Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG [1st ed.] 9789811543234, 9789811543241

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DISASTER RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT SERIES ON THE GLOBAL SOUTH SERIES EDITOR: AMITA SINGH

Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG Edited by V. K. Malhotra R. Lalitha S. Fernando Nivedita P. Haran

Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South

Series Editor Amita Singh Centre for the Study of Law and Governance Jawaharlal Nehru University Delhi, India

Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South is a series coming out of Special Centre for Disaster Research (SCDR) at Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), Delhi, India. SCDR is the first in Asia Pacific to start a course on disaster research within a social science perspective. The series follows and publishes pedagogical and methodological change within the subject. The new direction of teaching, research and training turns from ‘hazard based’ to ‘resilience building’. The series taps such research for the benefit of institutes and higher education bodies of the global south. It also suggests that much of the western literature based upon rescue, relief and rehabilitation which is also being taught in the Asian institutes is not directly relevant to managing disasters in the region. It provides reading and study material for the developing field of disaster research and management. 1. Generates a non-west transdisciplinary literature on disaster research and studies 2. Strengthens disaster governance and improves its legal framework 3. Sensitizes disaster management authorities towards key priorities and attention areas 4. Focus on preparedness is strongly proposed and revisited 5. Highlights changes in pedagogy and methodology of disaster research and teaching 6. Mainstream vulnerable communities of differently abled, elderly, women, children 7. Indicate strategies needed to protect city animals, birds and wildlife during disasters

More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/16402

V. K. Malhotra · R. Lalitha S. Fernando · Nivedita P. Haran Editors

Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG

Editors V. K. Malhotra Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) New Delhi, Delhi, India

R. Lalitha S. Fernando Department of Public Administration University of Sri Jayewardenepura Nugegoda, Sri Lanka

Nivedita P. Haran Government of Kerala Disaster Research Programme, JNU New Delhi, NCT, India

ISSN 2662-4176 ISSN 2662-4184 (electronic) Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South ISBN 978-981-15-4323-4 ISBN 978-981-15-4324-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Series Editor’s Preface

One single disaster brings a complete halt to any developmental programme. The current Coronavirus Covid-19 pandemic is a chilling reality to the new world that mankind has made for itself. A world of disruptive overuse of terrestrial and aquatic resources which has generated not just hazardous chemicals around us but also spread lethal biological viruses to increase the frequency, duration and impact of destruction on Planet Earth. The current pandemic stares blank at the glitterati metropolis, the swanky skyscrapers and technologically advanced supersonic jets in the air. Everything is grounded and locked down. It is established more than ever before that the nature of development which was being pursued so far was not sustainable. To achieve sustainability decision makers have to make some hard choices and some withdrawal of economic ambitions. The world economy has to be better distributed rather than more accumulative, ostentatious and competitive. Professor Stephen Hawking had already warned in 2016 that the capacity to sustain life on earth is limited to less than 100 years in contrast to the previous estimate of 1000 years. The crude realities of human progress and the ability of the human species to consume and survive gives clear indication that life may leave planet earth within this period. (Tencent Web Summit in Beijing 2017, interview to the British newspaper The Sun). So what should be done? Should we start packing up or strive with complete commitment to achieve SDGs? It’s the second option alone that v

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we are left with as the first one is an acceptance of death and destruction. Professor Nick Brown of the Oxford University’s Department of Plant Sciences highlights that there are not enough studies in establishing links between ecosystems, resilience and DRR due to the diversity of ecosystems, geophysical conditions and hazards. Politics of each country looks for short term gains and are so locked up in current growth patterns that ecosystem based DRR approaches which have long gestation periods are generally ignored. Similarly, Professor Wadid Erian, a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), warns that ‘the most effective adaptation and disaster risk reduction programmes are those that offer development benefits in the short term and reduce vulnerability in the long term’. As UNISDR suggests, ‘A single “blueprint” approach for National Platforms is neither possible nor desirable since disaster risk reduction is a country-specific long-term process’. This book which links SDGs with Disaster management got delayed due to the challenges thrown by the Covid-19 pandemic. Four new papers on handling the pandemic have now been added. The book becomes comprehensive as it establishes that a disaster is a disaster whether its natural, manmade or biological. It impacts life, environment and economy. Governments can mitigate their impact through good science, institutional coordination, training programmes with citizen bodies and an alert group of media reporters. As decision makers become increasingly cognizant of risk, of enforcement and about the impact of their decisions upon people, only then can disaster mitigation accelerate a meaningful progress towards SDGs. Amita Singh Professor of Administrative Reforms and Emergency Governance Founder Chairperson of the transdisciplinary ‘Special Centre for Disaster Research’, JNU Member Secretary Ethics Review Board, JNU

Amita Singh Professor at the Special Centre for Law and Governance and Founding Chairperson, Special Centre for Disaster Research, Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), India. Professor Singh teaches Law and Governance at the Centre for the Study of Law and Governance at JNU. She has been the longest serving Secretary General of NAPSIPAG (Network of Asia Pacific Schools and

SERIES EDITOR’S PREFACE

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Institutes of Public Administration and Governance) initiated by ADB 2004 at INTAN Malaysia. She is Member Secretary of the Institutional Ethics Review Board and Council Member of the Indian Council of Social Sciences Research, Delhi. She has a wide research experience of policy evaluation of best governance practices and working with the government (DARPG, India) and the Global Innovators Network, at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University. She was awarded the Australia-India Council Fellowship (2006–2007) for academic research in nine Australian Universities and was again awarded the DFAT Australian Monash Fellowship in 2017, Visiting Professor at the American University Washington DC and many universities in the Asia-Pacific countries. She has been closely associated with the International Womens’ Association at Hunter College SUNY USA in 1990 to prepare for the Beijing Declaration in 1995. She has received the Bangladesh National Award of ‘Nawab Bhadur Syed Nawab Ali Chowdhury National Award’ 2014 for women empowerment. Currently Professor Singh is associated with the Netexplo-UNAB group of Paris for socially relevant and globally empowering research. She is an ardent campaigner of the ‘Rights of Nonhuman Species’.

Contents

Introduction: Disaster Management for the 2030—Agenda for SDG Disasters and Challenge of Achieving SDGs V. K. Malhotra

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Concerns Around Law and Governance Disaster Management and Sustainable Development in the Asia and Pacific Region: Engendering the Strategies of the SDGs Usha Tandon and Amrendra Kumar

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State Machinery, SDGs and Flood Control: A Case Study of Srinagar Floods (2014) Bupinder Zutshi

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Sustainable Development Goals and National Disaster Mitigation Fund Ajinder Walia

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Sustainable Development Goals and Disaster Risk Reduction, Targets and Challenges for India Himanshu Shekhar Mishra

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CONTENTS

Land and Disaster Management for SDGs? Gaurika Chugh

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Livelihood as Sine qua non for Community Resilience in J&K Chetana Kumari

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Strategic City Landscapes: Protecting These Economic Hubs of Business from Disasters Natasha Goyal

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Concerns Around Sectoral Policies Human Trafficking and Disaster Risk Reduction: A Cross Cutting Link in SDGs Mondira Dutta

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IPR and Women Farmers: Legal Threats to Sustainable Development Manika Kamthan

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Disasters, Grassroot Women and Local Governance Rahila Sikandar

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Revisiting Agriculture Land Use for Disaster Resilient Sustainable Development Madhushree Sekher and Mansi Awasthi

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Farmers, Climate Change and People Centric Disaster Management in India Swarnamayee Tripathy

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The Other Humans (or Non-humans) in Disaster Management in India Langthianmung Vualzong

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CONTENTS

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Managing Organic Agriculture: Case of Badulla and Ratnapura Districts in Sri Lanka S. H. Pushpa Malkanthi

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Healthcare Utilization Pattern in Sri Lanka; Evidence from Household Survey G. L. D. C. Perera

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Environmental Governance for Resilience & SDGs Anil K. Gupta, Shalini Dhyani, Sreeja S. Nair, and Swati Singh

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SDG and the Covid-19 Challenge Covid-19 Pandemic and the Future of SDGs Amita Singh

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The Pandemic—Migrant Workers a Major Casualty Nivedita P. Haran

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Covid-19 Disaster: Interdependence of Crisis Communication and Socio-Economic Resilience Jaishri Jethwaney COVID-19: Reverse Migration of Labour and the Longer Road to SDGs, Documenting Coronavirus Pandemic as a News Correspondent Himanshu Shekhar Mishra Epilogue and the Way Ahead Amita Singh

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Editors and Contributors

About the Editors V. K. Malhotra is presently Member Secretary, Indian Council of Social Science Research, New Delhi. His research interests include Governance and Economic Development, Corporate Governance and Performance of various industries, Intellectual Property Rights and India’s concerns, Foreign Trade and Investments. etc. He is on the Board of Indian Council of World Affairs, and a Visitor’s nominee to the Court of Jawahar Lal Nehru University, Delhi. He is also a Member of the Board of many renowned Social Science Research Institutes of the country and is also part of the Executive of many International Research Bodies/Associations. R. Lalitha S. Fernando serves as a Senior Professor in Public Administration, Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce of the University of Sri Jayewardenepura in Sri Lanka. She was awarded the prestigious Commonwealth Academic (internal) Scholarship to pursue Postgraduate Diploma in Development Studies leading to Masters in Development Administration and Management at the University of Manchester, UK for the period of 1990–1992. She has published a number of papers related to public management and governance in both national and international journals.

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EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

Nivedita P. Haran Indian Administrative Service (Rtd.), Former Additional Chief Secretary, Government of Kerala who spearheaded the first Kerala State Disaster Management Authority. She has more than three decades of rich professional experience with the IAS in India and in the state of Kerala where she served in several senior positions of leadership and decision making. She held crucially important positions as a District Planning Officer, as a Head of Revenue Administration, Land Administration, Land Records Management, Renewable Energy in Public Offices, coping Climate Change Strategies and post-Tsunami Rehabilitation project. She also held the position of Deputy Secretary in the Department of Administrative Reforms & Public Grievances, Ministry of Personnel, Government of India, New Delhi. As the Home Secretary, she brought some meaningful innovations such as the digitization of police records, simplification of procedures, bringing transparency and accountability through the use of new cost-effective technological innovations such as Video Conferencing and other ICT applications. She has also been the Director of The Centre for Innovations in Public Systems at Hyderabad. Her most passionate project with the NAPSIPAG (Network of Asia Pacific Schools and Institutes of Public Administration and Governance, JNU) was the creation of NYSAF (Network of Young Scholars and Administrators Forum) by bringing academic research closer to administrators and enable them to work together for the country’s development.

Contributors Mansi Awasthi Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, India Gaurika Chugh Special Center for Disaster Research, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India Shalini Dhyani National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, India Mondira Dutta Special Centre for Disaster Research, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India Natasha Goyal Centre for Study of Law and Governance, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

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Anil K. Gupta Division of Environment, Climate Change & Disaster Risk Management, National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi, India Nivedita P. Haran Government of Kerala, Programme, JNU, New Delhi, NCT, India

Disaster

Research

Jaishri Jethwaney Institute for Studies in Industrial Development, New Delhi, India Manika Kamthan Symbiosis Law School, Pune, Maharashtra, India Amrendra Kumar Law Centre-II, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India Chetana Kumari Centre for Law and Governance & Disaster Research Programme, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India V. K. Malhotra Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi, Delhi, India Himanshu Shekhar Mishra New Delhi Television Limited (NDTV), New Delhi, India Sreeja S. Nair Kerala Flood Recovery Project, UNDP, kottayam, India G. L. D. C. Perera University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka S. H. Pushpa Malkanthi Department of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Balangoda, Sri Lanka Madhushree Sekher Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, India Rahila Sikandar Disaster Research Programme, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; High Court of Judicature, Allahabad, India Amita Singh Centre for the Study of Law and Governance, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India Swati Singh Society for Sustainability and Resilience Alliance, New Delhi, India

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Usha Tandon Campus Law Centre, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India Swarnamayee Tripathy Public Administration in the School of Social Sciences, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, India Langthianmung Vualzong Centre for the Study of Law and Governance and The Special Centre for Disaster Research, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India Ajinder Walia National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi, India; Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi, India Bupinder Zutshi Special Centre for Disaster Research, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

List of Figures

State Machinery, SDGs and Flood Control: A Case Study of Srinagar Floods (2014) Fig. 1

Map 1

Inundation of Srinagar city—aerial view, 10 September 2014 (Source National Remote Sensing, Department of Ecology, Environment and Remote Sensing, Government of Jammu & Kashmir)

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Kashmir Valley Jhelum Basin drainage network (Source Atlas of Jammu & Kashmir, Census of India—1981)

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Disasters, Grassroot Women and Local Governance Fig. 1

Women Empowerment and Disaster Management are complementary activities (Source Author)

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Revisiting Agriculture Land Use for Disaster Resilient Sustainable Development Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Average area operated by per household across last five landholding surveys (Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013) State-wise percentage of landless households (Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013)

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Fig. 4

Fig. 5

LIST OF FIGURES

Percentage distribution of area of land by type of crop production/livestock farming in India (Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013) Percentage distribution of area of land used for different type animal farming in India (Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013) Impact of natural disasters on agriculture and wider consequences

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The Other Humans (or Non-humans) in Disaster Management in India Fig. 1

The figure is developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization to demonstrate that animal welfare can contribute to the SDGs (Source Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations [2015]. FAO Synthesis —Livestock and the Sustainable Development Goals Global Agenda for Sustainable Livestock. Draft prepared by FAO-AGAL Livestock Information, Sector Analysis and Policy Branch. Available online at: http://www.livestockdia logue.org/fileadmin/templates/res_livestock/docs/2016/ Panama/FAO-AGAL_synthesis_Panama_Livestock_and_ SDGs.pdf)

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Managing Organic Agriculture: Case of Badulla and Ratnapura Districts in Sri Lanka Fig. 1

Map of Sri Lanka showing study areas, Badulla and Ratnapura districts

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Environmental Governance for Resilience & SDGs Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Environmental hazards and interface of natural events system with human use system (Burton et al. 1993) Environmental policy evolution in developing world: (A) During 1970’s, (B) Expands during 1980’s and (C) Intersects across most sectors by 2006 (after King and Mori 2007) Model of integrated policy regime for sustainability, society and growth (after King et al. 2000) EIA applications in DRR (Gupta and Nair 2012)

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 5 Fig. 6

Sample framework on SEA of a Common Agriculture Policy (after EEAC 2008) Inputs of EIA and SEA to DRR (C-EIA—Cumulative EIA). Gupta and Nair (2012)

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Covid-19 Pandemic and the Future of SDGs Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Percentage of Covid-19 cases (N = 500,318) and deaths (N = 39,258) by age group (Source Author; Data Source WHO Covid-19 Weekly Surveillance Report, available at https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/ 440776/week16-covid19-surveillance-report-eng.pdf?ua=1) Death rate proportional to 60+ population in countries (Source: Author; Data Source WHO and Statista, as on 12 June 2020, available at https://www.statista.com/statistics/ 1104709/coronavirus-deaths-worldwide-per-million-inhabi tants/ and WHO websites https://data.worldbank.org/ind icator/SP.POP.65UP.TO.ZS)

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List of Tables

State Machinery, SDGs and Flood Control: A Case Study of Srinagar Floods (2014) Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7

Major recorded historical flood events in Kashmir Valley Flood events, fatalities, injuries and causalities—1978–2006 Flood death rates per million population at decennial intervals Rainfall reported (mm) over stations located in Kashmir Valley during 3–6 September 2014 Encroachment—trees and unauthorized construction removed from river courses Identified emergency operation centers for relief and evacuation in Kashmir division Surveyed respondents in Srinagar city: perception of preparedness of disaster risk reduction management (%)

36 36 37 37 42 44 46

Land and Disaster Management for SDGs? Table 1 Table 2

Land use statistics in India—1951–2011 Diversion of forest land for non-forest use (1980–2016)

82 86

Livelihood as Sine qua non for Community Resilience in J&K Table 1

Number of Micro, Small and Medium Scale (MSMEs) Industries and their share in employment generation

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LIST OF TABLES

Revisiting Agriculture Land Use for Disaster Resilient Sustainable Development Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6

Distribution of land owned per household by social group Distribution of households by category of ownership holdings Distribution of households by size category of landholdings for social groups State-wise percentage distribution of area of land possessed by households affected by flood/not flooded, 2012–2013 Percentage distribution of land possessed by type of land use Elements of Cost of Farm Production

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Farmers, Climate Change and People Centric Disaster Management in India Table 1

Farmers in India, 2016

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The Other Humans (or Non-humans) in Disaster Management in India Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4

The top 3 states in India with maximum loss due to disasters are listed year-wise Tables showing impact of drought and floods on animals Area, human and livestock population in drought prone states of India Area, human and livestock population in flood prone states of India

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Managing Organic Agriculture: Case of Badulla and Ratnapura Districts in Sri Lanka Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5

Socio-economic characteristics of farmers (n = 300) Levels of knowledge of respondents on organic agriculture (n = 300) Farmers’ attitude towards organic agriculture (n = 300) Different potential for organic agriculture in the two districts (n = 300) Different constraints for organic agriculture (n = 300)

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LIST OF TABLES

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Healthcare Utilization Pattern in Sri Lanka; Evidence from Household Survey Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4

Distribution of the sample by treatment sector Population, population density and service factors by province Descriptive statistics of the sample Output of the Multinomial Logit model

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Environmental Governance for Resilience & SDGs Table 1 Table 2

Modern environmental-policy instruments and their role in DRR National Disaster Management Guidelines (India) and environmental concerns

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Covid-19 Pandemic and the Future of SDGs Table 1 Table 2 Table 3

A comparative progression of Covid-19 and performance towards containment Ageing population and Covid-19 deaths Tests per thousand in the Covid-19 affected developed and developing South Asian countries on four dates of India’s lockdown

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Introduction: Disaster Management for the 2030—Agenda for SDG Disasters and Challenge of Achieving SDGs V. K. Malhotra

Disasters Threaten Sustainability The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aspire to make development accessible to the largest number of people for the longest period of time. This projects and reinvents the @@Bruntland Commission vision of uniting countries to pursue sustainable development into a set of achievable goals. The vision was produced as a famous report of the World Commission on Environment and Development called ‘Our Common Future’ or the ‘Brundtland Report’ of 1987. A threefold objective which underlie the vision can be identified as a reconciliation of economic growth with environmental protection and issues of intra-generational equity and justice. Poverty reduction continues to remain at the top of the agenda even in the SDGs priority. The 17 goals were declared by the United Nations General assembly in 2015 and are envisioned to be achieved by the year 2030 which is why they are called as Agenda 2030. These goals are intertwined and integrated to achieve a holistic

V. K. Malhotra (B) Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi, Delhi, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_1

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progress and continue to stay as a fabric of human development which governments ought to work towards.1 Each goal has some targets which have measurable indicators. The groundwork was already set with the Millennium Development Goals (2000–2015) taking the world to a halfway mark by lifting out more than one billion people from extreme poverty and hunger. SDGs are expected to complete the job. The SDG goals have been picked up from the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD), which is also known as Rio+20 Conference, held in Rio (Brazil) in 2012. The idea was proposed by Colombia. It was accepted as a “blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all”. However, unlike the UNCSD or the MDGs, SDGs have travelled further to alert developmental experts that lack of preparedness during disasters and catastrophes can obstruct, delay and even destroy the hard earned development. International development agenda has been very actively led by the United Nations since its inception in 1945. Till the last decade of the twentieth century, the approach towards various developmental goals has been disjointed and duplicative as the major UN agencies were addressing their own specialized areas pertaining to different dimensions of development such as health, children, culture, environment, etc. within the ambit of socio, economic, political and environmental development. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for the first time set an agenda for convergence of these developmental goals from 2000 to 2015. The MDGs had set eight goals which included eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, promoting gender equality, achievement of universal primary education, reduction in child mortality, improvement in maternal health, fighting HIV/AIDS, malaria and other deadly diseases, ensuring environmental sustainability and developing global partnership for development. The SDGs have followed a very extensive and rigorous process of consultation in identification of 17 goals, 169 targets and a larger number of indicators while MDGs had 8 goals, 21 targets and 63 indicators. MDGs had their focus on developing countries while the grant was supported by developed countries but in SDGs, all countries are understood to work together. A number of new goals and interrelated targets have been added some of which include clean water and sanitation, affordable and clean energy, decent work, industry, innovation and infrastructure, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption and production, life below water, life on land, peace, justice and strong

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institutions, and partnerships for the goals. MDGs had a time span of 25 years while 2012 was adopted as the year for data baseline. Later revisions in these baselines caused ‘shifting of the goal post’. SDGs have accepted Civil Society Organisations as key actors in achieving these goals. These also talk of building vivid partnerships with private sector. In this way continuing the legacy of the MDGs, the SDGs intend to put the world facing the imperative environmental, political and economic challenges onto a more sustainable path. It is a kind of universal call to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030. All SDGs are integrated in a manner that positive and good outcomes in one area would influence encouraging outcomes in other developmental extents. The pledge ‘To Leave No One Behind’ has potentials to trigger fast track progress.

Disasters and SDGs There is no denying the fact that disasters cause immense suffering, destitution and economic losses. Disasters are the most unwanted, uncontrollable and unplanned public calamity which easily hold back economy and prosperity. The world has already lost USD 3 Trillion between 1998 and 2017 (World Disasters Report 2015) and climate change-related disasters have risen by a phenomenal 151%. The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) has defined disaster as ‘a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or society and causes human, material, and economic or environmental losses that exceed the community’s or society’s ability to cope using its own resources. Though often caused by nature, disasters can have human origins’.2 Disasters can be natural or human made or there can be complex disasters having various root causes. Earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, floods, hurricanes, tsunamis, cyclones, tornados, volcanic eruptions, lighting strikes, etc. fall under natural disasters. Some of the human made disasters include fires, big accidents, industrial accidents, hazardous material spills, terrorist attacks, nuclear explosion or radiation, stampedes, etc. some experts differentiate between predictable and unpredictable natural happenings. Warfare, famine, severe food shortage and civil disturbances are some examples of complex disasters. Since disasters cause greater destruction to more vulnerable communities, which is why relatively less developed countries suffer much more

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due to disasters than the developed ones because the extent of suffering depends on the preparedness and capacity of the system in a country. According to World Bank Disaster Risk Management, developing countries suffer more due to disasters as their losses due to natural hazards are 20 times more than developed countries. More than 95% of deaths caused by natural hazards occur in developing countries (Luis Flores Ballesteros, ‘Who is getting the worst of disasters?’ 2008). Disasters have their very long-lasting effects on lives, livelihoods, economic and infrastructural loss and environmental loss. All these losses result in causing serious damages to socio-economic stratum and social institutions. They also interrupt electricity supply, water supply, garbage removal, and transport and communication facilities. Vulnerability depends on conditions and system of a community such as design and construction of buildings, safeguarding of assets, public awareness and information system, infrastructure and equipment for prediction of natural disasters, preparedness and sincere concern for environment during the development process. The losses caused by disasters include both quantifiable losses and unquantifiable losses. These may be direct quantifiable losses such as number of people killed, and damage to infrastructure, buildings, roads and natural resources. Indirect quantifiable losses include fall in output, revenues, slowdown of developmental activities, disruptions in movement of goods & services. Economic losses from natural disasters are estimated at US $250–300 billion each year and these losses are further expected to escalate and accordingly, countries have been advised to set aside this much to meet disaster economic losses (UNISDR 2015). The unquantifiable losses are also called ‘intangible losses’. There are many losses that are difficult to quantify such as destruction of historical and cultural sites by disaster as even replacement or renovation cost may not be able to bring the site back to its glory or historical & cultural value. Psychological loss may be reflected by post-disaster traumatic stress, anxiety and mental disorder. Environmental impact could be in the form of uprooting of trees, deterioration in quality of soil, contamination of water, salt water intrusion, etc. most of the times, esp. in case of developing countries, unquantifiable losses surpass quantifiable or direct losses (GFDRR 2014). The death toll of several deadliest disasters has been in millions, Chinese flood of 1931, Chinese famine from 1958 to 1961, Chinese famine 1907–1911, Chinese famine of 1942–1943, and Bengal famine of 1943 are a few examples from twentieth century.

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There are some losses that are understood very quickly and in those cases the remedial action starts speedily but many losses are appreciated much after the disaster when mitigation work has largely been undertaken. Such cases need sustainability in disaster management which relates to organization and management of means and accountability for dealing with disaster-related emergencies which include preparedness, response and recovery to mitigate the losses caused by disasters (The Red Cross and Red Crescent societies, IFRC). As per Disaster Management Act, 2005, this management entails continuous and integrated practice of planning, organizing and implementing measures for prevention of disaster, mitigation of risk, capacity building, preparedness to deal with such situations, assessment of magnitude of loss, evacuation, rescue and relief work, and rehabilitation and reconstruction. It also requires to build a good network with local, regional, national and international organizations. Disaster risk management cuts across different sectors of development and of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 10 are related to disaster risk management (reduction). These include Goal 1 (End poverty), Goal 2 (End hunger), Goal 3 (Ensure healthy life), Goal 4 (Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education), Goal 6 (Ensure availability of water and sanitation), Goal 9 (Build resilient infrastructure), Goal 11 (Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe and sustainable), 13 (take urgent action to combat climate change), Goal 14 (Conserve oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development) and Goal 15 (Protect and promote terrestrial ecosystems and environment). In this way, these SDGHs intend to build resilience of the poor and vulnerable sections in extreme situations caused by disasters. According to the United Nations’ Report (October 2015), the AsiaPacific region is the most disaster prone part of the world. From 2005 to 2015, this region has been struck by 1625 disasters which is 40% of the global figure and more than 1.4 billion people have been affected by these disasters. 90% of the world’s seismic activity originates in the ‘ring of fire’ situated in the basin of the Pacific Ocean (the United Nations Asia-Pacific Disaster Report 2015). The disaster outline of South Asia ranks very high due to rising sea levels, increasing incidences of floods, droughts, cyclones, storms, earthquakes and tsunamis. Globally the areas of disaster concentration include Central America, Japan, Pacific, South Asia and South Africa. Within

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South Asia, Bangladesh and Nepal constitute the most exposed countries. South Asian countries remain the worst affected as they suffer from high degree of geo-physical and socio-economic vulnerability and poor preparedness and risk management. Poverty, population, high density of population, inferior infrastructure, low capacity to respond to the extreme situations, haphazard urbanization and development, social instability, corruption, deficient planning, etc. together make this region very soft target for severe destruction and damages of disasters.

Indian Context Around 60% of the total landmass in India is prone to earthquakes of moderate to high intensity, about 12% to floods, more than 60% of total area to droughts, and approximately two-thirds of India’s total coastline to tsunamis. Besides that India is also prone to human caused chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear disasters which may get aggravated due to uncontrolled population, high density of population, unplanned cities, haphazard urbanization, etc. Due to India’s susceptibility to natural hazards and human caused hazards makes it vulnerable to various kinds of disaster destruction and losses. Since vulnerability is determined by the magnitude and intensity of exposure and preparedness to respond to such situations, the above mentioned reasons of geological volatility, large population, lack of adequate infrastructure and low coping capacity make India exposed to more disaster threats and losses. There cannot be two opinions that disaster management is intricately linked to sustainable development. Since the 12th Five Year Plan (2012– 2017), inclusive and sustainable development have been in focus of the development strategy. India’s efforts to manage disasters have included Disaster Management Act 2005, establishment of National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) in December 2005. It coordinates with State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) and Disaster Management Authority at district level to ensure suitable response to natural and human-caused disasters, building of capacity for disaster resilience and creation of the National Disaster Response Force for specialist response to an intimidating disaster. In this way, four vital concerns, namely, growth and development, high degree of disaster vulnerability, a matching degree of capacity for disaster management and achievement of sustainable development, have to be considered together. In this way, the relationship between sustainable development goals and disaster management is that of mutual benefit and reinforcement.

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Conclusion SDGs and Disaster risk, resilience and management issues have drawn the attention of academicians, policy makers and administrators. There are number of aspects that need to be studied from different angles. Even academicians and scholars need to probe into possible vital dimensions of the disasters. It is an area where unidisciplinary researches may fall substantially short of serving the purpose as they may not address all possible dimensions of the problem. So, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary researches could provide better insights into the problem of disaster. Interdisciplinary and trans-disciplinary researches propose a deal of scope for collaboration at national and international levels which has potential to make research in the area much more productive and impactful as they broaden our outlook about the whole problem. It is in this context, this work, which consists of 16 papers, exposes us to different important dimensions of disasters and their management while aspiring to achieve the agenda of sustainable development goals by 2030. SDGs have given a new hope to the world as countries start working towards retaining their much achieved goals. However, challenges continue to weaken SDGs and global economy. It is this argument on SDGs which has been carried through the book and chapters continue to insist upon preparedness against disasters.

Notes 1. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2019, United Nations, New York available at https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2019/The-Sustai nable-Development-Goals-Report-2019.pdf. 2. World Disasters Report 2015 available at https://www.ifrc.org/en/whatwe-do/disaster-management/about-disasters/what-is-a-disaster/.

Concerns Around Law and Governance

Disaster Management and Sustainable Development in the Asia and Pacific Region: Engendering the Strategies of the SDGs Usha Tandon and Amrendra Kumar

Introduction Sustainable development and human welfare are intimately related with the natural environment. Normally, environment supports the life and livelihood of the human being in line with sustainable development for human welfare. But, at times it turns into disasters or hazards harming plant, people and property. Natural disasters occur rapidly, instantaneously and indiscriminately and wipe out the years of development in a few minutes. Specially, climate change has been considered one of the sustainable development challenges because of its ill-effects not only on the environment, but also on economic and social development across the

Invited Paper for International Conference on Governance for Sustainable Development, organized by University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka, 6–7 October, 2018 at Colombo. U. Tandon (B) Campus Law Centre, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India A. Kumar Law Centre-II, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_2

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regions and generations.1 The ill-effect of climate change subsequently turns into natural disasters such as flood, earthquakes, cyclone, tsunamis and landslides which leave behind major and reoccurring impacts on human life.2 This has been witnessed among varied generations, occupations, nations and regions including the most disaster prone areas such as the Asia and Pacific region of the world. The disaster adversely and indiscriminately affects the lives of both men and women across the generations, but ‘women are specially found more victims during and after the disasters due to existing inequalities and disparities in the society’.3 Natural disasters have been witnessed and considered ‘more fatal to the women than men impinging upon the sensitive issues such as sexuality, equality, occupations, migration, rehabilitation and recovery’.4 Against this background, this research paper aims to examine the norms and practices in disaster management and sustainable development implying the feminist perspective. It highlights the vulnerability of women in disaster management in sustainable development especially in the Asia and Pacific regions. Accordingly, the paper has been divided into five parts including introduction and conclusion. The paper first of all begins with an introduction explaining the disaster and natural hazards impacting human life, highlighting the status of women during and after the disaster in the Asia and Pacific region. The next part deals with international instruments, documents and resolutions relating to the concept of disaster management in the context of sustainable development. The third part contains the trends and occurrence of disasters that have taken place in the Asia and Pacific region in the last two decades. The fourth part highlights the women’s vulnerability in disasters and during disaster management and explains the need for the feminist dimensions of disaster management. Finally, the paper concludes by putting suggestions for the proper implementation of gender parity and equality in disaster management and sustainable development taking into account the SDGs.

International Legal Regime Sustainable development primarily confronts the problems of widespread environmental degradation and disaster occurrence posing a profound threat to human beings of both present and future generations.5 Disaster has been considered as ‘those extreme events either natural or anthropogenic which exceed the tolerable magnitude or beyond certain time limits, make adjustments difficult, result in catastrophic loss of property,

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income, likelihood and life of people’.6 It has been noted that ‘disasters happen due to a set of physical, political, social and economic factors that determines the amount of damage done by the hazards and also the capacity to anticipate, cope, resist and recover from the damages’.7 Therefore, disaster management and sustainable development is the demand for human welfare and environment sustainability. Disaster management has assumed great significance due to frequent occurrence of natural as well as anthropocentric disasters across the regions in the world. In this context, ‘disaster management has been considered a set of disciplines and directions to avoid and reduce the risk of the disaster and subsequently manage the impact and recovery after the disaster’.8 It includes the efforts of preparedness, response and recovery in order to mitigate and manage the impact of disasters. It is generally divided into two phases: pre-disaster preparedness; and post-disaster relief, rehabilitation and recovery. ‘The approach to sustainable recovery and sustainable development is embedded with the idea of disaster management, where the redevelopment and reconstruction process is adequately designed to reduce the impact of disasters’.9 It has been observed that ‘any development can only be made sustainable if the component of disaster risk reduction is taken care in the plan and process of development’.10 In view of this, disaster management and sustainable development have gained importance in various national and international negotiations in recent times. 1985: Declaration of International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction The international community has also placed disaster risk reduction and management at the heart of sustainable development. The initial afford to build international consensus for disaster risk reduction began in the year 1985 with the UN Declaration of ‘International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, 1990-99’.11 UN General Assembly through its Resolution set its aim to ‘reduce through concerted integrated action especially in developing countries, the loss of life, property damage and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes, winds, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcano eruptions, wild fires, local infestation, drought and desertification and other causalities of natural origin’.12

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1994: World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction In the year 1994, the first ‘UN World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction’ was held in Yokohama, Japan, which specifically promoted the disaster risk reduction and the social aspects of vulnerability towards disasters.13 The ‘Yokohama Strategy and Action Plan for Safer World’ was adopted stating that ‘disaster prevention and preparedness should be considered integral aspects of developmental policy and planning’.14 1999: International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Subsequently, the ‘International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)’ in the year 1999 was launched by the Economic and Social Council for the coordination in disaster reduction and to ensure synergies among the disaster reduction activities of the UN system.15 Besides, the ‘Johannesburg Plan of Action on Sustainable Development, 2002’ was also adopted with an objective for integrating and mainstreaming risk reduction into development policies and processes.16 2002: World Summit on Sustainable Development Then, World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) noted that ‘An integrated and inclusive approach to address vulnerability, risk assessment and disaster management including prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery, is the essential element of a safer world in the twenty first century’.17 This Summit provided the opportunity to integrate disaster reduction in the agenda of sustainable development, and promoted the multi-hazard approach to reduce risk and vulnerability within the context of sustainable development. It was concluded with two major actions: first, ‘the political statement adopted identifying ‘natural disaster’ as a sever threat to sustainable development and requiring priority attention’18 ; secondly, ‘the comprehensive implementation plan that includes commitment related to disaster and vulnerability reduction and improved preparedness capacity’.19 After that, disaster reduction and management has emerged as a core element of sustainable development.

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2005: World Conference on Disaster Reduction The most important international effort was made through the ‘World Conference on Disaster Reduction’ held in the year 2005 at Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, which adopted ‘Hyogo Framework for Action, 20052015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities in Disasters’.20 The expected outcome for ten years was set as ‘the substantial reduction of disaster losses in lives and in the social, economic and environmental assets of communities and countries’.21 This outcome had to be achieved with full commitment and involvement of all actions concerned including national governments, regional and international organizations. The strategic goals were adopted to attain those outcomes as such: ‘a) Affective integration of disaster risk consideration into sustainable development policies, planning and programming at all levels, with special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and vulnerability reduction; b) Development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities at all levels in particular community levels; c) Systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches in policies and implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery program in the reconstruction of affected communities’.22 Along with these, there have been adopted five priorities for action: ‘i) Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a natural and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation; ii) Identify, assess and monitor disaster risk and enhance early warming; iii) Use knowledge, immolation and education to build a culture of safely and resilience at all levels; iv) Reduce the underlying risk factors; v) Strengthen disaster preparedness for affective response at all levels’.23 2000: Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Another development in this sphere was the UN Millennium Declaration in the year 2000 accompanying eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and eighteen targets measured by forty-eight specific indicators to improve the health and education along with eradication of poverty for the overall development.24 Each of these goal had specific targets as well as the date to achieve by the member countries as such: ‘i) to eradicate poverty everywhere, ii) to achieve universal primary education; iii to promote gender equality; iv) to reduce child mortality; v) to improve mental health; vi) to combat HIV/AIDS and other disease, vii) to ensure environmental sustainability; viii) to develop a global partnership for dependent’.25

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2015: Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) After several reviews of the progresses made on MDGs, it was further replaced with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the year 2015. The SDGs were adopted by UN General Assembly under ‘2030 Development Agenda’ titled as ‘Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’ which consists of 17 goals and associated 169 targets.26 All those targets have one to three indications to be used as measure for the progress made to reach the targets. Among those, the most relevant targets in the context of disaster risk reduction and recovery are: poverty, hunger, health, education, gender equality, clear water and sanitation, sustainable cities and communities and climate actions. All such goals and targets have to be achieved at national, regional and international levels involving all the stakeholder and partnerships till the end of the year 2030. It also recognizes and reaffirms ‘the urgent need to reduce the risk of disasters by making note to the third World Conference on Risk Reduction and Sundial Framework’.27 This reference represents a significant step forward in the global development framework which was overlooked in the formulation of MDGs. During the period of the Millennium Development Goals, the primary approach was to protect development gains from disasters; on the other hand, Sustainable Development Goals incorporate the disaster risk reduction in the policy agenda such as poverty eradication, food security, infrastructure and urban development including action for climate change. However, disaster risk reduction and management has not been included as a specific goal, but it is embedded in the existing SDGs mentioned above. The SDGs have also been supported through ‘Addis Ababa Action Agenda’ adopted in the third ‘International Conference on Financing for Development’, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia in the year 2015, for mobilizing financial and technical support to implement 2030 Agenda on sustainable Development including SDGs for the period 2016–2030.28 The resilience has been considered in the context of economic resilience of countries for absorbing the shock of disasters and financial resilience for mobilizing resources for sustainable development goals. 2015: World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction The first specific agreement on disaster risk reduction is ‘Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030’ endorsed by the UN

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General Assembly after the adoption in the third ‘UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction’ held at Sendai City, Japan in 2015.29 This Sendai Framework is a non-binding agreement consisting of seven targets and four priorities for action. The member state has the primary role to reduce disaster risk in consonance with the outcome: ‘The substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries’.30 In pursuance of this expected outcome, the member states are required to ‘prevent new and reduce existing disaster risk through the implementation of integrated and inclusive economic, structural, legal, social, health, cultural, educational, environmental, technological, political and institutional measures that prevent and reduce hazard expansion and vulnerability to disaster, increase preparedness for response and recovery and thus strengthen resilience’.31 To achieve the outcome and goals of the present framework, the seven global targets have been adopted: ‘to reduce: i) disaster mortality: ii) the number of affected people globally; iii) direct disaster economic loss; iv) disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services; and to increase: v) number of countries with DRR strategies; vi) international cooperation to developing countries; and vii) the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning system and risk information’.32 The member states also felt the need for focused actions within and across the nations in four priority areas: ‘i) understanding disaster risk; ii) strengthening disaster risk governance; iii) Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience; and iv) enhancing disaster preparedness for affective response’.33 Further, the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction has been assigned to support the implementation, follow-up and review of the Sendai Framework. 2015: The Paris Agreement Besides, the global climate change regime through Paris Agreement, 2015 also stressed ‘the importance of building resilience by enabling communities to adapt and build back better from devastating impacts of disasters and climate change’.34 It has been proposed to promote more integrated approach to adaptation, environmental management, sustainable development and disaster risk reduction. It stresses ‘the enhancement of international cooperation to increase the understanding of comprehensive risk management, and to strengthen the national disaster loss database and risk analysis’.35 This could help in building adaptation capacity and reducing vulnerability to the adverse effects of climate-related disasters.

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2016: Quito Declaration on Sustainable Cities and Human Settlements for All Further, ‘Quito Deceleration on Sustainable Cities and Human Settlements for All’ was adopted by UN General Assembly on 23 December 2016, which also noted the concerns of disaster risk reduction and management taking full account of Sendai Framework for Disaster risk reduction 2015–2030.36 It includes in its vision that ‘we envisage cities and human settlement that adopt and implement disaster risk reduction and management, reduce vulnerability, build resilience and responsiveness to natural and human made hazards and foster mitigation and adaptation to climate change’.37 Besides, member states resolved to adopt ‘New Urban Agenda’ that will readdress the planning and management of cities and human settlement as essential element to the achievement of sustainable development and prosperity for all.38 2016: Agenda for Humanity In the same year, ‘Agenda for Humanity’ was adopted in World Humanitarian Summit held in Istanbul, Turkey in May 2016.39 This consists of five core responsibilities and twenty tour transformations to address and reduce humanitarian need, risk and vulnerability during disasters. Among the five core responsibilities, some are quite relevant to the disaster risk reduction and management such as: ‘i) Leave no one behind; ii) Work differently to end need; iii) Invest in humanity’.40 All these core responsibilities are underpinned by a number of strategic and normative transformations which outline the actions necessary in order to fulfil it. The above international instruments, documents and resolutions relating to disaster risk reduction and sustainable development promote and support the efforts to reduce vulnerability, build resilience and responsiveness for both natural and human-made disasters.

Disaster Management and Sustainable Development in the Asia and Pacific Region Extent and Trends of Disasters in the Asia and Pacific Region The Asia and Pacific region encompasses a vast geographical area touching different continents and climate zones. It ranges from Russia in the north, Australia and New Zealand in the south, Turkey in the west, to Japan

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and the Pacific nations in the east. Among the countries of the Asia and Pacific region, some have a high level of exposure to the impact of one or more natural disasters, but low level of coping capacities to manage it. It has been reported that ‘Asia and Pacific nations have 60 percent of the world’s population and 40 percent of the land mass as well as 36 percent of the global GDP’.41 The people living in the Asia and Pacific region are much more likely to be affected by natural disasters. It has also been noted that ‘Since year 1970, natural disasters in Asia and pacific have killed two million people contributing 57 percent of global deaths and affected five times more than a person living outside the region. Disasters also caused large scale damage to the property and infrastructure worth up to $ 1.3 trillion’.42 In recent years also, there has been a huge loss of life in this region through flood which caused heavy deaths in Bangladesh, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The drought has also affected millions of persons primarily in China and Cambodia including Indonesia, Vietnam and Pacific Island nations. The cyclones and tsunamis have immensely and severely caused loss to life and property mostly in Asian and Pacific nations. The most popular and fatal disasters in this regions were: Pakistan Floods, 2011; Philippines’ Typhoons ‘Hiyan’, 2013; Nepal Earthquakes, 2015; Vanuatu Cyclone ‘Pane’, 2015; Fiji Cyclone ‘Winster’, 2016. By the subregion wise recent trends from the year 2000, it has been found that ‘East and North East Asia sub-region has been affected by the natural disasters affecting 1.67 billion persons and half of them were due to flood and tsunamis’.43 In the year 2016 itself, ‘this sub-region has reported 1,900 fatalities, 14 million person were affected and worth $ 65 million damages to the property’.44 The South East Asia subregion has had 362 billion deaths and 259 million affected largely from earthquakes, storms and floods since the year 2000. In the year 2016, ‘this sub-region lost more than 700 lives from natural disasters, and nearly 12 million persons were affected, with damage of the property worth $ 2.1 billion’.45 In South and South West Asia, there have been reported ‘more than 2 million disaster deaths mostly by the earthquakes and around 1.19 billion persons were affected from the natural disasters and estimated damage caused was $ 4 billion during the period 2000-2016’.46 In the year 2016 alone, ‘this sub-region has lost 2,300 lives from 42 natural disasters with $ 4.85 billion in damage to the property’.47 In North and Central Asia during the period 2000-2016, ‘disasters caused close to 60,000 death and more than 13 million persons were affected with

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$ 9.8 billion estimated damage by floods, drought and earthquakes’.48 The Pacific region alone reported that ‘over 2,300 fatalities from various hazards mostly from tropical cyclones, floods and earthquakes during the period 2000-2016. The year 2016 proved to be most fatal for this region where around 490,000 persons suffered from tropical cyclones, drought and earthquakes with estimated damage of $ 5.2 billion’.49 This trends and events have harmed the region’s economic growth, human capital and environmental services on a large scale. The estimated damage fluctuates from year to year according to the nature and extent of natural disasters, but the trends clearly show that disaster causes more damage in the Asia and Pacific region compared to the rest of the world.50 Therefore, disaster management and resilience has been considered an urgent need for this region which would depend on the international and regional efforts and cooperation. Most of the international disaster and development framework have called for international cooperation for disaster management and sustainable development because of the transboundary effects and implications. The Sendai Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015 clearly says that ‘Each state has the primary responsibility to prevent and reduce disaster risk through international regional, subregional, trans-boundary and bilateral cooperation’.51 Regional Implementation of Global Commitments Initiatives have been taken in the Asia and Pacific region to translate the global commitments into regional implementation plans: i) ASEAN Declaration on Enhancing Cooperation in Disaster Management, 2013 52 : The member countries have adopted a declaration on institutionalizing the resilience among communities and people from disaster and climate changes. The declaration underlines the importance of coherence, consistency and alignment across all relevant sectors by integrating disasters risk management and climate change adaptation in sectoral policies, strategies, plans, programmes and projects. ii) Regional Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015 53 : During the Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, the regional action plan for the implementation of Sendai Framework has been adopted. This regional plan provides broad policy guidelines, fifteen-year road map and two-year action plan for disaster

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risk reduction in the Asian region. The Pacific nations similarly have adopted ‘the Pacific Framework for Resilience Development’ which called for an integrated approach to address climate change and disaster risk management for the Pacific Island nations.54 iii) Regional Road Map for Implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in Asia and Pacific, 2017 55 : The member states adopted a regional roadmap for the purpose of strengthening regional cooperation, efficient and coordinated support to member states and sharing knowledge and good practices more effectively. The disaster risk reduction and resilience was identified as one of the priority areas for regional cooperation through the Asia-Pacific Forum on Sustainable Development.

Gender and Disaster Management Understanding Feminist Perspective in Disaster Disaster affects suddenly, severely and indiscriminately to human beings across the generations and nations. Among the human beings, ‘women are mostly at greater risk of suffering from disasters due to gender incapability, inequality and inequity deep rooted in the community and society’.56 It has been found that ‘gender relations among men and women in community and society touch all sphere of life which is not equal, equitable and favourable towards girls and women’.57 It has also been considered that ‘gender relations depends upon gender identities, i.e. a contribution of physical and behavioural characteristics which set apart men and women; gender perceptions, i.e. view as to how they are differentiated in their role as men and women; gender attitudes, i.e. action guided by the perceptions; and gender status, i.e. the place occupied by men and women in family, community and society’.58 Such gender relations have evolved in such a way resulting in women occupying a subordinate status within family, community and society having less power, role and responsibility to effect the change and contribute to plan, process and management in comparison to men. Hence, it is necessary to understand the feminist perspective in disaster impact assessment, risk reduction, immediate response and recovery, etc. It has, further, been widely reported that ‘women belonging to different social classes, races, ethnic and age groups are more vulnerable than their male counterparts before, during and after the disasters’.59 Not

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only this, gender inequalities and disparities are reported with respect to the enjoyment of human rights, social and economic benefits, and exposure to sexual and other forms of violence during the crisis, i.e. disasters. During the chaos of the disaster situations, ‘when the family, community and institutional security breaks down, generally prevailing gender based disparities and inequalities surface to a greater degree putting them more vulnerable at higher risks’.60 Certain gender-based factors have been recognized which put girls and women at higher risk in disaster situations: ‘i) Limitation in mobility and social restrictions; ii) Less access to warning information and capacity to respond; iii) Greater risk of sexual violence and abuses; iv) Childbirth and pregnancy related factors; v) Socially assigned role of caring the young, elderly and sick member within the family’.61 The feminist perspective aims to highlight substantial differences and experiences among men and women in their roles, responsibilities and realities to deal with disaster before, during and its aftermath. Feminist Engagements with International Framework on Disaster Management and Sustainable Development The following pages identify the integration of feminist perspective with the pre- and post-disaster management strategies. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 2000, inter alia provided for ‘the promotion of gender equality and women empowerment’62 because social upheaval associated with disaster can make women and girls more vulnerable to injury and death due to hazard. Further, the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–15, in one of its priority for action reaffirms that ‘A gender perspective should be integrated into all disaster risk management policies, plans and decision making processes, including those related to risk assessment, early warning, information management and education and training’.63 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) outlines the principle that ‘A gender, age, disability and cultural perspective should be integrated in all policies and practices, and women and youth leadership should be promoted’.64 Besides, it adds that ‘Empowering women to publicly lead and promote gender equality in response, recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction is necessary’.65 One of its principles for the stakeholders has been directed to the member state to take action for ‘women participation to effectively manage disaster risk and designing, resourcing and implementing gender-sensitive disaster risk

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reduction policies, plans and programs and adequate capacity building measures need to be taken to empower women for preparedness and to secure livelihood in post-disaster situation’.66 Mainstreaming of a feminist perspective in the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development has been considered crucial in promotion of sustainable developments. The SDGs in its fifth goal intended to achieve gender equality and empowerment of all women and girls.67 These SDGs tend to achieve the end of all forms of discrimination and violence against all women everywhere even in disaster situations. It also advocates ensuring women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life.68 The state should adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotions of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels. Through SDGs obligates to provide ‘universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible free and public spaces in particular for women’.69 SDGs provide for ‘the promotion of mechanism for raising capacity for effective climate change related planning and management in least developed and Island developing states including women etc’.70 Before this, in 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, in its Stockholm Declaration initially declared that ‘Individuals including women in all walks of life as well as organization in many fields, by their values and the sum of their actions will shape the world environment of the future’.71 Subsequently, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992 in its Rio Declaration provided the principle that ‘Women have vital role in environmental management and development. Their full participation is therefore essential to achieve sustainable development’.72 In its Agenda 21, there has been a call for ‘global action for women towards sustainable and equitable development and asked for elimination of obstacle to women’s full participation in sustainable development’.73 In this way, above-mentioned global development frameworks and commitments call for the integration of gender perspective in the national planning, strategies and process for disaster management and sustainable development.

