Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs: An Integrated Approach [1 ed.] 0367713683, 9780367713683

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“This book is an incredible resource full of practical strategies for all school professionals engaged in school safety and mental health initiatives! Each chapter provides an overview of the research underlying evidenced-based practices while also focusing on the ‘nuts and bolts’ of how to establish effective school safety and mental health programs. It is a one-of-a-kind book that emphasizes critical strategies needed to help establish a multidisciplinary team approach, with an emphasis on engaging teachers and parents. A strong focus is placed on a comprehensive approach to school safety and mental health programming that includes: how to integrate new initiatives within existing intervention frameworks, culturally competent practices, trauma informed approaches, threat and suicide assessment, and crisis prevention through intervention and recovery. The book concludes with strategies on how to conduct high quality professional development and sustain new initiatives, critical to schools in the era of limited resources and overwhelming needs. A must read for administrators, educators, school mental health professionals, school safety and security professionals and other key stakeholders invested in school safety and mental health!” – Melissa A. Reeves, PhD, NCSP, LCMHC, associate professor, School Psychology Program & Psychology Department, Winthrop University; past-president, National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) “This thorough, engaging, and accessible text is an excellent resource for both experienced educators and graduate students. The authors provide a comprehensive overview of school-based mental health services within a multi-tiered framework and offer clear and practical recommendations for implementation. While there is a clear and consistent focus on culturally responsive practices and social justice throughout the book, the standalone chapter on culturally responsive school mental health services and education is quite strong and provides a useful framework for developing educators’ cultural competence, adapting interventions for different cultural groups, and addressing systemic factors that impact mental health of students from minoritized backgrounds.” – Celeste M. Malone, PhD, MS, associate professor of School Psychology and program coordinator, Howard University School of Education; president-elect, National Association of School Psychologists (NASP), 2021–2022; member, APA Board of Educational Affairs

“More than ever before, schools face an imperative to promote environments that are physically and psychologically safe, and support mental wellness among students, families, and staff. Doing so, however, requires signifcant planning, buy-in, and integration of efforts. Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs: An Integrated Approach offers a new and contemporary roadmap to help schools and districts address this challenge. Drs. Roth and Erbacher offer a rich and comprehensive, yet practical and application-focused reference that uniquely integrates efforts to ensure school safety and mental health. This volume highlights and brings together existing frameworks and approaches including trauma-informed care, crisis prevention and response, violence prevention, culturally responsive service delivery, positive behavior supports, and more. Just as importantly, Roth and Erbacher describe the important steps schools and administrators must take to build staff knowledge and buy-in, and effectively advocate for improved service delivery and program development. All education personnel, and particularly school-employed mental health professionals, would beneft from maintaining a copy of Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs on their bookshelves.” – Eric Rossen, PhD, NCSP, director, Professional Development and Standards, National Association of School Psychologists (NASP); National Register Health Service Psychologist “I’ve been involved in school crisis prevention and intervention and student mental health for four decades and fnally a book provides what we need to know to make the difference in student lives! This book is a timely masterpiece with a wealth of practical information to help school personnel truly focus on supporting student mental health and primary prevention. School psychologist practitioners Roth and Erbacher have hit one out of the park with this comprehensive, practical, must have book for school personnel. School psychology is blessed to have these two experienced professionals who have provided a wealth of information on how to develop and sustain safety and prevention programs much needed by schools today.” – Scott Poland, EdD, LP, NCSP, professor at the College of Psychology; director of the Suicide and Violence Prevention Offce, Nova Southeastern University; past-president, National Association of School Psychologists (NASP)

“Each chapter of this book reads as an executive summary for practitioners covering the waterfront of school mental health programs and practices. It is packed with valuable, practical guidance succinctly presented in terse declarative prose and bullet lists covering key topics such as culturally responsive practices, multi-tiered systems of support, positive behavioral interventions and supports, social and emotional learning, and traumainformed schools. It offers authoritative advice on effective school practices in mental health screening, social media monitoring, suicide assessment and violence prevention, among others. This is your one-stop resource for school mental health services.” – Dewey Cornell, PhD, professor of Education and Clinical Psychologist, University of Virginia; director of the UVA Virginia Youth Violence Project; principal author, Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines “This book is a valuable and comprehensive resource for school administrators and mental health professionals. Foundational practices and considerations, such as positive school climate, culturally responsive teaching and mental health services, multi-tiered systems of supports, and family–school collaboration are reviewed. I especially appreciate the inclusion of a chapter on monitoring social media and technology, with its practical considerations and suggestions for a topic that challenges educators and parents. In this book, Jeffrey Roth and Terri Erbacher provide current and helpful guidance to schools on topics such as crisis prevention and preparedness, violence prevention, including threat assessment and intervention, and suicide prevention and postvention. Comprehensive approaches to promote positive behavior and mental health, including positive behavioral interventions and supports and social and emotional learning, with helpful case studies and tips for integrating these frameworks in the curriculum. The important topics of mental health screening and trauma-informed practices are also covered. In addition to this excellent content, Roth and Erbacher provide readers with detailed guidance about professional development and how to create and maintain an infrastructure to implement, evaluate, and sustain multiple programs. The balance of foundational and infrastructure issues with more specifc content makes this book ideal not only for practitioners, but also for university professors teaching courses on school safety and system-wide prevention.” – Amanda B. Nickerson, PhD, NCSP, professor of School Psychology; director, Alberti Center for Bullying Abuse Prevention; University of Buffalo, the State University of New York; co-author, School Crisis Prevention and Intervention: The PREPaRE Model

“This comprehensive book provides an expert analysis for school staff to learn how to keep their schools physically and psychologically safe. Drs. Roth and Erbacher have embedded research and best practice documents from a variety of school safety professionals and researchers. Their analysis provides a range of topics from trauma, social emotional learning, violence and crisis prevention, social media, positive school climate, and mental health delivery. This book has the power to provide any educator with a quick reference to support a safe school climate.” – Christina Conolly, PsyD, NCSP, director, Division of Psychological Services, Montgomery County Public Schools, Maryland; co-author, School Crisis Prevention and Intervention: The PREPaRE Model “Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs: An Integrated Approach is an invaluable book focusing on school crisis, safety, and mental health that will be useful for school-based and other mental health practitioners, graduate students, and university faculty. Dr. Jeff Roth and Dr. Terri Erbacher provide numerous applied and feasible strategies and considerations that are not only drawn from evidence-based research, but also from their years of experience as practicing school psychologists. This book provides extensive information on a variety of critical topics, including suicide prevention, trauma-informed schools, culturally responsive school mental health services, and family–school collaboration. It is an invaluable resource that complements and expands upon other existing school safety and mental health publications.” – Jacqueline Brown, PhD, NCSP, associate professor of Psychology, University of Montana-Missoula; co-editor, Supporting Bereaved Students at School

Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs

Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs offers an integrated, long-term plan to create safe and supportive learning environments. This user-friendly guide illustrates how to develop, implement, evaluate, and sustain multiple evidence-based programs that work. This book informs school mental health professionals, administrators, and teachers about multi-tiered service delivery, organizational development, and facilitating the implementation process. It describes the complementary roles of school administrators, counselors, and school psychologists, providing school staff with time, resources, and ongoing support to strengthen their skills and sustain programs they have embraced. It expresses empathy and appreciation for teachers, advocating for their personal growth, professional collaboration, and stress management. School leaders, facilitators, and teams are provided with the knowledge, skills, and long-term plans to effectively advocate, assess needs, select programs, train and encourage staff, provide resources, and implement, evaluate, and sustain desired goals. Jeffrey C. Roth, PhD, NCSP, has initiated and led a school-wide confict resolution program, positive behavioral supports, crisis response team, social skills curriculum, and professional development programs. He has served as an adjunct professor at Wilmington University and a Red Cross Disaster Mental Health volunteer, and was awarded Delaware’s School Psychologist of the Year. Terri A. Erbacher, PhD, has served as a school psychologist for over 20 years, was a professor at Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine for over 13 years, and has a private practice at erbacherconsulting.com. Dr. Erbacher has won numerous awards for crisis-based community service, including Pennsylvania’s School Psychologist of the Year.

Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs An Integrated Approach Jeffrey C. Roth and Terri A. Erbacher

First published 2022 by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2022 Jeffrey C. Roth and Terri A. Erbacher The right of Jeffrey C. Roth and Terri A. Erbacher to be identifed as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Roth, Jeffrey C., author. | Erbacher, Terri A., author. Title: Developing comprehensive school safety and mental health programs : an integrated approach / Jeffrey C. Roth, Terri A. Erbacher. Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifers: LCCN 2021002929 (print) | LCCN 2021002930 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367713683 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367713676 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003150510 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Schools—United States—Safety measures. | School mental health services--United States. | School violence—United States—Prevention. | School crisis management—United States. Classifcation: LCC LB2864.5 .R68 2022 (print) | LCC LB2864.5 (ebook) | DDC 363.11/9371—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021002929 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021002930 ISBN: 978-0-367-71368-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-71367-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-15051-0 (ebk) Typeset in Baskerville by Apex CoVantage, LLC Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9780367713676

Contents

About the Authors List of Illustrations Foreword by Charles Barrett Acknowledgments and Dedications

xv xvii xviii xx

SECTION I

Background 1 Introduction

1 3

Purpose of the Book 3 A Story From School 9 2 The Case for Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs

12

Need for School Safety and Mental Health Programs 12 Benefts of School Safety and Mental Health Programs 16 Barriers to School Safety and Mental Health Programs 24 3 Models Promoting School Safety and Mental Health Service Delivery Infrastructure and Resources to Support Programs and Training 36 Practices Supporting School Safety and Mental Health 44 Mental Health Service Delivery Models 49 School Models Supporting Partnerships and Professional Development 53

36

x

Contents

SECTION II

Foundational Practices Supporting School Safety and Mental Health 4 Positive School Climate

59 61

Impact of School Climate on Programs 61 Description and Benefts of a Positive School Climate 62 Establish Norms of Collaboration and Learning for All 68 Using School Climate Data 70 5 Culturally Responsive School Mental Health Services and Education

76

A Model for Culturally Competent Mental Health Services 76 Culturally Competent Mental Health Service Delivery for Indigenous Youth and Communities 80 Culturally Responsive Teaching and Valuing Diversity 82 Social Justice Advocacy for Educational and Societal Change 87 Confronting Harassment of LGBTQ+ Students 89 6 Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS)

94

MTSS: Service Delivery for Integrating and Coordinating Programs 94 Infrastructure and Collaborative Problem-Solving Teams 98 Selecting and Implementing Programs and Practices at Each Tier 102 7 Family – School Collaboration and Caregiver Education

107

Understanding Family Systems and Challenges 107 Training Teachers for Family Engagement 108 Family Involvement in a Multi-Tiered System of Supports 110 Facilitators and Barriers to Family Engagement 112 School and Family Consultation to Address Mental Health 113 Cultural Diversity and Family – School Partnerships 114 8 Monitoring Social Media and Technology Impact of Technology on School Communities 119 Managing Social Media for School Safety 121 Parent Monitoring of Social Media 127 Social Media and Technology Research 130

119

Contents

xi

SECTION III

Programs and Practices Supporting School and Student Safety

133

9 Crisis Prevention, Preparedness, and Response

135

School Safety and Crisis Response Teams 135 Strategies for Prevention and Preparedness 139 Key Elements of Crisis Response 145 10 Violence Prevention, Threat Assessment, and Intervention

160

Types of School-Related Violence 161 Prevention of School-Related Violence 161 School Threat Assessment 168 Cultural and Developmental Competence After Violence 178 Supporting Students and the School Community After Violence 179 11 Suicide Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention

186

Risk Factors, Protective Factors, and Warning Signs 186 Suicide Prevention and Preparedness 189 Intervention With a Potentially Suicidal Student 196 Suicide Postvention and Prevention of Contagion 202 SECTION IV

School-Wide Programs Promoting Positive Behavior and Mental Health

209

12 Universal Mental Health Screening

211

Purposes and Planning of Mental Health Screening 211 Implementation and Follow-Up 219 Example of a Focus Area: Trauma Screening 221 Barriers to Implementation of Mental Health Screening 223 Overcoming Barriers to Implementation 224 13 Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) Program Description and Benefts 231 PBIS Within a Multi-Tiered System of Supports 232 Behavioral and Academic Interventions Using MTSS 233

231

xii

Contents ISF Integrates PBIS With Mental Health Services 238 School-Wide PBIS (SWPBIS) Cultural Responsiveness 240 Brandywine School District Case Study: An Integrated Approach 249

14 Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)

263

Program Description and Benefts 263 Building Equity in SEL 268 The Role of SEL in Academic Opportunity 271 The Role of SEL in Violence Prevention 272 The Role of SEL in Crisis Intervention 272 Guide to Planning and Implementation 274 Integrating SEL With Programs and Curriculum 275 15 Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS)

281

Program Description and Benefts 281 An MTSS Model for TIS 286 Staff Resources and Funding to Support TIS 287 Supportive School and Classroom Learning Environments 288 Trauma-Informed and Culturally Responsive Classrooms 297 A Trauma-Informed Approach to Evaluations 298 SECTION V

Professional Development for School Safety and Mental Health

305

16 Developing Effective Professional Development

307

The Process of Organizational Development and Change 308 Secure Stakeholder Buy-In Throughout the Development Process 309 Administrator Support and Teacher Buy-In: Critical for Success 310 Needs Assessment and Program Selection 318 Select Evidence-Based Programs That Fit School Needs 322 17 Best Practices in Professional Development Effective Training in Engaging Formats 329 Plan, Implement, and Evaluate Training Effectiveness 334 Transfer Knowledge and Skills to Classroom Practice 337 High Quality Professional Development 340 Supportive Follow-Up to Training 344

329

Contents

xiii

SECTION VI

Putting It All Together

349

18 Implementing, Evaluating, and Sustaining Integrated Programs and Practices

351

Setting the Stage for Successful Implementation 351 Implementation Science and Evidence-Based Interventions 356 Evaluating Programs for Evidence of Effectiveness 363 Sustaining Gains Through Program Maintenance 369 19 Integrating and Managing Multiple Programs and Practices

375

Integrating Through Systems Thinking 375 Integrating With Leadership and Logistics 377 Integrating With Infrastructure and Resources 379 Integrating With Professional Development 381 Integrating Programs Within MTSS 385 Integrating With Collaboration and Teams 387 Integrating Programs and Practices 389 Integrating Cultural Responsiveness 395 Integrating Data Collection, Analysis, and Decision Making 396 Integrating Funding Streams 397 Summary: Implementing, Evaluating, and Sustaining Programs 398 Limitations in Developing School Safety and Mental Health Programs 400 Appendix Appendix: Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs 403

403

Online Resources: Available on the Routledge Website Online Resource 1: Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs Online Resource 2: Resources and Websites Organized by Relevant Topics Online Resource 3: Tips and Strategies on Topics of Interest to Teachers, Administrators, and Parents/Caregivers Online Resource 4: Sample Universal and Follow-Up Mental Health Screening Instruments Online Resource 5: Sample Scales to Follow Up and Further Evaluate Indicated Trauma and Possible Post-Traumatic Stress

xiv

Contents Online Resource 6: Sample Scales to Indicate Emotional Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Youth and Families Online Resource 7: Sample Workshop Evaluation Form Online Resource 8: Parent Interview Form That Incorporates History of Potential Trauma and Symptoms Index

423

About the Authors

Jeffrey C. Roth, PhD, NCSP, joined the Brandywine School District in Delaware, where he initiated Operation Cooperation – a school-wide approach to confict resolution – helped initiate and lead the district crisis response team, and was named Delaware’s School Psychologist of the Year. He developed instructional support and positive behavioral support teams, a social skills curriculum, and a program of selfdirected professional development for school psychologists. He was trained in the school crisis response PREPaRE model, Critical Incident Stress Management, Crisis Prevention Institute (CPI), and Red Cross Disaster Mental Health. He is an American Red Cross Disaster Mental Health volunteer. After serving in the Air Force, he practiced social work and attended graduate school at Temple University, where he earned his doctorate. During graduate school, Dr. Roth worked as a recreational therapist at St. Christopher’s Hospital for Children and taught graduate courses at Arcadia University and Jefferson Medical College. He is a licensed psychologist and served as adjunct professor and advisor at Wilmington University, Delaware, for over 25 years. He co-developed a mentoring program for new school psychologists for the state of Delaware. Dr. Roth authored School Crisis Response: Refections of a Team Leader (2015) and co-edited Perspectives on School Crisis Response: Refections from the Field (2018). Terri A. Erbacher, PhD, is a licensed psychologist and certifed school psychologist who has worked with the Delaware County Intermediate Unit since 1999, and has a private practice at erbacherconsulting. com. Dr. Erbacher also served as a clinical associate professor at Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine from 2007 to 2020, leaving PCOM as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic to spend more time with her family. With expertise in crisis management, suicide risk, and threat assessment, Dr. Erbacher writes extensively on these topics in book chapters, journal articles, and newsletters, and is a health contributor for Philly.com. Dr. Erbacher has also given over 150 presentations to schools, parents, police, and community organizations, has

xvi

About the Authors

been a frequent guest expert in the media, including NPR and 6abc, and often consults and responds to local school districts after a critical incident. Among many board roles, Dr. Erbacher is past-president for the Philadelphia Chapter of the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention and past clinical advisor for Survivors of Suicide. She currently serves as the Crisis Committee chairperson for the Association of School Psychologists of Pennsylvania and has been actively involved with Pennsylvania law and model policy related to trauma, suicide, and threat assessment. She is the lead author of the innovative text Suicide in Schools: A Practitioner’s Guide to Multi-level Prevention, Assessment, Intervention, and Postvention released in 2015. Dr. Erbacher has received multiple awards for her service to the community, including being named Pennsylvania’s School Psychologist of the Year. She resides outside of Philadelphia with her daughter, who is her pride and joy.

Illustrations

Figures 5.1 An Indigenous Conceptual Framework: Guiding School Psychology Practice With Indigenous Children, Youth, Families, and Communities 6.1 Integration of Programs and Practices Under the Umbrella of MTSS 10.1 School Threat Assessment Decision Tree 11.1 Comparison of Suicidal Ideation, Planning, and Attempts Between Heterosexual and LGBTQ+ Youth 13.1 Outcomes From Interaction of Multiple Social Competence and Academic Achievement Program Components: Systems, Data, and Practices 13.2 School-Wide Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS): Sample Tiered Behavioral and Academic Interventions 14.1 Framework for Systemic Social and Emotional Learning 18.1 NIRN Hexagon Tool

81 105 177 190 232 235 268 354

Tables 6.1 Mental Health Program Options for 3 Tiers of MTSS Service Delivery 10.1 ACLU Recommended Ratios of School Psychologists, School Social Workers, and School Counselors Compared With the National Average 18.1 Getting to Outcomes (GTO) Steps and Accountability Questions 19.1 Professional Development Plan at a Glance Includes Long-Term Management of Prioritized Training Categories/ Programs, Target Populations, and Scheduled Technical Follow-Up and Booster Sessions

103 170 367

383

Foreword

Children will always be the most fulflling aspect of my career as a school psychologist. After 13 years serving elementary, middle, and high school students, whatever is best for their overall health and wellbeing remains at the center of my scholarship and professional practice. Coupled with the joy that children bring is the dynamic nature of school psychology and the feld of education in general. In fact, it’s a Heraclitean truth: the only constant in life is change. As toddlers become children, and children grow into adolescents, similarly, our respective disciplines are constantly evolving. But despite the ever-changing challenges, it’s exciting to be an educator in the 21st century. School safety and mental health are two of the most pressing concerns for educators. From school shootings that involved students as the perpetrators, to young people who have died by suicide, the past 25 years have been rife with tragedies that seem too numerous to name. But, as it is in life, so it is in education: these all-too-familiar events can become catalysts for signifcant practice and policy changes; those that will lead to safer and more inclusive schools and positive outcomes for young people. As the de facto providers of mental health services, whether children’s diffculties stem from their homes (e.g., abuse, neglect), communities (e.g., chronic exposure to police violence and other traumatic events), or larger societal ills (e.g., systemic racism), because of their access to large numbers of children and adolescents, schools, particularly public schools, are defensibly the most appropriate setting for providing comprehensive evidence-based prevention and intervention programs. As members of multidisciplinary teams, school psychologists, school social workers, school counselors, nurses, teachers, administrators, and policymakers work tirelessly to meet the social, emotional, behavioral, and mental health needs facing real students, living with real families, and attending real schools that are embedded within real communities. Consequently, critical information must be accessible to and specifcally address the realities of school-based professionals. Moreover, given the differential experiences of students and families from racially and ethnically minoritized (REM) backgrounds, it is incumbent upon practitioners

Foreword

xix

to develop meaningful relationships with families; understand cultural nuances; partner with them; and implement practices that are respectful of, and responsive to, their values and beliefs. Especially given the scant consideration of cultural factors in many undergraduate and graduate training programs, educators must engage in ongoing professional learning in order to effectively serve an increasingly REM student body. In Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs: An Integrated Approach, Jeffrey C. Roth and Terri A. Erbacher offer a resource that is not only comprehensive in nature but also accessible in its organization and flled with much needed, essential content for contemporary educational practice. Framing school safety and mental health as shared responsibility and interdisciplinary collaboration between stakeholder groups, the book is a must read for both emerging professionals as well as those already serving students and families in schools. As noted by the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus, change is inevitable. And the degree to which we are responsive to change ensures that our practices remain effective for all children and families. Roth and Erbacher have also underscored a fundamental truth that has both challenged and inspired me as a school psychologist and educator: If we are doing the same things that we were doing many years ago, we are likely doing something wrong. It’s easy, and sometimes enticing, to become comfortable and complacent in our approaches. Innovation, however, requires new information that inspires new ideas. Balancing research and practice, but not at the expense of being overly prescriptive, Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs helps professionals examine their current systems and structures and exposes them to more effcient processes and effective practices. If we are truly committed to supporting the whole child and every child, we can no longer separate school safety and mental health from students’ academic achievement. Children who feel physically and emotionally safe, supported, and included are not only ready to learn but also more likely to succeed. Jeff Roth and Terri A. Erbacher have provided a unique, valuable resource that clearly helps school communities to support the safety and mental health of the whole child and every child. Charles Barrett, PhD, NCSP, lead school psychologist, Loudoun County Public Schools, Ashburn, Virginia; graduate educator; consultant; author; www.charlesbarrett.org.

Acknowledgments and Dedications

The authors wish to acknowledge the ongoing support, guidance, and encouragement of Amanda Devine, our Editor at Routledge, and Grace McDonnell, Editorial Assistant. The authors wish to thank the many special people who contributed valued ideas to the development of this book. We appreciate our school crisis response teams, with whom we have been honored to work and from whom we have learned so much. We appreciate the following colleagues and loved ones who have supported and inspired us: Charles Ashbach; George Bear; Best-Bearden Family “for their constant love and support”; Jeff’s daughter Leah, Raleigh, and sweet granddaughter Autumn Booze; Debby Boyer; Jacqueline Brown; Cecilia Cannon; Donna Carroll; Marqueia Davis; Doug DiRaddo; Terri A. Erbacher; Autumn Erbacher, Terri’s inspiration to be the best mom, psychologist, and person she can be; Marika GinsbergBlock; Sarah Hearn; Melissa Heath; Belle Heffer, Jeff’s 2nd and 3rd grade teacher; Sol and Shirley Hirsch, Carol’s parents; Cindy Holms, Terri’s work mom; Joanna Krupp; Steven and Deborah Krupp; Teri Lawler; Yolanda McKinney; Joel Meyers; Patricia Minuchin; Cathy and Dan Moore; Janet Newsome; Megan Pell; Scott Poland; John Rafter; Melissa Reeves; Eric Rossen; Bill Roth, Terri’s frst supervisor and mentor who helped begin her career in crisis response; Carol Roth, patient wife and editor to Jeff; Jacob, Kate, and Jenny Roth, Jeff’s grandparents; Martin and Yetta Roth, Jeff’s parents; Jeff’s son Michael Roth and Esther Nivasch; Linda Smith; Leah and David Spector, Jeff’s grandparents; Pat and Becky Stone; Craig Stoneking for being Terri’s support when she’s supporting others; Tracey Tilghman; Marty and Peggy Tracy; Maritsa, Aaron, Amelia, and Noah Wagner; Ted and Joanne Weiner; Naomi S. Wilson, Jeff’s 4th grade teacher.

Section I

Background

1

Introduction

Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the time to understand more, so that we may fear less. ~ Marie Curie

Purpose of the Book There is a critical need for a user-friendly guide illustrating an integrated, long-term process to develop comprehensive school safety and mental health programs. There is a vital need for school safety measures, crisis preparedness, suicide and violence prevention, and student mental health services, but multiple programs must be effciently implemented, given increasing educator challenges and responsibilities. The multicultural population of our schools and the necessity for interpersonal understanding and culturally responsive teaching underscore the need to address social, emotional, and behavioral supports essential to positive learning environments and academic achievement. School safety and mental health programs and practices, and the training needed to implement them, are designed for teachers to become more confdent, more skilled, and better able to educate students with diverse backgrounds and needs. Unfortunately, increasing professional development expectations and program requirements can leave teachers feeling less confdent, de-skilled, and discouraged. Developing Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs: An Integrated Approach promotes continuous learning, professional collaboration, supportive leadership, and a long-term plan to develop evidence-based programs that are effcient and effective. This book offers wide-ranging information and a practical process to help school leaders and teams implement and integrate programs that work. This book provides a clear process to effectively assess needs, select programs, encourage and train staff, develop resources, and implement, evaluate, and sustain desired programs (Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, & Wallace, 2005; Forman et al., 2013; Ogden & Fixsen, 2014). This task can start with small steps but gain momentum as innovative programs succeed and structures are established, making further implementation more feasible.

4

Background

This book advocates for teacher personal growth, professional collaboration, and wellbeing. It also expresses the need for more school-based mental health professionals – school psychologists, school counselors, school social workers, and also school nurses – who are often presented with increasing and urgent tasks. This book informs administrators and school mental health professionals about facilitating multi-tiered service delivery, organizational development, and implementation science. It highlights the complementary roles of school administrators, school mental health providers, and other school leaders and liaisons to effectively provide educators with time, resources, and ongoing support to develop knowledge, strengthen skills, and sustain programs they have embraced (Eagle, DowdEagle, Snyder, & Holtzman, 2015; Mazzer & Rickwood, 2015). The infuence of school administrators advocating for and facilitating innovative change is paramount. Lead teachers and leadership teams, who inspire fellow educators, also play an immense role in creating positive change. Comprehensive programming must also include engagement with and education for parents, families, and community stakeholders. This book emphasizes respect and appreciation for students, educators, families, and the community. The lessons in this book address the challenges of those who lead the development of school safety and mental health programs, facilitate implementation, and support change processes. New programs and practices cannot succeed without the acceptance, enthusiasm, and dedicated work of teachers, administrators, and support staff. In addition to receptive educators, there must be structures and resources such as an effective model of service delivery, shared leadership and teamwork, data collection and analysis, and ongoing training, funding, and community partnerships. In summary, here are themes and objectives of this book: • • • • • • •

Understand the research on school safety, student mental health, and the impact of crisis events Illustrate and advocate the benefts of, and overcome barriers to, implementing school safety and mental health programs Apply best practices to the process of implementing comprehensive, integrated school safety and mental health programs Utilize the unique opportunity schools provide for prevention, identifcation, and early intervention to promote student mental health Develop a practical, integrated, long-term planning approach to multiple program training and implementation Utilize needs assessment and prioritized program selection to determine the direction of training initiatives Assess and build school infrastructure – leadership functions, resource mapping, logistics and personnel, structures such as delivery systems, funding, strengths, and needs to determine readiness for new programs

Introduction 5 •

• • •

Establish positive school climates; culturally responsive teaching and services; family–school collaboration; monitoring of social media; safety and crisis teams; violence prevention and threat assessment; suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention; mental health screening; positive behavior supports; social-emotional learning; and trauma-informed schools Inform selection and planning of safety and mental health programs and practices Apply best practices for stakeholder buy-in and professional development Apply implementation science to guide effective program implementation with follow-up to support, evaluate, and sustain desired outcomes

Learning themes for leaders and facilitators of program development: • • • • • • •

Apply principles and skills of organizational development and implementation science to facilitate ongoing school safety and mental health programs Empower and support a school leadership team, professional learning communities, and encourage teacher collaboration and continuous learning Develop delivery systems and partnerships to support school safety and mental health programs Facilitate assessment, research, and selection of needed school safety and mental health programs that ft a school’s climate, population, and culture Facilitate and inspire an effective, ongoing professional development process Implement and manage the long-term development of multiple, integrated programs and practices Evaluate, improve, and sustain multiple school safety and mental health programs

The themes of each chapter are designed to follow the practitioner’s experience of developing and establishing school safety and mental health programs: • •

•

Chapter 2 advocates and describes the need for, benefts of, and barriers to developing school safety and mental health programs Chapter 3 reviews essential structures, resources, practices, and service delivery models needed to enable successful planning, development, and implementation of comprehensive school safety and mental health programs Next, school leaders and leadership teams must educate themselves about the kinds of programs and practices designed to address

6

•

•

•

•

• • •

Background school safety and mental health. Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 emphasize foundational practices, including Chapter 4: positive school climate; Chapter 5: culturally responsive mental health services and education; Chapter 6: Multi-Tiered System of Supports; Chapter 7: family–school collaboration and caregiver education; and Chapter 8: monitoring social media and technology, all of which provide a receptive environment in which innovative practices can succeed Chapters 9, 10, and 11 focus on types of programs and practices that support school and student safety, including Chapter 9: crisis prevention, preparedness, and response; Chapter 10: violence prevention, threat assessment, and intervention; and Chapter 11: suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention Chapters 12, 13, 14, and 15 describe school-wide programs and practices that promote positive behavior and mental health, such as Chapter 12: universal mental health screening; Chapter 13: Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS); Chapter 14: Social and Emotional Learning (SEL); and Chapter 15: TraumaInformed Schools (TIS) Next, Chapters 16 and 17 describe applying best practices to preparation for training and professional development of selected programs. Chapter 16 describes the process of developing effective professional development for school safety and mental health programs, including stakeholder buy-in and leadership, assessing and prioritizing needs, and selecting evidence-based programs that ft the school culture. Chapter 17 focuses on providing highly effective training and follow-up technical assistance Chapter 18 is a culminating description of best practices in implementing with fdelity and applying implementation science and drivers; evaluating for evidence of program effectiveness, treatment integrity, and adjustments to improve desired outcomes; and sustaining and fostering institutionalization of successful school safety and mental health programs Chapter 19 summarizes essential ideas for integrating and managing ongoing school safety and mental health programs and training The Appendix provides a non-exhaustive list of highly rated, evidence-based programs that address various aspects of school safety and mental health Online resources are also available on the Routledge website. Supplemental materials include: • •

Online Resource 1: Appendix lists highly rated, evidence-based programs Online Resource 2: Resources and websites organized by relevant topics

Introduction 7 • • • • • •

Online Resource 3: Tips and strategies on selected topics of interest to teachers, administrators, and parents/caregivers Online Resource 4: Sample Universal and Follow-up Mental Health Screening Instruments Online Resource 5: Sample scales to follow up and further evaluate indicated trauma and possible post-traumatic stress Online Resource 6: Sample scales to indicate emotional impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on youth and families Online Resource 7: Sample Workshop Evaluation Form Online Resource 8: Parent Interview Form that incorporates history of potential trauma and symptoms

Developing school safety and mental health programs relates to several domains of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) Model for Comprehensive and Integrated School Psychological Services (NASP, 2020). These domains include “data-based decision making,” “consultation and collaboration,” and especially “mental and behavioral health services,” “school-wide practices to promote learning,” and “services to promote safe and supportive schools.” Defnition of “School Safety” School safety is defned as school attributes that constitute the condition and perception of physical and psychological safety such that students, educators, families, and members of the school community function in a secure learning environment that is reasonably free from fear of harm or disruption. Reeves, Kanan, and Plog (2010) explained that an aspect of creating a safe school is preventing crises from happening, or being prepared to respond to and mitigate negative impact when crises cannot be prevented. However, they asserted that a safe school involves more than crisis preparedness and response capability – a safe school also “establishes and maintains a positive school climate and implements good prevention and intervention programs” (p. 5). The groundbreaking Early Warning, Timely Response: A Guide to Safe Schools (Dwyer, Osher, & Warger, 1998) emphasized the contribution of all members of the school community, including staff, students, parents, and community members, in establishing safe school environments. They described these environments as creating a focus on: • • • • •

Academic achievement Meaningful family involvement Mutual respect and caring among students and staff Good citizenship and character Open discussion of safety issues

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Background

• • •

Ways for students to feel safe expressing concerns and feelings Early identifcation of students with problems Comprehensive response to student needs

Defnition of “Mental Health” Mental Health First Aid USA (2012, 2015) states that the term mental health is defined in different ways, with some definitions emphasizing “positive psychological wellbeing,” while others view it as an absence of mental health problems. Culture also influences the ways mental health is defined. Hernandez, Nesman, Mowery, Acevedo-Polakovich, and Callejas (2009) pointed out that “culture influences what gets defined as a problem, how the problem is understood, and which solutions to the problem are acceptable” (p. 5). The World Health Organization (2007) defined mental health as a state of wellbeing in which individuals realize their own abilities, cope with normal life stresses, work productively, and are able to contribute to their community. The organization further stated that mental health impacts education, employment, and interpersonal relationships throughout life, contributing to perceived self-efficacy, autonomy, competence, and the realization of one’s potential (World Health Organization, 2014). A public health approach to children’s mental health seeks to balance the focus on problems with a focus on positive mental health. This approach emphasizes not only treatment but also prevention, early intervention, and education to improve mental health outcomes. The public health approach also seeks to create environments that promote and support mental health, and skills that enhance resilience, or the capacity to overcome life’s challenges (Kelly, Kitchener, & Jorm, 2017; Mental Health First Aid USA, 2012, 2015). The Reciprocal Nature of School Safety and Mental Health This book proceeds from the premise that school safety and mental health share a reciprocal relationship. When students and educators feel that their learning environment is physically and psychologically safe and supportive, they are more likely to experience mental wellness, a sense of security, positive attitudes and emotions, and readiness to learn. When students and educators feel that their school supports mental health and emotional wellbeing, they are more likely to contribute to school safety, have a sense of connection and mutual respect for peers and educators, be more resilient when coping with crises, communicate potential problems or threats, and seek help when help is needed. The extent to which safety and mental health are promoted or ignored can have a profound impact on students.

Introduction 9

A Story From School In the early 1950s, I was destroyed by a 1st grade teacher and repaired by the competent, caring teachers who came afterward. Perhaps my travail was foreshadowed when, at the end of our kindergarten year, we were paraded in front of next year’s 1st grade teacher to tell her our names. My shy, barely audible 5-year-old voice squeezed out “Jeffrey Roth” and she responded with “Jeffrey Wolf.” “No, Roth.” “Wolf?” Just move along. Maybe my last name did sound like the howl of a baby wolf. Anyway, it went downhill from there. From the beginning of the school year, when she perceived resistance, the 1st grade teacher threatened to “hang you from the chandelier.” While she did not threaten me directly, I personalized her intention every time and pictured myself dangling from the light fxture on the ceiling. I became frightened to utter a word and wished I could learn how to disappear. What made things worse was that for those responding to her queries with the right answer, she sometimes offered a “sucker” (lollipop). I was almost in tears knowing that my self-imposed mutism was costing me a crack at a mouth-watering treat. There was no invisibility when my fne motor defcits did not allow me to string even one of the colorful wooden beads or when I was standing at the blackboard being yelled at for using my fngers trying to solve a simple arithmetic problem. But it got worse . . . I was afraid to ask permission to go to the boy’s room. The result was catastrophic. I became a serial puddle maker. The evidence of my transgression was obvious from the wet area on my pants and of course, the puddle on the foor. Perhaps it was because I denied being the transgressor that she added to the embarrassment by feeling my pants to confrm the indiscretion, accompanied by a gleeful chorus of “pish-ma-shame” from little girls in the front row. My mother came in for a conference and the problem seemed solved. I would simply raise my hand and when recognized, leave the room to do my business. Well, how do you raise your hand and leave the room while reciting the Pledge of Allegiance? By the time we reached “liberty and justice for all” there was another puddle to ruin my reputation as a civilized 1st grader. There was something terribly wrong with me. My teacher for the next year, and thankfully a second year after that, not only picked up the pieces, but her frm, supportive style and love of students gradually gave me permission to feel comfortable, worthwhile, and believe I could learn. Learning in Ms. Heffer’s classroom meant not only the “3 Rs” but also music and art, and a world of color and beauty. I was able to come out of my shell and even appreciate my classmates and their talents. My next teacher was another who understood how to challenge and, at the same time, support her students. I was still a slow and grudging reader

10

Background

by 4th grade. I recall trying to read the Carl Sandburg poem, “The fog comes on little cat feet . . .” during reading circle. As I struggled mightily, others in the circle raised their hands wanting a chance to take over, show their skill, and put me out of my misery. But my teacher must have sensed that I was determined to get through that poem. She signaled for the would-be readers to cease their grunts and cries and put down their hands. “Let him do it,” Ms. Wilson said. She somehow knew that her patience might give me the confdence and time needed to succeed. I continued turtle-slowly, and fnished reading the poem. I had become a person again. School had become a place where I wanted to be.

References Dwyer, K., Osher, D., & Warger, C. (1998). Early warning, timely response: A guide to safe schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Eagle, J. W., Dowd-Eagle, S. E., Snyder, A., & Holtzman, E. G. (2015). Implementing a Multi-tiered System of Support (MTSS): Collaboration between school psychologists and administrators to promote systems-level change. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 25(2–3), 160–177. Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature. Tampa, FL: University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, The National Implementation Research Network (FMHI Publication @231). Forman, S. G., Shapiro, E. S., Codding, R. S., Gonzales, J. E., Reddy, L. A., Rosenfeld, S. A., . . . & Stroiber, K. C. (2013). Implementation science and school psychology. School Psychology Quarterly, 28, 77–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/ spq0000019 Hernandez, M., Nesman, T., Mowery, D., Acevedo-Polakovich, I. D., & Callejas, L. M. (2009). Cultural competence: A literature review and conceptual model for mental health services. Psychiatric Services, 60(8), 1046–1050. Kelly, C. M., Kitchener, B. A., & Jorm, A. F. (2017). Youth mental health frst aid manual (4th ed.). Melbourne: Mental Health First Aid International. Mazzer, K. R., & Rickwood, D. J. (2015). Teachers’ role breadth and perceived effcacy in supporting student mental health. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 8(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/1754730X.2014.978119 Mental Health First Aid USA. (2012). Mental health frst aid USA for adults assisting young people. Washington, DC: National Council for Behavioral Health. Retrieved from www.mentalhealthfrstaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ Youth_Mental_Health_First_Aid-One_Pager.pdf Mental Health First Aid USA. (2015). Mental health frst aid USA. Washington, DC: National Council for Behavioral Health. Retrieved from www.mentalhealthfrstaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Mental-Health-First-Aid-AdultsOne-Pager_2019.pdf National Association of School Psychologists. (2020). Model for comprehensive and integrated school psychological services: The NASP Practice Model 2020. Retrieved from www.nasponline.org

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Ogden, T., & Fixsen, D. L. (2014). Implementation science: A brief overview and a look ahead. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, 222, 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1027/21512604/a000160 Reeves, M., Kanan, L., & Plog, A. (2010). Comprehensive planning for safe learning environments: A school professional’s guide to integrating physical and psychological safety – Prevention through recovery. New York: Routledge. World Health Organization. (2007). Mental health: Strengthening mental health promotion (Fact Sheet No. 220, p. 1). Geneva: WHO. World Health Organization. (2014). Mental health: A state of well-being. Retrieved from www.who.int/features/mental_health/en/

2

The Case for Comprehensive School Safety and Mental Health Programs

Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all. ~ Aristotle

Imagine your school district has just experienced a student suicide. In the aftermath, shocked parents fear for their own children’s wellbeing, complain about excessive academic pressure, and worry about their children experiencing anxiety or depression. Students, parents, and teachers express concerns about the prevalence of bullying. How should the school respond and what procedures are in place? Many schools experience problems with student mental health, behavior, and ineffective discipline, with questions about appropriate response. Lack of strategic planning can lead to lowered staff morale, decreased student involvement in extracurricular activities, and an absence of connection between students and their schools. School-based mental health professionals often highlight these problems and advocate for programs designed to address them. Most district superintendents and school administrators are interested in learning about programs that support school safety and mental health. But what are best practices to proceed with developing these programs?

