens _____ into the protected categories? (to include) B:. We normally ___ war wounded, prisoners, refugees, civilians, and other noncombatants. (to encompass) 3. A: How do you normally find those in need for your assistance? B: The ICRC's Economic Security Unit, which is part of the Assistance Division, ___ to establish if people affected by different kinds of crisis and conflict can cover their essential needs sustainably. If they cannot do so, our Unit steps in ___ protect lives and restore livelihoods. (to seek)/(to help) 4. A: What measures does your Unit take to help people? B: Our Unit concentrates on restoring one or several of what ______ as “key livelihood outcomes.” They ___ of: food consumption, food production, income. (to know)/(to consist) 5. A: Are you saying that you check what people ______ (to eat)? B: Yes, of course. We usually monitor if their diet ___ their nutritional requirements, if people ______ to hunt, fish, produce food or forage as they normally would, if people earn or obtain enough money to cover their basic expenses. (to cover), (to be able). 6. A: Are you in charge of living conditions? B: The ICRC's Economic Security Unit especially monitor if people ______ against bad weather, weather they ______ basic standards of hygiene. (to protect),(can maintain) 7. A: And my next question ______ to evaluation of the ICRC’s Economic Security Unit activity. (to relate) B: EcoSec strives to be as accountable as possible to the people we help. They come first. We make sure that they ___ well, ___ , their needs met and their voices heard. (to be / to inform) 8. A: In conclusion could you give your definition of economic security? B: We ___ economic security as the ability of individuals, households or communities to cover their essential needs sustainably and with dignity. This can ___ according to an individual's physical needs, the environment and prevailing cultural standards. Food, basic shelter, clothing and hygiene ______ as essential needs, as does the related expenditure; the essential assets needed to earn a living, 14

and the costs associated with health care and education. (to define)/ (to vary) (to qualify) From: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Maurer SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 13. A) Skim three texts and give the gist of each text. You may use the following words and sentences to express your ideas: The main issue (object,purpose) of this text is to present (to discuss, to describe, to show, to develop, to give)...; In my opinion (To my mind, I think)...; The first text (article) is interesting (not interesting), of importance (of little importance), valuable (invaluable), up-to-date, useful (useless)...Then analyze the context and match the titles: 1. Coercion is inimical to freedom 2. Human rights observance as a basis for stability 3. Career of Peter Maure B) Ask each other questions to find out the key information about the topics discussed in the articles. Example question: 1. What is the main cause to protect human rights? 1. The prime reason for Australia's commitment to human rights is humanitarian: the rights and dignity of the human person. Yet we also affirm that increased respect for human rights provides the only sure basis for true regional security and stability. Therefore, human rights issues should be prominent, not incidental, to Australian government positions on regional security and stability. Continuing unjust economic systems and oppressive political regimes do not provide security either to a country's citizens or to its neighbours, including Australia. Rather, they encourage extremist responses, forced displacement, armed conflict and continuing instability and crises. Moreover, if Australia's foreign policy is based on short-term economic interest at the cost of human rights, Australia will come to be regarded in the region as opportunist and exploitative. This reputation will jeopardise Australia's future participation as more representative forms of government emerge in the region. 2. Peter Maurer (born 1956) is the President of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), appointed 1 July 2012. In 1987, Maurer entered the Swiss Diplomatic Service (Federal Department of Foreign Affairs), where he held various positions in Berne and Pretoria, before being transferred to New York in 1996 as Deputy Permanent Observer at the Swiss Mission to the United Nations. In 2000, he was appointed Ambassador and head of the division in charge of human security at the headquarters of Switzerland's Foreign Ministry in Berne. In 2004, Maurer was appointed Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Switzerland to the United Nations in New York. In this position, he endeavoured to integrate Switzerland, which had only recently joined the United Nations, into 15

multilateral networks. In June 2009, the United Nations General Assembly elected Maurer Chairman of the Fifth Committee, in charge of United Nations administrative and budgetary affairs. In addition, he was elected Chairman of the Burundi Configuration of the UN Peacebuilding Commission. In January 2010, Maurer became Switzerland's State Secretary for Foreign Affairs, a position he held until he was elected President of the ICRC. Since 2012, Maurer has led the ICRC through an historic budget increase, from 1.1 billion CHF in 2011 to over 1.6 billion CHF in 2015. In addition, he launched the world’s first “humanitarian impact bond” scheme, in which private investors lend €22 million of five-year funding and their repayments depend on what difference the project makes to its clients’ lives. Since 2019, Maurer has been co-chairing the World Economic Forum High-Level Group on Humanitarian Investing, alongside Børge Brende and Kristalina Georgieva. 3. A principle on which surely all can agree is that coercion and freedom do not mix. What is wrong with coercion, from the perspective of freedom, is that, when a person is coerced, she/he acts for a purpose or goal that is not her/his own. For example a young person who has adopted as a life goal the pursuit of a certain occupational path is subject to coercion when her parents stand in the way of her pursuing the occupation, even if they do so “for her own good”; and in complying with her parents’ directives – in effectively pursuing their goals rather than her own – she is not free. Also, a person in prison is not free to go about as she pleases, to pursue her chosen occupation, to participate in the raising of her children. A worker subject to controls of every description, from detailed and rigid directions on exactly how to carry out every minute aspect of his employment duties to rules about how and when to interact with others in the workplace, lives a life of unfreedom at work. A person living in a regime that criminalizes antigovernment speech is not free to express her political convictions in a public setting. Thus, “coercion” is inimical to freedom. Human beings can flourish only by establishing their own personal goals, or ends; by determining, in their own way, the means that are best suited to achieve those ends; and by pursuing those means. Speaking Practice Task 14. Discuss the opinion of Sheila R. Ronis who had the privilege of conducting a study as a consultant to the U.S. House of Representatives Small Business Committee. She recommended the establishment of a center in the Executive Office of the President for “whole of government” and interagency to look at a number of defense industrial base issues and their national security implications. Then, in her work with the Project on National Security Reform over the last few years, the Working Group that She led recommended the establishment of a Center for Strategic Analysis and Assessment to provide the mechanism to conduct foresight studies and the development of the grand strategies that would follow – the kind of studies that would look at an entire system, such as the economy and its relationship to national security. 16

Work in pairs. Ask each other questions to find out each other opinions. Some examples can help you to ask questions and discuss the ideas. Use the following words and phrases to answer the questions. I consider that responsibility of the center can be… . I guess that center for SAA should … . In my opinion the National Security Reform must be conducted… . I believe that the Project on National Security Reform can be … , but ... . What would you recommend working as a systems scientist? What does that mean in a world of globalization? And how do we even define what national security is in such a complex and interdependent world? Can we survive, let alone remain a superpower, if we no longer control any means of production? Historically, national security includes the strength of our nation’s infrastructure, the foundation upon which the continuous growth of our society depends. This includes our strong societal and moral codes, the rule of law, stable government, social, political, and economic institutions, and leadership. Also included are our nation’s schools and educational programs to ensure a knowledgeable citizenry and lifelong learning–a must for a democracy. Our nation’s strength also requires investments in science, engineering, research and development, and technological leadership. We cannot be strong without a viable way to power our cities, feed ourselves, and move from one place to another. Most of all, a strong economy is an essential ingredient of a global superpower. Without it, we will lose our superpower status, and quickly. National security must include a healthy market-based economy, with a strong base of globally competitive products and services that produce jobs. This economy must include sound government policies to promote responsible choices and reduce our debt, and grand strategies for energy and environmental sustainability, science and technology leadership (at least in some areas), human capital capabilities, manufacturing, and the industrial base. And these are not the only components. National security goes to the very core of how we define who we are as a people and a free society. It concerns how we view our world responsibilities. Economic security is a major element of national security, even as borders are less important than ever. No matter how we look at national security, there can be no question of the need to include the economic viability of our nation. Without capital, there is no business; without business, there is no profit; without profit, there are no jobs. And without jobs, there are no taxes, and there is no military capability. Task 15. Read the information below to find the approaches mentioned in the texts. Work in pairs discussing your choice. On the diagram different approaches to Economic security are given.

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1. In the Law of the Russian Federation “About safety”, the concept of “national security” is defined as “the state of protection of vital interests of person, society and state from internal and external threats”. The “vital interests” are represented as “a set of needs, the satisfaction of which reliably ensures the existence and possibility of progressive development of personality, society and state”. Thus, economic security is an integral part of national security. The economic security can be represented as the state of protection of national economy from external and internal threats, which ensures the progressive development of society, its economic and socio-political stability, despite the presence of adverse external and internal factors. The state economic security is a complex socio – economic concept, reflecting a wide range of ever-changing conditions of material production, internal and external threats to the country's economy. 2. As the 21st century evolves, we will surely devote more attention to policies and institutions to strengthen economic security. For the ILO, that is a crucial part of our dedication to decent work, the dream of helping to ensure that more people across the world find opportunities to work in dignity, for the benefit of their families, communities and themselves. This analysis does not commit the ILO to particular policies. Rather it provides new and sometimes disturbing information that national policymakers, employers, unions and others should examine as they reflect on what policies they would wish to advocate or implement. Over the past five years, the ILO’s Socio-Economic Security Programme has taken a fresh look at the most fundamental questions underlying how we organize work and how that connects to broad social goals. The work stems from a decision of our Governing Body to support the systematic compilation of information on socioeconomic and labour security, thereby contributing to the measurement of decent work. The Programme was asked to collect data to quantify the forms of insecurity, for analysis and the development of responses. The results shed light on the problems we face in a globalizing world and considers people’s views on what should be done. It takes forward a commitment to make the ILO a listening Organization, devoted to developing a knowledge18

based approach. The foundation of this study rests on going out to ask people across the world about their work, about their needs and about their aspirations. In doing so, besides creating a global databank on social policies, it has acquired detailed information by visiting thousands of factories and thousands of families in many countries. It looks at poverty, for example, in its subjective and objective aspects, asking what people feel they lack and the reasons, as much as about the amount of money they earn, about the instability of their income as much as the level, and the deductions many experience. We see, for instance, that women are often impoverished by losing control of the income they earn. 3. Economic security is a major element of national security, even as borders are less important than ever. No matter how we look at national security, there can be no question of the need to include the economic viability of our nation. Without capital, there is no business; without business, there is no profit; without profit, there are no jobs. Moreover, without jobs, there are no taxes, and there is no military capability. The viability of a nation’s industrial infrastructure, which provides jobs for its people, creates and distributes wealth, and leverages profits, is essential. Without jobs, the quality of peoples’ lives deteriorates to a point where society itself can disintegrate. It can also lead to strife on many different levels. As a nation, we need to find a strategy to deal with this, and we will discuss the ideas of expeditionary economics. Historically, national security includes the strength of our nation’s infrastructure, the foundation upon which the continuous growth of our society depends. This includes our strong societal and moral codes, the rule of law, stable government, social, political, and economic institutions, and leadership. Also included are our nation’s schools and educational programs to ensure a knowledgeable citizenry and lifelong learning– a must for a democracy. Our nation’s strength also requires investments in science, engineering, research and development, and technological leadership. We cannot be strong without a viable way to power our cities, feed ourselves, and move from one place to another. Most of all, a strong economy is an essential ingredient. The sovereignty and security of the United States, and the protection of its citizens and property around the world, remain the bedrock of national security. The execution of U.S. national security strategy is conducted in a highly volatile global environment characterized by quantum changes in technology; unprecedented social, economic, and political interdependencies; broadened opportunities to foster democratic principles; and allegiances. Listening Task 16. Watch the video and write answers of the people invited to an open studio at PhillyCAM about economic security in their lives and their hopes for an economically secure society. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OgHnqL-X8Jw

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Writing Practice Task 17. Give as much information and recommendations as you can in a written form. Look through the report quoted by the former Human Rights Commissioner, Mr. Brian Burdekin connected with the development of better human rights and propose your own ideas related to human rights observance as a basis for stability. You may definitely use the ideas taken from some respectable and reliable internet sources but do not forget about your own experience in this field. It is desirable to find a group of students and organize a team to accomplish this task. Team work will help you to implement the task perfectly. You may use some useful phrases and statements to give recommendations from exercises 12, 13. This Committee's 1994 report concluded that 'Development of better human rights in the region is more than an idealistic ambition; it is a practical necessity'. The report quoted former Human Rights Commissioner, Mr. Brian Burdekin: I think our security in this region is dependent on the stability of the region, and I very strongly believe that the stability of the region, in turn, is dependent on the extent to which governments in particular do or do not observe fundamental human rights. This perception of a close link between human rights observance and stability and security was represented across a range of submissions to this inquiry. The government's position was stated clearly: The Government believes that the promotion and protection of human rights is important to Australia's national interest not least because it underpins Australia's broader security and economic interests. These interests are inextricably linked to the stability and economic prosperity of the Asia Pacific region. Therefore, the Government attaches particular importance to the promotion and protection of human rights in the region as an inseparable part of Australia's overall foreign policy approach. Unit 2. Security and insecurity

In this unit you will...  remember some new vocabulary connected with security and insecurity;  learn to use terms and definitions applied to economic security and insecurity;  revise Past Tenses;  read about the consequences of economic insecurity; 20

 listen and watch the video connected with the economic opportunity for all;

 talk about some consequences of insecurity in our country;  write about the main consequences of insecurity all over the world.

Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Insecurity, irresponsible, intolerance, notion of poverty, inequality, uncertainty, vulnerability, affluent owners of assets, welfare state, unpredictability. Task 2. Look through the first text and define the main idea of the text. 1. We consider that the text is primarily about economic insecurity and its consequences. 2. This text is the premise that in recent years economic, social, political and technological developments have accentuated the insecurities experienced by people across the world. Task 3. Read both parts of the text and answer the following questions. 1. Do you agree with the statement that insecurity is worse than poverty? 2. Why do all people need a sense of security? 3. When do people tend to become socially irresponsible? 4. What arguments do some researchers give to show that income poverty and inequality are major predictors of insecurity? 5. Can you explain the fact that capitalism leads to insecurity? 6. What terms do you think speaking about security and insecurity? 7. How does insecurity realize itself? 8. What are the main consequences of insecurity? The Notions of Security and Insecurity Part 1 “Insecurity is worse than poverty.” – Confucius All human beings need a sense of security, to give a sense of belonging, a sense of stability and a sense of direction. People who lack basic security in themselves, in their families, in their workplaces and in their community tend to become socially irresponsible. They tend to behave opportunistically, and they tend to lose a sense of moderation. Moreover, periods and areas of mass insecurity have always bred intolerance, extremism and violence. Look around the world today. This text is based on the premise that in recent years economic, social, political and technological developments have accentuated the insecurities experienced by people across the world. It will provides statistical support for the view that insecurity has indeed grown, and consider a broad range of policies and institutional changes that could ameliorate those insecurities. But initially, we will 21

spell out what is meant by insecurity and why it should be given much higher priority in policy reform in the early years of the 21st century. A premise is that, while notions of poverty overlap with notions of insecurity, one could exist without the other. The same is true of the overlap between inequality and insecurity. Inequality is part of insecurity, particularly when that inequality is substantial. And the unequal distribution of insecurities is part of socio-economic inequality. These points should become clear in the course of the discussion. Some people and communities are dreadfully insecure, but may not be poor by conventional definitions. Others may feel relatively secure in themselves, even if they are poor from the point of view of an income or property. But some researchers consider that income poverty and inequality are major predictors of the incidence of insecurity. Insecurity induces people to be less innovative than they otherwise would be, and less likely to take productive risk-taking options. It shortens people’s time-horizons, makes them more opportunistic and narrows their choices. It heightens uncertainty and accentuates vulnerability. This text is primarily about economic insecurity. Historically, capitalism was built on an uneasy tradeoff in which the relatively affluent owners of assets, capital, bore the insecurity of entrepreneurial risk taking, while taking much of the gains of the resultant economic growth. Some insecurity and uncertainty is necessary for growth, both for economic dynamism and for personal development. However, in recent decades, and apparently stretching into the future, it seems that ordinary workers and working communities – and societies on the edge of the capitalist economy – are being obliged to bear most of the worst forms of insecurity, whereas large-scale asset holders are relatively well shielded from insecurity. Indeed, the dominant model in the early part of the 21st century, which took shape in the late 20th century, is actually dependent on insecurity. Some Consequences of Insecurity Part 2 Whereas for much of the 20th century, development was depicted as a march towards state-based social and economic security, portrayed as the welfare state and a complex array of protective regulations and institutions, now there is no future of security on offer, merely “the risk society”. It may well be that most groups are being exposed to more and greater risks. However, those at the top of the income and wealth spectrum have secured high level of protection against those risks. There are many observers who believe that the economic system is throwing up more “winners-take-all” markets, where a tiny minority of talented or lucky individuals and firms receive a very high proportion of the economic rewards, while growing numbers face cumulative disadvantages. This vision of a shifting pattern of risk and insecurity has a resonance even in lowincome economies, since in recent years property rights have been increasingly entrenched there, legitimized by the spread of formal political democracy. It has been suggested that in some of those countries elites and the representatives of capital have accepted the introduction of formal political democracy in return for 22

the preservation of considerable inequalities of income, wealth, status and power. Insecurity is not just an individual phenomenon. One can have systemic insecurity – mass entitlement failure – as well as individual entitlement failure. In the course of structural transformations, systemic reorientations take place in relations of production and distribution, in support at times of need and in the normal reciprocities that make up notions of community. This may leave more people increasingly exposed to risks and uncertainty. Economic insecurity is about risks and uncertainty. Insecurity cannot be reduced just to risk. Whereas with many risks, one could in principle estimate the probability of an adverse outcome, with uncertainty there is unpredictability. In practice, the vast majority of people everywhere do not know the risks they face or would see them as unpredictable. And, with a wider range of decision-making associated with modernization and globalization, and the shift from local to global influences, the risks and uncertainty both grow. Economic insecurity is also about the costs of the adverse outcomes of risks, including psychological, financial and social status costs. And it is about the capacity to cope with the adverse consequences of those risks and the capacity to recover from adverse outcomes. It seems that there is a greater perception of risk, a greater incidence of people exposed to a wider range of risks, and a reduced capacity to cope with and to recover from the adverse consequences, in part because of the cumulative nature of “winning” and “losing” in a market society, in part because of the whittling away of informal support networks (familial or other) and of formal state networks of support in case of need. Insecurity realizes itself in numerous ways. Think of just a few of them: the stress that leads to alcoholism or drug addiction, mass hysteria and endless talk of the “new risk society”. We seem to be living in an era of fear. Consider the fact that in the United States, by 2002 there were over one million workers employed as security guards, and it is projected that this number could rise by 50% by 2010. Task 4. Look through both parts of the text if necessary and find the English equivalents of the following Russian phrases: Спокойствие, чувство незащищенности, богатые страны, способствовать/приводить в действие, менее процветающий, воплощать/выражать, глубокие социальные волнения, сталкиваться с нарастающими проблемами, социально безответственный, значительное неравенство доходов, неблагоприятный исход, справляться с последствиями, традиционное определение, соотечественник, изолированное закрытое сообщество, упрощение, признать озабоченность чем-либо. Task 5. Finish the statements according to the text: 1. Insecurity induces people to be less innovative than they otherwise would be.… 2. Economic insecurity is also about the costs of the adverse outcomes of risks… 3. Historically, capitalism was built on an uneasy tradeoff in which the relatively affluent owners of assets… 23

4. It may well be that most groups are being… 5. …a sense of stability and a sense of direction. 6. And it is about the capacity to cope with the adverse consequences of those risks… 7. The very notion of “community” is dubious, since the gating process… Task 6. Match the terms with their definitions: 1. Welfare state a) lack of confidence b) to put someone in unpleasant or dangerous 2. Moderation situation c) control of behavior, feelings, habits within 3. To be exposed reasonable limits d) something that happens as a result of a particular 4. Conventional actions 5. Reciprocity e) balance between two opposing things f) action that is used to hurt other person mentally or 6. Uncertainty physically g) a system in which the government provides 7. Insecurity money, free medical care for unemployed, ill or too old to work h) a situation when two people or countries give each 8. Tradeoff other similar help i) when you feel doubt or you are not sure about 9. Violence something 10. Consequences j) traditional, normal, acceptable in a society Task 7. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: ameliorate, a sense of moderation, predictors, bred intolerance, vulnerability, conventional definition, a set of commitments, reciprocity, provide security. Task 8. Make up your own sentences using two words from tasks 5, 6. Task 9. Speak on the topic discussed in the texts. GRAMMAR REVISION Past Tenses Uses All the past tenses are used to express activities at a definite time in the past. Past simple describes facts: In 1972, the state legislature of Arizona formed a Department of Economic Security with a mission to promote the safety, wellbeing, and self sufficiency of children, adults, and families. 24

Past continuous describes an activity that is a time frame for another activity: While we were studying the methods of accounting, we found out that we could easily apply all digital data. The past perfect describes an activity that happened earlier than another activity in the past: Our studies showed how well the equipment had performed. Notes: We use the past tenses with these expressions: Yesterday/yesterday morning, last/ last night/week/month/year, Ago/one hour/two weeks/four years ago, in 2014. Form Past simple, Past continuous and Past perfect Past simple active/passive Positive: Last year we began a new study. In 1987, Maurer entered the Swiss Diplomatic Service (Federal Department of Foreign Affairs), where he held various positions in Berne and Pretoria, before being transferred to New York in 1996. Negative: The examination of many American households who used charitable food programs in 2014 was not assessed properly. Question: Who elected Maurer the Chairman of the Fifth Committee, in charge of United Nations administrative and budgetary affairs in June 2009? When was Maurer appointed Ambassador and Permanent Representative of Switzerland to the United Nations in New York? Wooden acknowledged the prospect of a recession had been greater than any time since 2008, and he said the economy was “on a knife edge” Past continuous active / Passive Positive: While the analyst was carrying out the test we went out. Negative: The technicians were not recording the results. Question: What were you doing during the test phase? Past perfect active / Passive Positive: After we had compiled the results, we began our test. After the results had been compiled, the test started. Negative: As they had not recorded the data, they spoiled the result. The result was spoiled because the data had not been recorded. Question: Had we carried out all the tests? Had all the tests been carried out? Past perfect continuous active: Positive: The chief accountant had been checking the reports yesterday when we came. Negative: We had not been evaluating the obtained data. Question: How long have you been working on the project? Note: The past perfect continuous active is quite unusual and past perfect continuous passive is very rear. Sample sentences for you to translate and explain the use of tenses. After the Second World War, world leaders made an unprecedented commitment to the promotion of social and economic security. The world was 25

expected to move steadily to situations in which most citizens of the industrialized world were protected by social services, transfers and institutions that provided a dense network of security “from cradle to grave”. In most of the developing world – even if there was an awareness that it was not possible quickly to provide this type of security – there was commitment to achieve it. Economic growth and development were built on security, and were expected to strengthen security – the means and the ends were twins. Task 10. Five of the following sentences contain mistakes. Find and correct them. Please bear in mind that in all the sentences past tenses are used. 1. First several health indicators been reviewed, but later we included the infant mortality rate. 2. While highly correlated with GDP per capita, health indicators were varying considerably across developing countries. 3. Comparing individual country scores on income security showed that the 13 most secure was western European countries, headed by Norway. 4. More than half (55%) of households served by the Feeding America network reported having to use three or more coping strategies to deal with tough financial choices. 5. Some of these coping strategies may support one’s health, but others that made sense in the short term could be detrimental to health in the long term. 6. The energy efficiency of the Russian economy one of the main priorities of the Energy strategy of Russia approved by the Russian Government in August 2003. 7. The solution to the problem of environmental pollution was closely linked to the restriction of human activities and primarily with neutralization of anthropogenic impacts on natural ecological systems many years ago. 8. Only half felt that there was sufficient demand for their product or service, though women was little less likely to agree than men. 9. In France, for instance, between the 1950s and 1970s corporatism slowly extended social rights from the public sector to the private. 10. This avoided social conflict as the changes did not apply to the public service, in which there were powerful unions. SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 11. Skim the text and find some more information about consequences of insecurity. Give your own examples related to. The spread of gated communities is another symptom of a profound societal disquiet even in affluent countries. In the most affluent country in the world, one in ten of its population now chooses to live in gated communities, enjoying relative affluence but fearful that some of their comforts may be taken by their less prosperous fellow citizens. The very notion of “community” is dubious, since 26

the gating process often seems to isolate people rather than bring them together. Segregated gated communities are spreading in Europe and elsewhere. In all of this, there seems to be a refusal to recognize the role of inequalities. Yet insecurities threaten the rich as well as the poor. The film American Beauty encapsulated the radical insecurity that comes from wanting total security as the goal of being middle class; the film Bowling for Columbine shows the psychosis that comes from chronic insecurity. It would thus be a rude oversimplification to equate economic and social insecurity with poverty, and even worse to treat it as almost synonymous with underdevelopment, located overwhelmingly in low-income developing countries. Speaking Practice Task 12. Look through the text and find out how common people support equality in different countries. Then present a short report on the information related to some research project known by you. The attitudes revealed with respect to inequality may be linked to the belief that being poor is a punishing experience, which is generally unacceptable. It seems to be a widely held view that people should not be impoverished. In a range of laboratory-type experiments, one research project conducted in various places across Canada, the United States and Poland found that most people opted for the view that a minimum “floor” amount of income should be provided to everybody in society, as a right. It also found that support for this grew if people deliberated about it and about alternative principles of justice. Another empirical study asked people how much someone should be paid in various occupations. It found that there was a consensus that no occupation should receive less than a reasonable minimum. The first large-scale surveys to examine this question, demonstrated that there was near-universal consensus within and across countries that there should be some kind of minimum, although there was variation in what that minimum should be. In all countries covered by the surveys, similar support for a minimum income has been found. Even in the United States, often considered the least egalitarian of cultures, there is substantial support for income to cover basic needs. Task 13. Work in pairs. Read the text attentively and ask each other questions to find out the key information about the connections between food insecurity and health. Analyze the information shown on the diagram. The Hunger in America 2014 study found that many households served by the Feeding America network of food banks include people coping with a dietrelated chronic disease. Fifty-eight percent of households reported having at least one member with high blood pressure and 33 percent had at least one member with diabetes. The cycle of food insecurity and chronic disease begins when an individual or family cannot afford enough nutritious food, illustrated by the image below. The combination of stress and poor nutrition can make disease management even more challenging. Further, the time and money needed to respond to these health conditions strains the household budget, leaving little 27

money for essential nutrition and medical care. This causes the cycle to continue, increasing the risk of worsening existing conditions. Many families experiencing food insecurity often have several, if not all, compounding factors that makes maintaining good health extremely difficult.

Listening Task 14. Watch the video and describe how food insecurity complicates chronic disease management. https://hungerandhealth.feedingamerica.org/understand-food-insecurity/hu nger-health-101/ Writing Practice Task 15. Look through the whole unit, if necessary find some more information on the Internet and write about the major consequences of insecurity.

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Unit 3. Basic Definitions of Economic Security

In this unit you will...  remember some new vocabulary related to the basic definitions of security;  learn to use terms and definitions applied to economic security;  revise Participles;  read some texts related to the most important elements of economic security;  listen and watch the video connected with young workers who need trade unions more than ever nowadays;  talk about voice representation security;  write a report on the role of trade unions. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Dwelling, pertaining to, work-related security, income security, employment security, voice representation security, full-employment, job security. Task 2. Look through the statements and define the main idea of the text. 1. Economic security is composed of basic social security, defined by access to basic needs infrastructure pertaining to health, education, dwelling, information, and social protection, as well as work-related security. 2. The text enumerates seven components of work-related security. While all seven dimensions are important, two are essential for basic security: income security and voice representation security. Task 3. Read the text attentively and answer the following questions. 1. What are the main elements of economic security? 2. Is income security associated with basic security? 3. How can you define basic security? 4. What is the difference between work and job security?

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5. Do we mean our access to basic education and training to develop ourselves and get the qualifications for our future work speaking about skill reproduction security? Text Basic security means limiting the impact of uncertainties and risks people face daily while providing a social environment in which people can belong to a range of communities, have a fair opportunity to pursue a chosen occupation and develop their capacities via what the ILO calls decent work. Income security denotes adequate actual, perceived and expected income, either earned or in the form of social security and other benefits. It encompasses the level of income (absolute and relative to needs), assurance of receipt, expectation of current and future income, both during working life and in old age or disability retirement. Classic income security protection mechanisms include a minimum wage machinery, wage indexation, comprehensive social security, and progressive taxation. Representation security refers to both individual representation and collective representation. Individual representation is about individual rights enshrined in laws as well as the individuals’ access to institutions. Collective representation means the right of any individual or group to be represented by a body that can bargain on their behalf and which is sufficiently large, sufficiently independent and sufficiently competent to do so. Independent trade unions with the right to collectively bargain over wages, benefits, and working conditions as well as to monitor working practices and strike have been typical forms of granting representation security. Labour market security arises when there are ample opportunities for adequate income-earning activities. It has a structural component, in that it represents the types and quantity of opportunities. Furthermore, it has a cognitive side, as it also features expectations that opportunities are or will become adequate. Policies aimed at enhancing this form of security have included full-employment oriented macro-economic policies, the creation of employment agencies, and other placing services. Employment security is protection against loss of income-earning work. For wage and salary workers, employment security exists in organizations and countries, in which there is strong protection against unfair or arbitrary dismissal and where workers can redress unfair dismissal. For the self-employed, it means protection against sudden loss of independent work, and/or business failure. Typical forms of enhancing employment security have been protection against arbitrary dismissal, regulations on hiring and firing, and imposition of costs on employers for failing to adhere to rules. Job security signifies the presence of niches in organizations and across labour markets allowing the workers some control over the content of a job and the opportunity to build a career. Whereas employment security refers to the opportunity of a worker to continue working in an enterprise, job security refers to the worker’s ability to pursue a line of work in conjunction with his or her 30

interests, training and skills. Protection mechanisms have consisted of barriers to skill dilution such as craft boundaries, job qualifications, restrictive practices, craft unions, etc. Work security denotes working conditions in organizations that are safe and promote workers’ well-being. Classic “occupational health and safety” provisions shielding workers from occupational hazards, diseases, and injuries are an integral part. Work security goes beyond this, though, in addressing the modern scourges of stress, overwork, absenteeism, and harassment. Protection devices for work security include provisions and insurance against accidents and illness at work, and limits on working time. Skill reproduction security denotes workers’ access to basic education as well as vocational training to develop capacities and acquire the qualifications needed for socially and economically valuable occupations. Ways to further skill reproduction security include policies to generate widespread opportunities to gain and retain skills through education, apprenticeships, and employment training. Task 4. Translate the following terms from English into Russian and make up your own sentences for other students to translate them: Employment security, dwelling, access to basic education, skill reproduction security, impact of uncertainties, to face, harassment, representation security, to encompass, absenteeism, occupational hazards, safety provisions. Task 5. Translate the following terms from Russian into English: Незаконное увольнение, безопасность рынка труда, охрана труда, несчастный случай, выполнять работу в соответствие с интересами, квалификационные требования, гарантия дохода, нетрудоспособность, прогул, иметь равные возможности. Task 6. Match the terms with their definitions: 1. Apprenticeship a) an official rule or order 2. Insurance b) the job of being an employer to learn a particular skill for some time 3. Vocational training c) a sense of being well fed, healthy and having a place to live in 4. Well-being d) professional teaching 5. Regulations e) a deal with a firm where you pay money and it pay the costs if something bad happens

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Task 7. Speak on the topic related to the most important elements of economic security. GRAMMAR REVISION Participles Participles are words derived from verbs that can function as adjectives or as parts of verb phrases to create verb tenses. The two main types of participles are the present participle and the past participle. Participle clauses enable us to say information in a more economical way. They are formed using present participles (going, reading, seeing, walking, etc.), past participles (gone, read, seen, walked, etc.) or perfect participles (having gone, having read, having seen, having walked, etc.). We can use participle clauses when the participle and the verb in the main clause have the same subject. For example, Waiting for Ellie, I made some tea. (While I was waiting for Ellie, I made some tea.) Participle clauses do not have a specific tense. The tense is indicated by the verb in the main clause. Participle clauses are mainly used in written texts, particularly in a literary, academic or journalistic style. Present participle clauses Here are some common ways we use present participle clauses. Note that present participles have a similar meaning to active verbs. Sample sentences for you to translate and explain the use of tenses. To give the result of an action: The CEO prepared a qualified presentation, reporting to the board of directors. To give the reason for an action: Smart directors provided their workers with lifetime employment introducing new improved products with redictable regularity. To talk about an action that happened at the same time as another action: Standing in the queue, I realized I didn't have any money. To add information about the subject of the main clause: Starting in the new year, the new policy bans cars in the city center.

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Past participle clauses Here are some common ways that we use past participle clauses. Note that past participles normally have a passive meaning. With a similar meaning to an if condition. Used in this way, participles can make your writing more concise. Sample sentences for you to translate and explain the use of tenses. To give the reason for an action: Worried by the news, she called the financial director. To add information about the subject of the main clause: Filled with pride, he congratulated his colleagues. Perfect participle clauses Perfect participle clauses show that the action they describe was finished before the action in the main clause. Perfect participles can be structured to make an active or passive meaning. 34

Sample sentences for you to translate and explain the use of tenses. Having borrowed a big amount of money from the bank, he made a wise decision to slowly pay it back. Having finished their training, they will be fully qualified economists. Having been made redundant, she started looking for a new job. Participle clauses after conjunctions and prepositions It is also common for participle clauses, especially with -ing, to follow conjunctions and prepositions such as before, after, instead of, on, since, when, while and in spite of. Sample sentences for you to translate and explain the use of tenses. Before starting your business, you should consult a lawyer. Instead of complaining about bankruptcy, they should try increasing their sales. On arriving at the hotel, he went to get changed. While packing her things, she thought about the last two years. In spite of having read the instructions twice, I still couldn’t understand how to use a new calculator. Task 8. Choose the correct participle form in each of the following. 1. Economic insecurity is also about the costs of the adverse outcomes of risks, included/including psychological, financial and social status costs. 2. Old-style trade unions looking/looked for all possible ways of strengthening their appeal to workers have failed completely. 3. There is little doubt that new forms of voice requiring/required at all levels, from the global to the local can be easy to achieve. 4. This example demonstrates just one of the many tensions emerging as people learn to react to the insecurities having unleashed /unleashed by globalization. 5. Promoting/promoted trade unions in developing countries, Reebok, the US sportswear company, in 1998 organized seminars for workers in one of its sub-contractor firms on how to bargain collectively. 6. Striving/having strived to improve economic equity any firm should provide benefits and entitlements that provide security against various contingencies and enhance workers’ standard of living. 7. So, the minimum wage received/receiving by the lowest-paid full-time workers acts as the initial yardstick. 8. Another indicator is whether the average wage itself is equitable relative to that paid/being paid in other firms. 9. Having finished/finished their training, they will be fully qualified economists. 10. Having been made redundant/being redundant, they started looking for a new job. 11. Revealing/having revealed the definition of economic security, one can proceed from different interpretations.