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Grim Ground Reality However, despite several international legal instruments demanding the mainstreaming of feminist perspective in the law and policy, the result has been found far from becoming a practice in disaster reduction, response and management. The trends and events of disasters suggest the lack of real commitment to adopt a feminist perspective, which has not changed much in the intervening years. According to the Mid-term Review of Hyogo Framework 2011, ‘six out of 62 countries have integrated the women and children into disaster processes and only 20 percent of countries reported significant achievements integrating gender into disaster risk management’.74 It further says that ‘only few countries have the law for the participation of women in disaster planning and decisionmaking. Most of the countries have yet to incorporate the role of women in disaster management into national laws and policies. Moreover, where countries have adopted disaster management laws, frameworks or policies that are inclusive and gender sensitive, their implementation is lacking’.75 Not only this, ‘several countries have failed to establish mechanisms to enable agencies, communities and local organizations to systematically incorporate successful gender sensitive approaches and practices into realistic policy formulation’.76 The UNISAR Global Assessment Report, 2011 clearly noted that ‘gender is still not been adequately addressed in disaster risk reductions’.77 During disaster-led emergency situations, ‘gender inequalities and gender based violence have been witnessed in different times and occasions’.78 There has been found enough evidence of both physical and mental abuses to the women displaced, sheltered and rehabilitated during and after the disasters around the world. ‘The lack of measures to give adequate, appropriate or equitable access to resources and assistance to women especially widows and elder women had been reported during Indian Ocean Tsunami, 2004’.79 Further, ‘women’s specific needs such as food, cloths, sanitary napkins, temporary housing, sleeping arrangements, bathrooms, kitchens, lighting as well as security had been not adequately managed in post-disasters recovery and reconstruction during Bangladesh Flood, 2007’.80 Even, the compensations were given to the men only considering them as the head of the household. For instance, ‘the women were not either compensated, or inadequately compensated during rehabilitation in Pakistan Earthquake, 2005’.81

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In the disaster-related camps and reception centres, ‘women frequently became the victims of family violence due to frustration, fragmentation and desperation held after the loss and damage to life and property’.82 Women were left in the disaster affected areas as widows by the family, abandoned by the men for alternative life and separated forcefully by the spouse to escape the responsibility. Besides, ‘women and girls are forced to early/child marriage, domestic violence, transactional sex, trafficking and sexual abuses in disaster situations’.83 For instances, ‘forced marriage to tsunami widow took place in Sri Lanka after Tsunami in 2004; child/early marriage in Bangladesh during Flood, 2007; survival sex with older men after the earthquake in Malawi, 2011; women trafficking in Nepal and Myanmar in post earthquake, 2014’.84 Not only this, ‘the humanitarian and military personnel have also been found to have sexual services from women, sometimes by force and coercion or by abusing the power and position in exchange for essential food and goods during disaster situations’.85

Conclusion The above discussion reveals that disasters adversely and indiscriminately affect the lives of both men and women across the generations, but women are specially found more vulnerable during and after the disasters. Thus, every disaster creates additional vulnerabilities for girls and women. For instance, they become easy targets for abduction, human trafficking, sexual abuse and violence, rape, unwanted pregnancies, sexual diseases, psychological trauma, etc. In many situations, women are forced to stay in very threatening situations and are continuously sexually harassed. Most of the global and regional disaster and development frameworks such as MDGs, SDGs, Hyogo Framework for Action and Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Management have considered the feminist perspective essential to achieve the ambitious sustainable development goals and targets especially in the most disaster prone area in the Asia and Pacific region. It is interesting to note that, although women are often more vulnerable to disaster than men owing to existing patriarchal gender relations, but they carry valuable knowledge and experiences in managing and coping with disasters. Their strengths and capabilities have been found exceptionally remarkable in the mitigation, adaptation and recovery in the disasters situations.86 This has been reflected again and again in rescue, recovery and reconstruction such as: ‘i) Women’s knowledge

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about the arrangement of food, water and other basic needs in disaster situations; ii) women’s skill and labour necessary to respond in demanding disaster situations’.87 Hence, the equal and full participation of women is needed to mitigate the hazards, reduce social vulnerabilities, rescue and recover the economic loss and damages, and rebuilt sustainable, just and disaster resilient society. The intergovernmental organizations and national governmental bodies have recognized that ‘any positive achievement at local and global level cannot be attained without essential role of the women in disaster management and sustainable development’. International and national frameworks on disaster management have been explained through the feminist perspective due to immense contribution and responsibilities on the shoulder of the women.88 Along with other international legal instruments, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its Sustainable Development Goals have given imputes for ‘the enhancement of gender equality, women empowerment and women participation in the disaster management and promotion of sustainable development’.89 However, the global norms, goals and targets relating to the gender sensitivity, equality and women participation have not been reflected in the realties in the implementation at local, regional and international level during disasters. Hence, vulnerability of women in disaster situations has still been found greater than men. Since no positive achievement at local and global level can be attained without gender sensitivity and essential role of the women in disaster management in achieving SDGs, this paper calls for the proper implementation of gender-sensitive commitments at the international and regional level.

Notes 1. Usha Tandon (ed.), Climate Change: Law, Policy and Governance, 78 (Eastern Book Company, Lucknow, 2015); Pradip Kumar Parida, “Sustainable Development and Climate Change: Options for India”, World Focus (Climate Change), 116, Feb., 2014. 2. ErachBharucha, Textbook of Environmental Studies, 164 (UGC University Press, Hyderabad, 2013); Pranaya Kumar, “The Impact of Climate Change on Livelihood and Food Security”, World Focus (Climate Change), 82, Feb., 2014. 3. Elaine Euarson and P. Dhar Chakrabarti, Women, Gender and Disaster: Global Issues and Initiatives, 18 (Sage, India, 2009); Anna Nath, “South

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4. 5.

6.

7. 8.

9. 10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

27

Asian Women and Sustainable Development: Redefined Role and Practices”, World Focus (Environment and Sustainable Development), 52, May, 2013. Ibid. Satish Kumar, “Ecological Damage and Sustainable Development in Tibetan Plateau and Its Implications”, World Focus (Environment and Sustainable Development), 72, May, 2013. Roshni Kujur, “Disaster Management in India- A Case Study of Recent Cyclone Phailin in Odisha”, World Focus (Disaster Management), 54, July, 2014. Ahamed Ayaz (ed.), Disaster Management Through a New Millennium, 5 (Anmol Publications, New Delhi, 2003). Climate change has been considered a posing and long term threat to the achievement of sustainable human development and as such, should be integral part of the disaster management. Geoff O’Brien, “Climate Change and Disaster Management” 30(1), Disaster, 65 (2006). Ibid. John C. Dernbach and Federico Cheru, “ Sustainable Development and Its Discontents” 4(2), Transnational Environmental Law, 247 (2015); See also, Fauad Bendimerad, “Disaster Risk Reduction and Sustainable Development”, 59; available at: www.pdfs.semanticscholar.org/pdf/ paper_eng.pdg (Last Visited on 10 Sept. 2018). International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) addresses major concerns in disaster risk management related to education, capacity development, social impact and vulnerability, civil society and public– private partnership, economic and health aspects in disaster reduction, land use planning and environmental protection. UN Declaration on International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, 1990–1999; available at: www.unisdr.org/iddr/docs.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). UN General Assembly proclaimed by its resolution of the beginning of the ‘International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction’ from 1 January, 1990. UNGA Resolution A/RES/44/236 (22 December 1989); available at: www.unisdr.org/iddr/docs.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). UN World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction held in Yokohama, Japan from 23 to 27 May 1994; available at: www.unisdr.org/publicati ons_proccedings.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). UN General Assembly adopted the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation and its Plan of Action in 1994. It was the main outcome of the mid-term review of the International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) and established ten principles for its strategy, a plan of action and a follow-up. Yokohama Strategy and Action Plan for Safer

28

U. TANDON AND A. KUMAR

15.

16.

17.

18. 19. 20.

21. 22. 23.

24. 25. 26.

27. 28.

World, 1994; available at: www.unisdr.org/publications_proccedings.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). This Strategy was prepared by the United Nations in year 1999 with mandate to serve as a focal point under the UN System for the coordination of disaster reduction and to ensure synergies among the disaster reduction activities of the UN System and regional organizations and activities in socio-economic and humanitarian fields. International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR); available at: www.preventiveweb.net/ files/19873.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). Johannesburg Plan of Action on Sustainable Development, 2002, was adopted at World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg, South Africa from 26 August to 4 September 2002; available at: www.sustainabledevelopment.un.org/wssd/doc.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) took place in Johannesburg, South Africa from 26 August to 4 September 2002; available at: www.sustainabledevelopment.un.org/wssd/doc.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). Ibid. Ibid. It is the first of such plan which explains the work that is required from all different sectors and actors to reduce disaster losses prepared and agreed to reduce disaster risk by the governments, international agencies and disaster experts. Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities in Disasters, 2005; available at: www.unisdr.org/we/coordinate/hfa.apex (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). Ibid., Para 11. Ibid., Para 14. The UN General Assembly had adopted these MDGs in its declaration made in September, 2000 to achieve the overall global development. (UNGA Res. A/55/2); UN Millennium Declaration, 2000; available at: www.un.org/milliniumgoals/&ved.apex (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). Ibid. Ibid. 2030 Development Agenda’ titled as “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”; UNGA Res. A/RES/70/1; available at: www.sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transforming ourworld/doc.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). Ibid. International Conference on Financing for Development, 2015 held on 13–16 July 2015 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and subsequently endorsed by the UN General Assembly in its resolution 69/313 on 27 July 2015;

DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT …

29.

30. 31. 32. 33. 34.

35. 36.

37. 38. 39.

40. 41.

42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48.

29

available at: www.un.org/esa/ffd/ffd3/conference.html (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). Sendai Framework was adopted at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan, on March 18, 2015. This was the first major agreement after the post-2015 development agenda, with seven targets and four priorities for action. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030; available at: www.unisdr.org/we/ coordinate/sendai-framework&ved=doc.apex (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). Ibid., Para 16. Ibid., Para 17. Ibid., Para 18. Ibid., Para 20. Though, the primary goal of the Paris Agreement is to keep the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels; and to limit the increase to 1.5 °C which would substantially reduce the risks including climate- related disaster risks. Paris Agreement under United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2015; available at: www.unfccc.int/meeting/the-paris-agreement.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). Ibid. Quito Deceleration on Sustainable Cities and Human Settlements for All was adopted by UN General Assembly on 23 December 2016; available at: www.unhabitat.org/uncla-quito-declaration.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). Ibid. Ibid. Agenda for Humanity was adopted in World Humanitarian Summit held in Istanbul, Turkey in May 2016; available at: www.agendaforhum anity.org/sites/default/AgendaforHumanity.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). Ibid. UNESCAP, “Leave No One Behind: Disaster Resilience for Sustainable Development”, Asia Pacific Disaster Report, 2017, p. 1; available at: www.unescap.org/publications/asia-pacific-disater-report-2017-leaveno-one-behind.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). Ibid., at p. 5. Ibid., at p. 9. Ibid., at p. 10. Ibid. Ibid., at p. 11. Ibid., at p. 13. Ibid.

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U. TANDON AND A. KUMAR

49. Ibid., at p. 18. 50. Vinod Thomas, “Confronting Climate-related Disasters in Asia and the Pacific” 65(2), Review of Economies, 122 (2014); Herunina A. Franciso, “Adaption to Climate Change: Needs and Opportunities in South Asia” 25(1), ASEAN Economic Bulletins, 7 (2008). 51. Supra Note 29. 52. ASEAN Declaration on Enhancing Cooperation in Disaster Management, 2013; available at: www.asean.org/storage/images/declaration.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). 53. Asia Regional Plan for Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk reduction, 2015–2030, 2016; available at: www.pre ventiveweb.net/english/professional/policies/vphp?id=50922.html (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). 54. Framework for Resilient Development in the Pacific: An Integrated Approach to Address Climate Change and Disaster Risk Management, 2016; available at: www.preventiveweb.net/english/professional/ policies/vphp?id=50272.html (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). 55. UNESCAP Regional Road Map for Implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in Asia and Pacific, 2017; available at: www.une scap.org/publications/regional-road-map-asia-pacific.pdf (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). 56. Elaine Enarson, “Through Women’s Eye: A Gendered Research Agenda for Disaster Social Science” 22(2), Disasters, 157 (1998). 57. Madhavi Malalada, “Sex, Gender and Gender Relations in Disasters” in Elaine Enarson and P. Dhar Chakravarty (ed.), Women, Gender and Disaster: Global Issues and Initiatives, 5 (Sage, India, 2009). 58. Ibid., at p. 6. 59. Rate Lane and Rebenea McNaught, “Building Gendered Approach to Adaptation in the Pacific” 17(1), Gender and Development, 68 (2009). 60. Pam Jarkind and Brende Phillip, “Battered Women, Catastrophe and the Context of Safety After Hurricane Katrina” 20(3), Feminist Formations, 450 (2008). 61. Helena Molin, “A Gender Perspective on Disaster Risk Reduction” in Elaine Enarson and P. Dhar Chakravarty (ed.), Women, Gender and Disaster: Global Issues and Initiatives, 20 (Sage, India, 2009). 62. Supra Note 26, Goal 3. 63. Supra Note 20, Para 13(d). 64. Supra Note 29, Para 19(d). 65. Ibid., Para 32. 66. Ibid., Para 36(1). 67. Supra Note 20. 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid., Goal 11(7).

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31

70. Ibid., Goal 13(6). 71. United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1972 adopted the Stockholm Declaration on Human Environment at Stockholm, Sweden; Principle 3; available at: www.legal.un.org/avl/ducche/dunche. html (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). 72. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992 adopted the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development at Rio de janerio, Brazil; Principle 20; available at: www.un-documents.net/riodec.html (Last visited on 12 Sept. 2018). 73. Ibid., Agenda 21. 74. United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction has released its mid-term review highlighting the progress made over the last five years in disaster risk reduction and preparedness at national, regional and international levels. UN/ISDR Mid-Term Review of Hyogo Framework for Action, 2011; available at: www.unisdr.org/files/18197_mtrwv.pdf (Last visited on 20 Sept. 2018). 75. IFRC/UNDP, “Effective Law and Regulation for Disaster Risk Reduction: A Multi Country Report, 2014”, Newyork, 2014; available at: www. ifrc.org/guide/DM/docs.pdf (Last visited on 22 Sept. 2018). 76. Ibid. 77. UNISDR, 2011 Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2010–11; Geneva; available at: www.unisdr.org/files/27627_ar2011v2. pdf (Last visited on 22 Sept. 2018). 78. IFRC, “Unseen, Unheard: Gender based Violence in Disaster: Global Study”, 2015; Geneva; available at: www.ifrc.org/doc/study/technical/ global/420116.pdf (Last visited on 22 Sept. 2018); Clordia FelterBiermann, “Gender and Natural Disaster: Sexualized Violence and the Tsunami” 49(Sept), Development, 82–86 (2006). 79. ESCAP, “Overview of Natural Disasters and Their Impacts in Asia and the Pacific, 1970–2014”, Technical Paper, March 2015; available at: www. escap.org/report/technical/march-2015.pdf (Last visited on 21 Sept. 2018). 80. Ibid. 81. Ibid. 82. Mirza Ali Asraf and Md. Abdul Kalam Azad, “Gender Issues in Disaster: Understanding the Relationship of Vulnerability, Preparedness and Capacity” 3(5), Environmental and Ecology Research, 137–142 (2015); J.C. Gaillaird et al., “Beyond Men and Women: A Critical Perspective on Gender and Disasters” 41(3), Disaster, 429–447 (2017). 83. Mondira Dutta. “Natural Disaster and Vulnerability to Trafficking of Women and Girls in India” (May), European Scientific Journal, 54–69

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84.

85.

86.

87. 88.

89.

(2017); Subhasis Badra, “ Women in Disaster and Conflicts in India: Interventions in View of the Millennium Development Goals” 8, International Journal on Disaster Risk Science, 196–207 (2017). ESCAP, “Overview of Natural Disasters and Their Impacts in Asia and the Pacific, 1970–2014”, Technical Paper, March 2015; available at: www. escap.org/report/technical/march-2015.pdf (Last visited on 21 Sept. 2018). UN Secretary General, Bulletin on Special Measures for Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuses (2014); available at: www.refworld. org/docid/451106764.html (Last visited on 22 Sept. 2018). Sanju Gupta, “Climate Change, Population and Women: Facing Realties,” World Focus (Climate Change), 61, Feb., 2014; Gautam Kshitriya and Siuli Mishra, “Women: The Harbinger of Sustainable Development,” World Focus (Environment and Sustainable Development), 61, May, 2013. Supra Note 61, at p. 20. Katrina Lee-Koo, “Gender at the Crossroads of Conflict: Tsunamis and Peace in post-2005 Arch” 101, Feminist Review, 59 (2012); Saima Akhtar, “Gender, Environment and Sustainable Economic Growth” 46(4), The Pakistan Development Review, 883 (2007). Ibid. at p. 5.

State Machinery, SDGs and Flood Control: A Case Study of Srinagar Floods (2014) Bupinder Zutshi

Context Several studies by the scientific community have indicated that the Earth’s climate is rapidly changing. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that ‘warming of the climate system is unequivocal’, and its conclusion is supported by observations of increases in global air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global mean sea level (IPCC 2007, p. 5). The frequency and severity of weather- and climate-related hazards has increased due to human activities, exposing more people and a greater value of assets to disasters. These extreme weather events have impacted both natural and human systems (Stern 2006; IPCC 2007). Sendai Framework of Action has rightly endorsed Disaster risk reduction management (DRM) through community resilience measures, as a key to reduce the disasterrelated affects. Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction management within the policies and programmes of different sectors ensures that the effects

B. Zutshi (B) Special Centre for Disaster Research, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_3

33

34

B. ZUTSHI

of disasters are minimized and people are made resilient for improved coping capacities to attain resettlement at the earliest. Kashmir Valley in Jammu and Kashmir state is highly prone to floods, due to its physiographic and geologic structure. Kashmir Valley is a deep, asymmetric basin, delineated from the adjoining mountain systems, on the basis of the drainage network and its catchment basin. The valley of Kashmir includes all land lying within the water divides, formed by the Pir-panjal Mountain ranges, the North Kashmir ranges and the great Himalayan ranges. These mountain ranges encircle the great synclinal trough, occupied by the Jhelum River (Raza et al. 1978). Average height of Kashmir Valley is about 1850 metres above sea level, but the surrounding mountains, which are generally snow-clad, rise up to 3000 to 4000 metres, above sea level (Census of India 1988) (Map 1). The valley of Kashmir has a long history of floods due to excessive water discharge from the tributaries of Jhelum river during strong western disturbances (November to April) and monsoon period (July–September) (Table 1). According to Sir Walter Lawrence ‘Many disastrous floods are noticed in vernacular history of Kashmir valley’ (Walter 1895). Jammu & Kashmir state experienced the worst floods in the past 60 years, during the first week of September 2014, due to unprecedented and intense rains. ‘The synchronization of movement of westerly winds in the extreme north, with the passage of monsoon disturbances in the lower latitudes caused heavy to very heavy rainfall along the foothills of the Himalaya, and adjoining areas of Jammu & Kashmir’ (Kamaljit et al. 2015). A total of 1.16 million populations out of 1.27 million population of Srinagar Urban Agglomeration were affected by the September 2014 floods (NRSC-ISRO 2014, p. 54). An analysis of human fatalities due to floods in Kashmir valley as compared to the national average depicts more deaths, thereby suggesting lack of disaster management policy and disaster risk reduction strategies in the state (Tables 2 and 3). Both tables indicate that Jammu and Kashmir has witnessed 76 flood events during the 1978–2006 periods and it ranked 13 among other states of India in terms of number of flood events. The state recorded 1365 fatalities and 1563 persons with injuries, missing and other causalities between 1978 and 2006 period. Flood death rates recorded were significantly high compared to the national average for the two decennial periods as well as for the overall selected period indicating least disaster risk reduction strategies adopted by the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

STATE MACHINERY, SDGS AND FLOOD CONTROL …

35

Map 1 Kashmir Valley Jhelum Basin drainage network (Source Atlas of Jammu & Kashmir, Census of India—1981)

Occurrence of September 2014 Flood in Kashmir Valley Jammu and Kashmir experienced the worst floods in the first week of September 2014 due to unprecedented and intense rains which was considered as one of the extreme weather events. ‘The synchronization of movement of westerly winds in the extreme north, with the passage of monsoon disturbances in the lower latitudes caused heavy to very heavy rainfall along the foothills of the Himalaya, and adjoining areas of Jammu & Kashmir’ (Kamaljit et al. 2015). Continuous rainfall from 1 to 6 September 2014, with a record of 30 hours of long rainfall from

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B. ZUTSHI

Table 1

Major recorded historical flood events in Kashmir Valley

Year

Major floods

Source

879

Channel of Jhelum was blocked and a large part of the valley was submerged, this terrible inundation followed the slipping of the Khadanyar mountain in Baramulla Lawrence notes that it ‘caused much damage to life and property’ 52 h of continuous rainfall, beginning 18 July, caused ‘a great calamity’ The floods of that day were classified as the ‘greatest flood ever known’, which came down the Valley and inundating Srinagar on 23 July 1903, converting the city into ‘a whole lake’ Most affected areas where the parts now known as Pakistan Occupied Kashmir The floods almost submerged valley plains. The then Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad was quoted as saying that ‘the floods recorded in Jammu and Kashmir were the highest ever recorded in the state, and that the damage caused by them was colossal’ Glacial flood due to four days of incessant rains According to newspaper reports from September 1992, over 200 people lost their lives and the floods left over 60,000 people marooned in several north-western border districts Inundated villages around river Jhelum and huge loss of property

Sir Walter Lawrence

1841 1893 1903

1929 1957

1959 1992

1996

Sir Walter Lawrence Sir Walter Lawrence Sir Walter Lawrence

Sir Walter Lawrence Newspaper reports

Newspaper reports Newspaper reports

Newspaper reports

Source Sir Walter Roper Lawrence in his book, The Valley of Kashmir (1895) and newspaper reports

Table 2

Flood events, fatalities, injuries and causalities—1978–2006

State

Jammu & Kashmir

Flood events

Fatalities

Injuries, missing, causalities

No

Rank

No

Rank

No

Rank

76

13

1365

13

1563

14

STATE MACHINERY, SDGS AND FLOOD CONTROL …

Table 3

37

Flood death rates per million population at decennial intervals

State

1978–1987

1988–1997

1998–2006

1978–2006

35 23

146 18

3 15

184 56

Jammu & Kashmir India

Source Omvir Singh, Manish Kumar, “Flood Events, fatalities and damages in India from 1978–2006”, published online 16 July 2013, Springer Science + Business Media, Dordrecht, 2013

3 September 2014, broke the record of many decades. Majority of rainfall stations in Kashmir valley recorded deviation of more than +6000% rainfall for the 4 days (3–6 September 2014) as compared the norm of rainfall for the same days recorded from 1970 to 2000 (Table 4) Inadequate capacity of the Jhelum river and its tributary rivers to contain within their banks, the high flows brought down from the upper catchment areas following heavy rainfall, lead to flooding of villages. The existing embankment/bunds on river Jhelum in Srinagar city could not contain Jhelum Table 4 Rainfall reported (mm) over stations located in Kashmir Valley during 3–6 September 2014 District

Station

Anantnag

Kukernag Pahalgam(AWS) Baramula (AWS) Gulmarg Kulgam (AWS) Qazigund Awantipur (IAF) Malangpura (AWS) Shopian Rambagh (AWS) Kupwara

Baramulla Kulgam Awantipur

Shopian Srinagar Kupwara

Actual rainfall reported during 3–6 September 2014

Normal rainfall during 3–6 September 2014**

Deviation from norm (%)

415 217 185 366.8 346 599.8 208.1 266

5.5 6.9 1.9 6.5 9.8 5.4 – –

7449 3045 9637 5543 3431 11,007 – –

335 140 131.8

5 2.6 3.1

6600 5285 4152

Source Kamaljit Ray*, S. C. Bhan and B. K. Bandopadhyay, ‘The Catastrophe Over Jammu and Kashmir in September 2014: A Meteorological Observational Analysis,’ Current Science 109(3): 580–591, 10 August 2015 **Normal Rainfall of these stations have been calculated from 1970 to 2000 for the same days

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B. ZUTSHI

river and as a result of this, nearly 90 breaches were found at several places in and around Srinagar city. These breaches flooded nearly 3/4th of Srinagar city and its lower level inhabitations (Fig. 1). A total of 1.16 million populations out of 1.27 million population of Srinagar Urban Agglomeration constituting 91% population were affected by the September 2014 floods (NRSC-ISRO 2014, p. 54). Out of 227.41 square kilometres areas of Srinagar city agglomeration, 118.75 square kilometres of areas constituting 52% of the Srinagar city areas was completely inundated/submerged. The distribution of fully inundated areas in Srinagar city was residential (28.11 Sq Kms), agriculture (34 Sq Kms) commercial (32.21 Sq Kms), open areas (12.39 Sq Kms) and the rest of the areas including restricted areas (Military areas), hospitals, police stations, educational and areas with administrative buildings. The flood was termed as one of the worst floods. Dr. Omar Abdullah, the then Chief Minister of Jammu & Kashmir state had to concede that

Fig. 1 Inundation of Srinagar city—aerial view, 10 September 2014 (Source National Remote Sensing, Department of Ecology, Environment and Remote Sensing, Government of Jammu & Kashmir)

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39

I had no government for the first 36 hours as the seat of establishment was wiped out.

Flood Disaster Management Post-2014 Floods Sendai Framework of Action has rightly endorsed Disaster risk reduction management (DRM) through community resilience measures as a key to reduce the disaster-related affects. DRM is therefore the key to minimize the human fatalities, loss/damage of building and other construction and infrastructure structures, agricultural crops, loss of animal and livestock. Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction management within the policies and programmes of different sectors ensures that the effects of disasters are minimized. At the same time, it enables governments to ensure that these policies and programmes do not put people at risk. According to the UNISDR—2009, DRM is the systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations and operational skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster.

‘People are already experiencing the impacts of climate change through slow onset changes, for example sea level rise and greater variability in the seasonality of rainfall, and through extreme weather events, particularly extremes of heat, rainfall and coastal storm surges’ (IPCC 2012). At the same time, economic damage from climate-related extreme events and disasters has increased dramatically in the last 50 years, with developing country economies being particularly badly hit. There has been a significant rise in economic losses from disasters for the Asia and Pacific region. Actions towards DRM must be compatible with a changing climate. This requires each country to have a plan to avoid the losses and damages associated with extreme weather and to make community-based disaster resilience central to economic and social policies (Mitchell et al. 2013). While it is clear that climate- and disaster-related shocks and stresses undermine economic growth and development, there are many actions

40

B. ZUTSHI

that governments and other agencies can take to reduce the risks to lives, livelihoods and economies. Poor people suffer the most from disasters, as they lack the capacity and resources to effectively cope. Risk management in policies and programmes to reduce disaster risk reduction is vital for helping to ensure that the most vulnerable people can access the benefits of development (Mitchell et al. 2013). Some people see mainstreaming as a way to realize certain human rights, including the right to safety (Kent 2001). The impetus for mainstreaming risk in development can also be linked to a government’s fiduciary responsibility; Jackson makes this point when he notes that mainstreaming risk is a government’s ‘duty to their citizens to maximise the utility of the public resources disposable to them, similar to a private company’s fiduciary duty to maximise value to shareholders’ (Jackson 2011).

Post September 2014 Flood Disaster Risk Reduction Measures: Prevention, Protection and Preparedness, in Kashmir Valley Discussion with the Divisional Commissioner, Kashmir Division, who is also Chairman of State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) indicated that the state has set up state-of-the-art early warning system. SDMA officials stated the following in response to our questions related to the status of the level of preparedness in the Valley of Kashmir. Early Warning System Preparedness High technology weather forecasting from Japan (Doppler radar) has been set up in 2015 at the Srinagar meteorology office. It has an area coverage of 100 km in which it will precisely be able to judge the amount and type of precipitation up to a maximum of six hours. This weather radar technology employs Pulse-Doppler radars, which are capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to the intensity of the precipitation. Both types of data can be processed and analysed to determine the intensity, movement of storms and their potential to cause devastation. Thus, in case of natural disasters like cloudburst and floods the Doppler weather radar may be able to forewarn people so as to minimize the loss of life and property. Besides the weather forecasting, IFC

STATE MACHINERY, SDGS AND FLOOD CONTROL …

41

Kashmir has developed an android mobile application ‘IFC KASHMIR’ developed by Dreamcode Developers in collaboration with IFC Kashmir which helps people in having the levels of water at different gauges through a click and makes them aware of ground situation. However, it is not sufficient to ensure that appropriate and timely warning reaches target groups; it is also essential that the local population knows how to react and what to do in emergencies. This depends on the extent to which warning services are decentralized. Realigning warning systems to addressing community needs; implies that warning authorities have to engage communities to know those needs, recognize people’s personal contacts, assess risks and manage public expectations of the warning system. Drudging and De-siltation Dredging has been completed to the extent of 25,720 cubic metres against the target of 38,100 cubic metres in the flood spill channel from Padshahibagh in Srinagar to Wullar in Bandipora district of North Kashmir as per the statement given by state administration to the Hon’ble High Court. Several reputed companies were involved in the dredging and de-siltation works. Another major cause for reduction in the carrying capacity of discharge water during heavy floods was identified as plantation of trees along the river course, which hindered the free flow of water discharge. Earlier on 24 February 2015, the High court of Jammu and Kashmir constituted a high-level committee headed by the Divisional Commissioner, Kashmir, directing it to initiate a drive for removing all the encroachments from the banks of the Jhelum river and other water bodies within one week. High Court of Jammu and Kashmir gave strong directions to the state authorities and concerned department to clear the river courses from such tree plantation, so that free flow of water is not hindered. As per the norm of the flood department, all trees were required to be cleared within specific period to all the river Jhelum free flow. Information collected from government sources and the depositions made by the government before the Hon’ble High Court indicated significant progress has been made in clearing river course from such plantation of trees. A total of 357,127 trees have been removed in Kashmir division from the tributary river courses (Table 5).

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Table 5 Encroachment—trees and unauthorized construction removed from river courses District

Pulwama Srinagar Bandipore Baramula Kashmir division

Tree removed from river banks

357,127

Structures for removal Identified 213 816 84 33 1146

Removed

Structures demolished Pucca

Kuchha

Boundary wall

130

410

560

687

Source Deposition of State Government before Hon’ble High Court stated in local newspapers

Removal of Encroachment The Jammu and Kashmir High Court has empowered all district magistrates to demolish constructions that are seen coming up within the prohibited area of river Jhelum and its tributaries in Kashmir. The Court also stayed all constructions on the river banks right from its source in Verinag in South Kashmir to Uri in North. These directions were passed citing an expert committee report on how encroachments on river Jhelum and its tributaries caused the devastating flood. The Deputy Commissioner Anantnag, while citing the expert committee report, had notified that out of total width of river Jhelum, only one-fifth has been left out without encroachments and all embankments have been breached particularly in Anantnag, Bijbehara and villages of other tehsils of South Kashmir. The report said on account of encroachments by way of plantations and constructions, breaches have occurred leading to deluge which has resulted in catastrophe in Kashmir. On the basis of the report, the DM had directed all encroachers to remove plantations and constructions along River Jhelum and its tributaries—Lidder, Arpath, Brengi, Vaishav, Sandran, Vethvetrsoo—within 15 days. He also directed that if the encroachers fail to remove the encroachments, they would be removed by the Irrigation and Flood Control department at the cost of the encroacher. Pertinently, the High Court has previously stayed constructions within 200 metres of Liddernallah in South Kashmir, and Dal lake in Srinagar, as well as 100 metres from either side of the bank of river Sindh.

STATE MACHINERY, SDGS AND FLOOD CONTROL …

43

The deposition before the Hon’ble High Court identified 1146 illegal structures and majority of them were in Srinagar district. Out of the identified illegal structures, 687 (both Kutch and Pucca) structures have been removed in addition to the removal of 560 boundary walls which acted as a hindrance to the main course of the rivers (Table 5).

Preparedness for Evacuation in Case of Disaster Eventuality The state government and SDMA were not at all ready for rescue and evacuation during floods of 2014. No efforts were made to evacuate the flood affected victims as emergency boats were not ready to evacuate flood victims. Helicopter services inducted for evacuation were very few in view of the scale of devastation and number of marooned population. Even basic relief service like drinking water, medicines, essential supplies of food and clothes were not made available for the initial 3–4 days. Nor were any Emergency Operation Centers (EOCs) identified for support of victims. It was only due to community resilience and support by civil society and army that people got saved from this scale of tragedy. In the wake of any eventuality in future, the state has now identified few Emergency Operation Centers (EOCs) which will act as Multi-purpose and Multi-disaster Utility Shelters to resettle people in case of future emergency during such calamity. Identified Emergency Operation Centers (EOCs) acting as Multipurpose and Multi-Disaster Utility Shelters have been under progress at different stages as per information supplied by SDMA authorities (Table 6).

Awareness Preparedness Training and building capacities have been found to be the most effective tool for reducing disaster vulnerabilities. It should be the endeavour of the government, NGOs and CBOs to create a trained cadre of officers/officials/staff of different departments, who are directly involved in disaster management. In this direction the role of various institutions needs to be highlighted since disaster management involves multi-stakeholders and as such needs to be dealt with accordingly. The Universities, Engineering Colleges, Polytechnic Colleges, Medical Colleges/Regional Institutes of Health and Family Welfare, Revenue

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B. ZUTSHI

Table 6 Identified emergency operation centers for relief and evacuation in Kashmir division Disaster

Location of emergency operation center for multi-purpose and multi-disaster utility shelter

Remarks

Pulwama

Has sufficient facilities

Kupwara

Old Development Commissioner office Sangribala site located at hillock Sanat Nagar (SMI Convention Center) Humhama (GO’S Mess) Khimber Nagnihal Pura

Budgam

Rangreth

Ganderbal

Office Building of I&FC Dignibal (identified as new site) Guest House Bandipore Padpanen

Baramula Srinagar

Bandipore Shopian

Well connected with other areas All centres have required services and facilities

Mooted as spot for EOC but not developed as yet State-of-the-art EOC proposed but construction yet to start Very less space Construction yet to start Identified but facilities yet to start Land identified

Source SDMA Authorities of Kashmir Division, May 2016

Training Institute, Police Academy/Police Training Centres, etc.; should be roped into impart training to the various stakeholders. In addition, curriculum for students at school, college and university level should have chapters on disaster management to be taught by both professional and trained teaching staff. SDMA stated that after flood disaster 2014, several steps have been taken to build capacities of NGOs and CBOs so that they can launch awareness generation campaigns and programmes on Disaster Management among the community and other stakeholders. In this direction, the Disaster Management Centre of Jammu & Kashmir Institute of Management and Public Administration (IMPA), a premier institute of training for government staff has been strengthened/upgraded in terms of infrastructure and manpower.

Community Response A survey was conducted, to examine the changes in the perceptions, towards Disaster Risk Reduction Management in terms of adopting

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protective measures, preparedness and disaster risk reduction awareness after Srinagar 2014 floods. A total of 125 households affected by the Srinagar floods, were randomly selected for the survey from 4 severely affected areas of Srinagar city in May–June 2016. Four localities from Srinagar city, namely Mehjoor Nagar, Jawahar Nagar, Gogji bagh and Raj bagh were selected for the sample survey. These four localities are residential colonies, who were completely submerged with flood water for a minimum of 10 days. In addition to these four localities, Lal Chowk, Central Business District (CBD) areas with large number of shopkeepers and traders was also selected for the survey. Lal Chowk was also completely submerged with floodwaters for a minimum of 7–10 days. The survey was conducted during March–May 2016. The results from the survey depict comparisons of the perception before the September 2014 floods and after the floods in May–June 2016 (Table 7). The results depict that state machinery has been created for ensuring conducive atmosphere of implementing rules and regulations especially zero tolerance towards illegal encroachments in the river channels. Community has been sufficiently informed about rules and regulations of not encroaching river channels and flood channels. Even civil society organizations and individuals have a better perception of disaster risk reduction methods. They have observed significant improvement in the strategies being adopted towards disaster risk reduction, protective and preparedness measures. Steps like de-silting, drugging, maintenance of bund walls, clearance of river channels have been taken effectively by government agencies. However, awareness generation measures like safety audits, implementation of building codes and development of emergency resettlement centres are not being looked into. Although early warning system equipments have been installed but people are not aware as to how such warning will be communicated and what measures are required during the warning period. More mock drills and adequate capacity building of community, individuals and other stakeholders need to be undertaken.

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Table 7 Surveyed respondents in Srinagar city: perception of preparedness of disaster risk reduction management (%) Indicator

Before September 2014 (%)

During May–June 2016 (%)

Installed Early Warning System Appropriate Awareness created about flood eventually by Government Awareness about flood eventually by Civil Society/NGOs Awareness through mock drills by Government Knowledge of Rules and Regulations in place like not to construct around river channels/flood channels Implementation status of such rules Knowledge of de-silting and drudging activities of government for river channels/flood spill channels Implementation of de-silting and drudging activities of the government for river channels/flood spill channels Implementation of rules and regulations for the removal of unauthorized and illegal constructions around river channels/flood channels Any knowledge of any safety audits in place by the government to avoid flooding in the flood prone areas Observed or have knowledge of steps taken by the government to strengthen flood protection walls/strengthen bunds Yes/No If yes how would you rate its implementation Knowledge that government has identified safe areas of evacuations in case of emergency at the time of disasters How would you rate the overall preparedness of the government to face any such eventuality in future

No (100) Yes (5)

No (60) Yes (40)

Yes (10)

Yes (80)

No (100)

Yes (25)

Yes (10)

Yes (75)

No (100) No (100)

No (60) No (30)

No (100)

No (30)

No (100)

No (40)

No (100)

No (90)

No (100) No idea (100)

No (60) Good (70)

No idea (100)

No idea (90)

Poor (95)

Poor (50)

Source Field Survey by Research Team March–May 2016

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References Census of India. (1988) Regional Divisions of India—A Cartographic Analysis. Occasional Papers, Series—1, Volume—VIII, Jammu & Kashmir. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2007) ‘Summary for Policymakers’. In S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, et al. (Eds.), Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Working Group, I Contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report (pp. 1–18). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2012) ‘Summary for Policymakers. Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation’. In C. B. Field, V. Barros, T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, D. J. Dokken, K. L. Ebi, M. D. Mastrandrea, K. J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S. K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M. Midgley (Eds.), Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press. www.ipcc-wg2.gov/SREX/ima ges/uploads/SREX-SPMbrochure_FINAL.pdf. Jackson, D. (2011) Effective Financial Mechanisms at the National and Local Level for Disaster Risk Reduction. Geneva: United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. www.unisdr.org/files/18197_202jackson.financialmechanism stosup.pdf. Kamaljit Ray*, Bhan, S. C., and Bandopadhyay, B. K. (2015) ‘The Catastrophe Over Jammu and Kashmir in September 2014: A Meteorological Observational Analysis’. Current Science 109(3): 580–591. Kent, G. (2001) ‘The Human Right to Disaster Mitigation and Relief’. Environmental Hazards 3(3): 137–138. Mitchell, T., Jones, L., Lovell, E., and Comba, E. (2013) Disaster Risk Management in Post-2015 Development Goals: Potential Targets and Indicators. London: Overseas Development Institute. www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/ files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/8354.pdf. NRSC, ISRO and Department of Ecology, Environment and Remote Sensing, Government of Jammu & Kashmir, A Satellite Based Rapid Assessment on Floods in Jammu & Kashmir—September 2014, Table No. 6, p. 54. Raza, M., Ahmad, A., and Mohammad, A. (1978) The Valley of Kashmir: A Geographical Interpretation (pp. 1–59). Vol. 1: The Land. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd. Stern, N. (2006) The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. New York: Cambridge University Press. Walter, Lawrence. (1895), The Valley of Kashmir. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.

Sustainable Development Goals and National Disaster Mitigation Fund Ajinder Walia

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR), Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) The goal of sustainable development cannot be achieved if disasters; natural or human made, continue to strike unabated pulling back economic and social growth and progress. It is projected that natural hazards will increase in intensity as well as frequency due to unplanned development and climate change. The impacts cannot be dealt with preparedness and response alone. To realize the transformative potential of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, governments and stakeholders have affirmed that disaster risk reduction needs to be at the core of sustainable development. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 was the first agreement of the post-2015 development agenda. It includes seven global targets accompanied by a

A. Walia (B) National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_4

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comprehensive set of guiding principles that give direction to reduce the impact of disasters, while also addressing the underlying drivers of disaster risk and safeguarding current and future development gains. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) calls for reducing risks to disasters rather than focusing only on the process of management of disasters. The tenet accentuates the philosophy that we need to shift our thinking towards addressing the source of a problem rather than focussing on the outcome of problem. Disasters and development share a positive and negative realm of relationship. The negative relationship implies that if development is not done properly, it can lead to an increase in vulnerability towards disaster risks. The positive aspect of relationship relies on the fact that, if development is planned and done with a sustainable approach, it can reduce vulnerabilities to disaster risks. On similar lines, the negative realm of relationship between disasters and development further delves into the fact that disasters can be a setback to development and can cause massive destruction to various developmental works. On the other hand, positive aspect of the relationship between disasters and development accentuates that disasters act as a window, which opens for a short duration of time and provides opportunity to recreate devastated infrastructure with a sustainable development approach for the future. Working towards development, which is sustainable implies that the development will be able to withstand the impact of natural or humanmade hazards. It also implies that any development undertaken will not create future risks in the area. In essence, sustainable development will address the underlying cause of vulnerability leading to disaster risk reduction. It will uphold the tenet of SFDRR, which focuses on addressing the potential source of disasters rather than focusing on the outcome. The attainment of SDGs will inevitably lead to disaster risk reduction. Hence, it is imperative that both sectors do not work in silos but understand the need for better collaboration along with need to learn from one another and to identify opportunities to develop a joint agenda. Hence, SFDRR, SDGs and DRR are in perfect alignment with each other trying to reach the same goal of resilient communities through differing names and paths. There are a number of targets across the seventeen SDGs that are related to disaster risk reduction. Conversely, all seven global targets of the Sendai Framework are critical for the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals.