Need for School Safety and Mental Health Programs Mental health problems can take many forms. While some students face situational challenges such as conficts with peers, parental divorce, military deployment, or a death in the family, others experience ongoing emotional stressors that cause psychological harm. These stressors can include poverty, societal inequities, community violence, homelessness, or abuse. Still other students struggle with emerging or chronic mental illness such as anxiety, depression, and emotional-behavioral disorders (Rossen & Cowan, 2015). Mental health problems generally don’t go away on their own, but often become worse if not identifed or left untreated (Suldo, Gormley, DuPaul, & Anderson-Butcher, 2014). The average delay between the

School Safety and Mental Health Programs

13

onset of mental illness symptoms and treatment is a staggering 11 years (National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2019). The effects of untreated mental illness can impact every aspect of school life, including safety, discipline, school climate, learning, and teacher stress (Rossen & Cowan, 2015). Schools are in a unique position to address student mental health through screenings, prevention, early intervention, and a continuum of services, which can vastly improve school and life outcomes for all students (Eklund & Rossen, 2016; Mental Health America, 2016). How can we encourage, create, and support the kind of change that benefts students and teachers? Critical elements must be in place for safety and mental health training and programs to yield optimal results: • • • • •

• •

Administrators, teachers, and staff must recognize the need and buy into training Administrators must plan a user-friendly professional development timeline and develop structures and resources conducive to program implementation There must be suffcient staffng of school-based mental health professionals There must be an effective system of service delivery that supports a continuum of coordinated programs and practices to meet the needs of all students – especially those most vulnerable Training must be followed by approaches such as consultation, coaching, booster sessions, and professional collaboration to support and institutionalize programs and practices that instill teacher confdence, knowledge, and skills There must be a positive school climate and messaging to students, staff, families, and the community that informs about services and seeks input Evaluation of outcomes and decision making must be driven by data that sustains and strengthens needed programs, service providers, and school teams

There is a recognized need for school safety measures and mental health services, but little discussion of how to develop multiple programs, given increasing educator challenges and responsibilities. Innovative programs are most effective when teachers and administrators feel camaraderie and enthusiasm for adopting new practices so that even those skeptical about change perceive efforts as practical, worthwhile, and not simply retreads of worn-out ideas. Need for School Safety Planning Safety teams can conduct needs assessments to identify and establish resources, such as a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) and Positive

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Background

Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) that help create safe learning environments. Crisis teams not only respond to crises but are also involved in preparation for and prevention of traumatic incidents (Brock et al., 2016). Chapters 9 and 10 elaborate on crisis and violence prevention. Schools can support student participation in safety planning and sharing responsibility for the wellbeing of their school. When schools create a culturally responsive climate where all students feel a sense of security and belonging, they are more ready to learn. School connectedness and resilience produces individuals who are more involved in promoting safety and prevention, less vulnerable to crisis reactions, and better able to cope, recover, and return to learning (Brock et al., 2016; Doll, Cummings, & Chapla, 2014; Masten, 2014). Schools must prepare for a variety of traumatic events. In addition to campus and community violence, there are natural disasters, transportation accidents, deaths of students and staff members, deaths by suicide, and other crises (Reeves, Kanan, & Plog, 2010; Roth & Fernandez, 2018). School violence prevention strives to reduce the risk of violent behavior and mitigate the effects of emotional trauma. When schools establish strong community connections, they are better able to help families, teachers, and students with a continuum of services to restore hope and security (Castro-Olivo, Albeg, & Begum, 2012). Schools must prevent, prepare for, and confront a continuum of violent acts, including catastrophic shootings and terrorism, homicides in the community, and more pervasive threats such as bullying. Bullying is a different form of violence, generally not attracting headlines, but recognized as a pervasive threat to student wellbeing. Educators have the challenge of balancing programs for physical safety with efforts to create a positive psychological learning environment (Paine & Cowan, 2009). Chapter 10 elaborates on violence prevention, threat assessment, and intervention. Need for School Mental Health Programs The Adverse Childhood Experiences study (ACEs) demonstrated that between half and two-thirds of all school-age children are exposed to one or more adverse childhood experience that can cause emotional trauma (Felitti et al., 1998). Educators must learn to recognize what trauma looks like and how to use a trauma-informed approach that fosters student resilience (Rossen, 2020; Souers & Hall, 2016). Chapter 15 provides more information on Trauma-Informed Schools. It is estimated that about one in fve students experience serious mental illness at some time during their schooling (Perou et al., 2013). Rossen and Cowan (2015) anticipated that in a high school of 750 students, 150 of them might experience a mental illness that interferes with their learning – issues related to thinking, mood, or behavior, affecting their ability to concentrate, have positive relationships, or cope with adversity.

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15

Many high school students report excessive school-related stress (VellaBrodrick, 2016). A survey of Australian youth aged 15–19 years found that coping with stress was a primary concern for 38.4% of respondents and that school or study problems was a signifcant concern for 33.6% of the study sample (Cave, Fildes, Luckett, & Wearring, 2015). Prothero (2018) pointed to an estimated 32% of adolescents experiencing an anxiety disorder, and 12% of youth between 12 and 14 years of age reporting a major depressive episode during the previous year. The World Health Organization (2019) estimated that 50% of mental disorders begin before age 14, and 70% before age 18. Increasing numbers of students appear diagnosed with anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorders. Mental health problems can make learning extremely diffcult and destroy relationships. While mental health concerns leading to catastrophic events such as school shootings are extremely rare, they often lead to disruption, disrespect, and unhappiness in learning environments. Suicide has become epidemic among young people. Safe schools require education and programs to prevent death by suicide. Nationwide, 18.8% of students reported seriously considering a suicide attempt (CDC, 2020b). Since 2007, the teenage suicide rate has risen 30% among boys and doubled among girls between the ages of 15 and 19. Suicide is the second leading cause of death among youth between ages 15 and 19 (CDC, 2020a). Educators must know risk factors, protective factors, warning signs, and how to talk with a distressed student. When a death by suicide happens, schools must have the specialized knowledge and skills to address complicated grief and work to prevent contagion (Erbacher, Singer, & Poland, 2015). Chapter 11 elaborates on suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention. In summary, the need for school safety and mental health programs is based upon: • • • • • •

Unique opportunities for schools to address student mental health challenges and foster readiness for learning Epidemic of suicidal intent and deaths of school-age youth Increasing awareness and threats of violence in schools Pressures for academic achievement contributing to student and teacher anxiety, stress, and depression Increasing student diversity, the need for cultural responsiveness and creating inclusive learning environments for all students Societal mistrust, inequities, and polarization of communities based on race, ethnicity, faith, sexual orientation, and immigrant status, emphasizing the need to recognize common values and aspirations, and to appreciate diverse cultures

Broadening the role of schools as de facto mental health providers requires more training for school-based mental health professionals.

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Background

They are often expected to provide counseling and therapeutic support for students, organizational development and team leadership, training and consultation for staff, and coordination with outside agencies. Similarly, teachers and administrators are increasingly viewed as primary change agents addressing student social and emotional needs. Given these challenges and responsibilities, both early career and experienced teachers and mental health providers need professional development and systems of support. New and experienced administrators similarly need ongoing learning for innovative roles. The basic needs for school safety and mental health must be addressed to create effective, satisfying learning environments. The vital need for a process advocating school safety and mental health is presented in the National Association of School Psychologist’s NASP Policy Playbook for School Psychology (2019) (www.nasponline.org/research-and-policy/advocacy/ policy-playbook). Creating a Drive for Ongoing Program Development Establishing multiple programs to achieve comprehensive school safety and mental health is a major task requiring substantial planning and development. What can inspire teachers, administrators, and schoolbased mental health professionals to learn and use school safety and mental health programs? They must believe these programs are needed, will make their work more satisfying, and will produce improved academic and behavioral outcomes for students. Teachers must trust they will gain the knowledge and skills to implement the programs through effective professional development and that ongoing technical support will continue to strengthen their skills and sustain programs they have embraced (Mazzer & Rickwood, 2015).

Benefts of School Safety and Mental Health Programs Major benefts of school safety and mental health programs include: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Promote prevention and early intervention. Support learning and academic achievement. Promote resilience and social-emotional competence. Develop teacher knowledge, skills, and wellbeing.

Promote Prevention and Early Intervention Compounding the problem of untreated mental illness, many economically and racially marginalized children lack access to community-based mental health, instead relying on services at school (Bruhn, Woods-Groves,

School Safety and Mental Health Programs 17 & Huddle, 2014). Schools are attempting to face this challenge, becoming more proactive by training staff to identify mental health needs, rather than assuming a reactive, “wait to fail” referral approach (McGrath, 2010). Schools can provide access to early intervention and health promotion programs that prevent a pattern of mental illness from becoming more pervasive and severe (Sawyer et al., 2012). It is estimated that nearly 70–80% of youth mental health services are provided in schools (Teich, Robinson, & Weist, 2008). Universal mental health screening can identify students at risk for future diffculties (Eklund & Dowdy, 2014). Dowdy, Ritchey, and Kamphaus (2010) advocated the use of universal screening as a key step in moving school-based psychological services from being only for students at highest risk, to service delivery throughout the system, including early intervention (Dowdy et al., 2010). Chapter 12 provides more about universal screening. Support Learning and Academic Achievement Research has demonstrated that students struggling with physical and mental health related problems have lower academic achievement, attendance, school engagement, and connectedness (Michael, Merlo, Basch, Wentzel, & Wechsler, 2015). Conversely, physical and mental health improve academic achievement (Bradley & Greene, 2013; Michael et al., 2015). A positive school climate that supports school safety and student mental health was found to signifcantly improve students’ social, emotional, and academic functioning (Thapa, Cohen, Guffey, & HigginsD’Alessandro, 2013). Positive student–teacher relationships also appear to enhance student engagement, behavior, and academic success (Pianta, Hamre, & Allen, 2012). Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), a school-wide approach for teaching expected behaviors, has been associated with decreased discipline referrals, more time for learning, and improved academic outcomes (Sugai & Horner, 2006, 2009). Chapter 13 provides a description of PBIS. Another school-wide program, highlighted in Chapter 14, Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), emphasizes developing a variety of social and emotional competencies that have been associated with improvements in academic achievement (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011; Taylor, Oberle, Durlak, & Weissberg, 2017). Reupert (2019) discussed models and strategies that beneft the “whole child,” ensuring the promotion of both academic development and mental health and emphasizing the potential positive or negative impact of everyday classroom practices and curriculum. Effective professional development for teachers in recognized areas of social and emotional need enhanced student learning and academic achievement.

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Background

Promote Resilience and Social-Emotional Competence Proactive mental health measures can foster student resilience when coping with crises such as a death in the family, bullying, and other situational stressors. Social-emotional learning can support resilience by providing educators and students with the language and permission to talk about feelings and reactions. Teachers can model resilience. When educators and parents care for themselves, they are better able to promote children’s mental health and resilience. Promoting resilience and preventing stress – tips for teachers and parents: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Be aware of children’s behaviors and emotions, help them fnd enjoyable interests, encourage talking about problems and bouncing back from failure to continue striving for goals Set realistic expectations, consistent with the child’s developmental level, recognizing accomplishments with positive feedback and encouraging self-effcacy Encourage but do not force the expression of emotions, modeling the use of “I” statements of feelings when talking with children Teach children to problem solve – taking responsibility for solving problems builds a sense of self-esteem and personal control Teach and model emotion regulation – learning how to use emotions constructively enhances children’s response to stress Encourage children to develop a sense of belonging through healthy relationships with family, faith, school, and friends that buffer against stress Provide opportunities to engage in prosocial behaviors and constructive activities that reinforce contributing to the community Encourage exercise, mindfulness, and artistic expression as a means of stress release and relaxation Realize that children, often beginning in middle school, will be exposed to tobacco, drugs, and alcohol, and must be taught that self-medicating is a harmful way of coping with stress and does not solve problems Keep children’s schedules manageable between competitive and cooperative activities, balancing regular routine with fexible adaptation to change When a child makes a poor choice, listen uncritically, encourage alternative behaviors, and use natural consequences rather than punishment, whenever possible Seek professional help or advice when signs of stress do not diminish, or if the child or adolescent has diffculty coping with emotional trauma Adapted from Copeland (2004), Whelley, Cash, and Bryson (2004)

School Safety and Mental Health Programs 19 Note: Further helpful tips to promote resilience and stress reduction are provided in Online Resource 3: Tips and strategies on topics of interest to teachers, administrators, and parents/caregivers. Social and emotional learning (SEL) is a school-wide approach that orients educators to support the social and emotional competence of all students, including those experiencing emotional and educational challenges. It includes curricula, lessons, and strategies that help students become: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

More self-aware, including the ability to recognize their emotions and strengths. Better able to manage and control their impulses and stress, and to set goals. More socially aware, empathic, appreciative of diversity, and respectful of others. Better at relationship skills, such as communicating, socially engaging, and building relationships and teamwork. More responsible decision makers, including identifying, analyzing, and solving problems, refecting, and taking responsibility. Adapted from Collaborative for Academic and Social Emotional Learning (2016)

Research on SEL program outcomes has demonstrated improved student mental health, social-emotional skills, social behavior, attitudes, and academic achievement (Durlak et al., 2011; Taylor et al., 2017). Develop Teacher Knowledge, Skills, and Wellbeing Any discussion of school safety and mental health should include the safety, mental health, and wellbeing of teachers. Teachers are often overworked, overstressed, and undercompensated. Teachers experiencing high levels of stress are more likely to criticize students, lose their temper, and use punitive discipline (Shernoff, Mehta, Atkins, Torf, & Spencer, 2011). Teacher burnout has been associated with increased student antisocial and oppositional behaviors. Urban settings have been reported as especially stressful and challenging for many teachers (Kokkinos, 2007). Teachers need more time for planning, emotional support, and professional learning, and deserve more fnancial compensation. Meeting these needs will likely improve the ability to attract and retain effective teachers (Little, Guess, & McCane-Bowling, 2020; Wronowski, 2018). Johnson and Kardos (2002) described schools as integrated professional cultures that encourage supportive teacher collaboration. They explained that the uncertainty of new teachers requires more than orientation meetings, mentors, directions to the supply closet, and a copy of the school discipline policy. New teachers need experienced colleagues who

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Background

listen to them and take their daily dilemmas seriously. Experienced colleagues can observe their teaching and give constructive feedback, help them develop instructional strategies, model effective teaching, and share insights about student learning. Essentially, new teachers need onsite professional development fostered by principals and teacher leaders and guided by expert, responsive colleagues throughout their early years. Principals can plan schedules that enable expert teachers to teach model lessons or meet with new teachers one-on-one or in small groups. New teachers in schools with integrated cultures were better able to serve students and remained for longer tenures (Johnson & Kardos, 2002). Nieto (2009) asserted that teachers need environments that promote meaningful learning to remain enthusiastic and committed to their work. She urged that teachers be given the opportunity to select professional development topics and work collaboratively on strengthening programs. Partnerships should be encouraged between districts and universities that support research opportunities and long-term collaboration. She also cited open climates that foster shared decision making, respect teacher opinions, and encourage teachers to remain in the profession. See Chapter 3 for discussion of professional learning communities and professional development schools. Nieto discussed three necessary actions teachers should take to thrive: Action 1: Learning about themselves. Teachers learning more about themselves can be more effective working with students who are different from themselves (Gebhard, Austin, Nieto, & Willett, 2002). Action 2: Learning about their students. Teachers need to be open to learn about their students, go into their neighborhoods, and meet their families. Knowing what happens in their students’ world is especially necessary for teachers who do not share those realities. Action 3: Developing allies. Nieto advises novice teachers to “make a friend” because teaching can be a diffcult, lonely profession. Collaborating with colleagues can help teachers remain committed and hopeful. Supportive dispositions include love of students and subjects taught, view of self as life-long learner, commitment to social justice, comfort with uncertainty, resilient patience, and a sense of humor. Teachers Affected by Student Trauma Because many students have experienced some form of emotional trauma, educators often fnd themselves taking the role of counselors, supporting not only academic growth but also emotional recovery. This expanded role dictates a need to understand how student trauma

School Safety and Mental Health Programs 21 affects teachers. Vicarious trauma can occur in which witnessing devastation and hearing painful stories can have an emotional effect on caregivers. Teachers, counselors, administrators, and other staff may be aware of cumulative job stressors but not realize their symptoms are a common reaction to working with traumatized children (Lander, 2019). School leaders can build a culture of awareness by acknowledging that teachers and support staff are vulnerable to vicarious trauma, and that they are not alone. There are ways to appreciate staff publicly and privately, not only by valuing their work, but also by acknowledging that their work is hard. Schools should connect staff who may be experiencing vicarious trauma with supportive resources and emphasize that there is no stigma associated with getting help. Educator support groups facilitated by school-based mental health professionals can also help prevent and cope with trauma. Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) is a unique, evidence-based program that helps teachers, administrators, and other educators manage stress, support social and emotional learning, and rediscover wellness and the joys of teaching (Schussler et al., 2018; Schussler, Jennings, Sharp, & Frank, 2016). School leaders can also take a school-wide approach, creating Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS) that integrate trauma-informed practices into their teaching and culture, and support students and community members affected by traumatic stress (Lander, 2019). Teacher Self-Care Since educators working with students who have experienced trauma are at risk for vicarious trauma, it is critical that they take care of themselves. Suggestions for teacher stress relief and trauma-informed systems: • • • • •

Embed vicarious trauma awareness in existing structures such as mentoring, supervision, and ongoing professional development Use a multi-tiered support framework for staff, with tangible interventions for responding to teacher stress at universal, targeted, and intensive levels Invest in “pinch hitters” – roving teachers with timely response to support or stand in for teachers as needed Identify “buddy classes” – classrooms in proximity allowing teachers to take over or look in on each other’s classes if one needs a brief break Encourage self-care with realistic workloads and effective time management, but also by creating a comfortable social, emotional, and physical space

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Background

•

Create a sense of belonging for staff as well as students, caring for each other and having fun together Collaborate with professional peers: collaboration is a source of strength, while isolation can be a source of despair Engage in mindfulness or meditation (Emerson et al., 2017; Hwang, Bartlett, Greben, & Hand, 2017; Klingbeil & Renshaw, 2018) Create a care plan individually and/or with systems of support, including “partners” at work and at home Get good sleep, nutrition, and enjoyable exercise, and engage in activities enjoyed with others Listen to music, read, or write for pleasure, or engage in creative arts and crafts Adapted from Sweeney and Caringi (2020)

• • • • •

Note: Further tips to promote educator wellness are provided in Online Resource 3. Ansley, Meyers, McPhee, and Varjas (2018) recognized that chronic stress could impact teacher physical and mental health, adversely impacting job performance. They emphasized active engagement and positive student–teacher relationships, suggesting that school leaders cultivate supportive working conditions that help reduce stress and increase job satisfaction. Administrative and collegial supports include constructive feedback, school-wide strategies to promote positive student–teacher interaction, and a comprehensive plan for teacher self-care (Ansley et al., 2018). Teachers Supporting Student Mental Health Mental health literacy training such as Psychological First Aid (Brymer et al., 2012) or Mental Health First Aid (2012) can help teachers to recognize student emotional problems, support mental health, and make appropriate referrals when necessary. The Mental Health Technology Transfer Center (MHTTC, 2020) identifed: 1.

Educator roles supporting student mental health • • • • • •

Build relationships with students Create safe, supportive, and welcoming classroom environments Promote positive behaviors and teach social-emotional skills Act as gatekeepers identifying students needing mental health services Use classroom strategies to support students with mental health concerns Collaborate with school and community mental health professionals

School Safety and Mental Health Programs 2.

Challenges faced by educators supporting student mental health • • • •

3.

23

Lack of clarity about roles and responsibilities supporting mental health Lack of time to collaborate with mental health professionals Lack of understanding confdentiality limits when communicating with mental health professionals Lack of relevant knowledge and training during pre-service education and professional development

Mental health professional development needs cited by educators • • • • •

Recognizing mental health problems Providing classroom supports for students with mental health problems Understanding school procedures and resources for student mental health Making appropriate school and community referrals Implementing classroom interventions that promote mental health Adapted from Ekornes (2017), Mazzer and Rickwood (2015)

The MHTTC (2020) addressed the concept of educator mental health literacy – knowledge and beliefs that support achieving mental health, reducing stigma attached to mental illness, increasing the effcacy of help-seeking, and understanding mental health concerns and how to address them (Jorm, 2012; Kutcher, Wei, & Coniglio, 2016). Training such as Youth Mental Health First Aid (Kelly, Kitchener, & Jorm, 2017; Mental Health First Aid, 2012, 2015) has been developed to enhance educator mental health literacy, including online courses, websites, and workshops. Resources and training can target interrelated components of educator mental health literacy: 1.

Mental health knowledge • •

2.

Mental health promotion •

3.

Signs and symptoms of mental health concerns Effective treatments for mental health concerns Promoting mental health school-wide, in the classroom, and in the community

Providing support • •

Identifying students needing support and linking them to appropriate services Supporting students with mental health problems at school

24 Background 4.

Reducing stigma • •

Improving attitudes about mental health and illness across students, school staff, and families Providing support in ways that reduce stigma and increase dialogue and help-seeking when needed Adapted from the MHTTC (2020)

Developing Teacher Cultural Responsiveness Schools can commit to a process of Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT), personal insights, and understanding diverse cultures and their history of oppression and marginalization. Teaching can confront racism, remove barriers to building mutually respectful, supportive student–teacher relationships, and recognize the value of students’ culture, community, and experiences as foundations for learning. Issues of culturally competent services, CRT, and social justice advocacy are elaborated in Chapter 5. Developing Teacher Knowledge of Other Student Support Needs There are many training topics about which teacher knowledge can be a critical resource for student care. Provided on the Routledge website are online supplemental resources, and specifcally Online Resource 3, that include tips for promoting student mental health, promoting resilience and stress reduction, helping support bereaved children and adolescents, supporting teachers after the death of a staff member, and supporting maltreated children.

Barriers to School Safety and Mental Health Programs Many educators and citizens believe that schools are not meant to solve societal problems. They argue that holding schools responsible for solving everything will burden them, defect from their “teaching” mission, and not solve the problems. Instead, a concerted response is needed by families, communities, and institutions of faith to marshal the resources necessary to address mental health. While this position raises valid points about the need for family, faith, and community resources, the daunting challenges of supporting safety and mental health require that schools and educators share a vital task that ultimately affects student learning. Barriers to school safety and mental health programs and training include: 1. 2.

Finding time and resources. Incentivizing and funding programs.

School Safety and Mental Health Programs 25 3. 4. 5. 6.

The paradox of professional development. Reform fatigue and lack of alignment with change processes. School leadership, resistance, and inadequate support structures. Adequacy of ongoing training for proactive interventions.

Finding Time and Resources Even a process with anticipated positive outcomes can be overwhelming if the training and implementation timeline is not user-friendly. DarlingHammond and Rothman (2011) made three recommendations to ensure that teachers are better trained: 1.

2. 3.

Cut the amount of instructional time spent by novice teachers during their frst few years of teaching to permit more time for learning from other teachers, meeting with students and parents, and planning and discussing lessons. Use systematic approaches to ongoing professional learning. Teachers in Singapore are guaranteed up to 20 hours in training activities per week. Train teachers to evaluate their own evidence of success. Teachers in Finland are encouraged to get graduate degrees, and teachers in Singapore are taught action research to develop their teaching skills.

How can school administrators and teams fnd more time for effective, broad-based professional development when there are fewer funds and resources to make it happen? Tallerico (2014) suggested fve options to create more professional development time: 1.

2.

Schedule common planning time. Professional development can be creatively scheduled at regular times each week during the school day. Preparation periods can be structured within the school day by synchronizing grade-level, departmental, or other targeted teacher planning groups. Reduce teachers’ contact time with students. Selected teachers can be released from some instructional time for targeted collaboration. Examples of release methods include 1) using other adults (teaching assistants, support staff, college interns, administrators, community partners, volunteers, or members of teaching teams) to substitute teach or supervise learning activities, 2) forming large groups of students (assemblies, theater or movie performances, special presentations by older students or community groups) that require less teacher supervision, 3) student off-site feld experiences (vocational internships, school-to-work apprenticeships, or community service), or 4) starting school late or releasing students early

26

3.

4.

5.

Background on designated days for schools that exceed mandated minimum instructional hours/days. Bank teachers’ contact time with students. Blocks of time for professional development can be planned without decreasing students’ instructional time by banking minutes and hours. Banking typically involves not beginning or ending every school day at the same time. Periodic extended instructional time on four days a week can be “deposited” and then “withdrawn” on a 5th day, when students either arrive at school late or leave early, allowing regular teacher collaboration study and planning time. Buy additional time and venues. Hiring substitutes or using support staff to free time for collaboration and peer observation, or paying teachers stipends for collaboration beyond contracted work hours can be effective but more expensive. Training can also happen during summer and other pre-arranged school breaks, or online through modules, webinars, and district technology that forms communities, websites, and blogs. Capitalize on existing time. Use existing time wisely by organizing faculty, grade-level, department, or targeted group meetings and district in-service days to be highly productive and learning-oriented. Another way of freeing small teams of teachers during the school day is to rethink student grouping – for example, reorganizing three classes into two larger groups for subjects like music and physical education followed by recess allows supervision by specialist teachers while classroom teachers collaborate (Khorsheed, 2007). Adapted from Tallerico (2014)

Examining practical considerations, Tallerico (2014) pointed to Richardson’s (2002) suggested steps for administrators to gain support for changing staff or student school schedules: • • •

•

Provide teachers and teacher associations with power to explore workable options within acceptable parameters, and plan changes early in the process Negotiate directly with teachers, staff, and administrators to gain professional development time by fnding out which trade-offs and changes are acceptable Involve parents and community caregivers in discussions, especially when plans change teaching contact time, or change school start or dismissal times, with clear examples of how teacher training benefts student learning Pilot new plans on a smaller scale for at least a year before committing to them school- or district-wide. Piloting several approaches when possible can help provide information on outcomes and cost–beneft comparisons

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Incentivizing and Funding Programs An early career school psychologist met with high school teachers discussing ways to improve student behavior. Most of the strategies the teachers suggested were punitive and exclusionary. When the school psychologist suggested considering strategies that acknowledge and reinforce positive behaviors, one of the teachers said, “You mean giving out tokens?” The laughter that followed was unanimous, with the exception of the dismayed school psychologist. Suggested prerequisites for gaining openness to new practices: • • • • • • •

There must be a recognized need based upon teacher input through a needs assessment There must be active administrative support – belief, logistics, infrastructure Present ideas in a positive format, with opportunities for input and levels of involvement – utilize interested staff to develop ideas and roles that support practices Strive to establish values and norms, rather than just rules and slogans – make changes such as being responsible for each other a part of the school ethic Evaluate pilot programs to determine effectiveness and make improvements – survey students, administrators, teachers, and staff Inform the school community about effectiveness – celebrate improvements! Create a growth mindset: Change “I wasn’t trained for this” to “Where can I learn more” Change “I don’t have time for that” to “This makes my job easier”

Chapter 16 provides further discussion about securing administrator, teacher, and school mental health provider buy-in. Laws and Funding While most children receive needed mental health services at school, funding streams mainly address academic goals. However, the recognition that students increasingly face emotional challenges presents opportunities to dedicate funding to mental health service delivery. Clark and Dockweiler (2020) suggested federal, state, and private discretionary grant funding awarded through competitive applications. The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) (2015) mandated the use of evidence-based practices and a collaborative approach for guiding student progress in academic skills and physical and mental health. The state of New York passed a law adding mental health instruction to the curriculum of grades kindergarten through 12, and public school

28

Background

teachers are encouraged to incorporate mental health education into subjects taught. The state of Virginia requires mental health instruction in grades 9 and 10. Pennsylvania is among a growing number of states requiring staff training for suicide prevention. Jaquith (2014) discussed ways to incentivize professional training, such as requiring hours for licensure renewal, placing new teachers in mentoring programs, requiring struggling teachers to enlist in peer assistance and review (PAR) programs, and offering stipends for National Board Certifcation. Policies at all levels can provide resources, including funds to improve teaching and learning. Federal, state, and local policy can also create infrastructure – organizations and mechanisms such as regional networks and school-based groups or leadership teams that plan and support professional learning. The Paradox of Professional Development While professional development is meant to enhance teacher skills, confdence, and success, requirements for a multitude of topics and training can have precisely the opposite effect. Teachers can feel confused, de-skilled, and lack confdence to deal with increasing challenges and responsibilities. Beyond demands for academic improvement, the addition of mental health training can feel overwhelming. Professional development with insuffcient resources or follow-up support can be frustrating for teachers and staff truly wanting to address identifed needs. Meeting the need for training of multiple stakeholders in multiple areas requires longitudinal planning and designing a realistic, manageable timeline to avoid too much training at one time. Identifying, prioritizing, and integrating necessary training topics are important steps toward revitalizing professional development. Reform Fatigue and Lack of Alignment With Change Processes Reform fatigue is a term that represents what most teachers and principals understand and dread – the constant cycle of promising school improvements that fail in classrooms or are discarded when district or school leaders change. A “systems change” perspective enables consideration of how altering the way schools integrate innovation can help sustain effective changes. Sustained change is more likely when leaders explore how change will affect and be affected by all the moving parts of the system (Sparks, 2018). New practices face obstacles if teachers perceive they are not aligned with effective programs or policy intent, or teachers lack the knowledge, skills, or resources for successful implementation (Spillane, Reiser, & Reimer, 2002). There is an urgent need for pre-service training and professional development to provide mental health information and interventions as more

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services are expected. Teachers without pre-service training in identifying mental health concerns may feel they lack comfort and expertise to complete screenings or act on their results. It is vitally important to address barriers to practices such as universal screening through teacher-friendly training and consultative support (von der Embse, Kilgus, Eklund, Ake, & Levi-Nielsen, 2018). School Leadership, Resistance, and Inadequate Support Structures Sources of resistance must be respected and directly addressed so that questions about effcacy and discomfort are met with honest reassurance, understanding, and outcomes information. Murphy (2016) pointed out that resistance to change in schools is “natural, predictable, and possible to get beyond” (p. 66). During the early stages of implementation, inevitable changes to social aspects of an organization, such as roles, relationships, and beliefs, may cause practitioners to question their commitment. Later, during implementation when practices become embedded, effort may fade if 1) implementers are not constantly reminded of the purpose of their efforts, 2) they do not engage in practical learning to deepen their skills, and 3) they do not have the needed infrastructure and resources for system-wide improvement of outcomes. Murphy suggested three strategies to help leaders counter resistance: 1.

2.

3.

Give people what they need. Leaders can manage resistance by closely observing the behavior of those affected by the change, anticipating needs, and having plans to meet staff needs as the new practices evolve. Ask how it’s going. Practitioners are generally eager to talk about the change and honestly express concerns. The best way to get a snapshot of concerns and progress is to have short, informal conversations with teachers or staff members. Keep the change formula in mind. D × V × F > R, where D represents the amount of dissatisfaction the workers feel about the status quo, V represents the vision for change and its positive effects, F represents the frst steps a worker takes toward the change, and R represents the amount of resistance generated (Beckhard & Harris, 1987). The product of D, V, and F needs to be greater than R, the resistance people feel about the work needed to make the change. Leaders can plan to strengthen the variables that overcome resistance.

Anticipating staff disagreement regarding new initiatives, Jung (2017) suggested that leaders be clear about where the choices are – and aren’t. It is crucial to be clear about what is fxed (non-negotiables) and what is fexed (negotiable) when presenting a new idea or practice to educators.

30

Background

There must be honest dialogue about what is already decided, ideally by a leadership team, and what aspects are still open for input and decision making. Asking for input after a decision has been made can cause frustration and mistrust. Sacks (2017) made the case that administrators can create support structures that help teachers share thoughtful ideas and effectively navigate change. She described many channels for supportive communication, including professional learning communities (PLCs), grade cluster coaches who coordinate PLCs, advisors of small groups of students who meet regularly, advisory planning committees, and Response to Intervention (RtI) teams. Teacher-powered structures and refective practices facilitate quick response to school and societal issues that affect student wellbeing and learning. Adequacy of Ongoing Training for Proactive Interventions Thomas Kratochwill (2007) cautioned that while schools offer extraordinary opportunities to bring mental health services to students, these services are often fragmented, not coordinated with community services, and have organizational and structural challenges such as a shortage of school psychologists and other school mental health professionals. In addition to systemic educational and resource problems, Kratochwill cited inadequate professional development as a huge barrier to implementing evidence-based mental health practices. He expressed that educator training must meet a broad spectrum of needs, including early intervention for academics, behavior, and mental health. Once in place, program sustainability depends on critical factors, including well-organized teams, supportive structures and resources, funding, and principal leadership facilitating collaborative team and skill development. Given these challenges, high-quality professional development is crucial. While proactive school safety and mental health programs are considered essential for student readiness to learn and teacher satisfaction, professional development has been criticized for its cost, vague goals, and lack of meaningful outcomes (Reutzel & Clark, 2014). In recent decades, a vision has evolved that professional development should be a sustained, coherent, site-based process that happens during the school day, becomes part of teacher responsibilities, and focuses on student outcomes (Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009). Chapters 16 and 17 offer best practices in professional development. ****** Another key factor is effective school safety and mental health service delivery, which is addressed next, in Chapter 3.

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Sparks, S. D. (2018). One way to avoid “Reform Fatigue”? Look at the broader system, report says. Education Week’s blogs – Inside School Research. Spillane, J. P., Reiser, B. J., & Reimer, T. (2002). Policy implementation and cognition: Reframing and refocusing implementation research. Review of Educational Research, 72, 387–431. Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2006). A promising approach for expanding and sustaining the implementation of school-wide positive behavior support. School Psychology Review, 35, 245–259. Sugai, G., & Horner, R. H. (2009). Defning and describing schoolwide positive behavior support. In W. Sailor, G. Dunlap, G. Sugai, & R. Horner (Eds.), Handbook of positive behavior support (pp. 307–326). New York: Springer. Suldo, S. M., Gormley, M. J., DuPaul, G. J., & Anderson-Butcher, D. (2014). The impact of school mental health on student and school-level outcomes: Current status of the research and future directions. School Mental Health, 6(2), 84–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-013-9116-2 Sweeney, B., & Caringi, J. (2020). Addressing secondary traumatic stress in trauma-informed schools. In E. Rossen (Ed.), Supporting and educating traumatized students: A guide for school-based professionals (2nd ed., pp. 313–324). New York: Oxford University Press. Tallerico, M. (2014). District issues: Administrators at all levels involved in teachers’ professional development. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 125–144). New York: Guilford Press. Taylor, R. D., Oberle, E., Durlak, J. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2017). Promoting positive youth development through school-based social and emotional learning interventions: A meta-analysis of follow-up efforts. Child Development, 00(0), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12864 Teich, J. L., Robinson, G., & Weist, M. D. (2008). What kinds of mental health services do public schools in the United States provide? Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 1, 13–22. Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83, 357–385. https:// doi.org/10.3102/0034654313483907 Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2016). Optimizing the art and science of well-being in schools. Communiqué, 45(1), 29–31. von der Embse, N. P., Kilgus, S. P., Eklund, K., Ake, E., & Levi-Nielsen, S. (2018). Training teachers to facilitate early identifcation of mental and behavioral health risks. School Psychology Review, 42(4), 372–384. https://doi.org/10.17105/ SPR-2017-0094.V47-4 Whelley, P., Cash, R. E., & Bryson, D. (2004). Children’s mental health: Strategies for educators [Handout]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. World Health Organization. (2019). Child and adolescent mental health. Retrieved from www.who.int/mental_health/maternal-child/child_adolescent/en/. Wronowski, M. (2018). Filling the void: A grounded theory approach to addressing teacher recruitment and retention in urban schools. Education and Urban Society, 50(6), 548–574.

Models Promoting School Safety and Mental Health Service Delivery

3

Let us put our minds together and see what life we can make for our children. ~ Sitting Bull, Lakota Sioux Nation

When advocating for school safety and mental health programs and training, planners must realize that for new programs and practices to work optimally, infrastructure is needed to support them – structures, processes, and resources through which they can be organized, coordinated, and delivered in a way that gives them the best chance to achieve desired outcomes. In some cases, the concept of the school itself, how it is confgured, designed, and directed, can support the development and delivery of innovative programs.

Infrastructure and Resources to Support Programs and Training A Framework for Safe and Successful Schools School safety and positive school climates are achieved by comprehensive, collaborative, committed efforts of all school staff and relevant community partners. A Framework for Safe and Successful Schools (Cowan, Vaillancourt, Rossen, & Pollitt 2013) proposed eight best practices for creating safe and successful schools: 1.

Integrate services through collaboration Safe and successful schools are supported by integration of student and family behavioral, mental health, and community services.

Policy recommendations (NASP, 2017) were presented to support efforts to operationalize implementing the Framework for Safe and Successful Schools. Here is a sample of policies and practices operationalizing the “integration of services and initiatives”: •

Provide ongoing, quality professional development to all school staff

School Safety and Mental Health 37 • • • 2.

Encourage use of professional learning communities Ensure teams have diverse representation Use resource mapping to inventory available resources

Implement a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) Integrated services that support safety and learning are best implemented through a school-wide, MTSS that includes a) promotion of prevention and wellness, b) universal screening, c) a continuum of evidence-based interventions, d) ongoing progress monitoring, and e) engaging in data-based decision making.

Here is a sample of policy recommendations (NASP, 2017) operationalizing the “implementation of integrated Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS)”: • • • •

Establish universal academic, behavioral, and emotional screening Ensure access to a range of quality, evidence-based interventions, building upon existing initiatives (RtI, PBIS, SEL) to address comprehensive student needs Include MTSS principles and initiatives in the school improvement plan Embed MTSS procedures in relevant professional development

The key role of MTSS is elaborated later in the current chapter and in Chapter 6. 3.

Improve access to school-based mental health supports Easy, stigma-free access to school-based mental health services can support physical and psychological safety. School mental health professionals can provide a range of services: • • • • • • •

Evaluate needed supports and analyze data to improve services Implement interventions that address behavioral and emotional needs Promote early intervention and prevention services Provide staff development promoting behavior management and mental health Support teachers and teams through consultation Provide risk and threat assessments by trained teams Coordinate partnerships with community service providers

Here is a sample of policy recommendations (NASP, 2017) operationalizing the “access to school-based mental health supports”: •

Examine ratios of school-based mental health professionals to develop a long-term plan to reach recommended ratios (see Chapter 10 for suggested ratios)

38

Background • • •

4.

Develop a confdential, user-friendly, culturally responsive process for parents, teachers, and students to refer themselves or others for support Provide periodic professional development to all school staff in mental health frst aid, suicide prevention, the referral process, and other needed mental and behavioral health topics Braid available funding streams to increase the scale of efforts

Integrate school safety and crisis preparedness Schools must develop safety and crisis teams that also focus on school climate. Effective safety and crisis teams: • • • • •

Support school-wide prevention programs Improve early identifcation and support for students at risk of harming self or others Address the range of potential school crises Apply an evidence-based model to crisis intervention Promote return to routine after a crisis and long-term recovery

Here is a sample of policy recommendations (NASP, 2017) operationalizing the “integration of school safety and crisis preparedness efforts”: • • • •

Establish and regularly convene a dedicated safety/crisis response team Develop memorandums of understanding (MOUs) with community agencies, ethnic leaders, hospitals, and law enforcement Develop a regularly reviewed emergency preparedness and response plan Provide ongoing staff training on safety and crisis plans, including practice and coordination with community responders

Chapter 9 provides more on school crisis prevention, preparedness, and response. 5.

Balance physical and psychological safety School safety is promoted by combining physical security with efforts to enhance school climate. Balancing physical and psychological safety involves: • • • •

Assessing physical security of the campus Using “crime prevention through environmental design” Making certain students are monitored, guests identifed, and threats quickly addressed Building mutually respectful relationships among students, staff, and families

School Safety and Mental Health 39 • •

Providing stigma-free access to school mental health services Providing confdential means to report potential threats

Here is a sample of policy recommendations (NASP, 2017) operationalizing the “balance of physical and psychological safety”: • • • 6.

Ensure at least annual collection of school-wide climate and safety data, including teacher, student, and parent perceptions Promote mentoring programs and initiatives to ensure that all students have a positive relationship with at least one adult Ensure evidence-based interventions are available for “at-risk” students identifed by universal screening or other referral processes

Employ positive school discipline All staff implement discipline practices consistent with positive school climate initiatives. Effective school discipline: • • • •

Teaches and reinforces clear behavioral expectations Is equally applied to all students Uses culturally responsive practices that keep students in school Safeguards student and staff wellbeing

Here is a sample of policy recommendations (NASP, 2017) operationalizing the “use of effective discipline practices”: • • • •

Consistently enforce clear consequences for negative behavior Establish data-based team review of discipline data to determine effectiveness of interventions Prohibit zero tolerance policies Establish clear and consistent anti-bullying policies and response procedures

Chapter 13 elaborates Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. 7.

Allow for the consideration of content Assess infrastructure – structures, processes, and needed resources. Assess school climate for cultural responsiveness.

8.

Recognize that sustainable improvement takes patience and commitment Schools vary in readiness for change. Goals can best be achieved gradually. Frequent program changes can lead to resistance to future change. Adapted from Cowan et al. (2013)

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2019) suggested both global concepts and specifc initiatives, many

40

Background

of which overlap and validate the tenets of the Framework for Safe and Successful Schools (Cowan et al., 2013). SAMHSA summarized best practice models and initiatives for addressing mental health needs in schools: •

•

•

•

•

Multi-Tiered System of Supports ranges from universal positive climate and prevention services for all students, to targeted early intervention, to intensive services for select students based upon more severe mental health or substance-related diffculties Comprehensive school mental health systems (CSMHS) are an effective, multi-tiered approach using school–community collaboration that provides a continuum of evidence-based mental health services and prevention efforts across three tiers of student care that can be incorporated into MTSS. This collaboration can enhance service access, improve school climate, and decrease student withdrawal and marginalization. CSMHS and schools can develop collaborative relationships with families, community mental health providers, the faith community, law enforcement, physical health care providers, substance treatment providers, businesses, and government agencies. CSMHS provides the School Health Assessment and Performance Evaluation (SHAPE) system, a free, web-based self-assessment of CSMHS level of quality, and gives schools and community partners a “blue print” to support planning and implementation Building mental health literacy is a universal prevention strategy designed to improve awareness and mental health literacy for educators, students, and families. Youth Mental Health First Aid (Mental Health First Aid USA, 2012, 2015) is an ideal training program that provides a basic understanding of mental health issues, how to recognize and support students in crisis, how to encourage helpseeking, and how to appropriately refer Counseling, psychological, and social services coordinators (CPSS) can enhance the quality and delivery of mental health and related services, including for underserved and marginalized populations. Coordinators work with providers to meet student needs in and outside of schools, provide clear goals that promote integrating procedures and programs, and help secure resources such as confdential counseling space and ways to minimize lost class time School resource offcers (SROs), affliated with the National Association of School Resource Offcers (NASRO), emphasize three primary roles – educator and lecturer, informal mentor, and law enforcement offcer. School communities can beneft from adding SROs to safety plans, provided SROs are properly trained both to protect the school campus and to support the educational mission by establishing positive relationships with students and helping create a safe and secure school climate. A trained SRO can serve on multidisciplinary teams, collaborate with teachers, administrators, and school mental health

School Safety and Mental Health 41

•

•

•

providers on legal topics, help identify students with mental disorders or substance problems and connect them with needed services. Committed SROs, trained in SEL, can mentor students as informal counselors, trusted adults, and role models Crisis intervention teams (CITs) are a community partnership of law enforcement, mental health and substance use practitioners, individuals struggling with mental disorders and substance problems, their families, and other advocates who provide specifc training to law enforcement and other frst responders in safely aiding people with mental disorders experiencing a crisis. The CIT model can reduce the stigma of mental health problems, reduce involvement of the criminal justice system, and provide a forum for effective problem solving Behavioral health aides and peer supporters can help children, adolescents, families, and caregivers navigate the daunting challenges of mental illness and substance use and enhance the work of school and community practitioners Workforce and rural setting considerations are necessary as some settings have unique challenges in developing an adequate mental health and substance use disorder workforce. This challenge can be addressed through increased workforce recruitment and training, using mental health consultation with the workforce, and using “telemental health” to expand access to services in rural schools and other settings Adapted from SAMHSA (2019)

Administrators and School-Based Mental Health Professionals A Framework for Safe and Successful Schools (Cowan et al., 2013) examined key leadership roles related to school safety and climate. School leaders must mobilize staff, students, families, and community stakeholders. Effective practice for safe and successful schools requires overarching themes and values: • • • •

Building consensus on a shared mission statement and vision refecting the essential values of the school community to support safety and wellbeing Valuing and using diversity to enrich learning Broadening the concept of child development beyond academics Developing a collaborative, innovative learning culture by including contributions of the entire school community Adapted from Cowan et al. (2013)

In addition to the vital leadership of school administrators as change agents, the role of the school-based mental health professionals is multifaceted and critical. School counselors, school psychologists, school social

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Background

workers, school nurses, and other specialized instructional support personnel (SISP) enhance student safety and mental health. Implementing supportive practices requires that school mental health professionals join with administrators in leading the way. School psychologists, school counselors, and school social workers have training and skills to collaboratively facilitate safe, supportive school environments that are conducive to learning. Most important is that administrators recognize their potential, with other school leaders, to create an environment where teachers and students can thrive. A Framework for Safe and Successful Schools recommends foundational actions by principals and other school leaders to promote safe and successful schools: •

• •

Establish a school leadership team, including key staff: principals, teachers, school mental health professionals, instruction/curriculum specialists, school nurse, SRO, and a member having data collection and analysis skills Assess and identify needs, strengths, and gaps in existing school and community services that address physical and psychological safety Review how current resources are applied, for example: • • •

•

• •

• •

Are school mental health professionals training teachers and staff in crisis prevention and response, student resiliency, mental health literacy, suicide prevention, and other needed interventions? Is there redundancy in service delivery that could be streamlined? Are multiple, overlapping initiatives happening in different school areas or with different groups of students?