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SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 9. Skim the text and be ready to discuss it. Representation security is fundamental to basic security. Old-style trade unions are in trouble. They know it and they are looking at all possible ways of strengthening their appeal to workers, reaching types of workers they have traditionally failed to reach or have ignored, and looking at ways of organizing more effectively. Yet the view has to be entertained that the forms of voice that are going to predominate in the 21st century will look very different from the trade unions of the 19th and 20th centuries. There is little doubt that new forms of voice are required at all levels, from the global to the local. One of the interesting aspects of globalization is that multinationals in many sectors are wishing to establish their credentials with “socially conscious consumers” in their main markets, such as the United States and the countries of the European Union. Partly because of this, some have actually become promoters of trade unions in developing countries. Thus, Reebok, the US sportswear company, in 1998 organized seminars for workers in one of its sub-contractor firms, a Republic of Korea factory in Indonesia, on how to organize and bargain collectively. This represents the fourth phase in the reaction of multinationals to pressure by human rights advocates over “sweatshop” production. The previous three were, first, denial (which could not be maintained against the evidence); second, pressure on suppliers to respect worker rights (which failed largely because of inadequate monitoring); then third, making inspections more credible by hiring independent monitors. This example demonstrates just one of the many tensions emerging as people learn to react to the insecurities unleashed by globalization. However, by themselves trade unions cannot provide adequate representation security. The national governance structures based on national tripartism and neo-corporatist regulation of social and economic matters, which for many years provided or promised labor based security, are very unlikely to be resurrected. New mechanisms of representation security are needed at every level of policy-making. This article will consider just a few examples of new initiatives to promote economic security in which voice security is crucial. So, the minimum wage received by the lowest-paid full-time workers acts as the initial yardstick. If less than 5% of workers receive this wage, the firm is given a positive score on economic equity. A positive score is also given to any firm in which the minimum amount paid was equal to or greater than 50% of the average wage. These are only proxy measures, yet seem reasonable. Another indicator is whether the average wage itself is equitable relative to that paid in other firms. Here, a sectoral relative measure is used, to reflect technological and market factors. If the average wage in the firm is greater than the industry average then a positive score is given. Finally, economic equity is improved if the firm provides benefits and entitlements that provide security against various contingencies and enhance workers’ standard of living. As wages and incomes are only part of the remuneration system, a positive value is given if 36

the firm provides production workers with more than eight types of specific nonwage benefits. We move next to devise and incorporate a representation security index into the proposed decent workplace measure. This is most controversial. However, in the 21st century democracy in the workplace will surely be seen as essential for decent work and also be recognized as essential for dynamic efficiency and sustainable corporate governance. We measure representation security with a variety of indicators, depending on the type of economy and structure of industrial relations. The core factors are straightforward. A positive value is given if the firm recognizes a union, and if more than 50% of the workforce is unionized. A positive value is given if there is a collective agreement operating in the firm, covering wages and other labor matters. A positive value is given if there is a joint management-worker committee of some sort, such as a Work Forum in the South African case. A positive value is also given if the workers possess more than 10% of the shares of the firm, and if there is a bargained profit-sharing payment scheme for workers. Of course, one could improve on these indexes. However, they surely capture the essence of decent workplaces. Adding them together and normalizing them yields interesting results. We have estimated the DWPI for 14 countries. Just for illustrative purposes, the distribution of the resultant scores for Tanzania is given in Figure 11.7, showing that no firms scored above 0.8. In other countries, the distribution is close to a diamond, tapering so that just a few firms have very high values, and with the bulk in the middle ranges. Less predictably, there is a negative relationship between skills security and happiness. This should not be interpreted to mean that education is bad for you. Rather it suggests that as education levels rise, adjustments should be made in the way work is organized and life is lived. Otherwise, frustrations build up. This interpretation also corresponds to other research, which has shown that once income, health and access to social institutions are taken into account, there is no correlation between education and life satisfaction. Skills security may not produce more happiness because happiness derives primarily from what activities the person is able to do and what the person aspires to do. An increase in education may generate feelings of dissatisfaction if the quality of work opportunities does not increase commensurately. A Tayloristic job structure is unlikely to be acceptable for people with the higher expectations that usually accompany education. In industrialized countries, recent evidence shows that, while more schooling yields higher income, which should be conducive to greater happiness and life satisfaction, it also leads to more hours of work, which have the reverse effect. The stress and unhappiness is a predictable outcome. Finally, there is a positive link between job security and happiness. Job security gives an individual a sense of being in control over his or her life, which has been shown to have a positive effect on a person’s happiness. It is no coincidence that job satisfaction has been associated with less risk of heart disease.

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Speaking Practice Task 10. Discuss an idea of representation security. Look through the text and find out how common people support equality in different countries. You have only ten minutes in your disposal. Representation security is about having voice. This is an instrumental need, in that having Voice is the optimal way of advancing and defending an interest. However, it is also a substantive need in its own right, since having a voice is intrinsic to defining one’s identity as a human being. Voice is required for many purposes in the sphere of work, the most notable being to negotiate over wages, benefits and working conditions. It is also needed for monitoring working practices, for information gathering, and for evaluating the impact of work practices or policies. Voice is essential at all levels of social policy, from design to implementation to monitoring and evaluation. Without access to an organization that can represent their interests, most people are likely to be vulnerable to economic and social insecurity. They need “voice”, in the sense of belonging to a body capable and willing to bargain for rights and entitlements, and access to institutions that can enforce and enhance such rights. Ideally, the idea of representation should combine both individual representation and collective representation. The former is primarily about rights, typically enshrined in laws and individual access to institutions of individual choice. The latter means that any individual or group must have the effective right to be represented by a body that can bargain on their behalf. In practice, it requires that any individual have access both to institutional bodies and processes that give him or her individual rights and to a collective body that can and will represent his or her interests effectively, and which is sufficiently large, sufficiently independent and sufficiently competent to do so. People need voice for a variety of reasons, which will be considered in the following sections. This chapter will concentrate on trade unions as the primary vehicle for worker voice for the past century and more. Listening Task 11. Watch the video and answer some questions: 1. What issues are discussed in the video? 2. Why aren’t younger workers joining trade unions? 3. Can you name those three key barriers mentioned in the video which keep young workers join trade unions? 4. How can older members attract younger employees to the trade union movement? 5. Why do young workers need trade unions? https://www.tuc.org.uk/video-young-workers-need-trade-unions-moreever

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Writing Practice Task 12. Write a report analyzing workers’ points of view on the role of trade unions. You should prepare your report based on short texts given below. 30 Apr 2020 This year, International Workers’ Day comes at an especially difficult time for transport workers all over Europe who either are finding themselves on the frontline as key workers or are finding themselves without work. Now more than ever, it is important to acknowledge transport workers all over Europe and highlight the key role trade unions play now, and will play in protecting their working conditions, wages and employment after the health crisis subsides. Unions have a long history of fighting to protect workers’ rights and we have already won many battles – we are ready for the next one! Together, we will help rebuild a fairer transport sector. ETF’s sections are hard at work. A few words from our Sections’ Chairs on the value of trade unions in honour of May Day: ETF Civil Aviation Section – Oliver Richardson, Civil Aviation Chair Now more than ever, across the whole of Europe, trade unions are needed to protect their members. Aviation was one of the first sectors to be hit by the COVID-19 crisis and will probably be one of the last to recover. Companies will want to opportunistically grab government bailouts while attacking jobs, terms and conditions. Only unions can and will fight to protect both the workers and the industry. May Day 2020 will be a stark reminder as to the continuing relevance of trade union organisation. ETF Maritime Transport Section – Agis G. Tselentis, Maritime Transport Section Chair Seafarers’ trade unions have been particularly busy due to the impact of COVID-19 onboard ships. We are assisting and providing mental health support to seafarers who are unable to return home to their families, those who do not have any income because they cannot travel to join their ship, and those who are severely ill but are being denied disembarkation. ETF affiliates are supporting each other in finding solutions for these situations. At the same time, we are also attentive to any attempt by shipping companies to use the situation to lower wage and working conditions, and to the proper use of personal protective equipment by ship visitors. We are staying strong together and remain vigilant to the potential impact of this crisis on working conditions, employment, and mental health of our members. ETF Dockers Section – Terje Samuelsen, Dockers Section Chair It is clear now how important it is to be a member of a Union, a Union that supports us and takes care of us, not only in legal matters but also in solidarity. 39

With unions, we are one, and we’re not alone when tragedies like Coronavirus hits us so hard. Solidarity, both internationally and nationally, is the key for our members to come through this crisis and to be stronger. We stand together in solidarity! ETF Inland Waterways Section – Joris Kerkhofs, Inland Waterways Section Chair We are in the middle of a challenging period. It is precisely in such times that we, as trade unions, make the difference. We were taken for granted. Social security and job protection were self-evident. Some even dared to question our role in society. COVID-19 proves the opposite: we are taking a leading role to protect the health and safety and income security of our crewmembers, as well as safeguard the entire public health structure. The true meaning of solidarity finally becomes a universal concept. Our role, now and in the past, makes the difference for millions of workers across Europe. Trade unions in European Inland Navigation have been working hard at making sure that crewmembers could continue working in the safest of circumstances; that limitations were established to the excessive liberties employers wanted concerning the working time legislation; that maximum income security was provided to those who lost their jobs; that employment contracts were not disrupted; and that crew changes were facilitated and regulated. May this year’s 1st May, although in difficult circumstances, be a beacon of hope and trust. ETF Railway Section – Giorgio Tuti, Railway Section Chair Together we are strong! Today, our motto is more relevant than over. In these exceptional times, the exchange of information, cooperation between members, and a collective, powerful and determined attitude towards employers and institutions in Europe are of the utmost importance. Our positions and priorities are clear: the best health protection for workers, job security, protection of wages, and thus purchasing power. Enforcing them is our main task: in the interest of workers, passengers and all rail transport in Europe. Let’s fight for it, all together – together!

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Unit 4. Skill Reproduction Security

In this unit you will...  remember some new vocabulary connected with the right to education;  learn to use terms and definitions applied to the right to education;  revise Relative Clauses;  read about the right to education as a human right;  listen and watch the video connected with the new trends in modern education;  talk on the topic discussed in the text;  write an essay proving that education can be used to produce economic and security benefits in your own country. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Compulsory, to be equally accessible to, based on merit, fundamental freedom, dignity, maintenance of peace, to have a prior right, covenant, obligation, provisions, to avoid discrimination, reaffirmed, entitlement, vocational education, holistic development, foster physical and cognitive development, acquisition of knowledge, convention, affiliation, empower, enjoyment of something, indigenous. Task 2. Look through three parts of the text and define the main idea of each of them. Task 3. Read three parts of the text attentively and answer the following questions: 1. Where is the right to education reflected? 2. Can you name any other documents where the right to education is recognized as a human right? 3. What does the right to education mean? 4. How many people are denied the right to education? 5. Why does education matter so much for both an individual and society? 6. What is the basic role of education?

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Skill Reproduction Security Part 1 Skill reproduction security is considered as a situation where there is a wide range of opportunities for training, apprenticeship and education to acquire and refine knowledge and competencies. It means assured access to basic education as well as vocational training, with the aim of enabling people to develop their capacities and acquire the qualifications needed to exercise a socially and economically valuable occupation. Another way of looking at it is to say that a person has skills security if he or she has ownership and control over the property rights in competencies. Skills security is also related to two of the Millennium Development Goals and the Education for All (EFA) commitment made at the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, in April 2000, reaffirmed in the Millennium Declaration in New York in September 2000. These goals are to achieve universal primary education for all and to eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary schooling by 2015. The Right to Education Part 2 The right to education is reflected in international law in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and Articles 13 and 14 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Article 26 states: “Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all based on merit. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.” The right to education has been reaffirmed and it is included in many documents and treaties including: UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960), Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979), African Charter on Human and People’s Rights (1986), Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), World Declaration on Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs (1990), The Dakar Framework for Action: Education for All (2000), Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006), UN General Assembly Resolution on the Right to Education in Emergency Situations (2010). As you can see the right to education has been recognized as a human right in a number of international conventions, which recognizes a right to free, compulsory primary education for all, an obligation to develop secondary education accessible to all, on particular by the progressive introduction of free 42

secondary education, as well as an obligation to develop equitable access to higher education, ideally by the progressive introduction of free higher education. However, according to the most recent figures available from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics in July 2016, 263 million children and youth are out of school. This includes 61 million children who should be in primary school, 60 million of lower secondary school age (ages 12 to 14) and 142 million who are aged between 15 and 17. Almost 75 million children across the world are prevented from going to school each day due to armed conflicts. Girls and children from sub-Saharan Africa are most likely to be missing out their education. The right to education also includes a responsibility to provide basic education for individuals who have not completed primary education from the school and college levels. In addition to this access to education provisions, the right to education encompasses the obligations of the students to avoid discrimination at all levels of the educational system, to set minimum standards of education and to improve the quality of education. From: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_education The Multiple Benefits of Education Part 3 The role of education for individuals, the society and the state is as essential as decent life of any human being. Education in all its forms (informal, nonformal, and formal) is crucial to ensure human dignity of all individuals. The aims of education, as set out in the International human rights law (IHRL), are therefore all directed to the realization of the individual’s rights and dignity. These include, among others, ensuring human dignity and the full and holistic development of the human personality; fostering physical and cognitive development; allowing for the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and talents; contributing to the realization of the full potential of the individual; enhancing self-esteem and increasing confidence; encouraging respect for human rights; shaping a person’s sense of identity and affiliation with others; enabling socialization and meaningful interaction with others; enabling a person to shape the world around them enables their participation in community life; contributing to a full and satisfying life within society; and empowering and allowing for the increased enjoyment of other human rights. Education is also considered one of the most important mechanisms by which the government and the state: Allow the transmission of culture, values, identity, languages, and customs from one generation to the next, in particular, indigenous peoples and minorities encouraging a rich cultural life. Help build a national identity; promote social justice aims. Foster democratic and peaceful societies, encouraging participation and inclusion in decision-making processes. Promote sustainable economic growth. Overcome persistent and entrenched challenges. Encourage sustainable development, including respect for the environment. Education is also one of the key ways states can ensure their economic, social, political, and cultural interests. Education is a basic human right 43

for all and is important for everyone to make the most of their lives. Other human rights include the right to freedom from slavery or torture and to a fair trial. Having an education helps people to access all of their other human rights. Education improves an individual’s chances in life and helps to tackle poverty. From: https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-humanrights/#:~:text=Arti cle%2026 01.08.20 Task 4. Translate the following terms from English into Russian and make up your own sentences for other students to translate them: Cognitive development, inclusion in decision-making processes, access to basic education, enhancing self-esteem, sustainable development, build a national identity, promote social justice aims, based on merit, to encourage, empower, acquire the qualifications. Task 5. Translate the following terms from Russian into English: Чувство причастности, приобретение знаний, повышение самооценки, отказывать в чем-то, признавать, обязательство, расширять права, Всеобщая декларация прав человека, гарантированный доступ, осуществлять полезную общественную деятельность. Task 6. Match the terms with their definitions: 1. Overcome a) native people 2. Sustainable development b) the right to enter/use something c) the feeling of being satisfied with your 3. Access to abilities d) a small group of people within a larger 4. Indigenous population one e) fight and win/successfully control a 5. Minority problem f) able to continue improvement for a long 6. Self-esteem time Task 7. Speak on the topic “Education improves an individual’s chances in life and helps to tackle poverty” GRAMMAR REVISION Relative Clauses Uses 1. We use who or that in a relative clause to identify people. The people who/that we employ are very highly qualified. As people is the object of the clause, the relative pronoun can be left out. The people we employ are very highly qualified. 44

If the relative pronoun defines the subject of the sentence, it must be included. A counterfeiter is a person who copies goods in order to trick people. 2. We use that or which in a relative clause to identify things. Have you read the report that; which I left on your desk? If that or which identifies the object of the clause, it can be left out. Have you read the report I left on your desk? If that or which defines the subject of the sentence, it must be included. Organizations that are flexible can respond to change. 3. Non·defining clauses provide extra information about the subject or object of a sentence. Commas separate the extra information. Philip Condit, who was Chairman of Boeing, wanted the airline to become a global company. Note that it is not possible to use that. The Dorfmonn hotel, which is situated 30 km outside Vienna, charges US $ l, 400 per person. Again, it is not possible to use that in a non-defining clause. Task 8. Choose who/which/that or do not use anything at all. 1. A lot of workers all over Europe who/which are either finding themselves on the frontline as key workers or are finding themselves without work highlight the key role trade unions play now, and will play in protecting their working conditions, wages and employment. 2. Fundamental education for those who/that missed out primary school should be encouraged and available. 3. Governments have to make sure that/which all children can get the education they are entitled. 4. Knowledge is not only a product that/which can be bought and sold, but it is a tool that/who can be used to produce economic and security benefits. 5. This statistics includes 61 million children which/who should be in primary school. 6. In addition, technical and engineering education provides the United States with workers who/that can provide direct security benefits, such as technological innovation. 7. It depends greatly on the ability of workers to generate and use knowledge in the production process, that/which, in turn, depends on the skill and education of workers. 8. We must ensure that the most innovative ideas take root in America, which/that provide our people with the skills that/who help them to compete. 9. Even in high-income countries, gaps remain for various groups of agricultural workers, which/who are typically left without any form of social security.

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SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 9. Skim the texts and be ready to discuss the tendencies in education. 1. Two out of three Federal agencies identify information technology as a mission-critical occupation: failure to have these capabilities in the workforce means that the organization will fail to accomplish its mission. Against this background of need, the reality of today’s high schools across much of America presents a very different picture. They still reflect the 1950s design of large, comprehensive schools serving as giant sorting machines for America’s students: one track for those bound for college and professional careers, and another for those bound for agricultural and manufacturing jobs in the industrial economy–an economy that no longer exists. There are 19,000 high schools in the United States that provide education to more than 15 million students. In a 2009 self-reporting survey, 95 percent of teachers stated they have computers in the classroom and that they use technology for instruction. Yet teachers also reported that their students’ use of computers in the classroom during instructional time ranged from never (16 percent) to often (34 percent). 2. Higher education in China expanded at a breathtaking rate. In 1998 the Chinese government announced their intention to expand higher education. From 1999 to 2009, they increased tertiary enrolment six-fold, from one million to six million students. They also raised the share of the urban labour force with a college degree by 60 percent. It didn’t stop there. By 2018, gross enrolment in tertiary education was more than 50 percent with women enrolling at higher rates than men. As college enrolment mushroomed, wage returns did not fall, a pattern reflected in rapid expansion in the UK, India, and Vietnam. What is not clear is the extent to which higher enrolment in tertiary education has improved equality of admissions into elite institutions or competitiveness in the labour market. But this massive investment in human capital and high skilled labour is likely to foster further growth in China. 3. Private schools continued to grow, but slower, and lots of people still hate them. The term “low cost private schools” was coined by Prachi Srivastava back in 2001. Before then, according to Srivastava, there was very little research or policy interest in the private schooling sector. But it quickly became a lightning rod with ideology driving much of the debate. Voices on either side tried to drown each other out with warnings of mass privatization and claims of magic bullets. DFID commissioned a rigorous review in 2014 to try – without much success – to inject some evidence into the debate (we did a quick update of the evidence in 2019). The reality is of course a lot less dramatic. The sector grew a bit this decade, but the vast majority of kids are still enrolled in public schools. And, while private schools work better in some places for some children, they do not work better 46

everywhere and for everyone. It’s well past time that we moved on from debating whether public schools or private schools are better. From: https://www.cgdev.org/blog/review-decade-ten-trends-global-education Speaking Practice Task 10. Look through the dialogue and summarize it in a monological speech. A.: Why does education matter so much for each individual and society? B.: Education reduces poverty, decreases social inequalities, empowers women and helps each individual reach their full potential. It also brings significant economic returns for a country and helps societies to achieve lasting peace and sustainable development. Education is key to achieving all other human rights. A.: What do we mean by a right to education? B.: Every person is entitled to a quality education without discrimination, which means: A compulsory free primary school education for every child; Secondary school (including technical training) must be available to everyone – states must work towards providing this for free; Higher education must be equally accessible, with countries working towards the goal of making this free; It also means parents have the right to choose schools for their children and for individuals and organisations to set up schools that meet minimum standards. Their world also believes that every child should have access to two years of free, quality pre-primary education. A.: Who is responsible for enforcing the right to education? Governments must provide good quality education and make sure all children can access it, without discrimination. This is an international legal obligation and governments can be held accountable for failing to provide education for all its citizens. A.: What do governments need to do to about the right to education? B.: Governments must guarantee that education in their country or state is: Available. There must be adequate materials, classrooms, trained teachers and so on – so that a quality education is available to every child. Accessible. Schools must be within reach, suitable for disabled children and fit for purpose. They must be affordable for all children. There must be no discrimination for gender, race, religion or any other reason. Acceptable. Education must be of a high quality and include relevant information that is appropriate. Children with disabilities have the right to the same quality of education. Adaptable. Schools and school systems must be suitable for the communities they serve. Governments have to make sure all children can get the education they are entitled to by doing the following: Removing anything that prevents access to quality education, such as repealing laws that cause discrimination. 47

Preventing individuals or groups from stopping children from being educated. Taking steps to make sure children can get a quality education - this could include building schools or training teachers. A.: What must countries do to meet their obligations? B.: Governments must put plans in place to meet the minimum standard of free, compulsory primary education and then take steps to extend the right to education to every child. The right to education without discrimination is part of the minimum standard and must be created immediately. It’s also very important that governments continue to work towards the full right to education and don’t allow plans to stall or be delayed. As well as governments, other organisations and individuals play a part in making sure that all children can access quality education. These include intergovernmental agencies such as UNESCO, international financial institutions, businesses, civil societies and parents. From: https://theirworld.org/explainers/right-to-education Listening Task 11. Watch the video and name all the new trends in modern education. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9DwQDL6K3ws&feature=emb_rel_e nd Writing Practice Task 12. Write an essay proving that education can be used to produce economic and security benefits in your own country. The text below is used as an example that can give some hint for finding your own information. In May 2010, in a speech before the Council on Foreign Relations, Education Secretary Arne Duncan spoke of the importance of a well-educated citizenry: “America’s success depends on the success of its individual citizens, just as the progress of humanity ultimately depends on the shared progress of nations. I believe that education has immeasurable power to promote growth and stability in the 21st century.” The history of the United States is replete with examples of the contribution of education to economic and national security. In 1635, less than 30 years after the first settlers landed on North American soil, the Boston Latin School was founded, and the first free school was established in Virginia. In 1636, Harvard College was established in Cambridge, Massachusetts, many other positive steps were made. By the last third of the 20th century, the citizenry of the United States was among the best educated in the world. In 2010, America was “ranked 12th in the number of 24- to 35-year-olds with college degree among 36 developed nations.” Economic growth is highly dependent on increasing the productivity of workers. In this era of a knowledge-based economy, this increase in productivity depends as much on education and training as in traditional investments 48

in hardware and equipment. Knowledge is not only a product that can be bought and sold, but it is a tool that can be used to produce economic and security benefits. It depends greatly on the ability of workers to generate and use knowledge in the production process, which, in turn, depends on the skill and education of workers. Education also plays an essential role through the ability of Americans to understand foreign countries and cultures and to speak certain foreign languages, such as Arabic and Chinese. In addition, technical and engineering education provides the United States with workers who can provide direct security benefits, such as technological innovation that keeps the military at the forefront of technological capabilities and engineering skill that provides advanced weaponry as well as a secure infrastructure. In a global economy of vastly increased mobility and interdependence, our own prosperity and leadership depends increasingly on our ability to provide our citizens with the education that they need to succeed, while attracting the premier human capital for our workforce. We must ensure that the most innovative ideas take root in America, while providing our people with the skills that they need to compete. Unit 5. Human Rights and Health

In this unit you will...  remember some new vocabulary connected with health care system;  learn to use terms and definitions applied to health care system;  revise comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives;  read about human rights and health;  listen and watch the video on the universal health coverage;  talk about some problems in a universal health care system;  write about the universal health coverage. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Right to medical care, matter of daily concern, essential asset, sacrifice, the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, impediment, public health care service, life expectancy, medical treatment, injuries. 49

Task 2. Look through the first text and define its main idea. Task 3. Read both parts of the text and answer the following questions. 1. Do you consider your health to be your most basic and essential asset? 2. Why is the right to health a fundamental part of our human rights? 3. How was the right of health articulated in the 1946 Constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO)? 4. When and where the right to health was again recognized as a human right? 5. Can you name any country in the world where there is a health care service that is accessible, affordable and reliable? 6. Where is the situation in health care system worst in your opinion? 7. What are the major problems relating to health care system? Human Rights and Health Part 1 As human beings, our health and the health of those we care about is a matter of daily concern. Regardless of our age, gender, socio-economic or ethnic background, we consider our health to be our most basic and essential asset. Bad health, on the other hand, can keep us from going to school or to work, from attending our family responsibilities or from participating fully in the activities of our community. For the same reason, we are willing to make many sacrifices if only that would guarantee our families and us a longer and healthier life. In short, when we talk about well-being, health is often what we have in mind. The right to health is a fundamental part of our human rights and of our understanding of a life in dignity. The right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health is not new. Internationally, it was first articulated in the 1946 Constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO), whose preamble defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. The preamble further states that “the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race, religion, political belief, economic or social condition.” The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights also mentioned health as part of the right to an adequate standard of living (art. 25). The right to health was again recognized as a human right in the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Since then, other international human rights treaties have recognized or referred to the right to health or to elements of it, such as the right to medical care. The right to health is relevant to all States: every State has ratified at least one international human rights treaty recognizing the right to health. Moreover, States have committed themselves to protecting this right through international declarations, domestic legislation and policies, and at international conferences. In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, for instance by human rights treaty monitoring bodies, by WHO and by the Commission on Human Rights (now replaced by the 50

Human Rights Council), which in 2002 created the mandate of Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health. These initiatives have helped clarify the nature of the right to health and how it can be achieved. From: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/Factsheet31.pdf (31.07.20) The Problems in a Universal Health Care System Part 2 The most important impediment to basic economic security is the absence of a reliable public health care service, or at least a health care service that is accessible, affordable and reliable. Even where one exists, many of the poor are unable to use it for one reason or another. Obviously, the situation is worst in developing countries, particularly in rural areas. Thus, in Gujarat (India) the PSS found that 25% of rural households did not have access to public health care facilities, compared with 7% of urban households. Cost and distance were the main factors, especially as eight out of every ten workers had to pay for all their health care costs. The absence of a universal health care system is probably the main source of insecurity in developing countries, and the relative position of such countries has apparently deteriorated, since the latest data point to a widening of life expectancies between rich and poor countries. Practically in every country of the world, there is dissatisfaction with the national health care system. Even in rich industrialized countries, opinion polls show that only small minorities are satisfied. In the United States, over 80% of people believe there is a need for “fundamental change” or “complete rebuilding”. In many countries costs have risen sharply (doubling health care spending as a share of GDP in less than 50 years), waiting lists for operations and medical treatment have grown, and rationed access to treatment has become more explicit. Health care reforms became a major sphere of social reform in the late 1990s, following the global focus on pension system reform. The trends have been similar. In both cases, the World Bank, oriented to the construction of multitier systems, articulated an orthodox reform strategy. Essentially, the State is expected to provide a “safety net” primary health care system, often with a limited range of treatable illnesses and injuries, while voluntary or mandatory health insurance covers much of the remainder, with a “top up” private voluntary scheme for superior treatment. Health systems have been squeezed between attempts by governments to curb public spending and rising demands for health care. The determination to cut spending has introduced new forms of income insecurity and intensified old forms, especially by making access to and cost of health care a means of increasing income inequality. The rich country that has attracted most attention is the United States, where over 42 million people lack health insurance and thus affordable health care. The numbers in that situation have been rising. In one year alone, 2001, 1.4 million 51

more people were added to those without insurance. Unemployment has been one factor, but more important have been low wages and the steep rise in insurance premiums. Health care reform in the United States has been a political battleground. Reforms agreed in Congress in December 2003 resulted in several million workers losing entitlement to medicine/drug benefits from their firms, even though subsidies were provided to employers. Similar trends have emerged in Europe. In France, still regarded by many, including the WHO, as having one of the best health care performances, patient costs have been rising, the number of public hospital beds has been cut sharply, small local hospitals have been shut in large numbers, and about one in every eight citizens has given up health care insurance for financial reasons. Even though for low-income earners there is universal health insurance (CMU), more than a quarter of those entitled to it do not receive it. Ironically, as costs of treatment have risen, poorer households have been paying more. By spending less on consultations, often postponing treatment, and by seeking care later than the more affluent, they predictably suffer more through higher morbidity, more premature deaths and, before that, higher costs. Reforms being discussed entail yet more privatization. The premise underlying these health care reforms is that health is a private good to be bought and sold in the market (i.e., “commodified”). The favoured approach is a dual or multi-tier system, in which those who can pay insure themselves for private care while those who cannot rely on a public subsystem that is mainly for the poor and uninsured. This model has led to the promotion of mandatory medical insurance provided by private companies alongside private medical providers. Countries that have relied on the public sector for health care have been encouraged to privatize, most recently by the WTO’s General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). Pushed to cut spending, governments are enabling private companies to provide (or compete with) public services. Health system changes have also mirrored those in other spheres of social policy, including anti-poverty schemes. The principles are costefficiency, decentralization and targeting (or selectivity). Central governments have decentralized responsibility to local or regional bodies, reducing their political exposure while retaining budgetary control, often merely transferring funds for an “essential health package” of 10 – 15 interventions or services, as recommended by the World Bank. The resultant system creates inequalities in access, disparities in citizens’ costs, and chronic health-related income insecurity for the poor and near poor. In short, in many countries, a multitier system is emerging, in which a majority of the population suffer income insecurity due to a fear of impending health care costs. For the poor, means-tested basic health care brings its own uncertainties. For those just above poverty, ill health or an accident could be impoverishing or worse. They could be “too wealthy” to qualify for means-tested basic care but be unable to pay for insurance. At the same time, the costs of health care for users have tended to rise. For example, governments have turned increasingly to user fees, which have restricted use of medical care. This has led to a drop in the number of outpatients in various African hospitals, notably 52

by AIDS sufferers. User fees may reduce moral hazards, but could lead to worse ill health and thus higher costs for individuals and communities. Task 4. Translate some terms from Russian into English: Медицинское обслуживание/медпомощь, многоярусная система, обязательная медицинская страховка, предоставление частных медицинских услуг, ограниченное использование медицинских услуг, плата за услуги врача, угрожать, стоимость медицинских услуг. Task 5. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: Treatable illnesses, dissatisfaction with, mandatory health insurance, postponing treatment, regional bodies, retain budgetary control, essential health package, multitier system, moral hazards, given up health care insurance. Task 6. Speak on the topic analyzing the absence of a universal health care system in the world. GRAMMAR REVISION The comparative and the superlative degrees of adjectives Uses Comparative adjectives Comparative adjectives are used to compare differences between the two objects they modify (larger, smaller, faster, higher)/(busier, simpler, cleverer, narrower). They are used in sentences where two nouns are compared, in this pattern: Noun (subject) + verb + comparative adjective + than + noun (object). Sample sentences My salary is larger than hers/her salary. This service is cheaper than the one I provided last year. Your prices are higher than pr. Jim's costs. The control of health care system finances is lower than it was previously. We are willing to make many sacrifices if only that would guarantee our families and us a longer and healthier life. Superlative adjectives Superlative adjectives are used to describe an object which is at the upper or lower limit of a quality (the tallest, the smallest, the fastest, the highest, busiest, simplest, cleverest, narrowest). They are used in sentences where a subject is compared to a group of objects. Noun (subject) + verb + the + superlative adjective + noun (object). Sample sentences Our hospital is the largest one in our neighborhood. This is the smallest income I've ever seen. 53

In France, still regarded by many as having one of the best health care performances, patient costs have been rising, the number of public hospital beds has been cut sharply. Advances in computing and data science is the fastest way to process and analyze big data in real time. Form Forming comparatives and superlatives is easy. The form depends on the number of syllables in the original adjective. One-syllable adjectives/two-syllable adjectives with the following endings: y, e, er, ow add -er for comparative and -est for superlative adjectives. Examples: large, fast, small, busy, simple, clever, narrow. Spelling: For adjectives ending in y, change the y to an i before adding the ending. Happy, happier, happiest. If the adjective has a consonant + single vowel + consonant, the final consonant must be doubled before adding the ending. Fat, fatter, fattest; big, bigger, biggest; sad, sadder, saddest. Two-syllable adjectives with all other endings/Multi-syllable adjectives use special words “more” for the comparative degree and “most” for the superlative degree. Examples: more important, more efficient, the most important, the most efficient. Some adjectives are formed without any rules. You have to memorize them: Good, better, the best; bad, worse, the worst; little, less the least; far, further, the furthest; many/much, more, the most. Task 7. Choose the correct form of an adjective in the following sentences. 1. The right to the enjoyment of the higher/highest attainable standard of physical and mental health is not new. 2. Investments in quality primary health care will be the more/most essential factor for achieving UHC around the world. 3. As unions, we will remain strong and will be there to build a better/best road transport sector for us all. 4. Investing in the primary health care workforce is the most/more costeffective way to ensure access to reliable and quality health care service. 5. We will continue our fight for good/better, balanced family life, better/good rest, quality jobs and equal pay! 6. Primary health care is the more/most efficient and cost effective way to achieve universal health coverage around the world. 7. All countries can do most/more to improve health outcomes and tackle poverty, by increasing coverage of health services, and by reducing the impoverishment associated with payment for health services. 8. Education is a basic human right for all and is important for everyone to make the more/most of their lives. 54

9. To make it easier/easy for students to stay engaged, coursework must be relevant to their aspirations. 10. They replaced the math textbooks with their own custom-designed online curriculum and their students started learning faster /more faster. 11. This could mean that more people have more unstable incomes and have little/less confidence that their income will continue. SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 8. Skim three texts and be ready to make up your own dialogues on the issues discussed in them. 1. UHC means that all individuals and communities receive the health services they need without suffering financial hardship. It includes the full spectrum of essential, quality health services, from health promotion to prevention, treatment, rehabilitation, and palliative care. UHC enables everyone to access the services that address the most significant causes of disease and death, and ensures that the quality of those services is good enough to improve the health of the people who receive them. Protecting people from the financial consequences of paying for health services out of their own pockets reduces the risk that people will be pushed into poverty because unexpected illness requires them to use up their life savings, sell assets, or borrow – destroying their futures and often those of their children. Achieving UHC is one of the targets the nations of the world set when adopting the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. Countries that progress towards UHC will make progress towards the other health-related targets, and towards the other goals. Good health allows children to learn and adults to earn, helps people escape from poverty, and provides the basis for long-term economic development. 2. The right to health is an inclusive right. We frequently associate the right to health with access to health care and the building of hospitals. This is correct, but the right to health extends further. It includes a wide range of factors that can help us lead a healthy life. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the body responsible for monitoring the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, calls these the “underlying determinants of health”. They include: Safe drinking water and adequate sanitation; Safe food; Adequate nutrition and housing; Healthy working and environmental conditions; Health-related education and information; Gender equality. The right to health contains entitlements. These entitlements include: the right to a system of health protection providing equality of opportunity for everyone to enjoy the highest attainable level of health; The right to prevention, treatment and control of diseases; Access to essential medicines. 3. Disadvantage and marginalization serve to exclude certain populations in societies from enjoying good health. Three of the world’s most fatal communicable diseases – malaria, HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis – 55

disproportionately affect the world’s poorest populations, and in many cases are compounded and exacerbated by other inequalities and inequities including gender, age, sexual orientation or gender identity and migration status. Conversely the burden of non-communicable diseases – often perceived as affecting high-income countries – is increasing disproportionately among lowerincome countries and populations, and is largely associated with lifestyle and behaviour factors as well as environmental determinants, such as safe housing, water and sanitation that are inextricably linked to human rights. Form: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/human-rightsand-health Speaking Practice Task 9. Look through the dialogue and summarize it in a monological speech. The dialogue is based on the key facts taken from WHO Constitution (1946). A: What are the core elements of a right to health? B: Progressive realization using maximum available resources. Progressive realization requires that governments take immediate steps towards the fulfilment of these rights, regardless of resource capacity. Non-retrogression means. States should not allow the existing protection of economic, social, and cultural rights to deteriorate unless there are strong justifications for a retrogressive measure. For example, introducing school fees in secondary education which had formerly been free of charge would constitute a deliberate retrogressive measure. To justify it, a State would have to demonstrate that it adopted the measure only after carefully considering all the options, assessing the impact and fully using its maximum available resources. A: Can you name the core components of the right to health? B: Availability, Accessibility, Quality. A: What does availability refer to? B: It refers to the need for a sufficient quantity of functioning public health and health care facilities, goods and services, as well as programmes for all. A: How can one measure availability? B: Availability can be measured through the analysis of disaggregated data to different and multiple stratifiers including age, sex, location and socioeconomic status and qualitative surveys to understand coverage gaps and health workforce coverage. A: What does accessibility require? B: It requires that health facilities, goods, and services must be accessible to everyone. A: How can one assess accessibility? B: Assessing accessibility may require analysis of barriers – physical financial or otherwise – that exist, and how they may affect the most vulnerable, and call for the establishment or application of clear norms and standards in both 56

law and policy to address these barriers, as well as robust monitoring systems of health-related information and whether this information is reaching all populations. A: What does accessibility refer to? B: Acceptability relates to respect for medical ethics, culturally appropriate, and sensitivity to gender. A: Does it require any special attention? B: Acceptability requires that health facilities, goods, services and programmes are people-centred and cater for the specific needs of diverse population groups. A: Is quality a key component in your opinion? B: Without any doubt, quality is a key component of Universal Health Coverage, and includes the experience as well as the perception of health care. A: What do you mean speaking about quality health services? B: Quality health services should be: Safe – avoiding injuries to people for whom the care is intended; Effective – providing evidence-based healthcare services to those who need them; People-centred – providing care that responds to individual preferences, needs and values; Facilities, goods, and services must be scientifically and medically approved. Timely – reducing waiting times and sometimes-harmful delays. Efficient – maximizing the benefit of available resources. Listening Task 10. Watch the video and prepare a short presentation explaining what the universal health coverage is. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FlETZ202Ovg Writing Practice Task 11. Write a report. Use the information from the video and your presentation.