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Disaster Management Act and Mitigation Funds The Disaster Management (DM) Act was passed in 2005 prescribing legal institutional framework of disaster management after the country faced a mega disaster, the Great Indian Ocean tsunami in December 2004. It is an act, which specifies that its underline objective is management of disasters. Financing is vital for disaster management in the country, not only for relief and response but also for recovery, mitigation and preparedness. Since disaster management is an area, which cuts across various sectors and agencies, the act provides for special funds at the national, state and district level. It also states that every ministry/department at the national and state level shall make specific financial provisions for undertaking measures related to disaster management. As outlined in the act, for carrying out relief and response, we have the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) in place. In case SDRF is not adequate, the states can rely on another fund called National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF) for carrying out relief and response activities. The act promotes undertaking mitigation and preparedness activities through development of disaster management plans, awareness generation, training and capacity building. The national authority, state authority and district authorities have to review the developmental plans of different departments/ministries to ensure that mitigation and preparedness measures are integrated into developmental planning. Every ministry/department is expected to make its disaster management plan and get it approved by National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA). The act also states in Section 47 about laying down a National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF) at the national level stating that, The central government may, by notification in the official gazette, constitute a fund called National disaster mitigation fund for projects exclusively for the purpose of mitigation and there shall be credited thereto such amount which the central government may, after due appropriation made by Parliament by law, in this behalf provide. (Disaster Management Act, 2005)

The national disaster mitigation fund has to be implemented by NDMA. On the same lines, Section 48 of the act asks the state government to set up a state disaster mitigation fund at the state level and district disaster mitigation fund at the district level. The state disaster mitigation fund has to be implemented by State Disaster Management Authority

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while the district disaster mitigation fund has to be provided to District disaster management authority. Some of the states like Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala and Uttarakhand have set up State Disaster mitigation fund but none of the districts have set up the District Disaster mitigation fund. However, even though the act was passed in 2005, we do not have a national disaster mitigation fund in place. There have been reports of states demanding the centre to set up a mitigation fund at the national level (The Hindu, 2017). The issue has been discussed at various forums, conferences and platforms to build pressure on the government to set up the fund. Challenges in Establishing National Disaster Mitigation Fund The DM act 2005 has made a clear distinction between funds for response and relief during and after a disaster on one hand, and mitigation during non-disaster times on the other. It inherently acknowledges that the two processes need separate financial requirements. However, it appears that there is still no consensus on the setting up of the mitigation fund. The finance commissions are constituted under Article 280 of the constitution of India for recommending how the Union government should share taxes levied by it with the states. The recommendations of each finance commission cover a period of five years. The finance commissions have had varying views on the subject of the National Disaster Mitigation Fund. The financial arrangements for disaster management in the country before the DM act did not include any funds for long term recovery and mitigation. Lack of such a fund was considered as one of the shortcomings for the disaster management system in India. This can be attributed to an implicit assumption that such expenditure should be supported through existing developmental schemes (NIDM Report, 2013). The finance commission has had varying ideas on the concept of funding for mitigation. Even before the legal mandate of setting up National Disaster Mitigation Fund was laid down in the DM Act, the concept of funding for mitigation was still being mulled over by various finance commissions. The eleventh Finance Commission recommended that mitigation and reconstruction activities should be kept out of the schemes funded through financial commission grants and should be met out of overall development plan funds of the centre and state (Finance Commission Report, 2000). The thirteenth Finance Commission carried

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the view of its predecessor by recommending that the process of mitigation funding should be included in the planning process and expenditure should be met out of the planned resources of respective ministries of the Union and the states (Finance Commission Report, 2004). Even after the passage of the DM act in 2005, the fourteenth finance commission acknowledged the issue, but did not make a specific recommendation regarding funding mitigation (Finance Commission Report, 2009). One needs to delve into the reasons for delay in setting up of National Disaster Mitigation Fund by the national government. There are various ways through which the process of mitigation is being dealt with in the current scenario. Firstly, the route for carrying out mitigation activities, apart from setting up a mitigation fund has been dealt with in Section 37 and 40 of the act. It states that every ministry/department of central and state government will provide funds from its annual budget for the purpose of carrying out disaster management-related activities and programmes. Secondly, a number of schemes have an embedded component of risk reduction in them. It may not be visible due to the general nomenclature of the scheme or programme but as we go deeper into the components of such schemes and programmes, we find that risk reduction is also taken care of in these components, either directly or indirectly. If droughts in India no longer kill people in vast numbers as it happened in pre-independence period, then it has been made possible due to the distribution of food grains at a lower price to the community in the country. This has also prevented loss of lives due to disasters, especially droughts. Similarly, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA) provides hundred days of employment in one financial year to all adults of the country for doing unskilled manual work. It helps to provide livelihood to the rural population who have been affected by disasters repeatedly. The essence of such programmes and schemes also needs to be captured as they also help in reducing vulnerabilities of communities, which is generally ignored by the DRR practitioners (Chakrabarti and Prabodh 2012). These development programmes and schemes are clear examples of mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in development. Further, in spite of laying down provisions for setting up of mitigation fund, the Act in Section 39 (2) states that every department of the State government should ‘integrate into its developmental plans and projects, the measures of disaster prevention and mitigation’. All centrally sponsored schemes of the central government have a component of flexi-funds, which can be used by the states for meeting

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local requirements. The Ministry of Finance has revised and issued guidelines on the usage of ‘flexi-funds’, under which 25% of the funds available under Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) can be used for disaster restoration and mitigation (Ministry of Finance, 2016). Usage of flexifunds for mitigation needs to be explored to understand whether the states are utilizing flexi-funds for implementing mitigation programmes. In case it is not so, then there is no guarantee that the proposed National Disaster Mitigation Fund would be utilized in the manner it is meant to be utilized. If we cannot ensure that the flexi-funds are being used for the intended purpose of mitigation then there is a possibility that we cannot even use the mitigation fund in its intended manner. We can run into the danger of going in the direction of unbridled and erroneous development and then asking for funds from National Disaster Mitigation Fund to fix the problem. The current Minister of State for Home Affairs, Shri Kiren Rijiju gave a written reply to a query raised by Shrimati Renuka Chowdhury in the Rajya Sabha, The objective of creation of National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF) is for the projects exclusively for the purpose of mitigation which is being served by the existing Centrally Sponsored Schemes / Central Sector (CS) Schemes such as Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana, Krishonnati Yojana, National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture, MGNREGA, Major Irrigation projects, Namami Gange-National Ganga plan, River Basin Management, National River Conservation Plan and Water Resource Management. Keeping in view the above, the Government feels that at present there are sufficient schemes to take care of mitigation measures in different projects and the need for creation of separate NDMF has not been felt. (Press Information Bureau, 2016)

Thirdly, the process of mitigation has been taken up through various mitigation projects, which are being funded by national and international agencies. The national cyclone risk mitigation project is one of such mega mitigation project launched by Ministry of Home Affairs with the assistance of World Bank at a revised cost of Rs. 2541.60 Crores. The project has been launched in two phases. Outcome of the project aims at providing cyclone forecasting, cyclone risk mitigation and capacity building in multi-hazard risk environment. It includes construction of major infrastructure like multipurpose cyclone shelters, and approach roads/bridges to habitations and saline embankments. In the same context, another project called National School Safety Project

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was implemented by NDMA in collaboration with the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) and in partnership with states/UTs at a total cost of Rs. 48.47 Crore. The project was implemented in 200 schools in each of the selected 43 districts spread over 22 states/UTs of India, falling in seismic zone IV & V. It aimed at sensitizing children and the school community on disaster preparedness and safety, measures to carry out information, education and communication (IEC) activities in schools and associated environment, implement non-structural mitigation measures in select schools and to carry out demonstrative structural retrofitting in select schools. Similarly, other mitigation projects like Appda Mitra Scheme, Infrastructure Development for National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), Mobile Radiation Detection System, and National Emergency Communication Plan, etc. are already implemented or are in the process of being implemented. Duplication of funds for mitigation through these projects and the proposed National Disaster Mitigation Fund is an area, which needs to be looked into and examined before setting up of such a fund. Way Forward The concept of viewing disasters as an external entity, which is detached from our regular existence needs to be revisited. Every development process carries certain risks in return to the progression it embarks, leading to generation and accumulation of risk along with development gains. Viewing disasters as external entities to development can lead to marginalization of the risks, which are being created along with the gains. The gains of development works are presently collected by few vested interests, while the risks are thrown to the vulnerable population. This mechanism if persisted with will defeat itself as it is protecting the economic process that is creating and generating disaster risks. The creator of disaster risk is not being made accountable to the vulnerable population, which will bear the brunt of these risks. In addition to that, considering disaster risk reduction as a separate goal imposes a conceptual framework wherein disaster risk is separated from normal economic activities (Asthana, 2014). Development is the main agenda and commitment made by governments. It is their primary political and economic commitment to the citizens of the country. It would be in the interest of all practitioners and policy makers working in the area of disaster prevention and management

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to integrate it with the process of development. If we start viewing DRR as a separate component then it will be isolated from the main developmental agenda and commitment of the governments. Disasters may not be a regular phenomena but disaster risk reduction is a regular and ongoing process. Finally, viewing disasters as external events affirms the popular belief that disasters are ‘acts of God’ or ‘Wrath of Gods’. This will transfer the cause of disaster to wrath of God rather than human activities. It will also relieve the government of any responsibility and accountability. The ideology, which is proposed, is that disasters are internal shocks to development and are caused due to unresolved problems of development itself. The focus should not be on protecting developmental works form disasters but it should be on reducing risks in the developmental process by incorporating mitigation and strengthening resilience. Creating a separate fund for mitigation of disasters will defeat the underlying principle of integrating DRR into development. In such a case, DRR would assume a separate entity, which has to be carried out through the proposed fund. The contradiction in the policy of whether disasters are going to be viewed as external shocks to the development process and dealt with National disaster mitigation fund, or whether the process of disaster mitigation will rest within the developmental framework itself, has to be resolved. The Sendai framework also accentuates the process of risk reduction, which is possible only by mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into the developmental process. There is a growing need to review the DM act and associated policies to expunge the inherent contradiction arising in the mitigation and development relationship. This will help the nation in carrying forward the agenda of Sendai Framework and sustainable development goals and achieving the desired targets well in time.

References Asthana, V. (2014, September 29). Disaster Risk Management. Retrieved from Xaam: http://xaam.org/disaster-risk-managemen/. Chakrabarti, D., & Prabodh, G. (2012). Understanding Existing Methodologies for Allocating and Tracking DRR Resources in India. UNISDR. Finance Commission. (2009). Thirteenth Finance Commission 2010–2015. Government of India. Finance Commission. (2000). Report of the Eleventh Finance Commission.

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Finance Commission. (2004). Report of the Twelfth Finance Commission (2005– 2010). Ministry of Home Affairs. (2016, August 3). National Disaster Mitigation Fund. Retrieved from Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs: http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=148287. Ministry of Law and Justice. (2005). The Disaster Management Act, 2005. The Gazette of India Extraordinary. NIDM Report (National Institute of Disaster Management). (2013). National Disaster report, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi, Government of India. Niti Aayog. (2016). Guidelines on Usage of Flexi Funds. Government of India. The Hindu. (2017, May 16). T.N. asks Centre to Set Up Disaster Mitigation Fund. Retrieved from The Hindu: https://www.thehindu.com/news/nat ional/tamil-nadu/tn-asks-centre-to-set-up-disaster-mitigation-fund/article18 461212.ece.

Sustainable Development Goals and Disaster Risk Reduction, Targets and Challenges for India Himanshu Shekhar Mishra

Problem The United Nations SDGs have laid down a comprehensive global agenda comprising of 17 goals and 169 targets that are to be achieved by the global community, including India by 2030. Significantly, it identifies Climate change as a major challenge for the global community. SDGs outline a comprehensive Disaster Risk Reduction agenda for India and the world at large. As the SDG Number 13 categorically states: The annual average losses from just earthquakes, tsunamis, tropical cyclones and flooding count in the hundreds of billions of dollars, requiring an investment of US$ 6-billion annually in disaster risk management alone. The goal aims to mobilize $100 billion annually by 2020 to address the needs of developing countries and help mitigate climate-related disasters. (United Nations 2015)

The framing of SDGs followed growing global concern about the rising threat to developmental processes posed by climate change and natural

H. S. Mishra (B) New Delhi Television Limited (NDTV), New Delhi, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_5

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disasters. Significantly, 10 of the 17 SDGs and 25 of the 169 Targets identified are related to disaster risk reduction. It reflects the collective will of the global community to put forth a concerted effort to combat the challenge posed by climate-related disasters. India has initiated new measures to achieve its SDG-related goals by restructuring its policies in several critical industrial sectors like transport, power, coal, telecom and steel to reduce carbon emissions. It has also made a concerted effort to align its disaster risk reduction, climate mitigation and adaptation strategies in its larger development strategy. But a significant gap remains between the national commitments India has made and the emissions reductions required to achieve the required targets. India faces several difficult challenges and policy bottlenecks towards achieving its SDG-related targets by 2030. The Indian government has informed Parliament that it would require US$2.5-trillion to implement the new measures required to achieve the aforementioned targets. In the absence of requisite funds, it would be difficult for the Indian and state governments to meet these targets by 2030. But despite repeated queries by lawmakers in Parliament, the government of India is yet to outline a roadmap on how it would mobilize funds at this large scale. Also, there are structural weaknesses in India’s disaster governance strategy and the nodal legislation—Disaster Management Act, 2005— urgently needs to be amended by incorporating several key provisions to make it more effective. This paper is based on a study of SDG-13 which outlines a global roadmap to address the challenges posed by climate change and India’s NDCs submitted to the UNFCCC which commit India to reduce greenhouse gas emissions within a given time frame. It also seeks to examine the 2015 Paris Climate Conference Agreement, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–30, the Disaster Management Act 2005, the National Disaster Management Policy, official policy documents released by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests, Ministry of Home Affairs and Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, the Reports of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs and the official data submitted in Indian Parliament on climate change and policy steps initiated to reduce carbon emissions especially in Coal, Power and Telecom sectors. The empirical data used in this Paper has been accessed from the research studies by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction

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(UNISDR), the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and Reports of the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The facts and information collected as a field correspondent during the devastating floods in Srinagar and adjoining areas in September 2014, the interviews with flood affected people, senior lawmakers and government officials directly involved with relief and rescue work in Jammu and Kashmir also form the basis of the main arguments developed in this chapter.

Objective of Study This chapter attempts to delineate the broader impact of climate change on global climate, especially India, the SDG targets India needs to achieve to address the challenge posed by climate change and the policy bottlenecks it must remove in this regard. India’s NDCs submitted to the UNFCCC includes a commitment to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33–35% by 2030 from the 2005 level. As one of the largest emitter of greenhouse gases, it is incumbent on India to initiate new policy steps towards reducing carbon emissions and promote clean energy. The unprecedented floods in Srinagar (September 2014), Chennai (November–December 2015) and the recent devastating flood incident in Kerala (August 2018) have highlighted the growing vulnerability of Indian cities to climate-related disasters, especially floods. The chapter also studies the weaknesses in India’s disaster governance mechanism and explores new institutional steps required to strengthen the resiliency of Indian Cities. The SDGs offers India an opportunity to restructure its institutional approach to disaster management and integrate a disaster risk reduction vision within India’s overall development strategy to enhance the sustainability of the development process in the country.

Climate Change and Rise in Climate-Related Disasters The significant changes in the global climate are gradually altering the conventional weather patterns all over the world. As per the latest data released by the American space agency National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the level of Carbon dioxide (CO2) in air today is highest ever in the last 6,50,000 years; seventeen of the eighteen warmest

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years in the last 136 years have been recorded after 2001 with the year 2016 being the warmest ever; and the increase in global temperature since 1880 is 1.8 degree Fahrenheit; the average increase in the global sea level is close to seven inches in the last hundred years and NASA’s GRACE satellites have recorded a gradual decline in ice mass in both Antarctica and Greenland. The latest research shows that since 1993 the global sea level has risen by an average of 3.1 millimetres per year (NASA 2018). These significant changes in global climate are triggering abnormal changes in weather patterns often resulting in climate-related disasters. In a research study, the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) and the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) have found a significant increase in climate- and weather-related incidents between 1996 and 2015. The study found that climate-related disaster events like floods, storms and heat-waves more than doubled from 3017 events recorded between 1976 and 1995 to 6392 events recorded during a twenty-year period between 1996 and 2015 (UNISDR and CRED 2016). In fact, the increase is more pronounced after the year 2000. The Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT) has recorded an average of 341 climate-related disasters per annum since 2000 which is 44% above the 1994–2000 average and more than twice the level in 1980–1989 (UNISDR and CRED 2015). The global consensus on SDGs emerged after concern over the inadequacy of the global effort to combat these changes in global climate in recent years and an alarming increase in the frequency and scale of natural disasters. But despite growing global concern, India and the international community are still far-off from achieving its designated targets with regard to emission reductions. UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres highlighted this issue when he categorically asserted while launching the UN’s ‘New Climate Economy Report’ last year: Climate change is running faster than we are…Last year, climate-related disasters were responsible for thousands of deaths and $320 billion dollars in losses. This year, we have seen the terrible flooding in Kerala in India…The last 19 years included 18 of the warmest years on record, and greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere continue to rise…A significant gap remains between the national commitments and the emissions reductions we need. (UNSG Statement—September 5, 2018)

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UN Secretary General’s statement had followed an unprecedented flood incident in Kerala in August 2018, considered the worst monsoon disaster in this southern Indian state since 1924. As per official statistics available, the devastating floods in Kerala was caused by an unusually high rainfall during the south-west monsoon. The Central Water Commission data shows the total rainfall between 1 August and 19 August 2018 was 164% above the normal rainfall in the state. It affected 54,11,712 people across all 14 districts. According to a status report of the Union Home Ministry, 486 people died and 14,52,425 flood affected populace had to be shifted to 5645 relief camps across the state. Total crop area affected was 57,024 hectares. The damage to infrastructure was huge with floods damaging 3652.5 km of district roads, 2590.49 km of panchayat roads and 106.1 km of the state highways (Ministry of Home Affairs 2018). The concern is not limited to the Indian subcontinent. The leading medical journal, The Lancet has cautioned in a research report that if urgent climate mitigation measures are not initiated, then millions of people in Europe would be exposed to weather-related disasters in the coming decades. In a research study based in Europe, The Lancet argues that if urgent climate adaptation measures were not initiated in Europe, around two-thirds of Europeans could be exposed to a weather-related disaster every year by the end of the twenty-first century (The Lancet 2017).

2015 Paris Climate Conference Three months after the UN member states agreed on the SDG targets in September 2015 in New York, the Conference of Parties (COP 21) agreed in December 2015 in Paris to adopt a landmark Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to expedite global efforts towards limiting the increase in global mean temperature to below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. The Agreement categorically states that existing efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emission levels are not sufficient: …the estimated aggregate greenhouse gas emission levels in 2025 and 2030 resulting from the intended nationally determined contributions do not fall within least-cost 2 °C scenarios but rather lead to a projected level of 55 gigatonnes in 2030…much greater emission reduction efforts will be required than those associated with the intended nationally determined

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contributions in order to hold the increase in the global average temperature to below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels by reducing emissions to 40 gigatonnes or to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels…. (UNFCCC 2015)

As of date, 185 Parties have ratified the Agreement of the total 197 Parties to the Convention (UNFCCC 2018). The Paris Agreement is critical to achieve the Goals identified under SDG 2030. India and the signatories to the Paris Agreement have committed to undertake steps to promote the usage of cleaner technologies, initiate disaster mitigation measures and develop renewable energy sources to move their national economies towards a low-carbon-based economy so as to launch an international effort to reduce global warming.

India and SDG-13 Targets India has witnessed significant changes in its weather pattern in the last few decades. The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) document outlines the broader changes in the climate parameters in India. The NAPCC argues that, At the national level, increase of -0.4 degree Celsius has been observed in surface air temperatures over the past century…A trend of increasing Monsoon seasonal rainfall has been found along the west coast, northern Andhra Pradesh and north-western India (+10% to +12% of the normal over the last 100 years) while a trend of decreasing monsoon seasonal rainfall has been observed over eastern Madhya Pradesh, north-eastern India and some parts of Gujarat and Kerala (-6% to -8% of the normal) over the last 100 years…. (NAPCC 2008)

These significant changes in the weather pattern have made India alarmingly vulnerable to climate-related disasters (Barua et al. 2019). According to the Global Climate Risk Index 2018 Report, India ranks sixth in the global list of most vulnerable nations. Extreme weather conditions caused economic losses up to USD 21-billion in 2016 in India. The Report says around 1800 people were killed in extreme heat conditions which affected more than 330 million people in 2016 alone (Germanwatch 2017). In fact, the official data tabled by the Indian Government in Parliament on the damages caused by cyclonic storms, heavy rains, floods, landslides and earthquakes between 2013–14 to 2017–18 (till 01.02.2018) shows that 12,864 people lost their lives in natural disasters, 3,33,662 cattle were

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lost, 53,33,721 houses were destroyed and crops spread in 190.95 lakh hectares were destroyed (Lok Sabha Secretariat—February 6, 2018). The threat of climate change makes it imperative for India to initiate urgent steps to address this challenge and effectively implement the goals listed in SDG-13 within a specified time frame. According to a United Nations Report, India is the third largest emitter of greenhouse gases and its share in total global emissions is 6.9%. It has committed to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 20–25% by 2020 (United Nations in India 2018). As one of the fastest growing economy in the world, India needs to urgently address the growing demand for energy and also promote renewable energy sources to adhere to its commitments to reduce carbon emissions within the given time frame. The SDG-13 provides an opportunity for India to align its developmental and disaster risk reduction-related objectives and priorities with global targets. As a signatory to SDGs, it is the primary responsibility of India to fulfil its commitments by 2030 to strengthen its resilience to combat natural disasters. To address this challenge, India has taken first steps to implement the targets included in Sustainable Development Goal number 13, especially related with combating climate change and disaster resilience. The NITI Aayog and United Nations have signed the ‘Government of India-United Nations Sustainable Development Framework (UNSDF) for 2018-2022’. A budget outlay of INR 11,000 crore has been finalized for UNSDF 2018–22. The UNSDF delineates a cooperative framework for implementing the SDGs. Climate Change, Clean Energy and Disaster Resilience are an important component of the UNSDF (Press Information Bureau 2018). Government of India’s premier think tank, the National Institution for Transforming India (NITI Aayog) has also constituted a Task Force to oversee the implementation of SDGs. Majority of the states have drafted their action plans to effectively implement the SDGs.

New Steps to Contain Carbon Emissions In its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) submitted to the UNFCCC on October 2, 2015, India has outlined eight goals to be achieved between 2021 and 2030 period. It includes a commitment to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33–35% by 2030 from the 2005 level (Ministry of Environment 2018). To implement this commitment, the Union Government has initiated several policy measures to

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reduce carbon emission. Given the infrastructure deficit, the pressures of urbanization and industrialization and the imperatives of sustainable growth, India faces a formidable and complex challenge. To reduce carbon footprints in the coal industry, the Coal Ministry has made it mandatory for all new coal-based generating stations to use ‘supercritical’ technology. Old coal-based power stations are being gradually modernized. The Ministry has fixed targets for improving energy efficiency in 144 old thermal power stations and coal beneficiation has been made mandatory. Government is also in the process of finalizing stringent emission standards for thermal power plants to reduce emissions (Lok Sabha Secretariat—March 21, 2018). Indian steel companies have also undertaken similar measures to adopt state-of-the-art clean and green technologies to reduce GHG emission intensity. Government has also facilitated adoption of energy efficient technologies in steel re-rolling mills and electric induction furnace sector in association with United Nations Development Programme and Ausaid. Independent regulator in the Telecommunication sector, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) has recommended the following targets for carbon emission reduction in the Telecommunication Sector: 30% by 2019–20 taking the base year as 2011–12 and 40% by the year 2022–23. A process of incentivizing the use of Renewable Energy technology (RET) in the telecom sector is also being initiated (Lok Sabha Secretariat—March 7, 2018). The National Thermal Power Corporation Limited, the biggest power producer in India, has set an ambitious target of being a 130 GW company with a diversified fuel mix by 2032, with 39 GW (30%) to be sourced from non-fossil fuel-based resources (Lok Sabha Secretariat— August 2, 2018). Importantly, the Indian Railways has also proposed to harness 500 Mega Watt (MW) land-based solar power for powering trains. It includes 400 MW solar power from solar park in Madhya Pradesh and 50 MW solar power in Chhattisgarh. It is also planning to harness wind energy for traction purpose (Lok Sabha Secretariat—August 8, 2018). A 26 MW windmill plant constructed in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, is already supplying power for different train operations. It is significant to note that such policy steps have helped India to reduce the emission intensity of its GDP by 12% between 2005 and 2010. As Minister of State for Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Mahesh Sharma told Parliament of India on 27 July 2018,

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As per India’s first Biennial Update Report furnished to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2016, India’s emission intensity of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was 35.14 kg CO2eq/Rs.1,000 (at constant 2004-05 prices) in 2005, which declined to 31.01 kg CO2eq/ Rs 1,000 (at 2004-2005 prices) in 2010…This registers a reduction of about 12% over a five-year period of 2005-2010. (Lok Sabha Secretariat—July 27, 2018)

Focus on Clean Energy The second major NDC committed by Government of India includes achieving about 40% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030. Union Government has undertaken various initiatives, including setting up a National Solar Mission and announcing a target of installing 175 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2022 for increasing the share of carbon free energy in the larger energy mix (Lok Sabha Secretariat—August 2, 2018). It includes developing 100 GW from solar, 60 GW from wind, 10 GW from biopower and 5 GW from small hydro power sources (Lok Sabha Secretariat—August 2, 2018). The ambitious renewable capacity expansion programmes have already produced positive results. Between 2002 and 2015, the share of renewable grid capacity increased over 6 times, from 2% (3.9 GW) to around 13% (36 GW). Wind energy is an important component of the renewable energy growth in India. It now accounts for 23.76 GW (65.2%) of the total renewable installed capacity. This has made India the 5th largest wind power producer in the world. The next goal is to achieve a target of 60 GW of wind power installed capacity by 2022. Government of India is giving primary focus on developing the solar power infrastructure in India. According to the government data, the Solar power installed capacity increased from just 3.7 MW in 2005 to about 4060 MW in 2015, with a CAGR of more than 100% over the decade. The larger target is to increase the capacity to 100 GW by 2022. Government of India is also promoting solarization of all the 55,000 petrol pumps across the country out of which about 3135 petrol pumps have already been solarized. It is envisaged as a coalition of solar resource-rich countries located between Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn to enhance technological collaboration between and among them for optimal absorption of the sun’s rays. It is aimed at strengthening

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sustainable renewable energy sources like solar energy and increase their share in the national energy bank. Government has also launched special programmes to promote biomass with a target to increase the biomass installed capacity to 10 GW by 2022 from the current capacity of 4.4 GW. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has initiated a policy of promoting research and technological development in academic institutions and industry by giving incentives to research projects in the field of solar, wind, biogas and hydrogen. As of date, 112 such research and development projects have been launched (Lok Sabha Secretariat—August 9, 2018).

Carbon Sink and Green India Mission India has also committed to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5– 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030. To achieve this target, Government of India has launched an Afforestation and reforestation initiatives under Green India Mission, National Afforestation Programme, afforestation under Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority of Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC). As per the India State of Forest Report, 2017, the total carbon stock estimated in country’s forest is 7082 million tonnes. This is expected to help achieve the intended targets in this regard (Lok Sabha Secretariat—July 27, 2018). The Ministry of Environment and Forests has also commissioned a series of studies by research institutions/organizations working in the domain of climate change to prepare a roadmap to achieve the identified goals (Ministry of Environment 2018) In fact, the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) includes 8 National Missions: National Solar Mission to enhance the usage of renewable energy sources; National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency; National Mission for Sustainable Habitat; National Water Mission; National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystems; National Mission for a Green India; National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture and National Mission for Sustainable Knowledge on Climate Change (Ministry of Environment 2018). According to India’s premier policy ‘Think Tank’—the National Institution for Transforming India (NITI Aayog)—two indicators have been identified under SDG-13 on Climate Action: the number of states taking climate adaptive measures and achievement of Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) Goals.

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Challenges and Policy Bottlenecks As India takes new steps to address the challenge posed by climate change, the realization is growing that it needs to do much more at a much larger scale to combat the impact of climate change. India needs to undertake urgent measures to enhance the sustainability of climate-sensitive sectors like agriculture, water and forests which are under stress. But it faces hurdles and policy bottlenecks as it plans the next step to achieve its targets and commitments. The most important bottleneck relates to the question of funds. An official assessment has been made with regard to the funds required to meet the climate change-related targets by 2030. To a query on the quantum of funds required by the Government of India to meet its climate change-related targets by 2030, the then Minister of State in the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Mahesh Sharma told Indian Parliament in March 2018, As per India’s Nationally determined Contribution submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 2015, at least US$2.5 trillion will be required to meet 2030 targets. (Lok Sabha Secretariat—March 16, 2018)

How will Indian Government mobilize funds at this scale? What are the options before India in this regard? Government of India is yet to respond to queries on how it plans to mobilize funds at such a gigantic scale. It is clear that India would need support from international financial institutions to mobilize such a huge quantum of funds required to combat the impact of climate change. In fact, the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) has estimated that to contain the rise in global average temperature below two degrees centigrade above pre-industrial levels, up to US$1-trillion additional investments would be needed annually up to the year 2030 at the global level. The UNEP has argued, According to International Energy Agency estimates investments in energy supply and energy efficiency alone will require US$ 53 trillion (US$ 39 trillion for energy supply and US$14 trillion for energy efficiency) up to 2035 to enable the world to adhere to a two-degrees-centigrade emissions path. (RIS 2016)

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Gaps in Legislative Framework As Government of India grapples with options to mobilize funds to implement its climate change and SDG-related targets and bridge the gap between its national commitments and the emissions reductions required to achieve the identified targets, it also needs to address the structural weaknesses in its disaster governance framework. India’s nodal law to deal with disasters, the Disaster Management Act (DM Act) is silent on the challenges posed by climate change (Ministry of Home Affairs 2005). Significantly, both ‘climate change’ and the concept of ‘sustainable development’ find no mention in the DM Act. India urgently needs to amend its nodal legislation and incorporate a new policy roadmap to address the challenges posed by climate change to sustainable development. Such new provisions should be included in order to formulate a legislative response to strengthen India’s resilience to natural disasters and prevent creation of new disaster risks.

Weaknesses in Cyclone Prediction Models India also needs to urgently reform the existing mechanism for Cyclone prediction. The cyclonic storm ‘Okchi’ of 2017 exposed the weaknesses in India’s Cyclone prediction models and highlighted the loopholes that existed in the advanced cyclone warning systems along coastal zones. In its Report submitted in Indian Parliament, the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs has referred to the failure of the India Meteorology Department (IMD) to correctly predict the movement of Cyclone Ockhi which had hit the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala and Union Territory Lakshwadeep during November–December 2017. The Parliamentary Committee has argued in its Report: The Committee observes that the advisory issued on 29th November did not clearly predict a cyclonic storm and, therefore, it was not taken with the seriousness it deserved. Moreover, rapid intensification did not leave enough time for the IMD to issue a cyclone watch or alert and, therefore, both the affected State governments and the people were not sufficiently alert. Officially, a cyclone specific advisory was issued only on 30th November, the very date of the arrival of cyclone Ockhi but by then many fishermen would have already ventured out to sea. (Rajya Sabha Secretariat—April 4, 2018)

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While deposing before the Standing Committee, the Director General of IMD admitted that the next generation of ocean cyclone prediction models must be based on both ‘oceanic’ and ‘atmospheric’ models and that at present only ‘atmospheric’ models were functional in India. His contention was that global warming was making ocean warm and it was behaving unusually (Rajya Sabha Secretariat—April 4, 2018).

Urban Floods Expose Fault Lines In the last few years, severe flood incidents especially in important urban centres: the devastating floods in Jammu and Kashmir in September 2014 and unprecedented floods in Chennai fourteen months later in November–December 2015 have highlighted the structural weaknesses in India’s disaster management machinery and how vulnerable and illprepared India’s prominent Cities are to face natural disasters of high scale (Rajya Sabha Secretariat 2014, 2016). The devastation caused by floods was so high in the case of Jammu and Kashmir that it became the worst natural disaster of the world in 2014 as it cost India up to US$16-billion in economic losses (Guha-Sapiret et al. 2014). The large-scale losses in these two flood incidents were aggravated because of the illegal encroachment of river beds and structural weaknesses in the city drainage systems. The real estate mafia was allowed to construct unlawful residential colonies along the river bed which severely impacted the water carrying capacity of the Jhelum river in the case of Jammu and Kashmir (Narain 2016, p. 9) and the important lakes in the case of Chennai city. The civic administration had failed to undertake desilting operations in water bodies and there were weaknesses in the flood zone planning mechanism as well (Narayan 2018). There were weaknesses in the drainage systems functional in both the cities at the time of flood incidents (Narain 2016, pp. 5 and 9). In the wake of the lessons left by the recent natural disasters, India needs to incorporate a disaster resilient component in its disaster governance strategy and improve flood control infrastructure by strengthening the network of storm sewers (Jha et al. 2015). India also needs to increase the strength of National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) battalions and create new institutions like a National Disaster Medical Response Force comprising of trained doctors and paramedic staff, to effectively counter the threat of any epidemic in the aftermath of a natural disaster.

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Sendai Framework and the Road Ahead Adopted by a global consensus at the Third World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, the Sendai Framework delineates a risk-informed and resilient sustainable global development agenda. It categorically makes it mandatory for small and big business enterprises to integrate disaster risk reduction practices in their management practices and enhance their investments in disaster risk reduction strategies (Sendai Framework 2015). The damages caused by Jammu and Kashmir (September 2014), Chennai (November–December 2015) and the Kerala floods (August 2018) have made it imperative for India to undertake these measures as defined in the Sendai Framework. To incorporate a disaster risk reduction vision in India’s economic development agenda, it would be important to strengthen the risk coverage mechanism by promoting disaster risk insurance culture among both poor and the rich, small and medium enterprises and multinational corporations (Press Information Bureau 2016). It would be significant to involve the growing private sector in this endeavour considering that natural disasters are increasingly casting a shadow on key infrastructure sectors like power which has a significant power sector presence (Sharma 2013, p. 149). Considering the growing cross-border threat posed by natural disasters, India also needs to urgently work with member states of important regional groupings like SAARC and the BRICS, and develop an institutional mechanism to strengthen regional and international cooperation in this regard. The European experience in developing an integrated knowledge base related with regional hazards and mapping of disaster prone zones is important considering the cross-border impact of natural disasters (Delmonaco et al. 2011, p. 24). Such collective action would be especially significant considering that a significant gap remains between the national commitments made by UN member states and the emission reductions urgently needed (UNSG Statement—September 5, 2018). As the latest United Nations Status Report on SDGs argues: The year 2017 was one of the three warmest on record and was 1.1 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial period. An analysis by the World Meteorological Organization shows that the five-year average global temperature from 2013 to 2017 was also the highest on record. The world continues to

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experience rising sea levels, extreme weather conditions (the North Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest ever recorded) and increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases. This calls for urgent and accelerated action by countries as they implement their commitments to the Paris Agreement on Climate Change. (United Nations 2018)

Conclusion: A Climate-Smart Development Model Considering the serious challenge posed by climate change and rise in frequency and scale of climate-related disasters, India needs to formulate a new disaster governance strategy to address the growing vulnerability of its urban centres and strengthen the sustainability of its economy, especially the three key climate-sensitive sectors—agriculture, water and forests. Absence of sustainable development practices will only increase the threat posed by climate-related disasters and weaken the resilience of both its people and economy. India also needs to invest more in disaster risk governance research (Pal and Shaw 2018). An integrated approach towards disaster management and development planning would be necessary to improve the disaster governance measures and strengthen the disaster mitigation and risk reduction capabilities of stakeholders (Shaw and Oikawa 2014). India has taken steps to meet the commitments it has made with regard to implementation of SDGs. It needs to expedite its effort and work on mobilizing USD 2.5 trillion dollars it requires to implement its targets. At the same time, India must also weave a disaster risk reduction component in its new development projects especially in disaster prone zones to safeguard the new investments. The benefits that would accrue to the Indian economy is huge. As ‘The New Climate Economy’ Report of the Global Commission on the Economy and Climate released in September 2018 has argued, We are significantly under-estimating the benefits of cleaner, climatesmart growth. Bold climate action could deliver at least US$26 trillion in economic benefits through to 2030, compared with business-as-usual. There are real benefits to be seen in terms of new jobs, economic savings, competitiveness and market opportunities, and improved well-being for people worldwide. (Global Commission on the Economy and Climate 2018)

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References Barua, A., Narain, V., and Vij, S. (Eds.). 2019. Climate Change, Governance and Adaptation: Case Studies from South Asia. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disaster and UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. 2015. “The Human Cost of Natural Disasters: A Global Perspective”. UNDRR and CRED. Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disaster and UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. 2016. “Poverty & Death: Disaster Mortality, 1996–2015”. UNDRR and CRED. Delmonaco, G., et al. 2011. Europe at Risk (Following EU-Funded Research on Hazard and Risks). In Inside Risk: A Strategy for Sustainable Risk Mitigation, eds. S. Menoni and C. Margottini. Milan: Springer-Verlag Italia. Earth System Science Data. Volume 10. Issue 3. August 28, 2018. Page 1551– 1590. Eckstein, D., Kunzel, V., and Schafer, L. 2017. “Global Climate Risk Index 2018: Who Suffers Most From Extreme Weather Events? Weather-Related Loss Events in 2016 and 1997 to 2016”. Germanwatch, Bonn. Forzieri, G., Cescatti, A., Batista e Silva, F., and Feven, L. 2017. “Increasing Risk over Time of Weather-Related Hazards to the European Population: A Data-Driven Prognostic Study”. The Lancet. Volume 1. Issue 5. Page 200– 208. Global Commission on the Economy and Climate. 2018. “The New Climate Economy”. Retrieved from: https://newclimateeconomy.report/. Government of India. Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change. National Action Plan on Climate Change. Retrieved from: http://www.moef.nic.in/ modules/about-the-ministry/CCD/NAP_E.pdf. Page 15. Guha-Sapir, D., Hoyois. P., and Below, R. (Eds.). 2014. Annual Disaster Statistical Review 2016, The Numbers and Trends. Brussels: CRED. Page 2. Jha, A., Brechte, H., and Stanton-Geddes, Z. 2015. “Building Resilience to Disasters and Climate Change in the Age of Urbanization”. In Disaster Risk Reduction for Economic Growth and Livelihood: Investing in Resilience and Development, eds. I. Davis, K. Yanagisawa, and K. Georgieva. New York: Routledge. Lok Sabha Secretariat. Unstarred Question No. 624. February 6, 2018. “Natural Disasters”. New Delhi. Lok Sabha Secretariat. Unstarred Question No. 2066. March 7, 2018. “Carbon Emission Reduction in Telecom Sector”. New Delhi. Lok Sabha Secretariat. Unstarred Question No. 3646. March 16, 2018. “Climate Change Target”. New Delhi. Lok Sabha Secretariat. Unstarred Question No. 4322. March 21, 2018. “Reduction in Carbon Footprints”. New Delhi.

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Lok Sabha Secretariat. Unstarred Question No. 1737. July 27, 2018. “Carbon Emission”. New Delhi. Lok Sabha Secretariat. Unstarred Question No. 1718. July 27, 2018. “Carbon Sink”. New Delhi. Lok Sabha Secretariat. Unstarred Question No. 2752. August 2, 2018. “NTPC’s Non-Fossil Based Resources”. New Delhi. Lok Sabha Secretariat. Unstarred Question No. 2624. August 2, 2018. “Power Generation Capacity from Renewable Energy Sources”. New Delhi. Lok Sabha Secretariat. Unstarred Question No. 2606. August 2, 2018. “Target for Production of Renewable Energy”. New Delhi. Lok Sabha Secretariat. Unstarred Question No. 3568. August 8, 2018. “Utilisation of Renewal Energy”. New Delhi. Lok Sabha Secretariat. Unstarred Question No. 3775. August 9, 2018. “Development of Renewable Energy Sector”. New Delhi. Ministry of Home Affairs. Disaster Management Act, 2005. New Delhi. Ministry of Home Affairs. Disaster Management Division National Emergency Response Centre (NERC). Situation report on Heavy Rain fall in Kerala, Karnataka, Assam, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Odisha. September 1, 2018. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. 2018. “Building Resilience to Climate Change in India”. New Delhi. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India. Retrieved from: http://www.moef.nic.in/tenders-advertisements/invitationexpressions-interest-eoi-studies-research-institutionsorganization. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India. “National Action Plan on Climate Change”. New Delhi. Retrieved from: http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/home/Pg01-52.pdf. Narain, S. 2016. “Why Urban India Floods, Indian Cities Grow at the Cost of Their Wetlands”. Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment. Narayan, P. 2018. “Displacement as Disaster Relief: Environmental Gentrication and State Informality in Developing Chennai”. In Just Green Enough: Urban Development and Environmental Gentrification, eds. Winifred Curran and Trina Hamilton. New York: Routledge. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 2018. Global Climate Change. Retrieved from: https://climate.nasa.gov/. Pal, Indrajit, and Shaw, Rajib. (Eds). 2018. Disaster Risk Governance in India and Cross Cutting Issues. Singapore: Springer Verlag. Press Information Bureau. November 13, 2016. “Prime Minister’s Address at Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction”. Retrieved from: http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=153213. Press Information Bureau. September 28, 2018. Retrieved from: http://pib.nic. in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=183795.

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Land and Disaster Management for SDGs? Gaurika Chugh

Conceptualizing the Problem The Asia-Pacific region and especially the Indian subcontinent are on the verge of disasters in the form of floods, landslides, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and so on. One of the major concerns for the overwhelming rise of disasters has been the change in land use which is the major cause for the changing topography of land and that has indeed resulted in the escalation of disasters. The change in the land use has exponentially intensified after the advent of liberalization and globalization as there has been an increase in the demand for land for urbanization and development purposes. Sustainable management of land and its resources is considered as a key imperative for preventing and mitigating the impact of the disasters and this has been encapsulated in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the UNDP. Sustainable Development Goal 15 of the 2030 Agenda aims to ‘protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss’.

G. Chugh (B) Special Center for Disaster Research, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_6

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The need for an equitable and sustainable land management is inextricably linked to Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) as land is a finite resource and as there has been an overwhelming demand for the use of land for urbanization and development purposes there is an underlying need for the sustainable management of land in order to ensure intra-generational and inter-generational equity among present and future generations. In recent years, the country has witnessed overuse and exploitation of land and its resources and as India accords for over 17% of world’s population residing on 2.4% of the world’s geographical area, there is an urgent need to manage land and its resources in a sustainable and judicious manner (National Land Utilisation Policy 2013, p. 7). This paper attempts to study the broader question of how land governance can help to prepare, reduce, mitigate the impact of disasters? To provide an answer to the underlying question which brings into forth the concept of change in land use and its concomitant effect on disasters, this paper is divided into following sections: the first section, explicitly underlies the importance of land use planning and sustainable development and how land use planning has been one of the important development goals as enshrined in the SDGs and subsequent global disaster reduction frameworks to preempt the impact of disasters; second section, describes what has been the change in land use right from the period of Independence in 1951 to 2011 along with examining the methodology and institutional deformities of recording the land use data at the district/village level; third section, discusses the underlying twin pressures of urbanization and population growth and its concomitant effect on land use change and disasters per se and the concluding section underlies the importance for a robust land governance structure with proper maintenance and recording of land data and its use to achieve the goals of sustainable development.

Sustainable Development and Land Use Planning The use of land is a culmination of different ecosystems which needs efficient management and land use planning to achieve sustainable development. From being natural, the land use has now shifted to being human induced due to the increasing rapacity of mankind for the use of land for development and urbanization needs. The use of land should not be adjudicated in terms of its economic value, its value should be enshrined in its synergies of different ecosystems namely, rivers, forests, coastal areas, wetlands, wastelands whose existence is crucial for sustaining the broader idea of sustainable development. Development in the fragile

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areas of forests, coastal zones and river beds has indeed resulted in the destruction of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Land use planning is important for realizing the aims and objectives as enshrined in the Sustainable Development Goals of the UNDP. The need for sustainable land management has been incorporated in the Sustainable Development Goal 15 of the 2030 Agenda that aims to ‘protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss’. The first international document that recognized the importance of land use planning for sustainable development was Agenda 21 that was set forth in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 in Rio de Janerio. Notwithstanding the fact that Rio Declaration was not legally binding, Agenda 21 has set forth on the importance of participatory planning and necessary action to be taken at the local level to achieve the goals of sustainable development. The impact of land use change on disaster risk has also been encapsulated in the global framework of disaster risk reduction. The transition from Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015) to Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) has recognized land use as one of the overriding hazard in escalating the occurrence and impact of disasters across the globe. The HFA in its ten-year agenda has conceded changing land use as one of the risks that escalates into disaster risk, therefore it is imperative to encourage sustainable use and management of ecosystems through better land use planning and development activities to reduce risk and vulnerabilities (HFA 2005–2015, p. 13). The Sendai Framework for DRR which was adopted at the Third World Conference in Sendai, Japan has intertwined the need and promotion of sustainable management of land and its resources in its four priorities for strengthening disaster resilience which are namely, understanding disaster risk; strengthening disaster resilience governance; investing in DRR for resilience and lastly; enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and build back better (Sendai Framework for DRR 2015–2030, p. 13). Sendai Framework has envisaged to promote the mainstreaming of disaster risk assessment into land use policy and ensure sustainable planning and management of land and its resources namely, mountains, rivers, coastal flood plain areas, drylands, wetlands, drought affected area and also preserving ecosystem functions that help to reduce risks (Sendai Framework 2015–2030, p. 18).

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Examining Land Use Change in India from 1951 to 2011 This section predominantly underlies the change in the usage and topography of land use in the country right from the period of Independence till 2011 along with governance and institutional deformities in recording the land use statistics at the district/village level and interlinks the subsequent changes in the usage of land and its concomitant effect on managing disaster preparedness and mitigation. There is a need to view change in land use in the broader understanding of land governance which is linked to the management of land that includes natural resources, wetlands, hilly areas, forests and water bodies. It has been estimated that land use management can be an effective tool not only for realizing urban and regional development but also for disaster risk reduction (Banba and Shaw 2017). The lack of transparency, accountability and mismanagement of land laws and land use data at the district level becomes a cause for undergoing disasters. The persistent nature of disasters which cause a major disruption in the social, economic and political life of the communities per se is the result of the anthropogenic factors on the overuse and exploitation of land and its resources for their vested interests. In light of such anthropogenic factors, there is a need for a robust Disaster Management law that has good land protection policies at its base (Haran 2015, p. viii). A well-informed disaster management policy should be structured on proper land use planning for disaster preparedness and mitigation. Land use planning stems from the proper collection, preparation and maintenance of land use data at the village level. The land use planning percolates down to the management of land records by the local government as the collection of land use data begins at the tehsil/village level (Iyengar 2003, p. 3597). It is the Patwari or the Tehsildar who is the custodian of the village land records. The preparation and maintenance of land records is utilized not primarily for the collection of land revenue purposes but is also primordial for the dissemination of policies for preparing, monitoring and mitigation of disasters and also for ensuring sustainable development. In fact, the data on land use and its planning forms part of the land records prepared at the village level and thus it is necessary that the information recorded by the revenue officer at the village level is accurate and sacrosanct as this information plays an essential role in the planning and adjudication of land as a resource for present and future generations. Thus, proper maintenance

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and management of land use data at the district, tehsil and village level is indeed crucial for undertaking vulnerability mapping of the communities affected by the disaster and also to assess and compare the effect of disaster on the topography of land pre- and post-disaster. Table 1 on land use data tries to encapsulate the change in land use among different sectors from the period 1951–2011. The change in land use has a profound impact on a wide array of factors ranging from the changing topography of land and natural resources, food supply, environment which indeed leads to the destruction of ecosystem services, loss of biodiversity, forests, mangroves, wetlands and aquifers. The importance of forests as a whole should not be merely understood in terms of its trees cover, but should be understood in terms of the critical role played by the forest in sustaining ecosystem services, mitigation of disasters, providing habitat and ensuring livelihood to the communities and also in protecting the tribal cultures and resources. The shunning down of fragile areas of forest for development, redevelopment, urbanization, infrastructure building has caused serious concern among the members of civil society, policy makers, environmentalists and academicians as forests are vital for sustaining carbon sequestration and are also paramount for mitigating the adverse effect of disasters. The decrease in the area of forest cover has a profound effect on climate change and this is evident from the IPCC1 report which says that deforestation is responsible for 90% of the carbon emissions caused by land use changes (Sudhakar Reddy et al. 2015, p.2). Land use changes have resulted in the shunning down of tropical forests across the country which is highly impeccable for the preservation and conservation of biodiversity and endemic species. The loss of forests is inextricably linked to economic development of a nation as forests constitute an important source of livelihood and sustainability both for the conservation of human and nonhuman species. The land use data as published by the Ministry of Agriculture suffers from a major lacuna in terms of providing accurate data which is crucial for promoting sustainable development. As per the data, the area of forests has shown a significant increase from a mere 14.24% at the time of Independence to 22.89% in 2011. This data on forest is deficit as the increase in the area of forest land does not automatically translate into the understanding that the entire area earmarked as forest has to be wooded. This stems from the lack of definition about what constitutes as a ‘forest area’. It can merely be a piece of barren land, grazing land or agricultural land. Similarly, the data recorded by the state of forest report (SFR) which

3.

2.

Geographical area Reporting area for land utilization statistics (1 to 5) 1. Forest (%)

I. II.

16.48 (5.42)

28.13 (9.26)

35.13

13.26 (4.37)

14.84 (4.97)

35.91 (12.03)

37.64

13.97 (4.68)

Not available for cultivation (A + B) (A) Area under 9.36 (3.29) nonagricultural uses (%) (B) Barren and 38.16 un(13.42) culturable land 49.45 Other uncultivated land excluding fallow land (A + B + C) (A) Permanent 6.68 (2.35) pasture and other grazing land (%)

63.83 (21.01) 44.61

54.05 (18.11) 50.75

40.48 (14.24) 47.52

328.73 303.75

328.73 298.46

1970–1971

328.73 284.32

1960–1961

Land use

S. No.

1950–1951

Land use statistics in India—1951–2011

Table 1

11.99 (3.94)

32.31

19.96 (6.56)

19.60 (6.44)

67.46 (22.18) 39.55

328.73 304.16

1980–1981

11.40 (3.74)

30.22

19.39 (6.36)

21.09 (6.92)

67.81 (22.24) 40.48

328.73 304.86

1990–1991

10.66 (3.49)

27.74

17.48 (5.73)

23.75 (7.78)

69.84 (22.88) 41.23

328.73 305.19

2000–2001

10.30 (3.37)

26.16

17.18 (5.62)

26.39 (8.63)

70.01 (22.89) 43.58

328.73 305.90

2010–2011

82 G. CHUGH

Land use

(B) Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves (C) Culturable waste land 4. Fallow lands (A + B) (A) Fallow lands other than current fallows (B) Current fallows 5. Net area sown (6 to 7) 6. Total cropped area 7. Area sown more than once 8. Cropping intensity Net irrigated area

S. No.

III.

11.18 (3.75)

11.64 (3.90) 133.20 (44.63) 152.77 19.57 114.69

17.45 (6.14)

10.68 (3.76) 118.75 (41.77) 131.89 13.15 111.07 24.66

19.21 (6.44) 22.82

20.85

1970–1971

1980–1981

1990–1991

2000–2001

16.74 (5.51) 24.55

15.00 (4.92) 23.37

31.10

117.70

24.93

10.60 (3.49) 140.86 (46.37) 165.79

38.72

123.05

34.63

14.83 (4.88) 140.29 (46.12) 172.63

48.02

129.89

42.74

13.70 (4.49) 143.00 (46.91) 185.74

8.73 (2.87) 9.72 (3.20) 9.66 (3.17)

17.50 (5.76) 19.33

55.20

131.13

44.00

14.78 (4.84) 141.34 (46.31) 185.34

10.27 (3.36)

13.63 (4.47) 25.04

4.46 (1.49) 4.37 (1.44) 3.58 (1.18) 3.82 (1.25) 3.44 (1.13)

1960–1961

22.94 (8.07) 28.12

19.83 (6.97)

1950–1951

(continued)

63.60

139.39

55.76

14.28 (4.67) 141.56 (46.28) 197.32

10.32 (3.37)

12.65 (4.14) 24.60

3.21 (1.05)

2010–2011

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Land use

Gross irrigated area

S. No.

IV.