Implement an integrated approach connecting behavioral interventions, mental health services, and academic instruction and learning. Are trauma-informed interventions integrated as part of classroom management plans? Provide suffcient time for staff planning and problem solving by regular team meetings and professional learning communities (Hord & Hirsh, 2009) Identify present and potential community partners, develop memorandums of understanding (MOUs) to clarify partner responsibilities, and assign school mental health providers or administrators to guide these partnerships Provide professional development for school staff, families, and community partners, addressing such topics as school climate, positive behavior, and suicide prevention Engage students and families as partners in planning and implementing policies and practices that develop and maintain a safe school environment Adapted from Cowan et al. (2013)

School Safety and Mental Health 43 Training for Practices That Promote School Safety and Mental Health Professional development of needed programs and practices is clearly key to the implementation process. Extensive professional and program development followed by technical assistance must be planned and implemented with feasibility, practicality, and care. The process of developing and presenting effective professional development is described in Chapters 16 and 17. Need for Extensive Planning and Training School safety and mental health are reciprocal, each supporting the other. Models generally focus on both school safety and mental health and their integration with academic instruction and multi-tiered interventions. Integrated services require extensive planning and must be aligned with an integrated system of professional development. School psychologists can partner with administrators and school leadership teams to plan for and prioritize program selection and training, beginning with assessing immediate needs and then expanding with prioritized implementation timelines. Having an organized delivery system and continuum of services can facilitate implementation. Every school should have a similar core of critical program content and professional development, while also having selected programs and training topics chosen to address the school’s unique needs, population, and geographic location. All schools ought to have a crisis response plan, but not all schools need a plan for tornadoes, foods, or wildfres. Models for integrated program delivery must tackle the challenge of selecting and delivering, in a user-friendly manner, all the varied training needed to implement, evaluate, and sustain comprehensive programs. Resource Mapping Resource mapping is a strategy to help schools identify already available or needed programs and resources (Lever et al., 2014). It contributes to planning for professional development and implementation of new initiatives. Resource mapping can identify gaps in resources that need to be flled and facilitate aligning and integrating new initiatives with effective pre-existing programs and resources. Resource mapping can be conducted at various times, including when schools are presented with unique or specifc needs. When the COVID-19 pandemic required changes in the way schools operate, resource mapping became essential to identifying resource gaps and determining staff fulfllment in assuming unusual and changing roles. Chapter 16 provides more information about resource mapping.

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Background

Practices Supporting School Safety and Mental Health Innovative change begins with a mission statement, vision, and values that guide improvement planning and assist program implementation. School leadership teams must have knowledge of change processes and ways to support the variety of programs and practices that address school safety and mental health. Consultation and coaching can provide effective technical assistance for establishing and supporting knowledge, skills, and programs. Promoting Mental Health Through Consultation Problem-solving consultation can improve student academic and socialemotional outcomes (Erchul & Sheridan, 2014). The consultation process generally includes problem identifcation and analysis, intervention planning, implementation, and evaluation. This process can include communication with teachers, administrators, teams, or caregivers to facilitate change at individual and system levels (Newman, Ingraham, & Shriberg, 2014). According to Newman and colleagues (2014), school consultation may be viewed as a form of embedded professional development that supports teacher growth. An old adage helps describe the aim of consultation to develop ongoing skill capacity: “Give a man a fsh and you’ve fed him for a day. Teach a man to fsh and you’ve fed him for a lifetime.” Consultation after workshops or training can often provide support and ongoing skill building to strengthen new programs and practices at teacher, team, and organizational levels (Knotek, Sauer-Lee, & Lowe-Greenlee, 2009). Newman and colleagues (2014) pointed out that school-based consultation can encompass different levels of intervention, with attention to prevention of problems (Meyers, Meyers, & Grogg, 2004). Within a Multi-Tiered System of Supports, consultants at Tier 1 can work with teachers or teams on instruction, present data, do screening and progress monitoring, and support newly implemented interventions. At Tier 2, they can work with problem-solving teams, continue to engage in data collection, and consult with teachers and administrators to support and strengthen interventions and programs. Students struggling academically or behaviorally at Tier 2 or Tier 3 may be indicating a contextual problem that can be addressed by a new or improved intervention at Tier 1 (Newman et al., 2014). System-level, organizational consultation builds capacity to meet mental health needs by developing a continuum of social and emotional support. Consultation with school leaders and leadership teams can help identify the need for specifc school-wide programs and interventions. Consultation supports primary prevention and provides an opportunity for a more proactive approach to future problems (Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, & Wallace, 2005). When administrators, teachers, or staff

School Safety and Mental Health 45 members are educated about student mental health, they can recognize similar issues in the future, and provide early intervention (Meyers et al., 2004). Organizational consultation and school-wide programs offer a multifaceted approach, going beyond one student at a time, strengthening supports for mental health and recovery at multiple levels throughout the system (Roth, 2017). Shortages of school psychologists make consultation even more important for expanding the capacity of educators and teams to address mental health issues. Brooks, Kendrick-Dunn, Parris, and Shriberg (2020) provided a socially just orientation when consulting with teachers and families of low-income and economically marginalized (LIEM) children. They encouraged consulting school psychologists to recognize the ecological factors that impact students, including their own implicit biases and assumptions. They suggested two consultation models aligned with social justice: 1) multicultural consultation, which requires consultants to consider the impact of LIEM and validate the cultural experiences of the consultee and client, and 2) participatory consultation within the Participatory CultureSpecifc Intervention Model (PCSIM), in which key stakeholders – family, teachers, administrators, and community partners are actively engaged and empowered throughout the consultative process and the provision of culturally, contextually relevant services (Brooks et al., 2020). PCSIM is described in more detail later in the present chapter. Coaching for Implementation Fidelity and Skill Building Coaching is a form of technical support that, like consultation, can foster the development of a collaborative learning culture and community. Teachers implementing innovative programs and instructional practices must have needed technical support. For coaching to yield optimal results, important qualities of the coach and the coaching process must be enacted: •

• • •

Coaching can be facilitated by a district or building coach, lead teacher, or peer teacher, but the coach must have training, experience, and fuency with both the practice being learned and the coaching process Coaching can be coordinated and utilized as one of the supports of a multi-tiered system to beneft staff and students Coaching should be voluntary and initiated by a teacher’s request for assistance or by a data-informed discussion and mutual agreement The coach must have or develop a trusting relationship with the educator receiving support, and engage in deliberate interaction to strengthen rapport and specifc procedures that enhance coaching effectiveness

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Background

•

The coach, including “peer coaches,” can contribute to a school learning culture as a trusted member of the building staff – districtlevel coaching can be faded out as school-level coaching capacity grows Coaching should be supportive and non-evaluative, focus on facilitating educator insights and skill building, share problem identifcation, ownership, and solutions, and develop educator capacity to work with present and future initiatives Coach and educator can mutually plan and collect program and observation data indicating implementation fdelity and outcome effectiveness School administrators must creatively support the process, scheduling suffcient time for all training and technical assistance, including consultation, coaching, and professional learning communities (PLCs) Coaching can include a variety of procedures to support effective implementation and develop educator understanding and skills:

•

• • •

a.

Teacher–coach interview, trust building, and assessment of needs b. Teacher priorities identifed by choice of practices and focus c. Teachers can use action planning to target and achieve goals any time during the process d. Coach demonstrations of practice any time during the process e. Coach observations of teacher practice followed by performance feedback and consultation f. Teacher observations of self-videotapes or model classrooms followed by discussion with coach g. Plan for ongoing progress monitoring and periodic check-ins h. Celebration of work, successes, and voluntary sharing with peers and PLCs Adapted from Joyce and Showers (2002) Specialized Instructional Support Personnel Specialized instructional support personnel (SISP) provide school-based prevention and intervention services that address barriers to learning. They work with students, teachers, administrators, and families to ensure student success. They include school counselors, school psychologists, school social workers, school nurses, music therapists, speech-language clinicians, audiologists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, art therapists, and dance/movement therapists. These physical and mental health professionals have specialized training to support student learning and mental and behavioral health (National Association of School Psychologists, 2015a).

School Safety and Mental Health 47 Professional Learning Communities Professional learning communities (PLCs) provide a learning process for teachers that can support school safety and mental health training and programs. PLCs can be an infrastructure asset for developing, evaluating, and improving the effectiveness of new interventions. They promote teacher leadership and encourage collaboration to refect on innovative programs and build understanding and skills. PLCs also feature problem-solving approaches to practical challenges such as fnding time for teachers to meet, making hard work more effcient and satisfying, and developing facilitators to build teacher leadership capacity and ownership of innovative practice. See Chapter 18 for references to the utility of PLCs supporting implementation. DuFour (2004) explained that professional learning communities variously refer to grade level or subject related teaching teams, school committees, district or state leadership teams, or other interest groups. DuFour emphasized the need for educators to maintain enthusiasm, refecting critically on the “big ideas” representing the core principles of professional learning communities: •

Big idea #1: Ensuring that students learn PLCs derive from the assumption that the essential mission of education is to ensure student learning. Educators must engage with colleagues in exploring three basic questions: a. What do we want each student to learn? b. How will we know when each student has learned it? c. How will we respond when a student experiences diffculty learning?

•

DuFour believed that traditional schools left the dilemma of helping struggling students to the individual teacher pressured by diffcult, painful options such as special education placement. In a PLC, teachers design coordinated strategies to ensure that struggling students receive additional time and support using systematic, school-wide strategies and resources. Response is based on immediate intervention rather than later remediation. Big idea #2: A culture of collaboration PLCs recognize that educators must work together, creating structures that promote a collaborative culture to achieve learning for all. Powerful collaboration integrates a process of teachers working together to analyze and improve classroom practice and the school environment, rather than isolated groups addressing different facets such as discipline, technology, or school climate. Teams share questions, strategies, ideas, concerns, and results that promote deep

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Background learning, strengthen programs and practices, and ultimately improve student achievement. •

•

•

Collaborating for school improvement. Teachers are given suffcient time during the workday to develop roles and protocols to focus on crucial questions about learning and to generate products that further goals Removing barriers to success. Teachers discuss standards and curriculum guides without assuming they assure all students access, moving beyond “What are we expected to teach?” to “How will we know when each student has learned?”

Big idea #3: A focus on results PLCs evaluate their effectiveness based on results. As outcomes are achieved, team goals shift with a focus on continuous improvement. Data is viewed as information that staff can use to develop and improve plans. •

Hard work and commitment – while the PLC is a powerful way to improve practice, initiating and sustaining it requires hard work, a focus on collaboratively determined goals and initiatives, and accountability for continuous improvement Adapted from DuFour (2004)

Smith, Wilson, and Corbett (2009) described conditions that helped urban school districts develop and sustain strong learning communities. Communities must not get stuck at the discussion stage without progressing to ideas and refection on practice that leads to collaborative action and change. They delineated six conditions that supported productive urban learning communities: 1.

2.

3.

A supportive culture. In settings where learning communities are readily accepted and fourish, teachers reported a special atmosphere in which staff viewed colleagues as “caring, cooperative, and intellectually curious.” Time to meet. Teachers in enthusiastic learning communities craved opportunities for shared refection, planning, and practice of new skills, especially important for schools committed to implementing innovative programs. Satisfying processes. Enthusiasm for learning communities was generated by productive conversations, information sharing, and planning with colleagues. Training sessions with National School Reform Faculty coaches helped make meetings satisfying and productive. Among the procedures that supported effective meetings were 1) group-originated norms that prohibited “bird walking” (straying off topic) and

School Safety and Mental Health 49

4.

5.

6.

committed to “honor the time” (being prompt and mentally present) so educators felt time was not wasted, 2) a defned purpose for each session perceived as relevant by participants, and 3) equal opportunities for participation so that diverse perspectives were heard. Voluntary participation. Teachers believed that learning communities work best when participants join willingly. Educators who became freely involved began seeking outlets for professional growth, arriving early, staying late, sacrifcing individual planning time, and fnding the process with committed peers rewarding. Negative consequences followed coercive approaches in forming communities and norms. Principal support. Principals supporting collaborative learning communities encouraged groups with subtle actions such as: 1) modeling by using protocols associated with learning communities at faculty meetings, 2) purchasing materials needed by communities, 3) sending thank you notes to learning community participants, and 4) preserving meeting times regardless of competing issues as much as possible. A cadre of facilitators. Teachers reported that the skills of team facilitators were essential for group progress. Training and coaching of facilitators was offered by the National School Reform Faculty. When trained facilitators began forming school communities, contact with outside coaches decreased, but discussion and debriefng about their groups continued with other facilitators. After several years, district-based facilitators assumed much of the training.

Mental Health Service Delivery Models Multi-Tiered System of Supports Recommended by both the Framework for Safe and Successful Schools (Cowan et al., 2013) and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2019), the Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) is a widely utilized service delivery model that coordinates the application of many school safety, mental health, and prevention programs and practices. MTSS is an ideal model for integrated delivery of interventions. Chapter 6 details MTSS as a foundational practice. Mental health service delivery models that follow can be particularly useful in specifc contexts and for specifc needs, or unique aspects of these models can be adapted and incorporated with the Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) framework. Population-Based Mental Health Model Doll, Cummings, and Chapla (2014) described population-based mental health services as carefully planned initiatives designed to meet the needs

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of all students. Consistent with MTSS, data from monitoring students’ mental health is used to plan a multi-tiered array of services and evidencebased programs, including universal screening at the frst tier. The next tier of services creates a nurturing school environment with targeted interventions for students deemed at risk. Intensive services are provided for students having the most severe needs, including social, emotional, and behavioral remediation. Doll and Cummings (2008) summarized four goals as a framework for population-based mental health services: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Promote students’ psychological wellbeing to achieve developmental competence. Promote nurturing environments that permit all students to overcome minor risks. Provide protective support for students at high risk for failure. Remediate students’ social, emotional, or behavioral problems to permit developmental competence.

This framework represented a shift from focusing interventions on individual students to a more population-based developmental approach. Population-based assessments strive to identify students who might have slipped through the cracks using traditional referral-driven services. Instead, there is proactive screening of an entire student population using objective, empirically sound measures of psychological wellness or distress, including diffcult to diagnose internalized problems (Doll, Haack, & Bieber, 2013). Doll and colleagues emphasized ongoing, data-based evaluations to determine the effectiveness of programs and services and to inform needed program adjustments and changes to ensure success. They also pointed out that since needed resources must be available after screening, existing school and community resources and those that need to be developed should be identifed using resource mapping (Adelman & Taylor, 2010; Center for Mental Health in Schools at UCLA, 2008). Participatory Culture-Specifc Intervention Model Nastasi, Moore, and Varjas (2004) described the Participatory CultureSpecifc Intervention Model (PCSIM), which features community partnerships that provide culturally and contextually relevant school-based mental health services that can strengthen most models of mental health service delivery. PCSIM is evidence-based, integrates research and intervention, and uses comprehensive programs and guidelines for developing and implementing culturally specifc services (Nastasi et al., 2004).

School Safety and Mental Health 51 Nastasi and colleagues (2004) listed critical components of participatory culture-specifc mental health programs: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Integration of educational, mental health, and social services through interagency and interdisciplinary collaboration. Focus on all ecological contexts – school, family, peers, community/ society – that infuence youth development and functioning. Services that address individual, developmental, and social-cultural factors. A continuum of services, including prevention, risk reduction, early intervention, and treatment. Systematic evaluation of program processes and outcomes. Services based on empirical evidence of the complex constellation of factors infuencing child and adolescent mental health. Adapted from Nastasi et al. (2004)

PCSIM involves a continuous feedback process in which design, implementation, and evaluation are informed by a partnership among program planners, interventionists, evaluators, and other stakeholders. Action research is one of the methods used to engage in data-based problem solving. Participatory consultation involves interventionists (consultants) engaging as full partners in a series of interactions with stakeholders such as teachers, parents, and administrators to design, implement, and evaluate interventions addressing identifed problems. The culture-specifc model refects the interaction of individual characteristics with cultural factors from four ecological contexts: school, family, peer group, and community/society. PCSIM takes developers through a hierarchic sequence culminating in implementation phases. A continuum of services is represented by a four-level model: • • • •

Level Level Level Level

I: Prevention II: Risk Reduction III: Early Intervention IV: Treatment

Nastasi and colleagues emphasized that professional development is a critical aspect of PCSIM program implementation. A participatory consultation approach to professional development is adopted, in which initial staff training in workshop formats, follow-up training in “booster” sessions, and ongoing consultation throughout implementation strive to ensure fdelity and effectiveness. Interconnected Systems Framework Splett and colleagues (2017) described the Interconnected Systems Framework (ISF), which blends school mental health services and resources

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into all levels of the Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS). The purpose of ISF is to improve mental health and school performance for all students through effective school-wide promotion and prevention, early identifcation and intervention, and social-emotional, behavioral, and mental health intervention. Quality ISF implementation includes three core foundational components: 1) teaming, 2) data-based decision making, and 3) evidence-based practices. ISF has been found particularly useful for addressing mental health needs when integrated with Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) within an MTSS framework, described further in Chapter 13. Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child Model Recognizing the essential need for collaboration among educational and health agencies to improve student outcomes, the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) worked together to develop and initiate the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model (ASCD & CDC, 2014; Michael, Merlo, Basch, Wentzel, & Wechsler, 2015). Volk, Sanetti, and Chafouleas (2016) described the WSCC model as an ecological approach in which the whole school uses resources from the whole community, thus serving the whole child. The model addresses the “symbiotic relationship” between learning and health (ASCD & CDC, 2014). It is comprised of 10 research-based components, emphasizing these interconnected factors (Volk et al., 2016). Volk and colleagues offer brief descriptions of the 10 WSCC components: 1. Community involvement. Collaboration between school systems and community agencies through partnerships and joint projects sharing resources, developing constructive student opportunities, and supporting student learning and health. 2. Family engagement. Family–school partnerships emphasize meaningful collaboration and shared family and school responsibility to support student learning and health needs. 3. Health education. A continuum of formal and informal student learning opportunities across universal and individualized settings to promote healthy decision making and behaviors. 4. Physical environment. Characteristics of a school’s internal and external physical environment address risks that threaten safety and learning. 5. Social and emotional climate. A safe and positive school climate supports the psychological and social aspects of the learning environment, enhancing student engagement, relationships, and learning.

School Safety and Mental Health 53 6. Nutrition environment and services. Creates a learning platform across settings such as the cafeteria, school store, and vending machines that promotes exposure to and information about healthy food/beverage choices. 7. Health services. Address acute and chronic health concerns in schools, promoting wellness, prevention strategies, and partnerships with parents and community agencies to enhance health education and better manage health issues. 8. Counseling, psychological, and social services. A broad range of behavioral, social-emotional, and mental health prevention and intervention programs identify and address learning barriers, applying trained team and multi-tiered supports and collaborating with families and community agencies to provide direct and indirect student services. 9. Physical education and physical activity. School environments help students develop and maintain healthy lifestyle habits and provide comprehensive, planned programs that incorporate student learning and active practice. 10. Employee wellness. Fostering the health and wellness of teachers and other school employees ultimately benefts student learning and behavior and can include a variety of programs, policies, and partnerships with health agencies to support staff prevention and intervention health initiatives. The WSCC initiative’s ecological approach strives to develop and coordinate local policies, processes, and practices that involve all stakeholders working collaboratively to apply knowledge about the interrelationship between student learning and health. Research demonstrates the importance of collaborative relationships among families, schools, and communities working within a unifed system (Epstein, 2011). The next section features school models that support partnerships, professional development, and change processes.

School Models Supporting Partnerships and Professional Development Community Schools Blank (2004) described community schools as centers of the community, offering services every day and often evenings throughout the year. They represent partnerships that can include health and social agencies, family support groups, universities, youth development organizations, faith-based institutions, government agencies, and community groups. These partnerships have two common goals: 1) helping students learn and succeed and 2) strengthening families

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and communities. Partnerships often include school-based Student Wellness Centers, which provide mental health and social services to students and families, and can also include medical and dental services. Relationships with families and community social services can position community schools with strong resources for response to catastrophic crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Blank, Melaville, and Shah (2003) listed benefts of community schools: • • •

• • • •

Increase resources and reduce non-instructional demands on school staff Provide learning opportunities that enhance students’ social, emotional, and physical development, and academic skills Connect youth and families to role models and life options – partnerships offering students social capital, or networks and relationships that create a sense of belonging and understanding of the importance of education Signifcant gains in academic achievement and essential areas of nonacademic development Increased family stability and involvement in schools Increased teacher satisfaction and more positive school environments Better use of school buildings and increased security and pride in neighborhoods

Blank (2004) identifed common aspects of community school initiatives, including a clear and compelling vision of what the community hopes to achieve and leaders with the commitment and capacity to accomplish that vision. Professional preparation and inservice training help educators and partners understand the multiple factors infuencing student learning and the potential of multiple pathways to success. School–Community Partnerships School–community partnerships are connections between schools, businesses, organizations, and institutions within or beyond the boundaries of neighborhoods (Sanders & Galindo, 2014). Collaboration with community partners can increase resources needed by schools, especially related to safety and mental health. Sanders and Galindo (2014) asserted that teachers developing collaborative classrooms and schools can engage in practices that are responsive to students’ communities, including the involvement of families and community organizations, incorporating family knowledge into classroom lessons, and encouraging civic involvement through community-based service learning projects.

School Safety and Mental Health 55 Professional Development Schools Student, Educator, and University Learning Communities While professional development schools (PDS) focus on general teacher development and educational equity rather than school safety and mental health, the PDS concept can also be adapted for training to implement school safety and mental health programs. The National Association of Professional Development Schools (NAPDS) encouraged those working in school–university relationships to embrace essential guidelines for PDS and their college/university and community affliations. Wepner (2014) advocated for professional development schools (PDS), believing that professional development is central to fostering the dignity of the teaching profession. She asserted that collaboration across institutions such as universities, school districts, and community agencies can support professional development, provide valuable resources, improve student outcomes, increase teacher to student ratio, expose teachers to new practices and innovative ideas, develop teacher leadership, encourage collaboration to examine practice, and provide opportunities for teaching at a university, writing grant applications, and aiding teacher renewal. ****** Systems of service delivery, programs, and professional development can be profoundly infuenced by the school climate in which they function. School climate, a foundational practice supporting school safety and mental health, is the focus of the next chapter.

References Adelman, H., & Taylor, L. (2010). Moving prevention from the fringes into the fabric of school improvement. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association of School Psychologists, Anaheim, CA. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) & Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2014). Whole school, whole child, whole community: A collaborative approach to learning and health. www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/wscc/index.htm. Blank, M. J. (2004). How community schools make a difference. Educational Leadership, 61(8), 62–65. Blank, M. J., Melaville, A., & Shah, B. (2003). Making the difference: Research and practice in community schools. Washington, DC: Coalition for Community Schools, Institute for Educational Leadership. Brooks, K., Kendrick-Dunn, T. B., Parris, L., & Shriberg, D. (2020). Consultation, social justice, and low-income and economically marginalized children. Communiqué, 48(7), 18–20. Center for Mental Health in Schools at UCLA. (2008). Framing new directions for school counselors, psychologists, and social workers. Los Angeles, CA: Center for Mental Health in Schools at UCLA.

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Cowan, K. C., Vaillancourt, K., Rossen, E., & Pollitt, K. (2013). A framework for safe and successful schools [Brief]. National Association of School Psychologists. Retrieved from www.nasponline.org/resources-and-publications/resources/ school-safety-and-crisis/a-framework-for-safe-and-successful-schools Doll, B., & Cummings, J. (2008). Transforming mental health services: Populationbased approaches to promoting the competency and wellness of children. (A joint publication of the National Association of School Psychologists). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Doll, B., Cummings, J. A., & Chapla, B. A. (2014). Best practices in populationbased school mental health services. In P. L. Harrison & A. Thomas (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology: Systems-level services (pp. 149–163). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Doll, B., Haack, M. K., & Bieber, K. (2013). Population-based strategies for identifying school-wide problems. In R. Brown-Chidsey & K. Andren (Eds.), Problembased assessment for educational intervention (pp. 77–100). New York: Guilford. DuFour, R. (2004). What is a professional learning community? Educational Leadership, 61(8), 6–11. Epstein, J. L. (2011). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Erchul, W. P., & Sheridan, S. M. (2014). Overview: The state of scientifc research in school consultation. In W. P. Erchul & S. M. Sheridan (Eds.), Handbook of research in school consultation (2nd ed., pp. 3–17). New York: Routledge. Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature. Tampa, FL: University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, The National Implementation Research Network (FMHI Publication @231). Hord, S. M., & Hirsh, S. A. (2009). The principal’s role in supporting learning communities. Educational Leadership, 66(5), 22–23. Joyce, B., & Showers, B. (2002). Student achievement through staff development (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Knotek, S. E., Sauer-Lee, A., & Lowe-Greenlee, B. (2009). Consultee-centered consultation as a vehicle for knowledge diffusion and utilization. In S. Rosenfeld & V. Berninger (Eds.), Implementing evidence-based academic interventions in school settings (pp. 233–252). New York: Oxford University Press. Lever, N., Castle, M., Cammack, N., Bohnencamp, J., Stephan, S., Bernstein, L., . . . & Sharma, R. (2014). Resource mapping in schools and school districts: A resource guide. Baltimore, MD: Center for School Mental Health. Mental Health First Aid USA. (2012). Mental health frst aid USA for adults assisting young people. Washington, DC: National Council for Behavioral Health. Retrieved from www.mentalhealthfrstaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ Youth_Mental_Health_First_Aid-One_Pager.pdf Mental Health First Aid USA. (2015). Mental health frst aid USA. Washington, DC: National Council for Behavioral Health. Retrieved from www.mentalhealthfrstaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Mental-Health-First-Aid-AdultsOne-Pager_2019.pdf Meyers, J., Meyers, A. B., & Grogg, K. (2004). Prevention through consultation: A model to guide future developments in the feld of school psychology. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 15, 257–276.

School Safety and Mental Health 57 Michael, S. L., Merlo, C. L., Basch, C. E., Wentzel, K. R., & Wechsler, H. (2015). Critical connections: Health and academics. The Journal of School Health, 85, 740–758. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12309 NASP. (2017). Policy recommendations for implementing the framework for safe and successful schools [Brief]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Nastasi, B. K., Moore, R. B., & Varjas, K. M. (2004). School-based mental health services: Creating comprehensive and culturally specifc programs. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. National Association of School Psychologists. (2015a). Ready to learn, empowered to teach: Guiding principles for effective schools and successful students [Policy brief]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Newman, D., Ingraham, C., & Shriberg, D. (2014). Consultee-centered consultation in contemporary schools. Communiqué, 42(6). Roth, J. C. (2017). The importance of consultation in supporting bereaved students. In J. A. Brown & S. E. Jimerson (Eds.), Supporting bereaved students at school (pp. 52–69). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sanders, M. G., & Galindo, C. (2014). Communities, schools, and teachers. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 103–124). New York: Guilford. Smith, D., Wilson, B., & Corbett, D. (2009). Moving beyond talk. Educational Leadership, 66(5), 20–25. Splett, J. W., Perales, K., Halliday-Boykins, C. A., Gilchrest, C. E., Gobson, N., & Weist, M. D. (2017). Best practices for Teaming and collaboration in the Interconnected Systems Framework. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 33(4). https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2017.1328625 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Center for Medicaid and CHIP Services. (2019). Guidance to states and school systems on addressing mental health and substance use issues in schools. Joint Informational Bulletin. Washington, DC: SAMHSA. Volk, D. T., Sanetti, L. M. H., & Chafouleas, S. M. (2016). The whole school, whole community, whole child model: An opportunity for school psychologists to show leadership. Communiqué, 44(8), 18–20. Wepner, S. B. (2014). Developing partnerships through collaboration to promote professional development. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 339–358). New York: Guilford.

Section II

Foundational Practices Supporting School Safety and Mental Health

4

Positive School Climate

Kind words can be short and easy to speak, but their echoes are truly endless. ~ Mother Teresa

Impact of School Climate on Programs Of greater consequence than any one program is the school climate in which the program exists. The climate can nurture and support a program or starve and negate it. Essential beliefs, values, structures, and resources can make the difference in a program’s effectiveness. Similarly, classroom interventions are more likely to succeed when reinforced by school-wide programs that contribute to a positive school climate. Schools support new programs and practices with: • • • • • • • •

A vision, mission statement, and values supporting openness to new and innovative practices Leadership that encourages and facilitates shared stakeholder infuence A collaborative professional learning community and teams that strive for ongoing knowledge, skill, and personal and program development Infrastructure and resources to support, inform, and value professional learning A positive school climate that creates a safe physical, psychological, and social-emotional learning environment for all students and educators Models of service delivery that provide easy access to needed supports for learning, mental health, and satisfying professional practice Culturally responsive teaching that values racial, ethnic, gender, sexual orientation, religious, and community diversity Key resources, including funding, time for collaborative learning, training for knowledge and skill development, assurance of basic

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• •

Foundational Practices student needs (nutrition, security, tools for learning), and access to school-based mental health services Supportive relationships with parents, families, caregivers, and community resources Connections with students and what matters to them, including trusting relationships with adults, access to safe social media, friendships, contributing to their communities, making choices about their education, feeling they belong in their schools, having fun, and pursuing interests

Description and Benefts of a Positive School Climate The U.S. Department of Education (2014) defned positive school climate as the extent to which a school community creates and maintains a safe school campus; a supportive academic, disciplinary, and physical environment; and respectful, trusting, and caring relationships. The National School Climate Center (2010) identifed fve interrelated domains of school climate: 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

Safety, including physical safety, social-emotional safety, rules, and norms Relationships, including school connectedness and engagement, social support, leadership, respect for student diversity, and respect for different perceptions of school climate Teaching and learning, including social, emotional, ethical, and civic learning; service learning; support for academic learning; support for professional relationships; and teachers’ perceptions of school climate Institutional environment, including physical surroundings, resources, and supplies School improvement process, including implementation of evidence-based programs Adapted from National School Climate Center (2010)

A welcoming school climate promotes student learning and socialemotional wellbeing. Students are ready to learn when they feel safe, have trusting relationships with adults and peers, and feel supported when they experience distress. Students and families who feel valued are more committed to keeping their school safe, supporting codes of conduct, engaging in confict resolution, and forming respectful, trusting relationships (Paine & Cowan, 2009). A positive climate has been associated with greater student willingness to seek help for self and others and reduces the risk of school violence (Osher & Dwyer, 2005). When students have positive relationships with trusted adults at school, they are more likely to report emotional problems or potential threats. A supportive school

Positive School Climate 63 environment involves both awareness of strengths and a commitment to identify and solve problems (Swearer, Collins, Fluke, & Strawhun, 2012). A positive school climate and proactive crisis plans infuence a school’s ability to prevent, respond to, and recover from traumatic crises. The PREPaRE model (Brock et al., 2016) addresses comprehensive crisis preparedness and response, enhancing school climate and resilience when traumatic events happen. Promoting connectedness and resilience produces individuals who are less vulnerable to crisis reactions and better able to cope, recover, and return to learning (Brock et al., 2016; Osher, Dwyer, Jimerson, & Brown, 2012). Chapter 9 elaborates on crisis prevention, preparedness, and response. School climate profoundly infuences student social, emotional, behavioral, and academic functioning and school success (Thapa, Cohen, Guffey, & Higgins-D’Alessandro, 2013). School psychologists can encourage and facilitate safe learning environments and use of evidence-based methods. They consult with school leaders and teams and collect data to analyze and improve intervention outcomes. Related indicators include measures of school climate and safety, student engagement and attendance, disciplinary referrals and suspensions, educator engagement, and other factors (National Association of School Psychologists, 2019). School-wide programs such as Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), anti-bullying, suicide prevention, and social and emotional learning (SEL) help establish norms that value diversity, shared infuence, creative expression, prosocial relationships, and confict resolution. Students can fnd meaningful roles, make academic and extracurricular choices, set cooperative goals, join teams and service groups, and experience school connectedness (Bear, 2010; Cowan & Vaillancourt, 2013; Sugai & Horner, 2009). Positive relationships among students and educators help break down “codes of silence” so that students feel they can trust adults with problems and concerns. Students feel connected to their peers and their school, encouraging friendships, mutual understanding, and helpfulness (National Threat Assessment Center, 2018). A positive school climate is based on values and norms that are embraced by the school community. Everyone is responsible for school safety. Teachers and staff encourage respectful communication with all students, intervene to help resolve conficts, actively encourage cooperation, and work to prevent bullying. Research studying factors affecting bullying found that a positive school climate functioned as a protective factor, buffering against moral disengagement and bullying perpetration (Birkett, Esplanage, & Koenig, 2009; Konishi, Miyazaki, Hymel, & Waterhouse, 2017; Teng, Bear, Yang, Nie, & Guo, 2020). Linda Darling-Hammond (2019) asserted that proactive approaches to school safety, including social and emotional learning, Trauma-Informed Schools, school-based mental health services, access to community service agencies, and professional development for teachers are a better

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alternative than security systems such as metal detectors or armed educators. Darling-Hammond identifed strategies to improve school climate and safety and to reduce excessive and discriminatory discipline practices: • • • •

• •

Build relationship-centered schools with strong family and community engagement Replace zero-tolerance policies for minor offenses with educational approaches that help students learn expected behaviors and socialemotional skills Provide targeted support to foster positive student–teacher relationships, mutual respect, and improved student behavior Eliminate disproportionate and discriminatory discipline by providing training on implicit bias and asset-based youth development for teachers, administrators, school resource offcers, police, juvenile court judges, and other youth workers Develop and implement a school discipline policy that clarifes when educator discipline versus law enforcement discipline is indicated Consider ways to prevent negative consequences when designing policies, including social-emotional training for school resource offcers Adapted from Darling-Hammond (2019)

Positive Relationships Among Students and Educators Assumption: School safety starts with relationships . . . no students isolated . . . all students connected. Strong student–teacher relationships are viewed as essential to a positive school climate. Programs and practices are only as good as people’s ability to enact them. Educators must implement programs with enthusiasm and engage in authentic interactions with students and with each other. They must believe in what they are doing, enjoy forming relationships, and value educating young people – especially those who are most challenging. James Comer and a team of Yale Child Study Center colleagues developed the Comer School Development Program (SDP), which emphasizes child development, family involvement, positive school climate, and strong student–teacher relationships for schools serving across the socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic spectrum (Anson, Cook, Habib, Haynes, & Comer, 1991; Comer, 1988; Comer & Emmons, 2006). Following the School Development Program, low income and low achieving schools have demonstrated signifcant improvement in academic achievement, student attendance, and behavior. The Yale Child Study Center listed core beliefs: • •

Child rearing, child development, and learning are inextricably linked Development starts early and must be a continuous process

Positive School Climate 65 • • •

•

Children’s most meaningful learning occurs through positive and supportive relationships with caring and nurturing adults Parents are children’s frst teachers All parents, school staff, and community members, regardless of social and economic status, have an important contribution to make in improving students’ education and preparation for life, therefore Adults must interact collaboratively and sensitively to bring out the best in children

Positive student–teacher relationships have been found to enhance student engagement, behavior, and academic success (Pianta, Hamre, & Allen, 2012). Pianta and colleagues viewed positive student engagement as a process through which interpersonal relationships activate and organize students’ cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and motivational states. Conversely, relationships characterized by punitive, reactive strategies in response to negative behaviors appeared harmful for students’ sense of belonging and motivation (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Cheung (2019) recognized that positive teacher–student relationships mediated by parent involvement appear to support students’ academic success. Her research found adolescents perceived that the more their parents were involved in their learning, the more the adolescents believed they had quality relationships with their teachers. Parent involvement was associated with adolescents’ positive relationships with their teachers, which in turn was linked to valuing school, engagement, and competence beliefs. During middle school transition, student–teacher relationships are especially important for coping with and counteracting a frequently observed decline in the quality of relationships, student engagement, and achievement (Hughes & Cao, 2018). Positive student–teacher relationships can be a signifcant protective factor during this transition (Wang, Brinkworth, & Eccles, 2013). Busch and Fernandez (2019) found that high school principals’ interventions to improve culture and climate resulted in signifcant, sustainable improvement in student achievement. Effective professional development can help educators recognize that if students are to master subject content, they must be developmentally, culturally, and emotionally ready to learn that content, while successfully interacting with teachers and peers. Educators can learn to support all students – those who are socially succeeding and those who are struggling. Can educators create a school climate that is safe for troubled and discouraged students to behave differently and to trust? Can educators and students together strive to educate themselves, including social, emotional, cultural, and intellectual learning? Wormeli (2016) offered suggestions for teacher response to student answers in a way that respects their dignity:

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•

Affrm risk-taking. When answering incorrectly, a student can still be praised for trying and contributing ideas to the dialogue Ask students to explain more about their thinking. Explanation often allows for deeper understanding, including recognizing one’s own errors Be empathetic to their thinking. Teachers can express affective understanding of the way a student seems to be thinking and encourage more exploration Change the current reality. Even an incorrect answer can be recognized as answering another question – students can also be encouraged to give it a try when they don’t know an answer Affrm the portions of an answer that are correct and invite focus on the incorrect portions. Students notice the way teachers interact with their classmates and their peers. Trust building is key. Get to know your students, including completing “Best Way for Me to Learn” cards with everything they can think of that helps them learn

• • • •

Wormeli also suggested that engaging in complex, cooperative, or workintensive activities like hiking early in the school year can help forge strong relationships. Classroom design is another way to build relationships. Dillon (2018) suggested that being intentional about classroom design can help teachers manage behavior, build community, and improve learning. Caring room design can create a sense of belonging, where students are more trusting and ready to learn. Students burdened by stress can beneft from a dedicated quiet space for refection, processing, and de-cluttering their working memory. Quiet is not simply about the absence of noise, but rather a fow refecting a way of learning that promotes creativity, imagination, play, and mindfulness. Dillon suggests that we are wired to listen and tell stories. Teachers and students telling stories can facilitate learning that sticks. Learning spaces that emulate sitting around a campfre are conducive to storytelling and listening. Students can be an effective source of support for peers, such as those who are grieving, distressed, or having an emotional crisis. In developmentally, culturally appropriate ways, student peers, including those with disabilities, can be taught to support each other relative to a variety of social and emotional needs. Structured classroom meetings, psychoeducational groups (Brock et al., 2016), and formal prevention programs can stimulate conversation about mental health, suicide prevention, or situational challenges like supporting a bereaved peer’s return to school. For adolescents, the power of the carefully guided peer group can be a source of constructive, life-affrming activities (Metel & Barnes, 2011). These interventions can help destigmatize mental health needs, and follow-up with consultative support can be offered to students and teachers.

Positive School Climate 67 Connecting Disconnected Youth Minahan (2019) advised that strategies for helping teachers maintain positive relationships are especially important accommodations for students with mental health disorders. Given that mental health disorders are often invisible and undiagnosed, teachers can misperceive students’ intentions as disrespectful or non-compliant when, in fact, there are other reasons provoking their behavior. The reaction of teachers can compound the problem, as students may be triggered by a sharp tone of voice or innocuous command. Absent positive interactions with their teachers, students with mental health challenges may become anxious, uncooperative, or withdrawn and unable to access the curriculum. Effective interaction strategies – verbal and nonverbal ways of forming relationships, including calm tone of voice, proximity, use of humor, de-escalating responses to defance, and gently giving constructive feedback – are vital to afford students an opportunity for comfort and success. Chapter 15 further describes challenges and supports for students who experienced emotional trauma. Hughes, Gleason, and Zhang (2005) found that the quality of student– teacher relationships is weaker among students of color, boys, and those of low socioeconomic status (Hughes et al., 2005; Roorda, Kooman, Spilt, & Oort, 2011). There is also evidence that strong student–teacher relationships with marginalized groups can be especially protective (Murray & Zvoch, 2011; Winding & Anderson, 2015). While most formal student–teacher interventions have been implemented on the elementary level, there is a need for increased interventions during middle school (Duong et al., 2019). On the secondary level, the My Teaching Partner – Secondary (MTP-S) and restorative justice practices have been implemented with success. Duong and colleagues (2019) developed the Establish–Maintain–Restore (EMR) approach, designed to improve teachers’ skills in establishing, maintaining, and restoring relationships with their students. They found that those trained in EMR experienced signifcant improvement in student behavior and their relationships with students, compared with a control group (Cook et al., 2018). Teacher–Child Interaction Training (TCIT), for use in classroom settings, has also demonstrated effectiveness in strengthening relationships between teachers and students, and decreasing disruptive classroom behavior (Bandi, Simonds, Stankus, Wehr, and McGoey, 2017). When families relocate after catastrophic natural disasters or fee countries devastated by violence, welcoming school students and staff can help displaced students feel accepted, valued, and better able to adjust and recover. The family and students can be aided by connecting them with support networks in the school and community, including school mental health providers, nurses, Wellness Centers, and community agencies.