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Module II. Work Related Security Unit 1. Income Security

In this unit you will...  remember the basic definitions related to income security;  learn to use terms and definitions applied to income security;  revise Modal verbs;  read about the fundamental aspect of economic security – income;  listen and watch the video: why the rich are getting richer;  talk about the forms of income;  write a report on the reasons of income inequality increase. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Public goods, reasonable assurance, perceived “needs”, notions of poverty, social income, social transfers, to earn, affected by, regulatory changes, medical insurance benefits, ill equipped, wages, profits, paid leave. Task 2. Read both parts of the text and answer the following questions. 1. What elements of income security are discussed in the text? 2. Why is income security the crux of economic security? 3. Is it necessary to measure an amount of money a person earns and actually gets to understand his or her well-being? Part 1 Let us start with the most contentious and fundamental aspect of economic security, namely, income security. This is more than can be conveyed by standard notions of poverty, although that is obviously a part of it. Income security consists of an adequate level of income, a reasonable assurance that such an income will continue, a sense that the income is fair, relative to actual and perceived “needs” and relative to the income of others, and the assurance of compensation or support in the eventuality of a shock or crisis affecting income. We ask whether globalization has intensified income insecurity. It may have done so by altering the nature of the income “returns” to labour and production, while inducing the restructuring of systems of social transfers that 58

complement money incomes. This could mean that more people have more unstable incomes and have less confidence that their income will continue. A crucial argument is that, because of the economic, structural and regulatory changes more people are affected by covariant risk than by idiosyncratic risk, i.e., by structural or systemic shocks for which standard forms of insurance and support systems are ill-equipped. This paragraph will focus on developments in the globalization era, considering the evidence on the deepening divide between those with security and those without it, and the role of social policy. The next one will consider aspects of individual income security, mostly in developing countries, drawing in particular from the ILO’s People’s Security Surveys (PSS). It will conclude by presenting results for a national Income Security Index calculated for 96 industrialized and developing countries. Part 2 Forms of Income Income comes in many forms, which is why economists refer to “money income” as contrasted with “full income” or “social income”. Money income comes from wages, profits, rents or the proceeds of market sales. In addition, some workers receive enterprise (or employer or so-called occupational) benefits – nonwage entitlements that have a monetary value, such as free or subsidized food at work, paid leave, medical insurance benefits, subsidized housing and subsidized transport to and from the workplace. There are also state benefits, which may be disaggregated into universalistic rights-based benefits, categorical benefits for specified groups with definable characteristics deemed to merit compensation, means-tested benefits, and so on. Then there are community benefits, which is a broad term to describe those transfers or valuable services provided by local authorities, or formal or informal associations, including charitable organizations and NGOs. And there are family transfers, the availability of which determines the income security of the vast majority of people in developing countries. For the more affluent everywhere, income may also come from private benefits, resulting from investments or wealth transfers. A person’s income security depends on:  what income he or she retains, not what he or she “earns”;  the assurance of that income lasting beyond today;  the prospect of receiving adequate income in the future. Most poverty statistics measure what a person “earns” or nominally “receives”. Income does not come only in direct payments. A very important form of income consists of public goods, which are often provided for the whole community and are seen as one means of reducing the inequalities that arise in market economies. In practice, while some public goods reduce social inequality, many may generate further inequality since they may be used more or even exclusively by richer groups. 59

There are also negative incomes – the “private bads” and the “public bads” that are usually ignored, even though income-expenditure analysis is replete with references to “private goods” and “public goods”. Again, “bads” may be shared equally or may be disproportionately borne by poorer or disadvantaged groups in society, as in the case of workers who live in environmentally degraded areas affected by pollution. In sum, it is inappropriate to assess poverty and income security simply on the basis of earned money incomes. For most people, security arises from having a broad range of actual and potential incomes on which to be able to rely. Task 3. Translate the following phrases from English into Russian: Altering the nature of, inappropriate, income-expenditure analysis, income “returns” to labour, assurance of compensation, to be affected by covariant risk, regulatory changes, disaggregated into universalistic rights-based benefits, means-tested benefits. Task 4. Translate the following phrases from Russian into English: Прямые выплаты, доход от труда, предполагаемые потребности, номинальный доход, общественное благо, поступление прибыли в производство, социальные выплаты, льготы по медицинскому обслуживанию, некомпетентный, сокращение неравенства, нормативные изменения, пособия. Task 5. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: Charitable organizations, actual and potential incomes, inappropriate to assess, disadvantaged groups, replete, subsidized food at work, security arises from, occupational benefits, considering the evidence, nonwage entitlements, environmentally degraded areas, retain, assurance of compensation. Task 6. Talk about the forms of income GRAMMAR REVISION Modal Verbs Task 7. Skim all the tables presenting modal verbs and do all the tasks given by your teacher. All the tables are given on the next page. Task 8. Choose the correct modal verb according to the context. 1. It might/can be shown that firms that provide workers with income security actually do better in other respects. 2. Much of this increased concentration of wealth must/can be traced to aspects of the business models adopted by the tech industry, which give outsized rewards to a few at the price of increasing financial insecurity for the vast majority of wage earners. 3. Stanford is not alone in thinking things may/could get worse. 60

4. It may/might well be that most groups are being exposed to more and greater risks. 5. A high activity rate have to/may reflect the inefficiency of a pension system, due to an inappropriately low retirement age, low coverage of the population who have to continue to work for a living, a low pension level, etc. 6. However it should/must however be noted that North American countries have a lower ranking relative to their economic resources. 7. What must/have to go into an index of income security? 8. Clearly, one must/can have measures for those actually earning income from work, for those on the margins of the labour market and for those outside the labour force depending on, or needing, income transfers on which to survive or exist in decency and security. 9. Thus, considering the concept of economic security, one should/must proceed from determining the equilibrium of the economic system and its further sustainable development. 10. At the same time, economic development can be ensured by various factors, be of an extensive or intensive nature. 11. This could/must mean that more people have more unstable incomes and have less confidence that their income will continue.

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SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 9. Skim the texts and be ready to discuss (make up your own dialogues) the issues related to income inequality. 1. Income inequality in OECD countries is at its highest level for the past half century. The average income of the richest 10% of the population is about nine times that of the poorest 10% across the OCED, up from seven times 25 years ago. Only in Turkey, Chile, and Mexico has inequality fallen, but in the latter two countries the incomes of the richest are still more than 25 times those of the poorest. The economic crisis has added urgency to the need to address inequality. Uncertainty and fears of social decline and exclusion have reached the middle classes in many societies. Arresting the trend of rising inequality has become a priority for policy makers in many countries. In emerging economies, such as China and India, sustained period of strong economic growth has helped lift millions of people out of absolute poverty. But the benefits of growth have not been evenly distributed and high levels of income inequality have risen further. Among the dynamic emerging economies, only Brazil managed to strongly reduce inequality, but the gap between rich and poor is still about five times that in the OCED countries. The OCED analyses trends in inequality and poverty for advanced and emerging economies examines the drivers of growing inequalities, such as globalization, skill-biased technological change and changes in countries’ policy 63

approaches. And it assesses the effectiveness and efficiency of a wide range of policies, including education, labour market and social policies in tackling poverty and promoting more inclusive growth. 2. The tech economy has meant declining wages, increasing inequality and a shift to low-wage jobs. Despite nation leading economic growth and productivity, Silicon Valley’s tech economy is only benefiting the top 10%. Over the past 20 years, per capita economic output in Silicon Valley increased 74%, yet wages fell for nearly 90% of the workforce. In fact, if labor ‘s share of GDP had been the same 2016 as in 2001, the average Silicon Valley worker would have received an additional $8,480 in pay and benefits that year alone. Moreover, while the share of middle and high-wage jobs declined the percentage of workers in low-wage jobs increased by 9 points.

Speaking Practice Task 10. Prepare a short report on the reasons of low wages in the heart of innovation economy. So why is such strong economic growth failing to lift wages even in the heart of the innovation economy? Due to many examples Tech’s business models concentrate wealth while shortchanging workers. The business models and “new rules” developed by the tech industry separate the production of value from the rewards for value. One consequence is that workers whose labor produces economic growth and corporate profits do not receive fair financial gains from that growth. Instead, the financial gains accrue to a select club of venture capitalists, financiers, and executives, along with a small class of top-earning employees.

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The disconnection between production and rewards is exacerbated by the winner-take-all, near-monopolistic nature of today’s leading tech sectors, where a few firms dominate an entire market (think Google in search, Facebook in social media, or Amazon in online retail). This approach fails to share the industry’s enormous profits with everyone else who contributes to its success – including the vast majority of employees, subcontracted service workers, consumers who provide valuable personal data and taxpayers who fund the research and development of core technologies. The consequences are clear – growing inequality and insecurity along with a dangerous politics characterized by xenophobia, racism and intolerance that has spread across the country. Capitalistic economic system undermines our democracy and our ability to live full healthy lives. Our expert admits that public policy and industry action can help tech growth create widespread prosperity. Just as public sector investments and collaborative processes have been critical for the economic dynamism of the region, so public sector policies and collaborative processes must be also developed to solve the problems created by this economic system. Fortunately, the seeds of solutions are already beginning to sprout in the form of community- and worker-led policy and organizing innovations. The report identifies a set of concrete steps to begin rewriting the rules and rewards of Silicon Valley’s business models so that tech companies: Respect workers’ voices and freedom to stand together; adopt high standards for workers in subcontracted and supply chain firms; increase the share of tech revenue and profits contributed to the common good. Listening Task 11 Watch the video trying to understand why the rich are getting richer. Then discuss it with your partner. https://youtu.be/ZzCegQVljdY Writing Practice Task 12. Write a report on the reasons of income inequality increase after skimming the text given below. Income inequality has risen within many countries, especially among the advanced G20 economies, since the 90’s. Global income inequality has decreased as a consequence of convergence from fast-growing economies, but remains high by all standards. This process of growth has been uneven. More than a billion people have been lifted out of extreme poverty, but the world’s poorest and the middle classes in the developed world have seen, on average, no significant income gain over the past 25 years. Conversely, people at the top of the world income distribution have amassed even larger incomes. Those who are left behind are confronted with insecurity, while lacking means and skills to adapt to a changing economy and fast technological change. They perceive not to have benefitted from globalization and are calling into question economic openness. A backlash against globalization and global economic integration may turn out to 65

further hurt the least advantaged. The global nature of these processes makes national policies less effective. This may jeopardize the whole social contract and the political stability that stems from it. Pursuing inclusive growth, as recommended by the 2016 G20, is a major global challenge that requires both national and international efforts. Inclusive growth is the process of creating shared prosperity in many well-being dimensions, not just economic ones. Task 13. Write an assay expressing your own opinion after having analyzed some recommendations on overcoming the huge income gap. Here you’ll find major recommendations on overcoming the huge income gap. 1. Share the benefits of increased prosperity and globalization more evenly across social groups. 2. Devise policies that consider the multidimensional nature of prosperity and how the various well-being outcomes are distributed in the population. 3. Ensure that all individuals are equipped to fulfil their productive potential with adequate investment in skills and health and good opportunities for quality jobs to keep pace with an increasingly globalized and digitalized world. 4. Make sure that the voices of all citizens are heard by promoting wide participation to political and economic decisions in particular from less engaged groups. Foster transparency in decision-making processes and prevent capture by special interest groups, at all levels. 5. Counter the rising tide of anti-immigration voices by developing effective migration and integration policies and by explaining the benefits from immigration. Step-up international cooperation to manage migration flows at the global level. 6. Making inclusive growth happen requires evidence-based reasoning. More timely data are needed to understand the conditions under which economic growth translates into higher well-being outcomes. Unit 2. Employment Security

In this unit you will...  remember some new vocabulary connected with employment security; 66

 learn to use terms and definitions applied to employment security;  revise First Conditionals;  read about the trends in employment security;  listen and watch the video connected with the decline of employment security;  talk about the reasons of employment security decline;  write about the major consequences of the employment insecurity decline. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Employment security, arbitrary dismissal, unfair dismissal, business failure, via contractual arrangement, institutional safeguards, average job tenure, labour force, regulatory changes, high labour turnover, reducing labour market, temporary labour, agency labour, diminish, erode employment protection, reliance on casual labour. Task 2. Read both parts of the text and answer the following questions. 1. What do we imply speaking about employment security? 2. What is the difference “casual” as opposed to “regular” employment status? 3. Do workers in most countries of the world have strong employment security? 4. Сan you name the main trends in employment security? The Idea of Employment Security Employment security is protection against loss of income-earning work. For wage and salary workers, employment security exists when there is strong protection against unfair and arbitrary dismissal from employment, and where workers can obtain redress if they are subject to unfair dismissal. To the extent that employment security is relevant for the “self-employed”, it means protection against sudden loss of independent work and/or business failure. However, it is probably sensible to think that employment security is mainly something gained, to a greater or less extent, by those employed directly by a firm or organization or indirectly via some contractual arrangement. Employment security is about risks and uncertainty, and can be assessed in terms of the probability of retaining a job or main work activity, and the protection given to those in work. One can assess this by reference to aspects of work that typically imply employment insecurity, such as size or ownership (property form) of a firm, or to means of protection provided by regulations, collective agreement or other institutional safeguards. It may also be assumed that if a worker has wage labour and his or her employment status is “casual”, as opposed to “regular”, then he or she may be regarded as suffering from employment insecurity.

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Employment security is a function of the type of economy and structure of employment, so that it tends to be stronger where large-scale firms predominate and where the public sector is large. In reality, the vast majority of workers in most countries of the world have never had strong employment security. Trends in Employment Security There can be little doubt that, in large parts of the world, objective employment security has weakened in recent years, while in many developing countries hopes that traditionally weak or non-existent employment security would strengthen have almost evaporated. Some analysts contest the claim that employment insecurity has increased, because average job tenure has shown little change in industrialized countries studied. However, average tenure is affected by ageing and employment growth. Youth tend to have very short employment tenure, so if there are more youthful labour force participants that in itself will pull down the average tenure, and vice versa. If employment is stagnant, average employment tenure will tend to rise, unless labour turnover behaviour changes dramatically. Speaking about subjective employment security we can admit, numerous surveys in industrialized countries have found that people’s perceptions of their degree of employment security have declined in recent years. Part of this could reflect actual changes in contracts and coverage by laws and institutions, part merely a feeling that economic and social arrangements are simply more uncertain. Let us consider this latter part. To some extent, all forms of insecurity at work are based on what people perceive and how these perceptions map onto behavioural and attitudinal responses. There are some reasons for employment security weakening: One reason for believing that employment security has diminished is legislative. Since the 1980s, pressed by international agencies such as the IMF, OECD and the World Bank, governments have introduced many changes in laws and regulations to erode employment protection in the name of reducing labour market rigidities. Legislative changes have also encouraged more “contingent” working, via temporary labour, agency labour, part-time working, and so on. Another reason for expecting employment security to have weakened in industrialized countries is structural. Traditionally, public sectors provided workers with a greater and more formalized sense of employment security than private firms. The tendency for public sectors to shrink and to contract out more public services to private providers has weakened employment security where it was strongest. Another factor has been the informalization and casualization that has been the outcome of the pursuit of more flexible labour relations. Similarly, workers in services tend to have less employment security than workers in manufacturing. There has been a steady shift in the structure of employment towards services. That in itself could be expected to reduce employment security generally. A third reason for believing that employment insecurity has spread in industrialized countries is the trend towards greater reliance on casual and 68

temporary labour, with more work being contracted out, greater use of distance work, agency labour and so on. There is considerable evidence that this tendency has been widespread. The global trend seems to be towards flexibilizing the employment function, which is associated with weaker employment security. Also, to the extent that there is a relative growth in small-scale firms, characterized by high (labour) turnover, employment insecurity would be intensified by that trend as well. Task 3. Translate the following phrases from English into Russian: Hope has almost evaporated, contest, youth tend, small-scale firms, could be expected to reduce, vice versa, contingent, steady shift in the structure, high (labour) turnover, labour market rigidity, attitudinal response. Task 4. Translate the following phrases from Russian into English: Заемный труд, временные работники по разнарядке биржи труда, текучесть кадров, широко распространенный, опровергать/оспаривать, стабильность рынка труда, временная работа/непостоянная занятость; в меньшей степени, отражать фактические изменения, передавать работу в аутсорсинг. Task 5. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: Diminish, wage, salary, contingent, to contract out, to shrink, perception, business failure, retain a job, agency labour, short employment tenure, decline, predominate. Task 6. Talk about the reasons of employment security decline. GRAMMAR REVISION If Clauses of the first type Task 7. Skim the table on the next page presenting If Clauses of the first type and do all the tasks given by your teacher. Some more cases of first conditional usage: 1. We use conditional sentences when discussing the terms of an agreement, making hypothetical proposals, bargaining and making concessions. 2. We use unless in conditional sentences to mean “if not”. 3. As long as and provided are also used to state conditions. Sample sentences. If your wage is low, we will pay you monthly bonuses for some extra working hours. We will reduce the price by 20% if you give us a firm order in advance. They won’t be able to start the project unless you train their personnel. 69

We will sign the contract as long as you guarantee prices for the next 18 months. We can reach agreement on a joint venture provided, that our company has a representative on your board. Task 8. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct form and translate the sentences from English into Russian: 1. If a worker (have) wage labour and his or her employment status is “casual”, as opposed to “regular”, then he or she (may regarded) as suffering from employment insecurity. 2. If less than 5% of workers (receive) this wage, the firm (give) a positive score on economic equity. 3. If employment (be) stagnant, average employment tenure (tend) to rise, unless labour turnover behaviour (change) dramatically. 4. If you (be) fully satisfied with this product we (refund) your money. 5. We (have) problems unless our management (give) us the budget we need. 6. If you (be) dissatisfied in any way with the quality of our service we (send) you a €15 voucher. 7. If you (cancel) less than four weeks before the date of departure, the total cost of travel (be) payable. 8. They also claim that if the value of the productive capacity of a given employee (be) worth less to the employer than the minimum wage, that person (become) unemployed.

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SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 9. Skim the text and be ready to discuss (make up your own dialogues) the issues related to some reasons leading to a decline in employment security. Whatever the sector, within all types of a firm, the Taylorist traditions that predominated for most of the 20th century have been modified in recent years. In some highly industrialized countries, such as Japan and the United States, even large corporations no longer offer their employees implicit contracts for lifetime employment. More labour has become contingent, not only in the sense that much more labour is short-term or episodic, but in the sense that attachment between the firm and worker has been weakened. “Loyalty” has become more contingent or opportunistic. The US Department of Labor’s current population survey shows marked declines in employment tenure between 1983 and 2002 for all men over the age 71

of 20, with the most significant drops among men in the age groups over age. This is the group that had earlier benefited most from the old psychological contract of long-term employment. Japan is another country where a dramatic decline in employment security has occurred. Within a generation, the once widely envied model of “lifetime employment” has virtually disappeared, even though it never existed to the extent that many commentators believed. Its demise coincided with the rise in labour market insecurity highlighted earlier. Overall, because of structural changes, employment security has eroded modestly but steadily in most industrialized countries over the past two decades or so. By contrast, China, the Russian Federation and other parts of the former Soviet Union have experienced a rapid deterioration in recent years. In China, until the 1990s employment security was regarded almost as a right, once a person had entered the state enterprise system. Now this has drastically changed. Chinese workers have been told that they must expect to be laid off or transferred, and millions have felt the full force of labour market restructuring, with many being put on long-term administrative leave or extended lay-off. Speaking Practice Task 10. Read the text attentively to find out all the details concerning informalization of the employment relationship. Then present a short report on the information related to informalization as employment relationship. One of the most widespread trends of globalization is the informalization of economic activity. In developing countries in the past two decades, the longexpected transfer of labour from agriculture and the urban surplus labour pool to formal employment (as envisaged by the Nobel Prize-winning economist Arthur Lewis) has largely failed to materialize. Informalization of the employment relationship is on the rise in most countries. This is linked to stagnant opportunities for productive employment, and also to the growth of labour contracting and other forms of external labour flexibility. Informalization also extends to the need for people to combine several forms of economic activity – for example, a little on own-account agriculture combined with occasional wage labour – reflecting an existence of insecurity. There are several reasons for expecting these trends to continue, and even for expecting something similar in industrialized countries where measures to strengthen labour market flexibility have tended to complement enterprise strategies to outsource employment and move away from reliance on regular, fulltime labour. One has to be wary about interpreting standard statistics. However, there is an enormous amount of anecdotal and secondary research testifying to the spread of informal and flexible labour relations, which in turn have bred a sense of precariousness in employment. To the extent that this is the case, a basic question is how to provide security to those facing an economic life of precariousness. Another more systemic question is less often posed: If mechanisms to increase labour flexibility and the 72

rollback of protective labour regulations were imposed to accelerate economic growth, what happens if an economic downturn occurs after you have bought growth with flexibility? It is evident that a large and probably growing number of people are in various forms of “self employment”, although many of those activities may be disguised forms of wage labour or “dependent labour”. Many of these self-employed lack ownership of means of production and experience limited autonomy in their work. These dependent workers often have a short term labour relationship with their “customer” as if the customer is their employer, but they do not have any of the rights and benefits that usually accompany an employment relationship. In most developing countries, the proportion of workers classified as selfemployed is very high indeed. In Bangladesh and Bolivia, about half the total labour force is so classified, as are about two in every five workers in Colombia. Listening Task 11. Watch the video and enumerate all the measures to be taken on the recommendations of the Mississippi Department of Employment Security executive director due to a wave of layoffs because of the rapid spread of the coronavirus. https://www.wcbi.com/department-of-employment-security-workers-seei ng-unprecedented-workload/ Writing Practice Task 12. Look through the whole unit, if necessary find some more information on the Internet and write about the major consequences of the employment insecurity decline. Unit 3. Work Security

In this unit you will…  remember the basic definitions of work security;  learn to use terms and definitions applied to work security;  revise the Prepositional Phrases;  read about work security and the issues of regulation;

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 talk about the importance of regulations on occupational health and safety;  listen and watch the video related to the Health and Safety Regulations: OSHA;  write a report to your boss about the main reasons of the most frequent work-related diseases of your employees. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Promote workers’ well-being, occupational hazards, adversities associated with work, hidden dangers, violence at work, comprehensive laws, safety departments, cumbersome institutional mechanisms, regulatory apparatus, cover contingency. Task 2. Read both parts of the text and answer the following questions. 1. What forms of work security according to the text can you name? 2. Can you enumerate some new modern adversities associated with work? 3. What activities were and are taken concerning the issues of work security regulations? 4. Why was there a counter-trend towards market regulation or selfregulation, or to what some observers call “an individual responsibility model”? The Idea of Work Security Most forms of work have their dangers. In some, the dangers are largely physical; in some, they are physical and mental; in some, the hidden dangers are largely psychological. Work security, in the form of occupational health and safety, is immensely complex, and new adversities associated with work and labour seem to be identified almost daily. Work security is about working conditions that are safe and promote workers’ well-being. Although embracing issues traditionally treated under the rubric of “occupational health and safety”, work security means more than that. In other words, it is not just about mechanisms to protect workers against occupational hazards, disease and injury; it is also about the so-called modern scourges of stress, overwork and presentism. And it extends to violence at work and the important area of harassment in its various guises. At the extreme, work can kill. The ILO estimates that over two million workers die each year from work-related accidents and diseases, and that globally this figure is on the rise in certain parts of the world, to be more precise subSaharan African countries are most severely affected. The Issue of Regulation As a generalization, across the world for most of the 20th century, the dominant approach to work security was a model of statutory regulation, in which governments subscribed to international Conventions and Recommendations on occupational health and safety, passed comprehensive laws setting standards and 74

regulations, established labour inspectorates, and encouraged enterprises to introduce institutional mechanisms such as safety committees and safety departments. Later, corresponding to the resurgence of neo-liberal thinking, there was a counter-trend towards market regulation or self-regulation, or to what some observers call “an individual responsibility model”. Undoubtedly, in the process, some countries have cut back their regulatory apparatus and state funding for work security. It is important to understand if governments introduce complex comprehensive safety codes, large cumbersome institutional mechanisms, provide “generous” compensation for adversely affected workers, and impose heavy costs on employers, a wide range of moral hazards and immoral hazards are created. For example, if the rules cover all contingencies there might be a tendency to be careless. If employers have to pay heavy costs for injuries or illnesses of regular workers, they may be inclined to resort more to non-regular workers in precarious contractual arrangements. Task 3. Translate the following terms from Russian into English: Необоснованный, неблагоприятная обстановка, регламентирующий механизм, нормы безопасности, штатный сотрудник, инспектор по трудовой деятельности, преобладающий подход. Task 4. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: Impose heavy costs on employers, tendency to be careless, embrace issues, safety committees, non-regular workers, harassment. Task 5. Talk about the issues of regulations.

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GRAMMAR REVISION Prepositional Phrases Task 6. Skim the table and do all the tasks given by your teacher.

Task 7. Complete the following sentences using prepositional phrases. 1. … out of mind. 2. Unfortunately, the majority of students were … because of summer holidays. 3. His participation in the International conference was … because of his illness. 4. Dear friends, thanks for your order, but we regret that the item is …, can we change to other item in our store? 5. To be honest, our universities have … curriculum. 6. Far from doing anything to reduce the number of jobless, the Government is planning to throw more … with its rail and pit closures. 7. Your explanation “I don’t have time” is …, being a student you should always be ready for your class. 8. The manager had to do something because the team was … and his employees could have missed the deadline of the project. 9. It’s a very dangerous tendency both for a boss and his colleagues to be … . 76

SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 8. Skim the text and be ready to discuss (make up your own dialogues) the issues of work insecurity as a global challenge Work insecurity is a global phenomenon, in that the risks and dangers exist everywhere. But they vary from country to country, from industry to industry, from occupation to occupation, and from one type of employment to another. In developing countries, where the problems are surely greatest, there is also the least information. The voice of ordinary people should be heard, and governments and donor agencies should make sure much more information is gathered on this aspect of work. We have tried to do this in a small way. Thus, in Tanzania the PSS asked about the realities faced by respondents. One in seven said they worked in dangerous environments. Those in nonagricultural wage jobs were far more likely to report that this was the case. Overall, 40% felt insecure about the health and safety conditions of their workplace, a figure that rose to 80% for casual agricultural workers. Not surprisingly, about one in seven workers had experienced work-related injuries or illnesses. Among rural workers in Bangladesh, 16% had suffered a work-related injury that required them to miss a week of work. In Ukraine, according to the PSS, workers live with extreme work insecurity. Over a third said they were exposed to chemical substances, with more women than men exposed to chemicals at work. More than 40% of workers were exposed to unguarded or dangerous machinery, with more men than women facing this problem. And nearly half were exposed to excessive noise on a regular basis. A striking but not surprising fact is that more than 25% of Ukraine’s industrial workers said their working conditions were unsafe. In the other countries where the PSS was conducted, reported exposures to dangerous chemicals with no protections ranged from 6% of casual labourers and wage workers in Gujarat, India saying they were exposed, to 74% of workers in Indonesia. The Indonesia PSS revealed that nearly one in every five workers said their workplace conditions were poor, over half had no department or committee responsible for health and safety in the workplace, and about 14% said they had been victim of a work-induced injury, with nearly one-third having been absent from work due to accidents. These findings are repeated in country after country. Nearly half of all wage workers in Bangladesh feel their working conditions are unsafe. In the Russian Federation, 30% of workers consider their work environment “unsafe” or “very unsafe”. The same perception exists among 24% of workers in Argentina, 17% of workers in Chile, 17% of Brazil’s workers. In Tanzania 80% of casual agricultural workers say they feel insecure about the health and safety conditions of their workplace.