22.56

1950–1951 27.98

1960–1961 38.20

1970–1971 49.78

1980–1981 63.20

1990–1991 76.19

2000–2001

88.63

2010–2011

Source Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2014, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of India Note Figure mentioned in the brackets indicate percentage to the total reporting area

(continued)

Table 1

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publishes biennial report about the area and extent of forest cover in the country has estimated that the total area of forest cover in the country has recorded an increase from 642,041 area sq km (19.54%) in 1987 to 708,273 sq km (21.54%) in 2017. The ambiguity in terms of recording the forest cover results from the callousness in terms of providing a clear definition of what constitutes as forest, the report has defined forests as ‘all tree stands with 10 per cent canopy cover over an extent of more than 1 ha including bamboos, orchards coconut, palm etc’ (FSI 2017). The over reporting of forest area by including under its ambit various categories such as plantations, commercial plantations categorically dilutes the importance of forests and its delivery of ecosystem services. According to Meyerson, ‘it is imperative to understand that plantations are very distinct from natural forest cover in terms of species composition, ecosystem functions and their ability to support a wide range of species and withstand stress such as drought and disease’ (Sudhakar Reddy et al. 2015). It is also important to note that the category of dense forest which is crucial for sustaining the biodiversity and ecosystem, as reported in the state of forest report amounts to only 2.99% of the total geographical area. In contrast to the data on the extent of forest land in the land use statistics, the country has witnessed a significant decrease in the forest cover and this is evident from the study conducted by Sudhakar Reddy et al. (2015) on the changes witnessed in the state of Indian forest cover from the period 1930 to 2013. On the basis of data collected through topographical maps, remote sensing technologies and satellite data imageries of Landsat MSS it was estimated that the forest area has witnessed a stupendous decline from 869,012 km2 in 1930 to 625,565 km2 in 2013, amounting total net loss of 243,447 km2 in the period spanning eight decades from 1930 to 2013 (Sudhakar Reddy et al. 2015). This study has estimated that the period from 1930–75 accounted for a major decrease in forest cover which is estimated at 215,792 km2 whereas the next three decades estimated total net loss of 27,655 km2 . The primary reason for the decline in forest cover has been due to the diversion of forest land for non-forest use mainly for the use of agriculture expansion. Large tracts of forest lands were cleared to build dams to encounter the irrigation needs of the agricultural lands. The decrease in the forest land is also accompanied with the diversion of the forest lands for various non-forest uses which includes mining, defence and building up of infrastructural facilities. As per the Forest Conservation Act of 1980, the approval of the central government is requisite for diversion of forest land for non-forest use. It is estimated that between the year 1980 and

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2016, 897,698.40 hectares of forest land was diverted for various developmental activities (see Table 2). The data shows that a significant amount of land has been diverted for various kinds of infrastructural and developmental activities which pose a serious question on the reliability of data as reported by the land use statistics. Whenever any forest land is utilized for non-forest use, it has to undergo mutation in the records of the state forest department (SFS) and simultaneously get updated in the land records (CAG Report on Diversion of Forest land and Compensatory Afforestation 2013, p. 32). However, the indolent working of the revenue officials at the village level often results in misappropriation and misrepresentation of the land use data. Thus, the importance of forests in terms of its delivery of ecosystem services and providing sustainable livelihood to the fragile communities has been overhauled by the increasing pressure of Table 2 Diversion of forest land for non-forest use (1980–2016)

S. No.

Category

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Borehole prospecting Defence Dispensary/hospital Drinking water Encroachments Forest village conversion Hydel Industry Irrigation Mining Quarrying Railway Rehabilitation Road School Thermal Transmission line Village electricity Wind power Others (miscellaneous projects)

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Total

Total land diverted (in hectares) 50.99 43,492.19 156.00 1214.04 259,583.95 5040.15 86,620.04 83.29 83.29 132,464.87 0.17 8740.71 17,415.60 43,590.95 2534.17 7554.45 38,731.38 177.82 3630.98 140,107.37 897,698.40

Source Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MOEFCC)

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urbanization, development, population growth and agricultural expansion simultaneously. The land use data does not provide information with respect to the type of ownership—whether it is private or public held land. Therefore, the data does not represent whether privately owned land can be classified under various categories, namely, forests, barren or grazing land, cultivable waste or fallow land. It is the revenue officer known as patwari or tehsildar who is responsible for maintaining land records which in turn include details about the different categories for which the land is put to use. The patwari is responsible for collecting the information from individuals and farmers about the area of land and based on his acumen land use statistics is prepared. The different categories recorded in the land use data also suffers from similar institutional difficulties as there is no clear cut definition at the revenue officer level who is generally responsible for collecting and disseminating the information. It is distinctively unclear as to whether the area marked as miscellaneous tree crops and grove falls under the crop area sown or is it included under the category occupied by trees and groves. Furthermore, it is left at the discretion of the patwari whether to include public lands covered by trees or groves under this category or not. Similarly, the category ‘cultivable waste’ also suffers from the same ambiguity as there are innumerable categories namely, ‘fallow land’, ‘culturable waste land’ which are overlapping with each other (see Table 1). Thus, it is at the discretion of the village revenue officer to decide which land falls under which category, thus making land use data irrelevant for governing sustainable land use management.

Urbanization, Population Growth and Land Use Change The twin issues of population growth and urbanization has especially led to land use change. It has been estimated in the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction (2015) that the number of urban dwellers is expected to increase by 404 million over the next 35 years, which means that by 2050 approximately 50% of India’s population will live in cities (p. 227). This triggering of population growth as a result of urbanization has been termed by the UNISDR report on Disaster Risk Reduction as ‘Tsunami of Urbanization’, this linear expansion of urbanization if unplanned is likely to result in a tsunami of disaster risk (UNISDR 2015, p. 2015).

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The structural reforms and advent of globalization marked a watershed in the history of land use change in India. Prior to liberalization, land use change was largely seen for the purpose of agricultural expansion, industrialisation and building up of dams for irrigation, but the aftermath of liberalization brought changes in the way of how land was perceived. Land came to be viewed in terms of an important economic use whose use then became imperative for growing urbanization needs, setting up of Special Economic Zones (SEZs),2 and building up of real estate in the close proximities of urban areas and development of service sector. This linear expansion of urbanization have induced land use change and these changes have been quiet rapid, abrupt and in most cases non-planned. This has led to increased vulnerability and exposed different ecosystems like forests, coastal, mountain or river beds to multiple types of hazards. According to Banba and Shaw (2017), whenever a disaster strikes, land use restrictions are imposed in various zones, however such regulations in the form of land use restrictions only act as a temporary relief to the growing development concerns and over a period of time practices go back to the conditions existed before the disaster which therefore lead to creating new risks (p. 4). Thus, such kind of practices which create new risks form a vicious cycle which comprises of development, land management, exposed risk, disaster and new land management, etc. (Banba and Shaw 2017, p. 4). The increased urbanization has also been accompanied with the growing population and this has increased pressure on the use of land for development. As per the data recorded by the census of India (2011), the urban population has witnessed a dramatic shift in the population levels, from a mere 6.24 crores urban population in the year 1951 it has now surged to 37.71 crores in 2011. With the growth in urbanization, the area under non-agricultural use which is primarily used for the building up of infrastructural facilities such as roads, railways, canals, etc. (see Table 1) has witnessed a quantum jump from a mere 3.29% of the total reporting area in the year 1951 to 8.63 per cent in 2011. Similarly, the area under barren and un-culturable land which includes land covered by mountains and deserts has seen a quantum decline from 13.42% in 1951 to 5.62% in 2011. Similarly, land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves—land which is put to use for some agricultural use, primarily for ‘growing trees, thatching grasses, bamboo bushes and other groves for fuel etc.’ which is not included in ‘Net Area sown’ has also shown a quantum slump from 6.97% in 1951 to 1.05% in 2011. Thus, the increase in urban population

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levels has led to pressure on the overuse and exploitation of land, thus increasing the risk of disasters due to rapid, abrupt and non-planned land use planning. As per the land utilization policy (2011), the number of towns in the country have increased from 5161 to 7935 and the number of urban agglomerations having a population of more than one million have increased from 5 in 1951 to 53 in 2011 (p. 9). The accentuating demand of urbanization has primarily led to creation of cities around hazard prone, fragile and environment sensitive areas, thus increasing the risk of disasters. The growth around peri-urban areas has resulted in haphazard growth of slums, unauthorized colonies and illegal infrastructural facilities.

Way Forward: Conclusion and Recommendations With the rising pressure on land for development and urbanization, it is an irrevocable fact that sustainable management of land and its resources is imperative for preventing and mitigating the effect of disasters. In an attempt to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals as enshrined by the UNDP for sustainable and judicious land use planning to pre-empt the impact of disasters, it is imperative to have a robust and strong land governance structure at the base. An inviolable land governance structure should be based on the proper articulation, preparation and maintenance of the whole pedagogy of land data and its use which includes forest, wetlands, mangroves, mountains, wastelands, common property resources (CPRs) at the district/village level which is indispensable for undertaking vulnerability mapping of the ecological sensitive areas to mitigate the effect of disasters and help in building resilience of the communities. The information on land use data can also act as a catalyst for computing the effect of pre- and post-disaster on the land use change and communities per se. Thus, the methodology for preparing the land use data at the district/village level should be explicitly defined and free from all encumbrances of the revenue officials who are responsible for preparation and maintenance of data and this information should be disseminated sagaciously across the state disaster management authorities (SDMAs) and district disaster management authorities (DDMAs) to achieve the goals of sustainable development.

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Notes 1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001 was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to study the socio-economic and scientific impact on climate change. 2. Special Economic Zones Act was enacted in the year 2005 and the act mandated the setting up of industries, IT hubs, manufacturing zones by providing them tax incentives in order to promote development and economic growth.

References Banba, M., & Shaw, R. (2017). Land Use Management in Disaster Risk Reduction: Practice and Cases from a Global Perspective. Japan. http://doi.org/10. 1007/978-4-431-56442-3_1. Comptroller and Auditor General of India. (2013). Diversion of Forest land and Compensatory Afforestation (Vol. 21). Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. (2013). National Land Utilisation Policy. Forest Survey of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests. (2017). State of Forest Report 2017 . Dehradun. Haran, Nivedita P. (2015). Preface. In H. Ha, (ed.), Land and Disaster Management Strategies in Asia (pp. vii–viii). New Delhi: Springer. http://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-81-322-1976-7. Iyengar, S. (2003). Environmental Damage to Land Resource: Need to Improve Land Use Data Base. Economic & Political Weekly, 3596–3604. Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India (2014). Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, 2014. Oxford University Press. http://eands.dacnet.nic.in/PDF/ Agricultural_Statistics_At_Glance-2015.pdf. Sudhakar Reddy, C., Jha, C. S., Dadhwal, V. K., Hari Krishna, P., Vazeed Pasha, S., Satish, K. V., …, Diwakar, P. G. (2015). Quantification and Monitoring of Deforestation in India Over Eight Decades (1930–2013). Biodiversity and Conservation, 25(1), 93–116. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-015-1033-2. UNISDR. (2015). Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). UNISDR. (2015). Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. Third World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, Sendai, Japan, 14–18 March 2015. United Nations. (2005). International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations. World Conference on Disaster Reduction (A/CONF.206/6).

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Gaurika Chugh is a Ph.D. research scholar at the Centre for the Study of Law and Governance, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. She is primarily working in the area of Sustainable Land Management and Land Records in the scheduled areas of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Her research interests includes working on governance issues related to sustainable land use planning in the country, land management and disasters and has published and presented papers across the country and outside related to her research interests.

Livelihood as Sine qua non for Community Resilience in J&K Chetana Kumari

Result of Economic Inequalities The erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir was composed of three geographical regions, namely Jammu (Hindu), Kashmir (Muslim) and Ladakh (Buddhist). After the abrogation of Article 370 two new Union territories were carved out of this state, i.e. Jammu and Kashmir as one union territory and Ladakh the other. There has been a constant undercurrent of disharmony among the people of Jammu and Ladakh on one hand and that of Kashmir on the other as they became victims of developmental deficits due to the conditions embedded in Article 370 and Article 35 A of the Indian Constitution. Article 370 gave special status to the state of J&K whereas Article 35A denied anyone who is not a ‘permanent resident’ of the state to be excluded from any property transaction, commercial rights to property, political rights to vote and contest elections. With young children especially girls leaving the state due to marriage were divested of property rights. So outside investments had been nil in the state but more than that increasing terrorist and seditious

C. Kumari (B) Centre for Law and Governance & Disaster Research Programme, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_7

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activities further pushed millions of people into insecurity, destitution and migration to mainland India. Under these situations, a disaster was only an added calamity to expose the fragile economic fabric of the state economy where jobs and livelihood consistently dropped with relatively higher speed in Jammu and Ladakh regions. Marginalization led to rising inequalities and to weak economic progress. Inequalities within the state of Jammu and Kashmir had been undermining the livelihood opportunities of various communities, which depend upon daily wages and migratory work within the state. No permanent source of income exists except in the service sector which are very few in numbers and rarely available for all. The inequality among the three regions has been embedded by state institutions. Jammu region has much more potential for growth and development, but due to internalized inequalities within the state, Jammu region is lacking in growth, development and livelihood opportunities. During disasters in hilly areas and during harsh weather conditions, the source of livelihood shifts towards Jammu city with large-scale migration. Jammu suffered from overload of migration and faces lack of livelihood opportunities. For the local people and for those who migrate to Jammu region within the state from different districts and people from outside J&K as well faces the same problem of income generation or livelihood due to lack of market development and lack of entrepreneurship in the state. The paper’s focus would be on the governance in the state in the context of pre-disaster and post-disaster livelihood opportunities for the people in the Jammu city and other regions as well so that Jammu city does not suffer from overburden for livelihood purpose. An inclusive approach for development of all communities in the state without any discrimination on the basis of regional and internal differences and other barriers of livelihood creation needs to be addressed like the issue of investment, electricity and political hurdles of Article 370 and 35A. The role of the state power needs to reform to address the inequalities and livelihood opportunities. Policy makers and administrators have to plan for more livelihood opportunities in the state in all the three regions. The paper would be based on secondary data and adopts an exploratory approach to research.

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India---Where Do We Stand in Terms of Livelihood and SDGs? The disasters are both natural and anthropogenic. All over the world, the earth has been destabilized due to overburdening by activities of various kinds frequently erupting into disasters. In such a disaster vulnerable environment livelihood expansion become the greatest casualty. The UNDP had developed millennium development goals which were eight in numbers but none was related to decent work and economic growth. With the coming up of sustainable development goals, the ‘decent work and economic growth’ has been included as goal number eight. This goal is put into the SDGs for promotion of economic growth and decent work among labour and to eliminate forced labour, slavery and human trafficking, quite common during disaster and post-disaster periods. Most of the people who have lost their loved ones during disasters feel helpless as they never find them. Post-disaster rehabilitation in terms of food, shelter, water, clothes, livelihoods, etc. becomes a challenge for the state. Most people lose their agriculture produce, agriculture fields, animals, cattle in disasters like floods, thereby losing a primary source of livelihood or income for most Indians, pushing most people into tough situations. The recovery period is usually long and in the meanwhile the state government, NGOs, civil societies forget about their responsibility towards generating livelihood for disaster affected people. The claim to achieve decent work, employment and economic growth ‘For all’ is something utopian which needs to be reframed according to geographical and anthropological challenges. The Union and the State government regularly claim that they have provided and implemented so many policies and programmes under ‘decent work’ like National Skill development Programme, Deendayal Upadhyaya Yojana, Atal Innovation Mission, National Service Scheme, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, but the question is about implementation slippages and administrative will. The 2018 floods of Kerala is a good example of failure to provide decent work and employment in the post-disaster period when outside state people were surprised on ‘why people were leaving Kerala’. Therefore instead of claiming, ‘decent work’ it should be ‘work for all’, to improve the general well-being of vulnerable sections of society. Why does 8th SDG matter for community resilience building during disasters is a subject of exploration in the present paper.

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The former Jammu and Kashmir state is in a precarious state and despite the fact that after the abrogation of Article 370 it has received the benefits of the country’s welfare schemes and also it would take a longer time to develop industries, investments, infrastructure, urban planning, smart cities, rural roads, etc. The state has experienced many floods over the districts in the past years, in which loss of agriculture land, houses, animals, livestock has occurred. Floods and landslides are recurring disasters in the state J&K, if we look at the past floods in the state since 1903 flood, 1957 flood, 1959 flood, 1992 flood, 2010 flood and the most recent 2014 flood which has its impact on whole state J&K, Jhelum River and Chenab River and Tawi River are the three main rivers in the state, they are the source of water for electricity generation and also caused destruction whenever there was continued rainfall, resulted floods and flash floods. In the year 2010, tourist destination Leh suffered from a flash flood, which resulted in the deaths of foreign tourists and local people and animals. In such a fury of floods and landslides people mostly were trapped before they were rescued and evacuated. Over 9000 people were directly affected by Leh Flashflood in the year 2010, roads and bridges which are most difficult to make in the hilly state J&K, were damaged fully (Sharma 2018, The Wire). Similarly, the 2014 flood, which is most unprecedented and colossal in nature had its impact on the whole state, affected 10,136,063 people in total in terms of communication, accessibility, availability of supply of food and water, agriculture and livestock loss. The major loss of livestock by flooding and also farmlands by submergence and erosion of upper layer of soil further reduced post-disaster livelihood options (Ananth 2014, live Mint). The recurring floods in the state are not natural but man made due to the encroachment of land near the Dal lake, Wular lake, Jhelum river, Tawi river, Chenab river and lakes due to which water overflows whenever there is a continuous rainfall in the state. According to Lal Seth (2015, April Flood List) research, unregulated urbanization has impacted the people and property during floods, construction by people in prohibited and regulated areas in the state is itself a cause of floods due to which millions of people of the state have gone through the worst flood ever. The history of floods in the state has increased the economic burden of the state. Displacement of people during disaster needs sharing of resources for which the Jammu region.

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Building Community Resilience Among People of J&K by Building Livelihoods Opportunities Since independence the state of J&K now a union territory (UT) has always been in the news due to its political discourse and loss of lives in militancy and terror strikes. The scenario of Azadi (independence) in the valley diverted and destructed the development of the state specially Jammu division and Ladakh division in terms of employment, livelihood opportunities, education, infrastructure for all the communities due to which the state became hostage to politically forced lack of development. The UT of Jammu and Kashmir has no industrial development, multinational companies, no investment on MSMEs, etc., which means that the state has no alternative solution to providing employment. The J&K has a population of 1.25 Crore (Census 2011) 57,788 units of MSMEs with employment for only 276,680. In contrast, the states of Delhi and Himachal Pradesh with a much smaller geographical area have 614,442 and 40,429 units of MSMEs, respectively. This number of MSMEs continue to shrink and close in J&K region (Table 1). The issue of electricity/power energy is also a concern for the creation of livelihood opportunities and investments in the industrial sector. The state suffers from long power cuts and outages which hampers various developmental activities. The state is not able to pay their bills to National Thermal Power Corporation limited (NPTC) even though the state has 21 power projects which generate 1211.96 MW of electricity (Greater Kashmir news February 2019). Even the Centre has 7 projects of power generation which produces 2009 MW of electricity. The state underdevelopment is also related to its bad governance as power scarcity despite power generation to the optimum is also associated with ‘high power Table 1 Number of Micro, Small and Medium Scale (MSMEs) Industries and their share in employment generation

S. No.

State

1. 2. 3. 4. 6.

J&K Jammu District Srinagar District Himachal Pradesh Delhi

Units

Employment

57,788 10,823 10,642 40,429 614,442

276,680 74,634 51,075 284,599 2,791,495

Source Ministry of MSME, Govt. of India. Directorate of Industries, Himachal Pradesh. Digest of Statistics 2014–2015, Govt. of Jammu and Kashmir

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thefts/illegal uses/unregistered consumers, uncontrolled and unaccounted consumption of power, lesser load agreements, low tariff rates and poor collection efficiency’ in the state (N. Rayan November 2017, Scroll.in).

Building Blocks of Community Resilience in Jammu Region Diversifying Livelihoods: The loss of human capital and property during disasters and also in normal times could be possibly reduced by creating resilience through diversification of livelihoods in the state. The state government also needs to strengthen the agriculture system through better meteorological information dissemination and use of Early Warning System. More MSMEs should be spread out not just in Jammu, Sambha, Khutha, Reasi, Udhampur Region but also regions where there are no roads and setting up MSMEs could accelerate road connections as well. Governance: The government as well as the governance of the state should strengthen institutions, provide accountable and transparent governance and generate systems for citizen-centric administration. Panchayats and Municipal corporations should bring innovations for entrepreneurial energy in the society. Programmes like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Programme (MNREGA), ‘Garib Kalyan Rozgar Abhiyaan’, Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana, etc. should undertake fast track projects in J&K for mainstreaming demand for development. Resource Management: The state has manifold resources from electricity/power and tourism to agri-industry based exportable commodities like saffron, apples and handicrafts, etc. The Centre and state should coordinate and work together for the people of the state for the generation of employment. Augmenting Human Capital: The human capital in the state has been diverted and misused for nefarious anti-India activities so far. The sustainable development goal report (2018) showed that globally unemployment rate has decreased from 6.4% in 2000 to 5.6% in 2017. In the same report it is also highlighted that youth unemployment is three times more than adult unemployment as a result of which youth are distracted to unlawful activities in the society which needs to be tackled by 2030.1

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Conclusion Only 11 years are left to achieve national targets committed for sustainable development goals. A decent work environment, employment generation and developmental programmes of Central government should speed up implementation. Implementation of employment generation programmes in a politically as well as environmentally turbulent and vulnerable region of the country. More investments must be on job creation as devastation like floods of 2014 has washed away many resources for development. There is need for best innovations and alternatives for generating employment among the youth of the state Jammu and Kashmir.

Note 1. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2018.

References Ananth, V. (2014). Jammu and Kashmir Has Had a Long History of Flooding. Economic Survey. (2014–2015). GOI, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Chapter 12, pp. 245–272. Economic Survey. (2014–2015). Volume-1, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Jammu and Kashmir. Dar, M. A., & Parrey, A. H. (2013). Socio-economic Potential of Handicrafts Industry in Jammu and Kashmir: Opportunities and Challenges. Lal Seth, B. (2015). Unregulated Development Exacerbated Kashmir Floods. Sharma, P. (2018). Ladakh Flood: A Timeline of Disaster. The Wire.

Chetana Kumari is Master’s in Public Policy and Public Administration (20142016) from the Central University of Jammu (J&K) and a doctoral researcher at the Centre for the Study of Law and Governance, JNU. She has been a Project Associate at the Special Centre for Disaster Research, JNU. She has received best volunteer award from National Service Scheme (NSS) during National Integration Camp at JMI, Delhi. Awarded Gold Medal for securing the highest percentage in M.A Public Policy and Public Administration in the Central University of Jammu. She has many prized presentations to her credit in national and international conferences. Her continuous research on governance issues in Jammu is well received.

Strategic City Landscapes: Protecting These Economic Hubs of Business from Disasters Natasha Goyal

Introduction The capital city of Delhi stands as a ‘poly-nuclear metropolis’ marked by haphazard growth and disproportionately high population pressure beyond the carrying capacity of its land and infrastructural amenities. The strategic location of Delhi has made it an important centre of administrative, educational, political, commercial, industrial and historical functions. This has resulted in disproportionate increase in population pressure due to huge in-migration of the population from the neighbouring states in search of better opportunities for education, employment, health and other business activities. The inevitable consequence has been the housing problem for the majority of in-migrants, who usually migrated from the neighbouring states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and hence, lacked the affordability and accessibility to political echelons for appropriate housing with adequate infrastructural services. The exclusion of private sector from land development under the regulated centralized land development policy of the Delhi Development Authority has led to mushrooming of

N. Goyal (B) Centre for Study of Law and Governance, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_8

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the unauthorized colonies and illegal settlements all over Delhi. These unauthorized settlements lack even basic amenities of potable water, sewerage and drainage systems and health and educational facilities. The unholy nexus between the political leaders, bureaucracy and the builders has made the compliance with the laws and policies conspicuous by its absence in the city, in spite of the frequent intervention of the judiciary in the issues of land management and urban governance. This paper would underscore the urgent need of addressing such administrative laxity through the case study of Hauz Khas village, which was categorized as a Lal Dora area by the British government in India. The term Lal Dora areas is used to connote the ‘village habitation areas’ (abadi) which were demarcated from the peripheral agricultural land area using a red thread (and hence the term—Lal Dora). These areas were demarcated by the Land Revenue Department under the British government in 1908 for the purpose of differentiating such areas from the peripheral agricultural land, which was subjected to land revenue. Acquisition of land under the policy of regulated land development undertaken by Delhi Development Authority excluded these abadi areas from centralized land development. Hence, even though the acquisition of the agricultural land by the government paved way for rapid urbanization in these areas, the inhabitants of abadi areas (the Lal Dora areas) continued to be neglected from the purview of developmental policies. Traditionally, the primary occupation of the inhabitants of these areas was agriculture. Deprivation of sole source of livelihood in the form of agricultural land and non-payment of adequate and timely compensation in lieu of land acquisition by the government, forced the inhabitants of these abadi areas to sell their land to private real estate market dealers at meagre price. Exemption of the Lal Dora areas from the building byelaws (under the 1963 notification by the MCD) led to indiscriminate constructions for the purpose of maximizing rent extraction. Inefficiency of DDA in providing affordable housing options to low- and middleincome groups under the centralized and regulated land development led to demand upsurge for housing in these areas, even amidst inadequate basic services and substandard housing safety. The collusion of private builders and enforcement agencies to capture profits from the sky rocketing land values led to these areas becoming irreversibly vulnerable to multiple hazards and disasters. Disaster management has repeatedly failed in Delhi due to the inability of enforcement agencies to enforce compliance with legal regulations for

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building bye-laws and land use. Despite a well-designed framework, the disaster management in Delhi continues to be a hostage to enforcement agencies which continue to be ill-prepared towards building community resilience. The success of the Disaster Risk Reduction lies in improving the institutional capacity to enforce and monitor the implementation of the laws and regulations.

Objective of Research The paper aims to ascertain the preparedness of Hauz Khas village in Delhi (a Lal Dora area) to potential hazards and disasters. The research will explore if vulnerability has increased in the region despite the institutionalization of Delhi Disaster Management Authority (DDMA). An assessment of the institutional functioning and legal compliance to laws crucial to disaster management is attempted, by identifying the failures of administration in regulating the large-scale encroachments and the unauthorized constructions in Delhi. The differential legal and governance mechanisms for the Lal Dora (abadi-deh) and the Extended Lal Dora areas under the exemptions granted by the notification of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi has resulted in large-scale mixed land use in these areas beyond what was permitted under the legal umbrella. The exemptions have been misconstrued and misused by the private developers and the local people for developing a thriving real estate market in these areas. The research undertaken will endeavour to study the legal, administrative and political factors responsible for proliferation of such extensive constructions and encroachments amidst constricted congested lanes and buildings in these Lal Dora and Extended Lal Dora Areas.

Research Methodology The Research Methodology adopted for the study has been quantitative and qualitative. Primary data has been collected by means of purposive, stratified sampling and semi-structured interviews of respondents residing in the Hauz Khas Village and Pahari area in New Delhi. A study of report of Tejinder Khanna Committee (2006)1 and Shrivastva Committee (2007)2 has been undertaken to incorporate qualitative research of affected communities due to large-scale unplanned settlements and illegal encroachments. Doctrino-legal research into the Municipal and other legal laws for regulation of building by-laws applicable in the

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Delhi region for safety regulation has been undertaken with an aim of descriptive research into the rules and regulations for regulating land management and monitoring implementation of building bye-laws. The laws granting exemptions for the Lal Dora and extended Lal Dora areas have been analysed from the period extending pre-independence time to the present date. The study focused on the social indicators such as access to basic infrastructure and essential services (health care, education, sanitation, etc.) and economic indicators such as legal status of property titles, source of income, etc. for a comprehensive study of marginality and resultant vulnerability in the region.

Disasters and Vulnerability ‘Disasters’ have come to acquire importance over the years due to an inseparable link between development and environmental conservation in an urbanizing and globalizing world. The impacts of hazards have increased over the years due to increasing population pressure over the carrying capacity of land and greater affluence in the large cities accompanied by increasing inequality and irreversible environmental degradation. Disasters have for long been seen as a phenomenon which is antithetical to the process of development. In simple words, they were simply seen from the lens of an event which pushes back the process of development by several years due to widespread destruction and loss it causes. Being termed as an ‘act of God’, the onus was shifted to something natural and beyond the capacity of humans to predict and prevent. However, the recent literature in disaster management has come to highlight the phenomenon of a disaster as an event which is itself a result of the development process. Rather than viewing hazards and vulnerability as mutually exclusive concepts and identifying them with unseen and unpredictable forces of nature or terming them as an ‘act of God’, the disaster literature today considers hazards and vulnerability as mutually interdependent. In this politico-ecological framework, a disaster is rather seen as ‘materialization of risk constructed socially’. This has not only broken the walls of cultural hegemony of blind faith in technocratic solutions to remedy the vulnerabilities and reduce risks, but has also underscored the importance of social, cultural, economic and historical factors which have contributed to making a certain section of population in a given space more vulnerable to potential risks than others.

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The concept of ‘Vulnerability’ helps us to examine hazard or a disaster from the position of capacity of the population to absorb, recover and respond to the impact of an event. It emphasizes the need to look at the question of ‘why a disaster’ rather than ‘what a disaster is’ or ‘what a disaster does’. The ‘vulnerability approach’ does not see disasters as a disruptive event in the linear progression of development process. They are seen as a ‘result’ of the development process, rather than an event which impinges upon development (Hilhorst 2006: 55). The marginality is determined by the combination of variables of social order such as age, ethnicity, class, gender and disability, which continues to deprive people of the access to resources and means to cope up with hazard. The ‘dis-empowerment’ of the people thus leaves them physically weak, emotionally impoverished and socially dependent.

The Disaster Management Framework in Delhi: A Study of Law and Institution The legal and institutional framework for disaster management in India is provided by Disaster Management Act 2005 which was enacted on 23 January 2005. It envisaged the creation of Disaster Management Authorities at the National, State and Local level. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) at the national level is headed by the Prime Minister and the State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) at the state level is headed by the respective Chief Ministers to formulate and implement an integrated and holistic approach towards Disaster Management. Delhi Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) was institutionalized in March 2008 at the NCT level under the authority of the Lieutenant Governor. Delhi Disaster Management Plan has been formulated for the state for an integrated plan and operational framework for all the disasters to ensure ‘systematic assessment, communication and management of risk and identification of response’ to effectively deal with a disaster (Delhi Disaster Management Plan, 2014–2015). The plan also provides for coordination between the DDMA and the other institutions at district level including local authority, communities and other stakeholders for preparation and implementation of the mitigation measures. The Disaster Management Act, 2005 also mandates the integration of mitigation measures in the development policy for prevention of disaster and mitigation of its effects. The act legally empowers the

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Disaster Management Authorities to coordinate the enforcement and implementation of such policies and plans (Section 6(2e-f) of the Disaster Management Act 2005). However, the empirical analysis and descriptive research on the working of the Delhi Disaster Management Authorities in Delhi suggests that risk mitigation and resilience building measures undertaken by the authorities have been limited to capacity building for dealing with an emergency situation through evacuation drills in case of fire hazards, earthquakes, terrorist attack, etc. It has failed to take any action to monitor the implementation of mitigation measures through compliance with seismic safety laws, building plans and land use regulations. Lack of effective coordination with the agencies responsible for provision of civic amenities such as drainage, water, health and urban planning has resulted disaster management in an authority, solely focused on post-disaster relief and rehabilitation measures rather than integrating disaster risk reduction into development policies. Disaster Management institutions in the city continue to struggle with scarcity of physical, financial and human resource, as the issue of disaster management is still seen as a non-priority in the administrative offices, which are overloaded with other exigencies of day-to-day administrative needs and requirements. Lack of separate institutionalization with sufficient punitive powers for ensuring enforcement and resource scarcity to monitor and survey the violations has converted Delhi into a city sitting on a time bomb, waiting for disaster to happen. The ‘top down approach’ engendered in development planning in India has resulted in drafting of complex building bye-laws, Master Plans and zoning regulations which have little relation to the ground realities and community aspirations. This is a major cause of the wide gap between the policies and practice with respect to disaster management.

Political and Administrative Structure in Delhi: An Analysis Administrative structure of Delhi is characterized by the presence of a quagmire of local municipal bodies (NDMC, MCD, and Cantonment Board), local authority (such as DDA) and Delhi Administration. The overlapping jurisdiction of these institutions has made the administrative set up in Delhi quite complex. The designation of Delhi as National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT Delhi) by the enactment of the Constitution (69th Amendment) Act, 1991 has resulted in significant changes

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in administrative structure of Delhi. The act provides for a 70 member elected Legislative Assembly and a Council of Ministers to aid and advise the Lieutenant- Governor. While, the jurisdiction over the bodies which are responsible for provision of basic amenities such as electricity, water and transport has been transferred to the Delhi government elected every five years by the residents of Delhi. However, government agencies such as the New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) and Delhi Development Authority (DDA) continue to remain outside the administrative ambit of the Delhi government. These planning bodies are centralized and technocratic in nature with no accountability to the democratic demands and aspirations of the electorate. The intersection of local, state and national jurisdictions has resulted in several complexities and challenges in urban governance in Delhi. Unauthorized industries in residential areas in violation of Master Plan, violation of National Building Codes by raising the Floor Area Ratio beyond sanctioned limit, unauthorized encroachments, etc., are ubiquitous in Delhi, especially in the Lal Dora and the Extended Lal Dora areas. It has exposed the residents towards not only the potential geographical and man-made hazards (such as urban flooding or industrial fire—due to non-compliance with the fire safety norms), but has also resulted in constant and irreversible degradation of the environment through negative externalities due to increasing consumption pressure on the limited resources, infrastructure and civic amenities.

Administrative Structure in Lal Dora and Extended Lal Dora areas The process of urban expansion in Delhi has been done through the annexation of more than one hundred villages and agricultural land in the periphery to be absorbed into the urban agglomeration. The land acquisition of village agricultural land was undertaken by Delhi Development Authority (DDA) under the Delhi Development Act, 1957. This land acquisition process covered only the acquisition of farmlands (KhetKhalihan) for the planned construction of colonies under the Master Plan. It excluded the village settlements (Abadi-deh) from regulated growth under the development control regulations stated by Delhi Development Authority. These abadi areas, protected by a boundary called Lal

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Dora (Red Chord) which existed in close proximity to the urban infrastructure networks and employment opportunities, saw the uncontrolled growth of unauthorized and haphazard settlements (Dupont 2004: 161). The term Lal Dora was first used by the British Government in 1908 to define the ‘habitation (abadi) land of a village’ (Pati 2015: 18). These areas were demarcated by a red thread (Lal Dora) around the village extension area by the land revenue department for the purpose of differentiating it from the agricultural land, which were subjected to land revenue. These areas were primarily inhabited by the people who had agriculture as their primary occupation. During the land acquisition process undertaken by DDA under the regulated land development policy of the Master Plan Delhi (1962), only the agricultural land in the periphery of abadi areas were acquired, while the rural built forms in abadi areas were protected by a boundary called the ‘Lal Dora’ (Chattopadhay et al. 2014: 2). These villages or the lal dora land has emerged as a thriving real estate market to cater to the housing needs of middle-class migrants. Exemption of the Lal Dora areas under the 1963 notification by the MCD from the building bye-laws has led to mushrooming of indiscriminate constructions amidst constricted congested lanes and buildings for the purpose of maximizing rent extraction (Pati 2015: 19). The slow process of land utilization of the acquired land by the DDA and exclusion of private sector participation in regulated land development under the centralized authority has led to extensive encroachments and unauthorized colonies with substandard building safety and inadequate basic services. Collusion between the private builders and the enforcement agencies to capture profits from the skyrocketing land values has led to mushrooming of large-scale substandard unauthorized colonies in these areas. The Lal Dora areas were thus, initially occupied by the people who have traditionally been engaged in agriculture. The residents residing in these old abadi areas do not have individual ownership for the land. The primary reason behind this fallacy is that the entire old abadi area is accorded single Khasra number in the revenue records of administration (Pati 2015: 18). This lack of legal entitlements had proven to be a big hurdle for a villager for seeking sanctions for the building plan by MCD. The Expert Committee on Lal Dora (also known as Srivastav Committee, 2007) noted that the lack of transparency and procedural clarity on the issue of ownership of land and building plans sanction and non-action by the revenue authorities to establish individual ownership has been a major cause of mixed land use and encroachments which

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have neglected the safety norms and land use policies. The inadequate compensation provided by the government and loss of agricultural lands has deprived the inhabitants from means of sustenance, which pushed them to seek alternative livelihood options such as small scale industry in residential premises, renting out premises for office, godown, etc. This has resulted in large-scale mixed land use in these areas. Although, the Srivastav Committee reasoned this mixed land use as ‘more as a means of survival than the intention to overlook the Building bye-laws and regulations’, the fact remains that such violations have presently resulted in exacerbated vulnerabilities. Due to land available at low prices than peripheral urbanized areas, these areas became the centre of attraction for the middle class looking for low-cost housing due to lack of affordability. The economic vulnerability of Lal Dora residents due to inadequate alternative livelihood options, has been exploited by the speculative buyers and developers. Negligent attitude of the local bodies and the government has led to large-scale development of industries beyond the threshold of household industries. Lack of civic amenities such as treated drinking water, sewerage, proper street lighting, safe electric supply, etc. in these villages, inaction of the civic authorities and cramped twisted narrow layouts are evidence of the gaps in disaster governance in these areas. As the Lal Dora areas were primarily agricultural in character, the drafters of the Master Plan Delhi exempted these areas from certain provisions of the Municipal Corporation Act 1957 which relate to the building bye-laws. Chapter VII of the Building Byelaws lays out policies for sanction of building plans in Delhi. The 1963 notification No. RN-2/173 issued by the Municipal Corporation of Delhi dated 24 August 1963 in exercise of the powers conferred under Section 507 of the Delhi Municipal Corporation (DMC) Act, laid down exemptions for buildings in the Lal Dora areas for sanction of building plans. The notification stated that In exercise of the power conferred by Sub-clause (b)(i) of Clause 3 of Section 507 of the Municipal Corporation Act, 1957 (66 of 1957), the Municipal Corporation of Delhi has with the previous approval of the Central Government exempted the rural areas from the provisions of the said Act. This notification applied only to the village abadis (as defined in the revenue records when the notification dated 24 August 1963 was gazette. Chapter XVI of the DMC Act refers to building regulations. In Lal Dora areas or rural areas, certain sections contained in DMC Act do not apply such as Sections 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 342 and 347.

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Section 332 of the DMC Act defines the prohibition of building without sanction; No person shall erect or commence to erect any building, or execute any of the works specified in section 334 except with the previous sanction of the Commissioner, nor otherwise than in accordance with the provisions of this Chapter and of the bye-laws made under this Act in relation to the erection of buildings or execution of works. Section 333 states the rules with respect to Erection of building. ‘(1) Every person who intends to erect a building shall apply for sanction by giving notice in writing of his intention to the Commissioner in such form and containing such information as may be prescribed by bye-laws made in this behalf. (2) Every such notice shall be accompanied by such documents and plans as may be so prescribed.’

Section 347 of the DMC Act state the various restrictions on user of buildings in the following words: ‘No person shall, without the written permission of the Commissioner, or otherwise than in conformity with the conditions, if any, of such permission — (a) use or permit to be used for human habitation any part of a building not originally erected or authorized to be used for that purpose or not used for that purpose before any alteration has been made therein by any work executed in accordance with the provisions of this Act and of the bye-laws made thereunder; (b) change or allow the change of the use of any land or building; (c) convert or allow the conversation of one kind of tenement into another kind’

The report of the Expert Committee on Lal Dora noted the applicability of the following conditions for exemption from the norms of building bye-laws: (i) The land use in residential and the construction shall confine maximum to 2½ storeys with maximum permissible coverage FAR and height as per byelaws. (ii) It has been certified by the Revenue Department that plot forms part of old built-up abadi area.

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(iii) That the plot was in existence as an independent plot prior to the formation of the Corporation.

These exemptions were, however, not applicable for the non-residential activities, such as factories, warehouses, slaughter houses, cold storage, etc., in the Lal Dora areas. Further, the exemption from sanction for building plan for small scale industries inside Lal Dora areas was allowed only for industries of non-polluting nature. Under the Master Plan 2001, these exemptions were restricted to 1 KW power industries employing five workers (Srivastava: 24). However, the exemptions accorded under the 1963 notification have been misused by unscrupulous elements with an eye on profit, ignoring the structural safety and civic amenities concerns. Such large-scale violations are also noted in the Extended Lal Dora areas. The Extended Lal Dora areas are the ones enclosed within the peripheral boundary between the original Lal Dora and postconsolidation phirni areas (peripheral boundary) under the East Punjab Holding (Consolidation and Prevention of Fragmentation) Act, 1948. While exemption of Lal Dora areas from the provisions of the MCD Act has been clearly stated in the notification, the question of applicability of these provisions for the Extended Lal Dora areas and the urbanized villages has been ambiguous among the policy implementers and people post-independence. The question of applicability of regulations has been dealt by the judiciary in several cases such as Municipal Corporation of Delhi v. Dalmia Industries Private Limited, 2002 (96) DLT 441, and Regal Traders (P) Ltd. Vs. Lt. Governor 1990 RLR 334, in which the Hon’ble High Court held that the exemptions given to Lal Dora areas were equally available to the Extended village abadi areas, that is Extended Lal Dora areas also. However, the Delhi High Court in B.L. Wadhera (Dr.) v. Govt. of NCT of Delhi, (2004) 113 DLT 263 case stated that the exemptions wide 1963 Notification, from the provisions contained in Chapter XVI of DMC Act, were applicable only in the Lal Dora areas and not the Extended Lal Dora areas.3 The court has clearly stated that the Sections 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 342 and 347 of the DMC Act are not applicable in those areas which are declared as urban areas by the notification of the MCD. Such legislative gaps and inconsistent judicial interpretations have made such regions even more amenable to vested interests and profit-seeking businesses, resulting in irreversible damage to the ecosystem and built-up habitations. These areas have witnessed mushrooming of unauthorized constructions and misuse of residential

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premises for industrial purposes, with negligence towards the factors of structural safety and adequate street spaces for emergency rescue in case of emergency such as fire or building collapse. Even the question of exemption of high-rise buildings in Lal Dora areas from the building bye-laws was also considered by the court. While deciding the case for compliance with the fire safety measures in high-rise buildings according to the bye-laws and the National Building Code of India, 1970 in B.L. Wadhera (Dr.) v. Govt. of NCT of Delhi, (2004) 113 DLT 263, the Delhi High Court instructed that occupancy certificate should be granted by the concerned authorities only on the condition of implementation of fire safety measures and fire protection systems by the builders, architects, developers, engineers, etc. according to the provisions of the building bye-laws. The Delhi High court further directed the authorities to withdraw supply of electricity services to any highrise building unless building laws and bye-laws are complied with. The plea was filed by the applicant in the case, for exemption of high-rise buildings in Lal Dora and Extended Lal Dora areas from the ruling of the high court due to their inability to produce fire clearance certificate and completion certificate for availing electricity supply as these areas are exempted under the building bye-laws. The court made it clear that while these exemptions were stated from certain provisions of the MCD act, these did not imply complete negligence of building bye-laws in the construction of the building. While noting the lackadaisical attitude of the enforcement agencies with respect to unauthorized constructions in these areas, the division bench of the Delhi High Court in B.L. Wadhera (Dr.) v. Govt. of NCT of Delhi, [(2004) 113 DLT 263] at page 267 noted that; ‘Municipal Corporation of Delhi/New Delhi Municipal Council and Delhi Development Authority are permitting occupation of high-rise buildings without sanction of building plans or fire clearance or completion certificate …the aforesaid authorities are permitting erection of high-rise buildings in these areas and are collecting various municipal and other taxes…without bothering for byelaws or the provisions made under the Acts.…if the erection of a building is contrary to the byelaws as also according to National Building Code of India, then irrespective of sanction, action can be taken for demolition under Section 343 which refers to order of demolition and stoppage of building and works’. The court made it widely clear that while the exemptions were granted only with respect to sanctions stated under certain Sections of DMC Act (Such as Section 333, 335, 336, 342

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or 347), these exemptions did not construe the complete negligence of building regulations and bye-laws. The applicability of building bye-laws is mandated throughout the territory of Delhi. The DDA has jurisdiction for monitoring compliance with the building bye-laws under the provisions of the DD act in the areas declared as development area. In case of areas ‘not declared as development area’, the court made it clear that the local authority can initiate action against buildings erected in contravention of the building bye-laws. The court in its judgement clearly stated that Permission for development is required either of DDA or NDMC or Cantonment Board or MCD under Section 53 of the DD Act for development in respect of any land. Since Building bye laws 1983 are applicable to any building erected within the Union Territory of Delhi, they are applicable in MCD, DDA and NDMC areas. No building in NCT Delhi can be erected without meeting the requirements of the building bye laws.

Illegality and Marginality in Hauz Khas Village and Pahari Area: Findings from the Field The Hauz Khas village is a Lal Dora area, which was exempted from the building bye-laws and regulations under 1963 MCD notification. Formerly an agricultural area, today the village is characterized by mixed land use due to presence of many restaurants and shops. The presence of Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s tomb in the immediate vicinity has made this village an attractive tourist destination. The construction of residential buildings, restaurants in the immediate vicinity of the tomb is in absolute violation of regulations of the Archaeological Survey of India. Such violations are hence, a threat to the residents as well as the heritage buildings in the NCT region. The village area is inhabited by approximately 5000 people, characterized by diverse socio-economic and cultural backgrounds. The field study suggests a prominent feature of this area: the phenomenon of ‘absentee landlordism’, with less than 25 families as domicile of the village. Due to city congestion and demand for land due to vicinity to the productive centres in the city, the landowners have rented their private property to the migrants, especially of foreign origin, while the original landowners have mostly shifted out of the village towards more spacious and planned settlements. Violation of Environmental norms by restaurants through

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illegal constructions has started to pose threat to the monument and forest area of the region. Construction of building vertically, beyond the permissible limit of Floor Area Ratio is the most flagrant violation, leaving no space even for evacuation by an ambulance, if a disaster such as an earthquake or fire hazard, were to take place. The singular access to Hauz Khas complex through narrow and congested lanes and bye-lanes, lined with bookstores, music stores, art galleries, etc. make it highly vulnerable. The parking of cars and two wheelers in the streets further congest the lanes of the area. Blockage of entrance area by vegetable vendors and auto rickshaws further makes the process of evacuation even more challenging. Although the shop owners in the village claim to comply with the MCD regulation of installation of fire safety systems in their shops, a closer investigation suggested that either these fire extinguishers were non-functional or the workers were unskilled on how to operate them in case of any disaster. The location of Delhi in Seismic Zone IV and its proximity to the active seismic zone fault lines make it a matter which needs urgent administrative attention and capacity building at the community level. In the immediate vicinity of the village is a Pahari area, which is an illegally encroached Muslim Kabristan land. Most of the settlements on this Pahari area are slum habitations, inhabited by migrants from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Due to lack of affordability and accessibility to LowIncome Group houses constructed by DDA, these migrants have been forced to reside in such unhygienic and congested settlements, due to utter destitution. The majority of population residing here belonged to the Muslim and Valmiki community, which are usually considered marginalized in India. The vulnerability of residents is evident due to lack of basic infrastructures such as toilets, drinking water, sanitation facilities, health infrastructure, etc. The informal interview with the residents revealed that they were mainly employed in unorganized sector jobs such as car drivers, office peons, rickshaw pullers, vegetable sellers, who barely managed to earn the income below Rs 10,000 per month. Due to the Pahari area being constructed on unauthorized Kabristan land, the residents of these slums are devoid of voter identity cards and BPL cards as they are unable to provide the concerned authorities with any document as resident proof. This has resulted in further negligence of the residents, as they no longer form a part of the Vote Bank politics. It also results in exclusion of these people from availing the entitlements accorded under the government schemes for the migrants. Lack of toilet and sanitation

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infrastructure facilities forces the inhabitants, especially the women and girls of the area to go for open defecation in the forest area behind the Pahari, posing serious threat to health and safety. Poor quality of drinking water forces the residents to opt for water tanker, which charges exorbitant amount for potable water, adding to out of pocket expenditure. Problem of water logging due to congested settlement and unhygienic conditions has made them vulnerable to various vector borne diseases such as dengue and chikungunya, resulting in frequent epidemic conditions. Inadequate public health facilities for tertiary care intensifies the problem, as the Safdarjung Hospital (where most of the residents prefer and are guided to go by the private clinics) witnesses footfall of patients beyond its capacity to handle. The non-availability of beds forces these people to sleep on floors or in worst situations, leave the city for their village. Such conditions push them into the vicious circle of poverty and destitution. Although, the Hauz Khas area is now considered as an extended Lal Dora area, negligence and disregard for the building bye-laws and fire safety measures continue unabated due to vested interests and administrative negligence. The Residence Welfare Association and the local community have so far, not been involved in vulnerability mapping or risk mitigation measures by the disaster management authorities. This clearly shows that the disaster management authorities continue to focus on postdisaster relief and evacuation approach, with little attention to pre-disaster mitigation and adaption measures, by addressing the underlying social, economic and political inequities and marginalization. This is the grim scenario, even when we have passed the deadline of Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015).