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Sulkowski, Demaray, and Lazarus (2012) suggested strategies to support school connectedness: • •

• •

•

Emphasize to legislators, school board members, and other stakeholders the signifcant link between emotional wellbeing, school connectedness, and academic achievement Educate teachers about the importance of school connectedness and strategies to improve connections with students, including classroom instruction and management approaches responsive to students of diverse backgrounds Educate parents/caregivers about the importance of school connectedness and strategies to help their children feel connected Conduct a school-wide assessment to determine which students are not meaningfully connected to the school community and develop a plan to ensure all students have at least one positive relationship with an adult at school Advocate for school-wide programs and interventions that support students’ emotional wellbeing Adapted from Sulkowski et al. (2012)

Establish Norms of Collaboration and Learning for All Saint Benedict’s Prep is a Catholic high school located in urban Newark, New Jersey. It is dedicated to preparing boys, mostly of color from Newark’s inner-city community, to “fulfll their potential as emotionally mature, morally responsible, and well-educated young men.” Each day begins with a morning rally where all students shout their motto, “Whatever hurts my brother hurts me.” St. Benedict’s seeks to empower students, many of whom previously had no control over their lives, to take responsibility for their school and each other, making decisions about rules, activities, and peer leadership and support. A clear emphasis is safeguarding the wellbeing of fellow students and encouraging perseverance if they stray. The climate, the ethic of the school, is driven by shared values and norms. St. Benedict’s has a 98% graduation rate and 85% of graduates earn college degrees. The school illustrates the essential need to instill norms and values, rather than just rules and slogans – to establish a culture of taking responsibility for self and others that is embraced by students and staff. O’Malley and Eklund (2012) presented norms, goals, and values that healthy schools with safe climates share: 1.

Positive and productive relationships. Quality interpersonal relationships sustain teachers’ motivation to use innovative practices that inspire youth. Relationships keep students coming to school even with overwhelming family and community challenges. The quality

Positive School Climate 69

2.

3.

4.

5.

of educator–student relationships is cited as one of the strongest predictors of both student achievement and teacher career satisfaction (Hattie, 2009). Awareness of and respect for diversity. A vital value transmitted in schools is respect for diversity in all forms – race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, language, socioeconomic level, and political views. Schools must deliberately create culturally responsive environments with a vision of how to integrate cultural diversity into curriculum and daily interactions. Transparent and unbiased norms and expectations. Norms and expectations that are uniformly followed support feeling physically and emotionally safe and can be a positive predictor of student achievement (McEvoy & Welker, 2000). Adults must model in words and actions equitable norms and expectations that apply throughout the school community. Implicit norms and values communicated by daily interactions must sometimes be made explicit to establish students’ sense that school is a fair, safe environment. Individual value and shared purpose. Having a sense of belonging, respectful relationships, and inclusive practices solidify a healthy learning environment. Teachers tend to remain in schools where they have a sense of purpose and make substantive decisions affecting their practice (Johnson, 2006; Allensworth, Ponisciak, & Mazzeo, 2009). Quality professional development aligned with goals shaped by teachers demonstrates that administrators value teachers and provide needed support (DarlingHammond, 2010). Students can experience a sense of shared purpose through involvement in setting school goals, service-learning projects, and learning related to personal interests. Educational practices that enhance students’ sense of control include setting personal learning goals, cooperative and project-based learning, hands-on activities, and feld- and work-based learning. Opportunities for growth and achievement. Educators often evaluate their success by student academic and social-emotional outcomes. Teachers need opportunities to expand skills. Professional development should be relevant to practice, connect with school initiatives, and enhance working relationships among teachers (DarlingHammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009). Students need to be challenged and supported to achieve their highest potential. Academic achievement and student wellbeing are optimized by learning environments that are engaging, motivating, and recognize effort. Students also need an emotional connection to their learning and a positive connection with their school (O’Malley & Eklund, 2012).

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Kragler, Martin, and Sylvester (2014) emphasized the impact of school culture on teachers and students. School culture has infuenced reform, moving away from a training model for teacher learning to a practice model that centers professional learning within the school setting in collaborative communities – social groups that support teacher refection, planning, problem solving, innovative practice, and leadership. Professional learning communities (PLCs) are generally comprised of small groups of teachers meeting regularly to engage in collaborative inquiry to improve their teaching practice. A practice model of professional development can support norms of collaboration and learning for all in a variety of ways: • •

• • •

Integrate lessons of professional learning into the daily practice and experience of the school community Impart not only knowledge – also enable values to be woven into the fabric of school life, as positive attitudes, behaviors, and relationships become the norms and expectations of the entire school community Develop a collaborative learning culture and strong, shared leadership Strive to create change processes so that positive ways of thinking, learning, behaving, and relating become the natural, expected, right thing to do – accepted “norms” rather than simply “rules” Provide for meaningful collaboration with and learning by parents, families, caregivers, and community agencies and leaders

Using School Climate Data Creating and maintaining a positive school climate should be an essential aspect of school improvement plans. Identifying resources and collecting information from multiple stakeholders to accurately measure school climate facilitates effective decision making and programs (NASP, 2019). The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP, 2019) suggests key factors to measure school climate: •

•

Identify your team. Develop a multidisciplinary team to support school climate work. Team members can include administrators, school mental health professionals, teachers and support staff, nurses, school resource offcers, students, families, and community members. Tasks can include encouraging buy-in for initiatives; sharing information about processes and purposes; collecting and sharing data and outcomes with all stakeholders; using data for targeted decision making and improvements Identify the intended goal of data collection. Determine the purpose of school climate data collection and how the data will be used

Positive School Climate 71 • •

•

•

•

•

•

•

Select valid and reliable measurements needed to address your goals. Appropriate measurements could explore safety, interpersonal relationships, the physical environment, or other factors Comprehensive surveys provide an assessment of school climate across several domains. Surveys take time to administer but identify specifc aspects of the environment (perceived safety, connectedness, achievement standards) that may affect groups of students differently Brief measures provide a snapshot of school climate and provide useful data with multiple administrations over time. Measures can focus on interventions that target a specifc issue, such as perceived safety or bullying. Repeated data collection can demonstrate effectiveness and inform program adjustments Identify how to use school climate data with other indicators of school success. Integration of school climate data with other information sources increases the capacity to assess overall school functioning. Sources include discipline referrals, universal screenings, attendance records, suspensions and expulsions, teacher turnover, graduation rates, and PBIS data Include multiple groups. Select assessments that allow input from a broad range of stakeholders who infuence or are affected by school climate, including students and disaggregated groups of students by race, ethnicity, gender; parents/families; teachers and staff; school mental health professionals, administrators, and safety team members Create a schedule for data collection. Climate data should be collected at least annually to reassess unique needs and celebrate successes. An assessment within the frst and last 45 days of the school year can measure progress Create a plan to analyze and use the data. Analyzing school climate data alongside complementary data (discipline, attendance, etc.) can strengthen the ability to implement targeted interventions that ft a school’s context and needs Create a plan for sharing data. Easily accessible school climate data shared with the school community can help keep school climate a priority in achieving improvement, equity, and success (NASP, 2019)

Suggestions for Problem Solving With School Climate Data The National School Climate Center (2010) recommended using data across school populations, including district, school-wide, classroom, student, and community, as part of a problem-solving process: •

Preparation, which includes forming a team, establishing ground rules, gaining stakeholder support, promoting trust, determining

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• • •

• •

Foundational Practices needed resources, fnding ways to provide support, and refecting on climate data Evaluation, which uses measurement tools to systematically evaluate strengths and weaknesses, specifc needs, and sharing and refecting upon data with relevant stakeholders Action planning, which involves understanding the data, their meaning, and how the data can inform programming, including maintaining or improving the school climate Implementation, which selects and applies evidence-based practices to improve targeted areas of school climate. These practices should be implemented with fdelity, promote growth in all school community members, and facilitate continued assessment and refection on the usefulness of the school climate data Re-evaluation, which involves revising the measurement and problem-solving stages as needed to continue efforts to create a positive school climate Application of school climate data, which involves school leaders modifying or replacing existing practices based on data to improve the school environment. For example, if bullying is identifed as a pervasive problem, school leaders might implement an evidencebased bullying prevention program. If students present low ratings of school connectedness, strategies might be implemented to promote student–student and student–teacher relationships, such as school pride initiatives, mentoring programs, and extracurricular or service activities

School climate data can indicate the degree of alignment between a school’s goals and progress toward achieving them, illustrating outcomes that strive to meet the academic and social-emotional needs of all students. ****** A critical element of a positive school climate, culturally responsive school mental health services and education, is a foundational practice explored in the next chapter.

References Allensworth, E., Ponisciak, S., & Mazzeo, C. (2009). The schools teachers leave: Teacher mobility in Chicago public schools. Chicago, IL: Consortium on Chicago School Research. Anson, A. R., Cook, T. D., Habib, F., Haynes, G. M., & Comer, J. P. (1991). The Comer School Development Program: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Urban Education, 26(1), 56–82.

Positive School Climate 73 Bandi, S., Simonds, R., Stankus, J., Wehr, A., & McGoey, K. E. (2017). School psychologists’ role in teacher-child interaction training. Communiqué, 46(8), 8–10. Bear, G. G. (2010). School discipline and self-discipline: A practical guide to promoting prosocial student behavior. New York: Guilford. Birkett, M., Esplanage, D. L., & Koenig, B. (2009). LBG and questioning students in schools: The moderating effects of homophobic bullying and school climate on negative outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 989–1000. http:// doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9389-1 Brock, S. E., Nickerson, A. B., Reeves, M. A., Conolly, C. N., Jimerson, S. R., Pesce, R., & Lazzaro, B. (2016). School crisis prevention & intervention: The PREPaRE model (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Busch, S., & Fernandez, J. (2019). Infuencing high school achievement through school culture and climate: A quantitative approach to organizational health-based leadership. New York: Routledge. Cheung, C. S. (2019). Parents’ involvement and adolescents’ school adjustment: Teacher-student relationships as a mechanism of change. School Psychology, 34(4), 350–362. http://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000288 Comer, J. P. (1988). Educating poor minority children. Scientifc American, 259(5), 42–48. Comer, J. P., & Emmons, C. L. (2006). The research program of the Yale Child Study Center School Development Program. The Journal of Negro Education, 75(3), 353–372. Cook, C. R., Coco, S., Zhang, Y., Flat, A. E., Duong, M. T., Renshaw, T. L., Long, A. C., & Frank, S. (2018). Cultivating positive teacher-student relationships: Preliminary evaluation of the Establish-Maintain-Restore (EMR) Method. School Psychology Review, 47(3), 226–243. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-20170025.V47-3 Cowan, K. C., & Vaillancourt, K. (2013). Advocating for safe schools, positive school climate, and comprehensive mental health services. Communiqué, 41(6), 20–22. Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The fat world and education: How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future. New York: Teachers College Press. Darling-Hammond, L. (2019). Want safe schools? Start with research-based school discipline policies. Forbes. Retrieved from www.forbes.com/sites/ lindadarlinghammond/2019/05/16/wany-saf...-start-with-research-based-schooldiscipline-policies/#3ed8353e6701 Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher development in the United States and abroad. Palo Alto, CA: National Staff Development Council. Dillon, R. (2018). Room for improvement. Educational Leadership, 76(1), 40–45. Duong, M. T., Pullmann, M. D., Buntain-Ricklefs, J., Lee, K., Benjamin, K. S., Nguyen, L., & Cook, C. R. (2019). Brief teacher training improves student behavior and student–teacher relationships in middle school. School Psychology, 34(2), 212–221. http://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000296 Hattie, J. A. C. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London, UK: Routledge.

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Hughes, J. N., & Cao, Q. (2018). Trajectories of teacher-student warmth and confict at the transition to middle school: Effects on academic engagement and achievement. Journal of School Psychology, 67, 148–162. http://doi. org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.10.003 Hughes, J. N., Gleason, K. A., & Zhang, D. (2005). Relational infuences on teachers’ perceptions of academic competence in academically at-risk minority and majority frst grade students. Journal of School Psychology, 43, 303–320. http:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2005.07.001 Jennings, P., & Greenberg, M. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79, 491–525. https://doi.org/10.3102/ 0034654308325693 Johnson, S. M. (2006). The workplace matters: Teacher quality, retentions, and effectiveness. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Konishi, C., Miyazaki, Y., Hymel, S., & Waterhouse, T. (2017). Investigating associations between school climate and bullying in secondary schools: Multilevel contextual effects modeling. School Psychology International, 38, 240–263. http:// doi.org/10.1177/0143034316688730 Kragler, S., Martin, L. E., & Sylvester, R. (2014). Lessons learned: What our history and research tell us about teachers’ professional learning. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 488–505). New York: Guilford. McEvoy, A., & Welker, R. (2000). Anti-social behavior, academic failure, and school climate: A critical review. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8, 130–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/106342660000800301 Metel, M., & Barnes, J. (2011). Peer-group support for bereaved children: A qualitative interview study. Child & Adolescent Mental Health, 16, 201–207. Minahan, J. (2019). Building positive relationships with students struggling with mental health. Kappan, 100(6), 56–59. Murray, C., & Zvoch, K. (2011). Teacher-student relationships among behaviorally at- risk African American youth from low-income backgrounds: Student perceptions, teacher perceptions, and socioemotional adjustment correlates. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 19, 41–54. http://doi. org/10.1177/1063426609353607 National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). (2019). Guidance for measuring and using school climate data [Brief]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. National School Climate Center. (2010). A fve stage school climate improvement process: Research, support, and information about best practices that support the tasks/ challenges that defne each of the fve SC Improvement stages. Retrieved from www. schoolclimate.org/themes/schoolclimate/assets/pdf/stages-tasks-andchallenges/ReseaschSupport-FiveStages.pdf National Threat Assessment Center. (2018). Enhancing school safety using a threat assessment model: An operational guide for preventing targeted school violence. Washington, DC: U.S. Secret Service, Department of Homeland Security. O’Malley, M., & Eklund, K. (2012). Promoting safe and healthy schools. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and

Positive School Climate 75 intervention (2nd ed., pp. 151–175). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Osher, D., & Dwyer, K. (2005). Safeguarding our children: An action guide revised and expanded. Longmont, CO: Sopris West. Osher, D., Dwyer, K., Jimerson, S. R., & Brown, J. A. (2012). Developing safe, supportive, and effective schools: Facilitating student success to reduce school violence. In S. R. Jimerson, A. B. Nickerson, M. J. Mayer, & M. J. Furlong (Eds.), Handbook of school violence and school safety: International research and practice (2nd ed., pp. 27–44). New York: Routledge. Paine, C. K., & Cowan, K. C. (2009). Remembering Columbine: School safety lessons for the future. Communiqué, 37(6), 9–10. Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B. K., & Allen, J. P. (2012). Teacher-student relationships and engagement: Conceptualizing, measuring, and improving the capacity of classroom interactions. In S. A. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 365–386). Boston, MA: Springer. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_17 Roorda, D. L., Kooman, H. M. Y., Spilt, J. L., & Oort, F. J. (2011). The infuence of affective teacher-student relationships on students’ school engagement and achievement: A meta-analytic approach. Review of Educational Research, 81, 493– 529. http://doi.org/10.3102/0034654311421793 Sugai, G., & Horner, R. H. (2009). Defning and describing schoolwide positive behavior support. In W. Sailor, G. Dunlap, G. Sugai, & R. Horner (Eds.), Handbook of positive behavior support (pp. 307–326). New York: Springer. Sulkowski, M. L., Demaray, M. K., & Lazarus, P. J. (2012). Connecting students to schools to support their emotional well-being and academic success. Communiqué, 40(7), 20–22. Swearer, S. M., Collins, A., Fluke, S., & Strawhun, J. (2012). Preventing bullying behaviors in schools. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 177–202). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Teng, Z., Bear, G. G., Yang, C., Nie, Q., & Guo, C. (2020). Moral disengagement and bullying perpetration: A longitudinal study of the moderating effect of school climate. School Psychology, 35(1), 99–109. http://doi.org/10.1037/ spq0000348 Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83, 357–385. https:// doi.org/10.3102/0034654313483907 U.S. Department of Education. (2014). Guiding Principles: A resource guide for improving school climate and discipline. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Wang, M. T., Brinkworth, M., & Eccles, J. (2013). Moderating effects of teacherstudent relationship in adolescent trajectories of emotional and behavioral adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 49, 690–705. http://doi.org/10.1037/ a0027916 Winding, T. N., & Anderson, J. H. (2015). Socioeconomic differences in school dropout among young adults: The role of social relations. BMC Public Health, 15, 1054. http://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-2391-0 Wormeli, R. (2016). What to do in week one? Educational Leadership, 74(1), 10–15.

5

Culturally Responsive School Mental Health Services and Education

It is time for parents to teach young people early on that in diversity there is beauty and there is strength. ~ Maya Angelou

A Model for Culturally Competent Mental Health Services Cultural competence is critical to the foundation of effective school mental health services and instructional practice. Hernandez, Nesman, Mowery, Acevedo-Polakovich, and Callejas (2009) developed a conceptual model for culturally competent mental health services that is relevant for diverse cultures and adaptable for schools (Hernandez et al., 2009). They recognized inequities preventing marginalized racial-ethnic groups such as African American, Hispanic, Indigenous people, and others from having equal access to mental health services. Increasing cultural competence in providing mental health services can potentially reduce existing disparities (Brach & Fraserirector, 2000). The model presented by Hernandez and colleagues sought to operationalize cultural competence in mental health organizations. Increasing the compatibility between cultural characteristics of a community and the manner that policies and processes infuence delivery can make services more available, accessible, and utilized. The model suggests that cultural competence occurs when compatibility exists among four key factors: 1.

2.

Community context. Provides background for understanding the way racially and ethnically diverse individuals come in contact with service organizations. For example, African American adolescents are more likely than European American peers to receive mental health services through involuntary commitment, such as the juvenile justice system. Cultural characteristics of local populations. Culture has a pervasive infuence over interactions with mental health services, infuencing help-seeking strategies, affecting problem understanding and

Culturally Responsive School Mental Health 77

3.

identifcation, and acceptable treatment choices. Cultural differences between providers and consumers, when unacknowledged, can perpetuate disparities through misdiagnosis and mistreatment (Balsa & McGuire, 2003). Organizational infrastructure. Is considered when developing culturally compatible services. Organizational infrastructure includes interrelated components relevant to culturally competent mental health service delivery: Values. Value markers (mission, vision statements) should articulate commitment to culturally competent services b. Communication. Culturally competent communication fosters learning and information within the service organization, with the community, and among partner organizations c. Community participation. Solicits broad community input regarding the manner services are provided d. Governance. Rules and plans for responsive policies, procedures, and goals guide service provision e. Planning and evaluation. The community is a partner in data collection/analysis, assessment of needs, and self-assessment f. Human resources. Personnel have necessary knowledge and skills for service delivery, being profcient in community languages and culture g. Service array. Adapts to a community’s needs and practices, increasing multicultural capacity h. Technical support. Ensures that assets and supplies needed by the community are available, including fnancial supports, staffing, and technology. The COVID-19 pandemic heightened awareness of the disparity in available online medical access in marginalized communities a.

4.

Direct service support. Is considered when developing culturally compatible services. Direct service support includes interrelated organizational functions: Availability. Ensure that the range of available services refects community needs b. Accessibility. Facilitate individuals successfully entering, navigating, and exiting needed services and supports – considering convenient times and locations, languages, access to technology, and cultural healing traditions c. Utilization. Promote accountability by tracking and increasing service use by providing appointment reminders, transportation, and patterns of use data Adapted from Hernandez et al. (2009) a.

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Results of a meta-analysis found that services adapted to ensure compatibility with cultural characteristics of specifc communities were four times more effective than services broadly adapted for a variety of cultural backgrounds (Griner & Smith, 2006). Rather than focus on broad cultural values, the model proposed by Hernandez and colleagues (2009) emphasizes that cultural competence is best demonstrated by understanding and responding to local communities’ culturally infuenced values, needs, and attitudes toward service. Tan, Harvey, Kendrick-Dunn, and Proctor (2020) addressed the problem of physical health disparities as a social justice issue. These preventable differences disrupt opportunities for socially disadvantaged racial, ethnic, and other population groups and communities to achieve optimal health (Proctor, Kendrick-Dunn, & Barrett, 2020; Tan et al., 2020). Social determinants and related social structures such as racism, low income and economic marginalization, and education opportunities and attainment shape access to health services and health disparities (Proctor et al., 2020; Sullivan et al., 2020). Tan and colleagues stated that school psychologists are positioned to take action for students who are harmed by health disparities, utilizing resources in the school setting. They can 1) support the development of school-wide health promotion programs and 2) advocate for school-based health centers. Malone and Proctor (2019) cited systemic levels of social justice advocacy developed by the American Counseling Association (ACA) (Toporek & Daniels, 2018). School psychologists and other school mental health professionals can consult and collaborate with administrators, teachers, school nurses, and other stakeholders. The Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model presented in Chapter 3 is an example of a program that emphasizes the role of community support, the interrelationship between health and academic achievement, and evidence-based school policies and practices. School mental health providers, school nurses, and other support staff can advocate for integrated physical and emotional Wellness or School-Based Health Centers (SBHCs). Cultural Responsiveness for Latinx/Hispanic Youth and Families Lopez, Ochoa, Romero, and Parr (2020) emphasized the importance of cultural responsiveness, integrating culture, traditions, and beliefs into effective psychological practice for Latinx/Hispanic youth and families (Lopez et al., 2020). Mental health services in schools can overcome limited access and fnancial and structural barriers (Alegria, Green, McLaughlin, & Loder, 2015; Suarez-Orozco, Yoshikawa, & Tseng, 2015). Latinx/Hispanic students can excel in culturally responsive learning environments (Finkelhor, Turner, Shattuck, & Hamby, 2015; Lopez, 2016).

Culturally Responsive School Mental Health 79 While Latinx/Hispanic communities refect much diversity, including countries of origin, Lopez and colleagues explained that similarities can help guide cultural responsiveness. Considerations can include adapting SEL for unique needs of Latinx/Hispanic youth, increasing school connectedness, fostering family–school collaboration, and facilitating early intervention (Center for Health and Health Care in Schools, 2011). Lopez and colleagues (2020) proposed cultural considerations in school mental health practice for Latinx/Hispanic youth based on overarching traditions and challenges: • • •

• •

• •

•

• •

Mental health stigma. Stigma and apprehension related to mental health services should be proactively addressed by school psychologists Idioms of distress. Mental health symptoms should be discussed in a culturally appropriate manner, seeking to understand how communities express distress El respeto. Respect is a constructive quality that sometimes interferes with parents’ engagement – educators, including school psychologists, must devote time, care, and attention to helping families feel welcome Personalismo. Mental health professionals should develop personal, caring relationships valued in Latinx/Hispanic culture Machismo and marianismo. Gender-based cultural norms can create conficts – school psychologists need to understand hierarchical family structures and help Latinx/Hispanic adolescents navigate conficts Familismo. School psychologists should recognize that decisions are often made collectively through extended family systems and inquire if other family members should be involved Acculturation. Adapting to different cultural attitudes, values, and behaviors can create acculturative stress, conficts, emotional distress, and increased suicides (Ibanez et al., 2015; Zayas & Pilat, 2008); school psychologists can investigate circumstances of stress and consult with cultural brokers for understanding Faith, spirituality, and traditional healing practices. School psychologists should recognize the benefts of religion and traditions, but consider they can also work against seeking mental health services (Ceballo, Alers-Rojas, Montoro, & Mora, 2020); working with community and religious institutions is encouraged (Garcia-Joslin et al., 2016) Parentifcation and roles. Latinx/Hispanic children may assume substantial responsibilities at home, precluding school opportunities Race, discrimination, and trauma. Latinx/Hispanic student distress often includes the impact of systematic oppression and ethno-racial trauma – school psychologists and staff should understand effects

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Culturally Competent Mental Health Service Delivery for Indigenous Youth and Communities Inequities in Accessibility and Utilization Inequities in mental health services affect accessibility and utilization by Indigenous children and youth, including Native Americans (NA), Alaskan Natives (AN), and Native Hawaiians. The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP, 2020) recognized the right of Indigenous children and youth to have access to culturally responsive mental health services and education. A framework for culturally responsive practice emphasizes affrming the strengths of culture and identity. The framework’s concepts can be adapted to service delivery for other ethnically diverse cultures. When providing culturally responsive practice, school psychologists must frst be aware of their own cultural perspectives and not impose their worldviews or biases. They must understand the diversity of Indigenous populations, the legacy of trauma, and the promise of resiliency. Understanding diversity means considering that Indigenous people across many communities live on and off reservations, in rural and urban settings, have varying levels of acculturation, and may or may not identify with traditional languages and practices (NASP, 2020). Indigenous children are overrepresented in special education, have higher dropout rates than any other group, complete higher education at lower rates, and often attend classes with teachers having insuffcient understanding of them. School psychologists reported defcits in training to competently serve them (Robinson-Zanartu et al., 2011). Indigenous students have disproportionately higher rates of mental health needs than other ethnic minority populations, including higher rates of depression and suicide (SAMHSA, 2017). Validating culture and identity is a protective factor leading to resiliency (Garrett et al., 2014; Kirmayer, Dandeneau, Marshall, Phillips, & Williamson, 2011), expressed through traditional healing methods such as community-based learning, gatherings, ceremonies, storytelling, language revitalization, and activism (NASP, 2020). Conceptual Framework Guides School Psychology Practice An Indigenous Conceptual Framework Guiding School Psychology Practice With Indigenous Children, Youth, Families, and Communities (NASP, 2020) is designed to ensure that Indigenous children and youth receive culturally

Culturally Responsive School Mental Health 81 responsive education and mental health services. A graphic image, Figure 5.1, guides culturally responsive practice. The image draws upon the Indigenous worldview of the interconnectedness of nature, integrating the sun, four-point stars, and water.

Figure 5.1 An Indigenous Conceptual Framework: Guiding School Psychology Practice With Indigenous Children, Youth, Families, and Communities Source: Copyright 2020 by the National Association of School Psychologists. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. www.nasponline.org

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Culture and Identity constitute the yellow core of the model, serving as a symbol of the source of energy that feeds the development of Indigenous children and the practitioner serving them. The sets of black and red four-point stars represent key practices needed to support Indigenous communities. The blue background represents elements that fow throughout the other components.

Culturally Responsive Teaching and Valuing Diversity When teachers learn more about their students’ lives, struggles, dreams, and triumphs, they begin understanding the varied perspectives and experiences of their multicultural classrooms. They are learning to appreciate and value cultural differences and common humanity. Empathy enables everyone to share the excitement of accomplishments by people of different races, ethnicities, genders, faiths, and cultures. When teachers embrace cultural responsiveness and advocacy, they become better learning partners. Young people should have opportunities to celebrate heroes of their own race, ethnicity, and gender, with whom they can identify. Celebrating heroes of goodness, courage, and achievement from diverse backgrounds can inspire everyone. However, while celebrating heroes across race, gender, and culture is important, more is needed to meet the demands of culturally responsive teaching. Becoming a culturally responsive educator requires going beneath the surface to seriously examine the infuences and biases of one’s own culture and the dominant society, to deeply understand the systemic racism and stereotypes that have oppressed low income and linguistically marginalized students and communities of color. Teachers can then form student–educator partnerships and create inclusive school climates that build upon diverse cultural experiences and assets as a foundation for learning. Lineman and Miller (2012) offered suggestions to strengthen professional competence when working with culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students: • •

•

Conduct regular needs assessments to identify levels of awareness, knowledge, and perceived value of skills relating to CLD practices Select and design professional development for specifc areas needing problem solving, training to develop CLD skills, modules that emphasize establishing relationships, and implementation of strategies Find ways to continuously monitor implementation of CLD strategies, possibly with a checklist to track strategy roll out and regular focus-group discussions to identify enhancers and barriers to effective practice

Culturally Responsive School Mental Health 83 •

Plan and present professional development and monitor progress collaboratively with colleagues representing the school’s cultural and linguistic diversity

Students’ cultural identities affect their perceptions, interactions, and benefts in a learning environment (LaSalle, Meyers, Varjas, & Roach, 2015). Male, minoritized, and students with disabilities have reported more negative perceptions of school climate (LaSalle, George, McCoach, Polk, & Evanovich, 2018). Improvement of school climate requires acknowledging the role of culture, race, and history, and fnding ways to make the school environment responsive to the needs of all students. Teacher Relationships With Students of Color Benn (2018) emphasized rapport as a building block for effective classroom management and a key to avoid disabling cultural misunderstandings between teachers and students. He identifed teacher respect as a cornerstone of good rapport – respect for self, for service as a teacher, and for students. This means that teachers must develop respect for the many “personalities, needs, backgrounds, strengths, and obstacles” presented by the students they serve. Benn believes that establishing genuine respect and rapport with students requires servant leadership, meaning that teachers must put the needs of students before their own by sharing power and facilitating opportunities for students and colleagues to function at their highest potential. Benn cautions that teachers relying on assumed authority and interacting with sarcasm, confrontation, or “gotcha” punitiveness without restorative opportunity may feed confict with marginalized students. Benn believes that “quickly learning key social and cultural cues can go a long way in building rapport with students.” He delineates specifc practices that can earn respect: • • •

•

Establish class rules and expectations at the beginning of the school year Commit to ensuring student success with differentiated assessments, opportunities for tutoring or makeup work and extra credit, or holding “offce hours” during lunch or after school on selected days Cultivate opportunities for personal engagement, such as establishing a class handshake, occasionally eating lunch with students, sharing appropriate personal stories that relate to learning, and offering empathy when inviting student sharing, but without being too intrusive It is okay to be goofy or “out of the loop” sometimes, asking questions and allowing students to fll you in and occasionally enjoy the teacher role. Remain curious, open, and show concern

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•

Avoid low-expectation teaching, expressed by lowering rigor to meet perceived learning defcits, assigning busy work, and being overly punitive. Emphasize skill mastery and understanding content, rather than rule following Use compassionate communication, with basic manners and greetings like “please” and “thank you,” asking permission with “Is it okay if I?” Admit mistakes with expressions like “My bad, that came out wrong” and “Thanks for correcting me!” Model classroom communication norms consistently, especially when being tested Recognize and affrm the best qualities in students, building upon their strengths and positive attributes Know how to read a room and situation to avoid beginning or escalating the confict cycle. If you notice a student’s behavior is “off,” privately ask if he/she is okay and needs anything, letting the student know you want to provide support Adapted from Benn (2018)

•

• •

Gross and Lo (2018) studied interaction relative to the grief experience of Black male adolescent students and their teachers, 25% of whom identifed as teachers of color, in a private urban high school. Many students had experienced the deaths of friends due to gun violence. Students and teachers expressed the desire to address their personal grief, but both felt their emotional needs were often unrecognized. In fact, teachers sometimes misread grieving as misbehavior. Teachers felt unprepared to help others when burdened by their own grief and instructional responsibilities. A model called Relational Teaching and Learning, which creates a more comfortable climate for student engagement, demonstrated in this case that male African American students experiencing racial marginalization and stressors, including grief, could beneft from relationships with teachers openly attempting to connect with them (Nelson, 2016). Understanding the Effects of Racism on Educators and Students Sehgal, Jeffries, and Rappaport (2018) explained that educators wanting to support students of color must understand the impact of discrimination and racism on mental health. They suggested that professional development can provide an opportunity for educators to examine their experiences with race and the subtle ways that stereotypes may be inadvertently reinforced. Cultural refection can enhance educators’ ability to work with race-related issues and help students feel more positive toward their teachers, accept constructive feedback, and improve academically. Educators and mental health professionals must understand that students experiencing poverty and discrimination often have elevated toxic stress, which can lead to symptoms of depression and anxiety. Sue (2015)

Culturally Responsive School Mental Health 85 and Singleton (2015) encouraged dialogue to enhance teachers’ understanding and comfort with issues of race. Jackson (2016) called for educators to build healthy relationships, bridging the gap with Black and Latino males by frst, knowing them both in and out of school – exploring not just test scores but also family challenges, strengths and weaknesses, emotional wellbeing, and obstacles to their success. Jackson provided suggestions to help bridge the gap with Black and Latino male students: •

•

•

•

•

Listen to your students. Listen without judgment when students express thoughts, frustrations, or concerns. Expressing empathy, even for minor concerns, can send a message that determines how they will approach your class. Active listening can show students that you care about them, helping build trust and openness to learning Be fair and consistent. Treating all students fairly means being impartial and holding all students to the same rules. Students who perceive they are treated unjustly will not be open to forming positive relationships Be transparent. Communication that can build a relationship involves connecting with “trust, intimacy, and respect,” permitting teachers and students to know each other. It is good to let your students know you are not perfect, that you made mistakes and how you overcame them. Sharing how you learned from mistakes makes it more likely students will learn to overcome their mistakes Challenge your mental models. Mental models are thinking patterns based upon past events. They flter our worldview, shaping what we see, hear, feel, and do. Mental models can become rigid and based on false assumptions and information, breeding stereotypes about others. It is vitally important to refect on unconscious mental models that could be wrong. If a stereotype tells you that Black and Latino males are not capable of being successful students, it will affect your interaction and they will perceive low expectations. Every student must be viewed as having the potential to succeed Discipline with care. All students need limit-setting, but it must be the right kind of discipline. Three mistakes are especially harmful for Black and Latino male students: 1) sarcasm toward a youth from a diffcult background can make the target feel inadequate and resentful, 2) showing anger rather than frmness when there are conficts with students is counterproductive – Black and Latino male students generally respond more positively to an understanding teacher who responds with empathy and calm to stressful situations, and 3) sending students to the principal or suspending them rather than making a strong effort to keep them in the classroom can send a message that you don’t believe they can bounce back with better

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•

Foundational Practices behavior – actions can be held accountable by giving the student alternatives other than exclusion. Whatever the form of discipline, demonstrate care for students’ emotional concerns Hungry to learn. Many Black and Latino males feel defeated, underappreciated, and unequipped to succeed. Further, many feel that educators do not expect them to succeed and do not extend the effort to help them grow. Many students who came from poverty grew to have academic and professional success. These young men want to be educated, are hungry to learn, but need positive, empathic educators Adapted from Jackson (2016)

The Profound Impact of Diverse Cultural Experience Hammond and Jackson (2015) explained that culture itself is an important transporter of learning. Addressing the question of how to best support culturally, linguistically, and ethnically diverse (CLED) students taught by mostly White educators, they suggested recommendations advocating an approach called Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT). While variously defned, CRT broadly “includes a set of considerations, attitudes, selfawareness, and teaching decisions that help teachers bring more academic beneft to students of cultural backgrounds different from their own” (Hoffman, 2018a, p. 23). Hoffman (2018a) recommended books authored by Delpit (2012), Emdin (2017), Hammond and Jackson (2015), and Ladson-Billings (2009) promoting Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT) with four overlapping themes: 1.

2.

Acknowledge culture. It is a problem when White-identifed teachers profess to be colorblind. They must become comfortable acknowledging differences related to race. Assimilationist teaching communicates that there is something wrong with a student’s culture and community, and therefore something wrong with the student. Culturally relevant teaching views culture as a source of strength to build upon, with students a brilliant part of a valued community. Colorblindness can prevent recognizing cultural barriers between teacher and student that can block learning. Self-cultivated educator factors. Educators’ consciousness must be transformed to understand the realities students experience. To understand how culture guides learning requires focusing on deep culture, beyond food, holidays, and heroes, to explore the roots of culture: worldview, core beliefs, and group values. To explore another person’s deep culture, educators must pursue the often uncomfortable task of frst examining their own assumptions and biases, and those of their culture (Hammond & Jackson, 2015).

Culturally Responsive School Mental Health 87

3.

4.

Teachers develop awareness that schools can both perpetuate and challenge societal inequities. Delpit (2012) and Emdin (2017) suggested educator immersion into student community and culture to understand consequential circumstances. Teachers having this awareness can then work with students’ culture and community, using asset-based instruction that emphasizes student knowledge, skills, and strengths as a foundation for learning (Ladson-Billings, 2009). Pedagogical decisions. CRT promotes classrooms where students feel a connection, shared responsibility, and shared success in learning partnerships. Emdin (2017) described classrooms where each student is responsible for the class meeting cooperative goals. CRT encourages critical thinking, questioning, and expressing a perspective counter to inaccurate portrayals or negative stereotypes (Emdin, 2017). Educators must acknowledge racism and the pervasive aspect of racism in their students’ lives. Educators must be especially aware of implicit bias, unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that can infuence interpretations of student behavior. Ladson-Billings (2009) suggested teaching educational self-determination, which encourages student-driven learning and alliance with the teacher, who provides frequent opportunities for students to be engaged in lesson planning and delivery (Hoffman, 2018b). Student–teacher relationship factors. The term warm demanders describes teachers with high expectations, who convince students they are bright, help them reach their potential, and serve as a caring ally with the student striving to become an independent learner (Delpit, 2012; Hammond & Jackson, 2015). (Hoffman, 2018b).

Social Justice Advocacy for Educational and Societal Change Barrett, Kendrick-Dunn, and Proctor (2019) described the plight of many students experiencing low-income and economic marginalization (LIEM). For these students, schools have functioned as part of an oppressive system, specifcally against students of color, that maintains the social order by denying access to high-quality education. This disparity in educational opportunities often begins at school entry and leads to life-long inequities in healthcare, employment, housing, and postsecondary outcomes (Barrett et al., 2019). Proctor, Guttman-Lapin, and Kendrick-Dunn (2019) described how to use a social justice advocacy framework to create individual and systems-level change for LIEM students (Proctor et al., 2019). They applied the American Counseling Association (ACA) advocacy framework (Toporek & Daniels, 2018) mentioned earlier in the present chapter, which highlights direct and indirect actions school psychologists can take to advocate for often-neglected LIEM gifted and

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talented (GT) students and address other systemic barriers. School psychologists can work to ensure the educational rights, opportunities, and wellbeing of all children, especially those who have been marginalized and underrepresented. Malone and Proctor (2019) emphasized that for school psychologists, social justice extends beyond culturally competent practice to challenging discriminatory practices and transforming systems that lead to inequitable outcomes for marginalized students. The concept of intersectionality explains how simultaneous social identity categories such as race, ethnicity, gender, economic status, and social class can cumulatively result in systemic and structural racism, domination, and discrimination. American Indian/ Alaska Native, African American, and Hispanic students are disproportionately impacted (Barrett et al., 2019; Parris, Proctor, Panebianco, & Crossing, 2019). An example of intersectional discrimination is that marginalized groups often attend segregated neighborhood schools that have fewer fnancial resources than majority White schools (Parris et al., 2019). Disrupting Educational Inequity Byron McClure (2020) outlined historical and ongoing racism and suppression that have deprived African Americans of fair and equitable treatment in areas such as housing, health care, employment, education, and the judicial system. McClure asserted that these devastating practices are designed and purposeful. There is racial disproportionality in education, with African American students underrepresented in gifted and advanced placement programs and overrepresented in special education, offce discipline referrals, suspensions, expulsions, and dropouts, all creating a school-to-prison pipeline. McClure maintained that disrupting and changing oppressive systems is critical. Systems can be redesigned for greater equity with multifaceted initiatives. The Human Centered Design/Liberatory Design Process is a problem-solving approach that develops solutions by involving the human perspective in all steps (Anaissie, Cary, Clifford, Malarkey, & Wise, 2019; @schoolpsychlife). McClure emphasized use of equity design thinking in conjunction with effective educational practices: • •

Disrupt racist and inequitable practices. Discredited practices such as zero tolerance Social and emotional learning (SEL). Embed culturally relevant SEL practices, seeking to support social-emotional wellbeing, increase skills, decrease conduct problems and emotional distress, and support protective factors. SEL programs that can improve outcomes for minority students from high-poverty communities include (see also in book Appendix and in Online Resource 1):

Culturally Responsive School Mental Health 89

•

• I Can Problem Solve • Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) • Competent Kids • The Incredible Years • 4Rs • Too Good for Violence • Student Success Skills Quality of instruction. Improve quality of culturally responsive instructional practices: • • • • •

•

Self-awareness. My cultural identity, values, beliefs, ways of communicating Cultural awareness. My way of interpreting the behaviors, beliefs, and values of other cultural groups, and awareness of my biases Knowledge. My knowledge about communication and confict styles of diverse cultural groups, and implications of differences on educational outcomes Skill. Do I have needed skills to work effectively across cultures? Actions. Do I actively change my perspective and behaviors to adapt in culturally diverse settings, and do I seek interactions to broaden my cultural perspectives?

Trauma-responsive practices • • • • • • •

Create safe and supportive schools Respond to the needs of all students Establish clear expectations Recognize and reward positive behavior Establish family–school partnerships Broaden employment and internships Administer universal screening Adapted from McClure (2020)

McClure also advocated for restorative practices (RP) as an alternative to punitive, exclusionary discipline. According to RP, everyone is accountable for the consequences of their behavior, but conficts are peacefully resolved, keeping students in school.

Confronting Harassment of LGBTQ+ Students McGorry (2011) addressed the use of anti-gay speech in schools and how to prevent it. He described derogatory language as pervasive among students, but also joined or ignored by faculty. Research by the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network found that anti-gay taunts were used regularly by young people in schools (GLSEN, 2011). McGorry observed that a high percentage of LGBTQ+ students and some targeted teachers

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reported being verbally harassed. As a district administrator with memories of his own maltreatment as a gay young man, McGorry began to engage colleagues in a research survey, but it evolved into conversations about how to address the problem. Many teachers wanted to gain knowledge and skills for responding to hostile speech. McGorry recognized the courage needed for educators to break the silence about teaching practices and abusive relationships. Thoughtfully designed educator trainings are offered by GLSEN chapters (GLSEN, 2011). Teachers can begin addressing verbal and physical harassment of LGBTQ+ students and use those troubling moments for educational purposes (McGorry, 2011). Here are tips for starting conversations with faculty and staff about harassing speech and actions: 1. Prepare by reading a comprehensive guide to creating safe schools, such as GLSEN’s Safe Space Kit (available at www.glsen.org). 2. Use a tool such as the Local School Climate Survey (available free at www.glsen.org) to gather and analyze data about your school. 3. Provide questions that encourage faculty to engage in self-refection prior to discussion. 4. Create a safe, supportive space where teachers and staff members feel free to share experiences, challenges, successes, questions, and doubts about the issue. Sharing of relevant stories, questions, and challenges by the discussion leader can help create a safe space and dialogue. 5. Establish respectful discussion ground rules. 6. Maximize the opportunity for all to be engaged by keeping the group small (fewer than 25) and/or using strategies for small group sharing. 7. Share data specifc to the school site and provide faculty the opportunity to respond and identify discussion topics. 8. Treat each individual’s story or comments with respect. 9. Challenge faculty to consider what their responses to anti-LGBTQ+ speech are communicating to student bystanders. 10. Lead faculty to consider the congruence, or lack of congruence of their 1) understanding of anti-LGBTQ+ speech, 2) goals for responding to it in the classroom, and 3) actual responses. Ask faculty to identify one thing they can do to achieve congruence. Adapted from McGorry (2011) ****** We are challenged by not only the fght against hatred, bigotry, and systemic inequity based on race, ethnicity, gender, religion, disability, and sexual orientation, but also the fght to educate and open hearts and minds to appreciate the goodness of diversity, justice, equity, and inclusion.