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To illustrate the global challenge further, the PSS findings from Gujarat tell a story of extreme insecurity, particularly among rural women where some 30% of women workers missed more than one day of work due to a work-related injury or illness. Speaking Practice Task 9. Read the text attentively to find out all the statistics connected with stress and muscular tensions and the reasons of these work-related diseases. Musculoskeletal disorders, or MSDs, are rapidly becoming one of the prime causes of work-related injuries and diseases, affecting every sector of society at every income level. On a global scale, the ILO estimates that musculoskeletal disorders account for 40% of total costs worldwide attributed to work-related injuries and diseases. The European Agency for Safety and Health at Work estimates that 40% of European workers are affected by MSDs. In the United States the number of repeated trauma cases rose steadily from 23,800 in 1972 to 332,000 in 1994 – a 14 – fold increase. Musculoskeletal disorders are the leading workplace hazard in European workplaces today, with more women workers employed in jobs with a risk of MSD than males. Static loads on the muscles contribute to MSDs.66 Globally, women workers are the most exposed to static postures, with a higher prevalence among low and unskilled workers. Stress and muscular tensions result from problems of work organization. Performing monotonous rapid pace work, with little control over work hours or conditions of employment, has been associated with stress, higher incidence of alcohol-related or gastrointestinal illness, and hospitalization from heart attack. Results of a ten-year study showed that women with “high-strain” jobs were nearly three times more likely to develop coronary heart disease than workers in other jobs. A 1993 OECD review of key studies on women’s work and health revealed that women are more exposed to monotonous repetitive work than men, and that women’s work content often can be characterized as high in demand but with a low level of control by workers. Also revealing is that in typically maledominated jobs the workplace is designed for male body size and male norms, including most worktables and workstations where women work. In the United States women make up 46% of the workforce and 33% of those injured at work. Yet they bear a disproportionate burden, 63%, of repetitive motion injuries that result in lost work time (47,408 injuries out of 75,188). Musculoskeletal disorders account for nearly half of all lost work-time injuries and illnesses among women. Listening Task 11. Watch the video and do the quiz on the site related to the Health and Safety Regulations: OSHA https://study.com/academy/lesson/health-and-safety-regs-osha-warn.html

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Writing Practice Task 12. Write a report to your boss about the main reasons of the most frequent work-related diseases nowadays. Unit 4. Workplace Safety

In this unit you will...  remember the basic definitions of workplace safety;  learn to use terms and definitions applied to workplace safety;  revise the difference between Do and Make;  read about workplace safety hazard identification;  listen and watch the video connected with the main causes of accidents at work;  talk about the frequency, the age group and the common causes of workplace accidents;  write workplace safety instructions for your employees. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Procedures for safety, safety measures, damage to equipment and facilities, workplace safety hazards, restricted visibility, sore backs, danger of poisoning. Task 2. Read both parts of the text and answer the following questions. 1. What is the first step in workplace safety? 2. Could you name potential workplace safety hazards and their consequences? 3. Do you know any appropriate personal protective equipment, which must be at your office? 4. Why should your manager recognize the importance of safety training? 5. Are there any benefits of workplace safety? Workplace Safety A safe work environment is a productive one. No matter the size or type of the business, procedures for safety in the workplace are a necessity for all staff. Safety measures protect employees as well as equipment and business property. 79

Avoiding or minimizing injuries and damage to equipment and facilities will result in fewer expenses and more profit for a business. Identifying workplace safety hazards and issues is the first step in protecting employees. Common work safety concerns can include ergonomics, presence of hazardous chemicals, mechanical problems, noise pollution, restricted visibility, dangers of falling and weather-related hazards. Issues with nonergonomic equipment may cause human health problems, including sore backs and carpal tunnel syndrome. Chemicals can explode; causing burns, or pose the danger of poisoning. Mechanical safety issues can occur related to the operation of any machine in the workplace. Noise and visibility issues can compromise an employee’s hearing and sight. Falls resulting from poor housekeeping or negligence can cause serious injury and death; procedures should be in place to prevent them. Ice, snow and rain can create hazards of their own; employees need to be trained how to operate equipment safely when weather conditions are bad. Therefore, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) must be available to anyone who comes in contact with a potential work safety hazard. This can include hard hats, protective eyewear, earplugs, shoes, gloves and clothing. Even an office worker who delivers a message to a work area near a potential safety hazard must put on the appropriate PPE. Workplace Safety Policies Each business should have a safety policy in place, created either by management or in a joint effort between management and staff. Every employee has a role in carrying out the safety policies. A safety handbook should be created identifying safety issues and spelling out consequences of not following the appropriate safety procedures. Training is necessary so that employees will know the importance of safety and how to practice safety in the workplaces. Depending on the type of equipment used, the training may be required by a federal mandate. For example, any workplace that operates a forklift must provide training for employees for its safe operation. Training can come from outside experts hired to teach classes or employees specially trained to perform safety instruction. If your manager and all the personnel act appropriately, use protective equipment and perform safety instructions you will benefit of workplace safety. Safety in the workplace results in fewer accidents, which results in fewer costs for worker’s compensation, less down time for employees, and less retraining time for workers otherwise needed to replace an injured worker. Avoiding damage due to equipment will result in fewer repair costs. Worker performance is improved when workers know how to prevent injuries and have confidence in management's active role in protecting their safety. By Denise Brown Updated April 10, 2019 https://smallbusiness.chron.com/workplace-safety-43459.html

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Task 3. Translate the following terms from Russian into English: Меньше затраты на ремонт, автоподъемник, применять меры безопасности на практике, погодный источник опасности, детально объяснять/толковать, опасность отравления, приводить к меньшему количеству несчастных случаев. Task 4. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: To replace an injured worker, personnel act appropriately, joint effort between management and staff, safety policies, weather-related hazards, worker performance, to prevent injuries, spell out consequences. Task 5. Match the terms with their definitions: 1. Safety procedure a) risk that can not be avoided 2. Perform instructions b) what to do to prevent an accident 3. Safety hazard c) follow some written rules 4. Safety handbook d) problems/matters to see something 5. Visibility issues e) manual with written measures of protection Task 6. Talk about the reasons of elaborating workplace safety policies. GRAMMAR REVISION Task 7. Skim the table presenting the difference between Do and Make and do all the tasks given by your teacher. The table is on the next page. Task 8. Choose the correct verb in the following sentences. 1. John didn’t get the job because he … a mistake on his application. 2. Students can … research in the library. 3. The company … a profit last year, thankfully. 4. The negative advertising campaign … damage to the company’s reputation. 5. Maria wanted to work for the company, but they did not … her an offer. So She’s still unemployed and not … any money. 6. Roger isn’t a good worker. He … a lot of jokes at work. When his boss asks him why he isn’t .. his work, he always … an excuse. Often he … phone calls to his girlfriend at the office. I wish he would … his job. When we hired him, I think we … a bad decision. 7. Johnson is worried that her son isn’t … progress at school. He’s not … well. He doesn’t … his homework regularly. He needs to … an effort to improve. Otherwise, he will fail his classes. 8. Alan’s daughter is hardworking. She … her share of the housework. For example, yesterday she … her bed, the dishes, the laundry, and she … the ironing. She even … coffee in the morning.

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SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 9. Skim three texts and be ready to discuss (make up your own dialogues) the issues related to safety management 1. Applying good safety management strategies to your business operations can save lives. Not only is it ethical of you to want to do this, but it’s also a federal requirement, as mandated by the U.S. Office of Safety and Health Administration. OSHA states that employers have the responsibility to see to it that employees are safe from hazards in the workplace. As an employer, you should create workplace safety policies, conduct routine safety meetings and do routine safety checks. Ergonomics – the study of how your physical health is impacted by the type of work you do – is one of the most essential business office safety issues, according to the American Occupational Therapy Association. Modern business environments require employees do a lot of sitting and computer work. Unbeknownst to many, things that include sitting in your chair and using your keyboard, can cause physical injuries if your posture is not ergonomically correct. As such, employers should educate staff on ergonomic safety so that employees can perform their jobs safely and comfortably. 2. Offices use a lot of electrical equipment, which employees rely on to conduct business. According to a March 2008 article in “Environment, Health and 82

Safety Today” – an online magazine dedicated to providing environmentally savvy info to business leaders – electrical equipment can overheat, cause fires and electrocute people who misuse them. OSHA requires employers to take electrical safety steps to avoid and reduce employee injuries that can be caused from electrical mishaps. For instance, damaged wires should be repaired, computer cords should be properly hidden and electrical equipment should be installed by professionals with proper training. 3. General injuries can occur in a business office, such as employees slipping on wet surfaces, tripping over carpet, stumbling down stairs and getting burned by the coffee pot. While accidents happen, there are ways to avoid them. According to OSHA, because slip-and-fall injuries make up a considerable percentage of accidents that occur in the workplace, employers must make sure that staircases have railings, wet surfaces are blocked off, and that carpeting and rugs are in good condition. As for other types of injuries, employers should educate staff to pay attention to labels and caution signs, like the ones you might find on the coffee pot that say “Hot!” By Kyra Sheahan https://smallbusiness.chron.com/business-office-safety537.html Speaking Practice Task 10. Read several short parts of the text attentively to find out all the details concerning Cooperate Management and environmental health by Kenneth V. Oster, entitle each of them and then express your opinion on the problems any boss should be in charge. Management is responsible for providing employees with a safe and healthy workplace. Issues of particular concern include risk mitigation and accident prevention. Corporate leadership is responsible for making every safety regulation applicable to your business operations is being followed. Managers must initiate an emergency response plan to ensure the company can effectively respond to any eventuality. Risk management planning represents a response to potential risks and dangers associated with business operations. Although every possible risk can't be fully eliminated, mitigation planning helps identify health and safety issues, leading to the development of programs that reduce potential hazards. Management should initiate regular inspections of work centers with the goal of preventing employee injury and sickness. Safety inspectors should determine the greatest risk of injury or sickness and prioritize responses accordingly. In some organizations, the human resource manager has primary responsibility for developing a health and safety program. She or he creates a safety team that leads the development of risk-assessment and emergencyresponse plans as well as the enforcement of safety standards. Management's responsibility is to ensure the HR director has sufficient resources to maintain an environmental health and safety program. Human resources and corporate 83

management should ensure that health and safety planning is an integral part of strategic planning. Failure to comply with established safety standards leads to serious injury or death. Management is responsible for training supervisors, managers and shift leaders to enable them to enforce the safety and health standards that apply to company work centers. Training for supervisors should not only teach the standards, but also should provide policies for fairly and consistently discipline workers who violate regulations. Supervisors are required to document an employee's failure to comply. Emergency response planning is a continuation of risk assessment. It begins by identifying possible emergency situations and providing sufficient training so the response is accomplished in a systematic and timely fashion. It is often too late to think about how to respond to emergency once it occurs, which makes advance planning paramount. Location-specific emergency plans should provide protection for office employees, production workers, visitors and customers. https://smallbusiness.chron.com/corporate-management-environmentalhealth-safety-7856 Listening Task 11. Watch the video and discuss the frequency, the age group and the common causes of workplace accidents. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4bkr5lpKGUM Writing Practice Task 12. Write a plan for developing an instruction on workplace safety. Unit 5. Job Security

In this unit you will...  remember the basic definitions related to job security & discrimination at work;

 learn to use terms and definitions applied to discrimination at work;  revise Noun + Preposition;  read about the concept of job security and discrimination as job insecurity;  listen and watch the video about the forms of discrimination and the ways dealing with them in Florida; 84

 talk about job security and discrimination;  write about your attitude to the problem of discrimination issues. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Possession of a niche, undergo unpredictable changes, sense of attachment to, sexual discrimination, race or ethnicity, disability, susceptible, treatment in the workplace, sexual harassment, zero-tolerance policy, lawsuits, the wage gap, reasonable prospect of retaining. Task 2. Read both parts of the text and answer the following questions. 1. How can one define job security? 2. Are there any differences between job security and employment security? 3. What are the major factors of workplace discrimination? Cite specific examples. 4. What are the classic case of discrimination against women? 5. How many forms of discrimination that affect job security can you name? 6. What steps are companies taking to ensure that employees are not discriminated against? The concept of job security Job security is the possession of a niche in work, allowing some control over the content of a job, what the worker actually does and the opportunity he or she has of building a career. A worker could have employment security but no job security, when, for instance, within the same firm his tasks undergo unwanted, stressful or unpredictable changes that force him to adjust or to discontinue his job or to change occupations. This form of security is related to both employment and skills security, but differs in that it refers to the worker’s own development over his or her entire active life. Again, another way of presenting job security is to refer to property rights in a person’s work. In other words, whereas employment security refers to the sense of attachment to a current enterprise or establishment, job security refers to the sense of attachment to a particular job or range of tasks. One may have strong employment security but weak job security. Conceptually, the differences are fairly easy to appreciate. However, empirically finding a way to assess job security is much harder, and this aspect of labour-related security has been less studied than employment security. Having a niche in work and access to what is often called a career, is what decent work is or should be all about. In the PSS, efforts have been made to ascertain the characteristics of job security, with questions about discrimination at work, perceived work satisfaction and about the breadth of tasks and mobility within work. 85

Discrimination as job insecurity If job security is about having a secure niche in the production process, one factor is whether the person can have a reasonable prospect of retaining his or her job without being arbitrarily transferred to another or being confronted with a situation where the tasks or skills have become obsolescent. The second factor is whether or not the person has a reasonable prospect of enhancing his or her position in terms of status, skill or income. Another is whether or not the person faces discrimination or institutional barriers to work opportunities, including mobility. Discriminatory labour markets and labour practices cause economic insecurity for those directly involved and for those who think they may be affected. This extends to groups, or forms of behaviour, that are not regarded by the mainstream of society as legitimate. A society that tolerates one or certain forms of discrimination is likely to tolerate others, and thus the insecurities will spill over beyond the groups currently facing discrimination. Job security entails equal opportunities, which means no unfair discrimination. This opens up sensitive issues, epitomized by the agonizing over “affirmative action” to rectify past discrimination, be it racial, gender, disability, religious, or some other form. Whenever an employer chooses to appoint one person rather than another, a discriminatory judgement is made. Rarely is the decision made purely on the basis of proven technical competence. Usually, it is “unfair” in some way or another. Consider the classic case of discrimination against women. A woman may face a lower probability of being selected for a job, or keeping it, because the manager believes women are less “suited” to the job, or have a lower probability of staying in it, or even because of some evidence that on average women have lower productivity in that type of job. Or the action may be based on some gender viewpoint – a belief that women should not be working, for example. Policies to correct for such unfairness would promote women’s job security and on this there is probably widespread agreement. But we should not forget that policies and practices designed to rectify past unfairness may unfairly jeopardize the job security of others, in this case men, especially where technically more qualified men are passed over (just as many women have been) in favour of “gender balance”. The key point here is that both discrimination and correcting for past discrimination can induce job insecurity. There are three main forms of discrimination that affect job security. Categorical discrimination is where visible or identifiable groups are excluded or treated less well than others. Statistical discrimination is where employers discriminate based on group norms, as when the average person of a group is expected to behave in some adverse way. Inferential discrimination arises from application of a general criterion that results in disadvantage to a particular group that happens to fail that criterion. In practice, all three forms of discrimination take place and have proved hard to combat.

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Task 3. Translate the following terms from Russian into English: Выходящий из употребления, восприимчивый, зал заседаний совета директоров, обращение, сексуальные домогательства, вызывать/повлечь за собой, назначать, угрожать безопасности рабочего места, вызывать незащищенность на работе. Task 4. Find equivalents to the following words and expressions in Russian: Treatment of contract, property rights, treatment of severance costs, after treatment, water treatment, treatments of the law, treatment of choice, Treatment Pack, treatment of losses for tax purposes, accounting treatment. Task 5. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: Enhancing his or her position, in the spotlight, force him to adjust, enlightened times, to conduct some study, in the headlines, to be brushed under the covers, took center stage, setting off, assess job security, ascertain, confront with a situation, Task 6. Talk about job security and discrimination as job insecurity. GRAMMAR REVISION Noun + Preposition Task 7. Study the nouns with dependent prepositions given below, first translate them and then make up your own sentences with some of them. In English, there are many nouns, which need nonstandard prepositions from non-native speaker point of view. A cheque FOR… (a sum of money) A demand/a need/a reason FOR… An advantage/a disadvantage/a cause OF… A picture/a map/a plan/a diagram (etc.) OF… An increase/a decrease/a rise/a fall IN (prices etc.) An invitation/an access/a solution/a reaction/a key/an answer/a reply/an attitude/damage TO… A relationship/a connection/contact WITH… But: a relationship/a connection/contact/a difference BETWEEN two things and people. Task 8. Complete the second sentence so that it has the same meaning as the first. 1. What caused the crisis? What is the cause of the crisis? 2. The head of our department is trying to solve the problem. The head of our department is trying to find a … … 3. Patricia gets on well with her colleagues. Patricia has a good … … her colleagues. 87

4. Prices have gone up a lot. There has been a big … … 5. I don’t know how to answer your question. I can’t think of an answer … 7. The number of people without jobs fell last month. Last month there was a … … 8. Nobody wants to buy shoes like this any more. There is no … … 9. In what way is your job different from mine? What is the … …. Task 9. Complete the sentences using one of the following nouns+preposition. Reply, advantages, connection, demands, rise, cheque, reason, differences, reason, solution, 1. There are some … … British and American English. 2. Every decision can be explained. There is a … … everything. 3. We wrote to our board of directors but we still haven’t received a … … our letter. 4. The two companies are completely independent, there are no … … them. 5. Carol has decided to give up her job, but I don’t know her … … doing this. 6. Money isn’t the … … every problem. 7. When I opened the envelope, I was delighted to find a … … £ 500. 8. There has been a sharp … … the cost of living in the past few year. 9. There are many … … being able to speak a foreign language. 10. The company has rejected the workers’ … … a rise … pay. SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 10. Skim the text and be ready to discuss the issues related to the major forms of workplace discrimination? Although we live in enlightened times, a recent Gallup Poll found that 15 percent of American workers still experienced some form of workplace discrimination. The study was conducted to mark the anniversary of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the creation of the EEOC. The poll found that the two most frequently cited types of discrimination are sexual discrimination (31 percent) and discrimination based on race or ethnicity (36 percent). Also mentioned were age, disability, sexual orientation, and religion. The work areas found to be most susceptible to discrimination are promotion and pay. Being selected for a job and treatment in the workplace were also cited. Wage discrimination and sexual harassment are two big battles women continue to fight. Both topics were in the headlines in 2017; one took center stage and the other was brushed under the covers (at least for now). Thanks to Harvey Weinstein, the topic of sexual harassment was in the spotlight, setting off a tsunami as women around the world reacted with their #MeToo stories. As the movement progressed from Hollywood, to media companies, to Capitol Hill, and finally into corporate America, the topic had a 88

platform. From the boardroom to the factory floor, women who had been sexually harassed shared their stories. As companies rushed to put zero-tolerance policies into place and issue new training requirements, lawsuits and class-action cases were settled more quickly, some very publicly. In August 2017, the EEOC reached a $10 million settlement with Ford motor company for sexual and racial harassment at two Chicago plants. In contrast, little was reported on the reversal of the new regulation designed to combat the wage gap between men and women. The revised EEO-1 would have gone into effect March 31, 2018, and required companies with 100 or more employees and federal contractors with 50 or more employees to report W-2 wage information and total hours worked for all employees. The EEO-1 form already requires employers to report data on race/ethnicity and gender. The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) initiated a review and immediate stay to the U.S. EEOC “in accordance with its authority under the Paperwork Reduction Act (PRA),” reversing the regulation that had been revised on September 29, 2016. Pay equity advocates who had supported expanded pay-data reporting were critical of the suspension. “We see through the Trump administration’s call to halt the equal pay rule that requires employers to collect and submit pay data by gender, race, and ethnicity to the government,” said Fatima Goss Graves, president and CEO of the National Women’s Law Center in Washington, D.C. “Make no mistake–it’s an all-out attack on equal pay. It sends a clear message to employers: if you want to ignore pay inequities and sweep them under the rug, this administration has your back.” How important is equal pay? According to the analyses of the 2014–2016 Annual Social and Economic supplement published by the Institute for Women’s Policy Research, the United States economy would have produced additional income of $512.6 billion if women received equal pay; this represents 2.8 percent of 2016 gross domestic product (GDP). In addition, poverty rates would drop from 10.8 percent to 4.4 percent, and the number of children with working mothers living in poverty would be nearly cut in half, dropping from 5.6 million to 3.1 million. By Susan Chira and Catrin Einhorn, https://www.nytimes.com, December 19, 2017 Speaking Practice Task 11. Read several short parts of the text attentively and be ready to present a short report on one of them. 1. What is workplace discrimination, and what constitutes discrimination against employees or job applicants? Employment discrimination happens when an employee or job candidate is treated unfavorably because of age, disability, genetic information, national origin, pregnancy, race or skin color, religion, or sex.1 In addition, federal laws against discrimination protect workers from retaliation for “asserting their rights to be free from employment discrimination.” 89

2. What's the difference between discrimination and harassment? Harassment is a form of discrimination. As with discrimination, there are different types of harassment, including unwelcome behavior by a co-worker, manager, client, or anyone else in the workplace, that is based on race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy), nationality, age (40 or older), disability, or genetic information. 3. Workplace discrimination occurs when an individual is discriminated against due to any number of factors. In addition to the reasons listed above, employees and job applicants can also be discriminated against because of their relationship to another person. For example, an employer is legally prohibited from refusing to hire a job candidate because their spouse is disabled and they fear that the candidate’s caregiving responsibilities may interfere with their work. This would be discrimination under the ADA, even though the candidate is not the disabled party. https://www.breathehr.com/blog/business-process/what-is-discriminationin-the-workplace Task 12. Read the text and discuss with your partner the equality of opportunity for those with disabilities in different countries. In Ghana, people were asked whether in job recruitment decisions a preference should be given to workers with disabilities or to those who were “able bodied” or whether they thought there should be no preference one way or the other. Only 37% favoured the equal opportunity option, 25% said preference should be given to someone with a disability, and 38% said preference should be given to those without disabilities. It turned out that men were more likely to think that there should be discrimination in favour of those without disabilities, and this view was more likely the older the man. In Indonesia, a majority of people felt that the physically disabled should have the same opportunity to obtain a job as others – 63% (with no difference between men and women); only 21% disagreed. Even more agreed that those with hearing problems should have equal opportunities (69%), and a similar share said those with speech defects should have them (69%). The responses on the blind were less clear – 57% saying they agreed with equal opportunities. Perhaps some of those expressing reservations were thinking about practicalities. This comes across even more in attitudes to equal opportunity for the mentally impaired – merely 24% agreed. What is encouraging is that the vast majority believed that all public buildings should provide facilities for the disabled, and even more agreed with the idea of mobilizing social resources to help the disabled and giving financial support for their health care. As for places to rehabilitate or assist the disabled, 21% knew of such places, and of those who did so, 17% thought they were good quality, 4% that they were fair, while 78% did not know. Some 13% knew of a training centre for the disabled; most of those who knew of a government training 90

centre (68%) thought such facilities were good, and 52% thought the private centre known to them was good. Finally, a majority were against the proposition that the disabled should beg for money – 44% strongly disagreeing, and 21% disagreeing on balance. Listening Task 13. Watch the video and discuss the forms of discrimination and the ways dealing with them in Florida https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HlM1c1s_3Qw Writing Practice Task 14. Review this list of the different types of employment discrimination, examples of workplace discrimination and write about your attitude to the problem using all the information related to discrimination issues. Age Gender Race Ethnicity Skin Color National Origin Mental or Physical Disability Genetic Information Relationship to someone who may be discriminated against Pregnancy or Parenthood Examples of Employment Discrimination Employment discrimination could occur in any number of situations, including: Stating or suggesting preferred candidates in a job advertisement Excluding potential employees during recruitment Denying certain employees compensation or benefits Paying equally-qualified employees in the same position different salaries Discriminating when assigning disability leave, maternity leave, or retirement options Denying or disrupting the use of company facilities Discrimination when issuing promotions or lay-offs Example: Discrimination in the workplace is based on certain prejudices and occurs when an employee is treated unfavourably because of gender, sexuality, race, religion, pregnancy and maternity or disability.

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Module III. Economic Security of Firms and Other Global Issues Unit 1. Conceptual Principles

In this unit you will…  remember the basic definitions of enterprise economic security;  learn to use terms and definitions applied to enterprise economic security;  revise Phrasal Verbs;  read about conceptual principles of setting up enterprise economic security;  listen and watch the video connected with the enterprise financial security;  talk about the economic success of firms;  write a report on the modern trends in different countries related to training. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: To take into account, measures of setting up, point up main targets, resource potential use, disruptive influence, enterprise personnel security, consistency, develop, extend and alter, coherence, stock of capital, GDP per capita. Task 2. Read both parts of the text and answer the following questions. 1. How can one define an enterprise economic security? 2. Can you name the main targets of setting up enterprise economic security? 4. What are the major principles of setting up enterprise economic security? 5. What is one of the primary objectives in a social system in which commerce and property have a central role? 6. Does a higher GDP per capita promote a higher standard of living in your opinion? 92

Conceptual Principles of Setting up Enterprise Economic Security Taking into account the main goal, functions and main groups of measures of setting up enterprise economic security, we have pointed up main targets for the enterprise to reach in all fields of activities in the end of the strategic period and in the intermediate stages. The main targets of setting up enterprise economic security include: ensuring high efficiency activity, financial stability and independence of enterprise; optimization of enterprise resource potential use; achieving high competitive technical potential of enterprise; ensuring high competitive status; achieving high–efficiency management, optimal organized structure of enterprise management; minimizing disruptive influence of external environment; ensuring enterprise functioning within legal boundaries; achieving the necessary level of information support of all enterprise departments, protection of own trade secret; effective organization of enterprise personnel security, its capitals, property, as well as commercial interests etc. Setting up economic security of enterprise for its efficiency enhancement, protection of interests, timely respond to external environment changes and ability to adapt quick is based on the following main principles:  consistency – creating a security system to ensure safety of enterprise, its property, personnel, information, different fields of activity from threats risks, force – majeure circumstances. All enterprise employees should participate in maintenance of enterprise security. Enterprise security ensuring program should become the organizational form of complex use of means and measures;  continuity – security system should be continuous, it should protect enterprise interests in the face of risk and uncertainty;  adaptability – management system’s ability to adapt to external and internal environment changes of enterprise in order to avoid threats and dangers;  promptitude – revealing different destructive factors, taking measures to prevent their harmful effects and damage on enterprise;  economic efficiency – expenses for taking measures to security ensuring should be economically sound;  adequacy – enterprise economic security should be ensured by highly skilled staff;  planning – good organization of security system functioning;  development – the need of taking into account rapid changes happening in the external environment, system’s ability to develop, extend and alter in structure;  unity – coherence and coordinated action of all departments of enterprise economic security service. Compliance with these principles will contribute to efficiency enhancement of enterprise performance and setting up enterprise economic security. One of the primary objectives in a social system in which commerce and property have a central role is to promote the growth of capital. The standard measures of growth are Gross Domestic Product or GDP, capacity utilization, and standard of living'. 93

The ability of capitalist economies to increase and improve their stock of capital was central to the argument, which Adam Smith advanced for a free market setting production, price and resource allocation. It has been argued that GDP per capita was essentially flat until the industrial revolution and the emergence of the capitalist economy, and that it has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries. It has also been argued that a higher GDP per capita promotes a higher standard of living, including the adequate or improved availability of food, housing, clothing, health care, reduced working hours and freedom from work for children and the elderly. These are reduced or unavailable if the GDP per capita is too low, so that most people are living a marginal existence. Economic growth is however, not universally viewed as an unequivocal good. The downside of such growth is referred to by economists as the 'externalization of costs'. Among other things, these effects include pollution, the disruption of traditional living patterns and cultures, the spread of wars to get more resources or market access, and the creation of underclasses. No matter how wealthy the richest capitalists are, it does not ensure the well-being of all the citizens. Such examples of this include the Hurricane Katrina crisis in New Orleans where the working class (a majority of them being AfricanAmerican) were left without aid despite the US being the wealthiest country in the world at that time. In defense of capitalism, liberal philosopher Isaiah Berlin has claimed that all of these ills are neither unique to capitalism, nor are they its inevitable consequences. Task 3. Translate the following terms from Russian into English: Акцентировать внимание на, своевременно отвечать на внешние изменения, остерегаться опасности, ВВП на душу населения, загрязнение окружающей среды, разрушительный, сплоченность, неизбежный, личные качества. Task 4. Find equivalents to the following words and expressions in Russian: Achieving high – efficiency management, competitive technical potential, protection of own trade secret, resource allocation, reduced working hours, externalization of costs', inevitable consequences, adverse impact, credentials. Task 5. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: Ensure high efficiency activity, confront with a situation, maintenance, promptitude, compliance with, GDP, downside, creation of underclasses, despite, suppression of economic intelligence, left without aid. Task 6. Talk about conceptual principles of setting up enterprise economic security.

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GRAMMAR REVISION Phrasal Verbs Task 7. Study some phrasal verbs given below, first translate them and then make up your own sentences with some of them. A phrasal verb is a verb with one or several prepositions. Unlike verbs with dependent prepositions, they have a completely new meaning. For example: Fall out 1. If somebody/something falls out, it is no longer attached to this object: Tom fell out of a tree. The drugs made his tooth fall out. 2. to have an argument or a quarrel with someone: Jane and Michael fell out last year and now they’re not friends anymore. 3. if soldiers fall out, they stop standing in a line. Clear up 1. To make a place look tidier by putting things back: I don’t mind you using the kitchen as long as you clear up afterwards. 2. to explain or solve something: There are a couple of points we need to clear up before the meeting begins. 3. to become brighter – for weather: The weather is horrible. I hope it will clear up later. 4. if an illness and infection clears up, it disappears So you see, phrasal verbs often have more than one meaning. Some meanings are easy to understand and remember, they are quite literal. Some meanings, however, are not literal, and you just need to remember them. Sometimes a phrasal verb has an object. There are two possible positions for the object. So you can say: I turned off the TV. or I turned the TV off. Here TV is an object, if the object is a pronoun (it/them/me etc.), only one position is possible: I turned it off. Some more examples: Could you fill in this form? or Could you fill this form in? but They gave me a form and told me to fill it in. (not fill in it) Sometimes a phrasal verb is followed by a preposition. For example: Keep up with You are walking too fast. I can’t keep up with you. In the table, there are some more examples. Read, translate and use them in your own sentences. When we put a phrasal verb into another tense, we change only the verb part. Therefore, if you want to say “calm down” in past simple, it will be “calmed down”. She calmed down after I told her about my plans. Task 8. Complete the sentences using one of the phrasal verbs in the correct form: Clear up, close down, doze off, drop out, move in, show off, turn up 1. I arranged to meet Jane after work last night but she didn’t ….. . 2. We’ve bought a new house. Oh, have you? When are you … ? 95

3. There used to be a shop at the end of the street but it … a year ago. 4. These press conference will … a misunderstanding between you and me. 5. I ran in a marathon last week but I wasn’t fit enough. I … after 15 kilometres. 6. We all know how wonderful you are. There is no need to ... . 7. I was very tired. I sat in an armchair and … .

SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 9. Skim the text and be ready to discuss the issues related to the economic success of firms. The economic success of firms is largely determined by the provision of economic security. Enterprise economic security is the state of security of the enterprises from the adverse impact of internal and external threats, destructive causes, which allow sustainable implementation of the main commercial interests and the purposes of the statutory activity. Economic security is ensured by implementation of measures of economic security, whose main aim is to maximize safety and minimize potential damage. Here are the main tasks for ensuring economic security: Legal protection of trade secrets of the organization and its interests; The acquisition of necessary information by conducting marketing research; Detection of external and internal 96

threats, the suppression of economic intelligence by competitors, unauthorized or criminal activities by employees; Security of organizations and objects located on it; Compensation for material and moral damages if it was caused by illegal influences businesses and individuals; Controlling the activities of the security system, improvement of its elements. In general, the system of economic security of enterprise is individual; during its formation, one must consider not only the above issues, but also the scope of activities, the conditions of competitiveness. How the budget of the firm, knowledge and leadership experience in the field of economic security is realized by the system and by the normative-legal base of the state. The establishment of a durable system of economic security of an organization cannot be achieved without its compliance with the series of principles: 1. Comprehensiveness - the system must ensure the safety of various areas of activity of the enterprise. 2. The priority of preventive measures (warning) is a system security required at the initial stages to detect various negative factors. 3. Consistency – security system may be continuous under the condition of failure-free operation of its elements. 4. The legality – all actions to ensure security of the enterprise should be based on the existing regulations and not to contradict him. 5. Planning – logically sequential execution of actions in the system, making the system organized. 6. Low cost – the cost of the system must not exceed the income from the activities of the enterprise. 7. Interaction – all elements of the system are functioning in a coordinated way; the function of each element is clearly defined. 8. Competence – ensuring economic security should be entrusted to professionals with the necessary level of training, knowledge in this area. Thus, economic security is one of the main components of enterprise management, working for its success. To build a reliable system of economic safety of the enterprise requires specific competence in this field, setting clear goals, objectives and compliance with the basic principles. Speaking Practice Task 10. Read the text attentively to find out all the details concerning some statistics to provide training and retraining to workers. Prepare a short report on the topic. Across the world, large-scale enterprises have a much greater tendency to provide training and retraining to workers. This was brought out in both the enterprise surveys and the PSS. Thus, workers in Argentina, Brazil and Chile were more likely to have had training in the past two years if they were working in larger firms. In Ukraine, large firms were much more likely to provide training. Large-scale firms also tend to provide formal rather than informal training, leading to identifiable skills and credentials. Indeed, those who argue that policy 97

should boost small-scale business should note that these are least likely to provide an environment of skill formation, contrary to the image of the craftsmanship model. In China, ELFS data suggest that training is more likely in larger firms, and is most likely in foreign firms. If a comparison is made for provision of basic training for recruits and for all forms of training combined (initial, retraining and upgrading) the differences between firms become greater. Thus, whereas 45% of firms with fewer than 40 workers provide basic training compared with 80% of firms with more than 300 workers, only 20% of small firms provide all three levels of training against 56% of the large firms. For illustrative purposes, Figures 8.26 and 8.27 show that in Ukraine and Brazil the larger the firm, the more likely it is to score highly in terms of skill formation. This pattern exists in all countries for which we have data. But in developing countries the difference between small and large firms is on average greater than in eastern Europe. In Indonesia, the larger the firm the more likely it is to have a working environment oriented to skill development, with initial training, retraining and relatively formal methods of training, as measured by the index of skill development. This is a funding reproduced in most other countries. Perhaps more interesting than the findings on size of enterprise is the evidence that foreign firms in developing countries are much more likely to provide training than local private firms for Indonesia, the Philippines and in several other countries. People working in public sector enterprises are also more likely to receive training than those working in private firms, as shown in Tanzania, for example. And those who are self-employed or working in the “informal economy” are the least likely to have obtained training, as was found in Argentina, Brazil and Chile.25 In Ukraine, privatization and restructuring have contributed to the decline in training, because it is less often provided in private and small-scale firms. Writing Practice Task 11. Write a report on the modern trends in different countries related to training based on the size and other factors concerning firms. Enterprise economic security The economic success of firms is largely determined by the provision of economic security. Enterprise economic security is the state of security of the enterprises from the adverse impact of internal and external threats, destructive causes, which allow sustainable implementation of the main commercial interests and the purposes of the statutory activity [2]. Economic security is ensured by implementation of measures of economic security, whose main aim is to maximize safety and minimize potential damage. Here are the main tasks for ensuring economic security [1]: Legal protection of trade secrets of the organization and its interests; The acquisition of necessary information by conducting marketing research; Detection 98

of external and internal threats, the suppression of economic intelligence by competitors, unauthorized or criminal activities by employees; Security organizations and objects located on it; Compensation for material and moral damages if it was caused by illegal influences businesses and individuals; Controlling the activities of the security system, improvement of its elements. In general, the system of economic security of enterprise is individual, during its formation one must consider not only the above problems, but the scope of activities, the conditions of competitiveness. How and in what scale it is realized by the system and is determined by the normative-legal base of the state, budget of the firm, knowledge and leadership experience in the field of economic security. The establishment of a durable system of economic security of an organization cannot be achieved without its compliance with this series of principles: 1. Comprehensiveness - the system must ensure the safety of various areas of activity of the enterprise. 2. The priority of preventive measures (warning) is a system security required at the initial stages to detect various negative factors. 3. Consistency – security system may be continuous under the condition of failure-free operation of its elements. 4. The legality – al l actions to ensure security of the enterprise should be based on the existing regulations and not to contradict them. 5. Planning – logically sequential execution of actions in the system, making the system organized. 6. Low cost – the cost of the system must not exceed the income from the activities of the enterprise. 7. Interaction – all elements of the system are functioning in a coordinated way; the function of each element is clearly defined. 8. Competence – ensuring economic security should be entrusted to professionals with the necessary level of training, knowledge in this area. Thus, economic security is one of the main components of enterprise management, working for its success [3]. To build a reliable system of economic safety of the enterprise one requires specific competence in this field, setting clear goals, objectives and compliance with the basic principles.

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Unit 2. Financial Security of Firms

In this unit you will…  remember the basic definitions related to financial security;  learn to use terms and definitions applied to financial security;  revise conjunctions;  read about an enterprise financial security formation;  talk about the functional objectives of the enterprise financial security;  write a report on the enterprise financial security. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Ensure financial stability, achievement of high competitiveness, high liquidity of assets, market value of the enterprise, general strategic forecasting, operational management, conduct functional analysis, valuation of, innovative, imperfection of economic legislation. Task 2. Read three parts of the text and answer the following questions. 1. What is the definition of financial security of an enterprise? 2. How can one determine the main functional objectives of financial security of the enterprise? 3. Is the process of the formation of the enterprise financial security complex? 4. Can you name any important factors of the formation of the enterprise financial security? 5. Is it necessary to follow any algorithm of tasks of the strategy of innovative financial security of the enterprise? 6. Does an enterprise face any real and potential threats?