Conclusion The urbanized villages have continued to flout the building control regulations under the erroneous assumption of exemptions of these areas from the building bye-laws and regulations. The negligence of administrative authorities, overlapping jurisdictions with accountability of none, has led to an attitude of builder’s mentality among the administrators and regulators and regime of non-compliance among the citizens. This is the primary reason of large-scale unauthorized constructions and unregulated commercial establishments in residential areas in Lal Dora and Extended Lal Dora areas, which has made these areas ‘highly vulnerable’ on the scale

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of exposure towards hazards and lack of coping capacity and resilience due to inadequate civic infrastructure to address the needs of disproportionately high population on limited land and infrastructure. This underscores the need of an urgent overhaul of disaster management institutions in Delhi, which continue to be powerless in enforcing compliance with safety regulations and incorporation of mitigation and adaptation measures in development planning and processes. It becomes more vital when we have entered the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) whose Priority 2 emphasizes Strengthening Disaster Risk Governance to manage disaster risk at national, regional and global level and Priority 3 underscores the need to invest in structural and non-structural Disaster Risk Reduction measures for enhanced economic, social, cultural and health resilience of persons, communities and their environment.

Notes 1. The Report is titled ‘Expert Committee Report on Unauthorized Construction and Misuse of Premises in Delhi, 2006.’ 2. The Report is titled ‘Report of the Expert Committee on Lal Dora and Extended Lal Dora in Delhi, 2007’. 3. Chapter XVI of the DMC Act details the procedure for compliance with the Building Regulations and the jurisdiction and authorities of the Municipal Commissioner with respect to unauthorized constructions. Section 332 relates to prohibition of building without sanction, Sec. 333 relates to Erection of building, Sec. 343 relates to order of demolition of buildings and works in certain cases, Sec 347 relates to restrictions on user of buildings.

References Byahut, S. (2016). Effective Development Regulation System for a Resilient Built Environment: A Reform Project for Delhi, India. In Awotona, A. (Ed.) Planning for Community-Based Disaster Resilience Worldwide: Learning from Case Studies in Six Continents, London and New York: Taylor & Francis. Chattopadhay, S., Dey, P., & Michael, J. (2014). Dynamics and Growth Dichotomy of Urban Villages: Case Study Delhi. International Journal for Housing Science 38(2): 81–94. Delhi Development Act, 1957. Retrieved from http://mohua.gov.in/upload/ uploadfiles/files/Delhi_Act_1957.pdf (Last Visited 7 May 2019).

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Delhi Disaster Management Plan. Retrieved from http://delhi.gov.in/wps/ wcm/connect/8d935d004829d5ec8becebae1ccb7dea/Delhi+Draft+State+ Plan+09042015+Part+I.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&lmod=-300925450 (Last Visited 7 May 2019). Disaster Management Act, 2005. Retrieved from https://www.ndmindia.nic.in/ images/The%20Disaster%20Management%20Act,%202005.pdf (Last Visited 7 May 2019). Dupont, V. (2004). Socio-Spatial Differentiation and Residential Segregation in Delhi: A Question of Scale? Geoforum 35(2): 157–175. Expert Committee—Report of the Expert Committee on Lal Dora and Extended Lal Dora in Delhi, 2007. Retrieved from http://delhi-masterplan.com/ wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Expert-comittee-report-on-lal-dora.pdf (Last Visited 7 May 2019). Hilhorst, D. (2006). Complexity and Diversity: Unlocking Social Domains of Disaster Response. In Bankoff, G. (Eds.) Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development and People, 151 South Asian edition, London and Sterling: Earthscan. Ministry of Urban Development—Expert Committee Report on Unauthorized Construction and Misuse of Premises in Delhi, 2006. Retrieved from http:// delhi-masterplan.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Tejinder-khanna-com ittee-report.pdf (Last Visited 7 May 2019). Pati, S. (2015). The Regime of Registers: Land Ownership and State Planning in the Urban Villages of Delhi. SOAS South Asia Institute Working Papers, 1: 17–31. Srirangan, K. (2000). Draft Final Report—March 2000, Delhi field Studies and Workshop DFID: Research Project R6860, Public Land and Property Development and Cross-Subsidization for Low-income Housing in Delhi.

Concerns Around Sectoral Policies

Human Trafficking and Disaster Risk Reduction: A Cross Cutting Link in SDGs Mondira Dutta

Introduction Trafficking in persons is a serious crime and a grave violation of human rights. Every year, thousands of men, women and children fall into the hands of traffickers, in their own countries and abroad. Almost every country in the world is affected by trafficking, whether as a country of origin, transit or destination for victims. The UNODC, as guardian of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) and the Protocols thereto, assists States in their efforts to implement the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (Palermo Protocol). Human Trafficking is a humanitarian concern for Governance, International Institutional Collaboration and of Law. It is a heinous crime involving exploitation of a person typically through force, fraud or coercion for the purpose of forced labour, involuntary servitude or commercial sexual exploitation. The Trafficking in Persons (TIP) report annually measures the government efforts across four categories in terms of the 3P paradigm of

M. Dutta (B) Special Centre for Disaster Research, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_9

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prosecuting traffickers, protecting victims, and preventing the crime. These are Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 2 Watch List and Tier 3. Although Tier 1 is considered as the highest rank, but it does not imply that those countries are free from human trafficking. These ranks only mean that the governments of the concerned countries recognizes the problem and are trying to address the issue of human trafficking with sincerity and do their bit. Every year, governments of each country needs to demonstrate that they have made significant progress in tackling the problem and maintaining their ranks. India currently has been put in Tier 2 in the TIP report of 2018 implying countries whose governments do not fully meet the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) and do not qualify the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking in persons (Trafficking in Persons Report 2018). However such of the countries are considered to be making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards. There is a dearth and inconsistency in the overall victim identification and protection. The government sometimes have been found to be penalizing the victims by arresting them for crimes committed, rather than for being subjected to human trafficking. Moreover the government’s conviction rates has been abysmally low. So is the number of investigations, prosecutions and convictions in relation to the scale of trafficking happening in India especially in the cases of bonded and forced labour. Disasters and human trafficking do not confine to the administrative borders, rather spills much beyond. The borders are just pure imaginary lines. Studies (Dutta 2011b; Samuels 2015) show that whenever there occurs a chaos such as civil war, natural calamity resulting in disasters, ethnic conflict, political instability or any unpredictability, the traffickers make the most out of such a situation. The best time for the traffickers to ‘make hay while the sun shines’ is a period when people are the most vulnerable. The more the community is unprepared, the better it is for the traffickers. Poverty, natural calamity, epidemic, despair, war, crisis and ignorance are all recognized as adding fuel to the fire resulting in human trafficking (Miko 2007). Any disaster paves a smooth path for the traffickers. Human Trafficking enhances manifold when disasters occur. Disasters do not discriminate people rather it exacerbates the pre-existing vulnerabilities which are often ignored in the disaster risk reduction policies. One such vulnerability leads to human trafficking. Disaster and human trafficking are closely related but when it comes to research and actions they

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seem to be studied independently. Research studies on the two subjects seem like parallel lines complementing each other rather than supplementing the purpose. They are studied in a world of their own completely oblivion of the synergy of risks and danger that loom large over the community. Studied as a stand-alone subject, it defeats the very purpose of addressing the issue of human security, human rights and human trafficking. The UN protocols, conventions and MoUs need to synergize their efforts towards this grey area and address the links between the two. The inter links between disaster and human trafficking have been mostly a neglected field of study. The already existing socio-economic conditions imply that disasters can lead to different outcomes even for demographically similar communities. Nonetheless the most vulnerable groups suffer the maximum. Researches (Miko 2007; Finn 2016; Dutta 2015) reveals that disasters reinforce, perpetuate and increase gender inequality, making bad situations worse for the women. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) Policy on Gender Mainstreaming in Disaster Risk Reduction ‘aims to provide clear guidance from UNISDR Senior Management on gender mainstreaming in disaster risk reduction (DRR), and to detail a set of actions required to implement the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA)’. Unfortunately, the potential contributions that women can offer to the disaster risk reduction overbearing around the world are often overlooked and female leadership in building community resilience to disasters is frequently disregarded. Several organizations (UNDP, IUCN and UNISDR) have now come together to synergize their effort towards this regard. The World Health Organization (WHO), has also expressed concern over the vulnerabilities especially when children get separated from their families and livelihood options for men and women start to deplete during a disaster, creating an ideal situation for traffickers to prey upon. Traffickers wait for such opportunities, and get tempted to specially target children orphaned or separated from their families, women in distress or even the men who are in search of livelihood options during a disaster. Such cases are rampant and frequently witnessed in countries that have been often hit by natural calamity impacting the most vulnerable sectors of the society such as migrants, job seekers and the poorer families. As a result, disasters create targets for exploitation and enslavement (CdeBaca 2010). Traffickers are generally successful in a climate of weak law enforcement and economic hardship (Finn 2016).

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Purpose The present study attempts to highlight the interlinks between human trafficking and disaster and emphasizes the need to secure greater engagement of local stakeholders and provide increased access to safe spaces following a disaster. It also highlights how disaster mitigation and human trafficking can supplement each other in the establishment of preventive and protective measures. The research attempts to study the gaps in the overlapping areas between disaster and trafficking and is an effort to strengthen their links through various experiences from the field in the Indian context. The areas hit by frequent disasters in India also happen to be the most vulnerable areas for human trafficking.

Methodology Adopted A lack of data has been the biggest challenge in analysing the trend pattern between human trafficking and natural disasters. Although the National Crime Record Bureau of India documents some information on Crime against Women and Trafficking, nevertheless an understanding of the data from the perspective of the relationship between Trafficking and Disaster remains bleak. The data available on Human Trafficking is not only slender but is inadequate but seems to be only the tip of the iceberg as a majority of the cases goes unreported. A primary survey on the other hand reveals the massive impact that disasters have had on Human Trafficking. There is a need for ushering in dynamic ‘Disaster Risk Reduction’ strategies in order to provide bold preventive measures in arresting the magnitude of human trafficking. The present research therefore relies on the primary survey undertaken in various phases during 2009 to 2012, which clearly shows how people became a prey to human trafficking due to their vulnerable situation during a disaster. Women come forward at times of such crisis to steer the family members and the children to safety and become vulnerable. A primary survey was undertaken on 60 women in the Sonagachi brothels of Kolkata during 2009–2010. Out of which 22 women were from the district of Murshidabad in West Bengal. A detailed case study of these women revealed how they got trafficked one by one due to the floods that took place in the district every monsoon and the women had no option but to migrate in search of livelihood options. It was in this situation that before they could even realise, women and girls from the

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district of Murshidabad found themselves landed up in the brothels of Sonagachi in Kolkata (Dutta 2010). Similarly a large number of women were found to be trafficked from Kishanganj district of Bihar along the Indo Nepal border. Thus a primary survey was undertaken in 2009, 2010 and 2012 of a few NGOs, CSOs and border security forces and the Sonagachi red light areas in Kolkata. As per the Census of India, 2001 the age specific sex ratio for the age group 10 to 24 revealed an alarming trend of a depleting sex ratio in the same age group in the districts of Murshidabad, Kishanganj and a few others in comparison to the other age groups (Dutta 2010). These are the places which typically have been a frequent witness to natural disasters. NGOS have contributed significantly in providing shelter, care and training for livelihood options to victims. The present research relies on field visits to some of these organizations, namely the Manav Sewa Sansthan in Gorakhpur district of UP, Saanlap in Kolkata and Prajwala in Hyderabad and Shakti Vahini of Delhi.

Palerma Protocol and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Although the Palerma Protocol on trafficking and the MDGs were both evolved in the year 2000, but these seem to be divergent and apart from each other although. Subsequently the after five years in 2005 the Hyugo Framework of action was formulated to be undertaken followed by the Sendai Framework of Action in 2015 to 2030. Although there is a strong relation between trafficking and disasters, they seem to independent entities as far as policy strategy framework is concerned. It was important to relate the Palermo Protocol on trafficking of 2000 with the Hyugo Framework of Action of 2005. Individual Protocol and Framework of Action have their own strength but the synergy of all these become stronger in addressing the overlapping areas. It becomes a need based strategy which is area specific as well. Unless these protocols supplement each other, the main issue remain unanswered. The SDGS have emerged as the linking factor among many of the protocols and goals. In fact the SDG 16, is an important goal which seemed to have been an omission of the MDGs, like that of governance, inclusion, participation, rights and security. SDG 16 seems to be both an end in itself, and a crucial part of delivering sustainable development in all countries. It would not be

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incorrect to state, that SDG 16 is the transformational goal and key to ensuring that the Agenda can be accomplished. While we move on from the era of MDG to SDGs ‘Violence against Women’ continues to dominate all activities and action in the policy framework. From the third goal of MDG we have moved on to the fifth goal in SDG clearly emphasizing Eliminating all forms of Violence against Women and Girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation. It needs to be stressed that the SDGs referred to as the Global goals are 17 in number, built on the basis of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). What is unique in these goals is the interconnection between them. Each goal involves addressing not only its own theme but issues that are more commonly associated with others. The interconnecting link among the SDGs help in building partnership and pragmatism to opt for the right choice towards improving life that would remain sustainable. Thus addressing the gender violence which exacerbates during a disaster will in turn adopt in accordance with their own priorities and the environmental challenges of the world at large. The SDGs are essentially an inclusive agenda with a commitment ‘to leave no one behind’. Achieving any SDG goal essentially warrants developing the partnership of governments, private sector, civil society and taking along the citizens of the region. It has been planned in such a manner that a change in one of the goals does leave a corresponding change in the others. For example the 4th goal talks about ‘Ensuring Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education and Promote Lifelong Learning Opportunities for all’. Achieving this will necessarily trigger an equal impact in goal number 5 which states ‘achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls’. Similarly the 11th goal states about making, ‘cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’ thereby impacting goal number 16 that state, ‘Promoting Peaceful and Inclusive Societies for Sustainable Development, Provide Access to justice for all and build effective accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels’. Additionally it impacts the last Goal No 17 as well that suggests, ‘Strengthening the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development’. According to the U.S. Department of State, natural disasters can increase both physical and economic insecurity while disproportionately impacting the most vulnerable sectors of society such as migrants, job seekers and poorer families. As a result, disasters create targets for exploitation and enslavement. (CdeBaca 2010). There has not been much

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attention to this important link between disaster and its impact on the human trafficking. Fortunately, over the recent years the concern for this neglected field of research is growing. It is being more and more realized as to how traffickers wait for such an opportunity, get tempted specially to target children orphaned or separated from their families, women in distress or even the men who are in search of livelihood options during a disaster. Such cases are rampant and frequently witnessed in countries that are often hit by natural calamity. Some studies and field-based research undertaken by the author shows how Maldives, Tajikistan, Nepal, India, Bangladesh and other parts of the world have been a victim of sexual exploitation, labour trafficking, agricultural workers and domestic servitude during a natural disaster. Such effects last for a lifetime as compared to property damaged or even lives lost. Human trafficking is a heinous crime involving exploitation of a person typically through force, fraud or coercion for the purpose of forced labour, involuntary servitude or commercial sexual exploitation. Human trafficking is among the top three biggest criminal enterprises in the world after drug trafficking and counterfeiting. However there are always challenges and gaps in terms of participatory democracy and governance that are encountered in fulfilling an agenda. Particularly in fulfilling the sub-goals of developing efficient, effective, accountable and transparent institutions at all levels. It is of importance to ensure ushering in a responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels.

Role of Institutions and Civil Society Organization As the countries get fragmented due to wars, violence and terrorism, their borders get drawn and redrawn, but the indisputable facts of the region’s ancient history, geography and culture continue to remain as witnesses to the violence and marginalization of the vulnerable. While the gender bias and social exclusion in the society starts getting institutionalized, the role of the governance mechanism and Civil Society Organization gets even more complex. Under such situations before realization dawns, nobody even notices how and when colonization creeps in and exploitation has begun, making millions to become slaves of a few (Dutta 2011a). The role of Institutions, law implementation and CSOs become even more

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relevant in this context. An absence of law and lack of governance adds further to the deteriorating situation. The present environment is one where there is a growing international discourse taking place for building resilient communities. It has been amply displayed at the international level, that there is a gap between humanitarian assistance and development cooperation. This gap needs to be bridged in order to enable a more holistic approach towards achieving Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). The International institutional research has already proved that trafficking increases abnormally during crisis and disaster periods when vulnerability of the weaker communities and individuals, peaks at its highest. Often it is the women and children of most nations that are stuck up in wars, for example, during the dismemberment of the erstwhile USSR, many hundreds and thousands were trafficked to earn the cost of war and medical treatment of soldiers or were simply war affected themselves. However research on such aspects have been deficit. No doubt there is a dearth of empirical data on trafficking—not only after a disaster but prior to it as well, due to the fact that most of the cases goes unreported! The region of South Asia in particular has been a source, origin and destination for trafficking at vulnerable points such as the borders where trafficking of women and girl children are most common. This is also a region where disasters are a regular feature. Some are natural and a lot of it is man-made. Today the world is gripped with issues of citizenship due to immigrants who have ventured out as a result of war, natural calamities and ethnic clashes. The case of Afghan or the Syrian refugees, the Rohingyas or the Bangladeshi immigrants are some of the common problems that have a rippling impact over the world. The borders are the most vulnerable where laws, policies and implementation of strategies are hazy. Many of the jails of India, Bangladesh and Pakistan are full of such trafficked victims who are not claimed by anyone as in most cases their families back home are either eliminated in disasters or are lost in a new world. Children do not even recollect the names of their parents or addresses from where they came. Studies and field-based research (Dutta 2010, 2011b) show how Maldives, Tajikistan, Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and other parts of the world have been a victim of sexual exploitation, labour trafficking, agricultural workers and domestic servitude during natural disasters. The after-effects of which lasts a lifetime as compared to property damaged or even lives lost.

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Maldives is a typical example of labour trafficking following the disaster of Tsunami where one-third of the entire population consists of immigrants mostly from India and Bangladesh (Dutta 2015). The contribution of migrant workers in the development of Maldives post Tsunami have been significant in the sectors of Education, Tourism, Health, Construction and Aviation. In 2010, the data on immigration by the Immigration Office in Maldives, showed a total of 87,178, legal migrant worker, 30,000 illegal migrant workers, 10,000 undocumented workers, 18,233 new expatriate employees and 35,710 on re-entry work visa permits. Field study showed that unfortunately many of the legal migrants become illegal overnight due to their vulnerable conditions where workers are not paid for days on end and they are forced to take up illegal work for their survival. There is clear evidence of such trends being repeated again and again based on various case studies and field-based research (Dutta 2010). However, a lack of empirical data on trafficking—not only after a disaster but prior to it as well—is one of the main problems while attempting to analyse trends between human trafficking and natural disasters. Among human trafficking labour trafficking constitute the largest proportion of all cases of human trafficking followed by commercial sexual exploitation. Most of the studies however focusses on sexual exploitation. It may be recollected how in 2004, following the Tsunami, voices were raised by a number of non-governmental organizations expressing concerns and reports stating disturbing and negative trends such as vulnerability to sexual violence, exploitation, and trafficking (Miko 2007). Some of the estimates (IFRC 2014) state that 21 million were victims of people trafficked and are victims of modern day slavery. This is only the tip of the iceberg. Such crimes only perpetrates more crimes affecting almost every country. It is crucial that the facts behind the phenomenon need to be understood in order to grasp and respond to the magnitude of the issue. A clear understanding helps in developing sustainable projects for prevention, rehabilitation and reintegration of the trafficked victims. India has been forthright in recognizing the gravity of the situation. The Indian Prime Ministers’ ten point agenda on Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) has been emphasized time and again. Such programmes brings synergy in planning while allowing convergence between Sendai Framework, Paris Climate Agreement and the new set of SDGs’. In order to implement the agenda, the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) as well as many other institutions have geared up in organizing workshops on a war footing involving senior officials from various Central

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Ministries and Establishments. Such a synergy addresses issues with a ‘Bottom-up’ and ‘Top-down’ approach across the development sectors to fit all. Such a synergy can be achieved with the help of all Stakeholders and institutions. The role of the Civil Society Organization is exemplary as was evidenced in the field visits. The UNISDR has also expressed concern over vulnerabilities when children get separated from their families. It states how the collapse or absence of humanitarian aid and the system of emergency that follow a disaster in addition to other factors, leads to a chaotic environment that can be easily exploited by the traffickers. The report by the U.N. Special Rapporteur on the sale of children noted that ‘the collapse or absence of a state system during and after an emergency results in a protection vacuum for children who may become separated from their families’ (Samuels 2015). The World Health Organization further elaborates that where women’s options for employment are limited, as may be the case following a disaster, sexual exploitation and trafficking may also increase (WHO 2005).

Conclusions and Policy Recommendation Disasters not only promote social exclusion of the vulnerable communities but leads to institutionalising and socially sanctioning marginalization of the victims. The trafficking of women and girls leaves them stigmatized carrying gender stereotype roles in the society. The women are responsible for retaining the family honour, take care of their children during a crisis, and protect themselves from societal shame. Poverty and the low economic status already identifies the community into vulnerable marginalized groups making them more susceptible to the impact of disasters. The low economic status combined with a lack of livelihood options leave them to fend for themselves during a disaster as well. There is a lack of awareness and a complete ignorance to the policies and schemes available for the grassroots. Such schemes rarely reach the actual and needy. This becomes even more complex and difficult in the case of mass scale illiteracy and low literates leaving them vulnerable to further exploitation and a prey to trafficking. This is more so among women and girls who therefore continue to concentrate in the peripheral areas of work culture. Seldom does one find women representing the core group of policymakers and decision-making bodies. Awareness programmes are not only a necessity for the women but for men as well.

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Vulnerability to trafficking is related to deprivation indices like food insecurity, migration, caste and class issues, social insecurity, economic insecurity and above all areas that are disaster prone. Disasters enhance these deprivation indices manifold. Often research studies remain confined and are rarely shared among the stakeholders of concern. Ministries thus are unable to imbibe the preventive measures into their ongoing schemes. A capacity build of governance institutions will bring about a greater convergence of the ongoing schemes in the various ministries impacting people’s lives. Development of tool kits, and publicity material on safe migration procedures also needs to be initiated for creating the necessary awareness and knowledge sharing mechanisms. For achieving the SDGs, and ushering in gender empowerment it is important to promote the concept of public private partnership in a restricted manner in the targeted areas. The study suggests the following recommendations: • A close collaboration with stakeholders and NGO partners in the targeted areas. initiatives to build capacity and support grassroot level NGOs for linking government initiatives on poverty alleviation programmes like MGNREGA, Swadhar, Ujjawala and others for addressing the needs of women under difficult circumstances and in providing sustainable livelihood opportunities. • Targeting children and young people through teachers or groups (Kishori groups). This would create greater awareness and provide answers to children facing family problems and help them to handle crisis situation when disaster strikes. • A bi-lateral, tri-lateral and multi-lateral collaboration such as the National Commission for Women and the Human Rights Commission undertake such initiatives as the nodal agencies through seminars bringing together the NGOs and the government agencies on a common platform for jointly sharing and developing strategy in response to reducing vulnerability in the target districts. A greater involvement of the Panchayats or the local governance is required. • Networking among all the stakeholders cutting across all crosssections of the society is a must for harnessing the synergy of all stakeholders. • A strong infrastructure needs to be set up in the most vulnerable districts following the targeted intervention approach. The

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Ministry of Women and Child Development for example may establish community referral mechanisms such as providing short stay home facilities along with counselling to the trafficked victims by trained practitioners. A constant and regular training programme may be imparted. • Research and Advocacy needs to be undertaken and given importance through proper dissemination process for better understanding and advocating alternative development strategies among the vulnerable.

References CdeBaca, Luis, 2010: Best Practices: Human Trafficking in Disaster Zones, U.S. Department of State, May 24, 2010, http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/rm/ 2010/142160.htm. Dutta, Mondira, 2010: Evaluation Study on the UNIFEM Regional Antitrafficking Programme in South Asia, (2000–2009) as the team leader, UNIFEM South Asia Regional Office, February, New Delhi. Dutta, Mondira, 2011a: ‘India—Afghanistan: Options for Access and Trade’, in Trade and Transport Linkages in South and Central Asia, edited by K Warikoo, Pentagon Press, August, New Delhi. Dutta, Mondira, 2011b: ‘Mapping Vulnerability to Trafficking of Women and Children in India’, sponsored by UN Women and the National Commission for Women, March, UN Women, New Delhi. Dutta, Mondira, 2015: ‘Understanding Maldives in the Context of Trafficking’, in Development and Regional Cooperation in Central and South Asia: Euro-Asian Perspectives, edited by Henrik Berglund, Mondira Dutta, & Per Hilding, Pentagon Press, October, New Delhi. Finn, Joshua, 2016: Human Trafficking and Natural Disasters—Exploiting Misery, International Affairs Review, Vol XXIV. IFRC, 2014: http://www.ifrc.org/en/news-and-media/opinions-and-positi ons/opinion-pieces/2014/statement-on-migration-by-francesco-rocca/. Miko, Francis, 2007: International Human Trafficking, in Transnational Threats, ed. Kimberly Thachuk, Praeger Security International, Westport, CT. NATMO (National Atlas & Thematic Mapping Organisation), 1999: Disaster Prone Districts of India. Samuels, A., 2015: Narratives of Uncertainty: The Affective Force of ChildTrafficking Rumors in Post Disaster Aceh, Indonesia, American Anthropologist.

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Trafficking in Persons Report, 2018: https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/ 2017/. WHO (World Health Organization), 2005: Department of Injuries and Violence Protection, Violence and Disasters: http://www.who.int/violence_injury_pre vention/publications/violence/violence_disasters.Pdf.

IPR and Women Farmers: Legal Threats to Sustainable Development Manika Kamthan

Introduction Some historians believe that it was woman who first domesticated crop plants and thereby initiated the art and science of farming. While men went out hunting in search of food, women started gathering seeds from the native flora and began cultivating those of interest from the point of view of food, feed, fodder, fibre and fuel. —M. S. Swaminathan, the famous agricultural scientist (Shiva and Jalees, 1)

Women have always been at the helm of the agricultural activities in India. Shireen Moosvi (2008, 137) cites a Mughal miniature of c. 1610 which depicts a woman sowing seed broadcast, walking directly behind the man driving the plough. In 1811–1812 Buchanan reported that in Bihar women earned some wages through sowing seeds, though this was for them a part time job in addition to spinning. The work in the field that the women did in the eighteenth century included transplanting, weeding and helping in harvesting. Though the actual operations carried

M. Kamthan (B) Symbiosis Law School, Pune, Maharashtra, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_10

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out by women are not always clear enough in Mughal miniatures, women working in the fields form part of the typical rural scene depicted by the artists. According to government records at present women make up 74.9% of the overall agricultural workforce (NSSO). Agriculture is currently undergoing a transformation as result of both past events and the new changes sweeping the world, collectively known as ‘globalization’. These waves of change have their specific impact on farm women and the households. Defining globalization Joseph Stiglitz wrote: globalisation is the closer integration of the countries and peoples of the world …brought about by the enormous reduction of costs of transportation and communication, and the breaking down of artificial barriers to the flows of goods, services, capital, knowledge, and people across borders. (Stiglitz 2003)

India had adopted globalization of agriculture by adopting the green revolution. The Green Revolution is regarded as the milestone in the history of agriculture of India. The Green Revolution Technology was developed in the west in an attempt to modernize agriculture, especially in the context of rapid industrialization. Agricultural production had to be increased to keep pace with industrial development. After much research, ‘Charles Borloug’, now probably known as the ‘Father of Modern Agriculture’, developed the ‘Miracle Seeds’—The High Yeilding Variety Seeds (HYV). The development of HYV seeds necessitated the development of chemical fertilizers, new and artificial means of irrigation and labour saving mechanical equipment to handle the increased production. Together this was the ‘Green Revolution Package’. The success of this package in developed countries like the United States inspired the developing nations to experiment with it. The developing nation like India was also newly independent nation struggling with the problem of feeding their ‘teeming millions’ especially in the wake of recurring calamities as droughts and famines. In 1966 north India witnessed the worst food riots. In twentieth Century India, scarcity conditions became acute. This prompted the Indian Government to experiment with Green Revolution Technology in selected areas of the country. These areas were those which had the basic infrastructure to adopt this technology. The infrastructure included banking institutions, unequal land structure, artificial

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means of irrigation etc. Punjab and Haryana were areas identified in the North and Tamil Nadu in Southern India. Green Revolution which was the part of the developmental planning of Indian State had the intended returns of high productivity, but it had serious implications for women in agriculture. ‘Development’ refers to ‘economic, socio political and cultural processes of change in human societies’ (Hombergh 1993, 16). However, when are trying to locate development in the gender discourse we can adopt Vandana Shiva’s terminology of ‘mal-development’ which means impoverishment of the majority in Southern countries, women in particular and unsustainable exploitation of the natural resource base (Shiva 1989, 5). ‘Maldevelopment occurs out of the assumption that western style progress was possible for all’ (Shiva 1998, 1). Vandana Shiva writes: Development was equated with expansion of colonialism which aimed at accumulation of wealth and the commercialisation of the economy for the generation of “surplus” and profits thus involved the reproduction not merely of a particular form of creation of wealth, but also of the associated creation of poverty and dispossession. Such idea of development enforced on third world countries especially on women becomes a never ending struggle against ‘mal-development” just as they earlier struggle for liberation from colonialism. (Shiva 1998, 2)

The Green Revolution, a western strategy adopted by India for agricultural development to break away with food scarcity is one such example of ‘mal-development’. The adverse impacts of green revolution on women were ignored by the policymakers and once again India adopted the idea of globalization of agriculture.

Women and Intellectual Property Rights Regime The creation of WTO in 1995 can be regarded as the biggest international trade reform. WTO agreements are regarded as legal ground rules for international trade and policy. It is the Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreements under WTO which are of relevance for us. According to WTO TRIPS: establishes minimum levels of protection that each government has to give to the intellectual property of fellow WTO members. In doing so, it strikes

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a balance between the long term benefits and possible short term costs to society. (WTO)

All WTO members are required to adopt minimum standards to protect copyrights, patents, trademarks and other intellectual property rights. IPR can be defined as ‘the general term for the assignment of property rights through patents, copyrights and trademarks. These property rights allow the holder to exercise a monopoly on the use of the item for a specified period’ (OECD). As far as agriculture is concerned it is the Article 27 of TRIPS which is the bone of contention. Article 27.3(b) protects the indigenous knowledge by stating that, Members may also exclude from patentability: plants and animals other than micro-organisms, and essentially biological processes for the production of plants or animals other than non-biological and microbiological processes. However, Members shall provide for the protection of plant varieties either by patents or by an effective sui generis system or by any combination thereof. The provisions of this subparagraph shall be reviewed four years after the date of entry into force of the WTO Agreement.

This gives mandatory patent cover to micro-organisms and non-biological and micro-biological processes on the basis of three patent eligibility criteria (patent, sui generis or by both). This has created a lot of confusion. Article 27.3(b) basically aims to give protection to traditional knowledge regime which has been contesting IPR regime from the very beginning. ‘The Indian Patent Act’ 1970 does not give any IPR over any method of agriculture or horticulture. But after TRIPS, the protection of agriculture from the monopoly of corporates was threatened’ (Shiva 1998). When IPR is extended to biodiversity and living resources, they become tools for disempowering women. IPR on seeds mean that women can be stopped from collecting them and conserving them who are the natural breeders and collectors of seeds (Shiva 2001). Suman Sahai writes: It needs to be remembered that farm women and men have not only created several thousand races of food and cash crops, they have also identified valuable genes and traits in these crops and maintained them over generations through a highly sophisticated system of crossing and selection.

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Communities have not only developed complex systems of pest management and biological control, they have identified and managed a series of genes conferring valuable traits for commercial and domestic needs. So it is that genes for traits as diverse as disease resistance, high salt tolerance, resistance to waterlogging and drought tolerance have been maintained in the repertoire of communities. Along with these commercial traits, characteristics like cooking time, taste, digestibility, milling and husking characteristics like how much grain breaks during milling operations are recognised and maintained. Women, who have been the traditional custodians of the seed and responsible for its selection, are the repositories of this knowledge and in the true sense owners of this complex seed technology and know-how. (Sahai 1996, 3043)

Traditional knowledge engulfs different kinds of knowledge held by and passed down to individuals or communities. The IPR Commission Report defines traditional knowledge as: Whilst the vast majority of the knowledge is old in the sense that it has been handed down through the generations, it is continually refined and new knowledge developed, rather as the modern scientific process proceeds by continual incremental improvement rather than by major leaps forward….The groups that hold traditional knowledge are very diverse: individuals, groups or groups of communities may all be custodians. Such communities might be indigenous to the land or descendants of later settlers. The nature of the knowledge is also diverse: it covers, for example, literary, artistic or scientific works, song, dance, medical treatments and practices and agricultural technologies and techniques. (IPR Commission Report 2002, 75)

Traditional knowledge is seen as gendered feminine knowledge majorly because of its connection to nature and pre-modern existence. In contrast to traditional knowledge, modern science is seen as masculine/patriarchal project. It is perceived as value-free system of knowledge and which paves the way for development, which is equated with the introduction of ‘scientific agriculture, scientific animal husbandry, scientific water management and so on’ (Shiva 1998, 14–15). This leads to regarding traditional knowledge as inferior knowledge because it is not theorized or documented. The western project of development is thus adopted as superior and more suitable irrespective of the existing traditional knowledge. It is also forced down the throats of the colonized societies as natural and developed.

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The traditional knowledge regime and IPR regime have always been at loggerheads. This continues with TRIPS. ‘With TRIPS the developing countries have all drawn much closer to Western style Intellectual property regimes’ (Sema 2009, 375). The new IPR regimes are in fact for alienating women of their indigenous knowledge and biodiversity rights. Since the ratification of TRIPS in 1994 and the ratification of Convention of Biological Diversity in 1993, traditional knowledge has become an issue of debate in the field of intellectual property law. Can traditional knowledge be given the protection of law or it should be a part of public domain? Can same protection which is given to artificial knowledge like patents, trademarks, copyrights be extended to traditional knowledge? Traditional knowledge is often associated with poverty and under development, however it can also be seen as ‘gendered feminine’ because of its association with nature. The advent of globalization lead to the ‘commodification’ of most of the basic essentials of life and agriculture was no exception. However, this ‘commodification’ creates a legal interest in the earnings out of it. Women as usual are not seen as the receivers of earnings but as mere helpers. Thus it is not the law but the socio-economic status of women which acts as barrier to access to rights given by law. Thus, if a woman rises up to inventing something she can very well apply for a patent as a man would do; but she can never apply for patent for the ‘knowledge’ which was passed down to her by her mother. This situation is aggravated by the fact that women’s work is usually devalued and is not given any place in the legal regime. The IP regime went a step ahead and appropriated the ‘traditional knowledge’ and depriving women of their traditional rights over seeds etc. Vandana Shiva writes: In India, women have long been the biodiversity experts, as seed keepers or as healers: the knowledge of plants and has been women’s knowledge. This knowledge is now being appropriated and pirated, as evidenced by the patenting of neem, turmeric, ginger, karela, basmati, kumari, and other plants medicinal or nutritional value. (Shiva 2001, 13)

National Commission for Women in its report on ‘Women in Agriculture’ has elaborated the effect of WTO on women in agriculture in the following words: Firstly, women have been the primary seed keepers, processors. They have been the both experts and producers of food, from seed to the kitchen.

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W.T.O impacts women’s expertise and productive functions throughout the food chain. The Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement impacts women’s knowledge of and control over seed. The Agreement on Agriculture impacts women’s livelihood and income security, and also has secondary impacts in terms of increased violence against women. The sanitary and phyto sanitary agreement has a direct impact on women’s expertise and economic role in agroprocessing. Secondly, as globalization shifts agriculture to capital intensive, chemical intensive systems, women bear disproportionate cots of both displacement and health hazards. Thirdly, Women carry the heavier work burden in food production, and because of gender discrimination get lower returns for their work. When WTO destroys rural livelihoods, it is women who lose the most. When WTO rules allow dumping which leads to decline in prices of farm products, it is women’s - already low incomes, which go down further. Fourthly, their position vis-à-vis WTO is also more vulnerable because as the livelihoods and incomes of farmers in general, and women agriculturists in particular are eroded, they are displaced from productive roles, women in agriculture and their status is further devalued, while the patriarchal power of those who control assets and benefit from asset transfer due to globalisation is increased, other social processes are triggered which result in increased violence against women. (NCW 2005)

Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) In the list of 17 SDGs adopted by United Nations ‘zero hunger’ ranks second. The Sustainable Development Goal 2 is summarized in this sentence: ‘End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture’. SDG 2 aims to end hunger and all forms of malnutrition by 2030. It also commits to universal access to safe, nutritious and sufficient food at all times of the year. This will require sustainable food production systems and resilient agricultural practices, equal access to land, technology and markets and international cooperation on investments in infrastructure and technology to boost agricultural productivity. ‘Zero Hunger’ is also interpreted as ‘food security’. In India we have National Food Security Act’ 2013 which aims to provide food security to targeted beneficiaries covering roughly 67% of the country’s

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population. It combines and expands the scope of some existing foodbased welfare schemes like targeted public distribution system (TPDS), wheat-based nutrition programme (WBNP) of integrated child development services (ICDS) and mid-day meal (MDM) schemes and a conditional cash transfer scheme called the Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana (IGMSY). It will be distributing raw rations, meal(s) and/or cash depending on the scheme under which the beneficiary is covered. Besides these, the Act recommends targeted efforts to identify and support malnourished children across states. It gives a legal character to per person entitlement. In the case of non-supply of the entitlement, the centre commits to giving a food security allowance. However, this law provides no legal cover to the role of women providing ‘nutrition’ to their households by using their traditional knowledge of agriculture. It merely extends the existing government schemes as ‘rights’ to people. Food Security has three parameters—availability, accessibility and affordability (Krishnaraj 2005, 2508). It is the second parameter which is attacked by the IPR regime. Women are active at every point in the food chain and are often responsible for protecting the integrity of food and ensuring its wholesomeness and safety (FAO 2005). Women have preserved biodiversity, have extensive knowledge of seeds and their characteristics. ‘Poor farmers are aware of the relationship between the stability and sustainability of their production systems and the diversity of crops and crop varieties on their lands. Their management and use of a diverse range of plants have often helped them to survive under difficult conditions. Crops mature at different times and can be easily stored…they also provide a nutritionally balanced diet’ (Hawtin 2005). Women are mainly the marginal farmers and dominate the category of poor farmers. Thus, recognizing and ensuring women’s traditional knowledge can be one of the major tools with which the goal of ‘zero hunger’ can be achieved. To combat the threat created by the IP regime the Indian Government came up with The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act, 2001 which is a unique Act to provide for the establishment of a systematic system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants. However, right after its enactment India decided to adhere to ‘International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants’ which is going to erode the protection given to farmers by the 2001 Act. UPOV is seen as a corporate friendly piece of international treaty which seeks to

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provide incentives to the private sector by engaging in commercial plant breeding by introducing the concept of Plant Breeders’ Right (Pant 2008, 57). Article 1 of UPOV states that purpose of this Convention is ‘to recognise and to ensure to the breeder of a new plant variety or to his successor in title (both hereinafter referred to as ‘the breeder’) a right under the conditions hereinafter defined’. Thus the rights of the breeders are conditional. There are three conditions which need to be fulfilled for grant of protection, they are novelty distinctness, uniformity and stability and denomination (Article 6). Moreover, this protection is granted for a limited period of time (Article 8). This protection can be taken away from the farmer if any failure to comply with the conditions is detected at any point of time. Moreover, it can be taken away if he is no longer in a position to provide the competent authority with reproductive or propagating material capable of producing the variety with its characteristics as defined when the protection was granted. The failure to pay prescribed fees also leads to taking away of the breeders’ rights (Article 10). Moreover, these rights are subject to the measures taken by each member State of the Union to regulate the production, certification and marketing of seeds and propagating material (Article 14). Thus the member state can at any time make contradictory measures and the breeders’ rights will again go for a toss. UPOV pays mere lip service to the breeders’ rights and every provision provides riders to their rights. They can be subjugated to the member state policies to align with the corporate entities and make the commodification of traditional knowledge a glaring truth. Moreover, in a country like India the implementation of UPOV is also problematic and is in contradiction with the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act, 2001. UPOV establishes rules of uniformity, at a time when we know that diversity is vital to nutrition as well as climate resilience. It is dictated standardization (Shiva 2016). It is nothing more than replacing ‘real traditional knowledge’ with ‘false corporate personhood’. It is like substituting our constitutions with the dictated agreements controlled by corporates. In a country like India which is ridden with problems of illiteracy the wide eyed question remains that how many will apply for protection and how many women will be regarded as ‘breeders’ under this instrument of dictate. Although, UPOV claims to legalize and give ownership of ‘traditional knowledge’, but in effect it end up doing the opposite.

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Conclusion Women are the natural food security providers. The sustainable development goal of zero hunger needs to be combatted by providing due acknowledgement and protection to the traditional knowledge of women farmers. The goal cannot be reached by merely providing ‘authorship’ of traditional knowledge to women. It is high time that the ‘ownership’ is duly given to women. The approach to look down upon traditional knowledge as backward and under developed needs a relook. It is ultimately tied to recognizing and legalizing women’s rights to traditional knowledge with the elevation of women’s status from ‘dominated’ to ‘survivors’. Women who just don’t survive alone but also ensure nutrition to their families. The continuous exclusion of women from the world of inventive knowledge needs to be replaced by inclusion of women’s traditional knowledge in the efforts of the governments to eradicate hunger from the face of the world. No development can be sustainable if the governance ignores the knowledge of the half of the humanity.

References FAO (2005). “Gender and Food Security”, http://www.FAO.org/gender/ 17687. Goyal, Prashant (2002). “Food Insecurity in India”, The Hindu, January 10. Hawtin, Geoffery (2005). “Genetic Diversity and Food Security. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute”, Unesco Courier, May. Hombergh, Helene Van den (1993). “ Gender, Environment and Development”, published for the institute for Development Research Amsterdam by International Books (Utrecht, The Netherlands). IPR Commission Report (2002). “Integrating Intellectual Property Rights and Development Policy”, Commission on IPR, London. Krishnaraj, Maitreyi (2005).“Food Security: How and for Whom?”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 40 No. 25, pp. 2508–2512. Moosvi, Shireen (2008). People, Taxation, and Trade in Mughal India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. NCW (2005). “Agriculture Sector in India”, http://ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/ impact%20of%20wto%20women%20in%20agriculture.pdf (accessed on 26 November 2016). NSSO (2011–2012). 68th Round, “India—Employment and Unemployment July 2011–June 2012”, http://mail.mospi.gov.in/index.php/catalog/143. OECD. Glossary of Statistical Terms, https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp? ID=3236.

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Pant, Ruchi (2008). “Protection and Empowerment of Indigenous Plant Breeder Communities in India”, Ph.D. thesis, http://172.16.21.5:8000/theses/TH1 5122.pdf. Sahai, Suman (1996). “Importance of Indigenous Knowledge in IPR System”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 31, No. 47 (November 23, 1996), pp. 3043–3045, Published by: Economic and Political Weekly Stable, http:// www.jstor.org/stable/4404790 (accessed on 04-05-2017) 19:31 UTC. Sema, Terra L. Gearhart (2009). “Women’s Work, Women’s Knowing: Intellectual Property and the Recognition of Women’s Traditional Knowledge”, Yale Journal of Law and Feminism, Vol. 21, No. 2, Article 4, http://digitalco mmons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1304&context=yjlf. Shiva, Vandana (1989). The Violence of Green Revolution: Third World Agriculture, Ecology and Politics, Third World Network, Malaysia. Shiva, Vandana (1998). Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Survival in India, Kali for Women, New Delhi. Shiva, Vandana (2001). “Special Report: Golden Rice and Neem: Biopatents and the Appropriation of Women’s Environmental Knowledge”, Women’s Studies Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 1/2, Earthwork: Women and Environments (Spring–Summer, 2001), pp. 12–23, Published by: The Feminist Press at the City University of New York Stable, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40004606 (accessed on 04-05-2017) 01:01 UTC. Shiva, Vandana (2016). “The Standardised Dictatorship”, http://vandanashiva. com/?p=441. Shiva, Vandana and Kunwar Jalees. “Impact of WTO on Women in Agriculture”, http://ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/impact%20of%20wto%20women%20in% 20agriculture.pdf (accessed on 4 March 2016). Stiglitz, J.E. (2003). Globalisation and Its Discontents, W. W. Norton & Company, New York, London. WTO. “Intellectual Property: Protection and Enforcement”, https://www.wto. org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/agrm7_e.htm. UPOV Convention, http://www.upov.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/upov_pub_295. pdf.