Culturally Responsive School Mental Health 91 Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS), featured in the next chapter, provides a model to develop and integrate innovative interventions that facilitate school safety and mental health.

References Alegria, M., Green, J. G., McLaughlin, K. A., & Loder, S. (2015). Disparities in child and adolescent mental health and mental health services in the US. New York, NY: William T. Grant Foundation. Anaissie, T., Cary, V., Clifford, D., Malarkey, T., & Wise, S. (2019). Liberatory design: Your toolkit to design for equity (version 1.0). Collaboration between the Stanford d.school’s K12Lab and the National Equity Project. Balsa, A. I., & McGuire, T. G. (2003). Prejudice, clinical uncertainty and stereotyping as sources of health disparities. Journal of Health Economics, 22, 89–116. Barrett, C., Kendrick-Dunn, T. B., & Proctor, S. L. (2019). Low income and economic marginalization as a matter of social justice: Foundational knowledge. Communiqué, 48(2), 21–22. Benn, G. A. (2018). You don’t know me like that! Educational Leadership, 76(1), 20–25. Brach, C., & Fraserirector, I. (2000). Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities? A review and conceptual model. Medical Care Research and Review, 57(1), 181–217. Ceballo, R., Alers-Rojas, F., Montoro, J. P., & Mora, A. S. (2020). Contextual stressors and the role of religion and spirituality in the mental health of Latino/a immigrant parents and youth. In Mental and behavioral health of immigrants in the United States (pp. 135–155). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press. Center for Health and Health Care in Schools. (2011). Children of immigrants and refugees: What the research tells us. Washington, DC: George Washington University. Delpit, L. D. (2012). Multiplication is for White people: Raising expectations for other people’s children. New York: New Press. Emdin, C. (2017). For White folks who teach in the hood . . . and the rest of y’all too: Reality pedagogy and urban education. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2015). Prevalence of childhood exposure to violence, crime, and abuse: Results from the national survey of children’s exposure to violence. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(8), 746–754. Garcia-Joslin, J. J., Carrillo, G. O., Guzman, V., Vega, D., Plotts, C. A., & Lasser, J. (2016). Latino immigration: Preparing school psychologists to meet students’ needs. School Psychology Quarterly, 31(2), 256. Garrett, M. T., Parrish, M., Williams, C., Grayshield, L., Portman, T. A. A., Torres Rivera, E., & Maynard, E. (2014). Invited commentary: Fostering resilience among Native American youth through therapeutic intervention. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(3), 470–490. Gay, Lesbian, & Straight Education Network (GLSEN). (2011). GLSEN launches Safe Space campaign. Retrieved from www.glsen.org/cgi-bin/iowa/all/news/ record/2662.html Griner, D., & Smith, T. B. (2006). Culturally adapted mental health interventions; a meta-analytic review. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 43, 531–548.

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Gross, N., & Lo, C. (2018). Relational teaching and learning after loss: Evidence from Black adolescent male students and their teachers. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(3), 381–389. Hammond, Z., & Jackson, Y. (2015). Culturally responsive teaching and the brain: Promoting authentic engagement and rigor among culturally and linguistically diverse students. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Hernandez, M., Nesman, T., Mowery, D., Acevedo-Polakovich, I. D., & Callejas, L. M. (2009). Cultural competence: A literature review and conceptual model for mental health services. Psychiatric Services, 60(8), 1046–1050. Hoffman, M. C. (2018a). Culturally responsive teaching – Part 1: Acknowledging culture and self-cultivation. Communiqué, 47(2), 23–26. Hoffman, M. C. (2018b). Culturally responsive teaching – Part 2: Pedagogical considerations and teacher – student relationships. Communiqué, 47(3), 12–15. Ibanez, G. E., Dillon, F., Sanchez, M., De La Rosa, M., Tan, L., & Villar, M. E. (2015). Changes in family cohesion and acculturative stress among recent Latino immigrants. Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 24(3), 219–234. Jackson, R. (2016). Helping black and Latino males succeed. Educational Leadership, 74(1), 38–42. Kirmayer, L. J., Dandeneau, S., Marshall, E., Phillips, M. K., & Williamson, K. J. (2011). Rethinking resilience from indigenous perspectives. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(2), 84–91. Ladson-Billings, G. (2009). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. LaSalle, T. P., George, H. P., McCoach, D. B., Polk, T., & Evanovich, L. L. (2018). An examination of school climate, victimization, and mental health problems among middle school students self-identifying with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 43, 383–392. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0198742918768045 LaSalle, T. P., Meyers, J., Varjas, K., & Roach, A. (2015). A cultural–ecological model of school climate. International Journal of School and Educational Psychology, 3, 157–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2015.1047550 Lineman, J. M., & Miller, G. E. (2012). Strengthening competence in working with culturally and linguistically diverse students. Com•muniqué, 40(8), 20–21. Lopez, D., Ochoa, D., Romero, M., & Parr, K. (2020). Integrating Latinx/ Hispanic culture, traditions, and beliefs into effective school psychology practice. Communiqué, 49(4), 16–18. Lopez, F. A. (2016). Culturally responsive pedagogies in Arizona and Latino students’ achievement. Teachers College Record, 118(5). Malone, C. M., & Proctor, S. L. (2019). Demystifying social justice for school psychology practice. Communiqué, 48(1), 21–23. McClure, B. M. (2020). Are you a disrupter? Dismantling the school-to-prison pipeline. Documented Session presented at the convention of the National Association of School Psychologists, Baltimore, MD. McGorry, R. A. (2011). Breaking silences. Educational Leadership, 69(1), 56–59. NASP. (2020). Effective service delivery for indigenous children, youth, families, and communities [Position statement]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Culturally Responsive School Mental Health 93 Nelson, J. D. (2016). Relational teaching with Black boys: Strategies for learning at a single-sex middle school for boys of color. Teachers College Record, 118, 1–30. Parris, L., Proctor, S. L., Panebianco, A., & Crossing, A. (2019). Using intersectionality as a tool for social justice with low income and economically marginalized children and youth. Communiqué, 48(3), 16–18. Proctor, S. L., Guttman-Lapin, D., & Kendrick-Dunn, T. B. (2019). A framework for social justice advocacy for low income and economically marginalized gifted and talented students. Communiqué, 48(4), 25–28. Proctor, S. L., Kendrick-Dunn, T. B., & Barrett, C. (2020). Social Justice Committee 2020–2021 focus: Health disparities and social justice. Communiqué, 49(1), 21–22. Robinson-Zanartu, C., Butler-Byrd, N., Cook-Morales, V. J., Dauphinais, P., Charley, E., & Bonner, M. (2011). School psychologists working with Native American youth: Training, competence, and needs. Contemporary School Psychology, 15(1), 103–116. SAMHSA. (2017). Suicide clusters within American Indian and Alaska Native communities: A review of the literature and recommendations. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Human Services, Center for Mental Health Services. Sehgal, P., Jeffries, J., & Rappaport, N. (2018). Combatting race-related stress in the classroom. Educational Leadership, 75(4), 51–55. Singleton, G. E. (2015). Courageous conversations about race: A feld guide for achieving equity in schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Suarez-Orozco, C., Yoshikawa, H., & Tseng, V. (2015). Intersecting inequalities: Research to reduce inequality for immigrant-origin children and youth. New York, NY: William T. Grant Foundation. Sue, D. W. (2015). Race talk and the conspiracy of silence: Understanding and facilitating diffcult dialogues on race. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Sullivan, A. L., Weeks, M., Kulkarni, T., Nguyen, T., Kendrick-Dunn, T. B., & Barrett, C. (2020). Historical foundations of health disparities: A primer for school psychologists to advance social justice. Communiqué, 49(2), 30–32. Tan, S. X. L., Harvey, J., Kendrick-Dunn, T. B., & Proctor, S. L. (2020). Physical health disparities as a social justice issue: Actions school psychologists can take at the systems level. Communiqué, 49(3), 16–18. Toporek, R., & Daniels, J. (2018). American Counseling Association advocacy competencies. Retrieved from www.counseling.org/docs/default-source/ competencies/aca-2018-advocacy-competencies.pdf Zayas, L. H., & Pilat, A. M. (2008). Suicidal behavior in Latinas: Explanatory cultural factors and implications for intervention. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 38(3), 334–342. https://doi.org/10.1521/suli.2008.38.3.334

6

Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS)

The true measure of any society can be found in how it treats its most vulnerable members. ~ Mahatma Gandhi

MTSS: Service Delivery for Integrating and Coordinating Programs Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS), introduced in Chapters 2 and 3, is a three-tiered continuum of service delivery in schools recommended by both a Framework for Safe and Successful Schools (Cowan, Vaillancourt, Rossen, & Pollitt, 2013) and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2019). MTSS is a framework that provides a delivery system within which many academic and mental health programs and practices can be implemented, integrated, and coordinated (see Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1). While academic MTSS incorporates a continuum of instructional, curricular, and Response to Intervention (RtI) learning supports, the focus of this chapter and book is the role of social-emotional-behavioral (SEB) MTSS promoting school safety and mental health. Academic and mental health MTSS together provide reciprocal interventions that mutually beneft students, staff, and programs. In this system, specially trained teams, school mental health professionals, and other support staff provide services for students, teachers, administrators, and families. Barriers to learning are reduced or removed by creating school environments that promote wellness and address student learning, social-emotional, behavioral, and mental health needs. Clark and Dockweiler (2019) asserted that universal Tier 1 programs and instruction in social-emotional and behavioral functioning from preschool through high school deserve as much rigor as academic supports. Programs and practices presented in the chapters of Section IV – universal mental health screening, Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) and Trauma-Informed

Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) 95 Schools (TIS) can easily be coordinated and integrated within the overarching MTSS model. MTSS has prevention programs and school-wide initiatives nested at each tier of service delivery. MTSS is a comprehensive system of differentiated interventions provided at increasing levels of intensity consistent with data indicating student needs. MTSS typically provides three tiers of services, with Tier 1 offering school-wide interventions for all students, Tier 2 offering targeted services for students identifed as needing additional individual or group support, and Tier 3 offering more intensive individual or small group services to students and families (Adapted from National Association of School Psychologists (2015a)). Core features of MTSS have been defned: • • • • • •

Team-based leadership and coordination of services Continuum of evidence-based programs and practices Ongoing evaluation of implementation fdelity Continuous data-based decision making and monitoring of intervention outcomes Comprehensive universal academic and mental health screening and follow-up Ongoing professional development and collaboration, including follow-up technical support (consultation and/or coaching) to build local capacity Adapted from OSEP Technical Assistance Center for PBIS

Rossen and Cowan (2015) described three MTSS tiers of social-emotional and behavioral (SEB) resources: 1.

2.

3.

Tier 1: Universal wellness promotion and primary prevention. Goals promote safety, resilience, positive behavior, and a positive school climate, where relationships are valued, students feel connected, and the entire school staff is involved in school-wide programs that emphasize skill development, positive behavior and discipline practices, social-emotional learning, and identifying peers at possible risk, including universal screening for mental health problems like depression, bipolar disorder, and suicide risk. Tier 2: Targeted prevention and intervention. Goals identify specifc school problems or a subset of student needs such as social skills or small group counseling for stress or anger management, or grief. School mental health providers and teams assess student needs, evaluate and guide appropriate interventions, and collaborate with teachers and families. Tier 3: Individual/tertiary intervention. Goals provide direct and indirect student mental health services for more intensive needs,

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Foundational Practices through counseling and other therapeutic interventions, often coordinated by school mental health professionals with community resources providing time-intensive services.

Rossen and Cowan (2015) emphasized that MTSS lowers barriers and builds bridges by offering strategic advantages: 1. 2.

3.

Mental health services can be integrated with academic, social-emotional, and behavioral supports by aligning with effective programs and serving a broad range of needs. Barriers are lowered and bridges built between special and general education by coordinating a collaborative approach for planning interventions that beneft all students and reduce inappropriate special education referrals. Coordination with community providers is facilitated, while concurrently ensuring that services provided in school are appropriate for the learning context. Coordination is critical as schools seek partnerships with community agencies. Adapted from Rossen and Cowan (2015)

The National Association of School Psychologists’ (2015a) guiding principles for developing educational policies for effective schools are facilitated by MTSS: 1.

Combine high expectations with high-quality instruction for all students, across rigorous and comprehensive curricula • •

Support development of skills needed for success in life, including social-emotional learning Ensure that instruction, assessments, and interventions are responsive to students’ culture, language, and backgrounds MTSS provides school-wide academic, social-emotional, and behavioral programs to help all students beneft from quality instruction and curricula.

2.

Create positive school climates to ensure safe and supportive learning environments for all students • • •

Integrate academic supports with social-emotional-behavioral health services embedded in an MTSS framework Implement evidence-based practices to reduce violence and enhance supportive relationships Enact discipline practices that promote positive behavior and restorative practices MTSS promotes efforts to support student engagement, trusting relationships, and behavioral-emotional health. Crisis teams are prepared to address crises.

Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) 97 3.

Provide access to school mental and behavioral health services by ensuring adequate staffng of school-based mental health professionals • •

Coordinate a continuum of services, integrating school and community resources, and educating the school community to respond to mental health concerns Align staff ratios with professional organization recommendations The MTSS framework enables schools to promote student and staff wellness and to address problems before they escalate. Students are more likely to seek help if services are available in schools.

4.

Increase family and community engagement to support student success • •

Develop partnerships between schools, families, and community organizations Involve families and community resources in school improvement efforts and teams and support youth participation in community programs MTSS provides mechanisms for school–family–community partnerships.

5.

Create systems that support recruiting and retaining properly trained professionals • • •

Provide continuous professional development for all staff to support wellbeing, classroom instruction, and school-wide initiatives Enact policies that fund attendance at conferences and training/networking opportunities Plan regular peer consultation, mentoring, and collaboration MTSS provides an ideal framework for organizing ongoing training that nurtures teacher satisfaction and student learning. Professional development should target specifc needs rather than “one-size-ftsall” training (Gregory, Allen, Mikami, Hafen, & Pianta, 2014).

6.

Create accountability systems that refect all student and school performance, inform instruction, and guide initiatives •

Base instruction and intervention decisions on multiple data sources, including school climate indicators, universal screening, and valid measures for all students, identifying areas of need A basic tenet of MTSS is data collection to inform decision making and progress monitoring. Adapted from National Association of School Psychologists (2015a)

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These principles for developing educational policies provide a blueprint that can help create a vision, mission, values, and goals that assure best practices such as MTSS to establish safe and supportive schools. These guiding principles require a major commitment to ongoing collaborative planning, community engagement, development, and hard work. A mechanism increasingly installed in MTSS that facilitates community engagement is Comprehensive School Mental Health Systems (CSMHS), which feature partnerships between school and community behavioral health sectors to support a continuum of behavioral health promotion, supports, and treatment services (Bostic & Hoover, 2020). Collaborating school- and community-based behavioral health providers deliver interventions in schools such as universal social and emotional learning (SEL) programs that demonstrate positive psychosocial outcomes. Benefts have included improved social-emotional skills, emotion regulation, prosocial behavior, positive self-image, and a signifcant decrease in conduct problems, emotional distress, and substance use compared with peers not receiving programming. CSMHS installed within comprehensive MTSS also provide crisis prevention and response (Bostic & Hoover).

Infrastructure and Collaborative Problem-Solving Teams Commenting on the infrastructure needed for student and staff success, Clark and Dockweiler (2019) stated that without a clear blueprint, student needs and school problems get a reactive, rather than proactive, response. Simply reinventing old solutions rather than having a problemsolving framework is both time consuming and exhausting. They emphasized the need for a well-constructed MTSS with a solid foundation, whether building new programs or redesigning existing educational structures and practices. Clark and Dockweiler suggested that schools start this building process conservatively to ensure the integrity of new practices, making additions and improvements incrementally each school year to expand the tiered support system. There must be a dedicated budget to initiate implementation of a comprehensive MTSS framework. Fiscal management and strategic resource allocation demonstrate determination to dedicate funds to needed structures and training, aligning each initiative with the overall improvement plan for effciency and enhanced outcomes (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019). An essential aspect of a school’s infrastructure is its people, the resource most critical to formation of teams. The power of MTSS is the strength of not only its programs but also the teams that drive them. Programs and teams share synchronistic importance and function. It is the teams and the people comprising them, who coordinate and provide the services, problem solve and design appropriate interventions, collect and use the data for decision making, and fnd or develop the resources. Effective,

Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) 99 effcient teams determine the effectiveness and effciency of services within MTSS. Key questions include: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Does the team believe in its mission and potential? Does the team have strong, shared leadership? Does the team appreciate the importance of collecting and using data? Does the team recognize its contribution to the learning and wellbeing of students, educators, and families?

A variety of teams function to meet various aspects of school safety and social-emotional supports. Essential teams that manage and coordinate MTSS are the school leadership team and/or the MTSS team. Other teams support specifc programs and initiatives within MTSS. All teams associated with MTSS should be trained for effciency and the roles and functions needed to be effective. The size of a school, its resources, and the commitment of the administration and staff indicate the extent of team resources within the school. Available team resources determine whether there will be individual teams at each of the three MTSS tiers, or whether one team will coordinate the functions of all three tiers, perhaps with subgroups managing each tier. Generally, membership of teams will need to be overlapping, with certain key members serving on multiple teams. Consolidating functions and teams can make participation on multiple teams more manageable and effcient. For very small schools or districts, the need is amplifed for partnership with “buddy” schools and districts, and with community agencies and services to cover needed functions. No school is expected to maintain all of the following teams. Among the many potential teams providing supports (and some of their coordinating functions) are: • • • •

•

School leadership team (multidisciplinary school improvement; professional development planning; program selection and training; implementing, evaluating, and sustaining programs and practices) MTSS team (coordinating entire system of supports; community partnerships) Academic MTSS team (benchmark screening; curriculum and instruction; culturally responsive teaching; instructional support; Response to Intervention (RtI); progress monitoring) Mental health MTSS or SEB team (social-emotional-behavioral screening; school needs assessment; prevention programs and practices; individual interventions; progress monitoring; partnerships with community mental health agencies and hospitals) Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3 teams (if suffcient personnel, individual teams with overlapping membership to focus on functions at each tier – otherwise subgroups integrated within the MTSS team)

100 •

• • • •

• • •

Foundational Practices School safety team (plans for physical and psychological safety; prevention of violence and emotional trauma; interventions to restore student, staff, and community security; liaison with community law enforcement and frefghters) Crisis response team (ongoing training and preparation for traumatic crisis prevention, protection, mitigation, response, and recovery) Risk assessment team (assessment of individuals or groups at risk for self-harm) Threat assessment team (assessment of individuals or groups at risk for harming others) Professional learning communities (PLCs) (small teacher groups, often formed by grade-level, subject taught, or interest topic, to work collaboratively on improving curriculum, instruction, classroom management, and implementation of new practices) Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) team (see Chapter 13) Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) team (see Chapter 14) Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS) team (see Chapter 15)

Obviously, this is a long and daunting list of possible teams and functions that would challenge all schools – large and especially small ones. Thoughtful planning is needed to integrate teams with common roles and functions, and to involve staff in membership, including overlapping members of multiple teams for which they have specifc interest and expertise. School-based mental health professionals might assume overlapping membership on teams that focus on social-emotional and behavioral health and student safety, for example, an integrated risk/ threat assessment team. They might also participate on or consult with other teams, such as school leadership or MTSS leadership, and PBIS, SEL, and TIS teams. A challenge is to integrate teams and membership without immobilizing them with too many functions and responsibilities. Another critical challenge is to plan for the logistics and time that will allow these teams to meet and function effectively. Given the extensive list of potential teams and overlapping membership on multiple teams, Clark and Dockweiler (2019) suggested that a master schedule be developed by the school administration. A master schedule will contribute to consistent and reasonable intervals between meetings and help to avoid conficting meeting times for members serving on more than one team. These organizational timelines should be established prior to the start of the school year (Forman & Crystal, 2015). With established weekly or bi-weekly meeting times, members can plan their attendance in advance. An effective MTSS team shares duties and decision making, with members contributing various perspectives and areas of expertise. Role responsibilities may be interchangeable, with all points of view considered

Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) 101 in the data-driven decision making model. Relying solely on one or two educators for the bulk of the work is not sustainable over time. To ensure quality control, it is helpful for teams to defne roles and responsibilities for educators from various disciplines represented on the team. It is suggested that MTSS team chairs or co-chairs be designated to organize and lead meetings, and that MTSS case managers be designated to facilitate and maintain the collection of individual student data and program outcome data. Assigning case managers expands shared accountability and the network of available supports. Case managers may be selected to support the grades they teach or specifc programs of interest such as PBIS or universal screenings. MTSS chairs and case managers may be rotated among team members (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019). Clark and Dockweiler (2019) suggest fve explicit roles of MTSS chairs or co-chairs: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Communicate team meeting dates and times, and reschedule meetings as necessary. Ensure recording of meeting discussions and student or program data in an MTSS database. Lead MTSS team meetings. Facilitate problem solving to improve team functions and processes. Facilitate liaisons and partnerships with stakeholder and community groups, including family representation. Adapted from Clark and Dockweiler (2019)

MTSS mental health team membership should include at least one administrator, school psychologist, school counselor, school social worker, school nurse, school resource offcer (SRO), teacher liaisons, possibly student and family representatives, and relevant school community partners and stakeholders. Certain roles and functions must be performed whether there is one or several MTSS teams. There must be a member with data collection and analysis expertise. Often, data collection and analysis are the responsibility of the school psychologist, though others, including teachers, can serve this function. Data collection and analysis is important for decision making at all tiers. Clark and Dockweiler (2019) advocated Tier 1 and Tier 2 universal and targeted academic and social-emotional-behavioral (SEB) screenings. The mental health screening team or subgroup can be comprised of school mental health providers and the school nurse. Decisions must be made to determine the most appropriate instruments to meet the school’s identifed needs, training for teachers who complete the screening, how often the screenings will be administered, and how results will be analyzed and followed up with interventions as needed. See Chapter 12 for elaboration of universal mental health screening. A critical function at Tier 3 is developing and coordinating partnerships and clarifying the nature and extent of services provided by community

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agencies. An administrator, school mental health provider, or subgroup of Tier 3 team members can serve the coordinator role. Family–school collaboration is valued in MTSS programs and practices within all tiers of support. Inclusive norms and practices drive processes that promote positive school staff and family interactions in a welcoming school environment.

Selecting and Implementing Programs and Practices at Each Tier Rossen and Cowan (2015) described mental health as existing on a continuum that includes mental wellness, temporary problems, and serious mental illness. At every stage of this continuum, schools have a role, including prevention and wellness for all students, identifcation and early intervention for those at risk, and intensive intervention for students having more serious problems. They emphasized that MTSS is effective for service delivery refecting the continuum and integrating it into the school community to meet student needs. An MTSS perspective can also serve as a development model that involves prioritizing, building capacity, and sustaining programs and practices at each of the three tiers. Schools can build the support capacity of each tier gradually by one tier at a time, or in multiple tiers simultaneously, according to a school’s identifed priorities and resources. Clusters of needed programs can be initiated in multiple tiers at the same time, or program clusters can be developed in one tier at a time. Clark and Dockweiler (2019, 2020) surmise that a strong program of supports at Tier 1 and subsequently Tier 2 in the earlier grades will often alleviate the need for expensive, intensive interventions at Tier 3. Universal SEB screenings can be used at Tier 1 to identify and prioritize students in need of Tier 2 or 3 programs and services. Screenings provide early intervention to help identify emotionally vulnerable students. They cast a broad net, facilitating systematic identifcation of students at risk for internalizing or externalizing behaviors, or imminent risk of suicide or harming others, thus demanding immediate attention, as well as those with less urgent but serious problems requiring follow-up supports. Schools and districts must be prepared for adequate follow-up resources and care at all three tiers of support, including community agencies (see Chapter 12). School safety is a multifaceted problem requiring physical security and psychological measures such as a supportive culture for all students, with programs such as PBIS within an MTSS framework. Clark and Dockweiler (2019) pointed out that school incident data can be systematically evaluated by smart teams making data-based decisions that enhance safety. School safety and mental health concerns can be prioritized by empowering an SEB MTSS team to identify, monitor, and support students with the most severe emotional Tier 3 needs. Tier 2 and 3 referrals for behavioral supports can originate with staff or family recommendations, or regular MTSS team data sources, including SEB screenings. Team problem

Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) 103 solving actively strives to minimize the impact of mental illness, behavior disorders, and maladaptive behavior, often compounded by family stressors. A coordinated system can connect struggling students with the interventions and services they need. The MTSS SEB team can use resource mapping to compile an emergency list of reliable school-based and community mental health interventions and professionals able to help students in need of services (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019). The MTSS model is a critical resource, but it is essentially a delivery system that is only as effective as the programs and services it contains. This is not to minimize the importance of MTSS, which feeds, nurtures, and coordinates the programs. In a sense, the service delivery model and the programs within it are interdependent. Selecting programs for each tier of MTSS helps organize and guide choices to maintain a balance of needed interventions throughout the tiered support system. Table 6.1 lists nonexhaustive school safety and mental health program options within each tier. Evidence-Based Programs That Fit an Integrated MTSS Model Integrated support frameworks such as MTSS are ideal for proactively addressing students’ internalizing and externalizing behaviors and an array of social-emotional and behavioral supports. Some state laws are now mandating that in addition to social-emotional learning, frameworks must include behavior screenings, interventions, and progress monitoring to help identify and remediate emotional diffculties. Table 6.1 Mental Health Program Options for 3 Tiers of MTSS Service Delivery Tier 1: Universal Programs, Teams, and Services

Tier 2: Targeted Programs, Teams, and Services

School safety team

Response to Intervention (RtI) Individual Education Plans (IEPs)

Threat assessment team

Behavior monitoring

Tier 3: Intensive Programs, Teams, and Services

Tutoring/Academic support School crisis team Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (C-BITS) School safety/vulnerability Section 504 plans Community mental assessment health and cultural support agencies School climate survey/ Functional Behavior Religious and faith assessment Assessments (FBAs) organizations PREPaRE school crisis prevention Behavior Intervention Family support and intervention training Plans (BIPs) services Cultural/Ethnic community leaders and contacts (Continued)

104 Foundational Practices Table 6.1 (Continued) Tier 1: Universal Programs, Teams, and Services

Tier 2: Targeted Programs, Teams, and Services

Tier 3: Intensive Programs, Teams, and Services

Risk assessment team

Check-In/Check-Out (CICO) Counseling students

Wraparound services

Confict resolution and mediation

Restorative justice Academic screening Mental health screening Program and planning committee Positive school climate and prevention programs (Schoolwide) • Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) • Social and emotional learning (SEL) • Responsive Classroom • Trauma-Informed School (TIS) • Suicide prevention program • Bullying prevention program • Cultural responsiveness and diversity appreciation program • Mindfulness program Media/Social media monitoring/gatekeeping Teacher stress reduction Extracurricular programs Teacher professional development and technical support Family–school collaboration

Coaching students Suicide intervention/ postvention Bullying intervention Tutoring/Academic support Selected support groups • Social skills training groups • Anxiety management groups • Test anxiety group • Anger management groups • Grief and bereavement support groups • Trauma support groups • LBGTQ+/Gay– Straight Alliance support groups • Divorce support groups Mentoring support Confict de-escalation Truancy reduction/ drop-out prevention

Memorandums of understanding (MOUs) with community agencies, hospitals, law enforcement, individual and family therapy, risk/threat assessment, and violence prevention

Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) 105

Figure 6.1 Integration of Programs and Practices Under the Umbrella of MTSS Source: Designed by Megan Pell, Delaware Positive Behavior Support Project (2015)

Many programs include overlapping purposes and practices that address a variety of potential problems and achieve a variety of positive outcomes. For example, among the basic tenets of many evidence-based programs are promoting awareness of specifc diffculties, building skills, creating positive school and classroom environments, managing stress, using educational approaches to discipline, and collecting data to inform planning. Similarly, some programs comfortably nest into overarching umbrella programs or systems – for example, Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) and Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS) can nest within Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), and these programs can all be nested within MTSS. As illustrated in Figure 6.1, an MTSS framework that nurtures a positive school climate may be viewed as the ultimate umbrella within which to establish and integrate programs and practices that promote school safety and mental health. MTSS delivers programs and interventions that serve as a foundation for further program implementation and more positive outcomes for students, staff, and families. ******

106 Foundational Practices The foundational practice explored in the next chapter is family–school collaboration and caregiver education, a core factor in supporting student safety, wellbeing, and success.

References Bostic, J., & Hoover, S. (2020). Improving the child and adolescent crisis system: Shifting from a 9–1–1 to a 9–8–8 paradigm. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors. Clark, A. G., & Dockweiler, K. A. (2019). Multi-tiered systems of support in secondary schools: The defnitive guide to effective implementation and quality control. New York: Routledge. Clark, A. G., & Dockweiler, K. A. (2020). Multi-tiered systems of support in elementary schools: The defnitive guide to effective implementation and quality control. New York: Routledge. Cowan, K. C., Vaillancourt, K., Rossen, E., & Pollitt, K. (2013). A framework for safe and successful schools [Brief]. National Association of School Psychologists. Retrieved from www.nasponline.org/resources-and-publications/resources/ school-safety-and-crisis/a-framework-for-safe-and-successful-schools Delaware Positive Behavior Support Project. (2015). Schoolwide positive behavior support: 1 day training. Presentation at state schoolwide PBS workshop for new team members, Dover, DE. Forman, S. G., & Crystal, C. D. (2015). Systems consultation for multitiered systems of supports (MTSS): Implementation issues. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 25, 276–285. Gregory, A., Allen, J., Mikami, A. Y., Hafen, C. A., & Pianta, R. C. (2014). Effects of a professional development program on behavioral engagement of students in middle and high school. Psychology in the Schools, 51, 143–163. National Association of School Psychologists. (2015a). Ready to learn, empowered to teach: Guiding principles for effective schools and successful students [Policy brief]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Rossen, E., & Cowan, K. C. (2015). Improving mental health in schools. Kappan, 96(4), 8–13. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Center for Medicaid and CHIP Services. (2019). Guidance to states and school systems on addressing mental health and substance use issues in schools. Washington, DC: Joint Informational Bulletin.

7

Family – School Collaboration and Caregiver Education

In every conceivable manner, the family is a link to our past, bridge to our future. ~ Alex Haley

Understanding Family Systems and Challenges In Families and Family Therapy (1974), Salvador Minuchin applied systems thinking to enhance our understanding of dynamic family structures and interaction. His “structural family therapy” provides “a body of theory and techniques that views the individual as part of a larger social context” (p. 2). The individual is a part of the changing system in which relationships are infuenced by interacting structures. For many families and children, school represents a source of stability but is also a formidable source of stress. The family system must be able to adapt to changing circumstances, including external demands such as schools. “The boundaries of the family subsystems must be frm, yet fexible enough to allow realignment when circumstances change.” Positive change often involves recognizing, exploring, and developing alternatives to the patterns of confict that block improvement in family relationships. Through knowledge of family structures, confict resolution, and a variety of techniques, change can be promoted that guides movement toward more effective, satisfying, growth-oriented relationships, both within and outside the family system. Minuchin’s approach was a courageous departure from the medical model, with its focus on the patient as the site of pathology and source of the problem. In traditional psychiatric diagnosis, data is gathered about the patient, who is given a label and targeted for treatment. In structural family therapy, the identifed patient is viewed as a family member who is the “symptom carrier,” expressing a problem whose etiology is not within the individual but within the family system. Similarly, schools can identify a struggling student as needing special attention, but recognize that effective solutions often involve both supports for the child and changes

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or modifcations in the system impacting the child. Constructive change in the individual follows the resolution of conficts and changes in the family as a whole and within its subsystems. Similar to family dynamics, family–school collaboration may uncover a need to resolve differences or conficts among subsystems, such as teachers, students, administrators, parents, and others, that can block progress toward mutually desired goals. When family and school systems interact, there is often a need to establish trust and rapport, resolve cultural differences and conficts, and create fexible boundaries and structures to foster a family–school partnership that provides academic and emotional support for the child. There are a variety of ways that schools can prepare educators, systems, and strategies for positive relationships with families.

Training Teachers for Family Engagement Clark and Dockweiler (2019) reminded us that children bring their families to school in the sense that they come to school with experiences, values, and stressors from home that infuence their thinking, learning, and ultimately their interaction with others. Family engagement has become more complicated than parent–teacher conferences. In fact, increased use of the term family engagement in place of the term parental engagement aligns with international realities about the composition of families in communities. Many families are not guided by biological parents, but are instead often blended with an array of confgurations. In their meta-analysis, Smith and Sheridan (2019) found that Teacher Training Programs (TTPs) that prepare teachers to effectively communicate and work with families had a signifcant positive effect on all teacher–family engagement outcomes. Sheridan, Clarke, and Christenson (2014) emphasized communication as an explicit practice for connecting families and schools. Evaluating communication practices could initiate creating opportunities for family–school engagement. Administrators and teachers could prioritize developing constructive communication and sharing information and decision making. Sheridan and colleagues stated that families should always be helped to recognize themselves as resources supporting their children’s education (Sheridan et al., 2014). Sheridan and colleagues listed foundational and constructive practices with strategies for engaging parents and family caregivers. Foundational practices for engaging families: •

Convey genuineness/sincerity •

Conduct an attitude assessment to create a climate that supports family engagement

Family – School Collaboration •

•

Inform parents and family caregivers that they are partners in their child’s education and invite them to join in meaningful roles such as problem solving and decision making

Build trust • •

•

109

Show consistency with words and actions refecting a positive regard and desire to partner with families to address student needs Show consistency following through with actions to engage parents and families

Convey respect • • • •

Provide options for parents and caregivers to choose how they want to engage with their child and school Ask parents to provide information about themselves and their child, including learning strategies and goals Actively listen to parents and show understanding of their verbal and nonverbal messages, including when the parent perspective is different from the school Show desire to learn about family culture, applying a strengthsbased perspective when addressing cultural differences

Constructive practices for engaging families: •

Engage in effective, bidirectional communication • • • •

•

Use parent-friendly speech using the parents’ primary language Provide parents and caregivers with a variety of bidirectional ways to communicate with educators Include positive messages in contacts with families, including good news phone calls or home-school notes Address family concerns calmly, avoiding blame and defensiveness

Collaborate/partner • • • • •

Identify and explain parent/caregiver and educator roles, rights, and responsibilities Provide opportunities for joint decision making during parent– teacher conferences, instructional and intervention planning Identify and use individual strengths of the student, caregiver, and teacher to build competencies Identify and use system strengths (home, school, community) and parent–teacher relationships to foster partnerships Offer resources such as fexible scheduling, language interpreters, information prior to meetings, and explaining partnering processes

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Use structured, data-based processes to facilitate joint planning and partnering across settings to support learning Adapted from Sheridan et al. (2014)

Minke and Vickers (2015) discussed getting families on board to navigate mental health issues, sharing C-O-R-E beliefs: Connected •

Trust with families can develop when they feel valued, heard, and understood

Optimistic • • •

Families have strengths and resources to try their best in diffcult situations Blaming one person for a problem only interferes with solving the problem Problems are system problems; successes are system successes

Respected • •

In family interactions, each person is an expert and a learner Children must be active participants in decisions affecting them

Empowered • •

Power, responsibility, decision making, and action should be shared, but families should be the main intervention decision makers Avoid advice giving, which is disempowering

Family Involvement in a Multi-Tiered System of Supports There are many academic, social, and behavioral benefts when families actively participate in their children’s education. These benefts include increased attendance, positive interactions with peers, decrease in negative behaviors, and higher test scores (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Kelly, Rossen, and Cowan (2018) identifed family–school collaboration as an essential aspect of promoting student mental and behavioral health. They suggested that when school-wide Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) is used to structure mental and behavioral health services, families should be involved at all three tiers (Kelly et al., 2018). At the Tier 1 universal level, schools should ensure that families know the school-based mental health professionals, how to reach them, and the services they provide. Information in appropriate languages can be sent home through the family’s preferred mode of communication

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(email, letter, phone) and/or through presentations at back-to-school night. School mental health professionals and educators can provide free presentations on various topics of interest, such as supporting adolescent resiliency, resolving conficts, or understanding mental health and when help should be sought. Schools can partner with community providers for caregiver information events. The school website can inform about contacting school mental health professionals and also offer fact sheets and online resources on various topics (Kelly et al., 2018). At the Tier 2 targeted level, which provides interventions when students display emerging social, emotional, or behavioral problems, there are many options for involving families in the support network. A mechanism can be created for families to express concerns and receive suggestions about ways to address children’s problems without referral to the formal special education process. A process can be available for parents/caregivers to seek support from school teams that meet regularly to address academic, behavioral, and social-emotional issues. Parents/ caregivers can also contact school mental health professionals or their child’s teacher directly to express concerns. Note: Online Resource 8 provides a “Parent Interview Form that incorporates history of potential trauma and symptoms.” Open houses afford opportunities for families to meet with teachers and support staff. To facilitate communication and support, networks of district families can be formed around areas of commonality or need such as immigrant or military families. These networks can be connected with relevant community resources when needed. If a child is receiving additional school supports, families can be given information and asked for feedback. Schools can assess family needs with questions such as: • • • • • •

Do you know how to contact someone at school for support? How was your experience when frst arriving at school (ample parking, access to public transportation, greeted and welcomed)? Are administrators and staff responsive to e-mails, phone contacts, or other forms of communication? Is there opportunity for communication in the family’s primary language, or a need for trained language interpreters? During school meetings, how much time does the family spend listening to school staff versus having an opportunity to speak or ask questions? When your family enters a meeting with people they do not know to discuss concerns, are they made to feel comfortable or intimidated? Adapted from Kelly et al. (2018)

At the Tier 3 intensive support level, for more severe behavioral and emotional problems, the school can become an essential resource, helping the family to navigate and connect with community services. School

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mental health professionals can facilitate communication and dialogue with community resources and encourage participation at meetings and feeling valued (Kelly et al., 2018). Leverson, Smith, McIntosh, Rose, and Pinkelman (2019) emphasized that culturally responsive school-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) seeks to actively engage families and community members. Chapter 13 provides further information about family and community involvement in culturally responsive PBIS.

Facilitators and Barriers to Family Engagement Garbacz and colleagues (2018) studied facilitators and barriers to family engagement in schools implementing school-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS). Creating an inviting school atmosphere and engaging in personal communication with families when children needed support or when they were doing well facilitated family engagement. Strategies designed for families to feel welcome and create family–school partnerships included having parents on school teams, linking them to PBIS, and sharing program decision making. Providing families with information, building their knowledge, and giving them incentives (e.g., transportation) to attend school events were also helpful. These strategies are consistent with involving families in caregiver education such as Youth First Aid, resilience building, managing social media, positive discipline, and others. Barriers to family engagement included lack of resources, inconsistent communication, and reluctance of families and school staff to form partnerships (Garbacz et al., 2018). Teacher attitudes can be reframed to refect a more inclusive view of family engagement. Clark and Dockweiler (2019) asserted that communication with families must change from a “school knows best” perspective to inviting and valuing family knowledge and contributions to the dialogue. The traditional, hierarchical model of schools telling families what to do is ineffective and promotes distrust. A partnership paradigm can be fostered when schools value family voice and cultural strengths, and shift the description of family engagement from including families to partnering with families (Weist, Garbacz, Lane, & Kincaid, 2017). Mutual and Perceived Accessibility Perceived accessibility is another factor that can influence the family–teacher relationship. When families do not feel they can communicate effectively with teachers or ask for advice without being harshly judged, they are less likely to initiate interaction. Similarly, if teachers are unable to reach families, or do not feel supported with homework completion or consequences of misbehavior, they are less

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likely to invite parental or caregiver input. Teachers can help by simply expressing that they value, instead of expect, family participation (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019). Mutual accessibility challenges schools to free educators from other duties to engage with families before or after school. Family Connection meetings during school hours require advance planning for class coverage, scheduling around other meetings, and communicating the importance of family meetings with staff and students. Family wellness and connection programs often encounter the challenge of encouraging caregivers to attend meetings. This problem can be addressed by scheduling evening meetings to accommodate working parents, scheduling later in the morning so that caregivers can frst take younger siblings to school, and videotaping sessions that can be live-streamed or available for online viewing. In some cases with older students, there can be a beneft if the student shares a constructive role in leading informational conferences (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019). When educators establish contact and build rapport with students and families, the likelihood of attendance at meetings increases. Given the clear benefts of positive relationships between school staff and families, schools should pursue key objectives, including primary family engagement tools: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Increasing quality communication between home and school (regular contacts, various modes that work best). Building positive family–school relationships (phone calls, notes, newsletters, home visits). Building reciprocal structures for support (enhancing accessibility; periodic social connection meetings; language interpreters). Increasing trust between community and school (connections with cultural brokers, faith leaders, community agencies). Encouraging parents/caregivers to motivate children (through building rapport, honest discussion, problem-solving consultation). Valuing family culture and participation (showing appreciation and valuing). Adapted from Dotterer and Wehrspann (2016)

School and Family Consultation to Address Mental Health School staff may observe a student is struggling with a social-emotional problem before the family notices. In these cases, school mental health professionals, including school psychologists, school counselors, and school social workers, can be a resource for educators and the family to assess and clarify problems and serve as a bridge between schools and families (Kelly et al., 2018).

114 Foundational Practices Emphasizing the need to consult with parents/caregivers and teachers, Gutkin and Conoley (1990) described the paradox of school psychology, meaning to effectively serve children, school psychologists must focus their attention and expertise on the adults who care for them. When a mental health provider consults with a parent or family member to emotionally support a child, the parent or family member is also receiving emotional support. Providing understanding and empathy for the adult consultee can facilitate gradually shifting the focus of intervention to the child’s need for reassurance and support. When a family declines assistance, their wishes must be respected, but the door can be kept open and involvement offered at another time. Smith and colleagues (2020) used a meta-analysis to explore the effects of consultation-based family–school engagement and complementary intervention methods on child and parent outcomes. Analysis revealed signifcant positive effects on children’s social-behavioral competence, mental health, and academic achievement. The study also found signifcant positive effects for parent practices, parent attitudes, and relational outcomes. The study indicated benefts of consultation-based family– school engagement for key outcomes and also implied benefts for using complementary methods to augment the effects of consultation (Smith et al., 2020). Online learning, consultation, and resource support for families is provided by the Child Mind Institute (https://childmind.org/copingduring-covid-19-resources-for-parents/). During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Institute shared tips for parent self-care, remote learning and discipline strategies, and responding to children’s mental health needs (Bostic & Hoover, 2020). They have also engaged in behavioral and mental health literacy efforts for families and for children and adolescents through school curricula. Components of mental health literacy include 1) knowing how to obtain and maintain good mental health, 2) decreasing stigma about mental health, 3) enhancing help-seeking, including when, where, and how to promote self-care and get support when needed, and 4) understanding mental disorders and treatment.