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Formation of Financial Security The financial security of an enterprise is a quantitatively and qualitatively determined level of its financial status, which ensures the stable protection of its priority balanced financial interests from identified real and potential threats of external and internal character, parameters, which are determined on the basis of the financial philosophy and create the necessary conditions for financial support for its steady growth in the current and prospective periods. Therefore, the financial security of the enterprise is a dynamic feature of financial condition, which reflects its resilience to internal and external threats, the ability to sustainable and balanced development and to protect their financial instruments. The main functional objectives of financial security of the enterprise should be: 1. ensuring financial stability and independence; 2. ensuring high efficiency of financial and economic activity; 3. achievement of high competitiveness in the market of goods, works, services; 4. ensuring high liquidity of assets and raising the market value of the enterprise; 5. support for the appropriate level of business activity and image; 6. formation of information security and business secrets; 7. effective organization of security of own capital and property of the enterprise. It is required to apply so called general scheme for the formation of the enterprise financial security and the general scheme of the enterprise financial security formation process covers the following measures:

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Implementing the process of organization of financial security of the enterprise based on the strategic planning one should consider the following most important factors: 1. the level of financial security and its characteristics; 2. the state of the life cycle of the enterprise development; 3. risks and threats within the internal and external environment and their changes; 4. financial and economic opportunities of the enterprise; 5. market conditions; 6. modification of actions of subjects of the institutional environment in trade, etc. To successfully implement the strategy of innovative financial security of the enterprise one must adhere to a clear algorithm of actions, which is proposed in the next figure:

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In addition, the major point enshrined in the strategy of innovative financial security of the enterprise is to analyze the real and potential threats to the macro and micro level: Macro threats: high inflation in the country; low purchasing power of the population; unfavourable investment climate; imperfection of economic legislation, its instability; high level of tax rates; fluctuations in exchange rates, etc. Micro threats: threats from third-party suppliers of products, competitors, consumers, state and local authorities, etc. Task 3. Translate the following terms from Russian into English: Жизненный цикл развития предприятия, низкая покупательная способность, соответствующий уровень деловой активности, предусмотренный, государственные и местные власти, придерживаться. Task 4. Do the task just for fun and relaxation. Explain the following jokes. Always borrow money from a pessimist. He won’t expect it back. A successful man is one who makes more money than his wife can spend. A successful woman is one who can find such a man.

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Task 5. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: Third-party suppliers, consumers, tax rates, to implement some ideas, execution of strategies, creation of prerequisites, profitability of the enterprise, access to labour opportunities, solvency of the enterprise, appropriate stage. Task 6. Talk about the functional objectives of the enterprise financial security. GRAMMAR REVISION Word Order 1. The verb and the object of the verb normally go together. We do not usually put other words between them. Example: I like my profession very much. (not I like very much my profession) Did you see your colleagues yesterday? Students often study rules carelessly. 2. Usually the verb and the place (where) go together: Go home, live in a city, walk to work – if the verb has an object, the place comes after the verb+object: take somebody home, meet a friend in the street 3. Time (when?/how often?/how long?) normally goes after place: He works to work every morning. She has worked at the same university for a long time. Don’t be late. Make sure you’re here by 8 o’clock. 4. It is often possible to put time at the beginning of the sentence: On Friday, we are going to have our team’s meeting at the university. Task 7. Is the word order right or wrong? Correct the ones that are wrong. 1. The accountant of our department enjoyed the activity organized by the representatives of the board of director very much. 2. Our CEO walks every morning to work. 3. Implementing the process of organization of financial security of the enterprise based on the strategic planning one should the following most important factors consider. 4. This pattern in all countries exists for which we have data. 5. Are you going to invite to the conference a lot of people? 6. I met on my way to the office our financial manager who doesn’t like very much his colleagues. 7. Did you learn anything valuable via distant work for your future work? Task 8. Put the parts of the sentence in the right order. 1. the party/very much/everybody enjoyed. 2. we won/easily/the game. 3. quietly/the door/I closed. 104

4. Diana/quite well/speaks/German. 5. Tim/all the time/television/watches. 6. again/please don’t ask/that question. 7. home/did you come/so late/why? 8. for a long time/have lived/in the same house/they? SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 9. Skim the text and be ready to discuss the role of financial security in ensuring economic security of the enterprise. Financial security of business entities is a part of state’s financial security, because company creates added value, which forms the gross domestic product at the level of State. In addition, companies are the major taxpayers, which influence on the formation of the revenue of the state and local budgets. Consequently, the level of the companies' financial security will ensure that State can perform its functions and provide economic development, make improvements to social standards. Assessment of financial security will allow the company to minimize the threats of financial instability and increase the safety of its existence. One of the main tasks of the company's financial security ensuring system is to protect its own financial interests from influence of external and internal threats in order to ensure efficiency of the enterprise. There are some approaches to understand the nature of enterprise's financial security. Most of scholars tend to identify financial security of State and then extrapolate it on the micro level. They think that the companies' financial security can be identified as a certain mechanism which ensures the stability of financial system of enterprise by using protective financial instruments on the one hand and alternatively provides its efficiency by rational use of financial resources. Exploring the concept of “the company’s financial security” we should emphasize its main aspects:  company’s financial security is a component of its economic security;  it is a process that ensures the protection of financial interests of the company;  it is one of the factors of company’s growth and its stability;  it can be characterized by a combination of quantitative and qualitative indicators that should have the appropriate threshold to determine the level of security. Speaking Practice Task 9. Read the text attentively to find out all the details concerning the urgency of ensuring financial security and financial stability. Prepare a short report on the topic. The problems of ensuring financial security and financial stability have recently become extremely urgent, which is associated not only with the financial 105

crisis, the growth of instability, but also with the globalization of the economic space, which leads to an increase in the number of threats in the form of instability in financial markets, anomalous variations in energy prices, primarily, for oil, etc. In these conditions, both the state, regions, and firms were faced with the need for fundamentally new approaches to ensuring the security and sustainability of their development. Financial stability is one of the important characteristics that determine the effectiveness of financial management of an enterprise. The concept of financial stability is widely used in the analysis of the financial condition of an enterprise and the assessment of its investment attractiveness. The financial stability of an enterprise is a comprehensive concept that reflects a state of finance in which the enterprise is able to develop stably while maintaining its financial security under conditions of an additional level of risk. The financial stability of the enterprise (in the narrow sense) is a certain optimal ratio of various types of financial resources attracted by the enterprise, as well as the ratio between various types of financial resources, on the one hand, and the directions of use of these resources, on the other. The financial stability of the enterprise is closely interconnected with other financial categories such as financial security, flexibility, stability, balance. Writing Practice Task 10. Write a report on the role of financial security in ensuring economic security of the enterprise. Unit 3. National Security in Different Countries In this unit you will…  remember the basic definitions related to national security;  learn to use terms and definitions applied national security;  revise connectors;  read about National Security in the USA and Russia;  listen and watch the video related to National Security Relations with France after Brexit;  talk about the National Security in the USA;  write a report National security issues in any other English speaking country. Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: To be essential to an environment, reside without fear, inextricably, ingrained, hard power, foster democracy, sign in, aftermath, preeminent, soft power, long-term efficacy.

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Task 2. Read all the texts and answer the following questions. 1. Why is it difficult to define national security? 2. What kind of approach to national security has the United States long been accustomed to pursue? 3. Why should the country change their approach to national security? 4. What changes are arguably undermining the sense of security of Americans? 5. What are the main aspects of the Russian National Security? 6. Where should Russia sign in according to the concept of long-term socially economic development of our country? 7. Can you name the four strategies, which are required for the implementation of economic development of our country? Introduction Defining national security can be a difficult undertaking because it can mean different things to different people. George Kennan has offered, in my mind, an uncomplicated but reasonable definition: “the continued ability of a country to pursue its internal life without serious interference.” As a rule, economic security is defined as a protection of the vital interests of an individual, the society and the state in the economic sphere from internal and external threats, thus to ensure sustained economic development of the state and society. The concept of economic security is inextricably linked to the concept of national security. The concept of economic security has ingrained in the modern society becoming a part of domestic and foreign policies of many countries. Since economic, social, environmental, informational and other aspects are vital activity areas for an individual, the society and the state, the national security cannot be ensured without economic, social, environmental, informational and other types of security. National Security in the USA Part1 As the world begins the second decade of the twenty-first century, the United States holds what should be a winning hand of a preeminent military, large economy, strong alliances, and democratic values. The nation’s security should be secure. Yet the debate over national security seems to be both intensifying and broadening. The problem appears not only in the difficulty of finding a winning strategy in the long war against acts of terrorism but having to face economic constraints that loom large in the public debate. In addition, the global financial crisis and recession have highlighted the trade-off between spending to protect against external threats and spending to provide jobs and income for citizens at home. The United States has long been accustomed to pursuing a “rich man’s” approach to national security. The country could field an overwhelming fighting force and combine it with economic power and leadership in global affairs to bring to bear far greater resources than any other country against any threat to the 107

nation’s security. The economy has always been there both to provide the funds and materiel for defense and to provide economic security for most households. Policies for economic growth and issues such as unemployment have been viewed as domestic problems largely separate from considerations of national security. The world, however, has changed. Globalization, the rise of China, the prospect of an unsustainable debt burden, unprecedented federal budget deficits, the success of mixed economies with both state-owned and private businesses, huge imbalances in international trade and capital flows, and high unemployment have brought economics more into play in considerations of national security. Traditionally the economy has entered into the national security debate through its impact on the nation’s hard power: the funding of defense, the efficacy of the defense industrial base, and the use of economic sanctions and other instruments as nonkinetic tools of warfare. The long-term efficacy of hard power, however, depends greatly on the ability of a country to provide for it through an ever growing and innovative economy. National security depends also on soft power, the ability of a country to generate and use its economic power and to project its national values. This, in turn, depends on long-term factors that contribute to economic growth and increase the total resource base available not only for defense but to provide economic security in the form of income and business opportunities for individuals. Economic growth depends on building human capital. It also depends on science, technology, and innovation. In addition, the increased integration of the U.S. economy into global markets means that U.S. security also depends on global economic stability, on a balanced international economy, the ability to coordinate key economic policies with other leading nations, and deterring threats to the international financial system. Soft power also enables the country to project American values through diplomacy, economic assistance, fostering democracy and human rights, and promoting sustainable development abroad. Congress plays a major role in each of these elements of national security. This analysis illustrates how disparate parts of the U.S. economy affect the security of the nation. Security is achieved not only by military means but by the whole of the American economy. In national security, the economy is both the enabler and the constraint. This report briefly addresses each of the above issues and provides a context and some possible alternatives to current policy. The purpose of this report is not to provide an exhaustive analysis but to survey the landscape, show how each issue relates to national security, examine possible Congressional actions, and refer the reader to relevant CRS products and analysts. Part 2 U.S. national security underpins the system in which Americans live. National security is essential to an environment and geographical space in which people can reside without fear. It consists, first, of physical security on both the international and domestic sides. This includes protection from threats external to the country and safety in the homeland. These generally are accomplished through hard power and homeland security efforts. Second, it consists of economic 108

security – the opportunity and means for people to provide for their own well being under an economic system that is vibrant, growing, and accessible. Third, U.S. national security involves outreach through soft power in an attempt to win the “hearts and minds” of people across the globe. Soft power complements hard power, and, in cases, may substitute for it. Also, the myriad links between governments, businesses, and people across national borders means that American security increasingly depends on countries and activities in far flung places on the globe. Traditionally, the economy entered into the national security debate through four issues: the defense industrial base, base closures and program cuts, international economic sanctions, and export controls. These issues still garner much of the attention from the vantage point of the military. From the point of view of the nation as a whole, however, economic security takes on a broader meaning. In the United States, the renewed public debate over national security appears to be generated primarily by three global changes. The first is the nature of the external threat to physical security – the rise of terrorism and militant Islam. The second is the aftermath of the global financial crisis, particularly the large federal budget deficit and slow rate of recovery. The third is the growing presence of emerging nations, such as China, India, and Brazil, and the shift of economic power toward them. These changes have created gaps and trade-offs that arguably are undermining the sense of security of Americans. Some may say, “What good is protection from a future threat, when I am unemployed because my job just went to China?” Others may say, “What good is a high salary, if I am dead in a terrorist attack? This debate over national security reaches deep into the fiber of American society. It is not merely political theater, and it is receiving a fillip by the weakened U.S. economy. A vibrant, growing, and dominant economy can hide a multitude of problems. Even though wealth and economic means cannot guarantee U.S. security, it can buy a comfortable sort of insecurity. From: Economics and National Security: Issues and Implications for U.S. Policy. Dick K. Nanto, Coordinator Specialist in Industry and Trade (January 4, 2011). National Security of Russia Increased attention from the state and society to ensuring national security became a characteristic feature of Russia in the early 21 century. It resulted in the need to develop a scientific approach to the study of this phenomenon. In the Law of the Russian Federation “About safety” the concept of “national security” is defined as “the state of protection of vital interests of person, society and state from internal and external threats”. The “vital interests” are represented as “a set of needs, the satisfaction of which reliably ensures the existence and possibility of progressive development of personality, society and state”. 109

Thus, economic security is an integral part of national security. The economic security can be represented as the state of protection of national economy from external and internal threats, which ensures the progressive development of society, its economic and socio-political stability, despite the presence of adverse external and internal factors. The state economic security is a complex socio – economic concept, reflecting a wide range of ever-changing conditions of material production, internal and external threats to the country's economy. It is obvious that the economic security of a nation is determined primarily by the condition of productive forces and socio-economic relations, the extent of use of achievements of scientific and technological progress in the sector structure of foreign trade. In this regard, it can be argued that the material basis of economic security of the state are: developed productive forces capable of ensuring the expanded reproduction and the civilized life of citizens. The state's economic security is closely linked with the concepts of “development” and “sustainability” of the economy. On behalf of the President of the Russian Federation Ministry of economic development and trade the Concept long-term socially-economic development of our country for the period up to 2020 was developed, the aim of which was to identify sustainable ways of improving the welfare of Russian citizens, strengthening the economic security of the country and development of economy of Russia. The main strategic economic benchmark was called the restoration of Russia's status as a world economic power. The strategic goal proclaimed the transformation of our country into one of the global leaders of the world economy; its output is at the level of socioeconomic development of highly industrialized countries. By 2020, according to this Concept, Russia should: sign in the top six of the world's leading economic power – gross domestic product; to ensure the well-being of the population relevant to developed countries; and to achieve scientific, technological and financial leadership, ensuring the specialization of countries in world economy. System solution of such problems is the transition of the Russian economy from export-raw development to innovative type. This will drastically enhance its competitive potential by increasing comparative advantages in science, education and high technologies and on this basis to involve new sources of economic growth. In the context of global competition, it is proposed to provide rapid “breakthrough” development in the sectors of Russian economy that define its specialization in the world economy. This, in turn, necessitates the implementation of four strategies for economic development:  firstly, the use of global competitive advantages of Russia in the spheres of energy, transport and agricultural sector;  secondly, the formation of a powerful scientific-technological complex, providing the global specialization of Russia in hi-tech markets;  thirdly, structural diversification of the national economy and, 110

 fourthly, the development of market relations, democracy and the protection of the rights and freedoms of entrepreneurship. However, the implementation of these strategies will occur in terms of the long-term conservation of the high growth rate of the world economy, the progressive development of globalization and strengthen its regional component. From: The concept of economic security of the state publication date 08-12-2010. http://csef.ru/en/politica-i-geopolitica/223/ekonomicheskaya-bezopasnostrossii-ponyatie-s Task 3. Translate the following terms from Russian into English: Неразрывно, внешняя и внутренняя политика, предпринимательство, привыкший к, воплощение, усиливать, динамичная экономика, мотив/стимул, благосостояние российских граждан. Task 4. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: Underpin the system, face economic constraints, sustained economic development despite, productive forces, entrepreneurship, slow rate of recovery, field an overwhelming fighting force. Task 5. Talk about National security of the USA. GRAMMAR REVISION Task 6. Study all the information in the table given below on the next page and then make up your own sentences with some of the connectors. Task 7. Complete the sentences using an appropriate connector from the given above: Before, first of all, because of, although, in particular even though, in order to, however, so that, in particular, soon afterwards, then. 1. China, for example, faces increasing export difficulties … deficient control of the safety of its products, which is largely the result of corruption. 2. Promote ‘civil dialogue’ on population issues – including, … , NGOs, the social partners, and other actors of civil society and the private sector. 3. The long-term efficacy of hard power, ... , depends greatly on the ability of a country to provide for it through an ever growing and innovative economy. 4. … to be successful, business owners and managers must continuously study the environment and adapt their businesses accordingly. 5. To protect the health and safety of employees, employers must identify potential risks and deal with them, … accidents, injuries or fatalities can be avoided in the workplace. 6. … making such a serious decision our manager decided to consult the company’s attorney. 111

7. … he has a very important job, he isn’t particularly well-paid. 8. I love our corporate culture … our socializing meeting in the nearest café. 9. Our CEO arrived at four and all the members of the directors’ board …. 10. … we discussed our current matters and … our forthcoming activities. 11. The database will show that George Smith works in office number 31, … no office number 31 is listed in the OFFICES table.

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SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 8. Skim the text and prepare a report on the prospects for economic development and improvement of the economic security of Russia The problems of national and economic security maintenance is aggravating in modern conditions of globalization and international competition related to control of market channels, technological, information and natural resources. Today Russia is making all efforts to protect its position on the world stage and improve the lives of its citizens. Despite the worsening of the present economic, political and social differences in the world, the Russian Federation has its own national interests, which can be possible to fulfill only on the basis of sustainable development of the national economic security system. The latter traditionally determines the ability of the state economic system to maintain normal conditions for the national economy functioning and the population activity. The national economic security stability can be estimated only by the application of elaborate tools of the economic development indicators analysis and the threshold values examination aimed at the determination of the quality characteristic of actual and the most successful model of the economic activity. The analysis of the current Russian economic situation showed the presence of some serious problems existing in the national economy. The economic security level of Russia, having a tendency to increase in the period of 1998-2013, has been sharply reduced to critical points since 2014. So, it is necessary to take some measures to restructure the system of economic security of the state. Based on the research it was identified the list of the most dangerous threats to the modern Russian economy, which includes: low level of the country industrial production; the economy dependence on goods import and raw materials export; low living standards of the population; the rapid growth of the shadow economy and corruption; the lack of civil science and innovation development. The main strategic directions for economic security level increase in Russia today and in the future are aimed at the re-industrialization based on innovation and import substitution, on the perfect restructuring and renewal of all power branches and their representatives. Speaking Practice Task 9. Look through several short parts of the text to find out the gist and discuss the information you have learned adding some other examples. Economic security, in the context of politics and international relations, is the ability of a nation-state to follow its choice of policies to develop the national economy in the manner desired. Historically, conquest of nations have made conquerors rich through plunder, access to new resources and enlarged trade through controlling of the conquered nations’ economy. In today's complex system of international trade, characterised by multi-national agreements, mutual inter-dependence and availability of natural resources etc., economic security today forms, arguably, as important a part of national security as military policy. 113

Economic security has been proposed as a key determinant of international relations, particularly in the geopolitics of petroleum in American foreign policy after September 11, 2001. In Canada, threats to the country's overall economic security are considered economic espionage, which is "illegal, clandestine or coercive activity by a foreign government in order to gain unauthorized access to economic intelligence, such as proprietary information or technology, for economic advantage." It is widely believed that there is a tradeoff between economic security and economic opportunity. Listening Task 10. Watch the video and be ready to tell a few words about National Security Relations with France after Brexit https://rusi.org/publication/briefing-papers/national-security-relationsfrance-after-brexit Writing Practice Task 11. Write a report on the National security issues in any other English speaking country. Unit 4. Trends in Human Resource Management and Labor Relations

In this unit you will…  remember the basic definitions related to human resource management;  learn to use terms and definitions applied to human resource management;  revise conjunctions;  read about human resource management trends;  listen and watch the video related to a new managerial role;  talk about the re-invented role of managers;  write a report on trends affecting human resource management.

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Task 1. Remember some new vocabulary. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary: Employee diversity, competitive advantage, fit the organizational culture, educational background, target market, product durability, payroll processing, strong competitive advantage, hire women and minorities strive to do something. Task 2. Read three parts of the text and answer the following questions. 1. Can you name the most important trends in human resource management? 2. What trends and issues are affecting human resource management and labor relations? 3. Do you think that a company with employee diversity may be in a position to gain a competitive advantage? 4. Are there many factors, which can be a source of competitive advantage? Please, name some of them. 5. What are the reasons and aims of HR outsourcing? 6. Why can corporate culture be a key aspect of developing employees into a competitive advantage for the firm? Employee Diversity and Competitive Advantage Some of today’s most important trends in human resource management are using employee diversity as a competitive advantage, improving efficiency through outsourcing and technology, and hiring employees who fit the organizational culture. Although overall labor union enrollment continues to decline, a possible surge in membership in service unions is anticipated. American society and its workforce are becoming increasingly more diverse in terms of racial and ethnic status, age, educational background, work experience, and gender. A company with a demographic employee profile that looks like its customers may be in a position to gain a competitive advantage, which is a set of unique features of a company and its product or service that are perceived by the target market as superior to those of the competition. Competitive advantage is the factor that causes customers to patronize a firm and not the competition. Many things can be a source of competitive advantage: for Southwest Airlines it is route structure and high asset utilization; for Ritz-Carlton hotels it is very high-quality guest services; for Toyota it is manufacturing efficiency and product durability; and for Starbucks it is location, service, and outstanding coffee products. For these firms, a competitive advantage is also created by their HR practices. Many firms are successful because of employee diversity, which can produce more effective problem-solving, a stronger reputation for hiring women and minorities, greater employee diversity, quicker adaptation to change, and more robust product solutions because a diverse team can generate more options for improvement. Human resource managers recognize that diverse workforces create an environment that nurtures creative decision-making, effective problem solving, more agility in adapting to change, and a strong competitive advantage. Therefore, 115

firms are becoming committed to recruiting and hiring a diverse workforce. To maximize efficiency, many firms are outsourcing HR functions and using technology to reduce costs and improve efficiency. Firms are also striving to hire employees who possess qualities that match those of the corporate culture. https://about.usps.com, accessed February 8, 2018. Outsourcing HR and Technology The role of the HR professional has changed noticeably over the past 20 years. One significant change has been the use of technology in handling relatively routine HR tasks, such as payroll processing, initial screening of applicants, and benefits enrollments. Large firms such as Nokia and Lockheed Martin purchase specialized software (SAP and Oracle/PeopleSoft) to perform the information-processing aspects of many HR tasks. Other firms, such as Jacobs Engineering Group (a large professional services firm), outsource–or contract out–these tasks to HR service providers such as Aon Hewitt and Workforce Solutions. HR outsourcing is done when another firm can perform a task better and more efficiently, thus saving costs. Sometimes HR activities are outsourced because HR requirements are extraordinary and too overwhelming to execute inhouse in a timely fashion. Frequently, HR activities are outsourced simply because a provider has greater expertise. For example, media conglomerate CBS Corp. recently announced that it hired Fidelity Investments to manage its 401(k) plan, which has more than $4 billion in assets. By Robert Steyer, http://www.pionline.com, August 10, 2017. Organizational Culture and Hiring for Fit Regardless of general business and economic conditions, many firms are expanding operations and hiring additional employees. For many growing firms, corporate culture can be a key aspect of developing employees into a competitive advantage for the firm. Corporate culture refers to the core values and beliefs that support the mission and business model of the firm and guide employee behavior. Companies such as JetBlue, Ritz-Carlton, and Cypress frequently hire for fit with their corporate cultures. This necessitates recruitment and selection of employees who exhibit the values of the firm. Ritz-Carlton and Cypress use carefully crafted applicant questionnaires to screen for values and behaviors that support the corporate culture. JetBlue uses behavioral-based interview questions derived from its corporate values of safety, integrity, caring, fun, and passion. Southwest Airlines has non-HR employees (flight attendants, gate agents, and pilots) and even frequent flyer passengers interview applicants to screen for cultural fit as well as strong customer-service orientation. Task 3. Translate the following terms from English into Russian: Robust product solutions, agility in adapting to change, to nurture creative decision-making, to be committed to recruiting, handle relatively routine tasks, too overwhelming to execute, exhibit corporate values, benefits enrollments. 116

Task 4. Explain (in the original language) the following words and expressions from the text: To screen for, guide employee behavior, questions derived from, recruitment and selection of employees, behavioral-based interview questions, employee diversity, a set of unique features, initial screening of applicants, to have greater expertise. Task 5. Talk about the main human resource management trends. GRAMMAR REVISION Task 6. Skim the information presenting different conjunctions and do all the tasks given by your teacher. A conjunction is the glue that holds words, phrases and clauses (both dependent and independent) together. There are three different kinds of conjunctions – coordinating, subordinating, and correlative - each serving its own, distinct purpose, but all working to bring words together. Conjunctions allow you to form complex, elegant sentences and avoid the choppiness of multiple short sentences. Make sure that the phrases joined by conjunctions are parallel (share the same structure). Coordinating Conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses of equal grammatical rank in a sentence. The most common coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so; you can remember them by using the mnemonic device FANBOYS. Sample sentences: I’d like pizza or a salad for lunch. We needed a place to concentrate, so we packed up our things and went to the library. Jesse didn’t have much money, but she got by. Notice the use of the comma when a coordinating conjunction is joining two independent clauses. Correlative Conjunctions Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Some examples are either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and, whether/or. Sample sentences: Not only am I finished studying for English, but I’m also finished writing my history essay. I am finished with both my English essay and my history essay. Subordinating Conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions join independent and dependent clauses. A subordinating conjunction can signal a cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast, or some other kind of relationship between the clauses. Common subordinating conjunctions are because, since, as, although, though, while, and whereas. Some other subordinating conjunctions: after, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though, before, by the time, even if, even though, if, in order that, in case, in the event that, lest, now that, once, only, only if, provided that, so, supposing, that, 117

than, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether or not, while Sample sentences: I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve. Before he leaves, make sure his room is clean. I drank a glass of water because I was thirsty. Because I was thirsty, I drank a glass of water. In the first example, the adverb until functions as a coordinating conjunction to connect two ideas: I can stay out (the independent clause) and the clock strikes twelve (the dependent clause). The independent clause could stand alone as a sentence; the dependent clause depends on the independent clause to make sense. In the second example, the subordinating conjunction doesn’t need to go in the middle of the sentence. It has to be part of the dependent clause, but the dependent clause can come before the independent clause. In the third example if the dependent clause comes first, use a comma before the independent clause. Starting a Sentence with a Conjunction As mentioned above, a subordinating conjunction can begin a sentence if the dependent clause comes before the independent clause. It’s also correct to begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction. Often, it’s a good way to add emphasis. https://www.grammarly.com/blog/conjunctions/ Task 7. Choose the correct conjunction from the list below: Despite, therefore, as, not only/but also, for, although, before, for, until, as, either/or, 1. DHS works with international partners helping implement global standards ___ aviation security and container security, and by sharing information with partners to help identify potential terrorists ___ they strike. 2. Location-specific emergency plans should provide protection ___ office employees, production workers, visitors and customers. 3. ___ every possible risk can't be fully eliminated, mitigation planning helps identify health and safety issues. 4. Tech companies such as IBM, Amazon, and Microsoft receive thousands of résumés and job applications each year and continue to look for the best and the brightest ___ they find them. 5. ___ of general business and economic conditions, many firms are expanding operations and hiring additional employees. 7. ___ firms are becoming committed to recruiting and hiring a diverse workforce. 8. Some of today’s most important trends in human resource management are using employee diversity ___ a competitive advantage. 9. Training for supervisors should ___ teach the standards, ___ provide policies for fairly and consistently discipline workers who violate regulations. 10. ___ an employer, you should create workplace safety policies, conduct routine safety meetings and do routine safety checks. 118

11. Each business should have a safety policy in place, created ___ by management ___ in a joint effort between management and staff.

SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Reading Comprehension and Speaking Task 8. Skim the texts and be ready to discuss (make up your own dialogues) the issues related to some companies and organizations that highly value employee diversity and focus on a skills-based approach rather than a candidate’s education level. 1. An organization that highly values employee diversity is the United States Postal Service (USPS). In 1992 the Postal Service launched a diversity development program to serve as the organization’s “social conscience and to increase employees’ awareness of and appreciation for ethnic and cultural 119

diversity both in the postal workplace and among customers.” Twenty-five years later, 39 percent of postal service employees are minority persons: 21 percent African-American, 8 percent Hispanic, and more than 8.0 percent other minorities. In addition, women make up 40 percent of the organization’s workforce. 2. In addition to cultural fit, firms are increasingly hiring for technical knowledge and skills fit to the job. Tech companies such as IBM, Amazon, and Microsoft receive thousands of résumés and job applications each year and continue to look for the best and the brightest when it comes to technical knowledge and skills. For example, IBMis now focusing on a skills-based approach rather than a candidate’s education level and number of academic degrees. Amazon is all about the customer and looks for employees who continue to be “relentlessly curious.” Microsoft continues to raise the talent bar by embracing job applicants who have demonstrated leadership, achieved concrete results, and can prove that they love to learn. Speaking Practice Task 9. Read several short parts of the text attentively to find out all the details concerning the re-invented role of managers. Prepare a short report on the topic. 1. The modern manager needs to get work done through engaged, selfmanaging knowledge workers, who are a far cry from the “hired hands” of the industrial age. The role of today’s manager can be illustrated by four analogies. Today’s managers need to behave something like: investors, customers, sports coaches, partners. Managers allocate resources to obtain the best return, like investors. Their effectiveness is based on how well they use their resources. However, managers differ from investors in two respects. First, knowledge workers want a say in what work they do, so any allocation needs to be negotiated, not decided unilaterally, as an investor would do with his or her money. Second, managers actively develop people, so they are not as arms-length from the people they manage, as are investors. 2. As employees become more engaged their status changes, from simply being hired hands to being more like self-employed business people supplying services to internal customers. In this relationship, employees can be more proactive and able to identify the needs of managers. Indeed, astute employees might see needs that managers overlook. This interaction involves two-way communication and negotiation, not one-way, top-down directing. Also, enterprising employees might devise new services to “sell” to their managers as a way of advancing their careers (building their business).For example, whenever employees contribute ideas for process improvements to their bosses, they can be framed, condescendingly, as suggestion-box material or, more appropriately, as attempts by employees to sell their services to management. Employees who suggest a better way of managing some part of the business and offer to do it themselves can, in steps, transform their roles into something new. By thinking of 120

themselves as operators of a business, and serving their bosses as customers, employees become more empowered to manage their own careers. When highdemand knowledge workers are in short supply, they have more power than their customer (the boss). Such employees can easily move to new customers and, being knowledgeable, they might offer more advice to their boss (customer) rather than the other way around. So much for the belief that power resides only at the top and all direction flows top-down. 3. Professional golfers have coaches and managers. The latter help them with their business matters, sponsorships and travel arrangements. However, this manager cannot fire the golfer; it is the other way around. A sports manager is a facilitator, coordinator and advisor, with no power to direct or control the golfer. Modern business managers are moving in this direction, although they will always be able to fire the employees they manage. Still, when managing rare, expensive talent, they cannot fire them without carefully weighing the consequences. In any case, modern managers do more coaching and less directing, so they need to behave more like coaches than industrial-age managers. 4. In our digital economy and free access to data and knowledge managers should act as partners. Since the power of knowledge workers grows, they become more like partners than “hired hands.” Toyota and other smart companies forge partnerships with external suppliers. Employees are, similarly, internal suppliers and partners. Still, suppliers and employees can be fired, unlike real partners, who must agree on an appropriate severance. Listening Task 10. Watch the video and be ready to find your own video on a similar topic. Then present the gist of the video you have found. https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/services/people-organisation/hr-transformati on-technology.html Writing Practice Task 11. Write a report on some modern trends affecting human resource management and labour relations.

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TEXTS FOR ADDITIONAL READING Module I Skill Reproduction Security The idea of educational poverty has emerged in recent years, with definitions of absolute and relative educational poverty. This has led to the concept of precarious educational poverty, where a large part of the population of a country hover just above an educational poverty line. In many respects, the idea of skill reproduction security echoes that way of thinking. Quotation High school is simply a way of building up a tolerance for stress.” 14-year-old girl student in the United States. The acquisition and the use of competencies are rightly perceived as crucial to social and economic security. But giving empirical shape to skill reproduction security is hard, in part because the concepts are complex, in part because the statistics on these issues are poor. It is to be hoped that the effort made in this chapter will encourage others to give more attention to those conceptual and statistical issues. Skills security comes from possessing the capability to learn, which comes from universal basic schooling and a removal of inequalities in the course of subsequent schooling. At the moment, too many inequalities are accentuated by the complex system of education and training, which reproduce society’s deeper inequalities. In the pursuit of the Millennium Development Goals, correcting those inequalities will be essential. The findings that come from the PSS deserve further exploration. Too little attention is given to the non-utilization of skills and capabilities. Typically, social scientists focus on the non-development of capabilities, and this is understandable. However, a major sadness is that many, many people are unable to use the skills and competencies that they do possess, and often worked hard to acquire. Among the several insights from the national index, is that there is a group of countries that perform well in terms of skills security but which perform quite badly in some other respects, notably income security. It is surely no coincidence that these are among the countries from which there has been extensive and continuing “brain-drain” out-migration. As we will see, skills security does not necessarily translate into better welfare or greater life satisfaction or personal happiness. This is something that is taken up in Chapter 11, in looking at interrelationships between the various forms of security and other social and economic factors. However, the most vital message is that education is deeper than technical knowledge, which improves productivity and makes for more “efficient consumers”. It is about the security of human being.