Disasters, Grassroot Women and Local Governance Rahila Sikandar

The Theme This paper attempts to study the role of local governance and community based organizations in empowering women for disasters through training and drill management program. Women at the grassroot are those who are economically dependent, overburdened with family care responsibilities and possess less skills to access various services and information due to which they become non-resilient and therefore easy victims of disasters. ‘Biological and physiological differences between the sexes are unlikely to explain large-scale gender differences in mortality rates. Social norms and role behaviors provide some further explanation, but what is likely to matter most is the everyday socioeconomic status of women’ (Neumayer

R. Sikandar (B) Disaster Research Programme, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India High Court of Judicature, Allahabad, India

© The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_11

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and Plumper 2007). This raises the question of socio-economic empowerment of women against disasters. Representation of such women in public bodies, generating awareness through capacity and skill development programmes will help them to become more resilient and empowered to mainstream state efforts in achieving Sustainable Development Goals. This paper will explore various training programmes of the Government of India for women, which are implemented and conducted with the help of local governance institutions for empowering vulnerable group. Disasters are unwelcome guests; calamity and destruction that they bring take decades to reform. Disasters may be termed as, ‘a serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human material or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources’ (UN/ISDR 2004) Disaster is defined as ‘catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man made causes, or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation of, environment, and is of such nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area’ (DMA 2005). In the year 2004 tsunami in Tamil Nadu (India) and other adjacent countries of Indian ocean suffered a lot, like wise 2017 floods in Mumbai (which is now a usual phenomenon), 2014 in Kashmir and 2018 in Kerala and repeatedly in Bay of Bengal zone which is affecting lives of people in the whole of the country. Disaster in any form whether man made or natural have a massive impact on the lives of all living species in semblance. One may study disasters through a lens of damages and losses that may incur for life and property and how one could rebuild and recover all of that. Revival is not an easy process. A better access to knowledge and services can prevent victims to relatively suffer less. Mitigation through timely preparedness is the process which is considered as a first step in disaster management programmes in almost every country. Above all the policies for the protection of human life are essential and among these women and children occupy a special space. They need institutions which act as resilience builders against disasters. James Manor (1993) has made the point that one such political institution, the Panchayats can be an effective instrument: ‘Panchayati raj institutions are not only a fool proof source of early warnings about potentials calamities, but also an effective means of ensuring that such

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warning do not go unheeded’ (1993: 1019) With such an instrument the implementation of policies at the grassroot level may become more people centric and transparent. ‘The Panchayati Raj Institution (PRIs) is a statutory body elected by local people through a well defined democratic process with specific responsibilities and duties. The elected members are accountable to the people of the ward, rural community, block and the district’ (Mondal, Chowdhury, and Basu 2018). Panchayats ensure proximity to local communities. The PRIs can act as catalyst to social mobilization process and tap the traditional wisdom of the local communities to complement the modern practices in disaster mitigation efforts (Mondal et al. 2018). This ensures that the Panchayats can provide training through modern strategies to local communities and can bring great results at the time of emergencies. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop the role of Panchayat in disaster studies. The Disaster Management Act 2005 defines the role of PRIs while defining a ‘local authority’. A local authority includes, PRIs, municipalities, district board, cantonment board, town planning authority or Zila Parishad or other body or authority, by whatever name called, for the time being invested by law, for rendering essential services or, with the control and management of civic services, within a specified local area’ (DMA 2005). This paper while highlighting the gender perspective in resilience building through local governance will be divided into two sections to separately study the gap in the policies and the remedies or redressal by including woman at the grassroots level. The main challenge is to ensure the role of Panchayats or local self governance in disaster management and to ensure participation of women into it. Disaster management means a continuous and integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for: 1. Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster; 2. Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences; 3. Capacity—building; 4. Preparedness to deal with any disaster; 5. Prompt response to any threatening disaster or its severity or consequence; 6. Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster; 7. Evacuation, rescue and relief; 8. Rehabilitation and reconstruction (DMA 2005).

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The measures mentioned above are meaningful but not gender sensitive. Issues of education and consciousness to fight disasters in gendered context are essential. The impact of inclusivity of women into the disaster mitigation programmes will enable them to organize their skill in reducing the impact of disasters. It is however essential to bring grassroot women into training and practice so that its helps resilience building.

Panchayati Raj, Other Local Governance Institutions and Women One gets a clue of what would be the nature of disaster preparedness if the gender ratio is 943 females per 1000 males (949/1000 in rural India & 929/1000 in urban India). With 21,813,264 more males in rural India and 13,872,275 more males in Urban India (2011 census), it is not a surprise to find disaster management institutions, programmes and policies laced with men, masculinity and muscle rather than socio-psychological skills, moral courage building and participatory learning. However, the feudal attitude of looking down upon the abilities of women and not encouraging their mainstreaming in disaster management institutions is still continuing in different degrees at various levels of our society (Agnihotri and Singh 2014). Part IX of the Constitution of India added and entitled as, ‘The Panchayats’ and consists of provisions from Articles 243 to 243 O. In addition, the Act has also added a new Eleventh Schedule to the Constitution. This Schedule contains 29 fundamental items of the Panchayats. It deals with Article 232-G. The act is a significant landmark in the evolution of grassroots democratic institutions in the country. It transfers the representative democracy into participatory democracy. The Act provides for the reservation of not less than one-third of the total number of seats for women. This close involvement of Panchayats with woman participants goes a long way in getting them prepared for countering natural disasters, they can be leaders in case of India. Local governance or the Panchayats play a crucial role in the development of local communities because of its strong roots. It is a fact that disasters cannot be fully predicted but understanding them and training to cope up with their impact will bring much success into the mitigation process. It is a known fact that in India whenever any disaster occurs, more than 50% of the population which suffers are woman and children. This brings us to the fact that the impact of disaster is different

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on people to people. They are of different enormity and kinds. Ginige et al. (2014) conducted a study entitled ‘Tackling women’s vulnerabilities through integrating a gender perspective into disaster risk reduction in the built environment’. This means that inclusion of woman into the policies is essential for eliminating disasters effect and gender differentia. Built environment is the construction of policies and plan to embark upon the fatal disasters and equipped with knowledge to fill the gender gap at times. There are many local organizations which work with PRIs to make women more resilient against disasters. A study mentions the role played by a rural NGO called Swayam Shikshan Prayog (learning from one’s own and other’s experiences) which worked with poor women to train them in handling their own problems post-disaster. So much so that in the devastating Latur earthquake of 1993 they repaired, constructed and strengthened the damaged houses. Similarly many women organizations and Self-Help Groups contributed immensely in post-Bhuj reconstruction programmes of 2001 (Gokhale 2008). Problems are entirely different for men and female victims. They face problems of safety, honour, shame and maternity in addition to everything else faced by men. Women face more gendered differences during the occurrence of disasters. There are cases of trafficking of women and girls after every disaster, and under such circumstances their recuperation is also restricted and injured. Allison Franklin, US lawyer for victims of trafficking remembers working during Hurricane Katrina in 2006 when trafficking gangs ruled the disaster-affected areas. She admitted that ‘It’s difficult to put numbers on an underground industry like sex trafficking. But we do know, it’s a trade that moves millions of dollars every year’ (Garsd 2017). Another problem which women face is pregnancy and delivery during disaster times. Women have constrained access to the resources, suffer lower literacy rate leaving them totally dependent on men. Along with this, patrilocal residence, patrilineal descent and the prohibition against women inheriting property tend to enforce the social norms that women are dependent on men from birth until death. (Locke 2010) As men in a mainstream rural culture are free from household and other chores in their daily life, women in contrast are not free even during disasters. In every condition women tend to the family, her children and animals if any. Gender-based prejudices and divisions in many societies mainly affect girls and women as these are based on views of them physically and emotionally

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weak, inferior in comparison to men and boys. By putting societal restriction and limiting their monetary resources women are pushed towards the higher degree of risk. Women due to restricted knowledge and information could not respond to the disasters and thus became the victim of disaster easily (Fig. 1). Woman at the grassroots can participate in various roles that Panchayats can perform for making them empowered in disaster mitigation process. The government of India and UNDP divided the role of the Panchayati Raj Institutions into three sections for empowering woman for the disasters. 1. Pre-Disaster training; 2. During disaster performance; 3. Post-Disaster training. The main aim of this is to take steps towards a strong foundation of resilience to disasters.

Fig. 1 Women Empowerment and Disaster Management are complementary activities (Source Author)

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Before Disaster: According to the report of Government of India, following are the steps that need to be taken by Panchayats. • • • • •

To understand the vulnerability of the area and the people; Resource Mobilization; Involvement of woman in Disaster Management activities; Building capacity of every member as team; Linkages with other stakeholders (2002–2009 GoI & UNDP).

Through Disaster: During disaster they can use the techniques and methods which are already learnt by them to mitigate impact of disasters with the help of local governance. So in case of any type of disasters they can evacuate themselves from the situation and can save lives and assets. Panchayats must take a lead during the disasters, such as • • • • •

Involvement in ‘Responsive activities’; Monitoring activities; Management of Control Room; Disbursement of compensation; Maintaining coordination with related agencies (2002–2009 GoI & UNDP).

After Disaster: Rehabilitation during the aftermath of disasters is a long drawn process but with training can be made simpler to cope with. It involves; • • • •

Rehabilitation activities; Maintaining social structures and infrastructures’; Evaluation and documentation; Integrating development programmes with mitigation of disaster (2002–2009 GoI & UNDP).

Disaster Management Programmes of Government of India Mainstreaming of gender in the disaster alleviation process is essential for saving lives and assets. The catastrophic effect can only be dissolved through proper training and disaster management techniques.

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In this context National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) under Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India has undertaken many training programmes on ‘woman and disasters ’. Keeping in mind the necessity for the gender needs and demands during disaster this specialized programme was conducted. The aim of such a programme is to combat disasters with ‘gender sensitive’ approach. Such programmes bring change and justice into the lives of the woman. This has immensely helped as the state disaster management authorities and PRIs work together to put their best foot forward in support of disaster affected women. According to Sendai Declaration, ‘Women and their participation are critical to effectively managing disaster risk and designing risk reduction policies, plans, and programmes; and adequate capacity building measures need to be taken to empower women for preparedness as well as build their capacity for alternate livelihood means in the post-disaster situations’ (2015: Sendai declaration). Under this, Panchayats can provide training to women of local communities to deal with disasters like floods, earthquake, volcanic eruptions, cyclones, tsunami and other natural and man-made calamities. Community education also plays a lead role in this scenario, participation of women in such programmes at large will ensure proper training and knowledge system for the community. They can be provided with special training and exercises for disasters. Panchayats can make awareness campaigns for the whole community but may take some efforts to educate woman and understand the gender gap between both the sexes, capacity building programmes for woman.

Recommendations 1. Impact of disasters is unequal on men and women. If they are educated, trained and have access to skill development programmes they may be better placed to alleviate the impact of disasters on their lives. 2. Number of woman representatives in Panchayats and as members in the State Disaster Management Authorities should be mandatory and their number should not be cosmetic but meaningful and strong to establish their needs in decision-making. Panchayats by distributing books and pamphlets can increase the level of awareness among woman.

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3. Training programmes should be gender sensitive. The pre-training disaster management exercises with the woman of the rural areas will help a lot in securing their lives. They will be better prepared and equipped with techniques and help themselves and others in securing lives. 4. Mobile message alerts specially addressing needs and understanding of woman (residing or working) near coastal and other areas ought to be designed appropriately. 5. To abolish the restricted access of women to resources like property, house, land, compensation and assets. Women are the agents of collaborative change into the society provided they have a right over compensation against a damaged or destroyed house. Woman should get the same rehabilitation sources as what men get after disasters. 6. To develop more access to information such as early warning, training and knowledge, capacity building will brace them. Training and fillip courses for women participants should be conducted from time-to-time on Information and communication technology, swimming, tree climbing and rescue operations. National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) should have special battalions of women to train underprivileged women in villages. It creates self-reliance, political consciousness and authority.

Conclusion The UNISDR facilitates the mainstreaming of gender perspective in Disaster risk reduction (DRR). It undertakes partnering and working closely with diverse groups, government, parliamentarians, UN bodies, civil society, private sector and media to support a gender-sensitive DRR agenda and the mobilization of women leadership for Disaster Risk Reduction (by UNISDR). One has to appreciate the fact that trained women and girls will become a source of resilience during disasters. Ginige et al. (2014) conducted a study entitled ‘Tackling women’s vulnerabilities through integrating a gender perspective into disaster risk reduction in the built environment’. The study emphasized that inclusion of women into policies is essential for eliminating impact of disasters and gendered sufferings. India has put the Sendai framework into its disaster management plan since 2016 to make India disaster resilient however

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participation of woman at the grassroots does not form its robust agenda. Establishing convergence with local institutional structures created for implementing education, health, livelihood and social justice and so on is a key requirement (Mondal et al. 2018). Thus, resilience is possible only through proper training and understanding of the disasters and their impact and in doing so all local governance institutions have substantial roles to play. ∗ ∗ ∗

References Agnihotri, S., & Singh, V. (Eds.). (2014). Women Empowerment through Reservation in Panchayati Raj Institutions in Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Public Administration, 60:3, 417–425. DMA (Disaster Management Act). (2005). Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi, India. Garsd, Jasmine. (2017). Human Trafficking Is a Hidden Aftermath of Natural Disasters, The World, October 5. Available at https://www.pri.org/stories/ 2017-10-05/human-trafficking-hidden-aftermath-natural-disasters. Accessed 3 February 2020. Ginige, K., Amaratunga, D., and Haigh, R. (2014). Tackling Women’s Vulnerabilities Through Integrating a Gender Perspective into Disaster Risk Reduction in the Built Environment. ScienceDirect 328–335. Elsevier. Gokhale, Vasudha. (2008). Role of Women in Disaster Management: An Analytical Study with Reference to Indian Society, The 14th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, October 12–17, Beijing, China. Available at https://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/wcee/article/14_10-0049.PDF. Accessed 4 February 2020. Locke, R. A. (2010). Rescued, Rehabilitated, and Returned: Institutional Approaches to the Rehabilitation of Survivor of Sex Traffcking in India and Nepal. Denver: University of Denver. Manor, James. (1993). Power, Poverty and Poison: Disaster and Response in an Indian City. New Delhi: Sage Publications. Mondal, D., Chowdhury, S., & Basu, D. (2018). Role of Panchayat (Local Self-Government) in Managing Disaster in Terms of Reconstruction, Crop Protection, Livestock Management and Health and Sanitation Measures. Nat Hazards, 94, 371–383. Neumayer, Eric, and Plümper, Thomas. (2007). The Gendered Nature of Natural Disasters: The Impact of Catastrophic Events on the Gender Gap in Life Expectancy, 1981–2002, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 97:3, 551–566, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2007.00563.x.

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UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). (2004). Living with Risk, A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives. Geneva: United Nations Inter-Agency Secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR).

Revisiting Agriculture Land Use for Disaster Resilient Sustainable Development Madhushree Sekher and Mansi Awasthi

Introduction The South Asia Region (SAR) consists of eight countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Rural South Asia is the home of over two-thirds of the population in the region, representing about one- third of the total rural population in world. This region is characterized by highly diverse agro-climatic conditions across and within countries that range from the atolls of the Maldives, to the deserts in western India, the tropical fertile Gangetic Plain to the temperate hills and mountains of the Himalayas in Nepal, and is also witness to many natural disasters. Despite fairly accurate early

Paper presented at the International Conference on Governance for Sustainable Development (ICGSD 2018), organized by the University of Sri Jayewardene, Sri Lanka, in association with NASIPEG (Network of Asia Pacific Schools and Institutes of Public Administration and Governance), and Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Sri Lanka, on 6th and 7th October, 2018, in Colombo. M. Sekher (B) · M. Awasthi Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_12

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warning and risk management, casualty and losses from natural disasters are high, particularly among the poor agriculture-dependent rural communities. Complex ecological, socio-cultural, economic and political dimensions of the context-specific phenomena underlie the vulnerabilities of these poor farming communities. There are more than 570 million farms worldwide, most of which are small (less than 2 hectares) and family operated, with small farms operating about 12% and family farms about 75% of the world’s agricultural land (Lowder et al. 2016). Many organizations, such as the World Bank, use landholding size to identify smallholder farmers—the most common being under 2 hectares (World Bank 2003). However, the Committee on World Food Security’s (CFS) High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) uses a more broader criteria and defines smallholder agriculture as—practiced by families (including one or more households) using only or mostly family labour and deriving from that work a large but variable share of their income, in kind or in cash. Agriculture includes crop raising, animal husbandry, forestry and artisanal fisheries. A growing concern is the increasing marginalization of agriculture land, with average farm size decreasing in most low- and lower-middle income countries for which data are available from 1960 to 2000 (Lowder et al. 2016). Of the estimated 570 million farms in the world, 74% are located in Asia, with China representing 35% and India 24% of the farms (Lowder et al. 2016). But, significantly, while India is among the countries in the world with the largest share of agriculture land, given the average number of landholding in the country, there is a crowding of landholding in the marginal and smallholding category (Table 2), with average size of land owned per household being less than 1 hectare for almost 90% of the landholding households (Table 1). And, importantly, Table 1

Distribution of land owned per household by social group

Percentage of households Percentage area of land owned Average area owned per household (in hectares)

Scheduled Caste

Schedule Tribes

OBC

Others

20.06 9.23

11.89 13.06

44.82 45.68

23.23 32.03

0.27

0.65

0.60

0.81

Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013

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the more vulnerable social groups—Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes, own a major percentage of the marginal and smallholder category of landholding (Tables 1 and 3), with almost 85 percentage of Scheduled Castes households coming in the marginal and smallholder category.

Household Operational Holdings of Land: Case of India Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s economy. 54.6% of the population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities (Census 2011) and it contributes 17% to the country’s Gross Value Added (current price 2015–2016, 2011–2012 series). According to the land use statistics, in 2013–2014 of the total geographical area of the country (328.7 million hectares), 141.4 million hectares was reported as the net sown area and 200.9 million hectares was the gross cropped area with a cropping intensity of 142%. The net sown area worked out to be 43% of the total geographical area, of which net irrigated area was (Government of India 2018) 68.2 million hectares (Government of India 2018). The percentage distribution of land owned per household by social group at all India level is shown in Table 1. Around 44.82% households of the total estimated households belonged to OBC, owning an estimated 45.68% of total land holdings: the highest among all the social groups. The percentage of land owned was the lowest for Scheduled Caste (9.23%). The average area owned per household was the highest for others (0.816 hectares) and the lowest for Schedules Caste (0.272 hectares). The percentage of distribution of households over different category of operational landholdings during 1971–1972 to 2013 is shown in Table 2. The highest proportion of households belonged to the marginal category of landholdings (75.41%) and the lowest proportion of households belonged to the large holdings (0.24%). It is observed that the percentage of landless household estimated during 2013 (7.41%) was the lowest in the last five decades at all India level. A crowding of holdings into the marginal category with the progress of time is apparent. This pattern was observed across all the household social groups, as shown in Table 3. Moreover, the marginal and the small landholdings together accounted for more than 80% of the households across all social groups. The average area operated per holding was estimated at 0.87 hectares in 2012–2013. A significant decline in the average area operated by per household was observed from 1971–1972 to 2012–2013 as shown

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Table 2

Distribution of households by category of ownership holdings

Category of holding

Landless Marginal Small Semi-medium Medium Large

Percentage distribution of households 1971–1972

1982

1992

2003

2013

9.64 52.98 15.49 11.89 7.88 2.12

11.33 55.31 14.70 10.78 6.45 1.43

11.25 60.63 13.42 9.28 4.54 0.88

10.04 69.63 10.81 6.03 2.69 0.53

7.41 75.41 10.00 5.01 1.93 0.24

Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013

Table 3 groups

Distribution of households by size category of landholdings for social

Category of holding

Landless Marginal Small Semi-medium Medium Large

Household social groups Scheduled Caste

Schedule Tribes

OBC

Others

All

9.41 68.83 14.64 5.74 1.36 0.03

7.18 85.70 4.77 1.84 0.48 0.03

6.98 75.25 10.43 5.12 1.99 0.23

7.40 70.22 11.31 7.18 3.34 0.55

7.41 75.42 10.00 5.01 1.93 0.24

Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013

in Fig. 1. During 2012–2013, the average area owned per household varied over a wide range in the states, with West Bengal showing the lowest value (0.174 hectares) and Rajasthan reporting the highest (1.483 hectares). The states of Kerala, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh reported an average area owned per household less than the national average was 0.592 hectares. The states of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh reported average holding size exceeding one hectare. The proportion of the landless households in the rural areas has declined by 3% during 2003–2013. Around 7.41% of the total rural households were landless in 2013 as compared to 10% in 2003. Figure 2 shows the percentage of landless

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2.5

163

2.2

2

1.67 1.34

1.5

1.06

1

0.87

0.5 0 1970-71

1981-82

1991-92

2002-03

2012-13

Fig. 1 Average area operated by per household across last five landholding surveys (Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013)

Fig. 2 State-wise percentage of landless households (Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013)

households in the major states also varied over a wide range with the highest percentage in Uttarakhand (20.77%) and the lowest in Haryana (1.05%). Land Possessed by Households Affected by Flood/Not Flooded Table 4 shows state-wise percentage distribution of area of land affected by floods. Assam have the highest percentage of land affected by floods

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala

States

25 16 16 13 6 1 2 0 2 2 10 4

2

7 3 0 2 1 1

1

0 1 0

Agricultural activities were carried out

1

Agricultural activities could not be carried out

0 0 0

0

0 1 0 0 0 1

1

0

But the plot was not for agricultural activities

98 89 96

98

77 83 93 98 97 98

81

74

0 0 1

0

1 1 0 0 0 0

1

0

AGRICULTURAL activities could not be carried out

Flooded

Flooded

Not flooded

January–June 2013

July–December 2012

Percentage distribution of area of land

1 1 2

2

12 4 0 0 1 1

9

1

Agricultural activities were carried out

0 0 0

0

0 0 0 0 0 0

1

0

But the plot was not for agricultural activities

99 99 98

98

87 94 99 h 100 99 99

90

99

Not flooded

Table 4 State-wise percentage distribution of area of land possessed by households affected by flood/not flooded, 2012–2013

164 M. SEKHER AND M. AWASTHI

Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Odisha Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Telangana Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

States

5 5 1 7 2 3 3 2 5 8

2

1 2 1 1 0 0 0 2

4

Agricultural activities were carried out

1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0

But the plot was not for agricultural activities

87

94 97 91 97 97 97 98 93

93

0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0

AGRICULTURAL activities could not be carried out

Flooded

Agricultural activities could not be carried out

January–June 2013

Flooded

Not flooded

July–December 2012

Percentage distribution of area of land

1

1 1 0 2 0 0 1 2

1

Agricultural activities were carried out

0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0

97

98 99 99 98 99 100 99 98

99

(continued)

But the plot was not for agricultural activities

Not flooded

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165

1

7

Agricultural activities were carried out 0

But the plot was not for agricultural activities 92

0

AGRICULTURAL activities could not be carried out

Flooded

Agricultural activities could not be carried out

January–June 2013

Flooded

Not flooded

July–December 2012

Percentage distribution of area of land

(continued)

Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013

All-India

States

Table 4

2

Agricultural activities were carried out 0

But the plot was not for agricultural activities 98

Not flooded

166 M. SEKHER AND M. AWASTHI

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where agricultural activities could not be carried out with 7%, followed by 4% in West Bengal and 3% in Bihar in July to December 2012. Arunachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur and Uttar Pradesh have reported 2% of area affected in which no agricultural activities could be carried out during the same period. The Land Use Pattern The estimated total area of land use was 9.4 crore hectares in July to December 2012 which declined to 8.6 crore hectares during January– June 2013. The percentage area of land used for non-agricultural purposes was 2.83% and 13.85% during July to December 2012 and January to June 2013 respectively. Table 5 shows that the highest percentage of area is used for crop production on land other than jhum land, with 89.08% area in July to December 2012 and 75.82% area in January to June 2013; and lowest for farming of animal/fishery (0.88%) in July to December 2012 and crop production on jhum land (0.91%) in January to June 2013. Type of Crop Production/Livestock Farming The estimated total area under crop production and animal farming was around 89.9 crore hectares during July–December 2012 and 69.4 crore hectares in January–June 2013 in India. The highest percentage of area is used for cereals in both the periods July to December 2012 (56.21%) and January to June 2013 (57.74%), as shown in Fig. 3. The percentage area on ‘livestock farming’ is obtained by aggregating the percentage area on dairy, poultry/ duckery, piggery, fishery and farming of other animals. Land Used for Various Types of Animal Farming The smallholder farmers have classified and prioritized their livelihoods depending on their relevance in terms of which activities generate more cash income for the household economy. The description and prioritization of the main livelihood activities enabled the identification of five broad livelihood categories (Fig. 4), supporting the cash income and subsistence of the households. Figure 4 shows the all India percentage distribution of area of land used for different types of animal farming for the period July to December 2012 and January to June 2013. The highest percentage distribution of area of land was used for dairy in both July to December 2012 (53.80%) and January to June 2013 (69.68%); while the lowest was recorded for piggery: 0.56% in July to December 2012 and 0.37% in January to June 2013.

89.08

75.82

0.91

Crop production on land other than jhum land

1.81

Crop production on jhum land

1.35

0.88

Farming of animal/fishery

2.35

3.81

Crop production and farming of animal/fishery

Percentage distribution of area of land by type of land use

Percentage distribution of land possessed by type of land use

Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013

July to December 2012 January to June 2013

Period

Table 5

5.70

1.59

Other agricultural uses

13.85

2.83

Other uses (non-agricultural use)

86345

94113

Total area of land use (’000 hectares)

Estimated

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REVISITING AGRICULTURE LAND USE FOR DISASTER RESILIENT …

100 90 80

1 1.6

2.13 15.67

70

13.75

60

6.3

1.8 1.95

2.81

Livestock farming

12.32 1.34

1.85

1.51

4.25 7.34

Plantation Orchards

10.2

Other crop

50

Fodder

40 30

169

Vegetables 57.74

56.21

Oilseeds

20

Pulses

10

Cereals

0 Jul'12 - Dec'12

Jan'13 - Jun'13

Fig. 3 Percentage distribution of area of land by type of crop production/livestock farming in India (Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013) 100 90

15.16

23.75

80 70 60 50

11.81

3.18

0.56

0.37 Farming of other animals Fishery Piggery

40 30

2.97

18.71

69.68

Poultry/ duckery Dairy

53.8

20 10 0 Jul'12 - Dec'12

Jan'13 - Jun'13

Fig. 4 Percentage distribution of area of land used for different type animal farming in India (Source NSS 70th Round: Household Ownership and Operational Holdings in India, 2013)

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Agriculture System and Food Security: The Indian Scenario Smallholder farming constitutes an important but marginalized sector of agriculture production. This has a significant influence in the land use/cover change process and agro-biodiversity conservation. Thus, the maintenance of sustainable smallholder farming systems represents a key condition for sustainable land management and to safeguard the livelihoods and food security of millions of rural households. Despite India’s impressive economic growth during the last two decades, the rural sector has been in crisis. India is certainly emerging as an industrial giant, but more than 70% of its population lives in villages with a strong dependence on a livelihood oriented agriculture system. Compounding this situation is the major crisis being witnessed in the agriculture sector with declining agricultural productivity, rural unemployment, and farmer suicides. Reducing the risks and vulnerability to disasters, therefore, assumes particular relevance. At the same time, the right to food is not a right to a minimum ration of calories, proteins and other specific nutrients, or a right to be fed. It is about being guaranteed the right to feed oneself, which requires not only that food is available—that the ratio of production to the population is sufficient—but also that it is accessible—i.e., that each household either has the means to produce or buy its own food. However, if individuals are deprived of access to food for reasons beyond their control, for instance because of a natural disaster, then how do we address this situation? The resilience of agri-food systems and livelihoods is, hence, key to making sustainable development a reality by ensuring that agriculture and food systems are both productive, as well as risk sensitive. One aspect to disaster management, therefore, is policy design that aims to stabilize livelihoods and rural incomes without creating inducement that involve risk-taking. For example, investments in afforestation and forest-linked livelihoods can reduce the risk and vulnerabilities linked to flooding. Some principle actions in this regard could be: 1. Reforming institutions to establish rights and opportunities for rural populations to have ownership of assets (particularly, land and livestock) and user rights over resources (including water use, forest management).

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2. Improve rural financing opportunities and mechanisms for rural women, and entrepreneurship among poor and marginalized groups, so that they benefit from the advantages of farm cooperatives and social enterprises 3. Improve access to markets through improved availability of information by ICTs, better infrastructure services, especially transport and communication facilities—creating opportunities from local agriculture produce and food-based markets 4. Reduce the opportunity costs of women’s time and energy in carrying out their multiple roles, through investments in water, fuel, transport, etc. Agriculture System and Vulnerabilities from Climate Impact and Natural Disasters According to the Economic Survey of India 2017–2018 (Ministry of Finance 2018), climate change could lower the farmers’ income by up to 25%—Farmer income losses from climate change could be between 15 and 18% on average, rising to anywhere between 20 and 25% in un-irrigated areas. The document also said that in the absence of any adaptation by farmers and any changes in policy (such as irrigation), farm incomes, estimated at INR 77,976 per year by the Dalwai Committee on Doubling Farmers’ Income (Ministry of Agriculture 2018), will be lower by around 12% on an average in the coming years. India today is not only self-sufficient in respect of demand for food, but is also a net exporter of agri-products occupying seventh position globally. It is one of the top producers of cereals (wheat & rice), pulses, fruits, vegetables, milk, meat and marine fish. However, when evaluated against nutritional security, the country faces deficit. The availability of fruits & vegetables and milk & meat & fish has increased, thanks to production gains over the decades, but affordability to a vast majority, including large number of farmers, remains a question mark. The average income of an agricultural household during July 2012 to June 2013 was as low as Rs. 6426, as against its average monthly consumption expenditure of Rs. 6223, and about 22% of the farmers live below official poverty line (Ministry of Agriculture 2018). Large tracts of arable land have turned problem soils, becoming acidic, alkaline & saline physicochemically. Another primary factor of production, namely, water is also under stress. Climate change is beginning to challenge the farmer’s ability

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to adopt coping and adaptation measures that are warranted. The markets do not assure the farmer of remunerative returns on his produce. In short, sustainability of agricultural growth faces serious doubt, and agrarian challenge even in the midst of surpluses has emerged as a core concern. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) is one of the eight Missions outlined under National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). The Mission aims at promoting sustainable agriculture. NMSA as a programmatic intervention made operational from the year 2014–2015 that aims at making agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative and climate resilient by promoting location specific integrated/composite farming systems; soil and moisture conservation measures; comprehensive soil health management; efficient water management practices and mainstreaming rainfed technologies. However, the fact is that farmers own land, and this is a powerful asset. But, the paradox is that this asset owning class of citizens has remained poor. They face the twin vulnerabilities of risks and uncertainties of production, and unpredictability of market forces. As indicated in Fig. 5, the impact of natural disasters on agriculture and wider consequences can be broadly articulated as along three concerns—pre-production damages and losses, postproduction losses, and wider impact on national economy, food and nutritional security and on livelihoods. The Dalwai Committee Report speaks about the need for strategy platform around four concerns, to double farmers’ incomes: sustainability of

Fig. 5 Impact of natural disasters on agriculture and wider consequences

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production, monetization of farmers’ produce; strengthening of agriculture extension services and recognizing agriculture as an enterprise and enabling it to operate as such, by addressing various structural weaknesses (Ministry of Agriculture 2018). It is the human factor behind agriculture, the farmers who remain in frequent distress. The demand for agriculture growth and sustainability of farming activity, while it has translated into demand for government to procure and provide suitable returns, there is also a need to reorientation of the approach and the Dalwai Committee very importantly suggested self-sustainable models empowered with improved market linkage, as the basis for income growth of farmers. Pathways and Instruments for Sustainable Agriculture Sustainable productivity growth in farming occurs via two fundamental pathways. The first pathway allows farmers to achieve more of this potential growth by moving towards the existing production possibilities frontier. The second pathway expands the potential for more productive use of resources by pushing out the frontier of production possibilities. The farmer-led innovation has been supplemented by formal scientific research, which would dramatically expand the production possibilities frontier in agriculture, permitting large increases in agricultural productivity and output over past decades. These pathways can be promoted by addressing some of the constraints that farmers face at individual and collective level by introducing improved practices (e.g. limited access to finance and market, risk, insecure property rights), and providing ICT incentives for adopting more sustainable practices. Capacity to innovate can be promoted more widely through training and education to facilitate the formation of farmers’ and producers’ groups (e.g. farmers’ organizations) and the creation of an enabling environment for innovation through effective policies, incentives and governance mechanism to improve the capacity of all actors and user rights over resources and risk management tools. Innovation can have different consequences, allowing farmers to produce more with the resources and inputs and to reduce their costs of production. It can allow them to expand, change or diversify their marketable output, increasing the profitability of their farms. Innovation can enhance the sustainability of production and/or the provision of important ecosystem services, both of which are more important than ever as natural resources become more constrained and more degraded.

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Resilience, both economic and environment and sustainability are two complementary concepts, a wider recognition of the variety of factors that contribute to resilience would be useful to improve the capacity over time during disasters and disturbances as well as capacity to preserve ecosystems in the long run. Recognizing and accounting for a wider array of resilient factors, technologies, institutional options and inclusive governance help to bring resilience closer to the concept of sustainability, and as a consequence, the goals of sustained inclusive agricultural growth and food security and nutrition become more closely aligned to resilience.

Forest and Food-System: Capturing an Alternative Welfare Model A form of Marketing Co-operative looking at a marriage between forestlinked livelihoods of local communities and the traditional knowledge of tribal/indigenous population of forest and forest-linked products, that are harvested and sold in local markets, often with support of local Non-state actors1 /Non-government organizations (NGOs), can be an alternative Co-operative welfare model. In the case study in Odisha, this entrepreneurial initiative was largely observed at the individual level, with each family/household selling the produce collected from the forest/or grown in the land pattas, in the local market—the weekly ‘haat ’. The locals harvested traditional ‘uncultivated food’ from forests and sold it in the local markets, with support of Living Farms, an NGO working to facilitate tribal development in the region. Government-engineered initiatives, involving opportunity creation for local communities to use their traditional food knowledge in entrepreneurial businesses, through the district administration support was also observed. Such government-engineered entrepreneurial initiatives are micro-enterprises created by re-designing existing welfare systems to support marginal farmers (with less than 1 hectare landholding) and small farmers (with landholding between 1 to 2 hectares) to produce traditional food staples such as millets like sorghum (jowar), pearl millet (bajra), or finger millet (raggi), and leafy greens, etc., and sell them at the government supported Public Distribution System (PDS) outlets2 (innovative entrepreneurship linked to traditional food knowledge).

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Table 6

Elements of Cost of Farm Production

Item Rental value of land Bicycle Weighing machine Trey bag Fencing Pot Low-cost storage Total

Fixed expenses (in Rs.) Item Own land 4000 500 1000 3500 500 4000 13,500

Cow-dung mixture Ploughing Seeds Organic pest control Irrigation Wages* Miscellaneous Total

Variable expenses (in Rs.) 3200 1600 2000 500 1000 17,500 1000 26,500

Note *Wage rate is Rs. 175 per day, and labour is engaged for 4 months, approximately (FAO 2012)

Various costs involved in the farm production are indicated in Table 6. Farm costs can be split into two main types: fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs have to be met regardless of whether the farm is producing or not. These are unavoidable costs that include weighing machine, fencing and storage. Land charge is a non-cash cost of land ownership and is considered as a fixed cost incurred. Variable costs are directly related to farm’s output and amount of variable inputs, such as seeds, cow-dung mixture and pesticide. Farmers have more decision-making choices over variable costs which are associated with operations of the farm. Labour cost is considered as variable, depending on how many labours are put on the farm. The overall average cost of production per household is Rs. 40,000 of which Rs. 13,500 is incurred on fixed cost (rental value of land is nil as land is owned by the farmer). The estimated average wage cost accounts for the largest segment of all items of operational costs. The organic fertilizer charges account for the second largest component, after wages, in the operational costs of cultivation as they are being a vital input contributing to farm productivity. Weekly sales patterns of selected vegetables in the local market is shown in Table 2. The figure shows that the sale of vegetables is relatively unevenly spread throughout the different weeks, depending upon the number of sellers. This is seen in terms of the substantial variation in the prices and quantity of the vegetables sold. For instance, crops sold in the market were Indra Kutruka (90 kg at Rs 29 per kg), brinjal (30 kg at Rs

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25 per kg), Bijay Soraka (20 kg at Rs 30 per kg) and Banamali Nundruka (15 kg at Rs 166 per kg) in the third week of July. Comparatively, in the fourth week of July, the vegetables were sold at a comparatively lower price rate—Indra Kutruka (80 kg at Rs 27 per kg), Banamali Nundruka (20 kg at Rs 137 per kg), Bijay Soraka (30 kg at Rs 27 per kg), Bishnu (40 kg at Rs 20 per kg) and Pitambar (50 kg at Rs 32 per kg). The information on price is indicative of the possibilities from the forests. If stronger structural/ institutional linkages are provided by way of market opportunities and information/knowledge, then farmers would provide better prices to producers and benefit local communities. The farmers face a lack of pricing and sales information for weekly farmers markets and other local markets. The lack of pricing and sales information not only increases risk, it also limits farmers’ ability to assess profitability, evaluate price, determine the market window for specific crops, and choose market channels. The lack of proper marketing outlets in the state, in particular tribal areas is a deterrent factor for increasing productivity and production. The production function is complete when marketing is arranged in a way that the producer gets a fair return for the labour and other inputs investment made in farm production. In some cases, new markets or improvements to existing markets in rural areas can help overcome many of the marketing problems faced. Thus, interventions are critical in aggregating farmers and their produce, establishing direct modes of physical and informational exchange between buyers and farmers, and adding value in the supply chain. Broadly, these interventions can be classified into institutional and infrastructural. A whole set of institutions needs to be created to ensure that they get better prices. With all its limitations, the state can still act as a catalyst in getting access of regulated markets to farmers due to their being situated far away from the market and the small produce for sale. Due to this, small and marginal farmer prefer to access the nearest market, or a rural haat. These rural markets are periodic in nature and do not have enough buyers and proper infrastructure. With reforms in the area of agriculture marketing in progress, it is imperative to integrate small and marginal farmers with the markets so that they would gain from this linkage by having better information about the product and price.

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Concluding Remarks Family farms produce most of the world’s food and occupy large area of the land, especially in developing countries. If they are to increase their contributions to food production and poverty reduction and act increasingly as custodian of the environment, they must be helped to face challenges in the best ways possible. The changes in family farming involve the application of modern science, technology and marketing. In addition, it should be in closer harmony with nature, and traditional local knowledge and practices. The capacity to innovate should be promoted by developing individual and collective innovation capacity and creating an environment conducive to positive change. Producers’ organizations can assist their members in accessing markets and linking with other actors in the innovation system. In order to identify issues and possible interventions, build partnerships and ensure critical stakeholders for dialogue and enhances decision-making by stakeholders, individually or collectively to build common understanding and joint action; developing innovative approaches and solutions; and formulating tools and levers to enable and incentivize changes in food and agricultural systems. The decisions need to be tailored to the local realities of ecosystems and of the populations that will bear costs and enjoy benefits. At a macro-level, the transition to sustainable agriculture requires policies, mechanisms, instruments, approaches and governance to prioritize the production and conservation concerns.

Notes 1. Here, non-state actors refers to civil-society organizations and voluntary associations that exist in the domain between the state and its agencies, and the community. These organizations/associations work to facilitate local development initiatives through network structures cobbled to provide facilitating support to the local communities. 2. For example, women farmers from Medak district in the erstwhile State of Andhra Pradesh, along with facilitating support of the Deccan Development Society (DDS), approached the Government of India’s Ministry of Rural Development and in 1994, this resulted in approval of the Community Grain Fund (CGF), which was distributed in agreement with the Government of India through the PDS. Under this arrangement, groups of largely illiterate and poor women set up and ran a community managed Alternative PDS (APDS) based on coarse grains, which are produced, stored and distributed locally in 30 villages around Zaheerabad. For details, refer FAO (2013) Indigenous Peoples’ food systems and well-being (www. fao.org/docrep/018/i3144e/i3144e.pdf).

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References FAO (2012). The State of Food and Agriculture 2012: Investing in Agriculture for a Better Future. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. Government of India (2012). Agriculture Census 2010–2011, Phase I—All India Report on Number and Area of Operational Holdings (Provisional). New Delhi: Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. Government of India (2018). Agriculture Annual Report 2016–2017. New Delhi: Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. Lowder, Sarah K., Jacob Skoet, and Terri Raney (2016). The Number, Size and Distribution of Farms, Smallholder Farms and Family Farms Worldwide. World Development, Volume 87, pages 16–29. Ministry of Agriculture (2018). Dalwai Committee Report on Doubling Farmers’ Income. New Delhi: Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. Ministry of Finance (2018). Economic Survey 2017–2018. New Delhi: Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Government of India. World Bank (2003). Reaching the Poor: A Renewed Strategy for Rural Development. Washington DC: The World Bank.

Farmers, Climate Change and People Centric Disaster Management in India Swarnamayee Tripathy

Introduction Nowadays, on a regular basis, we come across media reports of farmer distress across India. Nature which nurtures them has also become the cause of their anguish and disappointment due to its wrath. Failure to counter this fury of nature has been the reason for their torment. In recent years, the rise in the number of farmer suicides in India has stunned the international community. By doing proper research, economists and sociologists concluded that disasters, both man-made and natural, are one of the many important reasons behind this social phenomenon. Disasters result in crop loss leading to farmers’ indebtedness, helplessness and consequently loss of their lives. India is one of the most disaster-prone nations on the earth. The unique sub-continental dimensions, geographical positions and the behaviour of the monsoon make India the most hazard-prone countries in the world with floods being the most common natural disaster in India. The report, Decoding of Monsoon Floods, co-authored by Delhi-based

S. Tripathy (B) Public Administration in the School of Social Sciences, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_13

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NGO, SEEDS, and Brussels-based Centre for Research on Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED),1 2018 finds that Floods are amongst the most damaging and recurrent of all disasters; floods make up the highest number of disaster events in 2000–2017 across Bangladesh, India, Myanmar and Nepal and 55 percent of the natural disasters to strike India since 2000 have been floods. India had a mean of 11 flood events per district over the last 18 years. Ninety-eight percent of its 642 districts have received at least one flood event. Coastal floods accounted for only 1% of the flood events, while riverine foods accounted for the maximum. 71% of the floods are riverine floods in India. Even the hot deserts of Rajasthan known for drought have received more than the national average of 11 floods between 2000 and 2007. Floods are recurring across the region of South Asia. Flash floods that bring a level of unpredictability accounted for almost a sixth of the total. This has risked the lives and livelihood of the vulnerable most.

The community worst affected by the disasters is the farming community. Besides floods, drought conditions have also affected their livelihood. 68% of the cultivable area is vulnerable to drought in India.2 River flooding in many areas actually deposits fertile sediments that aid food production. But flash floods cause distress to the farming community. For states like Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Kerala or Odisha these disastrous events have taken a heavy toll on the state’s economy as the loss was estimated in several thousand millions of rupees. Hence, proper disaster management will save the country and the farmers community to some extent from such agony. Prior to the Yokohama conference (1994) disaster management was perceived as a short-term relief undertaking, which lasted till some time after a disaster. Other pre and post-disaster activities to mitigate the impact of disasters on specific communities were not construed as part of the larger framework of disaster management. Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World and the World Disaster Report (2002) raised the consciousness of the international community by highlighting the understanding that ‘disasters pose a grave threat to the survival, dignity and livelihood of the individuals, particularly the poor and the hard-won developmental gains’ (Singh 2018). Therefore, the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005– 2015) adopted at the World Disaster Conference at Kobe, Hyogo, Japan emphasized on ‘Building the Resilience of the Nations and Communities to Disasters’. It defined ‘Disaster management’ as a circular approach that

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includes both pre-disaster risk reduction and post-disaster administrative response. It recognized the need for good legislation This was further strengthened by the Sendai Framework which identified four priority areas, namely, understanding disaster risk, strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster—risk, investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience and enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to ‘Build Back Better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction (Singh 2018). Some other studies have found that documenting indigenous coping mechanisms of communities through research will add to the inventory of knowledge on disaster management. Therefore, in this discourse on disaster mitigation the more commonly used approach ‘disaster risk reduction’ (DRR) is replaced by a more appropriate model ‘Resilience building, Risk reduction and Mitigation’ (RRM). India being proactive had responded to this Hyogo Framework and institutionalized disaster management by enacting the Disaster Management Act, 2005. Over the past couple of years, the Government of India has brought about a paradigm shift in its approach to disaster management. The new approach is based on the assumption that development cannot be sustainable unless disaster mitigation is built into the development process. Another vital aspect of the approach is that mitigation has to be multi-disciplinary spanning across all sectors of development. The new policy also emanates from the belief that investments in mitigation are much more cost-effective than expenditure on relief and rehabilitation. Adaptation to climate change is a challenge for all countries. From a global perspective, the adaptation challenge is probably greatest for developing countries. They are generally more vulnerable to climate change because their economies are more dependent on climate-sensitive sectors, such as agriculture, fishing and tourism. With lower per capita incomes, weaker institutions, and limited access to technology, developing countries have the less adaptive capacity. Thus, it is assumed that predisaster administrative management in a disaster-prone region is meant to build in the requisite consciousness and confidence in the people and administration as well to manage mega-disasters. Further, structure, density and socio-economic indicators of the population determine their level of vulnerability. Therefore, while delivering justice, the nature of vulnerability has to be incorporated into public policy so that the fault lines of social justice get adequately addressed. In this context, it is pertinent to mention here that the core capabilities of the vulnerable population need to be enhanced to meet disaster threats in a scientific way.

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The Coastal Challenges India has a long coast line of 7, 517 km. 9 states and 4 Union Territories come under the coastal region of India. The east coast lies between the Eastern Ghats ecosystem and the Bay of Bengal. The west coast strip extends from the Gulf of Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) in the north to Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari). 560 million people live in this coastal region. 171 million people in these coastal states are directly affected by floods and cyclone followed by torrential rain. Besides, about 4 million people comprising 864,550 fisherfolk households are affected by these disasters. Further, climate change related to sea-level rise increases the vulnerability of the coastal eco-system by posing a threat to many coastal cities, urban centres and coastal population in developing countries (Senapati and Gupta 2014). India is no exception to this. An increasing use of coastal region for developmental purposes like industries, fishing, harbours, dykes, mining etc. changes have been observed along the coast line. This has resulted in the; a. Shifting of the shore line b. Coastal erosion c. Formation of sand bars at inlets of the water body d. Change in velocity and currents of coastal water e. Littoral drift f. On shore/Off shore sediment transport g. Sand mining h. Siltation i. Change in beach profile The most obstinate and irretrievable problem of coastal erosion is one of the reasons for causing most disasters and in many ways making people more vulnerable in coastal regions. Coastal environment is a complex and dynamic ecosystem in which the landward displacement of the shore line caused by the forces of waves and currents is termed as ‘Coastal Erosion’. In fact, coastal erosion is the wearing away of the land. Although coastal erosion is a chronic problem, it is very often considered as inevitable along most open shores as a natural phenomenon. While the effects of waves, currents, tides and wind are

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primary natural factors that influence the coast profile, various anthropogenic factors also trigger beach erosion. These include construction of artificial structures along the foreshore, mining of beach sand, offshore dredging on building dams across river basins. These developments at times are not compatible with the dynamic nature of shoreline (see the site of the ENVIS centre of Odisha at http://orienvis.nic.in/). Odisha has a long coastline of 480 km which is lined up with 7168 villages, 20 towns, 10.60 lakh households and 58 lakh people. Widespread erosion has been noted on around 187 km of the 480 km. long coastline. Continuous hitting of the shoreline by waves along Pentha village in Patkura block, and Satvaya village in Rajnagar Block of Kendrapada district of Odisha has resulted in the coastline receding landwards almost by 200–300 metres (Kumar et al. 2010). This was also studied by Geological Survey of India, revealing periods of accretion and erosion related in all probability to climate change, sea-level fluctuations and human activity. Similarly, panic had gripped the Puri town, a few years ago, when tidal waves washed away not only a part of the beach, but also the adjoining stretch of road newly constructed from Palm Beach hotel to Sterling Resort, violating Coastal Regulation Zone norms. Not only these, but the location of major ecological habitat and delicate systems along the coast, such as the largest rookeries in the world of Olive Ridley sea turtles (the extensive sandy beach of Gahirmatha on Rushikulya), Asia’s largest brackish water lagoon—the Chilika lake, Mahanadi delta— the second largest delta in India, extensive mangroves of Bhitarkanika are also threatened time and again from coastal erosion.