Cultural Diversity and Family–School Partnerships Consider the effects of acculturation on students and families – change is not easy, especially when the norms, expectations, and values of a family are different from the dominant culture. There is signifcant stress adapting to a new culture. Bridging socioeconomic and cultural barriers to family–school engagement requires systemic transformation and cultural brokering (Ishimaru et al., 2016). To accomplish this aim, culture can be used as an asset to positively infuence and bridge family and school relationships (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019). Communicating in a family’s primary language can provide an essential bridge for engagement.

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Gutierrez (2009) cautioned that as cultural and ethnic diversity of the student school population rises, the need for translating materials to an understandable language for the family becomes more pressing. Translators and interpreters must be aware of potential problems as different cultural and ethnic groups using the same language can have key differences in meaning, connotation, and intonation that affect communication. Certain words, concepts, expressions, and idioms may not translate well from one language to another, or even the same language being used by different nationalities or cultures. Translators and interpreters may also bring their own perceptions and biases about connotations in language and communication. Gutierrez suggested that more culturally competent translation and elimination of some inherent problems is possible when school professionals consider the following characteristics provided by Behling and Law (2000): 1. 2. 3.

Semantic equivalence. Conceptual equivalence. Content equivalence.

Gutierrez pointed out that semantic equivalence is made possible by the translation and back-translation method, which utilizes two independent bilingual reviewers, both of whom are fuent in English and the participants’ language. The frst reviewer, with attention to the participants’ culture and nuances of language, translates the original documents from English to the participants’ language. The second independent reviewer then translates the material from the participants’ language back to English. The back-translation is then compared with the original English document to determine correlation and accuracy (Behling and Law, 2000). This method yields translated materials that have high conceptual equivalence (close to the original meaning) and maintain content equivalence (understandable to the intended individuals). Gutierrez asserted that as the pre-K–12 student population with limited or no English language profciency continues to rise, school psychologists and other school staff have a vested interest in making sure that materials provided for ELL students and their parents/caregivers are translated in a culturally competent manner. Sara Castro-Olivo (2017) described the efficacy of a Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) program adapted for Spanish-speaking ELL students with a concurrent program for their families. The guiding project was Facilitating Universal Emotional Resiliency for the Social and Academic Success (FUERSAS) of Latinx/Hispanic ELLs. The student component involved 12 lessons of a culturally adapted Strong Teens SEL program. The program teaches self and social awareness, problem solving, cognitive restructuring, positive thinking, self-management, and goal setting. The emphasis was on helping ELL students use

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these skills in pursuing goals to learn English, stay focused in school, maintain pride in their ethnic identity, and learn to cope with acculturation-related problems and stressors. The parent/caregiver component consisted of six 2-hour sessions adapted from Jovenes Fuertes (Strong Teens). It included skills being taught to the students and added routine setting, supervision, and school involvement. The focus was on helping their children to cope with acculturation-related issues and learn new coping skills themselves as they adapt to a new culture and school system. Castro-Olivo reported that multiple outcome measures demonstrated effectiveness, including social validity for the parent/caregiver component. Themes and gains identifed by parent/caregiver focus groups included: • • • • •

Family empowerment Mental health literacy Opened communication channels Increased parent/caregiver desire to support their children’s resiliency Increased awareness of the relationship of mental health, physical health, and academic performance

Castro-Olivo also shared suggestions for making cultural adaptations to programs: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Keep the big ideas of the intervention to be adapted. Adapt changes based on sound theory. Acknowledge the protective and risk factors for the target population. Evaluate personal worldviews and values continually. Establish ongoing collaboration with students and community members. Make culturally sensitive adaptations, including language, examples, and assessments. Adapted from Castro-Olivo (2017)

Castro-Olivo’s dual component program, with culturally adapted programs involving both students and families, serves as an example that can be applied to a variety of cultures and programs. ****** The fnal chapter on foundational practices supporting school safety and mental health, Monitoring Social Media and Technology, features a medium that has become increasingly impactful for youth, schools, and society.

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References Behling, O., & Law, K. S. (2000). Translating questionnaires and other research instruments: Problems and solutions. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Bostic, J., & Hoover, S. (2020). Improving the child and adolescent crisis system: Shifting from a 9–1–1 to a 9–8–8 paradigm. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors. Castro-Olivo, S. (2017). Social-emotional learning for Latino students and Spanishspeaking families. Paper presented at the annual convention of the National Association of School Psychologists, San Antonio, TX. Clark, A. G., & Dockweiler, K. A. (2019). Multi-tiered systems of support in secondary schools: The defnitive guide to effective implementation and quality control. New York: Routledge. Dotterer, A. M., & Wehrspann, E. (2016). Parent involvement and academic outcomes among urban adolescents: Examining the role of school engagement. Educational Psychology, 36(4), 812–830. Garbacz, S. A., Hirano, K., McIntosh, K., Eagle, J. W., Minch, D., and Vatland, C. (2018). Family engagement in schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports: Barriers and facilitators to implementation. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(3), 448–459. Gutierrez, A. P. (2009). Culture, diversity, and language: What is culturally competent translation? Communiqué, 37(5), 10–11. Gutkin, T. B., & Conoley, J. C. (1990). Reconceptualizing school psychology from a service delivery perspective: Implications for practice, training, and research. Journal of School Psychology, 28, 203–223. Henderson, A. T., & Mapp, K. L. (2002). A new wave of evidence: The impact of school, family, and community connections on student achievement. Annual Synthesis: National Center for Family and Community Connections with Schools. Ishimaru, A. M., Torres, K. E., Salvador, J. E., Lott, J., Cameron-Williams, D. M., & Tran, C. (2016). Reinforcing defcit, journeying toward equity: Cultural brokering in family engagement initiatives. American Education Research Journal, 53(4), 850–882. Kelly, J., Rossen, E., & Cowan, K. C. (2018). Supporting families to support students. Educational Leadership, 75(4), 62–69. Leverson, M., Smith, K., McIntosh, K., Rose, J., & Pinkelman, S. (2019). PBIS Cultural Responsiveness Field Guide: Resources for trainers and coaches. OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. Retrieved from www.pbis.org Minke, K. M., & Vickers, H. S. (2015). Get families on board to navigate mental health issues. Kappan, 96(4), 22–28. Minuchin, S. (1974). Families & family therapy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Sheridan, S. M., Clarke, B. L., & Christenson, S. L. (2014). Best practices in promoting family engagement in education. In P. L. Harrison & A. Thomas (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology: Systems-level services (pp. 439–465). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Smith, T. E., Holmes, S. R., Sheridan, S. M., Cooper, J. M., Bloomfeld, B. S., & Preast, J. L. (2020). The effects of consultation-based family–school engagement on student and parent outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474412.2020.1749062

118 Foundational Practices Smith, T. E., & Sheridan, S. M. (2019). The effect of teacher training on teachers’ family-engagement practices, attitudes, and knowledge: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 29(2). Weist, M. D., Garbacz, S. A., Lane, K. L., & Kincaid, D. (2017). Aligning and integrating family engagement in positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS): Concepts and strategies for families and schools in key contexts. Center for Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, U.S. Department of Education. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon Press.

8

Monitoring Social Media and Technology

Technology is a useful servant but a dangerous master. ~ Christian Lous Lange

Impact of Technology on School Communities In a matter of decades, social media and technology have moved from being nearly a non-factor to being among the most consequential factors when considering school safety and student mental health. The extensive use of social media by young people, its infuence on their perceptions and valuing of themselves and others, and its potentially isolating effects make it one of the most signifcant infuences in child and adolescent development. The challenges presented by social media and technology to parents, caregivers, and educators are immense for potential harm or beneft. Parents and caregivers are often faced with the responsibility of guiding children to safely use social media when their children have more expertise using technology than their caregivers. Benefts and Risks The availability of social media and technology presents many advantages. First, it affords schools new opportunities for making instruction and sources of knowledge available to students, and these opportunities developed exponentially with the use of distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. These advances will remain applicable in the future. Second, schools can more readily engage caregivers and all stakeholders by communicating via social media on district websites and sending text messages via SMS (Short Messaging Service). Finally, many youth are able to connect virtually in a way they cannot in person, whether because of social phobias or lack of motivation. Young people can fnd others with similar interests online. Schools can beneft from understanding how to use technology to their advantage, monitoring and utilizing social media during crises, protecting

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students from threats, and being on the forefront of new advances. It is recommended that educators create school websites and social media accounts and use them regularly to promote a positive school image. Advances in social media and technology also present a multitude of challenges. Erbacher and Reeves (2018) cautioned that one of the biggest challenges is cyberbullying and abusive posts that may include malicious teasing, social exclusion, peer sexual harassment, or targeting a student’s race, ethnicity, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or gender identity. Underwood and Ehrenreich (2017) warned of cyber aggression and victimization, but also highlighted less obvious forms of harm – lurking, social comparison, and monitoring of social status and peer regard. When constantly viewing selected positive posts of others on Facebook, Snapchat, or Instagram, adolescents may assume these posts refect consistent happiness rather than a specifc situation, thus perceiving others as happier and having better lives (Chen & Lee, 2013). Clearly, students, educators, and caregivers can beneft from being educated about misperceptions and threats using technology, including harmful e-mails, text messages, and websites. Social media trends change quickly, though cyberbullying remains rampant, with the percentage of school principals reporting cyberbullying signifcantly increasing in 2016 compared with 2010 (NCES, 2019). There has also been an increase in sextortion, whereupon social media predators use blackmail and threaten victims to send money or incriminating photos or videos (Saul, 2016). While social media can help some youth feel more connected, putting the cell phone down to meet other needs like getting enough sleep can be a challenge due to FOMO – Fear Of Missing Out (Hunt, Marx, Lipson, & Young, 2018). This can lead to sleep deprivation, which can increase risk of suicidal thoughts and behaviors (Kearns et al., 2020). Social media use can also increase feelings of depression and loneliness, which is more pronounced for girls and for those predisposed to depression (Hunt et al., 2018). However, fndings suggest that adolescents who use social media one or two hours per day report better overall mental wellness than youth who do not use social media at all or use more than two hours a day (Orben & Przybylski, 2019; Twenge, Joiner, Rogers, & Martin, 2018). Internet addiction is a concern as social networking sites are engineered to foster ongoing use. The Netfix documentary The Social Dilemma provides lessons about this phenomenon. Increased risk of Internet addiction during the COVID-19 pandemic created concerns as more youth sat in front of computers at home for both virtual learning and online socialization. The dangers of Internet addiction abound, as one study found frequent consumers signifcantly more likely to have suicidal ideation, plan suicide, attempt suicide, and have greater severity of suicidal ideation most prevalent in youth ages 18 years or younger (Cheng et al., 2018). This study also found that those with gaming addiction had a higher

Monitoring Social Media and Technology 121 risk for suicide than those with other online addictions. The more hours engaged in online gaming, the higher the acquired suicide capability, with this risk most applicable to action games that include shooting, horror, or crime/war (HALO, Call of Duty, Grand Theft Auto). It is noteworthy that online gaming may have a positive side, as the social aspect of online gaming may result in youth building strong social ties, particularly if gamers engage in online activities that continue beyond the game to offine activities (Trepte, Reinecke, & Juechems, 2012). Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) have been described as “highly socially interactive” with a high percentage of gamers making life-long friends and partners (Cole & Griffths, 2007, p. 581). Unique benefts of these games include offering a place where teamwork, encouragement, and fun are experienced.

Managing Social Media for School Safety Erbacher and Reeves (2018) described the use of social media to help prevent and respond to school crises and violence. Social media can quickly provide 1) outreach to a large number of individuals, 2) the ability to monitor and intervene with those expressing suicidal ideation or threats, and 3) a platform to share experiences, including grief. Social media can play varied roles during crises, including a forum to quickly share helpful information or address challenges of rumor control, cyberbullying, exposure to graphic images, luring/grooming for abuse, traffcking, and sexual assault (Robinson et al., 2016). Erbacher and Reeves pointed out that establishing a technology team at the district and/or school level that includes a social media manager, instructional technology department, public information offcer, and crisis team members can be critical for managing social media (Brock et al., 2016). Technology teams can prepare prior to crisis situations to help ensure that confdential procedures for reporting concerns are operational (e.g., text line, hotline). Ongoing meetings can help the team stay in the forefront of trends, plan to disseminate information, and create a social media network base. Engaging supervised, technologically savvy student members can be helpful as they often know the popular peer sites and see concerning posts before adults. Prevention includes educating the public about warning signs, sharing resources, promoting help-seeking behaviors, and overcoming stigma attached to suicide, drug overdose, and many abuse survivors. Technology teams can manage social media networks to share crisisrelated information, control rumors, and identify and monitor students at risk. Teams can help limit traumatic exposure by encouraging students not to make videos or share graphic details online and encouraging digital breaks from posts and photos or memories of the deceased,

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particularly for trauma-exposed youth. After a suicide death, technology teams are key in promoting safe messaging by working with local press not to sensationalize the suicide and to educate the public on mental illness, warning signs, resources, and messages of hope and resiliency (Erbacher, Singer & Poland, 2015). Negotiating Social Media Before, During, and After Crises While a technology team monitors social networking sites and social media, the school website and other media sites can provide safe messaging and information about school and community resources (Erbacher et al., 2015). School use of social media before a crisis: • • • • • • • •

Information about the family reunifcation plan for early student release Flyers regarding crisis prevention, suicide prevention, and safe messaging Information about school crisis drills or training Videos of drill procedures or response to various types of emergencies Instructions to parents/guardians or community members on how to get information from school social media sites Sample messages to post on social media that follow posting guidelines Guidance on school social media policy and procedures Name of the person responsible for reviewing and updating social media sites during an emergency

School use of social media during a crisis: • • • • • • • • • • •

Crisis related alerts, such as health, natural disaster, and other notices Notifcation through Google Alerts or similar apps regarding when information is posted that suggests a threatening situation Crisis facts, without disturbing details, as they are verifed Supportive, positive, encouraging comments, or safe messaging Locations and procedures for student reunifcation with families Guidance on how to minimize crisis exposure Information about the crisis intervention and help being provided Information about school-based and community mental health resources School closure information Crisis event updates and information Crisis intervention resources provided by the schools or community

Monitoring Social Media and Technology 123 School use of social media during recovery (restoring the learning environment): • • • • •

Logistics of face-to-face community informational gatherings – dates, times, locations Updates on school reopening procedures and locations of school and community resources Information about memorials and other school outreach and support efforts Information about school recovery progress, including news and photos Strategies for positive coping and information about supportive resources Adapted from NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee (2015b)

Technology and Crisis Response Threats of suicide online are frightening, but they allow the possibility of life-saving intervention. Live streaming a death by suicide is horrifc. Crisis response teams must contend with the damage social media can infict after tragic events. While ideally there will be time for the crisis response team to plan and meet with faculty before proceeding with interventions after a traumatic event, cell phones, texting, and social media communication often necessitate immediate response for students and the school community. Students often hear about traumatic events before school administrators or crisis teams, leaving little time to plan a coordinated response. The need for advance preparation is heightened by demands for immediate response to distressing information available through technology (Roth & Fernandez, 2018). Vengrove (2018) described the crisis response to the sudden death of a popular high school senior in a car accident at 12:13 a.m. on a Sunday morning: Given the available technology – cell phones, text messaging, and e-mail, word travels quickly. School counselors had some communication with at-risk students who were aware the crisis team was meeting on Sunday afternoon at the high school. The meeting “switched gears” when to the team’s surprise, they realized that hundreds of students, their families, and community members were arriving at the high school seeking a sense of community and help for those in need. The number of people who kept arriving in a state of shock and grief was staggering and unexpected. As approximately 400–500 students, family and community members assembled in the cafeteria, the focus of the crisis team changed from planning for Monday to planning

124 Foundational Practices for the immediate. Maintaining our equilibrium as responders was crucial, yet challenging, as the pain expressed by students and their families was overwhelming. (pp. 37–38) Erbacher (2018) described hearing by cell phone about the death by suicide of a recent high school graduate and discussed reducing the risk of contagion through social media: I was sitting in a restaurant eating dinner with a close friend. We were chatting, laughing, and enjoying one another’s company. My cell phone rang, but was in my purse so I didn’t hear it. As I have a role responding to critical incidents, I frequently check my phone. I remember pulling the phone out of my purse, glancing at it and seeing a missed call from my high school principal. There was also a text saying “Please call me NOW.” I returned the call and could tell immediately that there was panic in her voice. “There has been a suicide.” (p. 125) It is critical that reporting be done appropriately to reduce the risk of contagion. For example, statements should include warning signs so readers know what to look for if they are concerned about a loved one. Reporting should also include available resources such as where to get help locally and include the National Crisis Textline – text HELP to 741741 – as well as the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline phone number, 1–800–273TALK (8255), and website. The website www.suicidepreventionlifeline. org now includes an online chat function available for users who would prefer not to make phone calls. Many of today’s youth rarely use a telephone, but are more familiar with text messaging as a primary means of communication. It is also strongly encouraged that schools put the warning signs and resources for fnding help on their own social media venues. With Conor’s death, information was included on all school social media sites as well as the main webpage, with online links where users could seek further information or resources. Many social media sites have taken action to ensure users have ways to communicate should they be concerned about someone being suicidal. For example, social media sites, including Facebook, have simple ways to report these concerns immediately online. Directions on how to report concerns can be found at https://www.facebook.com/ safety/wellbeing/suicideprevention. Among the options for readers are contacting local emergency services, sending a message directly to the person of concern, or messaging a mutual friend who lives nearby. The reader can also report a concerning post or comment to Facebook administrators, who will send a pop-up message on the user’s screen

Monitoring Social Media and Technology 125 asking if the person would like help. Should assistance be accepted, the user is provided with a menu of options. This gives social media users an outlet to do something to help those they are concerned about – rather than feel powerless. Since contagion is a signifcant concern after a suicide loss, monitoring of social media is of utmost importance. Students will sometimes post concerning thoughts, such as “I want to join you” after losing someone close to them through suicide. After Conor’s suicide, students created an online Rest in Peace page. This was a public page viewable by school administrators, who continually monitored it, along with others, for comments by Conor’s friends and classmates. In this case, many students rallied around one another for support, but thankfully, no concerning comments indicating further suicidal thoughts or behaviors were noted. Contagion and Technology Erbacher and Reeves (2018) cautioned that exposure to a suicide, even online, may infuence another vulnerable young person’s suicide attempt. Current online trends include livestream violence or suicide and pro-suicide or self-harm games and sites (e.g., Instagram: #iwanttodie, #sue, #secretsociety123). The ability to livestream violence and suicide subsequently exposes viewers to graphic content. This creates widespread potential for contagion (Getz, 2017). Similarly, exposure and contagion are concerns with the Netfix series 13 Reasons Why (#13RW), as experts worry that this show portrays suicide as a solution to problems, blames survivors for a suicide, feeds revenge fantasies, shows the graphic death of a teenage girl, and glorifes her suicide, making her appear larger in death than in life (NASP, 2017). While the #13RW creator has subsequently changed the ending of the controversial season 1 scene, concern has also been raised that the adults in the show (counselors, parents) do not take appropriate action to thwart the suicide, which may leave teens feeling hopeless that anyone can help them. Online Communities: Exposure Versus Support Social media can offer an online forum connecting youth, with implications for both positive and negative outcomes. Vulnerable students may connect to sites that can exacerbate depression, suicide, or self-harm (#deb, #sue, #selfharmmm). Countering these nefarious sites, there are supportive social media sites (#youmatter) and social media platforms that have integrated life-saving measures where either artifcial intelligence programs can fag concerning posts or users can report posts, comments, or photos that indicate potential suicidality, allowing site administrators to provide pop-up alerts offering help and resources (Erbacher et al.,

126 Foundational Practices 2015). Social media sites should fnd the diffcult balance between banning abusive content (harmful language can be reported by users or identifed by algorithms) and censoring users (Hinduja, 2017). Social media sites increasingly fag certain phrases to alert users about potentially graphic images and work to quickly identify and remove violent videos. Livestream videos that show a person performing an act of self-harm or threatening to harm others present trauma exposure for viewers but also provide the opportunity to intervene and get the person help. Social media sites must also consider various cultural perspectives regarding what words and actions constitute inappropriate content, abuse, or hate speech (Hinduja, 2017). One of the positive uses of social media is that students can post condolences and memorials, which can support personal healing, create a sense of belonging, and unite the community in the grieving process. Sofka, Gilbert, and Cupit (2012) found four main reasons users turn to social media after losing a loved one: 1) connection (staying connected by viewing posts of happy memories), 2) communication (messages on a deceased person’s social media page), 3) commemoration (web pages become personal memorials), and 4) continuation of relationship (maintaining the bond). While expressing grief online can help, it remains important for grief counselors to dialogue about online behavior with the bereaved by asking questions about how they characterize their virtual relationship with the deceased (Sofka et al., 2012). Apps Erbacher and Reeves (2018) described how technology teams and school mental health professionals can stay abreast of new, benefcial apps for students to build resiliency, mitigate risk, and promote wellness. For example, the Great Kindness Challenge is a resiliency-building app for ages 4–18 that promotes random acts of kindness to reach a school-wide goal. Mindfulness apps such as Calm, Breathe2Relax, or Aura send daily reminders to improve meditation habits for wellness. There are a multitude of anti-bullying apps, such as STOPit or Bully Tag, which enable students to anonymously report bullying by sending messages, pictures, or video to trusted adults in their school. Apps that can be used for prevention by youth at risk for suicide include Safety Plan or My3, both of which provide customizable safety plans to identify individual warning signs and safety strategies and to connect with both personal contacts and national resources. Other suicide prevention apps include A Friend Asks and Ask and Prevent Suicide, both of which involve students who might be able to help a peer. As social media, apps, and technology change rapidly, both schools and parents are encouraged to stay on top of what is trending. While apps can be helpful, it remains

Monitoring Social Media and Technology 127 critically important for youth to tell an adult if they are concerned about themselves or a peer (Erbacher & Reeves, 2018).

Parent Monitoring of Social Media Erbacher and Reeves (2018) discussed helping parents and caregivers navigate technology and social media. Many parents do not feel they have the technological capability to keep up with their child’s online behavior or to protect them (Hinduja & Patchin, 2014), with Spanish-speaking parents feeling the least confdent (FOSI, 2014). Phones have parental controls and caregivers are interested in learning more about monitoring tools, but only 53% report using them and 31% report using controls such as parental GPS (FOSI, 2014). While parents trust their pediatricians or parenting websites for information on protecting their child online, they put the greatest trust in their child’s school (FOSI, 2014). Schools must consider the “digital divide”, realizing that some families cannot use certain technology due to disability or economics, or may not have the education or time to learn these skills (Sofka et al., 2012). Erbacher and Reeves suggested that school technology teams post information on what is trending to help inform parents and families. Schools can also encourage parents to use social media to open lines of communication with their children, building trust and giving them a safe place to disclose feelings and concerns. Schools can teach parents to create social media accounts to monitor posts by their children and friends, to have their children’s accounts and password information, to discuss sexting and teach their children how to protect themselves from predators, and to educate their children on inappropriate content and the importance of being discreet (Erbacher et al., 2015). Parent and caregiver information on preventing and stopping cyberbullying is available from End to Cyberbullying (ETCB). Erbacher and Reeves encouraged parents to contact their school-based mental health professionals or administrators with any concerns. Amid warnings that excessive use of digital devices and social media can harm children and teens, Elmore (2018) responded to pointed questions, based upon research: 1.

How much is too much social media use? It has been reported that limited time on social media can be benefcial for children’s social relationships. Social media can allow us to connect with friends and stay informed about news around the world. However, too much time gazing at screens can damage teen mental health. Data shows that teens average about seven hours a day on the screen, but as cited earlier, reports indicate that more than two hours on social media can contribute to teen anxiety and unhappiness (Orben & Przybylski, 2019; Twenge et al., 2018).

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Foundational Practices Elmore suggests a 60–90-minute daily limit, freeing face-to-face time with friends, family, studies, and activities of interest. It has been demonstrated that limited digital time results in happier teens, improved academics, and, ultimately, more satisfed young adults. Should we monitor our kids’ social media use? If so, how? While some parents believe their children deserve privacy and should not worry about being checked on, Elmore disagrees, citing children not being suffciently aware of the dangers of predators, mental health issues, and cyber-bullies. Young people are vulnerable to malevolent acts by adults, sexting and sexploitation, cyberbullying, and pornography. Statistics indicate that many teens admit hiding online activities from their parents. Parents and guardians can check their children’s social media activity. Among apps that can help are: • • • • • •

3.

Norton allows you to set time limits and flter incoming web content TeenSafe allows you to track your child’s calls, texts, GPS, and social media activity MobSafetyRangerBrowser allows you to view your child’s website browsing and set time limits Phone Sheriff allows you to do all the above, but with fewer devices DinnerTime allows you to limit phone Internet use during family meals Qustodio allows you to track and set a curfew to shut off phones

It is also suggested that parents encourage their children to use privacy settings, limiting their posts to a select set of friends. What are some symptoms a student should cut back on social media? According to Common Sense Media, 50% of teens admit they are addicted to their cell phone and feel the symptoms and consequences. Two-thirds of middle-class parents believe their teens spend too much time on their mobile devices. Here are signals that may indicate a young person is spending too much time on social media platforms or their mobile device: • • • • • • •

Withdrawing from face-to-face social interaction Consistent anxiety, stress, or feeling overwhelmed by normal routines A slip in grades and assignments showing poor or incomplete work Avoiding real-life responsibilities, like chores or homework Ill at ease or unresponsive to people in front of them Phubbing, or snubbing people by looking down at their phone Phones begin to create confict in close relationships

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4.

5.

When a group of college students surrendered their phones for a day as an experiment, the frst couple of hours were horrifc, like a drug addict going cold turkey, but then the day began to feel less stressful; they felt liberated from the tether of their devices and talked about wanting to “unplug” on a regular basis. How do I handle arguments about their mobile devices? Emotional debates between parents and kids can lead to a breakdown in communication. Elmore suggested a step that can guide conversations and also prepare teens for the adult world: a contract. He described a “phone contract” between a mother and child, in which they reached an agreement from the beginning, as the mother outlined the terms for the new phone. She had bought the phone for the child and therefore owned it. Under the contract, any time the child violated the agreement, the child had to give the phone to the mother for a period of time. The agreement was made with love and understanding, as the parent and child had a respectful conversation during which the terms were presented before the purchase. They agreed and signed the contract, but the key is that the parent must stick to and enforce the terms. Should we be friends with our children on social media? Elmore contends this depends on the personality and age of the child. Some parents and children connect well on phones or social media sites like Facebook, while others do not. Many young people are “friends” with their parents, generally on Facebook. Pew Research says this tends to work better between the ages of 12 and 14. It often feels like “smothering” between the ages of 15 and 21, but as a young adult it generally feels okay again. It is important for parents to know that while their child may befriend them on some social media sites, they may have false identities on other platforms that parents do not know about. The number of personas and accounts their child assumes online may shock parents. It may be helpful for the parent and child to have an honest conversation about this, expressing concerns and possible safeguards. The balance between blind trust and needing to know what young people are doing can be diffcult to navigate, but intentional adult leadership can help the parent–child relationship and protect a young person from uncertainty and harm. Adapted from Elmore (2018)

It is vital, apart from social media, that parents develop strong, positive relationships with their children. Having dinner as a family whenever possible, and having conversations without the presence of cell phones, can make a valuable statement. Sharing new experiences together and learning new things can build cognitive and emotional development, self-esteem, and stronger family relationships.

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Social Media and Technology Research Leandra Parris (2020) developed a scale to measure social media rumination in adolescents. She recognized the extent that social media impacts students’ friendships and romantic relationships. Students shared that social media affected their relationships at school and that they constantly had negative thoughts generated by social media. Cero and Witte (2020) studied assortativity of suicide-related posting on social media. Assortativity is the propensity for similar people to be socially connected more often than those dissimilar from them. They examined whether a quantifable formula could reveal assortative patterns in suicidal behavior and use this information for improved identifcation and prevention. They examined the assortativity of suicide-related verbalizations (SRVs), coding millions of posts from users of a large social media platform. Results suggested that individuals engaging in SRVs occurred in a socially assortative way, with a signifcantly higher likelihood of interacting with each other than by chance. If serious forms of suicidal behavior such as attempts follow a similar pattern, having knowledge of a small number of those at risk through screening might identify many others in need of preventive intervention. Future research on the safety and uses of technology for young people will likely explore ways potentially harmful applications can be controlled and helpful applications expanded. ****** The order of programs presented in the chapters of Sections III and IV is not meant to suggest a chronology or hierarchy of implementation. While all of these programs can make signifcant contributions, it is expected that decisions about which programs and practices to prioritize and when to begin their implementation process will be determined by a needs assessment conducted by the school leadership team (see Chapter 16). However, Section III programs directly support school and student safety, and Section IV programs indirectly support school safety through their emphasis on mental health and school-wide primary prevention.

References Brock, S. E., Nickerson, A. B., Reeves, M. A., Conolly, C. N., Jimerson, S. R., Pesce, R., & Lazzaro, B. (2016). School crisis prevention & intervention: The PREPaRE model (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Cero, I., & Witte, T. K. (2020). Assortativity of suicide-related posting on social media. American Psychologist, 75(3), 365–379. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000477 Chen, W., & Lee, K. H. (2013). Sharing, liking, commenting, and distressed? The pathway between Facebook interaction and psychological distress. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 16, 728–734.

Monitoring Social Media and Technology 131 Cheng, Y.-S., Tseng, P.-T., Lin, P.-Y., Chen, T.-Y., Stubbs, B., Carvalho, A., Wu, C.-K., Chen, Y.-W., & Wu, M.-K. (2018). Internet addiction and its relationship with suicidal behaviors: A meta-analysis of multinational observational studies. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 79. Cole, H., & Griffths, M. D. (2007). Social interactions in massively multiplayer online role-playing gamers. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 10, 575–583. Elmore, T. (2018). Parent’s guide to social media use for kids. Psychology Today. Retrieved from www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/artificial-maturity/ 201803/parent-s-guide-social-media-use-kids Erbacher, T. A. (2018). Suicide postvention using the PREPaRE model. In J. C. Roth & B. S. Fernandez (Eds.), Perspectives on school crisis response: Refections from the feld (pp. 125–141). New York: Routledge. Erbacher, T. A., & Reeves, M. A. (2018). Current and future directions in school crisis response. In J. C. Roth & B. S. Fernandez (Eds.), Perspectives on school crisis response: Refections from the feld (pp. 265–278). New York: Routledge. Erbacher, T. A., Singer, J. B., & Poland, S. (2015). Suicide in schools: A practitioner’s guide to multi-level prevention, assessment, intervention and postvention. New York: Routledge. Family Online Safety Institute (FOSI). (2014). Parenting in the digital age: How parents weigh the potential benefts and harms of their children’s technology use. Research Brief. Retrieved from www.fosi.org/policy-research/ parenting-digital-age. Getz, L. (2017). Livestreamed suicide on social media: The trauma of viewership. Social Work Today, 17(3). Hinduja, S. (2017). Harmful speech online: At the intersection of algorithms and human behavior.Retrievedfromhttps://cyberbullying.org/harmful-speech-online-intersectionalgorithms-human-behavior Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. (2014). Cyberbullying: Identifcation, prevention & response. Retrieved from https://cyberbullying.org/Cyberbullying-IdentificationPrevention-Response.pdf Hunt, M. G., Marx, R., Lipson, C., & Young, J. (2018). No more FOMO: Limiting social media decreases loneliness and depression. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 37(10), 751–768. Retrieved from https://guilfordjournals.com/ doi/pdf/10.1521/jscp.2018.37.10.751. Kearns, J. C., Coppersmith, D. D. L., Santee, A. C., Insel, C., Pigeon, W. R., & Glenn, C. R. (2020). Sleep problems and suicide risk in youth: A systematic review, developmental framework, and implications for hospital treatment. General Hospital Psychiatry, 63, 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. genhosppsych.2018.09.011 NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee. (2015b). Using social media before, during, and after school crises: Tips for parents and educators. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. National Association of School Psychologists. (2017). 13 reasons why Netfix series: Considerations for educators. Retrieved from www.nasponline.org/resources-andpublications/resources/school-safety-and-crisis/preventing-youth-suicide/ 13-reasons-why-netfix-series-considerations-for-educators National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2019). Data point: Cyberbullying and cell phone policy in U. S. primary and secondary schools. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education.

132 Foundational Practices Orben, A., & Przybylski, A. K. (2019). The association between adolescent wellbeing and digital technology use. Nature Human Behaviour, 3(2), 173. Parris, L. (2020). W & M professor develops measurement for the effect of social media on students. Retrieved from www.wm.edu/news/stories/2020/wm-professor-develops-measurement-for-the-effect-of-social-media-on-students.php Robinson, J., Cox, G., Bailey, E., Hetrick, S., Rodrigues, M., Fisher, S., & Herrman, H. (2015). Social media and suicide prevention: A systematic review. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 10(2), 103–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12229 Roth, J. C., & Fernandez, B. S. (Eds.). (2018). Perspectives on school crisis response: Refections from the feld. New York: Routledge. Saul, J. (2016). Online “sextortion” is on the rise. Newsweek. Retrieved from www. newsweek.com/2016/12/09/sextortion-social-media-hacking-blackmail-527201.html. Sofka, C. J., Gilbert, K. R., & Cupit, I. N. (Eds.). (2012). Dying, death, and grief in an online universe: For counselors and educators. New York: Springer. Trepte, S., Reinecke, L., & Juechems, K. (2012). The social side of gaming: How playing online computer games creates online and offine social support. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(3), 832–839. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chb.2011.12.003 Twenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L., & Martin, G. N. (2018). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among U.S. adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617723376 Underwood, M. K., & Ehrenreich, S. E. (2017). The power and pain of adolescents’ digital communication: Cyber victimization and the perils of lurking. American Psychologist, 72(2), 144–158. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0040429 Vengrove, A. (2018). Remembering Carlos: Professional and personal refections. In J. C. Roth & B. S. Fernandez (Eds.), Perspectives on school crisis response: Refections from the feld (pp. 35–42). New York: Routledge.

Section III

Programs and Practices Supporting School and Student Safety

9

Crisis Prevention, Preparedness, and Response

In a crisis, be aware of the danger – but recognize the opportunity. ~ John F. Kennedy

Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs, similar to the foundational practices discussed in previous chapters, highlights the basic need for safety as a prerequisite for growth. Conversely, students and schools can face threats to safety, or crises that also provide opportunities for growth. Without minimizing their potential for devastating impact, crises can be catalysts to bring a community together, reaffrm hope and faith, rebuild property and lives, and demonstrate the kindness of responders and resilience of those they help. This is the frst of a series of chapters presenting specifc programs and practices that support school and student safety. A physically and psychologically safe school environment must exist for students to take the risk of learning. Learning itself can be made relatively safe or risky by the support students are given when they are challenged with subject matter, or when struggling with the challenges of life. A safe school setting that promotes learning must also promote mental health, physical wellbeing, response to crisis and trauma, and affrmation of life.

School Safety and Crisis Response Teams A key element in preventing and preparing for emotional trauma or violence is having trained school safety and crisis response teams. District level or regional response may also be needed to support affected building level teams when there is a severely traumatic event. Safety teams conduct needs assessments to analyze safety initiatives, develop plans, determine strengths and needs, collaborate with community agencies, and ensure that the school staff and crisis response team receive ongoing training (Cowan & Paine, 2013). Crisis response teams must develop their capacity for prevention and intervention through evidence-based frameworks such as the PREPaRE

136 Programs and Practices model (Brock et al., 2016), which facilitates preparedness for fexible response to traumatic incidents. School and district crisis team response can have lasting positive effects on a school community coping with and recovering from devastating events (Castro-Olivo, Albeg, & Begum, 2012). Tragic events in schools make a compelling case for district level response capability. When there is a sudden crisis that impacts groups of students and staff, the ability to evaluate situations and make decisions can be compromised. Severe trauma can quickly exhaust a school’s resources. A trained district or regional team with proactive plans can perform effectively when a school team needs supplemental support and services. Immediate crisis response can evaluate psychological trauma, mitigate stress reactions, and contribute to long-term recovery (KennedyPaine, Reeves, & Brock, 2014). Initiating Crisis Response Teams While the need for trained crisis response teams is clear, there are often challenges to forming and preparing school and district teams. Helpful prerequisites for initiating response teams: • • •

• • •

There must be administrative support – both district and building level There must be a core of team leadership, coordination, and membership dedicated to developing and maintaining a team It is helpful for stakeholders (administrators, teachers, mental health providers) to understand the importance and benefts of crisis preparedness and having district and school teams (NASP provides a PREPaRE PowerPoint) When a district commits to crisis preparedness and teams, there must be an effective response model and training for prevention and intervention When a team is established, there must be attention to team development, promotion, and maintenance Unfortunately, one of the strongest cases for the formation, training, and maintenance of crisis response teams is the prevalence of crises in schools and the comparison of response with and without trained teams Adapted from Roth (2015), Roth and Fernandez (2018)

Advocating for School Crisis Training Reeves and Cowan (2008) delineated key points in advocating with administrators for PREPaRE school crisis training:

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School crisis response involves both physical and psychological safety Effective crisis planning and response can help develop students’ resilience and ability to cope and strengthen families and school communities Effective crisis planning and response can help students return as quickly as possible to academic routine after a crisis School crisis response involves unique challenges requiring targeted training and knowledge of schools, mental health, and crisis reactions Schools need response capacity for a range of crises, including student or staff death, school shooting, community tragedy, natural disaster, epidemic, or terrorism Since mental health is integral to crisis response and recovery, ongoing support for children’s mental health needs is essential Having a plan is not enough – staff training for all aspects of crisis prevention, protection, mitigation, response, and recovery is critical for school and district crisis management capability Training costs can often be defrayed by federal, state, district, or grant funding PREPaRE training is comprehensive and unique in that: • • • • • • • •

It is an evidence-based training program designed specifcally for schools It was developed by expert school psychologists, formally trained and with extensive experience in crisis prevention and response It provides both a foundation for new responders and in-depth training for more experienced responders It emphasizes prevention, including improved school climate, behavioral and academic supports, student resilience, and staff response capability It is designed to ft a three-tiered system of service delivery, with interventions at all levels, from school-wide to intensive supports It is appropriate training for school crisis teams, school mental health staff responding to major crises, and community providers participating in school crisis response It improves school–community collaboration It uses a cost-effective Training of Trainers (ToT) model

Importance of a Framework and Training Entering traumatic situations with a practiced framework is crucial, especially when unexpected circumstances require that plans be adapted or changed. Flexibility, creativity, and “thinking on the spot” are all enabling qualities (Roth, 2015). PREPaRE uses an Incident Command System

138 Programs and Practices (ICS) with shared leadership and functional roles to address the varied demands of school crises. ICS was developed from frst responder terminology to have a standard framework and language that provides an important beneft when collaborating with frst responders in a crisis situation. Crises present opportunities to review and strengthen safety plans and response capacity. The following points emphasize the crucial need for trained crisis response capability: • • • • • • •

High incidence, devastating traumatic events happen in schools every day Training and planning must happen before a crisis A response framework and training such as PREPaRE provides a sense of what to expect and what needs to be done to fnd order in chaos Having a conceptual framework and skill set makes it easier to adjust to unique challenges and unexpected problems while under duress An untrained, uncoordinated response can increase children’s perceived trauma, while a trained, coordinated approach can mitigate emotional trauma A trained response ensures key elements like emotional frst aid and triage, honest reassurance of safety, and reuniting with social support A trained district team can blend with a school team and educators when they are overwhelmed by a crisis in their own school, helping them recover and regain leadership in caring for their students Adapted from Roth (2015), Roth and Fernandez (2018)

Developmental, Cultural, and Special Needs Competence Stage of development infuences children’s understanding of trauma, reactions, coping style, and memory of an incident. Severe or repeated trauma can impact development and increase children’s future vulnerability (Jimerson, Brown, & Stewart, 2012; Zenere, 2009). Culturally competent planning for crises includes a cultural needs assessment. It is critical to consult with community leaders and have responders who are representative of and familiar with the ethnic, racial, and religious groups in the school, are profcient in the primary languages spoken, or have access to trained interpreters. Educators and responders can be trained to be sensitive to diverse expressions of need (Ortiz & Voutsinas, 2012). Students with special needs can be especially vulnerable and require thoughtful planning that anticipates ways they might react to a traumatic incident. Preparation can be based on strategies that have worked in the past to reassure safety, promote constructive expression of emotions, and recognize strengths (Clarke, Jones, & Yssel, 2014).

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Media Plans and Cooperation A plan for setting boundaries to prevent media intrusion on campus is important, but cooperation with the media to minimize trauma exposure and provide helpful information for the community to promote coping is mutually benefcial. A media plan can include: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Periodic briefng for media at an off-campus or remote on-campus location. Spokespersons skilled in communication that excludes sensationalism. Written statements describing actions being taken to address needs and problem solve to reduce present and future emotional trauma. Strategies and caregiver training to shield students from media intrusion and help manage print and visual media to minimize trauma exposure.