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Education, schooling and “human capital” The words “human capital” have crept into the English language and into policy-making with deceptive ease. Too often this term and “schooling” are treated as synonymous with education. The latter term must be rescued. To be educated is more than to be able to obtain, perform and retain a job. In thinking about skill and capability, we must avoid thinking simply or solely about credentials attained through formal schooling. In this respect, since he is so often used as a reference point, it is noteworthy that the father of economics, Adam Smith, regarded education very differently from the modern neo-classical economist. He saw education as the means of helping people understand their society and culture. It was not to make money. This is a modern preoccupation. Basic education is first of all about the capacity to survive functionally, the capacity to understand, to create and take opportunity; the capacity to develop, the capacity to cope with adversity, and the capacity to recover from it. “Human capital” is the capacity to be employed, to make money, to compete, to win. It is the capacity to be opportunistic. An educated person is someone to whom somebody in need would turn, for assistance, for advice or for comfort. Educated people are more “free”. Skill is not just about obtaining a job, or making more money; it is about providing other forms of security, including the capacity to live. Thus, literacy leads to better decision-making and to greater awareness and practice of good health.1 Learning about culture may not increase earnings, but it teaches how to enjoy the beauty of the world and how to survive in it. Education and skill must be rescued from “human capital”. The global trends suggest that this should be the most pressing task and challenge for those wishing to see basic security for all. Moreover, it should be recognized that the world’s experts simply do not know about the size of the world’s pool of skills. No country has good statistics on the level or distribution of skills, and the proxy measures that have to be used are crude. Is skill security increasing? With all the emphasis on the need for more schooling and more training, and with the Washington Consensus view that there should be a shift from social protection spending to “human capital” enhancement, the answer to this question might be expected to be “yes”. In fact, we simply do not know. Statistical information on quality of education and on the possession of “skills” is remarkably crude or absent altogether. This information is improving. UNESCO is producing an annual “Education for All” Monitoring Report. And for industrialized countries the PISA data are an important means of monitoring educational poverty. In short, educational and skills security is being profoundly affected by globalization. Public schooling has been giving way to private (and semi-private) schooling, and multiple providers have become the norm at all levels. To some extent, particularly at tertiary and secondary level, schooling is being converted from a public good into a commodified service, for which parents (or pupils) must 123

pay. This has implications for inequalities and for the opportunities for lowincome families to support schooling. Privatization and liberalization of education are leading to multi-tiered access. At one end, elite schools and colleges are virtually reserved for those who can afford tuition and other fees, while most students are directed into underfunded, overcrowded public institutions, or into private schemes of dubious quality. The emphasis on labour market flexibility has meant that the “returns” to skill acquisition can be distorted, acting as a disincentive to skill acquisition and a source of insecurity for workers. Skills insecurity can also result when workers acquire skills but do not receive the “rewards” from the increased productivity, as illustrated in the by-no-means unique. What does this mean for skill reproduction security? In developing countries, economic shocks have a powerful adverse effect on child nutrition. This leads to lower school attendance and achievement, and a lower lifetime capacity to learn and maintain skills. The evidence for this chain of events is very strong, as has been shown in Brazil, Mexico and India. And there is a strong relationship between national income volatility and secondary school enrolment rates.There is a contrary stream of research suggesting that school enrolment rates could rise in a crisis period, because the opportunity cost of attending school goes down even though there is an offsetting income effect (need to complement decline in wages and parental income). Be that as it may, ensuring basic educational security in crisis periods will help to reduce income inequality in the future. Skill formation: The “decent workplace” A decent workplace is one where there is an environment of skills security, where there are opportunities to learn and apply competencies, and to maintain them. For current purposes, it is proposed that the basic indicators of an orientation to skill formation are the three layers of training, namely:  entry-level training for newly recruited workers,  retraining to improve performance or to transfer a person to other jobs with similar skills,  retraining for upgrading workers or promotion. Account must also be taken of type of training. If a firm gives just informal, on-the-job training, which deserves less weight than if it involves “classroom” and structured training, including apprenticeship. Accordingly, for each level, a distinction is made between “informal” and “formal” training, with the latter being presumed to have greater value, which is usually if not always the case. Although the difference between formal and informal may be exaggerated, concentrated training involving a quantifiable cost should be preferable to “onthe-job, pickit-up-as-you-go” training. Finally, an indicator is included to measure whether or not the establishment pays for training directly, by funding a training institute or by paying the training fees to an institute where it sends workers for training or by giving stipends to workers who go on training courses. 124

Thus, the model for the workplace skills security index is constructed by a simple addition of the indicators: DWP1 = (TR + TRF) + (RETR + RETRF) + (UPTR + UPTRF) + TR.INST where the components are defined as follows: TR = 1 if training was usually provided to newly recruited workers, 0 otherwise; TRF = 1 if TR was apprenticeship or off-the-job training in classroom or institute, 0 otherwise; RETR = 1 if there was training provided for established workers to improve job performance or transfer between jobs of similar skill, 0 otherwise; RETRF = 1 if that retraining was formal, in class or institute, 0 otherwise; UPTR = 1 if training was provided to upgrade workers, 0 otherwise; UPTRF = 1 if that retraining for upgrading was in class or institute, 0 otherwise; TR.INST = 1 if the firm paid for trainees at institutes, directly or indirectly, 0 otherwise. Before normalization, the DWP1 index has a value between 0 and 7, with a zero value meaning the firm gave no training. What the index implies is that each level of training is equally important, and that formal training has twice the weight of informal training. Module II Work-related security Women and Financial Security in Retirement Generally, women have less retirement income than men, largely because of women’s lower labor force attachment and lower earnings, on average. Fewer women than men have income from most major retirement sources, and those women who do receive income from these sources receive less than men. Women’s median Social Security benefit is approximately 70 percent of the median benefit that men receive. Meanwhile, fewer women than men have pension incomes, and the median value of their pensions is about half that of men’s. While only a small proportion of men and women aged 65 and over are engaged in the paid labor force, among those who are, women earn just over half of what men earn. While there is less distinction between the income of men and women from assets such as interest, dividends, rents, and royalties, women earn somewhat less than men from these sources as well. Not surprisingly, older women are more often poor than men. Among those 65 and over, 12 percent of women are in poverty, compared to 7 percent of men. Although women’s work outside the home has increased substantially in the last century – with the labor force participation rate of married women aged 16 and over increasing from approximately 32 percent in 1960 to 61 percent in 2006 – they spend fewer years in the labor force than men and they more often work parttime. Additionally, they tend to earn less than men during their working years, earning only 77 percent of what men earned for full-time, year round work in 2005. Although work patterns 125

are key in earnings differences, in prior work we found that even after accounting for these and other behavioral differences–such as educational attainment– women still earn less than men. Agricultural workers The agricultural labour force still represents the largest single occupational group, with 46% of the world’s workers, despite the declining share of agriculture in the total workforce in virtually all countries over the past two decades. The agricultural workforce continues to register some of the highest incidences of poverty and has the least access to social protection. These “decent work deficits” are in large part due to the fact that waged agricultural workers are still among the least organized and least represented by trade unions or other organizations. Agriculture is perhaps the sector most profoundly affected by developments at international level. With the impact of globalization, in many countries it has been transformed into an even more unprotected sector of the economy, with adverse consequences for the workforce. In many countries where agriculture is a major contributor to the national economy there is little capacity to finance social security. Even in high-income countries, gaps remain for various groups of agricultural workers, who are typically left without any form of social security, including without any protection for workers’ health. And in many countries, casual and temporary agricultural workers have long been explicitly excluded from protective schemes, where they exist. In some countries, for example the Republic of Moldova and Slovakia, the situation is compounded by the non-payment of wages to agricultural workers. Agricultural workers suffer markedly higher rates of accidents and fatal injuries than workers in most sectors. They also figure disproportionately among the more than 160 million workers who are estimated to become ill because of workplace hazards and exposures. Ill health and disease are prevalent in agricultural communities. Health data from South Asian countries have consistently revealed that malnutrition, anemia and maternal mortality rates are higher for plantation workforces than respective national averages. Furthermore, there are very few resources for compensation available to the non-permanent majority of temporary, casual, seasonal or migrant workers. Every year:  at least 170,000 agricultural workers are killed as a result of workplace accidents, and some 40,000 of these deaths are from exposure to pesticides;  3 – 4 million people are affected by hazardous pesticides and suffer from severe poisoning, work-related cancer or reproductive impairments;  in some countries, women account for more than half the total agricultural labour force, and the majority are in regular and casual forms of employment. These are growing and so is the share of women in them;  70% of child labour is employed in agriculture, a large proportion in the worst forms of child labour;  agricultural workers are among the groups with the highest incidence of poverty in any country; 126

 only 5% of the world’s 1.3 billion agricultural workers have access to any labour inspection system;  the majority of waged agricultural workers are excluded from social protection;  less than 10% of the world’s waged agricultural workers are organized and represented in trade unions or rural workers’ organizations. Women face particular health and safety problems in agriculture. Much agricultural work is arduous by nature, involving long hours of work with few rest breaks, the lifting and carrying of heavy loads, prolonged bending and stooping, and exposure to extreme temperatures, wind, rain and sun. Unprotected contact with biological and chemical agents, unguarded machinery and poorly designed work tools add to the toll on women’s health. Access to health services thus becomes a crucial issue for women workers in what are often remote rural settings, both as a means or preventing ill health and of managing it if it occurs. Nonetheless, reports from Zimbabwe have shown that although women workers on largescale farms have the highest rates of illnesses, they do not seek health care for fear of losing their jobs, since they are casual employees. Harassment as work insecurity One form of work insecurity that has received increasing attention is harassment, both physical, sexual and “moral”. In general, women experience more of all three. There is growing evidence and study of these phenomena. More is needed. We may cite just a few findings from the work being done in the ILO. In Tanzania, according to the PSS, women wageworkers in the informal economy suffer higher rates of insecurity than men, with 19% suffering harassment often (verbal, physical and/or sexual); employers and supervisors are the main source of harassment. In many of the other PSS, women respondents reported that they had been subject to sexual harassment by co-workers or managers – Argentina, Brazil, Bangladesh, Chile Hungary, India, Indonesia and the Russian Federation. In Bangladesh 11% of women workers reported that they had been subjected to sexual harassment in the workplace. In China one in five female workers reported that they had been victims of verbal harassment or physical touching. In most countries, it appears that most enterprises do not have specific policies to deal with sexual harassment in the workplace. The ELFS in Brazil, Chile, Indonesia and the Philippines bore this out; none of the firms covered had anything like a committee or department responsible for sexual harassment complaints. According to the PSS, large proportions of respondents in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and the Russian Federation expressed a wish for a workplace policy on sexual harassment. It is important to recognize that harassment is not merely a matter of inappropriate behaviour by employers and managers towards workers, or women workers in particular. In many countries general workplace violence is a source of worker insecurity, as has been reported in Brazil and Chile; 15% of male 127

workers in the Brazilian PSS reported that they had been victims of violence at work. Harassment by government or local authority officials or the police, was also reported to be an important source of insecurity for workers in Tanzania, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia and Pakistan. This particularly affects those working in the informal economy as street vendors or outworkers, or those working in small-scale informal premises in urban areas. Non-Discrimination Index: Application to the Russian Federation, Republic of Moldova and Indonesia For social equity, non-discriminatory labour practices are essential in identifying a good firm. To be exemplary, an enterprise should act in ways that reduce or avoid segregation based on personal characteristics such as race, gender or disabilities. Although measuring discrimination and disadvantages is notoriously difficult, at a minimum, both employer attitudes (preferences) and outcomes should be taken into account. Neither preferences nor outcomes alone would be sufficient. For instance, one might have a “preference” but not put it into effect, or have no preference yet discriminate by hiring on the basis of characteristics that had the (perhaps inadvertent) effect of excluding certain groups from various jobs. What is needed is a set of easily understood indicators of social equity. For this reason, in the enterprise surveys, attention is focused on the equitable properties of hiring and training practices. In the ELFS, the main indicators of non-discrimination are related to gender, although this could be adjusted to include other groups. In the case of South Africa, race was also taken into account. First, in terms of recruitment, if the management reported having no preference for either men or women, this was regarded as a positive factor. It is neutrality that is equitable. Just as it would be inequitable to give a positive value if a firm stated it had a preference for men, it would be inequitable for men if a positive value were given if the management said they preferred to recruit women rather than men, as was the case in some factories. However, we are primarily concerned with redressing the typical case of discrimination against women. A second input indicator of non-discrimination is a stated commitment to provide training opportunities equally to men and women. Preferences here are also likely to be revealed, where there is no law against discrimination in such matters. Thus, there was a readiness on the part of managements to admit to a discriminatory preference for men and in some cases for women. In this sphere of enterprise policy, stated preferences – or input indicators – are weak proxies, sometimes being rationalizations of what has happened, and more often being norm-induced. To ignore preferences altogether would be unjustifiable, yet it is important to complement the preference factor with indicators of actual outcomes. Accordingly, a first outcome indicator of sex discrimination relates to the actual share of employment taken by women. The indicator selected was the percentage of higher-level “employee” jobs taken by women. If that was greater than 40%, the firm was given a positive score in the index. This measure is not 128

ideal, because an outcome could reflect differences in the supply of men and women. However, it does focus on the better type of jobs and identifies relatively good performance in a key area of discrimination. One could modify the threshold level to be sectorally specific, giving a positive score in the index if a firm had a relatively high percentage of women in training relative to the average for all firms in the sector. This could be justified because the ratios vary by sector _ but it also allows for gender-based industrial segregation of employment. 2 Accordingly, we do not take that route. What Is Financial Security? Financial security refers to the peace of mind you feel when you aren't worried about your income being enough to cover your expenses. It also means that you have enough money saved to cover emergencies and your future financial goals. When you are financially secure, your stress levels goes down, leaving you free to focus on other issues. Budgeting for Success Feeling financially secure requires knowing what your assets and liabilities are, as well, as how your income compares to your expenses. If you aren't tracking these, you might not know you're struggling, but that's like an ostrich sticking its head in the sand and hoping for the best. For true financial security, create a budget that addresses both your current needs, like food, clothing and shelter, and your long-term goals, like paying down debt and saving. You should also include insurance to cover the what-ifs in life. Prioritizing Long-Term Goals Pay yourself first, recommends Kiplinger, when it comes to making your budget. No, that doesn't mean take the first fruits of your paycheck and go out to eat. Instead, it means make sure you're setting aside money for long-range goals, like an education fund for your kids, a down payment for a future home or a retirement account for your golden years. If you're struggling to find enough remaining money to pay down debt, look for discretionary expenses that you can cut. Building an Emergency Fund Whether you call it an emergency account, your safe money or a rainy day fund, setting aside several months’ worth of living expenses is critical for your financial security. That way, when something unexpected like a job loss, refrigerator breaking down, or a child having to go to the hospital pops up, you have the funds to deal with it rather than having to go into debt, especially high interest debt like a payday loan or a balance on your credit card. Tracking Long-Term Goals You can't just set it and forget it when it comes to your budget. Instead, your budget requires maintenance and fine-tuning over time to make sure you are adhering to your goals. For example, if you have not been tracking your spending in the past, you might think you're only spending $100 a month eating out, but could be spending two or three times that amount if you're not tracking it. If you need help staying on top of your money, consider financial software like Quicken that can put all your accounts in one place so you can manage your money easier. 129

A Workplace Work Security Index How should we measure work security at the workplace? We can estimate a composite workplace work security index, which is an attempt to create a benchmarking system for how well firms are doing, relatively, in providing work security to a country’s employed population. One of the main input indicators in establishing such a measure should be the existence of a department or committee in the workplace dealing with occupational health and safety. The main outcome indicators should be something like the number of accidents per 100 workers in a year and the number of workdays lost due to accidents, injuries and work-related ill health. It should be a standard policy requirement that all registered firms should collect and report such information in easily understood and easily accessible forms. This should also be part of the corporate social responsibility (CSR) movement; firms preparing CSR reports should not only report their own accidents and occupational illnesses but also exert moral suasion on their suppliers to do the same. Third, firms that are entirely or majority publicly owned tend to pay greater attention to work security, a pattern found most strongly in the Brazil and Tanzania ELFS where publicly owned firms scored higher on the work security index than private and foreign-owned firms. Fourth, larger firms tend to be safer firms because they are able to operate departments or committees devoted to safety. This was revealed in the China and the Russian Federation ELFS, where firms of over 300 and 500 employees respectively scored higher on the work security index compared with firms having fewer employees. Results from the Tanzania ELFS showed less of an association, probably due to the relatively small size of most firms in that country. Fifth, in Tanzania, China and Russian Federation, firms attributing a higher percentage of their total production costs to labour tended to score higher on the work security index. Basically, this means that those firms trying to pay as little as possible for the cost of labour, as a way to reduce the total cost of production, also tend to provide worse overall working conditions. Thus, the percentage of the total cost of production dedicated to labour appears to be positively associated with the quality of working conditions overall. Sixth, as revealed most strikingly in Brazil, firms in services (finance, trade, business services) tend to score higher on the work security index than other industries. These industries are well known to have less onerous working conditions than manufacturing, construction and mining. In sum, we can say that firms paying higher average wages, having high unionization rates, that are publicly owned, that have a large number of employees, that attribute a higher percentage of their production costs to labour, and firms in certain industries, tend to pay greater attention to work security and provide better working conditions than firms not having these characteristics.

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Module III The national Work Security Index Although it is impractical to imagine a Work Security Index (WSI) that takes account of all the issues raised in this chapter, it is possible to estimate a national index that captures the essentials. Governments and other policy-driving groups could use such an index to identify how best to target efforts aimed at improving work security. The WSI can help to rationalize the use of scarce resources by seeing where their allocation might make the greatest impact. Examining the outcomes for countries in the same region, with similar conditions, could help them gain information and even tips on how to make significant improvements in their own work security outcomes. The national Work Security Index estimated for this report consists of 11 input indicators, seven of which are the relevant ILO Conventions. The other four input indicators are relevant national laws on occupational safety and health (OSH) and other laws requiring the establishment of occupational health services, protecting disabled workers from discrimination, limiting hours of work, restricting night work, providing maternity protection and guaranteeing paid leave. Note that a country may have a national law requiring the existence of occupational health services without having ratified the corresponding international Convention. Note also that the ILO Conventions outline the minimum protections prescribed but it may well be that a law is not as protective as it may need to be. Then there are three process indicators, namely, the level of government expenditure on workers’ compensation, the existence of disability or invalidity benefits provided to workers injured in work-related accidents, and the existence of bipartite or tripartite occupational safety and health boards or committees. Process indicators 1. Level of government expenditure on workers’ compensation, as a percentage of GDP. Prevention is the first line of defence against work-related accidents, injuries and diseases. However, where work-induced adverse health outcomes or accidents do result from work-related exposures, adequate compensation for affected workers is a key means of protecting their basic security. The level of government expenditure on workers’ compensation is higher where GDP is higher, although the generosity of benefits per capita and per injury/illness varies greatly among countries. Higher government expenditure on workers’ compensation does not necessarily indicate a higher rate of accidents, injuries, illnesses, or a weaker or relatively unhealthy population. Rather it is more often indicative of the existence of an operative structure, whereby workers can make claims, and where a list of covered injuries/illnesses is established nationally. Conversely, a low level of government expenditure on workers’ compensation is not usually indicative of a low level of accidents, injuries and illnesses. It is more indicative of a low level of GDP, which acts as a barrier to 131

the government paying benefits to injured workers. It may also indicate a lack of reporting/notification structures or, where such mechanisms exist, a lack of effective implementation. Low expenditure on workers’ compensation may further indicate the absence of trade unions or other organizations for workers, such that workers may not be aware that a compensation system exists, or how to use it. Finally, low government expenditure on workers’ compensation also may reflect a preponderance of low-risk activities, such as subsistence farming, in which dangerous machines and chemicals may not be commonly used. 2. Existence of labour-management, tripartite or bipartite occupational safety and health boards or committees. To ensure that laws translate into protection of workers’ health, a variety of mechanisms are needed to reach employers and workers at the level of the workplace. One of the most fundamental mechanisms is a tripartite or bipartite board or a labour-management safety and health committee. Where these mechanisms exist, usually requiring a legal mandate, social dialogue and consultation are used as means of addressing and solving problems both locally and nationally. Such methods are well established as efficient and cost-effective for employers, workers and governments. Worker participation in implementing health and safety regulations is, furthermore, an element of a just society, for where consultation with workers is systemic and systematic, the rights of workers are more likely to be recognized and respected, and productivity is usually higher. Furthermore, workers are shown to be healthier when they are able to participate in decision-making. Conversely, when workers are not included in decision-making about workplace exposures, and how work is organized and carried out, ill health and reduced productivity are demonstrated outcomes, bringing with them negative consequences for employers, workers and society. Additionally, joint labour-management or tripartite OSH mechanisms are an effective means of monitoring the implementation of national laws and regulations. Such monitoring can ultimately reduce the numbers of penalties imposed on employers through sanctions for infringement of protective laws. 3. The existence of disability or invalidity benefits provided to workers injured in work-related accidents. This is a measure of how well workers are protected in the event they are injured at work. Where workers are not provided with disability or invalidity benefits following a work-related accident, insecurity is almost guaranteed to follow. However, the fact that benefits are provided does not indicate whether the benefits are sufficient or even whether they are commensurate with the incident. A token benefit for the loss of an eye or limb, for example, is further injustice to a worker who has already suffered the gross injustice of disability or invalidity caused by his/her work, particularly considering that, all accidents are preventable. There is a strong element of social justice associated with this particular variable, as the responsibility to protect workers’ health rests primarily with the employer, as defined by Convention No. 155 “Occupational Safety and Health, 1981, and agreed upon by the member States of the ILO. 132

Work insecurity and enterprise restructuring While it is well known that occupational safety and health varies by type of industry and type of job, there is also considerable evidence that more flexible labour relations, and in particular the global shift towards external flexibility through downsizing, contracting out certain types of labour and so on, have been associated with a deterioration in work security. A review of 190 studies from 23 countries (including developing countries, transitional economies, and industrialized countries) concluded that about 80% showed a link between increased work insecurity and downsizing, greater employment insecurity, outsourcing and the increased use of temporary and casual labour. Over 140 of these studies showed that precarious employment is associated with higher injury rates, hazard exposures, disease and work-related stress. There is also extensive evidence that the more intense work schedules associated with the latest production systems driven by information technology and so-called “Japanese” work methods – “JustIn-Time”, “Total Quality Management”, “Quality Circles”, “Lean Production” and other euphemisms – reduce worker autonomy and individual control of work on the shop-floor, so that the productivity gains come at the cost of worse health and safety of the workers.20 They result in much greater levels of cumulative trauma disorders such as musculoskeletal disorders and repetitive strain injuries, which are caused by repetitive motion, static and/or awkward postures and manipulation of heavy weights.21 In the United States, such disorders rose from 3.6 per 10,000 workers in 1982 to 27.3 in 1999, an annual growth of nearly 13%. By the turn of the century, they had become the source of the longest absences of work of all safety and health factors. Beware the euphemisms! Many terms convey a positive image that could be misleading. These include “Quality Circles”, “Total Quality Management” and “team working”. Perhaps they do raise productivity, but their downside should be understood. The evidence shows that they can create cumulative trauma and disorders such as repetitive strain injuries. If they were called labour intensification schemes a negative image would be formed. One of the effects of globalization is an increased rate of technological innovation under competitive pressures. Workers in the industries most affected, which means mostly in manufacturing, face an increased pace and intensity of work. There is also evidence that the changes in themselves tend to raise work insecurity in the implementation period, resulting in more work-related injuries and illnesses. The time squeeze and “stress” The sheer amount of time that some people have to devote to their labour is a major aspect of work insecurity. One cause of work insecurity that has attracted considerable journalistic comment is prolonged working weeks and the re-emergence of long “shifts”, even among office workers. This appears to have 133

been greatest in the United States and the United Kingdom, but has characterized labour markets in many other countries. Related to time pressures and overwork is mental strain. A little-noticed finding of an important report produced by the World Health Organization in 2001 was that depression has become the fourth most serious cause of premature death and disability in the world. Suicide is now seen as a major health problem, with a significantly higher rate among men in many countries. In Japan, karoshi (death from overwork) has been spreading. Perhaps the most shocking indicator of social distress in Japan is that in each of the last three years of the 20th century, over 30,000 people committed suicide – three times as many who died from traffic accidents. And it was reported that 5% of all suicide deaths in Japan were “company related”. Time insecurity is a scourge of our age, and is a global phenomenon, though it takes very different forms in low-income schemes and in affluent industrialized economies. In the back streets of Ahmadebad, Gujarat, women outworkers work on average seven hours a day in paid work, but in addition have to wait on the street side for work for another three or four hours, spend one or more hours in travel to and from work, spend three hours in travel to and from the market, and three hours doing basic domestic chores, leaving about seven hours or less for sleep and relaxation each and every day. Such a lifestyle is debilitating. The poor have to spend more time on activities that are related to work but do not generate income. To compound the resulting inequality, they usually have to spend more time than richer people in order to obtain access to social services and face a poorer quality of service and treatment. They have to go long distances to find services and then have to wait longer for them. In India, districts with high proportions of lower castes have fewer doctors and nurses, and health care workers are less likely to visit lower-caste and poor households. While this is a matter of basic security, it is indicative of how the results of unsafe and debilitating work can be turned into a source of greater inequality. In many parts of the world, the absence of protective mechanisms results in workers having to work long days and weeks. But what is less appreciated is that they are often obliged to work without breaks, which is particularly onerous. With this in mind, the PSS in Tanzania looked at the links directly by asking workers about work breaks. The data show that those not given breaks during working hours suffer more illness and injury problems than those granted breaks. In the industrialized world, consumerism produces relentless pressures that are contributing to labour intensification. A recent survey in the United Kingdom found that 42% of adults regularly worked more than 48 hours a week, and concluded that the demands of work, family and commuting made people feel that they were constantly trying to “catch up” with themselves. In 2002, more than 500,000 people said they were affected by stress at work, and 13.4 million working days were “lost” because of stress. While working time is still higher in South-East Asia than in western Europe, the gap seems to be shrinking, with working time growing in many industrialized countries. In the UK poll, 58% of women and 49% of men said that 134

their long work-weeks made them too tired to enjoy their leisure time, with almost half saying they would like more sleep. Above all, stress can only be magnified by the combination of labour intensification and precariousness that millions of people have to endure in all parts of the world. And according to epidemiological research, workers with stressful jobs – including jobs involving work in excess of 60 hours per week – are much more likely to die from heart disease than those with non-stressful work. There is also evidence that increases in workload coupled with a reduction in the person’s control over his or her work can easily lead to deterioration in mental health. It has even been found that long-term job strain is worse for a worker’s heart than gaining 20 kilos in weight or ageing 30 years. Yet, another study found that workers doing meaningless jobs with little or no opportunity for decisionmaking are more likely to die young than other workers. Overwork is not just found among the poor or manual workers. A malaise also affects highly paid workers and affluent industrialized countries. Thus, there have been many reports of heart attack and death from overwork in numerous countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, India, New Zealand, Australia, China, the Philippines, Italy, Indonesia, and the Republic of Korea. Transit stress, not transitory Stress affecting health and well-being, has only recently begun to be given the attention it deserves in occupational health analysis. Many aspects of life can induce stress, which can lead to a greater susceptibility to illness, given the impact of stress on the human immune system, which can lessen bodily resistance. One contribution to stress is the time required to travel to and from work – commuting time – that, for many people around the world, uses up many hours each day. These “lost hours” obviously limit time for other necessary daily activities, including leisure, rest and sleep. The table below provides findings from the PSS. Where commuting time exceeds one hour, the onset of stress is heightened. Thus, in the Russian Federation, men and women spend at least one hour per day travelling to and from work, with urban dwellers spending over an hour daily, and rural dwellers spending nearly an hour. In Bangladesh, men appear to spend slightly more time travelling to and from work than women (who spend nearly an hour a day), with rural dwellers spending an hour a day in travel, slightly more than urban dwellers. Moreover, as shown in Table 1, rural men in Bangladesh spend more time travelling to and from work than other groups, similar to rural men in Indonesia. In Tanzania, men reported spending well over two hours a day travelling to and from work, while women spend nearly two hours. Men in rural areas spend nearly three hours a day in transit, compared with male urban residents who spend nearly two hours each day. Tanzanian women do not fare much better. Both urban and rural female dwellers spend about two hours a day in transit. The figures for Tanzania and Ethiopia are not reported due to small sample sizes of respondents on this question. The situation in Ethiopia appears slightly better, where both men and women travel slightly less than one hour per day. 135

It is not only the time spent in travel that contributes to stress. The conditions in which one must travel also do so. Walking long distances in a hot climate is onerous and fatiguing. Crowded public transport, exposure to pollution, unforeseen delays, and risk of harassment or violence all contribute to physical stress, anxiety and nervous tension. The urgency with which a person needs to get to work, or return home, and lack of control over travel time and conditions are additional stressors. Time spent daily travelling to and from work, and the conditions of travel have a direct impact, usually negative, on one’s free time. Sleep is often sacrificed in order to complete daily chores. The PSS in Gujarat provides a glaring example of this condition, where women reported having on average only five hours per day to sleep, after completing their work and family responsibilities, including child-care and preparation of meals. Stress can lead to sleep disorders, which exacerbate the problem, resulting in further loss of sleep. Table 1 Travelling time to work (round trip), by gender and area, by country (hours spent on travel daily) Russian Federation Ethiopia Ghana South Africa Tanzania Bangladesh Indonesia n.a. = not available

Male 1.2 0.8 1.0 0.3 2.2 1.0 0.6 Source:

Female 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.3 1.8 0.8 0.4 SES PSS.

Urban 1.2 n.a. 1.1 0.3 1.7 0.8 0.4

Rural 0.8 n.a. 0.9 0.3 2.4 1.0 0.6

The intensity of labour and the tendency to work long hours, whether driven by need, bosses or consumerism, is surely changing the incidence of types of adverse outcome associated with work insecurity.37,38 Thus, it is widely expected that the top occupational diseases of the 21st century will be heart attacks, suicide and strokes. Personal awareness People vary in their perception or awareness of discrimination. In Latin America, for example, in some countries workers are aware of gender discrimination to a greater extent than in others, and in some they see racial or disability discrimination as more pervasive. Thus, in the PSS, workers in Chile say they are aware of discrimination against women to a greater extent than workers in Argentina (Figure 9.1). By contrast, workers in Brazil are more aware of racial discrimination, from which it appears that combating racial discrimination should be given top priority. Of course, perceptions may not correspond to actual practices, but they are probably reasonable guides to what is going on.

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In other countries, race, religion and migrant status tend to be the greatest barriers to equitable treatment in labour markets. In Gujarat, India, those barriers and gender discrimination are widely observed by both men and women (Figure 9.2). In Ethiopia, workers think that migrants face the greatest barriers, as is the case in China. Workplace discriminatory practices The data collected from managements in the ELFS reveal widely varying patterns of discrimination around the world. Employers tend to prefer to recruit men rather than women in a wide range of production jobs, while almost everywhere women are preferred in clerical jobs. The greatest inter-country variation in recruitment practices occurs in professional and technical jobs. In eastern European countries, such as the Russian Federation and Ukraine, more managers prefer women for these types of jobs, although privatization has been accompanied by a shift towards a preference for men. In China, about one in every five firms said they preferred to recruit women as production workers, whereas nearly one in three said they preferred men. For clerical, sales and service workers, 40% said they preferred women, 6% said they preferred men. By contrast, in Chile only 2% of firms said they preferred women as production workers, compared with 43% that preferred men; for clerical, sales and service workers, 7% preferred men, 7% preferred women; and for professional and technical jobs, 16% preferred men, 2% women. In Tanzania, more firms prefer men as production workers and for professional and technical jobs; whereas for clerical, sales and service jobs, slightly more prefer women. Only to a small extent could the countries’ sectoral and occupational structures possibly explain these national or cultural differences. In every country covered by the ELFS, discriminatory recruitment practices against women are more common among small firms, and greater in private than in public (state) enterprises. One possible explanation is that small private firms are under less regulatory scrutiny, and are less likely to be unionized. As emphasized in Chapter 12, the presence of a union is associated with a lower probability of discriminatory labour practices. Policies on equality of opportunity often neglect what happens once workers enter firms. Discrimination is often greater in the provision of training opportunities than in recruitment. For instance, in Ukraine the female share of employment is greater than the female share of workers provided with training. But discrimination goes all the way through the employment relationship, with respect to pay, access to fringe benefits, training, mobility and redundancy. In China, although the great majority of firms said they did not have any preference in laying off workers, more said they preferred to lay off women. Pregnancy and job security For women, one aspect of job security is their ability to have a child without risk of losing their job. This is a matter of discrimination and the ability to pursue a career. In the PSS, workers were asked how likely a woman was to lose her job if she became pregnant at their workplace. In China, 18% of women and 13% of men thought a woman would lose her job, one-quarter were uncertain, and 62% 137

thought it unlikely. In Indonesia, nearly a quarter of all women in wage jobs thought they would lose their jobs, whereas over two-thirds thought it unlikely. In Ethiopia, among the small minority of women in jobs, 19% thought it was very likely they would lose their jobs, and more than a third of those in the younger age groups thought so. This aspect of job security is related to employment security, as measured by employment tenure. In China, women were much less likely to think they would lose their job on becoming pregnant if they had a “permanent” contract (78% felt safe, compared with 61% of those in temporary jobs of less than a year, and 38% of day workers), or had been employed for some time. Those in the public sector also felt relatively secure. Similar patterns were found in Indonesia and in Ethiopia. In all countries, women working in small firms feel relatively insecure in this respect. In both China and Indonesia, there is also a positive relationship between a woman’s education and her expectation of keeping a job on becoming pregnant. Whether that is due to the education itself is doubtful; it rather reflects the type of job obtained by more educated women. The ELFS shows that management’s concern over women workers subsequently taking maternity leave are used by many firms to discriminate against hiring young women. This varies by type of firm. In China, small firms are much more likely to report that regulations on maternity leave discourage them from recruiting women – this is seen as a barrier in 18% of firms with fewer than 25 employees, compared with 8% of those with more than 500 employees. As in so many ways, small is not beautiful in this respect. And private firms are much more likely to discriminate for that reason. In addition, almost one quarter of the smaller firms, compared to 5% of large firms, do not allow women to take maternity leave, with or without pay. Similar patterns emerge in the Philippines. But there, legislative change might not help. Some 87% of all firms said they would not employ more or fewer women if the labour regulations on maternity leave were removed. Firms are rather rigid. Thus, over twothirds of firms do not allow women with a new baby to work on a part-time basis (less than 40 hours a week). Larger firms are more willing to offer that kind of arrangement, 37% of firms with more than 100 workers being prepared to do so, compared with 27% of firms with fewer than ten workers. Job satisfaction One way of trying to capture job security is to ask about subjective perceptions of a person’s work, such as the perceived opportunity to develop competencies, the chances of upward (and downward) mobility and the degree of satisfaction with a job. Satisfaction relates to many aspects of work, and a high level of satisfaction with regard to one aspect, such as income, might be offset by a low degree of satisfaction with regard to another, such as opportunity to develop a career or work security. Moreover, satisfaction may reflect the absence of a gap between reality and expectations and/or aspirations. If a job is regarded as purely 138

or largely instrumental, a person may be more inclined to express satisfaction as long as the income is acceptable. The subject of job satisfaction has been extensively studied in affluent societies, and in several industrialized countries large data sets have been assembled to trace patterns and trends. The PSS has attempted to develop a set of questions that could allow more widespread monitoring. Here, we extend the analysis of the resultant PSS data that has already been carried out for Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Hungary and Ukraine. Incentives and job security Incentives work – they incentivize people to want more incentives Just as advertisements generate dissatisfaction by creating desires and needs that people did not know they had, so incentives commonly foster dissatisfaction, frustration and a sense of personal failing. Psychologists have long understood that job satisfaction is not the opposite of job dissatisfaction. According to a perceptive point made long ago by Frederich Herzberg, job satisfaction comes from factors intrinsic to the work – the range of tasks, a sense of achievement, recognition, responsibility, the creativity allowed, and so on. By contrast, dissatisfaction comes mainly from extrinsic factors, such as the company’s or organization’s general policies, the pay structure, working conditions, and so on. Poor pay demotivates more than good pay motivates. Wage incentives can cover up, partially at best, for an unrewarding job. They are like a drug; a person adapts to one, and wants more. In the end, their existence is frustrating. Security comes from doing something in which one believes. This is why the latest “human resources” [sic] strategies emphasize the need to let people “customize” their jobs to suit their lifestyles and ambitions.4 Good work creates and enhances commitment – but this is not docile or subordinated loyalty. In all Tayloristic approaches to job structures and labour relations in the past century, priority was given to explicit factors, such as employment security and wage incentives. Industrial unions contributed to this through their vigorous promotion and then defence of job demarcation boundaries, which accommodated “scientific management”, but at the cost of inhibiting internal flexibility, upward mobility and work diversity. Ultimately, therefore, scientific management and the responses to it merely intensified insecurity. Occupational security is the desired future. The world has a long way to go. But the very recognition that in most jobs there is no “long term” – no job or employment security as in the Taylorist–Fordist model – is an advance. Only with that recognition can policies focus on creating an environment of economic security in which livelihood security can evolve. Job satisfaction tends to be greater in the three Latin American countries than in the two transition countries, although this partly reflects the fact that people in urban areas are more likely to have a greater degree of satisfaction, and only urban areas were covered in the Latin American countries. The situation in Ukraine might seem to be reasonably good, in that many workers are moderately satisfied with their jobs. However, satisfaction or dissatisfaction may reflect low or high expectations. A worker may regard all 139

available jobs with such low expectations that even a poor job may be regarded as acceptable. With that in mind, in Ukraine more workers expressed themselves satisfied than dissatisfied with their wages, benefits, nature of work, and degree of autonomy in their work, opportunities to improve skills and opportunities for promotion. If anything, except in the instrumental and important areas of wage levels and benefit entitlements, women were more likely to express satisfaction. Only in the spheres of nature of work and opportunities for improving skills did a majority express satisfaction – two-thirds in the case of “nature of work” and just about half for skills improvement opportunities. In relation to opportunity for promotion, more expressed dissatisfaction than satisfaction. A related aspect is the perceived difficulty of obtaining another comparable job. Accordingly, the PSS asked workers how difficult or easy they thought it would be to obtain another job with similar income, or working conditions, or equally suitable for their skill level. In Ukraine, the results may be a clue to those “satisfaction” outcomes, since a majority thought it would be difficult or very difficult in all three respects. Results from other PSS also show that people mostly adapt to the realities confronting them. In Indonesia, all those with work for pay or profit or family gain were asked about the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their work in terms of income, benefits and type of work. As shown in Figure 9.9, a slight majority was dissatisfied with their incomes, most had no benefits, and a majority (58%) was satisfied with the type of work they were doing. In Tanzania, in terms of type of work being done as their main activity, the picture was more favourable than for income, with 43% of men and 41% of women being reasonably satisfied, and 45% of men and 47% of women being dissatisfied. The more educated were more likely to be satisfied. In Ghana, among those in employment, there was a remarkable degree of satisfaction with aspects of income-earning work. Over two-thirds of men and nearly two-thirds of women in employment expressed satisfaction with the type of work they were doing, with merely 11% of men and 13% of women expressing dissatisfaction. And nearly three-quarters of workers were satisfied with the degree of autonomy in their work, presumably reflecting the fact that many were doing own-account work of some kind. Over 54% expressed satisfaction with the opportunity to improve their skills through the work they were doing. Ghanaian workers, both men and women, were also mostly satisfied with the length of their working weeks. Basically, the majority was satisfied with the amount of freedom and independence in their work. This result is relevant for interpreting the high score the country achieves on general happiness, discussed in Chapter 11. The high work satisfaction was in contrast with a general lack of satisfaction with income earned from that work and with the non-wage benefits received. In this respect at least, there is something in common with findings in rich countries, where autonomy in work –or the ability to use initiative – is associated with relatively high job satisfaction. In terms of the prospects of obtaining another job paying them a similar income, in Tanzania most people were pessimistic. Thus, only 10% of men and 140