Farmers and the Rural Countryside Farming is the main production activity of the majority of India’s population in the countryside of India. People who are working in the rural ecosystem are dependent on farming for their livelihood. They could be farmers or farm labourers. Well-being of these people is closely related to production on the farms. As per Registrar General of India & Census report 2011, the total farmer or cultivator population of India is 118.7 million (2011 Census) and farm labourers or agricultural labourers is 144.3 million which comprise 31.55% of the total rural population. Census of India 2011 says cultivators constitute 24.6% of the 481 million workforce of India. Nearly 57.8% of India’s rural households are engaged in agriculture. However, when disasters strike a particular

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region, the livelihood of both cultivators and agricultural labourers get affected pushing them more into the trap of miseries and poverty. This is so because the livelihood of all these populations is dependent on agriculture. Under the Agricultural Debt Waiver and Debt Relief Scheme 2008, farmers in India have been categorized into three types depending on their operational landholdings. Operational holding refers to all land which is used wholly or partly for agricultural production and is operated as one technical unit by one person alone or with others without regard to the title, farm-size or location. The first category is ‘Marginal farmer’ who is cultivating (as owner or tenant or sharecropper) agricultural land up to 1 hectare (2.5 acres). ‘Small Farmer’ means a farmer cultivating (as owner or tenant or sharecropper) agricultural land of more than 1 hectare and up to 2 hectares (5 acres). ‘Other Farmer’ means a farmer cultivating (as owner or tenant or sharecropper) agricultural land of more than 2 hectares (more than 5 acres). As much as 67% of India’s farmland is held by the marginal farmers with holdings below one hectare, against less than 1% in large holdings of 10 hectares and above, the latest agriculture census (2015–2016) shows. The percentage of female operational landholders increased from 12.79% in 2010–2011 to 13.87% in 2015–2016. Table 1 gives a picture of the nature of farming community in India. According to the Agriculture Census (2015–2016), the total number of operational holdings in India numbered 138.35 million with an average size of 1.15 hectares. Of the total holdings, 85% are in marginal and small farm categories with less than 2 hectares of land and are engaged exclusively in livelihoods such as livestock, poultry and fishing. The estimates Table 1

Farmers in India, 2016

Type of farmers a. Marginal farmers b. Small farmers a. Semi-medium farmers b. Medium farmers Large farmers

Size of landholdings (in hectare)

% of farmers (2010–2011)

% of farmers (2015–2016)

1 1–2 2–4 4–10 More than 10

86.21

84.97

13.22

14.29

0.57

0.71

Source Agricultural Census of India, 2015–2016 (Gruère and Sengupta 2011)

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indicate that small and marginal farmers may account for more than 91% of farm holdings by 2030 and the average size of these holdings has shown a steady declining trend over various Agriculture Censuses since 1970–1971. Another cause for concern is that in 2010–2011, the proportion of net irrigated area to net area sown was 45.70%, which shows that half the country’s farm-land rely entirely on rains for their crops. To cite the example of Odisha, with a 480 km coastline that is prone to climatemediated cyclones and coastal erosion and water resources dependent on monsoons, agriculture in the state is relatively more vulnerable to climate change. Water-consuming rice is its main crop and therefore its farming community is vulnerable to the vagaries of climate-induced weather changes.

Impact of Disasters on the Farming Community in India All disasters have social, economic and health consequences of varying magnitude. It affects men, women, and children at different magnitudes depending on their level of resilience to counter social and economic losses caused. It is directly related to people’s economic status and nature of livelihood. Farmers in coastal regions experience frequent flash floods throughout the year which result in heavy loss of land and property and in turn, push them to a vulnerable condition and at times compel them to end their lives. It is pertinent to mention here that in 2014, the National Crime Records Bureau of India reported 5650 farmers’ suicides.3 The highest number of farmers’ suicides was recorded in 2004 when 18,241 farmers committed suicide. The farmers’ suicide rate in India has ranged between 1.4 and 1.8 per 100,000 total population, over a 10-year period through 2005.4 We may presume hardships caused by disasters might be one of the causes of crop loss for farmers pushing them into hardship ultimately leading to their suicides. Secondly, agriculture plays a vital role in the Indian economy. Over 70% of the rural households depend on agriculture as their principal means of livelihood. Agriculture, along with fisheries and forestry, accounts for one-third of the nation’s GDP and is its single largest contributor. Thus, while considering the impact of disasters we need to take into account the farmers as well as the agricultural labourers who depend on their livelihood on agriculture. As per the census of 2011, 263 million people are

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engaged in the agriculture sector and over half of them are agricultural labourers. If a disaster occurs and impacts agriculture, the livelihood of all these people gets affected pushing them into the trap of poverty. A farm labourer who works on daily wages must regularly look for work. When disaster strikes the area and agricultural activities come to a halt, farm labourers choose to migrate for want of livelihood in a post-disaster situation and become subject to exploitations experienced by migrant workers. Otherwise also, the work opportunities for farm labourers have reduced due to mechanized farming. Marginal and small farmers do not engage farm labourer in their field as they themselves do all types of farming activities. Farm labourers, usually are engaged by medium and large farmers. Diary is a common activity in many rural families. It supplements the family income. Disaster affects this small part of family income. The disaster also affects the tiny household manufacturing units which have once added to family income. These are like papad-making, beedi-making, etc. Thirdly, the farming community and the people attached to agriculture for their livelihood develop a cultural attachment to the river in their ecosystem. However, love for the river does not erode their deep attachment to the river ecosystem, consequently, they continue to live in the same ecosystem despite continuous adversities posed by the river. Instead, the inhabitants develop coping mechanisms on how to live in floodplain areas with help of traditional knowledge system. This poses a challenge for policymakers as for how to consider the sentiment of stakeholders and at the same time devise effective policies and mechanisms to cope with the disasters.

Policy Gaps for Farmers in Disaster-Affected Regions Ironically, the country which is disaster prone does not have mention of disaster management as a subject in any one of the three lists referred to in the 7th Schedule of the Constitution of India. Primarily, a subject that is not specifically mentioned in any list has to be taken care of by the Union Government as per Entry 97 of the Union List. But the basic responsibility for undertaking rescue, relief and rehabilitation measures in the event of natural disasters is that of State Government concerned. The role of the Central Government is supportive, in terms of physical and

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financial resources. However, 29 items in the 11th Schedule and 18 items in the 12th Schedule have gone a long way in ensuring better disaster mitigation. Disasters have posed a threat to the society and economy. Therefore, disaster management has occupied a pivotal place in development planning. Disaster management is no more a piecemeal strategy but has turned out to be an integrated process and approach after the Hyogo Framework for Action, ‘Building the resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters (2005–2015)’. Following this, India came out with the Disaster Management Act 2005 and such legislation in her federal units. Peoples’ perspective has been incorporated into it after the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-–2030) which sets its top priority on ‘strengthening disaster risk governance’ and ‘legal frameworks’ (Singh 2018, p. 1). The Disaster Management Act, 2005 of India clearly specifies the role of states in putting in an inclusive policy for disaster management. Section 23(4) of this Act emphatically specifies: The State Plan shall include, • The vulnerability of different parts of the state to different forms of disaster • The measures to be adopted for the prevention and mitigation of disasters • The manner in which the mitigation measures shall be integrated with development plans and projects • The capacity-building and preparedness measures to be taken. Accordingly, the Government of India has taken some administrative steps to reduce the miseries of farmers in a post-disaster situation. One of them is insuring the crops of the farmers. Many parts of India experience unseasonal dust and thunderstorms, followed by unseasonal rains year after year. This has cost lives and led to extensive crop damage. With freak weather events becoming more common, protection of farmers against these through crop insurance has become an essential component of National agricultural policy since the 1960s. From the Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme (1985) through the National Agriculture

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Insurance Scheme (1999–2000), Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme (2003), Modified National Agriculture Scheme (2010) and on to the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) (2016), India’s agricultural insurance schemes have undergone several changes in their approaches. Mitigating risk in the farm sector has a direct implication for agricultural productivity and farmers’ well-being. However, only 10% of the farmers have been covered under this after the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana has been introduced. Previously it was only 2% and covered risk assessment of individual farmers as per the areas cultivated; consequently benefitting the medium and large farmers more. The PMFBY scheme is a multi-peril crop insurance scheme introduced since January 2016. It follows an ‘area basis approach’ with seasonal activities under the consideration of a broad-set of risks spanning various stages of crop development and post-harvest losses due to natural calamities. State/union territory has been entrusted by the State-Level Coordination Committee on Insurance to notify the insurance unit such as village/village panchayat or any other equivalent unit for major crops. The maximum premium payable by the farmers is 2% for all kharif food and oilseed crops, 1.5% for rabi crops and 5% for annual commercial and horticultural crops. It aims at reaching to 50% farmers in India. The most important part of this agricultural insurance policy is that it is mandatory for those farmers who ask for agricultural credit to Banks. Others farmers may voluntarily opt for it by paying a premium. The low percentage of farmers in the insurance net reflects the low penetration of index-indemnity insurance product.5 Further, State governments have their own policies within the broad framework of the administrative design of the Union. Notwithstanding the marked progress following the adoption of the area-based approach in crop insurance schemes, the credit-linked insurance scheme design and distribution, reliance on informal credit, and exclusion of nonloanee small-holder farmers have restricted the scope for broad-based, yet voluntary, participation of farmers and other stakeholders. Disbursal of compensation for crop loss of farmers is done based on ownership of land. The farmer having Record of Right (ROR) gets the compensation for crop loss whereas the tenant or share-cropper who actually cultivates the land gets nothing. Coming to Odisha, delivery of crop insurance has been linked to ‘record of right’ (ROR) on the land of farmers. Thus, tenants or sharecroppers who are cultivating the farmlands of urbanite large and medium farmers do not get crop insurance.

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Rather the insurance comes to the bank account of the owner of the land. By virtue of a letter issued by the Special Relief Commissioner, Disaster Management, Government of Odisha on 18.8.20156 a sharecropper is entitled to get crop-loss-compensation based on the on-the-spot eyeestimation report given by the Revenue Inspector of the respective are. Such a government circular has opened the door for corruption by the Revenue Inspector Amin rather than helped the tenant or sharecropper in a real sense. This policy gap has added to the miseries of sharecroppers in a post-disaster situation. Though more than 85% of the land is cultivated by sharecroppers in Odisha, they do not get any Government assistance at the time of natural calamities. The sharecroppers also do not get a loan from banks and fertilizers at subsidized rate because there is no such provision under the existing law. The sharecroppers are also not entitled to get input subsidy, insurance cover, relief, and other benefits. The Task Force on Agricultural Development set up by the NITI Aayog had identified the absence of formal recognition of tenancy in many states as a major hurdle in consolidating landholding. The disaster mitigation approach of India has exclusionary trajectories as successive policies have addressed very little the woes of disasteraffected farm labourers. The labourer who lives in a kutcha house with subsistence level livelihood goes without work day after day in a postdisaster situation. After some days of efforts to cope with bad times, the labourer opts for migrating to an unknown destination leaving behind his family members to their destiny. Research findings on migration studies speak for their exploitation.

Suggestions for a Policy Reform Socio-economic vulnerabilities caused in a post-disaster situation are not similar across all social classes. If the proper policy is not made and specific vulnerabilities of different areas and people are not addressed the concern of human rights do not get properly addressed. Therefore, the study puts forth the following suggestions: • Development of flood-resilient agriculture is one of the possible solutions. Research on short duration crops for disaster-prone zones of India has become essential. • Farmers in most parts of India adopt mono-cropping as they are at the mercy of monsoon. Developing the capabilities of farmers by

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providing inputs to opt for multiple-cropping and cultivating short duration crops is a practical solution for risk reduction. • In spite of the government’s good intentions, assessments of the PMFBY face several challenges that make processing and verification of insurance claim error-prone and time-consuming. Payouts do not reach farmers at the right time and in amounts commensurate with their losses. Many experts and organizations working in this area are now recommending the use of information and communication (ICT) tools to help farmers regain faith in crop insurance schemes and make them more efficient and transparent. • Policies of crop-insurance have to be redefined to include sharecroppers. The present government of Odisha has addressed this issue in an ad hoc way currently. Official sources said 55 lakh families in Odisha are farmers, and of them, 80% are sharecroppers—the real tillers of the land. In the state, the produce is distributed between sharecroppers and the landowners. Crop loss compensation was given to landowners till 2015 and the practice is continuing till today. As per the letter issued by Relief Commissioner in 2015 crop loss compensation is calculated based on eye estimation or crop loss certification by assessing crop loss by crop cutting after any disaster. However, this has gone to very few sharecroppers. Those sharecroppers who have received compensation have done so by bribing the Revenue inspector, says one landowner of Tholanda Grampanchayat of Jagannath Prasad Block of Ganjam district of Odisha.. The same opinion has been expressed by some of the sharecroppers. One of the landowners in the said Panchayat expressed that they are ready to enter into an agreement with the Sharecroppers on yearly basis. but their fear is would the government be able to update the data on the computer on a yearly basis. The landowners have no trust on administration. Therefore, Odisha has failed to bring a land lease legislation due to lack of consensus. Effective communication is essential to give message to the landowners so that their land is protected and cannot be taken away by the cultivators. This will be the biggest incentive for them to reveal the identity of the sharecroppers. • The Odisha government, however, is planning to empower the sharecroppers without disturbing the existing landownership pattern. The terms of agreement should be for a minimum period of three years, and the parties with mutual consent may further extend it. The lessee cultivator should not have any right over the leased agricultural

FARMERS, CLIMATE CHANGE AND PEOPLE CENTRIC …

• •

•

•

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land excepting for cultivation purposes. The landowner will be free to mortgage the land without affecting the agreement and will not be under any obligation to extend the contract. In the event of any dispute between the cultivator and the landowner, they will resort to the local dispute resolution mechanism and will not approach the judiciary. Local revenue officials, who will register the deeds, will play a major role. Once the tenants are identified and registered, the government will have no problem in extending financial assistance to the cultivators. The government should stress on effective communication. Therefore, the respective landowner has distributed the compensation amount among the sharecroppers in proportion to the amount of land cultivated by the sharecroppers. The government has to take specific measures to sensitize farmers to opt for insuring their crops. Awareness among farmers will take them a long way to fight out the pangs and pains of crop loss. The farmers in disaster-prone areas may be given a wholesome farmkit in a post-disaster period which should include seeds, fertilizer, and other farm inputs to opt for short duration crops to ride over the difficult situation. What is required is a prior mapping of the productive potential of the disaster-prone area and the capabilities of its youth and adult population. Accordingly, strategies for skill development for youth and adults have to be introduced in such areas prior to the onset of disasters. For an example, in a post-disaster situation, a young man can buy sugarcane, make jaggeries and sell that in the nearby urban market. Banks may be directed to offer small loans without any collateral security to landless youth to buy vehicles for transportation. This will supplement his household income in a post-disaster situation.

Conclusion The post-Sendai Framework has established the interconnection between pre-disaster risk reduction through building community resilience and post-disaster rehabilitation in a larger framework of disaster governance. It emphatically states that better preparedness ensures quicker response which means lesser disaster loss, better mitigation and preventive activities, better protection against hazards. The concept of the Disaster Management Cycle has pertinence for public policy if people’s perspective

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is given due attention while drafting the policy. Hitherto disaster management has either not been taken cognizance of at all in policy matters or not accorded sufficient primacy especially in poor third world developing economies where there are ‘other pressing concerns’ to address such as poverty, malnutrition and unemployment and other development issues. However, losses suffered around the world due to natural disasters have brought about the realization that development can not be sustained without effective disaster mitigation efforts. Since ‘a stitch in time saves nine’, the same needs to be driven home to policymakers to factor disaster management concerns in development planning.

Notes 1. Decoding the Monsoon floods in Bangladesh, India, Myanmar and Nepal (2017), Report prepared by SEEDS, New Delhi, and Brussels-based Centre for Research on Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED). 2. National Policy on Disaster Management (22 October 2009), Retrieved from http://ndmindia.nic.in/NPDM-101209.pdf. p. 1. 3. National Crime Reports Bureau, ADSI Report Annual—2014 Government of India, p. 242, Table 2.11. 4. Read: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/66035943.cms? utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst. 5. Crop insurance scheme has been defined as index-indemnity insurance product by economists. Indemnity insurance is a contractual agreement in which one party guarantees compensation for actual or potential losses or damages sustained by another party. These special insurance policies indemnify or reimburse professionals against claims made as they conduct their business. Index linking is used in a variety of property insurance policies, including home buildings and content insurance as a way of ensuring that the sums insured under the policy are kept in line with current market day values. 6. Govt. of Odisha letter no. 3654 R & DM (SR) dated 18.8.2015 issued by Special Relief Commissioner, Disaster Management.

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References Gruère, G., & Sengupta, D. (2011). Bt cotton and farmer suicides in India: an evidence-based assessment. The Journal of Development Studies, 47(2), 316– 337. Kumar, T.S., et al. (2010). Coastal vulnerability assessment for Orissa state, east coast of India. Journal of Coastal Research, 26(3), 523–534. Senapati, S., & Gupta, V. (2014). Climate change and coastal ecosystem in India: Issues in perspectives. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 5(3), 530–543. Singh, A. (2018). Disaster laws, emerging thresholds. Routledge.

The Other Humans (or Non-humans) in Disaster Management in India Langthianmung Vualzong

The Non-humans in Environment and Economy Can human beings imagine a life without animals, birds and plants? The flora and fauna are interdependent. Ancient Indian scriptures have emphasized holistic views on the concept of life on planet earth. The Isha-Upanishad (1500–600 BC) writes: The universe along with its creatures belongs to the land. No creature is superior to any other. Human beings should not be above nature. Let no one species encroach over the rights and privileges of other species.

Agenda 21 of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) brought the issue of biodiversity conservation to the top of developmental priorities. The World Charter for Nature 1982 (UN GA RES 37/7) proclaims that Every form of life is unique, warranting respect regardless of its

L. Vualzong (B) Centre for the Study of Law and Governance and The Special Centre for Disaster Research, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_14

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worth to man, and, to accord other organisms such recognition, man must be guided by a moral code of action,

Then how can human beings advance and progress without the vast biodiversity inhabited by non-humans which are our constant companions in survival struggles against disasters. Animal welfare is now a part of SDGs which mention animals in Goal 2 and more deeply in goal 12, 14 and 17 where the relationship of sustainable economics with animal welfare seems obvious. Two areas are clearly spelt out to be of concern for sustainable development, first is animal welfare issues and second is the risk of zoonotic diseases and inappropriate use of insecticides and pesticides to human as well as animal health. The concern with microbes and the diseases related to it becomes a serious concern for SDG and this is shared with Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Health Organization and the World Organization for Animal Health which were expected to coordinate global health risks at the animal–human ecosystem interfaces. 1. The contribution of livestock and poultry alone to GDP is 17% of which a major support comes to the small farmers as almost 2/3rd of rural households depend upon animals (NDDB). To add to this the contribution of animals in the wild to tourism industry, the load carriers in labour markets, performance animals and companion animals to longevity, happiness and mental health of humans. Animals who are better referred to as non-humans or other humans have as much right to survive as humans who have no special moral right to be on the top of the hierarchy. This prejudice towards anything that is different is a form of racism and in 1970s Richard Ryder (1989) in Oxford coined a term ‘Speciesism’ for a ‘ubiquitous type of human centered prejudice…similar to racism’ (Gruen, Lori, “The Moral Status of Animals” [Zalta 2017]). The non-humans that constitute the ecosystems are as much vulnerable as humans are during a disaster and in their destruction lies the destruction of human beings. The SDGs also focus on them in the 12th, 14th and 15th Goals. At times non-humans are more resilient and better prepared and on many situations are seen to predict dangers that are environmentally related. When disasters strike most

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disaster prevention laws around the world are silent on rescue, rehabilitation and rebuilding lives of non-humans even though they serve humans in various ways. They were voiceless and for that reason politically weak to demand. This paper seeks to highlight the missing narrative and attention in the National Disaster Management Authority of India and three important SDGs goals number, fourteenth, fifteenth and number twelve. The Non-Human constitutes the speechless in disaster management. The livestock census in India started as early as 1919 but as other discriminatory systems in early governance arrangements, it was also with animals. Those that brought more money to humans were on the top of the list of animals and were brutally overused to serve the greed industry. The rights-based approaches in recent two decades has awakened the courts and also many governments to look at them not just as an industry but as sentient beings with as much a moral right to exist and share planet earth (Sentient Legislation: Animal Legal Defense Fund’s Canadian Province Rankings Motivate Change. The Animal Legal Defense Fund. 21 October 2015). In India there has been a full-fledged judicial revolution in recognizing this right. Discrimination and subjugation of animals as property found explanation in the term ‘speciesism’. The term became an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1985, defined as ‘discrimination against or exploitation of animal species by human beings, based on an assumption of mankind’s superiority’ (Wise 2004: 26). In 1994 the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy offered a wider definition: ‘By analogy with racism and sexism, the improper stance of refusing respect to the lives, dignity, or needs of animals of other than the human species’ (Blackburn 1994: 358). Under a total of seventeen Sustainable Development Goals the research paper focuses specifically on Goals No 12, 14 and 15. The SDGs, Goal no 12 which refers to ‘Responsible Consumption’, Goal no 14 which attends to ‘Life below water’ and Goals no 15 draws attention to ‘Life on Land’ reflects upon sustainability as a dependent variable of all human and non-human life on land, water and air. Goal number 12 raises the concern about responsible consumption. It is all about consuming in a justifiable manner and not waste as there are millions of undernourished people around the globe to be fed. According to UN, India, with nearly 195 million undernourished people, shares a quarter of the global hunger burden. Nearly 47 million or 4 out of 10

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children in India are not meeting their full human potential because of chronic undernutrition or stunting.1 To provide meat diet, ‘the livestock take up 80% of global agricultural land yet produce less than 20% of the world’s supply of calories. This means that what we eat is more important than how much we eat in determining the amount of land required to produce our food’. The world hunger and poverty is related to the overconsumption of meat in global diet (Ritchie, Hannah [2017] How Much of the World’s Land Would We Need in Order to Feed the Global Population with the Average Diet of a Given Country? Accessed 3 January 2020). Ritchie’s study further explores on how much of ‘world’s land would we need in order to feed the global population with the average diet of a given country?’ (Available at https://ourworldindata.org/agr icultural-land-by-global-diets). This consumption pattern is highly unsustainable and blatant misuse of land to promote inequitable growth, starvation and hunger of millions of poor across the globe. There are more studies from agricultural scientists (Tilman and Clark 2014; Wirsenius et al. 2010) available online and food producers as well as poverty reduction scholars to rethink increased animal consumption to reach a level of sustainable dietary equitability at a global level (Alexander et al. 2016). Sustainable development Goal 14 constitutes all marine beings and the related surviving aquatic vegetation that support a wide variety of marine species which helps carbon sequestration to fight climate change. There is need to put curbs on over-fishing, constructions and the installing of ships, war ships and submarine in the ocean and seas which drives the marine plants and animals to extinction. This has induced human action of dumping all waste and toxic effluents intoxicating the biosphere and aquatic vegetation for the past hundreds of years. To cite an important case study from the first protected Jamnagar National Marine Park2 and the sanctuaries which are at the Gulf of Kutch. This area includes 42 islands in the state of Gujarat, India. It also has a reserved forest of 12.82 km area, unclassed forests 347.90 km2 which hold a plethora of living coral reefs and fish despite being one of the most fragile endangered ecosystems on earth. This was possible due to strict laws against human poaching, fishing and interference with the animal life. Within this pristine ecologically fragile area, Essar Oil Limited proposed to lay a pipeline that run through the national park and transport oil to other nearby areas and coast. The permission for grant of this transportation of oil was granted by the state government and the chief wildlife warden under

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wildlife protection Act, 1972. In November 26, 1999 it was reported that marine national park at Vardinar on India’s west coast had been hit by an oil spill that left six dolphins, five sea turtles and piles of fish dead. The environment news service reported that Jamnagar district collector, Girish Murmu, admitted that, there was slippage of oil in the Vadinar water and said that, it seems that most likely oil slippage could have originated from the Indian Oil Corporation facilities’.3 There are numerous cases of oil spills that go unnoticed and unheard as the warning bells are falling on deaf ears. This Essar oil attempt to construct pipeline is against the wildlife protection Act 1972, where section 26 A (3) prohibits alteration in the boundary, section 27 which said restriction of entry into a sanctuary section 32, bans the use of chemicals and other substance. According to the act, the wildlife warden can make suggestion but the power to implement lies at the authority of the government (see Biswas 2009). Life on land (SDGs goals 15) sets the mission to ‘Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss (Fig. 1).

Attending to Non-humans During a Disaster The Union list of the Indian Constitution does not include the Disaster management. The state list does have this local government under point (5) for administration where the vision of Sendai and disaster management focus till on the local level. Importantly the focus is on the Concurrent list point number (17): prevention of cruelty to animals and (17b) which reads as protection of wild animals and birds (it was transferred under 42nd Amendment Act 1976). This paper will highlight the lack of ethics in caring for non-human in times of crisis, they are most neglected in time of crisis and abandon by owners and rescuer. According to world animal protection, department of animal husbandry, govt. of Kerala and the Indian Red Cross Society reported that (referring to the recent Kerala floods in September 2018), 46,016 livestock, 2,500,000 poultry succumbed to the floods and heavy rainfall. The NDMA had instructed all states and union territories way back in 2013 to integrate animals in their disaster management plan but till the 2018 Kerala floods it had not been done. As Gajender K Sharma, India Country Director at World Animal Protection4 stated, ‘The impact

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Fig. 1 The figure is developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization to demonstrate that animal welfare can contribute to the SDGs (Source Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations [2015]. FAO Synthesis —Livestock and the Sustainable Development Goals Global Agenda for Sustainable Livestock. Draft prepared by FAO-AGAL Livestock Information, Sector Analysis and Policy Branch. Available online at: http://www.livestockdialogue.org/fileadmin/templates/res_livestock/docs/ 2016/Panama/FAO-AGAL_synthesis_Panama_Livestock_and_SDGs.pdf)

on animals cannot be overstated. In some areas, virtually all animals were killed or suffered in the days following the deluge. We are in Kerala to provide relief to as many animals as possible and to see how this tragedy can be prevented from recurring in the future. Together with the Department of Animal Husbandry and the Indian Red Cross Society, we are ensuring that animal welfare needs are met concurrent with the humanitarian effort’. The state of Assam is facing perennial floods which kill and displace human and non-human in large number. According to Aljazeera, India lost more than 225 endangered animals at the UNESCO World Heritage site Kaziranga National Park (KNP). The Brahmaputra River rises above normal every year yet the government has not been able to even make concrete raised structures where animals could climb to. In 2018 the river submerged over 70% of the park which includes 178 hog deer, 15 rhinos, 4 elephants and 1 tiger.5 In 2017, 503 animals were killed

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in the floods as ‘Daily O’ reported that in 2017, KNP lost 361 animals including 31 rhinos. In 1988, during the worst floods the KNP lost more than 1000 animals and between 2002 to 2017, 130 rhinos died due to floods (most newspapers reported). This collective altruistic community is true mostly in the northeast India despite the diversity in language, tribes, ethnicity, religions so on. This kind of relational altruistic/compact community is hardly found in any part of the country as the world is not enough for some and live a live for him/herself. The SDGs aim and objectives of reducing risk, poverty and promoting sustainable development goal is only achievable by increased community participation. Human Society International (HIS) which have extensively worked in the field for animal welfare said that in one flood affected district of Kerala, 80% of animals were missing. Most rescued animals were house pets mostly dogs. Many animals shift to safer areas before and during the floods. Also the Odisha floods 5th August 2014 is of significance. The field ground assessment report by Oxfam provided that, Jajpur and Puri were worse affected districts. Most villages were submerged below 15 feet water. Many other villages such as Bhadrak, Kendrapala and Cuttack were completely cut off from transportation. The Oxfam report here includes the following statistics6 : 709,841 people displaced in Jajpur and 363,832 in Puri district. When people are displaced thousands of street pets are left behind to die of submergence or starvation. Livestock and a very rich biodiversity from reptiles to varieties of mammals adorn Odisha villages and forests. Over 366,541 hectares of farm land was submerged under water and the paddy crop had been destroyed. The floods have impacted 1.13 million livestock. According to central pollution control board January 2005, assessment report, everyday, India cities generate 15,000 tonnes of plastic bottles and plastic (various kinds) wastes of which 9000 are recycled while the remaining 6000 tones usually litter drains, streets, parks, open spaces and are dumped in the river, landfills and about 66% of plastics waste polybag used to pack food mainly by vendors and local residents. The question of health is completely not considered rather profit making and market consumption and economy/cost–benefits play a bigger role. The number of litter of plastic generated in January 2005 is double to triple the number in 2016 which goes unchecked although there is plastic waste management Rule 2016. the reasons for this is that the people where majority are poor are used to using plastic bags and seldom carry bags for shopping

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due to its conveniency. The plastic waste contaminates land, soil, surface and underwater, marine lives and many other species even human. About 1 m seabirds and 100,000 marine mammals die each year globally due to ingesting plastic or tangled into fishing nylon net and even plastic ropes. The greed of human is not enough and to check these illegal activities a law that does not compromise on the basis of face value is needed. The report further said that, 60% of plastic wastes are dumped into Indian Ocean, Ganga and Brahmaputra. On May 2012, two supreme Court judges; Justice Singhvi and Justice Mukhopadhaya said that ‘The Next generation will be threatened with something more serious than Atom Bomb’ unless a total ban on plastic is put in place’. Interestingly, the Earth day 12th April 2018 theme was End Plastic Pollution’, a global grassroots movement to end plastic pollution. Karnataka and Punjab have banned plastic since 2016. The central pollution control board in collaboration with Jadavpur University, Kolkata has re-engineered plastic recycling.

Non-human Animals as Property and Food Food is the biggest industry for slaughtering animals and bringing climate change. Veganism means the rejection of commodities of the products of animals.7 The advocates of this philosophy mostly constitute animal lovers and given the amount of affection towards animals they cannot simply consume it and hate commercialization of its product. They are more of a Gandhian where they consider animals or non-humans as sentient beings that needs loves, affection and kindness and care as much as we human deserve. The speciesism on the other hand believes that all the other beings are inferior and does not require much attention and can use at their will. Like clothing, consumption, experimentation and entertainment. Vegan society has the trademark sunflower symbol that can be found in a variety of products, cosmetics that do not contain animal product.8 Cosmetics tested on animals are banned under rules 148-C & 135-B of drugs and cosmetics rules, 1945. In the context of India, since animal constitute a religious sacred for some section of the community meat consumption is meagre except in the state of Northeastern regions, Kerala, West Bengal, Goa and Utter Pradesh. According to India’s 2017 & 18th, Carabeef is India’s most consumed animal protein after chicken meat due to its affordability.9 In developing countries, Livestock have direct impact on many sectors such as food, agriculture and cultural values. This livestock are most vulnerable in India during disaster and due to human activities and greed.

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Impact of Livestock a. Food security is threatened: As livestock uses intensive facilities tend to be raised on grains, they impact prices of human staple foods. This is particularly the case with monogastric animals—pigs and poultry—which eat more grains, legumes and protein-based foods that could be eaten by humans (Naylor et al. 2005). Ruminants– cattle, sheep, etc.—eat grasses and crop residues that are inedible to humans, so offer less competition for human grain crops, particularly if grazed extensively, as is often the case in low-income countries (Delgado et al. 2001). b. Environmental concern: Intensive production areas have become major point sources of pollution, with effluent entering waterways and feedlots potentially affecting air quality. The conversion of land to raise feed crops also has major implications for land management (Steinfeld et al. 2010). The costs of pollution and land degradation are not incorporated into the costs of production or the final price of goods. Economists refer to such costs as external costs, or externalities’. Interregional and international trade in livestock and feed often results in a situation where the ASF importers are paying the direct financial costs of meat production, while the economic externalities of pollution are left in the production areas (Naylor et al. 2005). c. Animal welfare concerns and human Industrial livestock production and larger farms tend to be capital intensive, rather than labour intensive. Livestock raising also creates a human health concern especially with zoonotic diseases (livestock development in 1999). The animal welfare is gaining a huge concern in livestock industrial production (Delgado et al. 2001). The Indian subcontinent is highly vulnerable to all sorts of cyclones, tsunami, droughts, earthquakes, floods, landslides and so on. Since 1960, it is estimated that the number of loss to human lives alone is more than three millions and maybe more globally because more than 95% are in the developing countries where disasters occur and lives around the area of Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn which is most vulnerable to all sorts of disaster. In India, out of 35 states/Union territories, 25 are disaster prone which means more than 50 million of people are affected by disaster one way or the other. According to the world disaster report

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the period from 1986 to 1995, the total number of people reported killed in India is 42,026 while number of people reported affected by disaster is 561,472,995. The report also says that the period from 1996 to 2005, there are 85,001 people killed and 686,724,143 people affected by one type of disaster. Then in 2005, the number of people killed were 5405 and affected account to 28,262,805. Looking at these numbers, there is a decline of people killed and affected by disaster. It should also be noted that the biggest killers in India in the 70s and 80s is famine and droughts. Again, according to the World Disaster Report 2016, the total number of people killed by disaster of any kind is 26,895 which stood third place in the Asia continent after Myanmar and China. Table 1 shows India’s state-wise damage due to Cyclonic Storms/Heavy Rains/Floods/Landslide/Earthquake, etc. It can be seen that in the Eastern part of India the most affected include the state of West Bengal, Assam and Manipur. Table 1 The top 3 states in India with maximum loss due to disasters are listed year-wise 2013–2018 Sl. no

State

1 West Bengal 2 Himachal Pradesh 3 Uttarakhand 2014–2015 1 Jammu & Kashmir 2 Assam 3 Meghalaya 2015–2016 1 West Bengal 2 Gujarat 3 Tamil Nadu 2016–2017 1 Telangana 2 West Bengal 3 Assam 2017 –2018 1 Gujarat 2 Manipur 3 Tamil Nadu

Loss of cattle and other animals due to disaster in number

Year

45,285 23,648 9470

2013–2014 2013–2014 2013–2014

61,326 8961 8822

2014–2015 2014–2015 2014–2015

23,120 19,388 12,030

2015–2016 2015–2016 2015–2016

6535 3320 3191

2016–2017 2016–2017 2016–2017

15,255 10,752 7654 Total = 218,000

2017–2018 2017–2018 2017–2018

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Table 2 Tables showing impact of drought and floods on animals LIVES LOST (IN NUMBERS)

CATTLE LOST (IN NUMBERS)

2001-2002

834

21269

346878

2002-2003

898

3729

462700

21.00

2003-2004

1992

25393

682209

31.98

2004-2005

1995

12389

1603300

32.53

2005-2006

2698

110997

2120012

35.52

2006-2007

2402

455619

19346905

70.87

2007-2008

3764

119218

3527041

85.13

2008-2009

3405

53833

1646905

35.56

2009-2010

1677

128452

1359726

47.13

2010-2011

2310

48778

1338619

46.25

2011-2012

1600

9126

876168

18.87

YEAR

HOUSE DAMAGED (IN NUMBERS)

CROPPED AREAS AFFECTED (IN LAKH HECTARES) 18.72

Note Total loss of animal lives and their destitution due to houses damaged in disasters Source Estimates from the Ministry of Home Affairs(MHA), Government of India; Nutrition and Care of Livestock During Natural Disaster, N. Das, 2011

Statistics on animal losses during disaster in India are not very thoughtfully and carefully collected and classified which leads to underestimated numbers of millions of animals who disappear during disasters in an unaccounted manner. An estimate given below is the one available so far even though it is much underestimated due to technical and local issues which the data collection agencies face (Tables 2, 3, and 4). The tables given above are a reflection of how the country has been destroying with impunity a golden goose that carries her wealth and future prospects.

Recommendations and Conclusions The argument in this paper is that SDGs could be unachievable if good animal welfare is not strongly promoted in governance and developmental policies. Animal welfare refers to the state of animals in which they are made to live anywhere in any country. This includes (1) recognition of laws which ensure their healthy, comfortable and well nourished life with dignity. (2) They are free from cruelty of experimentation of any mechanical of emotional trauma which puts them to immense suffering (3) There are systems of disease prevention, trained veterinary care, clean and humane management of their habitats, shelters and meat industry.

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Table 3

Area, human and livestock population in drought prone states of India

States

Andhra Pradesh Bihar Gujarat Haryana Jammu & Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Odisha Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Total

No. of districts

Area (km2 )

Human population

Livestock population

Livestock density per 1000 human

9

125,348

30,453,649

22,809,820

749.00

13 15 7 2

32,005 152,018 16,715 16,241

22,363,260 33,118,148 8,679,676 1,429,439

8,196,135 15,823,950 3,218,919 3,103,608

366.50 477.80 370.86 2171.21

2 19 12

12,851 141,920 89,988

3,126,155 41,705,282 16,768,777

2,057,584 21,106,792 10,438,005

658.18 506.09 622.47

11 4 14 17 11

125,377 24,330 214,952 83,394 41,178

35,777,587 3,373,493 25,310,146 33,627,719 20,167,499

17,370,583 2,667,734 27,384,995 15,901,304 7,487,123

485.52 790.79 1081.98 472.86 371.25

3 139

27,222 1,103,539

15,365,528 291,266,358

11,159,026 168,725,578

726.24 579.28

These three indicators can be a preliminary check to identify which are the nations that could qualify to move better in the path for SDGs. The Sendai framework of livelihood protection on DRR 2015 TO 2030 section 30 (p) which focus on ‘strengthening the protection of livelihood and productive assets including livestock and working animals’. This framework very much sums up the whole idea of the SDGs goal number 14 and 15 in particular. This global framework should be incorporated in the disaster management act which calls for legal services for animals, protecting animals from all sorts of disaster. To achieve this requirement, institutions should collaborate under SDGs 17 (institutions such as NDMA, SDMA, DDMA, Local organization/association. NGOs etc. demand collaboration and partnership. Article 51A (g) has given the duty of every citizens of India to have compassion towards animals (non-human creatures, species). This Article should now be a mandatory law for anyone using animals in whichever way.

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Table 4

209

Area, human and livestock population in flood prone states of India

States

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Delhi Gujarat Haryana Kerala Manipur Odisha Punjab Uttar Pradesh Uttaranchal West Bengal Total

No. of districts

Area (km2 )

Affected Area (km2 )

Human population

Livestock population

Livestock density per 1000 human

11

154,321

19,098

37,771,725

24,445,802

647.20

1

8325

406

103,575

102,234

987.05

14 34 1 13 18 13 6 8 17 60

53,161 85,379 1483 73,204 42,313 36,732 13,366 29,236 50,362 211,513

8995 32,645 116 14,010 6810 6582 1091 5604 27,150 69,929

18,158,350 77,614,950 13,782,976 30,565,861 20,270,967 31,051,992 2,048,434 12,737,396 24,289,296 157,820,788

9,363,786 24,952,021 372,363 11,474,505 8,461,222 3,328,136 722,061 7,218,528 8,602,597 56,164,538

515.67 321.48 27.02 375.48 417.41 107.18 352.49 566.72 354.17 355.88

4 18

11,925 88,752

674 34,804

4,720,756 80,221,171

1,567,884 41,611,603

332.13 518.71

218

860,072

227,914

511,158,237

198,387,280

388.11

Ethics towards primordial rights of animals should be given a place in international law and the progress towards SDGs. Many animals continue to suffer as human beings apply various unethical and brutal methods towards them. In tbilsi, Georgia when heavy rainfall and flooding destroyed the capital zoo, the only tiger that escaped near the city capital was shot and killed by the police. According to Lydia Smith (2018, January 12),10 nine cubs in Sweden were euthanized at Boras Djurpark, an animal park around 25 miles from Gothenburg, since 2012 merely because they had no place to keep them. The ethical conservation policy towards animals, non-human continue to hunt down many not merely natural disaster but also human activities. The booming meat industry encourages factory farming and forces unnatural increase in breeding whereas sustainable breeding could ensure millions of poor rural livelihood during and after disaster strikes. It may also prevent local communities from encroaching on their forests

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to convert them into grazing grounds, farm lands and animal rearing facilities just to protect their only livelihood. India is far ahead of other countries in taking a holistic and inclusive view of life and environment. Rights of animals has been looked into by Indian Courts as not a piece of compassion but as a primordial right to coexist with everyone else in nature. The Kerala High Court, in N.R. Nair v. Union of India 3 (AIR 2000, Ker.340), emphasized fundamental and legal rights to animals saying that they should not be the exclusive preserve of humans which has to be extended beyond people thereby dismantling the thick legal wall with humans all on one side and all non-human animals on the other side’. Later hon’ble Supreme Court in Animal Welfare Board of India v. A. Nagaraja 5 (2014, 7 SCC547) developed the idea further in the judgement. In the Uttarakhand High Court Judgement the judges observed; Pain and suffering are biological traits. Pain, in particular, informs an animal which specific stimuli, it needs to avoid and an animal has pain receptors and a memory that allows it to remember what caused the pain. Professor of Animal Welfare, D. M. Broom of the University of Cambridge in his articles appearing in chapter fourteen of the book Animal Welfare and the Law, Cambridge University Press (1989) says: “Behavioural responses to pain vary greatly from one species to another, but it is reasonable to suppose that the pain felt by all of these animals is similar to that felt by man” (Narayan Dutt Bhatt vs Union of India and Others on 4 July 2018, HC Uttarakhand, No. 43 of 2014). This verdict of the Uttarakhand High Court on animal rights pushed an idea that these other humans or non-humans should be treated as ‘legal entities having a distinct persona with corresponding rights, duties, and liabilities of a living person’.11 Importantly, it further said that it should not be treated as a property. On 3 March 2016 India launched its first National Disaster Management Plan for Animals under the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), World Animal Protection and Policy Perspectives Foundation (PPF) integrating animals in the National Disaster Management Plan.12 The plan for the first time ensures that animals will be included in disaster preparations, potentially saving millions of animals’ lives and building the resilience of the communities that depend on them. This workshop also launched the National Livestock Disaster Management Plan for the Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, thereby syncing animal protection into the heart

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of disaster management. At the inaugural event, Shri Radha Mohan Singh, Honourable Minister of Agriculture said In India, animals are at the heart of everything, be it family, culture and livelihood, animals are an intrinsic part of our lives. It’s ironical that animals were missing in the picture till now’.13 He further said, Animals are the assets of the nation and it is our foremost duty to protect them’.14 Like Noah built the ark accommodating all species of beings, human universe is incomplete without non-humans. The Sustainable Development Goals coexist with animal welfare and their protection. Most of the UN Agencies (UNEP, UNCED, FAO, UNISDR) have repeatedly accentuated the need to mainstream animal welfare and conservation in developmental programmes and this paper would like to establish a complete endorsement of the idea of inclusive growth which also carries along healthy and undisturbed world of animals on the universe.

Notes 1. United Nations in India-Nutrition and food security: http://in.one.un. org/un-priority-areas-in-india/nutrition-and-food-security/. Access on 2 October 2018. 2. Essar oil ltd. Versus Halar Utkarsh Samiti and Others (2004) 2 Supreme Court cases 392. 3. Ibid. 4. World Animal protection assisting animal recovery in Kerala: https:// www.worldanimalprotection.org.in/news/world-animal-protection-assist ing-animal-recovery-kerala. Access on 2 October 2018. 5. Rare wildlife killed as floods devastate India Reserve. https://www.alj azeera.com/news/2017/08/rare-rhinos-killed-floods-devastate-india-res erve-170820100608076.html. Access on 1 October 2018. 6. Oxfam India, rapid assessment carried out in worst effected district of Odisha (2014). https://www.oxfamindia.org/Jajpurfloods Access on 2 October 2018. 7. Helena Pedersen, Vasile Staescu (The Rise of Critical Animal Studies, 2014): “[W]e are vegan because we are ethically opposed to the notion that life (human or otherwise) can, or should, ever be rendered as a buyable or sellable commodity.” Gary Steiner (Animals and the Limits of Postmodernism, 2013): “ … ethical veganism, the principle that we ought as far as possible to eschew the use of animals as sources of food, labour, entertainment and the like … [This means that animals] … agreeing entitled not to be eaten, used as forced field labor, experimented upon, killed for materials to make clothing and other commodities of

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8. 9. 10.

11. 12.

13. 14.

use to human beings, or held captive as entertainment.” Gary Francione (“Animal Welfare, Happy Meat and Veganism as the Moral Baseline”, 2012): “Ethical veganism is the personal rejection of the commodity status of nonhuman animals …”. For further information you may refer to: www.vegansociety.com/lifest yle/cosmetics. GAIN Report, 9 January 2017, Livestock and product Annual 2017. Smith, L. (2018, January 12). Swedish Zoo Admits Killing Nine Healthy Lion Cubs Because They Became ‘Surplus’ Animals. Independent. Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/zoo-killslion-cubs-sweden-nine-surplus-animal-cruelty-boras-djurpark-bo-kjellsona8155546.html. Access on 2 October 2018. The High court verdict relied on Supreme Court verdict in Animal Welfare Board Vs A. Nagaraja & Others. First workshop on integrating animals on disaster management, a workshop organized jointly by NIDM, PPF & World animal protection on 3 March 2016. Ibid. Ibid.

References Alexander, P., C. Brown, A. Arneth, J. Finnigan, and M. D. Rounsevell (2016). Human Appropriation of Land for Food: The Role of Diet. Global Environmental Change, 41, 88–98. Available at https://ourworldindata.org/agricu ltural-land-by-global-diets. Biswas, Nilanjana. (2009). Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park and Marine Wildlife Sanctuary: A Case Study. Chennai, India, International Collective in Support of Fishworkers. Blackburn, Simon. (1994). “Speciesism,” Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford University Press. Delgado, C., M. Rosegrant, H. Steinfeld, S. Ehui, and C. Courbois. (2001). Livestock to 2020: The Next Food Revolution. Outlook on Agriculture, 30(1), 27–29. https://doi.org/10.5367/000000001101293427. Delgado, Christopher, Mark Rosegrant, Henning Steinfeld, Simeon Ehui, and Claude Courbois. Disaster Management Act, 2005, No. 53 of 2005. 23rd December 2005. The Gazette of India, Part II, Section 1, No. 64. Francione, Gary. (2012). Animal Welfare, Happy Meat and Veganism as the Moral Baseline. In David M. Kaplan (ed.), The Philosophy of Food. University of California Press, (169–189), p. 182. Global Agriculture Information Network (GAIN). (2017). Livestock and Product Annual, India.

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Govt. of India. (2016–2017). Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmer Welfare, Govt. of India, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi. Available at: http://agricoop.nic.in/sites/default/files/Annual_rpt_201617_ E.pdf. Accessed 2 October 2018. Guha, R. (1997). Social-Ecological Research in India: A ‘Status’ Report. Economic and Political Weekly, 32(7), 345–352. Hempel, Lamont C. (1996). Environmental Governance. Washington, DC: Island Press. High Powered Committee Report. (2001). NCDM. New Delhi: IIPA Publication. Available at: http://www.animal-ethics.org/legal-status-nonhuman-ani mals/. http://www.animal-ethics.org/wild-animal-suffering-section/wild-ani mals/animals-natural-disasters/. Accessed 25 September 2018. Human Society India-the Better India. (2016). 15 Animal Rights in India That Every Citizens Should Know. February 19. Available at: https://www.the betterindia.com/46721/humane-society-india-animal-laws-prevention-of-cru elty-act/. Accessed 2 October 2018. GAIN Report No. IN7108. Available at: http://agriexchange.apeda.gov.in/Mar ketReport/Reports/Livestock%20and%20Products%20Annual_New%20D elhi_India_9-1-2017.pdf. Accessed 1 October 2018. Keeling, Linda, Håkan Tunón, Gabriela Olmos Antillón, Charlotte Lotta Berg, Michael Jones, Leopoldo Stuardo, Janice Swanson, Anna Wallenbeck, Christoph Winckler, and Harry Blokhuis. (2019). Animal Welfare and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 6, 336. Available at: https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/ fvets.2019.00336. Accessed 19 February. Kamei, Namdingpou. (2006). Controversial Hydro-Electric (Multi-purpose) Project. The Sangai Express (India). 15 December. National Dairy Development Board (NDDB). (2017). Survey 3. Naylor, Rosamond, Henning Steinfeld, Walter Falcon, James Galloway, Vaclav Smil, Eric Bradford, Jackie Alder, and Harold Mooney. (2005). Losing the Links Between Livestock and Land. Science, 310, 1621–1622. Arora, Vibha, and Ngamjahao Kipgen. (2012). We Can Live Without Power, but We Can’t Live Without Our Land’: Indigenous Hmar Oppose the Tipaimukh Dam in Manipur. Sociological Bulletin, 61(1), 109–128. Available at https:// www.nddb.coop/services/animalbreeding. Oxfam India, Rapid Assessment Carried Out in Worst Effected District of Odisha. (2014). Available at: https://www.oxfamindia.org/Jajpurfloods. Accessed 2 October 2018. Pedersen, Helena, and Vasile Staescu. (2014). Conclusion: Future Directions for Critical Animal Studies. In Nik Taylor and Richard Twine (eds.), The Rise of Critical Animal Studies: From the Margins to the Centre. Routledge (262– 276), p. 267.