Strategies for Prevention and Preparedness Crisis Response: Primary Prevention Primary prevention includes vital steps schools can take to either prevent traumatic incidents, or mitigate negative impact and stress reactions when they happen. Chapter 10 provides suggestions to strengthen primary prevention. Beyond prevention, preparing and planning for crises are of utmost importance. Suggestions for preparation and plan development: • • • • • •

Crisis plans should be based upon a needs assessment and a model that responds to multiple types of traumatic events and levels of need All schools should have a basic response plan, while also planning for unique needs based upon their geographic location, i.e., foods, tornadoes, or wildfres Establish a multi-tiered continuum of services for all students at the universal level, and more individualized at targeted and intensive levels Crisis team members should have access to ongoing training and practice drills Schools should have practiced plans for evacuation and lockdown procedures Schools should have multiple ways of contacting staff and parents to inform them about plans for student reunifcation with family

140 Programs and Practices • • • • • • • •

Safety and crisis teams should periodically review plans, ensuring an effective system of command with trained team member roles and functions Train teachers and staff and provide consultation on elements of response such as recognizing and supporting traumatized and grieving students School and district teams should have a coordinated intervention plan and collaborate with law enforcement and community agencies when needed Provide suffcient access to school-based and community mental health services Use data and needs assessment for planning developmentally and culturally responsive interventions and accommodating students with special needs Plan to promote protective factors and mitigate risk factors to strengthen student resilience prior to and during traumatic events Facilitate collaborative relationships with families and school staff Crises present opportunities for school leaders to examine plans, reinforce what works, address needs, and strengthen response capacity and preparedness Adapted from Brock et al. (2016), Cowan and Paine (2013)

Reunifcation With Primary Caregivers Reunifcation procedures are necessary to unite students with parents or primary caregivers when traumatic incidents are anticipated, or after they have happened. Events such as news of an impending natural disaster, bomb threat, the aftermath of a catastrophic accident, or mass violence can quickly result in large numbers of parents descending upon a school, challenging already extended resources. Since the effciency of reunifcation procedures can either mitigate or exacerbate perceived emotional trauma, schools must have a comprehensive plan. Crisis response should prepare to keep roads to and from the school open and have suffcient parking facilities, comfortable waiting areas where parents/guardians can be sensitively informed or receive brief caregiver training, a procedure to identify caregivers and formally document students released to them, and a plan for school personnel to safely escort students from classrooms or a secure off-campus site to waiting family members. Proactive planning with local police and fre departments is highly recommended, as well as having a parent reunifcation page on the school’s website (Roth, 2015). The Role of Districts in Developing High-Quality School Emergency Operations Plans (U.S. Department of Education, 2019) emphasized the following points in planning for effective reunifcation:

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How to inform families about the reunifcation process in advance, and to clearly describe their roles and responsibilities in reunifcation How to verify and document that an adult is authorized to take a student How to facilitate communication between parent check-in and student reunion areas How to ensure students do not leave on their own How to protect privacy of students and families from the media How to reduce confusion during the reunifcation process How and when to update families, and provide them with useful information to support their children How to cope with language and technology challenges facing students, staff, and parents/guardians

Gay and Reeves (2017) asserted that since reunifcation is often the frst step in recovery from a traumatic incident, effective procedures should be a focus. Reunifcation should be part of a comprehensive safety and crisis plan with suffcient, well-trained personnel resources allocated and specifc roles and responsibilities clearly assigned. Gay and Reeves (2017) suggested the following goals of caregiver training: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Identify and normalize crisis reactions. Identify and teach stress management strategies. Identify and teach empathetic reactions to traumatic stress. Focus on facts to dispel rumors and misinformation. Identify crisis reactions and adaptive coping strategies, as well as maladaptive coping that indicates need for treatment referral.

Urban School Crisis Response Addressing challenges of urban school crisis response: • • • • •

Strive to complete a cultural needs assessment, followed by developing a plan to meet identifed needs Strive to have racial and ethnic representation on crisis teams that refects student race and ethnicity Be culturally responsive – understand and value multiculturalism and diversity, including ways of seeking help, rituals and ways of grieving, and having a school climate that refects cultural responsiveness Grieving a death in the school community is not limited to students of the same race or ethnicity as the person who died, and is not limited only to those who knew the person Violent or accidental death can result in complicated emotions of sadness, confusion, guilt, and anger, which may be inappropriately expressed toward others

142 • •

Programs and Practices Understand the cumulative effect of ongoing community violence on students and educators, and the vital need to support students coping with ongoing emotional trauma Connect with racial and ethnic leaders in the community – family, faith, mental health agencies, language interpreters, and other resources – before there is a crisis

Crisis Exercises and Drills School crisis exercises and drills can prepare school staff, crisis team members, students, and other agencies for a variety of crises. The type of drill can vary, from either discussion-based (seminars, workshops, or tabletop drills) or operations-based (specifc emergency drills, functional exercise drills, or full-scale drills) (Freeman & Taylor, 2010). Research indicates that drills conducted according to best practice can increase students’ knowledge and skills about emergency response, without increasing their anxiety or perceived trauma (Zhe & Nickerson, 2007). However, since students and staff can be traumatized during some types of ill-planned exercises such as active shooter drills, extreme caution should be used in their planning and implementation. Erbacher and Poland (2019) discussed the potential terror and trauma of active shooter drills. They emphasized the importance of not scaring children in a setting where they should feel safe and the imperative that active shooter drills should be preceded by extensive preparation and education. They asserted the need for careful planning by the school crisis team, local police, and the school psychologist, who can help ensure that drills are conducted in a trauma-informed manner that attends to children’s developmental needs and assesses perceived safety of students and staff before and after the drill. The following considerations are important. Considerations when developing/conducting full-scale crisis drills: • • • •

•

May need up to 18 months to develop a full-scale crisis drill Proceed carefully and gradually with orientation sessions, emergency drills, and functional exercises, informing parents in advance about drills and their benefts Make a long-term emergency exercise plan, beginning with basic drills and culminating with full-scale drill Planning should involve the school crisis team, administration, school psychologist, and community responders, and may need collaboration with an outside expert or consultant for guidance in conducting the exercise An active drill must not be mistaken for a real crisis event, but always be announced to students, staff, and parents before implementation

Crisis Prevention, Preparedness, Response •

•

• • •

• • • •

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Local community and educational facilities should be informed, including by the school’s Twitter and Facebook feeds and police social media alerts in advance of full-scale drills to prevent confusion and rumors because of multiple police cars, EMS vans, and fre trucks being present at the school Students and staff should not be exposed to potentially traumatic stimuli such as shooting blanks or fake blood in drills, as this exposure could lead to increased threat perceptions, evoke prior trauma, and cause traumatic reactions Preparation and education of students and staff can mitigate potentially traumatizing effects, beginning with an orientation so participants know what to expect Many exercise scenarios need not involve students or the entire student body, but when students are involved, they should not have a trauma history and should be carefully briefed about what will happen Carefully designed protocols and frst responder training prior to the drill for locating and evacuating “victims” is important, and “victims” can be portrayed by trained, outside volunteers such as from the Red Cross or college theatre students Participating agencies should follow the National Incident Management System’s Incident Command System and activate an Emergency Operations Center Participants must sign in before the drill begins, get an initial briefing, and wear identifcation about who they are and their roles during the drill A post-incident critique should be generated to identify issues to correct Establish a no fault/no fail expectation, emphasizing that mistakes or inconsistencies are opportunities to learn and improve future responses Adapted from Freeman and Taylor (2010), NASP (2013), NASP (2018)

Training and Consultation PREPaRE Model The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) provides PREPaRE, a highly recommended, comprehensive school crisis response training model easily adapted to a variety of traumatic events (Brock et al., 2016). PREPaRE emphasizes that trained school safety and crisis teams and school-based mental health providers must be involved in a hierarchical and sequential set of activities: P – Prevent and prepare for crises R – Reaffrm physical health & welfare, and perceptions of safety and security

144 Programs and Practices E – Evaluate psychological trauma risk P – Provide interventions a – and R – Respond to mental health needs E – Examine the effectiveness of crisis preparedness Source: www.nasponline.org/professional-development/ prepare-training-curriculum/about-prepare School crisis prevention, preparedness, and intervention require special knowledge and skills, given the vulnerability of young people, the nature of relationships in schools, and the potentially devastating consequences of school crises. Rossen and Cowan (2013) emphasized that schools can provide trained adults prepared to respond to crises, address student and staff needs, form community partnerships, and provide systems of support (Nickerson & Heath, 2008; Reeves, Conolly-Wilson, Pesce, Lazarro, & Brock, 2012). Teamwork and Training to Provide Services School administrators and mental health providers can team to destigmatize seeking mental health services and provide teachers, students, staff, and families with training and consultation to recognize and address emotional trauma, grief, stress reactions, and mental illness (KennedyPaine et al., 2014; Rossen & Cowan, 2013). Trained school and district crisis response teams are also capable of contributing to school safety teams, joining with other educators to identify security needs and take preventive measures. A district level response team is necessary when a school team is overwhelmed by a traumatic incident. Connections with community, regional, and national resources are also valuable (Reeves, Kanan, & Plog, 2010). System-wide programs of training and consultation can prepare for response to traumatized and bereaved students, staff, and community (Brown & Jimerson, 2017; Poland, Samuel-Barrett, & Waguespack, 2014). Trained Educators as Protective Factors Teachers in daily contact with their students can be a protective factor, identifying and responding to students struggling with grief (Rossen & Cowan, 2013; Schonfeld & Quackenbush, 2010). Workshops and training modules with consultative follow-up can provide teachers, administrators, support staff, and other caregivers with the knowledge, skills, and confdence to support grieving students after a traumatic event. Suggested training modules include “recognizing typical and complicated student grief reactions” (Heath & Cole, 2012) and topics developed by Poland and colleagues (2014), including “strategies to help bereaved

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students cope and recover,” “classroom activities to support resilience of grieving students,” and “strategies for parents to support grieving children and adolescents.” Modules can also be available online (Roth & Fernandez, 2018).

Key Elements of Crisis Response Crisis Severity and Level of Response Severity of an incident determines the appropriate level of response (Brock et al., 2016). •

•

•

Indicators of severity include the nature and consequences of the incident: • Intensity. Is it a large-scale event? On campus? Are there witnesses? • Duration. Longer exposure is more severe . . . minimize trauma exposure, including media and social media • Predictability. Is the incident sudden or anticipated? Sudden death tends to be more traumatizing than terminal illness when there is more opportunity to prepare • Consequences. Are there injuries, destruction, fatalities? The principal, often in consultation with the district superintendent or response team leaders, decides the level of response: • Minimal. School staff in their routine roles • Building level. School crisis team without district team help • District level. Severity of event requires both school and district teams working together • Regional. High degree of severity, such as mass casualties, requires regional or even national response Depending on severity, district level response can include just a few members or many, if needed – an informed decision is important because both over-response and under-response can do harm: • Over-response, with too many responders, can increase student perception of trauma • Under-response, with too few responders, may provide insuffcient resources to meet student and staff needs • A fexible approach is recommended – responders not needed may be sent away from the scene or needed responders may be called to the scene Adapted from Brock et al. (2016), DiRaddo and Brock (2012)

146 Programs and Practices Initial Briefng Initial response team briefng often happens in early morning, before students arrive and prior to a faculty meeting. Depending on the time of the incident, the briefng may be at the end of the school day, over the weekend, or as soon as possible after psychological frst aid when there is a sudden incident. Because of social media, cell phones, and texting, students are often aware of traumatic events and in need of support before the response team has an opportunity to meet. Initial team briefng generally involves: 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7.

Gathering and sharing information to separate rumors from facts. Discussion of what to share with stakeholders – teachers, staff, and families. Teachers want to be informed so they can care for their students. Discussion of what to say and not say to students and how to inform them – often a script for classroom teachers with responder support if needed. A script is helpful for offce staff response to phone inquiries. PA announcements and assemblies are not recommended since followup with distressed students can be extremely diffcult in a large venue. Determine location for triage and interventions – school libraries can accommodate group interventions and have adjoining rooms for homogeneous small group and individual crisis counseling. Initiate primary triage – as the response begins, identify the most severely affected students needing immediate attention. Consider following the daily classroom schedule of a student or teacher who has died or is seriously ill or injured, to provide group support in the classroom. A responder should be designated to contact other schools where affected students might attend. Adapted from Roth (2015)

Psychological Triage Triage, a process of evaluating risk for psychological trauma, seeks to identify and prioritize students and staff most in need of support and match appropriate crisis intervention with their degree of need (Brock et al., 2016). •

Primary, secondary, and tertiary triage: • Primary triage. Identifes those needing attention early in the response – often school administrators and counselors know the close relationships and can generate names of students needing attention, while others are immediately referred from classrooms • Secondary triage. Ongoing identifcation of affected students generated during the response – during interventions and crisis counseling, teacher referrals, and student or self-referrals

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Tertiary triage (referral triage). During the later stages of crisis response and beginning of recovery, it is vital to identify those most severely affected and needing ongoing monitoring or referral for treatment

•

Triage casts a broad net, trying to fnd all students needing help by evaluating variables that predict risk for psychological trauma: • Physical proximity. Who was in close proximity or witnessed the event? • Emotional proximity. Who had close relationships with the victim – family, friends, classmates, teammates? • Internal vulnerability. Who has a history of mental illness, previous trauma, or poor emotion regulation? • External vulnerability. Who has minimal family resources and social support? • Perceptions of threat. Who continues to perceive risk? • Early and enduring warning signs. Withdrawal, depression, avoidance, inability to function, aggressive behavior, complicated grief . . .

•

Triage helps match appropriate interventions with the degree of need Good news: Generally, the norm is recovery – most students typically recover with naturally occurring support systems. Responders want to support recovery when support is needed, but not impose unnecessary interventions Students more severely affected need targeted attention – for example, psychological frst aid, listening and empathy, teachable moments to understand feelings, and empowering constructive activities like creating a memory book for a grieving family, helping plan a memorial event, or participating in a mental health or suicide prevention organization For the most severely traumatized or those experiencing complicated grief, follow-up is necessary and referral for therapeutic treatment Circumstances, exposure, and degree of need should be considered when deciding whether to implement PREPaRE interventions such as classroom meetings, caregiver training, student psychoeducational group, classroom-based crisis intervention (CBI), or individual crisis intervention (ICI) Homogeneous groups – interactive crisis counseling groups should be relatively homogeneous in their degree of traumatization. Minimally affected students should not be exposed to a counseling group with severely traumatized students, and severely traumatized students should not be counseled with minimally affected students Adapted from Brock et al. (2016)

•

•

• •

•

148 Programs and Practices Stabilizing Teachers and Staff While we naturally look frst to support students during a crisis, it is imperative to also support and emotionally stabilize the teachers and staff, enabling them to care for their students. Suggestions for stabilizing and supporting teachers: •

•

Staff training before an event happens is best for coping and resilience when an event happens, including how to listen to children who are traumatized or grieving, activities to express feelings and empower students, and typical trauma reactions and when to refer A staff meeting can provide information about the incident, resources for students and staff, and procedures for reunifcation or referral Planning items for sharing at the staff meeting: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. • • • •

Information about the traumatic incident, dispelling rumors What to say to students, when, and how – a script for teachers What to look for – student reactions indicating need for referral How and where to refer – escort system to accompany those referred Handouts for teachers, including discussion topics and activities Reestablish normal routine while maintaining support – honest reassurance of safety and security is paramount Adjust class schedule and testing, if time is needed to process the loss Reestablish support systems – student, teacher, family, faith. If needed, review plan for reunifcation with parents or primary caregivers Offer support to teachers, including crisis counseling, in-classroom support, and substitutes (foating) as needed. Teachers, administrators, and staff can model healthy grieving and expression of feelings Establish tentative time for next staff meeting, or notify staff by e-mail and/or announcement when it will happen

Crisis counseling on campus must be available for staff as well as students In-class support can be made available for teachers needing support talking with their students Follow the schedule of a deceased teacher or student so that crisis counselors can be available to provide support as needed in those classrooms Floating substitute teachers can be available for teachers who need a break from the classroom to quietly refect or seek counseling

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Substitute teachers can allow classroom teachers the choice to attend a funeral For staff most severely affected, confdential referral for counseling may be made through an Employee Assistance Program (EAP) Adapted from Roth (2015), Roth and Fernandez (2018)

Reciprocal Support With Principals No one feels the burden of a school crisis more than the principal, who carries the weight of intense emotions responding to a tragedy and taking on many tasks. •

• • •

Principals’ tasks can include: • Contacting a grieving family or families, and fnding out their needs, wishes, and funeral information • Facilitating faculty meetings and keeping staff informed – teachers appreciate information that helps them care for students and resent not being kept informed • Writing and sending letters to school families and community • Communicating with the media – district superintendents can help – plan for media cooperation: periodic briefngs off campus can establish boundaries and get helpful information to the community • Legal concerns may need to be addressed • Decisions must be made relative to the crisis response • All of the principal’s usual responsibilities System of reciprocal support – the principal logistically supports the district response team blending with the school team, and crisis team leaders can in turn support the principal’s tasks The principal is the Incident Commander (PREPaRE) but may share leadership, designating another experienced administrator or crisis team leader with leadership of the response There should always be consultation between the principal and crisis team leaders, and response team debriefngs should be scheduled at times when the principal and other administrators can attend and participate in decision making Adapted from Roth (2015), Roth and Fernandez (2018)

Crisis Interventions Psychological frst aid (PFA) – essential aims: 1.

Stabilize symptoms – prevent maladaptive reactions from worsening: •

Reaffrm realistic perceptions of safety and security

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2. 3.

Reestablish social support systems Respond if there is a severe reaction, with grounding techniques such as stress management, deep breathing, orienting to surroundings, or guided imagery for relaxation

Reduce symptoms, while normal grieving is supported. Reestablish functional capacity, including adaptive coping, problem solving if ready, or referral for more intensive treatment, if needed.

Brymer and colleagues (2012) emphasized that delivery of PFA in large assemblies is not recommended. They suggested the following key actions when crisis responders conduct PFA in classrooms or small groups: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Partner with the teacher or other school staff known to the students Provide information about what happened, omitting disturbing details Dispel rumors and clarify misunderstandings, offering honest reassurance of safety Identify current resources and services being offered, and how to access them Address safety concerns, safety procedures being taken, and steps to recover Identify shared needs and concerns of the group, showing empathy Brainstorm strategies to address immediate needs and concerns, without letting the meeting lapse into complaints Discuss ways group members can help each other Provide psychoeducation about the range of reactions experienced Describe and emphasize coping strategies others have found effective, but touch upon maladaptive coping that can be harmful Discuss trauma and loss reminders and how to manage them Identify how to access individual services, encouraging their use if needed Adapted from Brymer et al. (2012)

PFA – guidelines for approaching distressed children: 1. Observe status, then initiate contact without intruding or interrupting. 2. Offer practical assistance (water, food, blankets). 3. Ask simple, respectful questions about how you can help, without making assumptions about their need. 4. Be present and supportive, remain fexible, and understand that not everyone affected will want or need to talk with you. 5. Speak calmly and patiently, without using jargon.

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6. Listen carefully to understand what they want to communicate and how to help – children may express needs through behaviors, play, or art. 7. Reinforce personal strengths and coping strategies. 8. Give accurate, age-appropriate information that addresses immediate goals and omits disturbing details. 9. Remember the goal is to reduce distress, address immediate needs, and promote adaptive functioning – not pressure to talk about trauma. 10. If ready, initiate simple problem solving that addresses stated concerns and enhances strengths, coping, and perceived security. Adapted from Brymer et al. (2012) Levels of Intervention For most, recovery happens with naturally occurring support systems and minimal or no intervention (Bonanno & Mancini, 2008; Brock et al., 2016). For the typically small percentage more severely affected – often family, friends, witnesses, frst responders, and those with histories indicating vulnerability – progress should be monitored, and there should be intervention when necessary. Document all student and parent contacts, emotional status, and assessed need for follow-up and referral. Crisis intervention that is not needed, or does not match the individual’s level of need, can cause harm (Brock et al., 2016; Nickerson, Reeves, Brock, & Jimerson, 2009). In general, working with small, homogeneous groups experiencing similar levels of distress helps prevent vicarious trauma and contagion. Imagine the possible harm of grouping severely traumatized students with minimally exposed students. Rather than normalizing their reactions and feelings, students affected differently might believe they are reacting abnormally and their perceived emotional trauma heightened. A range of individual, group, or classroom interventions is matched with students according to the severity of trauma indicated by psychological triage (Brock et al., 2016). Postvention After a Suicide Postvention after a death by suicide requires school and communitywide application of a special set of knowledge and skills to deal with accompanying stigma, complicated grief, and possible contagion. It is crucial to destigmatize support for survivors and encourage help seeking for emotional problems. Opportunities to participate in constructive, life-affrming activities can help. Suicide in Schools (Erbacher, Singer, & Poland, 2015) is highly recommended. Chapter 11 details suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention.

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Crisis Team Debriefngs During Response The response team should debrief at least once a day. Creativity may be needed to fnd meeting times, communicate when and where it will happen, and make a concerted effort to involve administrators in attendance and decision making. Purposes of team debriefngs during a response: 1. 2.

3.

Share information and perceptions of the response process, interventions, and counseling themes to sense needs and plan next interventions. Share names of students seen and conduct secondary triage, identifying those appearing most affected and determining if follow-up is indicated. Contact parents/guardians of severely affected students to offer information about support, monitoring, and referral if needed. Document all contacts! Brainstorm “to do” list of tasks for responders and administrators: • • • • •

Prepare letters from administrator to families Contact the grieving family to express sympathy, determine needs, and inquire about funeral plans, including preference for public or private funeral Share non-confdential information with staff, community, and media Consider care for team caregivers, network of support, and individual stress management plans Identify next team debriefng target time and location Adapted from Roth (2015)

Memorials Memorials are rituals for remembrance that can be profoundly sad but also express appreciation, inspire, and affrm life. Suggestions for planning school memorials: 1. Written policies are helpful to ensure equity of observance, but don’t assume that “one size fts all.” 2. Consider memorials for all student or staff deaths, including death by suicide, substances, or high-risk behavior. However, with these deaths, the person can be remembered without glorifying the act. Use caution when memorializing a death by suicide, using best practices to avoid contagion (Erbacher et al., 2015; Hart, 2012; Jellinek & Okoli, 2012). 3. A memorial advisory committee of students with adult supervision can help ensure that decisions are consistent with policies. A menu

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5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

10.

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with options can support creative expression and empower constructive action. Encourage voluntary participation in developmentally appropriate life-affrming activities such as writing letters and poems, creating a memory book for the grieving family, and supporting mental health organizations. Consistent with secondary triage, memorial activities provide an opportunity to monitor and identify students at risk or experiencing complicated grief. Attendance should be voluntary. Set time guidelines for short-term memorials and their removal. Timelines for memorial events should not rush grief work or cause re-traumatization. Memorials should avoid recounting trauma or anger and rather affrm life and foster hope and resilience (Heath, Bingham, & Dean, 2008). Be culturally sensitive, respecting diversity and religious differences in rituals, traditions, and practices (Ungar, 2008). Teachers should be offered counseling and information to care for their students and each other. If a staff member has died, substitutes should provide teachers the opportunity to attend the funeral. Set guidelines for long-term memorials such as tree planting, plaques, and library gifts. Permanent memorials should not be placed in front of the school, but rather in an accessible location that allows the choice to visit. On the anniversary, depending on the type and severity of the incident, consider whether to plan a voluntary remembrance activity that supports healing. Staff should be vigilant around anniversary dates for the needs of vulnerable students (Zibulsky, 2012).

Movement Toward Recovery The district or outside response team should begin leaving when the school staff and building level response team is suffciently able to care for students progressing toward normal routine. The imperative of district responders is to leave students in the hands of stabilized, recovering administrators, teachers, and support staff capable of caring for them. Teachers should understand that return to classwork does not mean that all students are ready to concentrate fully on academics (Roth, 2015). The PREPaRE model (Brock et al., 2016) recommends tertiary triage during the later stages of crisis response and the beginning of recovery, which involves careful consideration of the need for continued monitoring or therapeutic treatment for those severely affected. In fact, the third edition of the PREPaRE curriculum (Brock & Reeves, 2019) emphasizes the need for ongoing support and treatment referral for those most severely affected, changing the name of the phase called tertiary triage to referral triage. Continued support is vital for families of affected students,

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especially after catastrophic incidents such as school shootings or death by suicide. Follow-up may be necessary for months and even years, with special attention to anniversaries (Roth, 2015). Debriefng for Response Team Closure Demobilization for a district level team should include a timely closure debriefng, especially since district team members will be relatively isolated from team support. Examine the team’s experience to process effectiveness, lessons learned, and facilitate stress management. While each team member is affected differently, all can beneft from peer support and a recovery plan that fts their individual needs (Crepeau-Hobson & Kanan, 2014; Roth, 2015). Main tasks of response caregivers’ closure debriefng: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Tell stories and express feelings. Discuss diffcult aspects of the response, including unique challenges. Discuss what went well, documenting the effectiveness of interventions and data that indicates return to pre-crisis capacity. Discuss what could have gone better, and consider whether policies and procedures need to be modifed. Discuss “what did we learn about our team and our response that will be helpful in the future?” How are we taking care of ourselves? Are there individual recovery plans?

Care for the Caregiver Always remember that school crisis responders are susceptible to vicarious trauma and need care . . . Caregiver care begins with understanding stress reactions and factors that create vulnerability for crisis responders. The work of crisis responders can be physically and emotionally exhausting. Witnessing the intense pain caused by a traumatic incident can result in a constellation of debilitating long-term stress reactions. School crisis plans should ensure that responders are not experiencing unrecognized negative reactions to involvement in crisis response (Reeves et al., 2010). Ensuring that responders have access to a secure space to refect, recover, and plan is a crucial step toward supporting caregivers. Responders who repeatedly witness those exposed to trauma are at high risk for “vicarious trauma,” also called “secondary traumatic stress” (STS), and “compassion fatigue” (Figley, 2002). Empathic caregivers may develop symptoms similar to those experienced by their clients.

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Responders must monitor their reactions to maintain control and focus on actions that serve the client. Refecting deeply on the enormity of loss for a moment may evoke empathy, but dwelling on those refections may result in loss of focus, immobilization, and stress reactions. Responders can reduce risk for traumatic stress by fnding a peaceful space to share with colleagues, practicing stress management, and fnding resources for self-care (Roth, 2015). Caregiver Care: Strategies for Recovery Internal and external resources can support the responder’s physical and emotional health. Internal resources are factors the responder develops as an individual, including personal qualities, attitudes, behaviors, activities, or routines. External resources are factors that develop in concert with others, including systems of social support, training and collaboration, and family and community involvement. Internal resource strategies: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Self-monitor for signs of stress, physical needs, and strengths, seeking relief when necessary Get enough sleep, rest, exercise, and good nutrition throughout a response, and avoid or limit use of alcohol and tobacco Avoid long periods of response without colleagues or breaks Use stress management techniques such as deep breathing, progressive relaxation, mindfulness, guided imagery, and visualization Develop skills for assertiveness, resilience, cognitive reframing, time management, interpersonal communication, and conflict resolution Practice religious faith, spirituality, or life-affrming beliefs Engage in creative self-expression such as writing, music, dance, drawing, painting, or teaching Maintain fascination with the unexpected turns of human interaction, and appreciation for the kind acts of students, staff, and response team members Appreciate humor when you can, in as many aspects of your life as possible Follow-up – self-monitor in the weeks and months following crisis response If necessary, seek help with your own trauma history, which can increase vulnerability to vicarious trauma Seek a professional who is knowledgeable about trauma if signs of vicarious trauma are intense or last longer than 2–3 weeks Adapted from Brymer et al. (2006), Reeves et al. (2010)

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External resource strategies: • • • • • • •

• • • • •

Engage the crisis team in training, drills, stress management strategies, and team building activities, preparing suffcient responders to address interventions Encourage a “buddy system” in which responders partner, consult with, and support each other Encourage administrative support for staff to request help, ask for a break, say “no” when necessary, and monitor colleagues for those appearing at risk Rotate responder assignments from higher to lower impact stress levels, limit shifts to a maximum of 12 hours, and include “foaters” to relieve responders for psychological frst aid, if needed Involve food service to provide nutritious food, snacks, and water Engage in debriefng sessions periodically to monitor not only student and staff needs, but also the needs of fellow responders Engage in closure debriefng at response conclusion to examine team performance and responder needs, including possible stress management strategies and, if needed, support from colleagues and/or administration If needed, obtain supervision and support from administrator, team leader, or professional referral Throughout response, draw strength from appreciation of the team, cooperation, and common purpose Plan for home safety, family and community support and recreation, and social advocacy Identify at least fve trusted people for social support, including two at work Meet with the response team regularly throughout the school year – develop an agenda that includes team building, skill building, and mutual support Adapted from Brock et al. (2016), Brymer et al. (2006)

Leadership Toward Responder Care and Resilience Crisis team leaders can support resilience and empowerment of team members and affected persons in many ways. Team leaders can include care for caregivers as a priority in a system of support, seeking opportunities to empower caregivers, fostering and modeling resilience, and appreciating the contributions of others. Team leaders can encourage self-effcacy and empathy, while monitoring emotional needs of responders and themselves to guard against vicarious trauma. Team leaders can facilitate debriefngs and plan with the team for effective stress management, coping strategies, and closure (Roth, 2015). Being a crisis responder can take a toll. The strength to continue serving those experiencing emotional trauma comes from a variety of

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sources. For some, it is religious and spiritual. For others, it comes from training and skills. For some, it is the camaraderie of team and satisfaction in helping others. For most, the strength to continue comes from a combination of these qualities. Responders continue serving because it is a vital aspect of their job and the career they chose. Whatever their motives, crisis responders deserve care, renewal, and appreciation for giving so much of themselves (Roth, 2015). ****** Having explored crisis prevention, preparedness, and response, the next chapter will address a specifc form of crisis: violence prevention, threat assessment, and intervention.

References Bonanno, G. A., & Mancini, A. D. (2008). The human capacity to thrive in the face of potential trauma. Pediatrics, 121, 369–375. https://doi.org/10.1542/ peds.2007-1648 Brock, S. E., Nickerson, A. B., Reeves, M. A., Conolly, C. N., Jimerson, S. R., Pesce, R., & Lazzaro, B. (2016). School crisis prevention & intervention: The PREPaRE model (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Brock, S., & Reeves, M. (2019). PREPaRE Workshop 2: Mental health crisis intervention: Responding to an acute traumatic stressor in schools (3rd ed.). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Brown, J. A., & Jimerson, S. R. (Eds.). (2017). Supporting bereaved students at school. New York: Oxford University Press. Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., & Watson, P. (2006). Psychological frst aid: Field operations guide (2nd ed.). Rockville, MD: National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD. Brymer, M., Taylor, M., Escudero, P., Jacobs, A., Kronenberg, M., . . . & Vogel, J. (2012). Psychological frst aid for schools: Field operations guide (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: National Child Traumatic Stress Network. Castro-Olivo, S., Albeg, L., & Begum, G. (2012). War and terrorism. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 437–454). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Clarke, L. S., Jones, R. E., & Yssel, N. (2014). Supporting students with disabilities during school crises: A teacher’s guide. Teaching Exceptional Children, 46, 169– 178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914534616 Cowan, K., & Paine, C. (2013). School safety: What really works. Principal Leadership, 13(7), 12–16. Crepeau-Hobson, F., & Kanan, L. M. (2014). After the tragedy: Caring for the caregivers. Phi Delta Kappan, 95(4), 33–37. DiRaddo, J. D., & Brock, S. E. (2012). Is it a crisis? Principal Leadership, 12(9), 12–16. Erbacher, T. A., & Poland, S. (2019). School psychologists must be involved in planning and conduction active shooter drills. Communiqué, 48(1), 10–13.

158 Programs and Practices Erbacher, T. A., Singer, J. B., & Poland, S. (2015). Suicide in schools: A practitioner’s guide to multi-level prevention, assessment, intervention and postvention. New York: Routledge. Figley, C. R. (2002). Treating compassion fatigue. New York: Brunner-Routledge. Freeman, W., & Taylor, M. (2010). Conducting effective tabletops, drills and other exercises. Workshop presented at the U.S. Department of Education, Offce of Safe and Drug-Free Schools, Readiness and Emergency Management for Schools (REMS), Final Grantee Meeting, Boston, MA. Retrieved from www2.iu29.org/REMS/Documents/Tabletops.pdf Gay, M., & Reeves, M. (2017). After the crisis: Seamless recovery and reunifcation procedures. Workshop Presented at Multiple Locations. Hart, S. R. (2012). Student suicide: Suicide postvention. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 525–547). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Heath, M. A., Bingham, R., & Dean, B. (2008). The role of memorials in helping children heal. School Psychology Forum: Research in Practice, 2, 17–29. Heath, M. A., & Cole, B. V. (2012). Identifying complicated grief reactions in children. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 649–670). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Jellinek, M. S., & Okoli, U. D. (2012). When a student dies: Organizing the school’s response. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 21, 55–67. Jimerson, S. R., Brown, J. A., & Stewart, K. T. (2012). Sudden and unexpected student death: Preparing for and responding to the unpredictable. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 469–483). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Kennedy-Paine, C., Reeves, M. A., & Brock, S. E. (2014). How schools heal after a tragedy. Kappan, 95(4), 38–43. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346 NASP. (2013). Conducting crisis exercises and drills: Guidelines for schools [Handout]. Bethesda, MD: NASP. NASP. (2018). Mitigating negative psychological effects of school lockdowns: Brief guidance for schools. Bethesda, MD. Retrieved from www.nasponline.org/resourcesand-publications/resources/school-safety-and-crisis/mitigating-psychologicaleffects-of-lockdowns Nickerson, A. B., & Heath, M. A. (2008). Developing and strengthening crisis response teams. School Psychology Forum, 2(2), 1–16. Nickerson, A. B., Reeves, M. A., Brock, S. E., & Jimerson, S. R. (2009). Identifying, assessing, and treating posttraumatic stress disorder at school. New York: Springer. Ortiz, S. O., & Voutsinas, M. (2012). Cultural considerations in crisis intervention. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 337–357). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Poland, S., Samuel-Barrett, C., & Waguespack, A. (2014). Best practices for responding to death in the school community. In P. L. Harrison & A. Thomas

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(Eds.), Best practices in school psychology: Systems-level services (pp. 302–320). Bethesda MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Reeves, M. A., Conolly-Wilson, C. N., Pesce, R. C., Lazarro, B. R., & Brock, S. E. (2012). Preparing for the comprehensive school crisis response. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 245–264). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Reeves, M., & Cowan, K. (2008). Securing PREPaRE training in your district. Communiqué, 37(4), 7–8. Reeves, M., Kanan, L., & Plog, A. (2010). Comprehensive planning for safe learning environments: A school professional’s guide to integrating physical and psychological safety – Prevention through recovery. New York: Routledge. Rossen, E., & Cowan, K. (2013). The role of schools in supporting traumatized students. Principal’s Research Review, 8(6), 1–8. Roth, J. C. (2015). School crisis response: Refections of a team leader. Wilmington, DE: Hickory Run Press. Roth, J. C., & Fernandez, B. S. (Eds.). (2018). Perspectives on school crisis response: Refections from the feld. New York: Routledge. Schonfeld, D. J., & Quackenbush, M. (2010). The grieving student: A teacher’s guide. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing. U. S. Department of Education, Offce of Elementary and Secondary Education, Offce of Safe and Supportive Schools. (2019). The role of districts in developing high-quality school emergency operations plans. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education. Ungar, M. (2008). Resilience across cultures. British Journal of Social Work, 38, 218–235. Zenere, F. (2009). Violent loss and urban children: Understanding the impact on grieving and development. Communiqué, 38(2), 7–9. Zhe, E. J., & Nickerson, A. B. (2007). The effects of an intruder crisis drill on children’s self-perceptions of anxiety, school safety, and knowledge. School Psychology Review, 36, 501–508. Zibulsky, J. (2012). Preparing for the anniversaries of crisis events. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 423–434). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

10 Violence Prevention, Threat Assessment, and Intervention

We can complain because rose bushes have thorns, or rejoice because thorn bushes have roses. ~ Abraham Lincoln

“Don’t come to school on May 1st.” This was a warning made to a peer by a 16-year-old international student. When the peer shared this information with school staff, authorities were alerted and police discovered a military-style ballistic vest, military-style web gear with pouches to hold ammo clips, a crossbow with scope and seven arrows, a loading dock for rife clips, 9-mm ammunition, and a strangling device in the warning student’s bedroom (Stamm, 2018). Investigators found evidence that the student had researched AR-15 and AK-47 frearms and was possibly trying to purchase one. The student was arrested. Authorities later found 1,600 rounds of ammunition and a handmade 9mm gun (Tustin, 2018). Of particular note about this case example is that it happened at the school of a co-author of this book, Dr. Terri Erbacher. The thought of this incident is still terrifying, as my own life could have been at risk on May 1, 2018. It drives home the point that a potential school shooting can happen in any school at any time. ****** At another high school, when a popular high school student is shot and killed, the tragedy is the most recent in a series that traumatized the community and its school. The district crisis team responded three times in one year to the high school, whose students were at risk in neighborhoods where gun violence led, too often, to serious injury or death. Sometimes a teenager made bad choices and engaged in high-risk behavior. Other times, an innocent youth was caught in crossfre. If the crisis team felt the burden of three mobilizations to the school in one year, imagine how threatened the students felt in the midst of frequent violence. A school’s

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 161 history of previous adverse events and its experiences with crisis intervention infuence how the school copes with a traumatic incident. Addressing the effects of violent loss on urban youth, Pynoos and Nader (1990) challenged the myth that young people living in environments with cumulative grief experiences associated with violence become immune to the psychological effects. This mistaken belief can lead to offering little or no intervention services to support students’ grief and recovery. The cycle of minimal treatment for violent trauma “increases the possibility of long-term enduring grief.” Crisis teams must have both knowledge of the effects of cumulative exposure to violence and the skills to intervene (Roth, 2015).

Types of School-Related Violence Shootings are horrifc acts of school violence that grab headlines when they happen, but thankfully, they rarely occur in schools. Beyond school campuses, violence in the community can result in sudden death, injury, and severe psychological trauma. Discussion of school violence should also include community violence that adversely affects students. Bullying is another form of violence, usually not attracting headlines but still a signifcant and far more pervasive threat to student wellbeing. Vaillancourt Strobach and Cowan (2019) recognized the need to address gun violence and access to weapons when planning for comprehensive school safety. In response to the tragic shooting at the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Florida, the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) adopted a Resolution to Support Efforts to Prevent Gun Violence (NASP, 2018). This resolution commits to public policies that support enforcement of existing gun laws; promote awareness of gun safety practices; ensure comprehensive background checks; rigorously ensure appropriate access to guns, including keeping them away from individuals identifed as at risk for harming themselves or others; support eliminating the Dickey Amendment, which blocks federal funds from promoting gun control; and increase research on gun violence.

Prevention of School-Related Violence Schools must prevent, prepare for, and confront a continuum of violent acts, including catastrophic shootings and terrorism, homicides in the community, and more pervasive threats such as bullying. Educators have the challenge of balancing programs for school safety with efforts to create a positive learning environment (Paine & Cowan, 2009). School-based mental health providers and educators must collaboratively prepare for response to school-related violence and engage in primary prevention with comprehensive planning for safe schools (Roth & Fernandez, 2018; Sprague, Whitcomb, & Bear, 2018).