12% of women thought that if they lost their current income-earning activity they could find another one paying a similar amount easily. By contrast, 59% of men and 71% of women thought it would be difficult to find one. A majority of people with an income-earning activity believed that it would be difficult to find another activity that would be suitable for their skills –58% of men and 62% of women. In Ghana, there was also pessimism about obtaining better work if they left their present activity. Thus, over half thought it would be difficult or very difficult to obtain any job, about 59% said it would be difficult or very difficult to obtain one paying about the same as they were earning over 60% said that about nonwage benefits, and it was similar for access to work suitable for their skills. Although the differences were small, women were slightly more pessimistic about their chances than men. In Latin America, both men and women seem more satisfied with the nature of the work they do than with opportunities for upward mobility (Figure 9.10). However, dissatisfaction is greater among those with less schooling. In Argentina, for example, 62% of the least educated are not satisfied with opportunities for promotion, against 32% among the most educated. This pattern is also found in Brazil and Chile. The evidence from both the PSS and ELFS indicates that those with more education and in jobs with more training are more likely to have job security – to face less discrimination, to have greater opportunities for upward mobility and, in the case of women, to be more likely to be able to take maternity leave without losing their jobs. In China, for example, the degree of satisfaction with the work that a person is required to do is positively associated with skills security. It was pointed out earlier that those with relatively strong employment security tend to have relatively strong job security. The former might be interpreted as almost a necessary condition for job security. But there is no reason to presume that. Not only could many with employment security have no job security, but also many with employment security may be trapped in stultifying jobs – a sort of employment compact involving a trade-off of several types of security. However, there is a tendency for those with secure employment to have a greater chance of upward mobility, as was found, for example, in Ethiopia, where regular wage workers and those in the public sector were relatively likely to have experienced upward mobility. One should be careful about presuming that informalization goes with lack of job security, although it often surely does. Using our status informalization spectrum, it appears that in Brazil there is no difference in income satisfaction by degree of formality, even though the more formal tend to earn higher wages. This contrasts with the situation in Chile, where income satisfaction goes with formality. Those with income security also tend to have more job security. Research in industrialized countries has found that job satisfaction is determined by a person’s relative income rather more than by his or her absolute income. 141

Perhaps above all, those with strong representation security are more likely to have good job security. In other words, job security tends to be positively correlated with most other forms of security. The advantages are cumulative, as are the disadvantages. There is also the famous memo sent by the Chief Economist of the World Bank advocating that dangerous and polluting industries should be moved to developing countries where, Economic security is linked to a rich concept of work. Human beings, men and women equally, live and develop through their working lives, variously combining income-earning activities with reproductive activity, ideally caring for family, neighbours and reaching out to the broader community and society. We extend production through work, we help each other to survive, revive and develop. Work seen in this rich sense is much more than conveyed by the narrow notion of labour, associated with wages and a position of subordination in the productive system. The ILO’s Socio-Economic Security Programme has identified seven forms of security associated with work, which are or could be pursued by governments, employers, unions and others. For most of the past century, these have focused on labour, that is, wage work, rather than on all forms of work. Briefly, the seven forms of work security are defined as follows:  labour market security. Adequate employment opportunities, through state-guaranteed full employment;  employment security. Protection against arbitrary dismissal, regulations on hiring and firing, imposition of costs on employers for failing to adhere to rules, etc.;  job security. A niche designated as an occupation or “career”, plus tolerance of demarcation practices, barriers to skill dilution, craft boundaries, job qualifications, restrictive practices, craft unions, etc.;  Work security. Protection against accidents and illness at work, through safety and health regulations, and limits on working time, unsociable hours, night work for women, etc.;  skill reproduction security. Widespread opportunities to gain and retain skills, through apprenticeships, employment training, etc.;  income security. Protection of income through minimum wage machinery, wage indexation, comprehensive social security, progressive taxation to reduce inequality and to supplement those with low incomes, etc.;  representation security. Protection of collective voice in the labour market, through independent trade unions and employer associations incorporated economically and politically into the state, with the right to strike, etc. Looking at these forms of work-related security prompts the questions: Which, if any, should have priority, and what are the trade-offs? Are some negotiable? Our fundamental position is that basic security underpins real freedom; basic security is desirable, it is feasible and should be equalized in the Good Society of the 21st century. But certain forms of labour-based security may be neither essential nor even desirable; they may, at 142

least, be tradable. For instance, strong employment security may act as a psychological barrier to sensible risk-taking by an individual worker; strong job security may impede technological innovation and “career development”. It appears that there is a need to explain why representation security is a form of security, rather than a means of pursuing security. One may wish to argue that it is an instrumental freedom. However, one could say the same for other aspects of security. We would rather take the view that representation security is the right to participation, which is the way to realize other rights and forms of security.20 Representation covers both individual and collective forms. Moreover, it relates to the notion of “empowerment”. The purpose of Voice is to “disempower the powerful”, in the sense that it creates “countervailing” bargaining capacity, negating the opportunistic inclinations of special interests. We may reflect in this context on the well-known view that development represents the advance of freedom. “Development as Freedom” raises difficulties of interpretation. Moving from a feudal society to a market-based economy may be (and is) an advance for freedom. But it brings with it its own freedoms. Does it provide a license for opportunism? Freedom to develop is not the same as freedom to take advantage of others’ insecurities. For people to be able to pursue the Good Life, defined for our purposes as a creative working life, they must have basic security. This involves both objective and subjective elements. Most fundamentally, it requires a social environment giving freedom from the threat of premature morbidity (illnesses, enfeeblement), relative to global and regional norms of decency. It means freedom from fear, from random or systematic violence, and access to housing, clothing and food. These fundamental basic needs are the crux of life. Beyond them we move to the ILO’s mandate for the 21st century, the promotion of decent work. Basic security requires a declining probability of impoverishment, it requires tolerable and declining inequality in all aspects of socio-economic security, and it requires growing opportunity to pursue a sense of occupation through a working life. By occupation, we mean the personal ability to develop one’s capacities through time, and the ability and good opportunity to combine a portfolio of statuses and sets of tasks at different periods of life. This leads us to a fundamental claim. The security espoused in this report is for work, all forms of work, not just labour, or even just all forms of income earning activity, including so-called informal economy activity. In other words, all legitimate productive and reproductive work should be given equal basic security, including such work as caring for children and the elderly, voluntary work and community work, as well as service activities that may not have the moral approval of a majority, as long as they do no harm to others and are chosen in real freedom. Policy decision rules Distributive justice requires policies and institutions that promote the attainment of basic needs and real freedom, which together constitute basic security. Priority should be given to the attainment and maintenance of basic security, with negotiable entitlement to other forms of security. In particular, basic economic security depends on:

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 Basic income security. This requires a universal floor, as a human right. It may be regarded as a constitutional right” or as a “republican right”, that is, it should be seen as a fundamental objective of social, economic and political policy.  Voice representation security. This requires the assurance that one’s interests can be represented in social and individual bargaining, and should combine both collective representation and individual representation. These two complement each other, and together are essential for equal good opportunity to pursue occupation. Unless representation security is ensured, the vulnerable will always remain vulnerable to loss of other forms of security. The specific changes to Social Security and pensions that we modeled had different effects on women and men, and among different subgroups of women, because of differences in lifetime work histories. Some of the proposed modifications to Social Security that we analyzed are in fact designed to increase the benefits of targeted groups by accounting for differences in workforce participation patterns. On one hand, our model results showed that modifications that compensate for low earnings or time spent out of the workforce for caregiving tend to increase benefits for beneficiaries overall, and particularly those in lower income quintiles. On the other hand, our results showed that modifications that focus on changes in family structure, such as more two-earner couples and an increased incidence of divorce, tend to increase the benefits of groups targeted by the change, but produce mixed results for others. A number of pension modifications proposed in the last several years take into account changes in the labor force and the changing norms of employer-provided retirement plans; while these reforms are gender-neutral, they may provide important new opportunities for women to increase their retirement income. Reasons of Unemployment security Since individuals typically earn their incomes from working for companies whose requirements are constantly changing, it is quite possible that at any given time not all members of a country's potential work force will be able to find an employer that needs their labor. This would be less problematic in an economy in which such individuals had unlimited access to resources such as land in order to provide for themselves, but when the ownership of the bulk of its productive capacity resides in relatively few hands, most individuals will be dependent on employment for their economic well-being. It is typical for true capitalist economies to have rates of unemployment that fluctuate between 3% and 15%. Some economists have used the term "natural rate of unemployment" to describe this phenomenon. Depressed or stagnant economies have been known to reach unemployment rates as high as 30%, while events such as military mobilization (a good example is that of World War II) have resulted in just 1-2% unemployment, a level that is often termed "full employment". Typical unemployment rates in Western economies range between 5% and 10%. Some economists consider that a certain level of unemployment is necessary for the proper functioning of capitalist economies. Equally, some politicians have claimed that the “natural rate of 144

unemployment” highlights the inefficiency of a capitalist economy, since not all its resources – in this case human labor – are being allocated efficiently. Some libertarian economists argue that higher unemployment rates are in part the result of minimum wage laws, as well as in part the result of misguided monetary policy, and are not inevitable in a capitalist economy. They also claim that if the value of the productive capacity of a given employee is worth less to the employer than the minimum wage, that person will become unemployed, and therefore unemployment will exist whenever the legal minimum wage exceeds the true economic value of the least productive members of the labor pool. Likewise, if the amount of money a person can obtain on welfare approaches or equals what they could make by working, that person's incentive to work will be reduced. Some unemployment is voluntary, such as when a potential job is turned down because the unemployed person is seeking a better job, is voluntarily living on savings, or has a non-wage-earning role, such as in the case of a traditional homemaker. Some measures of employment disregard these categories of unemployment, counting only people who are actively seeking work and have been unable to find any. Size of firm If average tenure data are not particularly reliable indicators of employment security, another indirect indicator of such security is the size of firm in which people are working. Small-scale firms have a higher tendency to go out of existence because they are more prone to bankruptcy or collapse due to personal disasters or random shocks. Traditionally, most employment in Ukraine has been in large enterprises. Although there has been a decline in the average size of establishment, restructuring has been slow in this respect, as shown in the ELFS carried out in the country annually since 1993. Consequently, most wage employment in Ukraine is still concentrated in large firms. In China too employment in small enterprises remains low – only 8% of all wage and salary workers were working in firms with fewer than 10 workers. In Hungary, another east European country undergoing large-scale privatization and downsizing, employment in enterprises that employ fewer than 10 workers constitutes 19% of all wage employment. In developing countries, the figures are much higher. In Tanzania, 30% of all wage and salary workers are engaged in enterprises that employ fewer than 10 workers, while in South Africa such respondents comprised 34% of wage and salary workers. In Ghana, Indonesia and Bangladesh, the great majority were employed in micro-enterprises – 82% of respondents in Ghana, 79% in Indonesia and 56% of PSS wage and salary respondents in Bangladesh. According to the Indonesian PSS, over three-quarters of all those working were in establishments with five or fewer workers, and only 4% worked in establishments with more than 50 workers. Very small firms were more likely to 145

lay off workers during the crisis of 1998. There is also evidence of lax compliance with regulations, such as minimum wages, in small firms. The high proportion of micro-enterprise employment in developing countries is linked to work under poor conditions in the so-called informal economy – with no proper contracts, and an employment relationship bereft of rights and benefits. Economic security Economic activity implies developing of tight business cooperation, information exchange, money transfer, product supply and service rendering. Enterprise’s economic security depends on efficient risks mitigation at every step of this process. Duties on its provision lie with an enterprise’s economic security department. Its activity is complex. Well-coordinated and efficient work of such department determines welfare and prosperity of any business. Prevention from data leak, timely check of received invoices before funds transfer, of business partners before concluding a big deal let mitigate risks, insure against bankruptcy and provide with successful activity conduction. That is why, enterprise’s economic security maintenance is one the most important issues. Experts define the “enterprise’s economic security” term as followings: “Enterprise’s economic security is a process of using company’s resources for its activity optimization for the purpose of prevention from possible damages, risks mitigation and provision with stable business operation”. This mission is not simple, as threats lie in wait for any company from the moment of its establishing. Threats to enterprise’s economic security: There are pretty much situations when you may waste money in business. It is specific for market relations. The mission for enterprise’s economic security department is company protection from any threats for the purpose of provision with optimal conditions for commercial interest realization and business development as planned before. There are a lot of destabilizing factors that may lead to serious financial losses. They may influence separately or make up a complex what results in synergy and their negative influence is increasing. Every business has its own complex of destabilizing factors, but there are definite elements typical for activity of any company. They are usually divided into external and internal. It is difficult to develop and improve business that is constantly exposed to influence of destabilizing factors. Economic security Economic security or financial security is the condition of having stable income or other resources to support a standard of living now and in the foreseeable future. It includes: probable continued solvency predictability of the future cash flow of a person or other economic entity, such as a country employment security or job security Financial security more refers to individual and family money management and savings. Economic security tends to include the broader effect of a society's production levels and monetary support for non146

working citizens. In the United States, children's economic security is indicated by the income level and employment security of their families or organizations. Economic security of people over 50 years old is based on Social Security benefits and savings, earnings and employment, health insurance coverage. In 1972, the state legislature of Arizona formed a Department of Economic Security with a mission to promote “the safety, well-being, self-sufficiency of children and families”. This department combines state government activities managed by the Employment Security Commission, the State Department of Public Welfare, the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, the State Office of Economic Opportunity, the Apprenticeship Council, the State Office of Manpower Planning, the State Department of Mental Retardation. The State Department of Mental Retardation joined the Department in 1974. The purpose in creating the Department was to provide an integration of direct services to people in such a way as to reduce duplication of administrative efforts and expenditures. Family Connections became a part of the Department in January 2007. The Minnesota Department of Economic Security was formed in 1977 from the departments of Employment Services and Vocational Rehabilitation, the Governor's Manpower Office, the Economic Opportunity Office, which administered anti-poverty programs. Economic security, in the context of politics and international relations, is the ability of a nation-state to follow its choice of policies to develop the national economy in the manner desired. Conquest of nations have made conquerors rich through plunder, access to new resources and enlarged trade through controlling of the conquered nations'economy. In today's complex system of international trade, characterised by multi-national agreements, mutual inter-dependence and availability of natural resources etc. economic security today forms, arguably, as important a part of national security as military policy. Economic security has been proposed as a key determinant of international relations in the geopolitics of petroleum in American foreign policy after September 11, 2001. In Canada, threats to the country's overall economic security are considered economic espionage, "illegal, clandestine or coercive activity by a foreign government in order to gain unauthorized access to economic intelligence, such as proprietary information or technology, for economic advantage." It is believed that there is a tradeoff between economic security and economic opportunity. Enterprise economic security The economic success of firms is largely determined by the provision of economic security. Enterprise economic security is the state of security of the enterprises from the adverse impact of internal and external threats, destructive causes, which allow sustainable implementation of the main commercial interests and the purposes of the statutory activity [2]. Economic security is ensured by implementation of measures of economic security, whose main aim is to maximize safety and minimize potential damage. Here are the main tasks for ensuring economic security [1]: 147

Legal protection of trade secrets of the organization and its interests; The acquisition of necessary information by conducting marketing research; Detection of external and internal threats, the suppression of economic intelligence by competitors, unauthorized or criminal activities by employees; Security organizations and objects located on it; Compensation for material and moral damages if it was caused by illegal influences businesses and individuals; Controlling the activities of the security system, improvement of its elements. In general, the system of economic security of enterprise is individual, during its formation one must consider not only the above problems, but the scope of activities, the conditions of competitiveness. How and in what scale it is realized by the system and is determined by the normative-legal base of the state, budget of the firm, knowledge and leadership experience in the field of economic security. The establishment of a durable system of economic security of an organization cannot be achieved without its compliance with this series of principles: 1. Comprehensiveness - the system must ensure the safety of various areas of activity of the enterprise. 2. The priority of preventive measures (warning) is a system security required at the initial stages to detect various negative factors. 3. Consistency – security system may be continuous under the condition of failure-free operation of its elements. 4. The legality – all actions to ensure security of the enterprise should be based on the existing regulations and not to contradict them. 5. Planning – logically sequential execution of actions in the system, making the system organized. 6. Low cost – the cost of the system must not exceed the income from the activities of the enterprise. 7. Interaction – all elements of the system are functioning in a coordinated way; the function of each element is clearly defined. 8. Competence – ensuring economic security should be entrusted to professionals with the necessary level of training, knowledge in this area. Thus, economic security is one of the main components of enterprise management, working for its success [3]. To build a reliable system of economic safety of the enterprise one requires specific competence in this field, setting clear goals, objectives and compliance with the basic principles. Financial Security Financial security is a key component of the country's economic security, which creates the necessary conditions for socioeconomic and financial independence, stability and development of the country, as well as overcoming threats to the financial sector. Financial security is:  An important component of the economic security of the state, based on the independence, effectiveness and competitiveness of the state in the finance and credit sphere, reflects the essence of its status and indicators system, adequate 148

liquidity of assets, internal and external debt balance, the availability of necessary monetary and gold reserves;  The degree of protection of micro and macro financial interests, financial relations;  The ability to withstand internal and external negative effects of customs, tariff, finance, currency, budget, tax, monetary, accounting, investment, banking and funds systems. It characterizes the prevention of external financial threats, the effective functioning of the national economy, and economic growth. World experience has shown that the power and national security of the state are characterized primarily by the economy of the country and its financial system. Objects and Methods – Economic Security The economic security is the complex idea that could be analyzed on the three main levels: 1. micro level – person or household perspective; 2. meso level – enterprise or regional perspective; 3. macro level – countries or groups of countries. Despite analytical levels the economic security in the sustainability perspective should mean the possibility to obtaining a theoretical Gaussian nature of the fluctuations in asymmetric Poisson distribution, in which it is possible to achieve a fair distribution of income with parallel efficient allocation of resources. Without a doubt, the economic security, with its fundamental component financial security, should be, from the perspective of recent years, the most important concept and concern for the contemporary economy. Economic security is a crosscutting theme that will require extensive analysis and responsible policy – particularly economic. Economics explains individual behavior and economic events very well (after they have appeared), but the empirical and methodological economic forecasting is flawed, and even often there is a lack of reliable scientific basis, especially in the programming of the expected states (Legiędź, 2010). Economic security is often defined in general terms as “the degree to which individuals are protected against economic hardship – causing losses”. There are also specific definitions related to, specific areas. For example, The New York Women's Foundation defines the economic security of women and girls as the appropriate level of achievement of such factors as median earnings, unemployment, cash assistance, food stamps, supplemental security income. The National Governors Association, the notion of economic security for workers means workers increase resilience in four basic categories simultaneously: skills and adaptability, income and savings, health and wellness, mutual support and network (New York Women's Foundation, 2013). In the macro level “economic security” is defined as“relatively balanced endogenous and exogenous state of functioning of the national economy which present risk of imbalances is kept in a designated and acceptable (organizational and legal) standards and principles of the social intercourse” (Raczkowski, 2012). Another definition also relating to the macro level treats it as “the state of development of the national economic system, which ensures high efficiency of its operation - through the proper use of internal 149

development factors and the ability to effectively resist the external pressure, which may lead to developmental disorders” (Stachowiak, 1994). Under some conditions the definitions could be applied to the meso and micro scale. Boštjan Udovič claims that “economic security, as understood in the liberalist’s framework, is economic security of interstate relations (markets) and economic security of individuals. Only individuals with their basic needs and requests can be promoters of common values and cosmopolitanism. Free markets and change are guarantees for economic and political stability, and security” (Udovič, 2006). To define the economic security he proposes the Structural approach to economic security. The author proposes to identify crucial factors that are affected by economic insecurity. We can find six (seven) levels that are affected by economic (in) security and that react differently to threats: individual person, society/firm, state, interstate relations (international community), transnational relations, global relations (Udovič, 2006). American Approach to Financial Security Economic security or financial security is the condition of having stable income or other resources to support a standard of living now and in the foreseeable future. It includes:  probable continued solvency;  predictability of the future cash flow of a person or other economic entity, such as a country;  employment security or job security. Financial security more often refers to individual and family money management and savings. Economic security tends to include the broader effect of a society's production levels and monetary support for non-working citizens. Components of individual economic security In the United States, children's economic security is indicated by the income level and employment security of their families or organizations. Economic security of people over 50 years old is based on Social Security benefits, pensions and savings, earnings and employment, and health insurance coverage. In 1972, the state legislature of Arizona formed a Department of Economic Security with a mission to promote "the safety, well-being, and self sufficiency of children, adults, and families". This department combines state government activities previously managed by the Employment Security Commission, the State Department of Public Welfare, the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, the State Office of Economic Opportunity, the Apprenticeship Council, the State Office of Manpower Planning, and the State Department of Mental Retardation. The State Department of Mental Retardation (renamed the Division of Developmental Disabilities, House Bill 2213) joined the Department in 1974. The purpose in creating the Department was to provide an integration of direct services to people in such a way as to reduce duplication of administrative efforts, services and expenditures. Family Connections became a part of the Department in January 2007. 150

The Minnesota Department of Economic Security was formed in 1977 from the departments of Employment Services and Vocational Rehabilitation, the Governor's Manpower Office, and the Economic Opportunity Office, which administered anti-poverty programs. In 1985, State Services for the Blind was included in this department. In 2003, the Minnesota Department of Economic Security and Minnesota Department of Trade and Economic Development were merged to form The Minnesota Department of Employment and Economic Development. Economic security, in the context of politics and international relations, is the ability of a nation-state to follow its choice of policies to develop the national economy in the manner desired. Historically, conquest of nations have made conquerors rich through plunder, access to new resources and enlarged trade through controlling of the conquered nations' economy. In today's complex system of international trade, characterised by multi-national agreements, mutual inter-dependence and availability of natural resources etc., economic security today forms, arguably, as important a part of national security as military policy. Economic security has been proposed as a key determinant of international relations, particularly in the geopolitics of petroleum in American foreign policy after September 11, 2001. A New Economic Security Strategy For Russia On 13 May, Vladimir Putin approved a new economic security strategy for Russia, the first since 1996. The revival of this Yeltsin-era tradition was conceived in response to the renewal of Western sanctions; Putin noted that ‘even very recently it seemed such documents were not needed, but judging by what has happened we must think about all threats’. But the strategy has ended up focusing on wider factors, notably Russia’s persistently sluggish growth since the 2008 global financial crisis, and the ‘exhaustion of the resource export model’. In the process, it has become a critique of Russia’s own political economy. The strategy is clearest and most trenchant in its diagnosis of the economic challenges and threats that face Russia. For while it mentions external challenges – including discrimination against Russian exports, sanctions and global financial instability – it puts greatest emphasis on the domestic sources of Russia’s weakness: lack of competitiveness, low investment and failure to innovate. The stated causes include, among others, high levels of criminality and corruption, excessive administrative barriers, ineffective state administration, a large shadow economy, lack of long-term investments, decline in the quality of education, poorly-developed market infrastructure and lack of participation in global supply chains. How to effectively manage people. Six mistakes a novice leader needs to urgently correct The success of a company or team depends on competent leadership. The wrong managerial approach often entails low work efficiency and failures in the professional sphere. American motivational speaker, business consultant, blogger and educator Jim Morris called six blunders in management that company leaders 151

may not even notice. However, these errors impede the coordinated and effective work of the entire team. Six manager mistakes to fix: 1. You are listening, but not watching. Novice leaders often focus only on words, and not on gestures, poses, and facial expressions of their subordinates. In order to organize the work process in a team well, it is important to understand the body language. For example, you can ask an employee how he is doing and he will quickly answer what is good. However, he wipes his forehead and nervously bangs his foot. And this is a sign of anxiety. Noticing without words what is happening to a person is an important skill of a successful leader. 2. You pretend to know everything. If you are a new manager and just getting in the way, do not show everyone that you know everything yourself. There is nothing to be ashamed of asking your colleagues for help, and no one will consider you an insufficiently competent professional. It will be much worse if, for fear of appearing stupid or inexperienced, you fail the project. 3. Micromanagement. There is a big difference between giving an employee a task and monitoring his progress, and controlling every step on the way to completing this task. Micromanagement is excessive control over the work of a subordinate, and this tactic is erroneous in the work of a manager. When you try to track each employee’s actions, you show your distrust and reduce a person’s self-esteem. As a result, the employee loses motivation, becomes irritable and the work becomes unproductive. 4. You agree to any project. You should not immediately take under your responsibility every project that offers higher authorities. After all, it will be you who will later have to bring it to mind. If you take on a ton of non-essential tasks, you may not have enough time for a large project that requires due attention. Realize the difference between hard work and competent work. Do not grab hold of everything, learn to highlight projects that are more valuable to the company. Do not be afraid to ask your boss questions and defend your point of view on the organization of the work process. 5. Communication only with subordinates. Establishing contact with subordinates is important and correct. But do not forget to communicate with your immediate boss. Do not think that if he occupies such a high position, then he automatically knows how best to work with you. Learn the strengths and weaknesses of your boss, tell him what motivates you and what communication strategies you prefer. 6. You treat all employees the same way. There is definitely a difference between the terms “treat people fairly” and “treat people the same”. Do not equate everyone under one comb, each person is unique, and a good leader should understand what the employee appreciates and considers important. For example, one employee comes to work on Monday morning and waits for you to ask how his son’s football team played on the weekend. Another employee considers questions about his personal life an intrusion into his space. Do not be afraid to ask employees a lot of questions in order to learn the personality of each and effectively build a workflow. 152

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aA1OlFHZWtU – human resource management basics and fundamentals. The process of hiring and developing employees so that they become more valuable to the organization. The right way to fire an employee There's nothing fun about the firing process: whether you're giving or getting the news. But having to let workers go comes with the territory of being an employer. And while there are a host of legal issues surrounding how to properly lay off a worker, experts said there are also practical and emotional considerations to take into account when delivering the news. Don't surprise them If a worker is being fired for poor performance, it shouldn't be a surprise. Hold regular employee reviews to go over any areas that need improvement, experts recommended. They don't need to be super formal, but it allows workers time to improve or refocus. Some states have what's called at-will employment, which means workers can be fired at any time for any legal reason, but that doesn't make it a good business practice. Do it face to face Firing someone is always going to be uncomfortable. But it needs to happen in person, the experts agreed. Not over the phone, via email or blasted out on Twitter. We pick up a lot more information when someone is in front of us said. You can see body language, feel the energy in the room and react better. It's a sign of courtesy to let someone go face to face. Experts also recommended having another person in the room, preferably from human resources, that can serve both as a witness or to help with any unusual reactions or questions. Be clear and concise Now's not the time to wing it. What you say and how you break the news is important when letting an employee go. Make sure you know exactly why you're firing a worker, have specific examples and bring the proper documentation. That includes copies of performance reports, any write-ups and applicable financial forms like unemployment insurance and health insurance. Be prepared for emotion, but keep yours in check Some workers take the news in stride. Others might go through a range of emotions: shock, grief and sometimes anger. Show empathy, but be careful about any physical contact. Give them a soft landing For workers who are being let go for non-performance issues, help make the transition as seamless as possible. Some companies offer employees a long lead time to give them a chance to find a new job, or offer some consulting work for the company to help make the transition as smooth as possible. Be honest with employees 153