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Ryder, Richard D. (1989). Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes Toward Speciesism. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Ryder, Richard D. (2009) Speciesism. In Marc Bekoff (ed.), Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and Animal Welfare. Greenwood. Saikia, U. (2017, August). Rare Wildlife Killed as Floods Devastate India Reserve. Aljazeera. Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/ 08/rare-rhinos-killed-floods-devastate-india-reserve-170820100608076.html. Accessed 1 October 2018. Singh, A. (2000). The Politics of Environment Administration. New Delhi: Galgotia Publishing Company. Smith, L. (2018, January 12). Swedish Zoo Admits Killing Nine Healthy Lion Cubs Because They Became ‘Surplus’ Animals. Independent. Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/zoo-kills-lion-cubssweden-nine-surplus-animal-cruelty-boras-djurpark-bo-kjellson-a8155546. html. Accessed 2 October 2018. Steiner, Gary. (2013). Animals and the Limits of Postmodernism. Columbia University Press, p. 206. Steinfeld, Henning, Fritz Schneider, and Laurie Neville, eds. (2010). Livestock in a Changing Landscape: Volume 1, Drivers, Consequences and Responses. Island Press. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am074e/am0 74e00.pdf. Tilman, D., and M. Clark. (2014). Global Diets Link Environmental Sustainability and Human Health. Nature, 515(7528), 518–522. Wirsenius, S., C. Azar, and G. Berndes. (2010). How Much Land Is Needed for Global Food Production Under Scenarios of Dietary Changes and Livestock Productivity Increases in 2030? Agricultural Systems, 103(9), 621–638. Wise, Steven M. (2004). Animal Rights, One Step at a Time. In Cass Sunstein and Martha Nussbaum (eds.), Animal Rights: Current Debates and New Directions. Oxford University Press. World Animal Protection Assisting Animal Recovery in Kerala. Available at: https://www.worldanimalprotection.org.in/news/world-animal-protectionassisting-animal-recovery-kerala. Accessed 2 October 2018. https://www.wor ldanimalprotection.org.in/news/india-launches-first-national-disaster-manage ment-plan-animals. Accessed 26 November 2018. Zalta, Edward N., ed. (2017). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017 Edition). Available at https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/ moral-animal/. Accessed 4 February 2020.

Managing Organic Agriculture: Case of Badulla and Ratnapura Districts in Sri Lanka S. H. Pushpa Malkanthi

What Is Organic Agriculture? Currently, organic agriculture (also known as organic farming, chemical farming, chemical-style farming etc.) is rapidly popularizing all around the world. According to International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM), organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystem and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines the traditions, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved (IFOAM 2007). Organic farming continues to be developed with the contribution of various organic agriculture organizations. It relies on fertilizers of organic origins such as manure, green manure, compost and bone meal and places emphasis on techniques such as companion planting and crop rotation.

S. H. Pushpa Malkanthi (B) Department of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Balangoda, Sri Lanka e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_15

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Biological pest control, mixed cropping and the fostering of insect predators are encouraged. In general, organic standards are designed to allow the use of naturally occurring substances while prohibiting or strictly limiting synthetic substances. For instance, naturally occurring pesticides such as Pyrethrin and Rotenone are permitted, while synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are generally prohibited (Chandrakala and Kanchana Devi 2016, p. 154). Organic farming is a viable alternative for conventional or chemical agriculture and contributes to sustainable development in terms of food safety and quality, environment and animal welfare. This is accomplished by using wherever possible agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed to the use of synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function within the system (FAO 1999). Sustainable production of quality food with little or no effect on the environment. However, this has not fully achieved by current agricultural practices, i.e. inorganic farming, hence the need to encourage organic farming which is capable of providing solutions for current agricultural problems and help to achieve optimal production of quality food sustainably (IFOAM 2005).

Negative Impacts of Inorganic Agriculture Adverse effects of agro-chemicals on agricultural ecosystem (soil, flora, fauna and water bodies in farms) and also for the health of farmers using them and the society consuming the chemically grown food have now started to become more evident all over the world (Mura et al. 2013, pp. 12–19). The soil has become addict and increasingly greater amount of chemical fertilizers are needed every year to maintain the soil fertility and food productivity at the same levels (Hussaini 2013, pp. 56–60; Sinha 2009, pp. 1–55). Moreover, the increased use of agro-chemicals has virtually resulted into ‘biological droughts’ (severe decline in beneficial soil microbes and earthworms which help to renew the natural fertility of soil) in soils in the regions of green revolution in world where heavy use of agro-chemicals were made. Higher uses of agro-chemicals also demand high use of water for irrigation putting severe stress on ground and surface waters. Soil and water pollution due to seepage and drainage especially after heavy rainfall were other ill-effects on farmlands. Widespread use of chemical pesticides became a necessity for the growth of high-yielding varieties of crops which was highly ‘susceptible to pests and diseases’.

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Continued application of chemical pesticides induced ‘biological resistance’ in crop pests and diseases and lograthmatically much higher doses are required to eradicate them (Aktar et al. 2009, pp. 1–12; Sinha 2009, pp. 1–55).

Importance of Organic Agriculture A range of advantages arise directly and also indirectly from abandoning chemical-style farming. There will be opportunities for particular types of produce to be marketed because of the virtual absence of chemical residues. Certain enterprises become more feasible, for example bee keeping, fish farming and herbs production. The keeping quality of organic produce is superior to chemically grown crops, which is an important advantage in tropical countries, and especially for transportation to markets from isolated districts (Smith et al. 1999, pp. 179–196). Moreover, as a whole, advantages of organic agriculture can be summarized as maintain the environment sustainability, openness of food for the whole community, self-sufficiency in food items, autonomy/independence of the community members, health and well-being of the community members, food security and food safety of a nation.

Organic Agriculture and Sustainable Development Organic agriculture can contribute to meaningful socio-economic and ecologically sustainable development, especially in poorer countries. This is due to the application of organic principles, which means efficient management of local resources (e.g. local seed varieties, manure, etc.) and therefore the cost-effectiveness. On the other hand, the market for organic products at local and international level has tremendous growth prospects and offers creative producers and exporters in the South excellent opportunities to improve their income and living conditions (Kilcher 2007, pp. 31–49). Also, natural and environmental resources in rural areas of developing countries have such rich biological diversity of plants, wildlife and ecosystems. These will play an important role for rural development in this area. Some evidences suggested that an important benefit of organic farming is the creation of jobs in the rural economy and prevention of human erosion. Effective use of the source will come true with production, processing and marketing of organic products such as spices, local crops, honey, fruit and vegetable juices, thyme juices, vegetable oils, herbal tea, chemical compounds of plant and food additives and many more (UNDP 2010).

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Organic Agriculture in Other Countries Organic agriculture is now practised in more than 120 countries around the world. Its share of agricultural land and farms continues to grow in many countries. The development trend of organic agriculture in world during the past decade is positive. For example, USA and Canada are having rapidly growing organic food market of 20% and Europe is having 7.8% per year. Willer and Yussefi (2004) included continent details regarding development, market innovations, standards and legislation of organic agriculture in their publication. Scialabba and Hattam (2002, pp. 3–6) published the study ‘Organic agriculture, environment and food security’ looking at the contribution of organic agriculture to ecological health, international markets and local food security also analysing the prospects for a wider adoption of organic agriculture. The primary focus of a report by Parrott and Marsden (2002) was on identifying the systems, technologies and methods in organic agriculture that are proving effective in increasing yields, eliminating the need for chemical inputs and increasing farmer’s income. According to the latest survey (Willer and Yussefi 2007), almost 31 million hectares of agricultural land are organically managed (data as of end 2005). This constitutes 0.7% of the agricultural land of the countries (123) covered by the survey. In total, Oceania holds 39% of the world’s organic land, followed by Europe (23%) and Latin America (19%). In Latin American countries the organic land area reaches almost 0.5% and growth rates are extraordinary. In Argentina for example the land under organic management went up from 5500 hectares in 1992 to 2,960,000 hectares in 2004. For Africa and Asia only a few figures were available. An important factor for growth is the demand for organic products in the industrialized countries (Willer and Yussefi 2004). Currently, the country with the largest organic area is Australia (11.8 million hectares). The proportion of organically to conventionally managed lands, is higher in Europe. In European Union almost 4% of the land is under organic management. The leading countries in terms of organic land are Argentina (3.1 million hectares), China (2.3), Italy (almost 1.2 million hectares), Brazil (0.85) and Uruguay (0.76). The highest percentages of organic land are in East Timor (6.3%), Uruguay (5.1%), Mexico (2.9%) and Argentina (2.4%)—in these countries the shares of organic land of all agricultural land are thus comparable to those in Europe.

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Many countries, particularly in Latin America (Brazil, Bolivia), are now launching action plans for organic farming where one motive being to increase domestic food sovereignty. Another form of government support is the implementation of government regulations in order to ease export of organic products. In Latin America more than ten countries in DAC list have an organic legislation, in Asia six countries and in Africa two countries (Huber et al. 2016, pp. 140–146). More countries are in the process of drafting laws. Some countries are now at the Third Country list according to EU regulation of organic farming (Argentina, Costa Rica and India).

Information on Organic Agriculture in Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, organic farming is a long practiced tradition. Earlier, local farmers trusted and employed traditional pest control methods and fertilizers to bring up their plants instead of pumping up them with numerous chemicals. Sri Lanka has pioneered to grow organic foods in certain product ranges, such as organically certified tea, and non-traditional agricultural products such as spices, essential oils, herbs, desiccated coconut, cashew, vegetables, and so on. They are mostly produced by small-scale farmers. In Sri Lanka, organic fertilizers like animal manure such as cattle and poultry manure are being successfully used to gain sufficient vegetable yield, especially in the production of vegetables and potatoes. Organic farming is used in home gardening such as mango, banana, avocado and durian, etc. Most spices such as Cardamom, nutmeg, clove, pepper and cinnamon are grown under organic farming. However, these organic farming was mainly based on traditional activities and methods. Modern way of organic farming was initiated with the organic movement in Sri Lanka that was started during 1980s through contact and inspiration of local NGOs with the Philippine organic agriculture movement. In 1982 a group of local NGO representatives, planters, scientists and environmental officers had drafted a Memorandum of Association to create a movement named Lanka Organic Agriculture Movement (LOAM). This can be seen as the official starting point for the dissemination of organic agriculture in the country. LOAM was planned to be registered as a company limited by guarantee. The primary objectives of LOAM were to promote organic agriculture, to establish, improve and maintain standards for organic agriculture and to create awareness

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of organic products among the Sri Lankans. Only in 2001, LOAM was registered as an official legal body. During 2011, the total certified area under organic agriculture in Sri Lanka established at 19,469 ha and this has further increased to 62,560 ha during 2014 with a share of 2.3% of total agricultural lands in the country. Thus, according to the FiBL survey 2016 Sri Lanka is among the ten countries with the highest increase of organic land compare to previous year. There are about 1213 organic farms, of which 524 are certified, 62 farmer organization and 141 processors while 223 exporters are exporting 1346 metric tons of organic products valued at $228 million in Sri Lanka at present. The latest survey conducted by Lanka Organic Agricultural Movement (LOAM) indicates that out of 78,502 ha of land extent 62,560 ha was certified under organic management at the end of 2015 (IFOAM and FiBL statistics 2016). Among the producer countries, Sri Lanka maintains a reputation in organic crop production and exports of different varieties of organic products adhering to international standards. For over a decade, Sri Lanka had exported a range of organically certified products. Sri Lankan organic farmers have received prestigious International Certifications of Bio Suisse, USDA Organic (USA), JAS (Japan) Organic Farmers and Growers (UK), NASAA (Australia), SKAL (The Netherlands), EU Organic Label, which strongly certifies that their products are of complete organic sources and can be merchandised as organic products across the globe. The Export Development Board of Sri Lanka has immensely assisted to promote organic sector in Sri Lanka by assisting the private sector to seek new markets for organic products. Some of the other government institutes have recently launched programmes to identify the potential areas and producer groups for organic agriculture. With a view to provide a sustainable solution to the main issue, Government of Sri Lanka launched a national programme titled ‘Vasa Visa Nethi Ratak (Towards Toxin Free Country) in 2016 with a view to make the country free of poisonous agro-chemicals and thereby free of poisoned or polluted food including rice, vegetables and fruits. A three year plan was also launched with milestones to achieve this target. However, attention on organic agriculture in the country is at a lower level and also the dissemination is at a very poor level. So this study was carried out to gain an idea about the attitudes of farmers about organic agriculture which is having a high importance at present.

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Research Problem Inorganic farming has become a main problem in Sri Lankan agricultural sector. The negative consequences of higher use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are constituted with reduction of crop productivity and deterioration of human life quality as well as in natural resources. Production and selling of chemical food items also have a high risks in many ways. On the other hand, demand for organic food products is increasing day by day at locally and internationally level making gradual reduction in demand for chemically grown food items at present because majority are more conscious about their health and also the environment. However, still the attention of farmers towards organic agriculture in the country is not highly significant. Therefore, it is timely important to find out what is the farmers’ attitude towards organic farming in the areas where there is a potential for organic farming in the country.

Objectives of the Research The broad objective of this study is to evaluate the farmers’ attitude towards organic agriculture in the two selected districts; Ratnapura and Badulla in Sri Lanka. Specific objectives of this study are; To find out the socio-economic characters of farmers at present in the study areas. To identify the level of knowledge of the farmers about organic agriculture in these areas. To evaluate the farmers’ attitude towards organic agriculture. To study the existing potential and challenges for organic agriculture in these areas.

Materials and Method This research was carried out as a field survey with farmers using a pre-tested self-administered questionnaire. Other than the survey, group discussions and some participatory observations were also conducted. The study areas of the research include Ratnapura and Badulla districts where lots of agricultural activities are carried out (Fig. 1). In these two districts, the majority are farmers and there is a good climate and

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Fig. 1 Map of Sri Lanka showing study areas, Badulla and Ratnapura districts

infrastructure facilities for agricultural practices. Furthermore, these two districts have many hilly areas, some natural forests and important catchments of some main rivers of the country. Presently most of the farmers are practising chemical agriculture. Then, out of 17 DS divisions in Rathnapura district, random selection of two DS divisions; Waligepola and Opanayaka and out of 15 DS divisions in Badulla district, random selection of two DS divisions; Kandaketiya and Megahakivla was done. Based on the available time and budgetary conditions, a sample of 300 farmers was selected as 75 farmers from each DS division applying simple random sampling method, from the present list of farming community of the relevant DS division.

Data Collection A field survey was conducted using a pre-tested, self-administered questionnaire for the data collection during the period of July 2017 to April 2018. The questionnaire consisted of 4 sections as questions related to

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socio-economic factors of farmers in the section 1, few questions related to the identification of level of knowledge of farmers on organic agriculture in the sections 2, 15 statements related to evaluate the attitude of farmers towards organic agriculture (these statements were formed by studying the relevant literature in detail) with a five point Likert scale in the section 3 and questions related to potentials and constraints for practising organic agriculture in these two districts are in the section 4. In addition to primary data, other information and statistical data were collected from annual reports and other documents of the relevant DS divisions.

Data Analysis Few descriptive statistical methods were used to analyse the data. Percentage and frequency analysis were used to find out socio-economic characteristic of farmers and the level of knowledge. Attitude of the farmers was measured as a total and mean score of responses to attitudinal statements made on a five point Likert scale. Scores for statements were scored as: strongly agree (SA) = 5; agree (A) = 4, neutral (N) = 3; disagree (DA) = 2; strongly disagree (SDA) = 1. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17.0 used as the data analysis software.

Results and Discussion Socio-Economic Characteristics of Farmers Important socio-economic characteristics such as gender, age, marital status, education level and monthly total income of the farmers were identified and they were studies within the real situations. Results are presented in Table 1. As per Table 1, out of the respondents, majority was male (81%) and they belonged to the age category of 41–60 years (57%). Also, most of the respondents were married (93%) and had an education up to O/L (62%). Monthly income of most of the respondents (49%) was in between 15,000 and 30,000 LKR. So, they are middle age people with a general level of education and a lower level of monthly income.

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Table 1 Socio-economic characteristics of farmers (n = 300)

Factor Gender

Category

Male Female Age 18–40 Years 41–60 Years Above 60 Years Marital status Married Unmarried Other Educational No formal level education Primary O/L A/L Graduate Monthly total 60,000

Frequency

Percentage (%)

242 58 59 171 70 279 12 09 02

81 19 20 57 23 93 04 03 01

78 187 30 03 36

26 62 10 01 12

147 63 39 15

49 21 13 05

Source Field survey by author & research team (2018)

Knowledge of the Respondents on Organic Farming In order to measure the knowledge level of respondents on organic agriculture, 5 possible levels were identified and respondents were placed according to their level of responses for the relevant question. Results are shown in Table 2. As per the results of Table 2, most of the respondents 74% (68% + 06%) have a good level of knowledge on organic agriculture. Since most of the respondents have sufficient level of education, they can understand timely important agricultural information present in the society. Also, they have received basic knowledge related to organic agriculture as an indigenous knowledge mainly from their parents, grandparents and also Agriculture Instructors of the village. So, most of the people have necessary skills to practise organic agriculture without problems.

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Table 2

225

Levels of knowledge of respondents on organic agriculture (n = 300)

Level of knowledge Don’t know about organic agriculture Heard only the word organic agriculture Have little knowledge about organic agriculture Have good knowledge about organic agriculture Have very good knowledge about organic agriculture

Frequency

Percentage (%)

12 27 39 204 18

04 09 13 68 06

Source Field survey by author & research team (2018)

Farmers’ Attitude Towards the Statements Regarding Organic Agriculture In order to evaluate the farmers’ attitude towards organic agriculture, total score and mean score for each statement were calculated using the following equations. Finally, overall attitude for all the farmers for each statement was obtained based on the cutoff values that are mention below the Table 3. Total score for each statement = 5 × SA + 4 × A + 3 × U + 2 × DA + 1 × SDA Mean score for each statement =

5 × SA + 4 × A + 3 × U + 2 × DA + 1 × SDA 300

Where, SA= Total number of respondents expressing their attitude ‘Strongly Agree’ for the statement A= Total number of respondents expressing their attitude ‘Agree’ for the statement U= Total number of respondents expressing their attitude ‘Undecided’ for the statement DA= Total number of respondents expressing their attitude ‘Disagree’ for the statement SDA= Total number of respondents expressing their attitude ‘Strongly Disagree’ for the statement

As per the results of Table 3, farmers have a high mean score for attitude towards health enhancing aspects and environment protecting aspects of organic agriculture. They are strongly agreed with these two aspects. Other than that, farmers have positive attitude towards

Organic farming protects good health of farmer and farm family Organic farming maintains long-term soil fertility Organic farming is more complex than conventional farming Organic farming is eco-friendly Nutritional quality of organic food is higher than non-organic food No good market for organic products Consumers pay premium price for organic food Consumers prefer to buy organic food rather than non-organic food Government support is greater for organic farming rather than conventional farming Organic farming cannot be continued due to its lower productivity Cost of Production for organic farming is greater than the conventional farming

01+

11−

10−

09+

06− 07+ 08+

04+ 05+

02+ 03−

Statement

A

U

00 00

00 04

00

DA

16

21 82 155

86

15 27 173

53 104 46

18

81 150 20 37 69 38 73 105 87 89 40 76

152 146 02 119 160 20

150 148 02 86 117 31

162 132 06

SA

Farmers’ attitude towards organic agriculture (n = 300)

No.

Table 3

56

11

66

12 04 10

00 01

00 01

00

SDA

776

1002

643

1151 930 1073

1350 1296

1348 1001

1356

Total score

2.49

3.34

2.31

3.84 3.14 3.55

4.50 4.32

4.49 4.26

4.52

Mean score

DA

U

U

A U A

SA A

SA A

SA

Overall attitude*

226 S. H. PUSHPA MALKANTHI

Statement

U

DA

38 77 108

05

98 168 29 71

05

39 92 133

A

86 117 31

20

SA

06

00

00

16

SDA

930

1259

1001

814

Total score

3.20

4.20

4.28

2.71

Mean score

U

A

A

U

Overall attitude*

*Cutoff values for different attitudinal levels: 1.00–1.49 = Strongly Disagree; 1.50–2.49 = Disagree; 2.50–3.49 = Undecided; 3.50–4.49 = Agree and 4.50–5.00 = Strongly Agree Source Field survey by author & research team (2018)

Profit earned by organic farming is greater than by conventional farming 13+ Organic farming helps usage and exchange of local resources 14+ Organic farming helps to generate employment opportunities in villages 15− It’s a new challenge to convert to organic farming

12+

No.

MANAGING ORGANIC AGRICULTURE …

227

228

S. H. PUSHPA MALKANTHI

complexity, nutritional quality of organic products, consumers’ preference for organic food, generation of employment for rural people and helping for exchange and usage of local resources. However, they have neutral attitude towards payment of premium price for organic products, government support for organic agriculture, productivity level, profit, margin of organic agriculture and challenges in organic agriculture. It is clear that the farmers have various attitudes towards different aspects of organic agriculture. Farmers have doubt about payment of premium price for organic products, government support for organic agriculture, productivity level, profit, margin of organic agriculture, etc. Therefore, it can be concluded that existing environment including policies and programmes are not sufficient to motivate them towards organic agriculture.

Potential of the Organic Farming in Sri Lanka Different potentials for organic agriculture in the two districts were identified and they were checked with the real situation. Mean value for each potential was calculated and then they were rank according to descending order. Results are presented in Table 4. According to the results of Table 4, farmers believe that traditional seeds and traditional knowledge help to promote organic farming. Sri Lanka has a historical record of a great civilization, a culture of achievements more than 2500 years (Sri Lanka tourism.org 2018). In many areas of Sri Lanka, rural people especially old people have lots of traditional knowledge and awareness on various aspects of organic farming such as high use of astrology, biodynamic, ‘kem’ methods, etc. in farming, traditional method of seed preparation and storage and so on. Thus, this is the most important potential involved in the development of organic agriculture sector in these areas. Then the favourable climate in these areas and high local and global demand for organic products were the next important factors. Existing organic farming dissemination programmes, training programmes and knowledge provides for them, promotions, government support for the farming, support from private organizations, ongoing supportive projects for organic agriculture, some support of agricultural instructor and support from non-government organizations were also existing potentials. Therefore, there are number of potentials for the development of organic agriculture in these areas.

MANAGING ORGANIC AGRICULTURE …

Table 4 300)

Different potential for organic agriculture in the two districts (n =

No.

Potential

01

Satisfied organic farming teaching and training programs are available Agricultural officers are highly supporting for organic agriculture Government provides adequate contribution and encouragement towards organic farmers Currently there are ongoing supportive finance projects for organic farmers Promotion through advertisements supports organic farming NGOs encourage organic farming Private organizations encourage organic farming There is a good demand for organic produce locally and internationally Traditional seeds and traditional knowledge help to promote organic farming The climate in the area is appropriate for organic farming There are adequate traditional seeds and traditional knowledge, to promote organic farming in the area

02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11

229

Mean value

Rank

2.49

05

2.26

07

2.11

08

1.97

10

2.39

06

1.94 1.99 3.70

11 09 03

4.11

01

4.02

02

3.02

04

Source Field survey by author & research team (2018)

Challenges for Organic Agriculture in These Two Districts in Sri Lanka Same as identifying potentials, different constraints for organic agriculture in the two districts were identified and they were checked with the real situation of the farmers. Mean values were calculated for each constraint and they were ranked according to descending order. Results are presented in Table 5. According to the results in Table 5 labour intensiveness has received the number one ranking. Problem in finding market places for organic produce has obtained second the ranking and organic farming is costly has obtained the third ranking. According to the results, these three can be identified as the highly affecting challenges in organic agriculture. Difficult in winning the consumer’s trust for organic food marketing, susceptibility of organic crops for pest problems, adverse climatic conditions, negative attitude of agrochemical manufacturing

230

S. H. PUSHPA MALKANTHI

Table 5

Different constraints for organic agriculture (n = 300)

No.

Constraint

01 02

Organic farming is susceptible to pest incidence Agrochemical shops give negative attitude towards organic farming Organic farming is labour intensive Organic farming is vulnerable to adverse climatic conditions Organic farming is costly It is a problem to find market place for organic produce It is difficult to win the consumer’s trust in organic food marketing There’s no appropriate quality certification and a brand for organic produce

03 04 05 06 07 08

Mean value

Rank

3.48 3.12

5 7

4.09 3.43 3.72 3.98 3.53

1 6 3 2 4

3.04

8

Source Field survey by author & research team (2018)

companies towards organic farming and lack of appropriate quality certification and a brand for organic produce are also significant challenges in organic agriculture in these areas. Findings of this research study are more or less similar to the findings of research studies of farmers’ attitude towards organic farming in many other countries. For instance, Findings of the research study on Organic Farming: Awareness and Beliefs of Farmers in Uttarakhand, India in 2012 by of Singh and George’s and Smallholder organic farmer’s attitudes, objectives and barriers towards production of organic fruits and vegetables in India: A multivariate analysis by Nandi et al. (2015, pp. 396–406) and also, A Study of Perception of Farmers towards Organic Farming by Patidar and Patidar (2015, pp. 2319–4847). Furthermore, findings of the research study; Organic agriculture in Iran: Farmers barriers to and factors influencing adoption by Soltani et al. (2014, pp. 126–134) and An Investigation into the Farmers’ Attitudes towards Organic Farming in Riyadh Region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia by Alzaidi et al. (2013, pp. 426–431) are some of them.

Concluding Remarks As per the socio-economic factors of the farmers, more than half of the respondent was male and the majority of the respondents were in between 41 and 60 years of age category. Majority of farmers are married and had

MANAGING ORGANIC AGRICULTURE …

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received up to O/L education. Although organic farming is not popularized among all the farmers, majority (74%) have good knowledge about organic farming. As per the mean analysis, farmers have positive attitude towards health enhancing, environment protecting, employment generating and resource exchanging ability of organic farming. Also, they have neutral attitudes towards marketing, pricing and profit earning ability of organic products. However, they had negative attitude towards complexity of organic agriculture and unavailability of proper market for organic products. Furthermore, availability of traditional knowledge about organic agriculture including seeds and planting materials and favourable climatic condition were the main potentials while labour intensiveness and lack of appropriate quality certifications for organic products were the major challenges. Therefore, it can be concluded that, if necessary conditions are there, farmers can be motivated towards organic agriculture in these districts. Creating good marketing facilities for organic products, providing required facilities for the production of organic food as well as processing and value addition will promote organic agriculture among more farmers, supporting sustainable development in these districts. Promotion of organic agriculture in these two districts will give lots of support for the sustainable development not only in those areas, but, also for the whole country. Through organic agriculture, soil erosion, often cited as Sri Lanka’s number one environmental problem, could be highly reduced. In this regard, use of cover crops and other measures leading to increased levels of soil organic matter, improved soil structure infiltration and reduced runoff are highly effective. Organic farming also brings benefits for landscape ecology, wildlife and soil organisms. Ecological measures such as shade trees and intercropping systems enhance species diversity and help control pests. Promotion of organic agriculture minimizes the health problems and improves the food and water quality. Also results in no capital investment to clean the environment and community health care. Therefore, according to the findings of the research, provision of better marketing facilities and fair price levels for organic products, introduction of stranded certification process for organic products, expansion of export facilities to reach international market of the organic products and provision of more education and training for farmers about organic farming are the possible recommendations in order to enhance the organic agriculture in these two districts of the country.

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References Aktar, W., W. D. Sengupta, and A. Chowdhury. (2009). Impact of Pesticides Use in Agriculture: Their Benefits and Hazards. Journal List Interdiscip Toxicolv, 2(1): 1–12. Alzaidi, A. A., M. B. Baig, and E. A. Elhag. (2013). An Investigation into the Farmers’ Attitudes towards Organic Farming in Riyadh Region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Bulgarian. Journal of Agricultural Science, 19(3): 426–431. Chandrakala, N., and P. Kanchana Devi. (2016). A Study on Attitude of the Organic Farmers with Supply Chain Management on the Market for Their Commodities with Special Reference to Coimbatore District. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Modern Education (IJMRME), 2(2): 154. Retrieved from www.rdmodernresearch.com. European Commission. Facts and Figures on Organic Agriculture in the European Union. Accessed June 2017. https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/ sites/orgfarming/files/docs/pages/014_en.pdf. FAO. (1999). Organic Agriculture, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. http://www.srilankatourism.org/lang/en/traveller/ culture_history.php. Field Survey by Author & Research Team. (2018). Field Survey by the Author and Research Team Conducted in 2018 in Two Districts of Ratnapura and Badulla in Sri Lanka. Huber, B., O. Schmid, and C. Moller. (2016). Standards and Regulations. The World of Organic Agriculture, ed. H. Willer and J. Lernoud. Frick and Bonn, 140–146. Hussaini, A. (2013). Vermiculture Bio-Technology: An Effective Tool for Economic and Environmental Sustainability. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 7(2): 56–60. Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL). (2016). Data on Organic Agriculture in Europe. Accessed at: http://www.organicdatanetwork.net/odn-statistics/ odn-statistics-data.html. International Food for Organic Agricultural Movements (IFOAM). (2005). International Federal or Organic Agriculture Moment. The IFOAM Norm of Organic Production and Processing, 254. London Press, London. International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM). (2007). Africa Organic, IFOAM Newsletter, 1(7). Accessed at: http://www.ifoam. org/newsletter/newsletter-africa/Africaorganic-news-vol.1-no.7.html. Kilcher, L. (2007). How Organic Agriculture Contributes to Sustainable Development. University of Kassel at Witzenhausen JARTS, Supplement, 89: 31–49. Accessed at: http://orgprints.org/10680/. Mura, S., G. Seddaiu, G. F. Bacchini, P. P. Roggero, and G. F. Greppi. (2013). Advances of Nanotechnology in Agro-Environmental Studies. Italian Journal of Agronomy, 8(3): 12–19.

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Nandi, R., W. Bokelmanna, V. G. Nithya, and G. Dias. (2015). Smallholder Organic Farmer’s Attitudes, Objectives and Barriers Towards Production of Organic Fruits and Vegetables in India: A Multivariate Analysis. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture, 27(5): 396–406. Parrott, N., and T. Marsden. (2002). The Real Green Revolution. Organic and Agro Ecological Farming in the South. Greenpeace Environmental Trust, Canonbury Villas, London, UK. Patidar, S., and H. Patidar. (2015). A Study of Perception of Farmers towards Organic Farming. International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering & Management (IJAIEM). Scialabba, N., and C. Hattam (Eds.). (2002). Organic Agriculture, Environment and Food Security (No. 4). Food & Agriculture Org. Singh, S., and R. George. (2012). Organic Farming: Awareness and Beliefs of Farmers in Uttarakhand, India. Journal of Human Ecology, 37(2): 139–149. Sinha, P. K. (2009). Earthworms Vermicompost: A Powerful Crop Nutrient over the Conventional Compost and Protective Soil Conditioner Against the Destructive Chemical Fertilizers for Food Safety and Security Am-Euras. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, 5(S): 1–55. Smith, V. H., G. D. Tilman, and J. C. Nekola. (1999). Eutrophication: Impacts of Excess Nutrient Inputs on Freshwater, Marine, and Terrestrial Ecosystems. Environmental Pollution, 100: 179–196. Soltani, S, H. Azadi, H. Mahmoudi, and F. Witlox. (2014). Organic Agriculture in Iran: Farmers Barriers to and Factors Influencing adoption. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 29(2): 126–134. Sri Lanka tourism.org. (2018). Highlights About the History of Sri Lanka. United Nations Development Programme. (2010). The Importance of Biodiversity and Ecosystems in Economic Growth and Equity in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Economic Valuation of Ecosystems, ed. A. F. Bovarnick, C. Alpizar and Schnell, 4(3): 2319–4847. Willer, H., and M. Yussefi. (2007). The World of Organic Agriculture—Statistics and Emerging Trends 2007 . International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), Bonn, Germany. Accessed at: www.organic-world.net. Willer, H., and M. Yussefi. (2004). The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2004. International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements. Bonn, Germany. Accessed at www.organic-world.net.

Healthcare Utilization Pattern in Sri Lanka; Evidence from Household Survey G. L. D. C. Perera

The Issue Sri Lankans have had a considerably low consideration for healthcare utilization in the past eras due to many reasons. Unnecessary spread of communicable and non-communicable diseases such as Malaria, Smallpox and etc. can be seen as examples for results of the misapplication on healthcare. The development of the health sector in Sri Lanka happened gradually beginning from such an era and healthcare utilization cannot be still seen as a common practice among Sri Lankans. In Sri Lanka healthcare services are provided by two sectors, public sector and private sector in similar competitive levels. The main difference is that public services are provided free of charge and private facilities charge. This study discusses the existing patterns and the determinants that influence choosing avenues for healthcare utilization in Sri Lanka with the aim of suggesting the required changes and improvements to develop health practices worthy of society. A healthy society leads to a productive workforce giving an effective contribution to the economy of the country. Therefore healthcare practices play a valuable mandatory role to Sri Lanka

G. L. D. C. Perera (B) University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka © The Author(s) 2020 V. K. Malhotra et al. (eds.), Disaster Management for 2030 Agenda of the SDG, Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4324-1_16

235

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in its journey of development. At the same time it is of concern that at present the population combination in Sri Lanka is slightly more dispersed from that expected and also that the country had a long history of a civil war and still in its rehabilitation period. Therefore the economic status of the country too has an influence on the different healthcare utilization patterns. In a survey done in Switzerland, it is found that a situation in which the poor, those with lower educational attainment, non-whites, and males had a higher likelihood of never accessing one or more of the following services: a physician or dentist consultation, blood glucose or blood pressure screening (Saksena et al. 2012). However, the public sector is not capable of providing a full coverage of service to the entire population or supply medicines for free at the point of service (Saksena et al. 2012); the findings from 39 selected countries are explained. As found by a research in Portugal, distance and transport are barriers to appropriate and timely access to healthcare utilization (Dias et al. 2008). The Department of Census and Statistics (2014) has reported the health status of the Sri Lankans ‘still requires further improvements because people with low incomes record a less than average nutrition level’. In their report ‘National Survey on Self-Reported Health in Sri Lanka 2014’ it is also highlighted that the scarcity of basic infrastructure facilities and human resources to supply the healthcare service as a reason for low healthcare utilization in Sri Lanka. Financial constraints that people suffer have been identified as a hurdle for healthcare access in the Philippines and the government introduced the National Health Insurance Program (NHIP) (Gouda et al. 2016). Therefore as per the local and global contexts observed, the functioning of healthcare utilization is poor in current Sri Lanka due to several factors, and as a result the ill-health condition of the Sri Lankan society has unnecessarily increased. The need for the development of health services as well as the utilization patterns of health care of individuals in the country can be seen as a necessity. Therefore the study is required to identify the factors that affect the choice of healthcare utilization patterns and avenues of Sri Lankans, to make suggestions on moving towards its betterment. Necessary recommendations and suggestions to the policymakers in health sector will be put forward, which can be identified as being ideal to the demands of society. Therefore to highlight the findings to attain such various contemporary objectives, this study will be done with evidence from the latest health survey conducted as an extended

HEALTHCARE UTILIZATION PATTERN IN SRI LANKA …

237

part of the household survey in 2014, so that the findings of this study can be relevant to the whole country. The study is organized as follows. A brief explanation about the Sri Lankan context is given and then it is explained how the importance of the research is identified through the local and global information gathered. Data obtained from the Department of Census and Statistics and the statistical methodologies employed are explained afterwards. After the analysis is done with the organized data, the obtained results are explained. The discussion and the policy implications are summarized thereafter and concluded with the certain limitations of this study.

Data and Methodology Micro data of the surveys, ‘Household Income and Expenditure Survey’ (HIES) 2012/2013 and the first ever conducted health survey as a part of the same, ‘National Survey in Self-reported Health-2014’ were obtained from the Department of Census and Statistics (DCS) for this research. They are available free of charge and released legitimately according to ethical considerations and policies. Different socio-demographic and health information of the individuals representing the whole country are included in the sample data and a questionnaire has been used for the data collection. Sampling frame was prepared for the Census of Population and Housing in 2011 is used for the surveys and selection of the sample was done adopting the stratified random sampling method in two stages. 1000 primary sampling units were selected from the census blocks in the first stage, and then 25 housing units were chosen from each unit. Altogether, out of 25,000 selected households, the number of individuals in the sample that represented all 25 districts in the country was 81,376. No institutional data are included in the sample. This research analysis included only the data of the individuals who were 16 years old and above. Therefore the sample was reduced to 59,297 individuals. As per the objectives of the study there are a number of independent variables considered in two sectors; Demand Side factors such as demographic, societal, health and economic information and education level and Supply Side Factors such as availability of physical and human facilities. The dependent variable of the study is avenues chosen by individuals for healthcare utilization. It is taken in three categories in this analysis as utilizing public sector avenues, utilizing private sector avenues and not taking treatments.

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The statistical model Multinomial Logit, a popular regression model which is used to apply when the dependent variable takes a categorical form was applied to obtain the results. There are two main output result figures; Relative Risk Ratio (RRR) and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). RRR value implies, how many times the probability of each variable is greater relative to the reference category of that particular variable. VIF values show how much each variable is increasing from the standard level of the model. A particular variable is considered as feasible to the model if the VIF value lies between 1 and 10, and more likely if it is less than 5. Therefore, the variables with higher inflations were removed and the final Multinomial Logit model consists of all feasible variables is obtained.

Data Presentation and Analysis Data As the purpose of the study is to explore the patterns and determinants of choosing avenues for healthcare utilization in Sri Lanka; individuals below 16 years of age are not included in the model as they depend on their parents/guardians on use of health care. The relevant sample is then reduced to 59,297 individuals and in this study they have been categorized into groups as 16–30 years, 31–45 years, 46–60 years, 61–75 years and above 75 years of age (Tables 1 and 2). Out of 59,297 individuals 27,467 are males and 31,830 are females where 67.13% of the total are married. Output for the married individuals is considered reference to all the others which include Never Married, Divorced and Widowed. 72.99% out of the sample represents the major ethnicity Sinhala and 17.87% are Tamils. Individuals of all the other ethnicities are 9.14% out of the sample. The majority of the relevant sample (69.06%) is Buddhists. Individuals of other religions Hindu, Islam and Christian are 14.50, 9.06 and 7.37%, respectively. The data set is categorized into four categories as ‘No Schooling’ who had no school education, ‘Primary’ who completed schooling up to grade 6, ‘Secondary’ who completed up to A/L or equivalent represents the higher percentage (74.46%) of the sample and ‘Tertiary’ who completed degree level or equivalent and above. There is a high differentiation in geographical, economic and societal features within the country. For administrative purposes the country

0–15 16–30 31–45 46–60 61–75 76–above

Male Female

Never married Married Widow Divorce

Sinhala Tamil Other

Buddhism Hindu Islam

Gender

Marital status

Ethnicity

Religion

row % 12.50 5.87 8.67 15.18 21.65 25.86 12.15 11.01 12.89 12.02 6.72 12.51 21.77 13.91 12.02 0.04 0.20 0.32 12.02 13.00 5.94 11.93

N 2760 982 1467 2274 1841 561 9885 3023 4102 7125 907 4981 1115 122 7125 5797 654 674 7125 5324 511 641

N 2520 954 1794 3511 2970 839 12,588 4147 5921 10,068 1019 7033 1814 202 10,068 6841 2274 953 10,068 6532 1851 964

row % 11.41 5.70 10.61 23.44 34.92 38.68 15.47 15.10 18.60 16.98 7.55 17.67 35.42 23.03 16.98 15.81 21.46 17.58 16.98 15.95 21.53 17.94

Take private sector treatments

Take public sector treatments

Distribution of the sample by treatment sector

Age

Variable

Table 1

N 16,799 14,795 13,650 9196 3694 769 58,903 20,297 21,807 42,104 11,564 27,795 2192 553 42,104 30,642 7668 3794 42,104 29,096 6237 3767

row % 76.09 88.43 80.72 61.38 43.43 35.45 72.38 73.90 68.51 71.01 85.72 69.82 42.80 63.06 71.01 70.80 72.37 69.99 71.01 71.05 72.53 70.12

Take no any treatment

row% 27.13 20.56 20.78 18.41 10.45 2.67 100.00 46.32 53.68 100.00 22.75 67.13 8.64 1.48 100.00 72.99 17.87 9.14 100.00 69.06 14.50 9.06

(continued)

N 22,079 16,731 16,911 14,981 8505 2169 81,376 27,467 31,830 59,297 13,490 39,809 5121 877 59,297 43,280 10,596 5421 59,297 40,952 8599 5372

Total

HEALTHCARE UTILIZATION PATTERN IN SRI LANKA …

239

Western Central Southern Northern Eastern North Western North Central Uva Sabaragamuwa

Urban Rural Estate

Province

Living sector

Christian Other

No schooling Primary Secondary Tertiary

(continued)

Education

Variable

Table 1

721 0 10,068 731 3433 5787 117 10,068 1800 1539 1213 1076 1185 1174 619 578 884 10,068 1316 8273 479 10,068

16.49 0.00 16.98 36.39 30.87 13.11 5.80 16.98 12.69 19.55 13.91 21.32 21.76 17.89 23.54 18.47 15.50 16.98 13.43 17.58 19.70 16.98

Take public sector treatments 649 0 7125 233 1444 5144 304 7125 2356 773 1243 272 342 831 293 171 844 7125 1461 5529 135 7125

14.84 0.00 12.02 11.60 12.99 11.65 15.08 12.02 16.61 9.82 14.26 5.39 6.28 12.66 11.14 5.47 14.80 12.02 14.91 11.75 5.55 12.02

Take private sector treatments 3003 1 42,104 1045 6243 33,221 1595 42,104 10,029 5562 6263 3699 3918 4559 1718 2380 3976 42,104 7025 33,261 1818 42,104

68.67 100.00 71.01 52.02 56.14 75.24 79.12 71.01 70.70 70.64 71.83 73.29 71.96 69.45 65.32 76.06 69.71 71.01 71.67 70.67 74.75 71.01

Take no any treatment 4373 1 59,297 2009 11,120 44,152 2016 59,297 14,185 7874 8719 5047 5445 6564 2630 3129 5704 59,297 9802 47,063 2432 59,297

Total

7.37 0.00 100.00 3.39 18.75 74.46 3.40 100.00 23.92 13.28 14.70 8.51 9.18 11.07 4.44 5.28 9.62 100.00 16.53 79.37 4.10 100.00

240 G. L. D. C. PERERA

From gov. job From pvt. job Private insurance Other

Employee Employer Self-worker contributor to family economy

Ill health people Healthy people

Type of health insurance available

Nature of job

Health of people

Source Own calculations based on DCS (2014)

639 9429 10,068 225 22 254 138 639 1790 72 1654 424 3940 10,068 0 10,068

Yes No

Availability of health insurance

9.17 18.02 16.98 7.82 4.03 10.54 12.18 9.17 10.32 8.67 16.98 17.13 12.96 54.37 0.00 16.98

Take public sector treatments

Variable

998 6127 7125 355 82 417 144 998 1565 189 1223 246 3223 7124 1 7125

14.32 11.71 12.02 12.33 15.02 17.30 12.71 14.32 9.02 22.77 12.55 9.94 10.60 38.47 0.00 12.02

Take private sector treatments 5330 36,774 42,104 2298 442 1739 851 5330 13,992 569 6866 1805 23,232 1324 40,780 42,104

76.50 70.27 71.01 79.85 80.95 72.16 75.11 76.50 80.66 68.55 70.47 72.93 76.43 7.15 100.00 71.01

Take no any treatment 6967 52,330 59,297 2878 546 2410 1133 6967 17,347 830 9743 2475 30,395 18,516 40,781 59,297

Total

11.75 88.25 100.00 41.31 7.84 34.59 16.26 100.00 57.07 2.73 32.05 8.14 100.00 31.23 68.77 100.00

HEALTHCARE UTILIZATION PATTERN IN SRI LANKA …

241

887 1169 18,243

945

6886 2507 2024 992 1440 1393

90 123 1882

91

734 238 223 121 139 123

74 111 1340

85

398 240 125 85 112 110

Source Department of Census and Statistics (2014) and Ministry of Health (2015)

158 404 334.36

135

1312

1316 1988 20,966

1664 477 475 132 173 326

5979 2658 2556 1094 1615 2448

7.90 6.00 101.90

8.50

11.00 11.00 10.40 28.20 12.90 6.00

7.10 5.50 92.50

7.60

10.30 10.20 9.50 25.30 11.60 5.40

0.6740 0.5880 0.8701

0.7203

1.1517 0.9432 0.7919 0.9068 0.8916 0.5690

0.0684 0.0619 0.0898

0.0694

0.1228 0.0895 0.0872 0.1106 0.0861 0.0502

0.0562 0.0558 0.0639

0.0648

0.0666 0.0903 0.0489 0.0777 0.0693 0.0449

Medical Specialists Dental Inpatient Population Population Total Specialists Dental No. of officers per per 1000 surgeons beds in (‘000) density medical surgeons beds in 1000 population per 1000 Gov. (Persons officers Gov. population medical population per sq.km) (Including medical admin & institutions institutions per 1000 specialists) per 1000 population population

Population, population density and service factors by province

Western Central Southern Northern Eastern North Western North Central Uva Sabaragamuwa Total

Province

Table 2

242 G. L. D. C. PERERA

HEALTHCARE UTILIZATION PATTERN IN SRI LANKA …

243

has been divided into 9 provinces and then into 25 districts considering the geographical boundaries. Allocation of the 59,297 sampling units (individuals) from each province is given in the table. Some districts have a large land area while others are relatively small. The dispersion of the population does not show any relationship with the land area of the particular district. Accordingly when considering the distribution of particular health supply side factors such as number of government hospital beds, Specialists, Dental Surgeons and Medical Officers (including administrative persons and specialists) in the analysis in order to observe their influence on choosing health service avenues, they are taken as the number per 1000 population so that it gives more accurate values to represent the whole country thus avoiding the effect of the size. These health service data are obtained from the Annual Health Bulletin-2015, published in 2017 by the Medical Statistics Unit, Ministry of Health, Nutrition and Indigenous Medicine, Sri Lanka. The difference of avenues chosen for healthcare utilization in different provinces is observed through the model reference to the Uva province which can be considered as the poorest province in the country (Department of Census and Statistics and World Bank 2015). At the same time the country has been divided into three main sectors considering the living conditions as Urban, Rural and Estate Sector. The statistics reveal that the living condition or the socio-economic status of most of the Sri Lankans are at middle or lower level though a smaller proportion of the population is urbanized. Health insurance details are considered as it plays a big role in the health industry. In 2014 there were only 6967 insured individuals (11.76%) out of the 59,297 sample, a very low demand among Sri Lankans. Insured individuals are grouped according to the type of health insurance such as insurance from their government jobs, from their private jobs, private insurance and some other health insurance policies. Only 2410 have their private insurance policies and it is 34.59% out of the total number of insured individuals. However relative to the private sector, Government/Semi Government sector provides more health insurance security to their employees (Table 3).

Analysis and Findings Statistical analysis was done using the statistical software Stata. The dependent variable is choosing avenues for healthcare utilization in Sri Lanka and there are several independent variables to be tested whether there’s

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G. L. D. C. PERERA

Table 3

Descriptive statistics of the sample

Variable Age Wage rate Number of beds in government medical institutes per 1000 population Specialists per 1000 population Dental surgeons per 1000 population Medical officers per 1000 population

Observations

Mean

Standard deviation

Min

Max

59,297 59,297 59,297

43.0240 664.8777 3.9010

17.3332 4868.7040 1.1764

16 0 2.4

99 315,000 8.1

59,297

0.0864

0.0486

0.04

0.22

59,297

0.0640

0.0277

0.04

0.13

59,297

0.8423

0.3668

0.37

1.82

Source Own calculations based on DCS (2014)

any relationship or influence of them on the dependent variable. The statistical model Multinomial Logit is obtained for all the feasible variables and inflation of the overall model is 2.59 (