If there is a big round of layoffs, don't leave employees in the dark. And if word starts spreading about people losing their jobs, move swiftly. Go deep the first time. It's better to let more people go at once then to do it over three stages. It prolongs the pain. The worst thing a manger can do when answering whether more layoffs are coming is to say, 'I don't know, we will have to see.'" Once the cuts have been made, be transparent and offer a sense of security to remaining workers. Professor Henry Mintzberg recognized ten roles that each manager and leader would have to try on. Each role is distinguished not only by functions, but also by a model of behavior, and even by thinking. Ten manager roles. These roles fall into three categories: Interpersonal, Informational and Decision Category. If manager wants to be effective, he or she needs to understand how crucial it is to know and to develop their managerial roles. Big power means big responsibility, that is why sometimes it is manager’s role to be a coach, a strategic planner, a liaison, a cheerleader, a conflict manager, a realist, a problem solver, an organizer and optimist, a trainer and a decision maker, these roles can change from day to day but one thing is for sure, a manager must understand all of the roles and how to perform them effectively. Interpersonal Figurehead As a manager, you have social, ceremonial, and legal responsibilities. You sign documents, receive visitors and perform other actions required by your position. You are expected to be an endless source of inspiration for everyone. People look at you as a person endowed with some power, and as a nominal chap. The nominee chap represents his team. If you want to succeed in this role, you need to create your own image, a certain model of behavior and create a reputation for yourself. Cultivate modesty and empathy, be a role model. Leader This is the area in which you provide leadership to a company or team, as well as to each individual subordinate. You are responsible for the work and motivation of your employees, for the recruitment, training and training. In this area, you spend the most time. This role requires a lot of experience, the ability to manage your emotions and energize your subordinates. Connecting link You must be the link between your company and the outside world. Remember that everything you do outside the company is perceived as an action on its behalf. Your responsibilities include establishing external relations, correspondence, working with other organizations. Learn the science of networking. Informational Observer In this role, you should be almost constantly, even if you try on others at the same time. Gather information about your company, industry and business, be always on the lookout. Celebrate changes in your area of business and make 154

appropriate decisions. Also observe your team - its productivity, motivation and overall well-being. Distributor When you have collected and systematized important information for your company, your responsibility will be to communicate it effectively to your subordinates. This is a very delicate process, because it is important not what you said, but how you understood, perceived and realized it. Communication and writing skills are essential for this role. Speaker The manager speaks on behalf of his organization and represents it. In this role, he transfers information about his company to other companies. An extremely important role that can both ruin and elevate your organization and team. Learn oratory. Decision Category Businessman In this role, you take part in product development, transfer information about the organization’s plans, develop and launch projects. You solve problems, generate new ideas and bring them to life. This is the most important role, because the financial health of your company directly depends on it. Tamer of conflicts and problems Problems and conflicts happen every day, so if you are not capable of taming them, study the literature on these issues and develop the necessary skills. When it comes to employee conflict, you need to become a mediator. If the matter is organizational failure, it will require analysis and development of a strategy for overcoming crisis situations. Resource allocator Any organization has a variety of resources and their competent management will help to avoid many problems. Your main responsibility in this role is to use as few resources as possible to get the most benefit. It sounds like something impossible, but that is why some companies are much more successful than others – they are able to be incredibly creative and always increase the effectiveness of their resources. Negotiator Negotiations are an integral part of the business. One successful conversation with potential partners can make your company incredibly successful. In the end, negotiations are a real subtle art and you will have to improve in them until the end of your life. Read about it as much as possible, study psychology and be observant. Management Puzzles – Henry Mintzberg Theory Thinking puzzles In this section, we discuss three puzzles: surface syndrome, planning difficulties, and the labyrinth of fragmentation. Surface syndrome Perhaps this is the most important puzzle of management, an attack for any manager. It is especially unpleasant for beginners who used to be specialists in 155

some professional field, as well as for experienced managers who always missed their profession at heart. Thinking in action. Due to the dynamic nature of their work, managers have to find time to step back a bit and look at the situation from the side; This should be an integral part of the manager’s work. Thinking without action is passive, but action without thinking is thoughtless. We created the International Masters in Practicing Management program to help managers reflect on their experiences and share them with each other. One of them proposed the term “thinking in action”, perfectly reflecting his desire to combine thinking and action. The twenty-nine managers I watched work demonstrated excellent maneuver ability between the two, especially Jacques Benz of GSI and Alan Whelan of BT. Of famous athletes, such as hockey player Wayne Gretzky, it is often said that they see the game "in slow motion" and therefore manage to complete the maneuver at the last second. Perhaps effective managers also have this ability: they can reduce stress, sometimes just for a moment, in order to be able to think. Scheduling difficulties The syndrome of superficiality is another manifestation that deserves separate discussion is the difficulty of planning. If the first puzzle is connected with the external pressure, forcing the Manager to be superficial, this second puzzle connected with internal problems, so, how is it possible to plan, develop strategy, just to think, not to mention that to plan something at such an insane pace. This puzzle demonstrates the dynamic characteristics of the Manager (fast paced, distractions, focus on action, etc.). These characteristics are contrary to the obligations of the Manager to show the direction and control of the decisions taken in the unit. Unfortunately, strategic planning rarely works as planned, it does not contribute to the development of the strategy. The system provides the analysis and strategy requires a synthesis. Analysis, of course, necessary for synthesis, but can not replace them. Plans are implemented on schedule, but managers have to cope with the strategic challenges and opportunities as they arise. If you keep all of this together, it appears that managers who cope with the difficulties of planning demonstrate involving style of management. They want in the organization flourished thousands of "strategic" colors. They follow the intuitive style of management, where models of success in these gardens of strategic flowers are determined in a natural way. They are not supporters of smart style are based on analytical methods development strategies in the "hothouse conditions". Therefore, the process of strategy development is much closer to the craft, and in it there is a lot of art. Science is manifested here in the form of analysis, offering data and discoveries, but also in the form of planning – but not for the development of a strategy ("strategic planning" is an oxymoron, and to analyze the consequences of implementing the strategy created in the process of risk and learning. A maze of fragmentation The world of management is fragmented into small pieces – sometimes coherent, sometimes not. The organization is divided into regions, divisions, 156

departments, products and services, not to mention different missions, visions, objectives, programmes, budgets and systems. Similarly, the plans are divided into separate tasks, and strategic objectives are broken down into strengths and weaknesses, threats and opportunities.Synthesis is the very essence of management: to unite all together in the form of coherent strategies, unified organizations, and integrated systems. This is what makes management so challenging and so rewarding. This does not mean that managers don't need analysis; it is required as "raw materials" for synthesis. Imagine an ordinary organizational chart. It is assumed that it accurately reflects the components of the organization. In fact, it often turns out to be a labyrinth from which workers have to seek out on their own. The organizational scheme is based on the assumption that if each unit is working "correctly", things the organization will go smoothly. In other words, it is assumed that the structure will take care of organization and planning must take care of the strategy. But to those who believe in it, you need to become a hermit.Managers have to solve big problems, breaking them into little pieces – "pieces" – which you can handle consistently. It makes sense and often is really necessary. The problem is that the individual "pieces" cannot be "folded" into a single picture, pieces of a puzzle. It's more like a designer "LEGO", although some details are poorly aligned, and the Manager sometimes does not know what to build. How can discrimination still occur when employees are working remotely? Discrimination should decline if working remotely. Face-to-face interactions can trigger more discriminatory and retaliatory actions. When one is safe at home, there are fewer occasions where discrimination could crop up. Nevertheless, iscrimination can rear its ugly head when one employee is placed on a leave of absence and another is allowed to work remotely. Preferential treatment may have a discriminatory flavouring to it that can violate federal and state discrimination statutes. During this Covid-19 era of vulnerability, the employer’s ‘doing the right thing’ may be actually doing the wrong thing. For example, the employer determines to have an older worker [more than 60 years of age] work from home, yet a much younger worker [under 40 years of age] work from the office. The employer justifies its decision by stating that the older worker is in the demographic of those most severely affected by the virus; thus, as the logic follows, taking him out of the workplace benefits the older worker’s health and safety. Where discrimination could be felt is the removal from the workplace when it might be viewed as more disciplinary, hence the older worker is one foot out the door. The best approach is to make sure that there are no discriminatory preferences in assigning employees to work remotely. However, let us take the example a little further. The employer pays both the older and younger worker their set pay. In most instances, the older worker has more seniority than the younger employee does. A reverse logic, just as compelling, can apply. The younger worker could transmit the virus and there is 157

a good chance he will survive without obvious afflictions. They should be the one that stays home to safeguard the older workers. The fact that the employer designated the older worker to stay home may be fertile evidence of age discrimination. This results in a huge decision to be made by the employer, walking a tight wire of health and safety concerns, on one side, and, the other side, a potential discrimination claim, something Leon Russell would sing about, “Up on the tight wire, where one side’s ice and one is fire”. It may be a lose-lose situation for the employer. The best approach is to make sure that there are no discriminatory preferences in assigning employees to work remotely. How can companies tackle this from home to ensure no one is being discriminated against? With remote working from home, Human Resources (HR) cannot probe deep into the bowels of the home to ascertain if discrimination is occurring. It will have to rely solely upon the employee’s complaint of discrimination or harassment. Using a platform of communication with co-workers to fulfil their job’s directives through Go-To-Meeting or Zoom may provide recordation of video and/or audio transmissions that can substantiate claims of harassment and discrimination. But when dealing with text messages or personal emails (not on the company’s servers), HR’s role in any investigation will be highly dependent on the victim’s report of discrimination or harassment. What steps can companies take to ensure mental health is still being addressed, despite not being in the office? One of the tools used by employers for years in getting rid of undesirable employees is by placing them on administrative leave with pay. The employers then fill the position with another and acclimate the staff with the new worker. In recent years, companies have been grappling with mental health issues involving employees who exhibit signs of job fatigue (similar to battle fatigue or PTSD) occasioned from job pressures, time constraints, personality clashes with managers and co-workers, and pre-existing deep-seated mental illness. Working from home may dull the sharpness of those mental health issues because the home serves as a haven for each employee: a comfort zone for job place stressors. Over time, working remotely will cause a sensation of isolation and depression. The loss of interaction with co-workers can deepen that depression. Many companies will characterize those issues as short-term in nature believing that repatriation with the company is just around the corner. I doubt that any employer would commit the revenue, in the short term, to advancing the mental health of its remote employees, other than through the company’s health insurance program. Keeping the dialogue is important so that employees do not miss out on opportunities had they remained at the office. How can employers remain equally inclusive? One of the tools used by employers for years in getting rid of undesirable employees is by placing them on administrative leave with pay. The employers then fill the position with another and acclimate the staff with the new worker. Then, the hammer falls on the absent employee, terminating him under the at-will provisions. This is part of the “alienation” or separation process. It has worked 158

well for employers. But Covid-19 presents its own debacle. Having employees work from home as part of the across-the-board shut down of the enterprise carries very little divestiture in new opportunities. Where one employee is placed in a perpetual stage of working from home when other employees are called back to work at the office is where litigation ripens. As noted above, any time the employer shows preferential treatment, the decision must have no axiomatic connections to inherent discrimination based on gender, sexual preference, age, marital status, race, national creed, disability, pregnancy, etc. Callbacks to work must be made impartially and certainly, without discriminatory or retaliatory preference; it must be neutral in all respects. When an employee is furloughed without compensation, an estrangement occurs. The mindset of the furloughed is, “the company does not think I am valuable enough to keep on the payroll during this crisis”. From a legal perspective, how can employers welcome back furloughed employees? Gracefully. When an employee is furloughed without compensation, an estrangement occurs. The mindset of the furloughed is, “the company does not think I am valuable enough to keep on the payroll during this crisis”. The expendable feelings interfere with the complex nature of the business having to shut down for its own survival. The company, if required to shut down, has no choice in the matter. It furloughs its employees. If it does not keep the employees on payroll, contravening government orders to do so, the employees begin to disconnect emotionally from the company. As every week passes by and the bills begin to mount, the stations of life those employees have grown accustomed to, begin to fade. A certain amount of animosity is levelled toward the employer for the precarious circumstance the employee and his/her immediate family faces. Unless the employee is under written contract for a term period, there is very little backlash to the employer from a legal perspective. A shut down provides a complete defense to a claim of wrongful termination. Nevertheless, the employer must re-engage the returning employee to “heal the wounds” and the frazzled perceptions caused by the furlough, welcoming the employee back with “open arms.” The Challenge of Environmental Security Today, it is increasingly clear that linkages between the environment and security are powerful and important. Whether viewed through the lens of human security common to much of the development community or seen through the lens of instability and conflict characteristic of the traditional security community, environmental security has emerged as a central policy concern for countries across the world. Policymakers often overlook the extent to which environmental stresses can undermine social and political stability, impede economic development, and generate conflict. Yet the effective governance, sound management, and sustainable use of natural resources are vital to human security, political stability, and conflict prevention. Environmental threats–or the misuse and abuse of resources–weaken economies, impoverish populations, and increase the risk of political strife and violent conflict. Climate change is increasing these 159

environmental stresses and adding to the potential for conflict in unstable regions of the developing world. From: https://www.fess-global.org/ Technological HR Trends As technology advances and best practices change, so does the face of human resources. If you want to work efficiently while recruiting strong candidates and retaining good employees, you need to keep up with the latest innovations. This article details 16 of the year’s biggest technological, employee-based and recruitment HR trends, according to experts. 1. Using Artificial Intelligence Nearly every industry uses artifical intelligence (AI) to simplify its processes. Human resources is no different. One of 2020’s HR trends is incorporating more AI tools into everyday operations for better efficiency and workflow. “For most companies, their first implementation of AI based HR tools is in talent acquisition,” explains Deepti Chopra, Co-founder of Adaface. “Companies that embrace AI will see significant reduction in time-to-hire, and measurable improvement in the candidate experience.” For example, using chatbots to correspond with candidates would free up hours of your time each week. HR professionals can also use AI to: Verify experience and education listed on candidates’ resumes; Spot behaviors that indicate an employee wants to leave the company; Manage employee performance; Answer employees’ HR questions; Customize suggestions for career paths, professional development options, etc. for each employee; Detect anomalies in behavior that could indicate time theft, corruption or other misconduct. 2. Organizing Virtual Team Building With employees located in different cities, states and countries, you can’t rely on traditional team building activities. HR professionals have to get creative, offering virtual team building ideas to managers to help teams bond. Michael Alexis, CEO of Team Building, says that “as more teams work from home, some organizations will figure out how to make [virtual team building] a long term plan.” His company offers video-call-based activities where far-flung teammates can have fun together even though they’re not physically together. These include virtual versions of office olympics and a “campfire” complete with s’mores. Alexis’s other suggestions include: Tea vs. Coffee: Each team member receives a package of tea and coffee samples to taste together during a virtual hangout. Museum Hack: Remote teams learn storytelling skills in a fun, guided environment. 3. Automation of Tasks “I have seen a huge uptick in the technology that people in HR use to become more efficient and effective over the last several years,” says Ralph 160

Chapman, CEO of HR Search Pros. “I am confident we will continue to see the use of software to automate more and more HR tasks as 2020 continues.” HR professionals have a lot to do and often not enough time or staff to complete it all. Reduce your workload by automating the following tasks: Payroll; Billable time management; Recruitment and onboarding; Records management; Employee benefits management; Employee evaluations; Tax documentation. Another way to streamline your processes is using a case management system. HR case management software makes it easy to track, manage and resolve workplace incidents and misconduct quickly to improve operations, spot trends and manage risk. Learn how i-Sight can help you protect your company with effective, timely investigations and strong documentation here. 4. Data-Driven Strategies HR professionals have to make dozens of decisions every day, each one a choice that could potentially change the direction of the company. You have to accepting or reject candidates, choose benefits plans and workplace perks, plan events and evaluate employees with no guidance except your instincts. Using metrics and analytics removes the guesswork, which is why it’s one of the biggest HR trends today. “There’s a wealth of information that can be tracked and measured,” says Ellen Mullarkey, Vice President of Business Development for Messina Staffing Group. “The most successful companies in the coming decade will be those who figure out how to use this information most effectively.” Use data-driven HR strategies to: Choose candidates based on performance capability, skill set and potential to work for you long-term; Determine risk factors for leaving and eliminate them for better retention; Gather insight into how to better engage and motivate employees; Create training modules that adapt to employees’ learning style and pace; Find areas of risk in your organization and implement training to address them. Employee-Based HR Trends 5. Emphasis on Learning In 2020, HR departments should focus on helping employees achieve their learning goals. Whether it’s personal or professional development, employees who feel their growth is supported by their employer will be more engaged, motivated and productive, according to Clodagh Beaty, Co-creator of the Emotional Salary Barometer. Beaty notes that “while professional growth and development will continue to be important, we anticipate an increase in personal growth initiatives. The importance of personal growth in leadership development and the focus on purpose and meaning at work will continue [emphasis original].” How can you encourage employees to take control of their personal and professional learning paths? Try these suggestions: Offer annual education stipends; Require (and pay for) at least one annual professional development course for every employee and/or manager; Add paid time off for volunteering and educational opportunities to employee leave allotments; Ask employees to share their professional and personal goals in their annual self-assessments. 161

6. Better Onboarding “Companies are finally starting to recognize they need to find, adequately train, and keep their employees because unemployment is at a low,” says Brett Holubeck, lawyer and founder of the Texas Labor Law Blog. “In short, businesses are going to want to find the right people, train them well, and try to keep them given the lack of qualified and available employees.” While it’s every HR professional’s goal to hire the perfect candidate for every position, you may have to “make do” when you’re in a hurry to fill a role. That’s why updating old training programs or creating new ones is key to modern onboarding processes. Good training modules can fill in skill gaps candidates have when they first start working. “Onboarding also takes more importance as certain jobs are eliminated, new technology is brought into a company, and workers change positions,” says Holubeck. Don’t just rely on a day-one orientation about your company’s history. Add elements to your onboarding such as: Your company’s core values; The direction your company is going in; Annual organizational goals; The company’s vision, as stated by your CEO or other senior managers. 7. Focus on Workplace Experience Rather than focusing on employee engagement, Beaty says, HR professionals should work toward a better employee experience. This HR trend shifts “away from the paternalistic towards a more human-centred interaction, empowering employees and encouraging responsibility.” To achieve better employee experience, Beaty suggests focusing on the following elements: Purpose: Help employees find purpose and meaning in their work Autonomy: Consider giving employees more say over how, when and where they work Belonging: Find ways to include remote and freelance employees, as well as those of different generations, ethnicities, gender identities, etc. https://i-sight.com/resources/16-hr-trends-you-need-to-know-in-2020according-to-experts/ Environmental Security Elizabeth Eddy Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia There are three major approaches to environmental security, each of which embodies distinctive feature. These approaches can be understood as:  Geopolitical environmental security, where the security referent is the nation-state against whose sovereignty environmental or other “threats” are assessed. The articulation of environment threats with national security has emanated from developed nations concerned about the cross-border impacts on their national interest arising from environmentally caused conflict in the developing world.  Comprehensive (environmental) security, where the security referent is the global ecosystem upon which all human life depends. The security threat is 162

the cumulative destructive impact of human activities on the global ecosystem that places the global commons and all humanity at ecological risk.  Social justice approaches to environmental security, where the security referent is the impoverished global majority, most of whom are in the developing world. The security threat is the interrelationship between increasing polarization of wealth and the differentiated impacts of environmental change that are maintained through new forms of colonial relationships in a globalizing world. The persistence of all three approaches to environmental security into the twenty-first century signals deeper issues to which debates about environmental security have been harnessed. Developed nations’ geopolitical concerns about national sovereignty and the destruction of the global commons associated with comprehensive security have largely dominated policies and practices associated with environmental security issues to date. However, criticisms from a social justice perspective have signaled crucial problems with these two approaches, especially for their failure to address the causes of inequality and injustice that underpin poverty and environmental degradation at local and global levels. Social justice environmental security challenges ethnocentric assumptions that underpin comprehensive and geopolitical environmental security, and places the social and environmental needs of the majority poor at the center of any strategies that deal with environmental change. The notion of “environmental security” emerged in international discussion and debate about environmental change in the late 1970s. In 1977 a spokesperson from Worldwatch proposed that “environmental security” was rapidly becoming an important issue because of the increasing risk of violent conflict arising from environmental change and natural resource scarcity. In 1981, these same concerns were reflected in Global 2000, a report commissioned by the U.S. Government. The 1987 Brundtland World Commission on Sustainable Development reiterated those concerns and proposed the implementation of a global management plan in its report Our Common Future. The 1990 United Nations General Assembly and the 1995 United Nations Commission on Human Rights linked environmental security to peace and human rights issues. Also in 1995, the Commission of Global Governance suggested the need for global security strategies that would reverse the differentiation of the global ecosystem. However, in spite of the widespread recognition of the importance of environmental security, no consensus over its meaning has yet been achieved. What environmental security means and how best to achieve it remains controversial. To clarify the basis upon which environmental security continues to be controversial, this article identifies three major approaches, referred to as geopolitical, comprehensive, and social justice. Each approach is characterized by a distinctive, although not necessarily mutually exclusive, security referent. The security referents are, respectively, the security of the nation-state, of the global ecosystem, and of human welfare. These different ways of thinking about environmental security contribute to challenging or legitimizing a status quo of global inequality, and this issue is at the heart of the controversy over its meaning. 163

Since its emergence in the late 1970s, the environmental security agenda has been dominated by international security preoccupations with geopolitical security. From this development, geopolitical environmental security has emerged. The security referent of geopolitical security is the nation-state against whose sovereignty environmental or other “threats” are assessed. The articulation of environmental threats with national impacts of environmental change that are maintained through new forms of colonial relationships in a globalizing world. The environmental security threat is potential cross-border effects on the North arising from environment-caused conflicts in and between the South nations. Strategies to reduce or eliminate security “threats” range from developmental assistance to military interventions. Some international security critics of geopolitical environmental security argue that the emphasis on conflict and its repercussions for sovereignty deflects attention from a more important problem–the degradation of the global ecosystem upon which all life depends. Some other critics claim that geopolitical environmental security neglects to address the social causes of environmental change, leaving welfare deeply comprised for about two-thirds of the world’s population, mostly in the South, due to unabated environmental deterioration. An alternative to geopolitical environmental security is comprehensive security. The security referent for comprehensive security is the global ecosystem upon which all human life depends. The security threat is the cumulative destructive impact of human activities on the global ecosystem that places the “global commons” and all humanity at ecological risk. Strategies for achieving comprehensive security entail the establishment of international and supranational forums and agreements for procuring the voluntary cooperation of sovereign nation-states in the “common cause” of global environmental protection. Although geopolitical critics of comprehensive security recognize the importance of global environmental problems, they are reluctant to review them as security matters. In addition, they have expressed skepticism about supranational forums in relation to the capacity of these forums cooperating effectively and their potential for undermining national sovereignty. Other critics have more fundamental criticisms of comprehensive security, particularly its global focus, and argue that the global focus inherently privileges North interests over those of the South by deflecting attention from the local environmental issues that affect the welfare of the world’s majority poor. Furthermore, they claim that the failure to deal with the underlying social causes of environmental degradation in the North and the South undermines the capacity of current comprehensive security strategies successfully to address planetary ecological issues. Geopolitical and comprehensive interpretations of environmental security have been incorporated, to varying degrees, into domestic and international security and development policy since the 1980s. However, largely in response to the increasing prominence of environmental security, social justice issues have been introduced into the debate. These issues form the basis of the third approach to environmental security, which highlights the human welfare dimension of environmental change, including health, livelihood, and cultural diversity. 164

The security referent is human welfare, and in particular those who currently possess very little of it, most of whom are in the South. The security threat is understood as massive global inequalities that foster increasing polarization of wealth between rich and poor in the South, and between North and South. These global inequalities have profound implications for environmental change. Among the specific security threats are the policies of international economic and development agencies as well as global environmental management forums. Their policies are seen as substantially contributing to global inequality and new forms of colonization among nominally sovereign nations. This approach to environmental security is premised on social justice considerations including historical and cultural factors that have contributed to the pervasiveness of environmental insecurity. Alternative development linked to participatory practices and sustainability is seen as crucial for achieving environmental security. Following is a discussion of the different approaches to environmental security and their different origins in the international arena. Major criticisms of each approach are outlined to clarify the controversial basis of environmental security. The discussion begins with geopolitical environmental security, moves on to comprehensive security, and finishes with social justice environmental security, which emerged slightly later as a response to geopolitical and comprehensive shortcomings. The social justice perspective raises profound problems with the geopolitical and comprehensive security approaches that compromise the capacity for the achievement of human welfare and environmental integrity at local and global levels. From: INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES INVOLVING ETHICS AND JUSTICE – Vol.III – Environmental Security – Elizabeth Eddy, ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) Security and Human Security The broad field that is known as environmental security studies emerges from the intersection of two powerful political concerns – for security and for the environment. As both are important policy arenas, so too are both important areas for scholarship. Both, however, are highly contested policy arenas, and both are ambiguous concepts. Thus, the intersection of environment and security gives rise to a number of interpretations of what environmental security means. In this section we discuss the competing meanings of security. The concept of security in general refers to freedom from the risk of loss or damage to a thing that is important to survival and well-being. It can have both broad and narrow application, and it can apply to a limited set of objects to be secured, or to a deeper array of interconnected elements in a social system. In its shallowest and narrowest form, which is also its most influential and widespread interpretation, security refers to the security of the nation-state from attack from armed forces. It is largely in the name of this most narrow of interpretations of security that the governments of the world spent US$1.339 trillion on their military readiness in 2007–an amount equivalent to 2.5 percent of global GDP, or $202 for every person on the planet (Stalenheim, Perdomo, and Sko ¨ ns 2008). 165

However, scholars from within the field of international relations, and, to a lesser extent, foreign policymakers, increasingly recognize that there are a wider range of risks to the sovereign integrity of the state than just that of military invasion. Richard Ullman (1983), for example, has defined a national security threat as anything that can quickly degrade the quality of life of the inhabitants of a state, or that narrows the choices available to people and organizations within the state (Westing 1976; Stewart and Fitzgerald 2000). On the basis of this logic, various other risks to national security–sometimes called “unconventional” security issues – have been identified, including the risk of reduced supply of energy resources (energy security), recessions triggered by intentional or inadvertent changes in global markets (economic security), and drug trafficking (which gives rise to the “war on drugs”). It is in this context of broadening the security agenda that environmental change came to be seen as a security issue (environmental security). Often, however, what is being secured through the identification of these nonmilitary risks is the institutions of the state, including the military and the state itself, who appropriate these concerns to justify their relevance (Campbell 1992; Klein 1997). Broadening security in this way, then, does not necessarily change the object to be secured, which under most interpretations remains the state. Indeed, because security is a “speech act” that raises the profile of a problem to be of paramount importance to whoever constructs the discourse, broadening the range of security risks without explicitly identifying a referent object that is not the state most often operationalizes state monopolization of responses to meet the new security challenges. This is what is implied in the idea of ‘‘securitization’’: once a risk is labeled a security issue, its status changes from a problem that is able to be dealt with through mainstream institutions to one requiring extraordinary measures (Waever 1995, 55). When the state identifies something as a security issue, it often implies that the state has the option of addressing it in a manner commensurate with the way it would address a war–that is, with extraordinary allocations of resources, and with some lassitude with respect to the normal checks on state behavior. This was the move that the early environmentalists such as Lester Brown (1977) sought to effect by labeling environmental changes as risks to national security, and it is the move that environmentalists now seek to effect by labeling climate change a security issue, which may seemingly allow the state to bypass democratic barriers to action and massively reduce emissions (e.g., Dilley 2000; WGBU 2007). This is a very important aspect of the use of security: it justifies drastic and potentially unaccountable action, and in so doing it may lead to counterproductive outcomes. The adverse outcomes of securitization are particularly relevant to our concern in this book with environmental change and human security. It has long been argued that early and uncritical interpretations of environmental security led to state monopolization of the issue and continued justification for the need for counterproductive institutions such as 6 Jon Barnett, Richard A. Matthew, and Karen L. O’Brien armed forces (Deudney 1990; Renner 1991; Dalby 1992; Barnett 2001; Floyd 2007). However, as we argue later, in identifying 166

environmental change as a human security issue, the possibility of counterproductive outcomes arising from state monopolization is minimized. In part because of the way in which securitization of an issue can lead to a concentration of power in the hands of the state, national security, regardless of the risks to it, does not necessarily translate into enhanced security for people. Indeed, in countries where democracy is absent or deficient, national security may mean very high levels of insecurity for people: if they are perceived to be risks to the state, they may be detained, forcibly removed, assaulted, or killed; if they are not important to the state by virtue of their inability to pay taxes or rents, or because their dissent can in no way challenge the state, they may simply be ignored, and so be deprived of entitlements that others in their country enjoy. Indeed, even in democratic countries the security of some individuals may be sacrificed for the imperative of maintaining national security, as civil libertarians have argued in response to counterterrorism measures such as the USA Patriot Act in the United States in the wake of the September 11 attacks in New York. Recognition that national security does not necessarily equate to better lives for most people gave rise to the concept of human security, which, as it originated from within international relations, served to critique the effects of national security on human well-being (Booth 1991). The human security perspective also tied in with the growing recognition that the end of the cold war, advances in communication technologies, increasing economic interdependence, and environmental change, among other factors, meant that the meaning and practice of “security” was becoming increasingly elusive (Walker 1987). These changes gave rise to the question: Whose security? This question alone undermines the hegemonic discourse of security as ‘‘national security’’ by opening space to consider alternative meanings and referents of security, as well as alternative strategies for achieving security. Decentralizing security away from states in this way, and focusing on the myriad local, national, global, and “glocal” (Rosenau 1990) interactions that create security and insecurity, invites consideration of the way some people’s security occurs at the expense of others (Booth 1991). It also invites consideration of the many processes that can undermine security, including poverty, energy shortages, trade imbalances, environmental changes, and changes in access to food. Security has thus become more pluralized in this way, moving away from states and an emphasis on military force and war, and toward people and the multitudinous risks they must manage. As such, human security has increasingly become a general concept of social science (Shaw 1993). However, there remains within international relations a continuum of positions on human security. There is resistance from some within the mainstream security community, who consider ideas such as human security to be distractions from the imperative of national security (Walt 1991). There are those, such as MacFarlane and Foong Khong (2006), who argue that human security should be narrowly restricted to threats to a person’s physical integrity, which is the dominant concern of the Canadian approach to human security (Axworthy 1997). Others, such as Thomas (2001), see it as being far broader, including the things necessary for meaningful participation in community life. At its broadest point, 167

human security as framed from within international relations is a very different idea – one that is much deeper and broader than that of the mainstream concern for national security against the risk of armed invasion. At this broadest and deepest extent, human security from an international relations perspective becomes indistinguishable from the way it is used within development studies, where human security synthesizes concerns for basic needs, human development, and human rights (Gasper 2005). Global environmental change and human security / edited by Richard A. Matthew . . . [et al.]. 2010 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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Чтение, реферирование и аннотирование литературы по специальности (на основе книги Вейзе А.А. Чтение, реферирование и аннотирование иностранного текста) Чтение иностранной литературы по специальности направлено на получение нужной специалисту информации. В настоящее время работа с целым текстом является приоритетным для неязыковых специальностей: перед студентами ставится задача научиться беспереводному чтению, составлению рефератов и аннотаций статей. В зависимости от поставленной цели различают следующие виды чтения: просмотровое (поисковое, обзорное); ознакомительное (конспективное, реферативное); изучающее (критическое, углубленное). Целью просмотрового чтения является получение общего представления о содержании текста или поиск нужной информации. Полученная в результате такого чтения информация может быть оформлена в виде аннотации. Ознакомительное чтение - это более внимательное чтение текста без словаря. Словарь может быть нужен только для того, чтобы узнать значения нескольких ключевых слов. Его цель - полностью понять содержание текста, не переводя его. Письменным результатом такого чтения является реферат. Изучающее чтение направлено на полное усвоение прочитанного, на расширение словаря и изучение языковых форм текста. Такое чтение оформляется в виде перевода текста со словарем. Эти виды чтения можно рассматривать как самостоятельные или как этапы чтения одного и того же текста. Не следует приступать к переводу, минуя первые два этапа чтения, т. е. не просмотрев его целиком и затем, не прочитав его внимательно. Аннотация – предельно краткое изложение основного содержания текста, и в нескольких строчках дающее представление о его тематике. Её назначение-составить мнение о целесообразности детального ознакомления с данным материалом. Аннотация включает 3 – 4 предложения (30 – 40 слов) и должна дать очень краткую обобщенную характеристику материала, определить круг содержащихся в нём проблем, дать представление о том, насколько информативен этот материал и для кого он может представить ценность. Итак, аннотация включает: а) автора, название и вид публикации (книга, статья, интервью и т. д.), год и место издания; б) определить главную тему материала; в) перечислить второстепенные; г) определить возможную ценность информации и адресата, которому эта информация может быть предназначена. Требование лаконичности является наиболее характерным, однако в текст аннотации рекомендуется вставлять клише типа (подробно излагается, кратко рассматривается . . .). На неязыковом факультете на первое место выдвигается просмотровое чтение, которое находит выход 171

в аннотировании иноязычного материала. Просмотровое чтение и его подвиды – это ведущие элементы чтения, предшествующие реферированию. Иная обработка источников информации происходит при ознакомительном чтении. Во время такого чтения читающий должен точно и полно понять содержание оригинала, выделить главную мысль каждого абзаца, отбросить всё второстепенное и несущественное. Для этого часто необходимо прочитать текст дважды, а наиболее насыщенные информацией абзацы или предложения - несколько раз. Зафиксированным результатом такого чтения является реферат. Рефератом называют текст, построенный на основе смысловой компрессии первоисточника с целью передачи его главного содержания. Материал в реферате излагается с позиций автора исходного текста и не содержит никаких элементов интерпретации или оценки. Реферат может заменить первоисточник и дать читателю возможность сберечь время при знакомстве с объектом описания. Отсюда вытекает требование: составлять рефераты таким образом, чтобы при их использовании у читателя не возникла необходимость обращаться к первоисточнику. Поскольку при чтении, целью которого является реферат, необходимо следить за логикой повествования, понимать основные идеи и факты каждого абзаца, рекомендуется разделить текст на смысловые куски, затем выделить в каждом из них основное смысловое ядро и выписать ключевые слова. И только после этого суммировать разрозненные смысловые группы в единое смысловое целое. Реферат оформляется следующим образом: а) выходные данные; б) основная тема, проблема, основные положения; в) доказательства и подтверждение основных положений автора; г) выводы автора. Средний объём реферата 10 – 15 предложений. Реферирование литературы по специальности предполагает владение лексикой и терминами в объёме 1000 – 1500 единиц, знание и понимание структурных особенностей языка. Различие между рефератом и аннотацией Различие между рефератом и аннотацией является зыбкой. Помимо количественного фактора и неодинаковых целей различие между рефератом и аннотацией заключается в манере подачи материала. При реферативном изложении референт излагает информацию с позиций автора. Реферат строится на основе ключевых слов. Аннотация пишется своими словами. Аннотация - выжимка тематического содержания - пишется с позиций компетентного судьи, который критически осмысливает материал, обобщает, сжимает, оценивает. Главное в аннотации - назвать тему текста, в реферате же излагается содержание текста. Слова и словосочетания для пересказа текста, написания аннотации и реферирования: 1. данная статья – the present paper 2. тема – the theme (subject-matter) 3. основная проблема – the main problem 4. цель – the purpose 172

5. основной принцип – the basic principle 6. проблемы связанные с – problems relating to 7. аналогично – similarly, likewise 8. поэтому, следовательно – hence, therefore 9. наоборот – on the contrary 10. тем не менее – nevertheless, still, yet 11. кроме того – besides, also, again, in addition, furthermore 12. сначала – at first 13. далее, затем – next, further, then 14. наконец, итак – finally 15. вкратце – in short, in brief Цель написания статьи: 1. The object (purpose) of this paper is to present (to discuss, to describe, to show, to develop, to give)... 2. The paper (article) puts forward the idea (attempts to determine)... Вопросы, обсуждаемые в статье: 1. The paper (article) discusses some problems relating to (deals with some aspects of, considers the problem of, presents the basic theory, provides information on, reviews the basic principles of)... 2. The paper (article) is concerned with (is devoted to )... Начало статьи: 1. The paper (article) begins with a short discussion on (deals firstly with the problem of)...; The first paragraph deals with...; First (At first, At the beginning) the author points out that (notes that, describes)... Переход к изложению следующей части статьи: 1. Then follows a discussion on... 2. Then the author goes on to the problem... 3. The next (following) paragraph deals with (presents, discusses, describes)... 4. After discussing . . . the author turns to... 5. Next (Further, Then) the author tries to (indicates that, explains that)... 6. It must be emphasized that (should be noted that, is evident that, is clear that, is interesting to note that)... Конец изложения статьи: 1. The final paragraph states (describes, ends with)...; The conclusion is that the problem is...; The author concludes that (summarizes the)... 2. To sum up (To summarize, To conclude) the author emphasizes (points out, admits) that... 3. Finally (In the end) the author admits (emphasizes) that... Оценка статьи: In my opinion (To my mind, I think)...; The paper (article) is interesting (not interesting), of importance (of little importance), valuable (invaluable), upto-date, useful (useless)...

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Cotton D., Falvey В., Kent S. Market Leader Business English Course book, Pre-intermediate. Pearson Longman, 2005. 2. Longman exams dictionary. Pearson Longman, 2007. 3. Murphy R. English Grammar in Use, Intermediate. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 4. Retirement Security. Women Face Challenges in Ensuring Financial Security in Retirement. United States Government Accountability Office, Washington, DC, 2007. 5. Ronis Sheila R., Economic Security: Neglected Dimension of National Security? / Center for Strategic Conferencing, Institute for National Strategic Studies by National Defense University Press Washington, D.C., 2011. 6. Soars L and J. New Headway English Course, Intermediate / UpperIntermediate. Oxford University Press, 2007. 7. Socio-Economic Security Programme. Economic security for a better world. International Labour Office, Geneva 22 Switzerland, 2004. 8. Global environmental change and human security / edited by Richard A. 9. Matthew . . . [et al.]. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2010.

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