162 Programs and Practices Ongoing commitment of the entire school community is required to establish safe schools (Cowan & Paine, 2013). School violence prevention strives to reduce the risk of violent behavior and minimize the effects of emotional trauma. When schools establish strong community connections, they are better able to help families, teachers, and students with a continuum of services to restore hope and security (Castro-Olivo, Albeg, & Begum, 2012). Primary Prevention A positive school climate and trusting relationships among educators and students is a key to encouraging communication of concerns, including potential threats and bullying. Staff, students, and parents/caregivers all play important roles in promoting school safety. Primary prevention can avoid a tragedy. Suggestions to strengthen primary prevention: • • • • • • • • •

Conduct a needs assessment for safety, school climate, and cultural responsiveness, followed by planning to address identifed needs Use physical safety measures like natural surveillance, locked doors, and single location entry Practice lockdown, evacuation, reunifcation, and “table-top” drills Have suffcient school mental health professionals – school counselors, school psychologists, school social workers Have trained risk (danger to self) and threat (danger to others) assessment teams Have crisis response training such as PREPaRE, which is comprehensive, designed for schools, and uses Training of Trainers (ToT) Form agreements or memorandums of understanding (MOUs) with community mental health agencies, hospitals, law enforcement, faith and cultural leaders, and language interpreters Utilize, monitor, and plan for the impact of social media, websites, cell phones, and texting for prevention (safe messaging) and the need for immediate response to crises (monitor streaming, conduct triage) Establish a positive school climate: • Create an environment where students feel connected and have a sense of belonging • Practice cultural responsiveness – understand and respond to the culture and needs of diverse student populations • Establish school-wide programs like social-emotional learning (SEL), Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS) • Teach and establish norms for anti-bullying, suicide prevention, and not just tolerating but also appreciating diversity – racial, ethnic, religious, gender, sexual orientation, and special needs

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 163 •

Establish trusting relationships among students and staff so students feel comfortable sharing potential threats to self or others with adults • Value prosocial and cooperative behavior – not just rules and slogans but also norms and values that are embraced by students and staff A positive school climate generally means that when a traumatic incident happens, students are better able to cope, more resilient, and able to bounce back sooner to resume academics. Promoting School Safety Suggestions for promoting school safety: • • • •

• • • • • • •

Create a safe, supportive school climate with school-wide PBIS, prosocial values and norms, and easy, stigma-free access to schoolbased mental health providers Welcome students and families with visible administrators and staff Strengthen family–school collaboration and school–community partnerships, involving school staff, mental health providers, and community faith leaders and agencies, including police and frefghters Review communication systems within the school, district, and community, including how parents/families will be informed of an emergency and reunifcation plans – explain safety and crisis prevention plans on the school website Establish and highlight developmentally and culturally responsive violence prevention programs such as anti-bullying, PBIS, SEL, TIS, and restorative justice, informed by school safety data and trends Encourage students to participate in safety planning and maintaining a safe school, reminding them to resist peer pressure to act irresponsibly Educate about school rules, encourage students to report potential problems, and create anonymous reporting systems such as hotlines, suggestion boxes, “tell an adult” systems, or supportive websites Use physical safety measures like natural access control and natural surveillance, and include the presence of specially trained school resource offcers (SROs) or local police partnerships Develop crisis plans and trained safety and crisis response teams, and provide preparedness training for all staff, using an evidencebased model such as PREPaRE Hold regular, carefully planned, trauma-free school preparedness drills (e.g., intruder alerts, weather, fre, lockdown, evacuation, reunifcation) Develop trained threat and risk assessment teams and strengthen screening procedures to identify and address students at risk for harming self or others

164 •

• • •

Programs and Practices Be vigilant, as perpetrators of school violence often engage in some prior behavior that causes concern and indicates a need for help – recognize that perpetrators often have been persecuted or bullied themselves Prevent or strictly control access to guns and weapons, since perpetrators of school violence using weapons usually had easy access to them prior to attack Use social media to help prevent and respond to school crises and violence Conduct an annual review of all safety policies and procedures, being sure to address emerging school safety issues and adjust crisis plans as needed Adapted from Cowan and Paine (2013), NASP (2015b), Sprague et al. (2018)

Basic elements of supporting troubled or traumatized students include effective administrative leadership, access to school-based mental health providers, ongoing staff training and consultation, and developing family and community partnerships (Rossen & Cowan, 2013; Rossen, 2020). While appropriate safety procedures are critical, it is important to consider whether extreme, restrictive security measures such as metal detectors and armed guards can lead to increased student anxiety and interfere with the learning environment while not necessarily preventing violence (Cuellar, 2018; Gastic, 2011; Reingle Gonzalez, Jetelina, & Jennings, 2016; Tanner-Smith & Fisher, 2015). There must be a balance between building security and efforts to foster student connectedness, resilience, learning, and social competence (Paine & Cowan, 2009; Reeves, Kanan, & Plog, 2010). Physical Safety Measures Physical safety refers to school building vulnerability and ensures safety measures such as physical design, mitigation of physical hazards, policing functions, safety and crisis teams, and drills to improve preparation (Reeves et al., 2010). The Role of Districts in Developing High-Quality School Emergency Operations Plans (U. S. Department of Education, 2019) suggests Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED): •

•

Natural access control. Lock all exterior doors during school hours, with only one entry point for visitors to provide easy screening. Monitor open entrances. Lock rooms and building areas when not in use Natural surveillance. Monitor staff, students, and visitors inside or outside the school building. Screen and provide an ID badge to all visitors. Escort anyone without a badge to the screening area. Natural

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 165

•

•

surveillance can include school resource offcers, cameras, metal detectors, and x-ray machines Access management. The use of barriers and other features to orient and guide people and vehicles along appropriate paths and to restrict inappropriate access. The objective is to increase comfort and decrease prohibited behaviors by providing safe routes and restricting unauthorized access Territoriality. The use of physical attributes to demarcate space and express a sense of ownership and pride. The objective is to communicate that an area is claimed and cared for and therefore unacceptable behavior is not tolerated

School Resource Offcers School resource offcers (SROs) have both law enforcement and education skills enabling them to protect the school campus while supporting the educational mission through their training, expertise, and collaboration within the school system (Cowan, Vaillancourt, Rossen, & Pollitt, 2013). The emphasis of the SRO role can shift away from enforcing student discipline to restoring peaceful relationships inside the school, while protecting the school community from external threats. SROs can be trained in SEL competencies so that instead of simply reprimanding students and focusing only on building physical security, they can provide positive reinforcement, support students, and be a contributing part of a more connected, caring school community (Campisi, 2019). Bullying Prevention The Alberti Center defnes bullying as “a form of aggressive behavior characterized by intent to harm, repeated occurrence, and an imbalance of power between the bully and the victim” (Novotney, 2014, p. 62). Forms of bullying include physical violence, teasing, social exclusion, peer sexual harassment, and targeting a student’s race, ethnicity, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or gender identity. “Cyberbullying” is aggression using e-mails, social media, text messages, or websites. Bradshaw, Waasdorp, O’Brennan, and Gulemetova (2013) found that teachers and support staff wanted more training related to bullying and cyberbullying. Rossen and Cowan (2012) asserted the ethical and legal responsibility of schools to prevent bullying, ensure school safety, and promote positive behavior. They explained that some packaged anti-bullying programs appear moderately successful in reducing bullying, but for signifcant effects, programs must have intensity and longstanding duration (Ttof & Farrington, 2011). Single, stand-alone bullying prevention programs tend to lack optimal effectiveness and sustainability because they:

166 • • • • • •

Programs and Practices Are fragmented Are viewed as yet another task by selected individuals only View bullying as affecting only a subset of students rather than the larger school context Sometimes use counterproductive strategies such as punitive discipline and zero tolerance policies Lack consideration of unique characteristics of the local context, such as family and community factors Lack coordination among school staff and between grade levels Adapted from Rossen and Cowan (2012)

Rossen and Cowan advocated that bullying prevention must be part of a comprehensive, integrated, school-wide system that creates a cultural norm of safety, connectedness, and support. They detailed steps to effective school- and district-wide bullying prevention: 1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

Conduct a data-based assessment of the school environment, including perceived safety and supports, strengths and needs, specifc groups at risk, and where and how bullying occurs. Identify prevention and intervention strategies, including a) school mental health professionals, b) incorporate bullying prevention strategies into classroom learning, c) coordinate existing initiatives such as multi-tiered and positive behavioral supports, and d) communicate with families and related organizations. Create a school safety team that a) identifes a lead team member to focus on bullying prevention and safety, b) establishes administrator, teacher, student, and parent responsibilities to create a safe, supportive school environment, c) plans professional development that integrates safety efforts with other initiatives, d) recognizes risk factors for bullying and communicates them to school staff, and e) ensures the school complies with state laws and district policies. Incorporate school safety and bullying prevention into offcial policy on student and employee conduct, including a) clearly defned boundaries for appropriate behavior, b) protocols for confdentially reporting and recording concerns, c) guidelines for investigating and responding to bullying incidents and other threats at any time and location, including digital media, and d) easy access to prevention and intervention services by school mental health professionals to remediate bullying behaviors and provide social and emotional supports for involved students, including bullies, targets, and bystanders, as needed. Establish positive discipline policies and practices that a) are fair, clear, and consistent, b) identify and consider contributing factors to misbehavior, c) teach all students positive behaviors, and d) incorporate family involvement.

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 167 6.

7.

Engage commitment from the entire school community by a) communicating policies and values with students, staff, parents, and other stakeholders to invite input, b) having open access to bullying and other school safety data, and c) having dialogue for consistency of bullying policies and responses across settings. Assess school climate regularly, using data analysis to determine effectiveness, whether additional supports are needed, and to inform evidence-based practice. Adapted from Rossen and Cowan (2012)

Amanda Nickerson stated that school administrators must examine data about the extent and nature of bullying and develop and implement a whole-school anti-bullying policy that encourages personal, social, and confict resolution skill development (Novotney, 2014). Swearer, Collins, Fluke, and Strawhun (2012) discussed peer reactions to bullying as a positive or negative factor. Those witnessing bullying, called bystanders, are usually present at bullying situations, so their assistance in halting the act, or supporting the target, can reduce the effects of victimization. Bullying and violence prevention should consider that it is not enough to simply mandate anti-bullying, anti-violence rules or slogans. There must be genuine student and staff buy-in and value for prosocial behavior and connections with peers and the school community. There must be shared responsibility and actions that consistently support norms of respect, empathy, and kindness (Roth & Fernandez, 2018). Programs and practices for effective bullying prevention and intervention: • • • • • • •

Collect data about the extent of bullying Develop a school-wide anti-bullying policy that establishes norms of mutual respect Improve adult supervision, especially in areas identifed as “hot spots” for bullying – often the cafeteria, hallway, or playground Provide depression and suicide awareness training for staff and students, including mental health screening for identifcation and referral of at-risk students Participate in ongoing, evidence-based programs that discourage teasing and bullying and regularly assess program effectiveness Support programs that encourage empathy and celebrate diversity such as the Gay–Straight Alliance and Born This Way Foundation Develop comprehensive services, such as MTSS, for collaboration, education, and consultation with school mental health providers, staff, and families to confront bullying and address emotional problems of bullies, targets, and defenders

168 Programs and Practices •

•

• • • •

Distribute fact sheets and anti-bullying toolkits for students, families, and educators provided by the Alberti Center (http://gse.buffalo. edu/alberticenter.), or utilize the Empowerment Initiative (http:// empowerment.unl.edu) Build a sense of belonging and connectedness among school students and staff, paying special attention to those at risk for being bullied – students who are immigrants, identify as LGBTQ+, or have disabilities Use school rules and behavior expectations through school-wide programs such as PBIS to identify and provide consequences for bullying Integrate anti-bullying awareness and SEL into the curriculum and establish a library of anti-bullying children’s books to stimulate discussion and bibliotherapy Emphasize changes in school climate that raise awareness of bullying perpetrators, and bystander and defender behavior, encouraging constructive intervention Provide mentoring and counseling for perpetrators, targets, and witnesses of bullying as needed Adapted from Jenkins, Demaray, and Tennant (2017), Novotney (2014), Swearer et al. (2012)

School Threat Assessment Though the terms “threat” and “risk” assessment can be used interchangeably when discussing potential violence, here the word “threat” applies to potential violence toward others, while “risk” applies to potential self-harm. Chapter 11 elaborates “risk assessment” relative to suicide prevention. Threat assessment is a vital component of a comprehensive school safety plan that contributes a constructive alternative to ineffective zero tolerance discipline policies (Cornell, 2018; Hoffman, 2014). It is a violence prevention strategy that 1) identifes a student’s threat to engage in a violent act, 2) determines seriousness of the threat, and 3) develops an intervention plan that protects potential victims and addresses the problem or confict leading to the threat. Terri A. Erbacher and Dewey Cornell (Erbacher & Cornell, 2020) presented common threat assessment pitfalls: Pitfall 1: Over-reacting to student misbehavior. Zero tolerance procedures are not effective and can lead to the school-to-prison pipeline. Consider the case of a 6-year-old kindergarten student with Down’s Syndrome who points a fnger “gun” at a teacher and says “I shoot you.” A police report is fled. The student’s mother argues that her child had no capability to engage in an act of school

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 169 violence and that infexible procedures are not equitable (Farzan, 2020). Crisis response by law enforcement rather than behavioral health personnel results in inconsistent care, repeated emergency visits by responders who are often poorly prepared to handle such crises, and increased arrests and detention (Bostic & Hoover, 2020). United States Department of Education Offce for Civil Rights (2018) data show that special education students are disproportionately disciplined, including out of school suspensions, expulsions, and referrals to law enforcement. Further, students with disabilities comprise 12% of enrolled students, yet represent 71% of all restrained and 66% of all isolated students. Pitfall 2: Overuse of suspensions. In a nation that fears the next school shooter, a knee-jerk reaction is the immediate suspension of any student who threatens violence. A 7-year-old was suspended for chewing his Pop-Tart into the shape of a gun and pretending to shoot classmates (Chasmar, 2016). Yes, an apparently lethal PopTart. We risk the school-to-prison pipeline for students who are unnecessarily suspended, thereby being excluded and further alienated. Pitfall 3: Racial disparities. Perhaps at greatest risk for unfair and biased practices are African American youth. Black students are suspended and expelled at a rate three times greater than their White counterparts and are disproportionately restrained, excluded, and referred to law enforcement or subjected to a school-related arrest than their White peers (U.S. Department of Education Offce for Civil Rights, 2018). Pitfall 4: Not sharing information. In the Virginia Tech shooting, one of the deadliest mass shootings in the United States, forensic evidence revealed that the shooter’s roommates, classmates, professors, and female peers had serious concerns about attack-related behaviors prior to the shooting (ABC News, 2007). Having threat assessment teams provides a central location for this type of information to be shared. It is vital that school staff are aware to whom they should report concerns. Pitfall 5: Don’t be a lone ranger. Often, one person in a school or district has the most expertise and/or training in effective threat assessment procedures. However, as indicated by the U.S. Secret Service (2002) and the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP, 2014), a team approach is integral to comprehensively evaluate risk of violence. Team members must communicate fndings and share decision making. Further, since threat assessment processes often include interviewing multiple staff, witnesses, and the student making the threat, multiple team members ensure expediency. Finally, a team approach does not subject one person to liability.

170 Programs and Practices Table 10.1 ACLU Recommended Ratios of School Psychologists, School Social Workers, and School Counselors Compared With the National Average (ACLU, 2019)

School Psychologists School Social Workers School Counselors

Recommended Ratio

National Average

700:1 250:1 250:1

1526:1 2106:1 444:1

Pitfall 6: Nearly every state lacks suffcient mental health staff in schools. An integral piece of threat assessment processes is prevention of school violence, intervening with at-risk youth, and providing mental health supports and services, including restorative justice approaches. However, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU, 2019) reports that almost all states do not meet recommended ratios for school mental health personnel, including school psychologists, school social workers, and school counselors (Table 10.1). The “lack of school psychologists is extremely troubling given that school psychologists are usually the staff most qualifed to assess a student’s safety risk to themselves and others” (ACLU, 2019). Pitfall 7: Don’t fail to use evidence-based practice! Multiple models are presented in this chapter, and schools and districts should consider conducting a needs assessment to determine which model might work best for their culture, community, and available resources. Utilizing evidence-based models not only reduces bias and unfair practices but may also protect the practitioner in the event of litigation. As educating the community about threat assessment procedures is vital, consider putting these protocols on district School Safety websites and/or sharing via social media platforms. Threat Assessment Procedures The NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee (2020a) presented highly recommended school behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) best practice considerations. Summarized recommendations to establish and implement the school BTAM process: 1.

Establish a multidisciplinary threat assessment team. School-based teams should include school administrators, school-based mental health professionals, and law enforcement, often trained in the Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) model. CIT provides law enforcement with “the tools needed to recognize individuals experiencing a BH crisis, deescalate them, and divert them to treatment instead of jail,” with some law enforcement agencies creating specialty teams dedicated to behavioral health concerns (Balfour, Hahn Stephenson, Winsky, &

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 171

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Goldman, 2020). In complex cases, threat assessment teams might partner with individuals having knowledge of the person or situation of concern and with relevant school and community-based resources. Defne prohibited and concerning behaviors. Considering a continuum of concerning behaviors, the BTAM team can identify whether a threat is low level and resolvable through a problemsolving process or poses a substantive safety concern requiring more intense action. Develop a central reporting mechanism. School communities must be trained about safety concerns and know what, when, and how to report. Schools should establish multiple confdential or anonymous reporting mechanisms. The response must not be perceived as unfairly punitive. Students must understand that seeking help to prevent violence is not “snitching.” Determine the threshold for law enforcement intervention. BTAM team must distinguish between untrue or low level threats and legitimate, serious threats that require engagement with law enforcement. A memorandum of understanding outlining the relationship between law enforcement and the BTAM process is suggested. Establish assessment procedures. BTAM process is designed to gather, assess, and understand information to determine if the person or situation of concern poses a threat of harm to self and/ or others. Sources of relevant data include interviews, risk factors, protective factors, and warning signs. Develop risk management options. Analysis of all data identifes levels of concern – Low, Moderate, High, Imminent – to guide the design of any needed interventions and supports. The BTAM team develops a plan implementing protective factors for the subject of concern, while managing threatening situations with strategies to mitigate safety concerns and prevent violence. Schools should consider available MTSS resources. Confdential records are maintained in a centralized database. Create and promote safe school climates. Positive school climate and relationships among students and adults are vital for prevention of threats and violence. The NASP committee advocated socialemotional learning and positive behavioral supports. Conduct training for all stakeholders. The BTAM team must have high-quality training that applies an evidence-based model taught by trainers with experience implementing BTAM teams and conducting threat assessments. There should be ongoing follow-up with coaching and a process to train new members. Adapted from NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee (2020a)

Reports must be acted upon appropriately and kept confdential, except when there is a threat to the life of one’s self or others (National Threat

172 Programs and Practices Assessment Center, 2018). Daniels (2019) attributed prevention of most school attacks to students reporting concerns and prompt response by school personnel and police. In health and safety emergencies, exceptions to FERPA (Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act) are allowed without obtaining written consent (U.S. Department of Education, 2019). For a thorough understanding of FERPA related to threat assessment, it is suggested that all school offcials and threat assessment team members review the document School Resource Offcers, School Law Enforcement Units, and the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2019). Each threat must be individually assessed using fair and ethical policies and procedures. Considering the COVID-19 pandemic and resulting use of technology that may be utilized in years to come, schooling delivered via an online format does not absolve or excuse schools from attending to school safety (NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee, 2020b). Multidisciplinary teams are essential to better understand a youth’s behavior, history, and threat potential. There are several evidence-based models used nationally. Most models utilize the initial research conducted by the United States Secret Service as a basis for their procedures. The US Secret Service (2002) identifed 5 areas of information needed (note: This often requires interviewing the student, peers, teachers, family members, and potentially the target): • • • • •

The facts that drew attention to the student, the situation, and possibly the targets Information about the student (background/life information, protective factors/supportive people) Information about the “attack-related” behaviors (weapons, plans, rehearsals, comments of intent) Motives (revenge, attention, suicide) Target selection: Most identify a target; almost half had more than one target. The US Secret Service identifed 11 key questions to answer: A sample fllable form can be found at: www.pent.ca.gov/thr/elevenquestions. pdf 1. What are the student’s motives and goals? a.

What motivated the student to make the statements or take the actions that caused him or her to come to attention? b. Does the situation or circumstance that led to these statements or actions still exist?

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 173 c.

Does the student have a major grievance or grudge? Against whom? d. What efforts have been made to resolve the problem and what has been the result? e. Does the potential attacker feel that any part of the problem is resolved or see any alternative? 2. Have there been any communications suggesting ideas or intent to attack? a.

What, if anything, has the student communicated to someone else (targets, friends, other students, teachers, family, others) or written in a diary, journal, or website concerning his or her ideas and/or intentions?

3. Has the student show inappropriate interest in any of the following? a. School attacks or attackers b. Weapons (including recent acquisition of any relevant weapon) c. Incidents of mass violence (terrorism, workplace violence, mass murderers) 4. Has the student engaged in attack-related behaviors? These behaviors might include: a. b. c. d.

Developing an attack idea or plan Making efforts to acquire or practice with weapons Casing or checking out possible sites and areas for attack Rehearsing attacks or ambushes

5. Does the student have the capacity to carry out an act of targeted violence? a. How organized is the student’s thinking and behavior? b. Does the student have the means, e.g., access to a weapon to carry out an attack? 6. Is the student experiencing hopelessness, desperation, and/or despair? a.

Is there information to suggest that the student is experiencing desperation and/or despair? b. Has the student experienced a recent failure, loss, and/or loss of status? c. Is the student known to be having diffculty coping with a stressful event? d. Is the student now, or has the student ever been, suicidal or “accident-prone”? e. Has the student engaged in behavior that suggests that he/she has considered ending his/her life?

174 Programs and Practices 7. Does the student have a trusting relationship with at least one responsible adult? (Protective factor?) a.

Does this student have at least one relationship with an adult in whom the student feels that he or she can confde and believes that the adult will listen without judging or jumping to conclusions? (Students with trusting relationships with adults may be directed away from violence and despair and toward hope.) b. Is the student emotionally connected to – or disconnected from – other students? c. Has the student previously come to someone’s attention or raised concern in a way that suggested he or she needs intervention or supportive services? 8. Does the student see violence as acceptable – or desirable – or the only way to solve problems? a.

Does the setting around the student (friends, fellow students, parents, teachers, adults) explicitly or implicitly support or endorse violence as a way of resolving problems or disputes? b. Has the student been “dared” by others to engage in an act of violence? 9. Is the student’s conversation and “story” consistent with his or her actions? a.

Does information from collateral interviews and from the student’s own behavior confrm or dispute what the student says is going on?

10. Are other people concerned about the student’s potential for violence? a.

Are those who know the student concerned that he or she might take action based on violent ideas or plans? b. Are those who know the student concerned about a specifc target? c. Have those who know the student witnessed recent changes or escalations in mood and behavior? 11. What circumstances might affect the likelihood of an attack? a.

What factors in the student’s life and/or environment might increase or decrease the likelihood that the student will attempt to mount an attack at school? b. What is the response of other persons who know about the student’s ideas or plan to mount an attack? (Do those who know about the student’s ideas actively discourage the student from acting

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 175 violently, encourage the student to attack, deny the possibility of violence, passively collude with attack, etc.?) Sample models with links are provided for those seeking to do further research: 1. 2. 3. 4.

SIGMA Threat Management (www.sigmatma.com/) School Threat Assessment Training (www.schoolsecurity.org/schoolsafety-and-communications-services/school-threat-assessment-trainingassessing-managing-school-threats/) Salem-Keizer Student Threat Assessment System (STAS) (www.studentthreatassessment.org/) Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines (CSTAG) (www.schoolta.com)

Many states have developed their own state-wide procedures, such as: 1. Virginia (www.dcjs.virginia.gov/sites/dcjs.virginia.gov/files/ publications/law-enforcement/threat-assessment-model-policiesprocedures-and-guidelinespdf.pdf) 2. Colorado (http://cdpsdocs.state.co.us/safeschools/CSSRC%20 Documents/TAEssentials5.31.19.pdf) 3. Florida (www.fdoe.org/core/fleparse.php/18612/urlt/threatassessment-model-policies.pdf) 4. Texas (https://txssc.txstate.edu/tools/tam-toolkit) 5. Pennsylvania, with co-author Terri A. Erbacher serving as subject matter expert (www.pccd.pa.gov/schoolsafety/Pages/ThreatAssessment.aspx) There are also standardized tools to measure risk of violence. If these are used, it is suggested they be integrated into a more comprehensive threat assessment process. Among other sample tools are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

NaBITA Threat Assessment Tools CARE-2 Assessment (Child and Adolescent Risk/Needs Evaluation) Risk Inventory and Strengths Evaluation (RISE Assessment) Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) Psychosocial Evaluation and Threat Risk Assessment (PETRA) Adolescent & Child Urgent Threat Evaluation (ACUTE)

Reeves and Brock (2017) pointed out that the Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines (CSTAG) and the Secret Service Model are often used to form school threat assessment teams and procedures. As an example, Texas’ Threat Assessment Toolkit, developed by Texas State University, is based upon the Secret Service Model. State law mandates that trained

176 Programs and Practices threat assessment teams complete an online course and then complete virtual training, with advanced training and digital threat assessment trainings also offered (https://txssc.txstate.edu/tools/tam-toolkit/). Whatever approach is used, good threat assessment involves multidisciplinary teams trained in an evidence-based model. Threat assessment is an intervention, not a punitive approach, as behavior needs to be changed by teaching replacement skills and decreasing stressors that can contribute to violent behavior. Since many states now require threat assessment teams, there is increased availability of inappropriate and ineffective training. Schools must be informed consumers seeking high quality, evidence-based training offered by professionals who have experience doing threat assessment in schools. Assessment must also include interventions to mitigate risk (Reeves & Brock, 2017). Threat assessments conducted by trained, multidisciplinary assessment teams can prevent violence and make schools safer. The Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines While many models exist, the Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines (CSTAG) is discussed in more depth to provide an example of the procedures schools should consider. CSTAG is designed for use in response to student threats of violence. Procedures include a decision tree investigation process and efforts to resolve the confict or problem. Depending on the team’s fndings, there are a broad range of possible interventions, from those that may be needed immediately, such as adult supervision, to others requiring long-term planning and monitoring – confict resolution efforts, possible need for law enforcement, community mental health and social services, or school-based interventions to reduce the risk of violence (Cornell, 2018; Cornell, Sheras, Gregory, & Fan, 2009). Figure 10.1 is an illustration of the School Threat Assessment Decision Tree. A thorough threat assessment should explore protective factors, including any positive infuences in a student’s life that can reduce the risk level. A critical factor is having a positive, trusting relationship with an adult at school. It is also important to explore friendships or emotional connections with other students. While there is no profle of a student attacker, the goal of a threat assessment is to identify students of concern, assess their level of risk for violent or harmful acts, and develop intervention strategies to manage that risk. When need is determined, a vital product of a threat assessment is to develop threat management strategies or a safety plan, including monitoring, counseling, and/or resources to reduce level of risk for violent behavior toward others or self-harm (National Threat Assessment Center, 2018). Whenever it is determined that there is a threat of violence, a threat management plan must be developed that involves individual management, monitoring, and support.

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 177

Figure 10.1 School Threat Assessment Decision Tree Source: Cornell (2018)

The main goal of CSTAG is to prevent attacks from taking place and to provide interventions, supports, or restorative justice for youth making threats (Cornell, 2018). Thus, CSTAG is consistent with NASP’s three functions of threat management: 1. 2. 3.

Controlling and/or containing the situation to prevent an attack. Protecting potential targets. Providing support and guidance for the student at risk for perpetrating violence while dealing with any problems in an appropriate, adaptive manner. Adapted from NASP (2014)

Cornell, Allen, and Fan (2012) found that in grade K–12 schools using CSTAG, compared with control group schools using traditional disciplinary policies, students were more likely to receive counseling services and parent conference and less likely to receive long-term suspensions or

178

Programs and Practices

alternative placements. Results provided strong empirical support for the use of student threat assessment in primary and secondary schools. It appears that evidence-based threat assessments can contribute to racial equity and cultural competence that was frequently lacking in traditional disciplinary policies. Culturally Competent Threat Assessment Zero tolerance policies adopted after the Columbine shootings have resulted in inequitable disciplinary practices. As cautioned in Pitfall 3, harsh punishments disproportionately impact African American students (Darling-Hammond, 2019). The tragic deaths of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, Ahmaud Arbery, and many others have exacerbated racial tensions throughout the United States. All threats of violence should be approached with a culturally sensitive lens. Training about systemic racism, implicit bias, and the impact of trauma on people of color can help threat assessment teams to better understand the context of potential threats of violence. As noted by the United States Secret Service and United States Department of Education (2002), profling is not useful in identifying whether a student is moving on the path toward an attack. Profling is not only unjust but may also result in missing youth who actually present a risk. Thus, threat assessment teams should not simply identify students who have made a threat, but assess if they pose a threat by considering their motives and identifying other attack-related behaviors. Student suspensions and expulsions do not make schools safer and may instead have the adverse effect of excluding and stigmatizing youth. Intervention planning for students must also be equitable and include culturally responsive practices with a focus on restorative justice. The primary goal of any threat assessment process is to intervene and help students by preventing attack-related behaviors and connecting them with needed interventions (Cornell, 2018).

Cultural and Developmental Competence After Violence After catastrophic acts of violence, schools can play an essential role in providing mental health services and emotional support, restoring normal routine, and revitalizing the community. Response to school-related violence should be culturally and developmentally appropriate. Before a crisis, schools can conduct a cultural inventory to understand how diverse groups perceive, interpret, and cope with violent events (Castro-Olivo, 2012). When educators establish a dialogue and trust with students and families, they can better provide comfort and support. Specifc resources like trained language interpreters can be planned before a disaster. Students and families who came from countries scourged by war or terrorism may need more support. Children in communities often exposed to violence may live with a shattered sense of security that can interfere with their

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 179 learning and emotional development as well as their openness to accept support (Zenere, 2009). Children’s developmental levels affect their emotional reactions and coping mechanisms when exposed to violence. School professionals must understand how children and adolescents respond in different ways to crisis intervention. Younger children do not have the language skills or peer group connections that adolescents can draw upon. Children with special needs are especially vulnerable and tend to have greater diffculty coping with traumatic events and deliberate violence (Castro-Olivo, 2012).

Supporting Students and the School Community After Violence While extremely rare, violence resulting in mass casualties is profoundly traumatic and its impact long lasting. Interventions must be broad in scope, system-wide and long-term. After severe violence, response should address a range of anticipated reactions, reestablish perceptions of security, evaluate the continuum of individual needs, and provide services to reduce emotional trauma and enhance resilience and recovery. The immediate priority when there is violence on a school campus is to get students and staff out of harm’s way, request emergency help to end the danger and aid those physically injured, and activate the crisis plan and response team to attend to emotional needs. Children look to adults for cues that can exacerbate trauma or convey a sense of calm and control. Teachers, administrators, and staff exposed to lethal violence must be emotionally supported in order to manage their stress and create a secure learning environment (Lyytinen & Palonen, 2012). Suggestions for responding to school-related violence: • • • • • •

During a violent event, follow directions from school authorities about lockdown, evacuation, or fight until law enforcement arrives to provide direction Whether locked down or evacuated, enact a process to account for all students and staff, reporting those injured or missing to administration Restore safety to the campus and perceptions of security to all district schools Provide psychological frst aid for schools (PFA-S) and ongoing counseling for students, staff, and families at accessible schools and locations in the community Implement procedures to reunite students with parents/caregivers, ideally after providing caregiver training Provide a range of classroom, small group, and individual interventions, with homogeneous groups in terms of participants’ degree of exposure to trauma

180 Programs and Practices • • • •

• • • • •

•

Conduct primary, secondary, and tertiary triage, using screening tools and risk variables to determine degree of need and appropriate interventions Provide support for faculty, including counseling, in-classroom support, and substitute teachers as needed, so they can better care for their students Provide stress management for faculty, staff, and responding caregivers, who are at risk for vicarious trauma Educate staff about effects of traumatic violence on learning and behavior – adjust coursework, offer tutoring, and provide interventions to prevent more violence, bullying, threats of suicide, and risk-taking behaviors Address factors that might have led to the shooting or violent act, including bullying or gang activities Social support aids recovery and strengthens resilience – provide additional recreational activities to maintain connections to school, peers, and caring adults Enhance student self-effcacy and control by providing opportunities to engage in constructive, compassionate, life-affrming activities Monitor social media and the Internet to help identify students at risk – websites and links can be provided where students can seek support Adults can help children cope by careful listening, helping them express feelings, reassuring that helpers are working to protect them, helping them problem solve, avoiding stereotypes of people or countries, minimizing exposure to media images, and being attentive to those at risk Plan to set limits with the media but also to cooperate with them to provide useful information for families and the community Adapted from Kennedy-Paine and Feinberg (2014), Lyytinen and Palonen (2012), NASP (2015a), Zenere (2013)

Suggestions for planning school re-entry after catastrophic violence: •

• • •

When a school has been closed after violence with casualties, student and staff re-entry should be carefully planned to support perceived safety, with visible presence of administrators, teachers, suffcient school mental health providers, and reminders of resilience rather than trauma Prior to re-entry, provide caregiver training to school staff and families, including information about student reactions and managing diffcult classroom situations Prior to re-entry, the school building should be renovated so that physical reminders of a shooting or other violence are removed Prior to re-entry, with support of mental health providers, staff should visit the school to “retake control” of the building before working with students

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 181 • •

Reestablishing normal school routine is crucial in creating a sense of stability School memorial activities can support recovery but should be carefully planned with student input and have voluntary attendance, and permanent memorials should not be placed at the school’s entrance Adapted from Kennedy-Paine and Feinberg (2014), Lyytinen and Palonen (2012), NASP (2015a), Zenere (2013)

Suggestions for long-term follow-up after catastrophic violence: •

• • • • • • • • • • •

After severe school-related violence, recovery can take months and even years. A follow-up crisis team debriefng one to two weeks after the event should examine the team’s response and needs, attend to responders’ stress management, identify students who remain at risk and need treatment, and plan for long-term concerns Counseling should continue to be accessible for students, staff, and families, with treatment referrals when severe symptoms persist or there are suicidal thoughts School staff and community should remain vigilant for signs of suicidal behavior among survivors, who may be at increased risk after a school shooting While severity of reactions varies between individuals, recovery is the norm Psychological and social support should be systematically planned by mental health providers with knowledge of stress reactions Emphasize violence, suicide, and bullying prevention programs, and cooperative, mutually supportive behaviors among students Take into account that long-term services could create fnancial strain Triage and screening should continue long-term, including summer months, as stress reactions may be prolonged or spontaneously appear well after the event Consider response to the incident anniversary date and birthdays of victims Provide outreach and support for students who have dropped out, been suspended, or expelled from school Consider the need for ongoing assistance for school administrators and staff Crisis responders and school-based mental health providers are at risk for vicarious trauma, so they should be supported and seek treatment if needed Adapted from Lyytinen and Palonen (2012), Rossen and Cowan (2013), Zenere (2013) ******

182 Programs and Practices The next chapter explores violence toward one’s self – suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention.

References ABC News. (2007). The investigation into the Virginia Tech shooting. Retrieved from https://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=3052279&page=1 American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). (2019). Cops and no counselors: How the lack of school mental health staff is harming students. Retrieved from www.aclu.org/ issues/juvenile-justice/school-prison-pipeline/cops-and-no-counselors Balfour, M. E., Hahn Stephenson, A., Winsky, J., & Goldman, M. L. (2020). Cops, clinicians, or both? Collaborative approaches to responding to behavioral health emergencies. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors. Bostic, J., & Hoover, S. (2020). Improving the child and adolescent crisis system: Shifting from a 9–1–1 to a 9–8–8 paradigm. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors. Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., O’Brennan, L. M., & Gulemetova, M. (2013). Teachers’ and education support professionals’ perspectives on bullying and prevention: Findings from a National Education Association study. School Psychology Review, 42(3), 280–297. Campisi, J. (2019). School resource offcers need SEL training, experts say – But their preparation “lacks consistency.” Education Dive. Retrieved from www. educationdive.com/news/school-resource-offcers-need-sel-training-but-theirprepara/550428/ Castro-Olivo, S., Albeg, L., & Begum, G. (2012). War and terrorism. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 437–454). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Chasmar, J. (2016). Pop-tart gun suspension upheld by Maryland judge. Retrieved from www.washingtontimes.com/news/2016/jun/17/pop-tart-gun-suspensionupheld-by-maryland-judge/ Cornell, D. (2018). Comprehensive school threat assessment guidelines: Intervention and support to prevent violence. Charlottesville, VA: School Threat Assessment Consultants, LLC. Cornell, D. G., Allen, K., & Fan, X. (2012). A randomized controlled study of the Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines in kindergarten through grade 12. School Psychology Review, 41(1), 100–115. Cornell, D., Sheras, P., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2009). A retrospective study of school safety conditions in high schools using the Virginia Threat Assessment Guidelines versus alternative approaches. School Psychology Quarterly, 24, 119–129. Cowan, K., & Paine, C. (2013). School safety: What really works. Principal Leadership, 13(7), 12–16. Cowan, K. C., Vaillancourt, K., Rossen, E., & Pollitt, K. (2013). A framework for safe and successful schools [Brief]. National Association of School Psychologists. Retrieved from www.nasponline.org/resources-and-publications/resources/ school-safety-and-crisis/a-framework-for-safe-and-successful-schools

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 183 Cuellar, M. J. (2018). School safety strategies and their effects on the occurrence of school-based violence in U.S. high schools: An exploratory study. Journal of School Violence, 17(1), 28–45. Daniels, J. A. (2019). A preliminary report on the police foundations averted school violence database. Washington, DC: Offce of Community Oriented Policing Services. Darling-Hammond, L. (2019). Want safe schools? Start with research-based school discipline policies. Forbes. Erbacher, T. A., & Cornell, D. G. (2020). Practical skills and pitfalls in student threat assessment. Presented at the convention of the National Association of School Psychologists, Baltimore, MD. Farzan, A. N. (2020). A 6-year-old with Down syndrome pointed a fnger gun at her teacher. The school called the cops, her mom says. Retrieved from www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/02/11/fnger-gun-down-syndrome Gastic, B. (2011). Metal detectors and feeling safe at school. Education and Urban Society, 43(4), 486–498. Hoffman, S. (2014). Zero beneft: Estimating the effect of zero tolerance discipline policies on racial disparities in school discipline. Educational Policy, 28, 69–95. Jenkins, L. N., Demaray, M. K., & Tennant, J. (2017). Social, emotional, and cognitive factors associated with bullying. School Psychology Review, 46(1), 42–64. Kennedy-Paine, C., & Feinberg, T. (2014). Sparks Middle School: After a tragedy. Communiqué, 43(2). Lyytinen, N., & Palonen, K. (2012). Aftercare: Support for school personnel following a shooting in Finland. In C. L. Mears (Ed.), Reclaiming school in the aftermath of trauma: Advice based on experience (pp. 135–151). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee. (2014). Threat assessment for school administrators and crisis teams. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee. (2015a). Supporting students experiencing childhood trauma: Tips for parents and educators. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee. (2015b). School violence prevention: Brief facts and tips [Handout]. Bethesda, MD: Author. NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee. (2018). Resolution to support efforts to prevent gun violence. Retrieved from www.nasponline.org/x40582.xml NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee. (2020a). Behavior threat assessment and management: Best practice considerations for K-12 schools. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee. (2020b). Behavior threat assessment and management in the virtual environment [Handout]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. National Threat Assessment Center. (2018). Enhancing school safety using a threat assessment model: An operational guide for preventing targeted school violence. Washington, DC: U.S. Secret Service, Department of Homeland Security. Novotney, A. (2014). An all-out anti-bullying focus. Monitor on Psychology, 63–65. Paine, C. K., & Cowan, K. C. (2009). Remembering Columbine: School safety lessons for the future. Communiqué, 37(6), 9–10.

184 Programs and Practices Pynoos, R. S., & Nader, K. (1990). Children’s exposure to violence and traumatic death. Psychiatric Annals, 20, 334–344. Reeves, M. A., & Brock, S. B. (2017). School behavior threat assessment and management. Journal of Contemporary School Psychology, 1–15. https://doi. org/10.1007/s40688-017-0158-6 Reeves, M., Kanan, L., & Plog, A. (2010). Comprehensive planning for safe learning environments: A school professional’s guide to integrating physical and psychological safety – Prevention through recovery. New York: Routledge. Reingle Gonzalez, J., Jetelina, K., & Jennings, W. G. (2016). Structural school safety measures, SROs, and school-related delinquent behavior and perceptions of safety: A state-of-the-art review. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 39(3), 438–454. Rossen, E., & Cowan, K. (2013). The role of schools in supporting traumatized students. Principal’s Research Review, 8(6), 1–8. Rossen, E., & Cowan, K. C. (2012). A framework for school-wide bullying prevention and safety [Brief]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Rossen, E. (Ed.). (2020). Supporting and educating traumatized students: A guide for school-based professionals (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Roth, J. C. (2015). School crisis response: Refections of a team leader. Wilmington, DE: Hickory Run Press. Roth, J. C., & Fernandez, B. S. (Eds.). (2018). Perspectives on school crisis response: Refections from the feld. New York: Routledge. Sprague, J. R., & Whitcomb, S. A., & Bear, G. G. (2018). Promoting school-wide systems and mechanisms for change. In M. Mayer & S. Jimerson (Eds.), School safety and violence prevention: Science, practice, and policy driving change. Washington, DC: APA. Stamm, D. (2018). Exchange student threatens to shoot up Delaware County Catholic school, police say. Retrieved from www.nbcphiladelphia.com/news/local/ bonner-prendie-shooting-threat/46397/ Swearer, S. M., Collins, A., Fluke, S., & Strawhun, J. (2012). Preventing bullying behaviors in schools. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 177–202). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Tanner-Smith, E., & Fisher, B. W. (2015). Visible school security measures and student academic performance, attendance, and postsecondary aspirations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10964-015-0265-5 Ttof, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2011). Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7, 27–56. Tustin, K. (2018). Police: Student who threatened to shoot up Bonner & Prendie had stockpiled 1,600 bullets. Retrieved from www.delcotimes.com/news/policestudent-who-threatened-to-shoot-up-bonner-amp-prendie-had-stockpiled1-600-bullets/article_967b5f63-2339-5593-aa2a-012792029b26.html United States Department of Education, Offce for Civil Rights. (2018). 2015–16 Civil rights data collection: School climate and safety. Retrieved from www2.ed.gov/ about/offces/list/ocr/docs/school-climate-and-safety.pdf

Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention 185 United States Department of Education, Offce of Elementary and Secondary Education, Offce of Safe and Supportive Schools. (2019). The role of districts in developing high-quality school emergency operations plans. Washington, DC. United States Department of Education. (2019). School resource offcers, school law enforcement units, and the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA). Retrieved from https://studentprivacy.ed.gov/sites/default/fles/resource_ document/fle/SRO_FAQs.pdf United States Secret Service and United States Department of Education. (2002). Threat assessment in schools: A guide to managing threatening situations and to creating safe school climates. Retrieved from https://www.secretservice.gov/ node/2559 Vaillancourt Strobach, K., & Cowan, K. C. (2019). Comprehensive school safety: Leading and advocating for what works. Communiqué, 47(6), 28–29. Zenere, F. J. (2009). Violent loss and urban children: Understanding the impact on grieving and development. Communiqué, 38(2), 7–9. Zenere, F. J. (2013). Symposium of hope: Recovery and resiliency after the Sandy Hook tragedy. Communiqué, 41(7), 22–23.

11 Suicide Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention

To anyone out there who’s hurting – it’s not a sign of weakness to ask for help. It’s a sign of strength. ~ Barack Obama

A 4th-grade student died by suicide. After proudly coming out to classmates as gay, he was brutally bullied for several days before killing himself. A crisis response team of school counselors, psychologists, and social workers was sent to the school. Sending in a crisis team was helpful, but this tragedy serves as a reminder that prevention efforts are essential. While there can be no guarantee, a diversity-friendly school climate, anti-bullying program, gatekeeper training, and other suicide prevention strategies could possibly have prevented this tragedy. No crisis plan or plan for school and student safety is complete without addressing suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention. Lives are at stake.

Risk Factors, Protective Factors, and Warning Signs Death by suicide among school-age youth is a tragic event that can be prevented if caregivers and friends know the warning signs and how to respond. Youth at risk often do not seek help, but show warning signs to friends, classmates, parents, or trusted school staff. School personnel have a legal and ethical responsibility to respond to suicidal intent, and their response can save a life. Schools should have clear response procedures and trained mental health professionals and teams (Erbacher, Singer, & Poland, 2015). Risk Factors Situational crises and stressful events can increase suicide risk, especially when concurrent with chronic predisposing factors like depression or substance abuse, but no single factor is highly predictive (Miller, 2011). Risk factors can be addressed and treated!

Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 187 Summary of suicide risk factors: • • • • • • • • •

•

•

Psychological disorders – depression, bipolar disorder, alcohol/drug abuse Previous suicide attempts Family factors – being in the child welfare system, economic hardship, death of a parent, parental divorce, parental depression, family suicidal behavior, and substance use disorders Childhood trauma and toxic stress – physical, sexual, or emotional abuse Bullying and cyberbullying – increased risk for both the target and perpetrator Sexual orientation – LGBTQ+ youth are at signifcantly higher risk for bullying and suicidal behavior than their straight peers (Eklund & Gueldner, 2012) Culture and ethnicity – marginalized groups such as African Americans, Native Americans, and Latinxs/Hispanics have increased risk (Eklund & Gueldner, 2012) Self-injury – self-injurious behavior such as “cutting” alone may not indicate suicidal intent but does indicates increased risk (Whitlock et al., 2012) Situational factors – access to frearms or other lethal means; crises such as breakup of a close relationship, trouble with school or police authorities, deportation or incarceration of a parent, academic failure, death of a loved one or anniversary of death, unwanted pregnancy or abortion, humiliation before peers, social isolation, serious injury or illness, increased pressure at school or home, community violence, increased home caregiver responsibilities (Lieberman, Poland, & Kornfeld, 2014; SAMHSA, 2020) Societal crises – violent upheavals or pandemics such as COVID-19 generate increased suicide risk, particularly for those who lose a loved one, suffer fnancial stress, and feel isolated or a burden to others Contagion – contagion increases risk that a suicide will be imitated; most at risk are those in physical or emotional proximity, such as witnesses or close friends, and those who are depressed or having suicidal ideation. Glorifcation of suicide by the media can contribute to contagion Adapted from Erbacher et al. (2015), Lieberman, Poland, and Cassel (2008), SAMHSA (2020)

Protective Factors Protective factors can mitigate risk factors, decreasing risk of suicidal behavior (Gutierrez & Osman, 2008; Sharaf, Thompson, & Walsh, 2009).

188

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When a child or adolescent is considered at risk, it is suggested that school, family, and friends build a network of protective factors around the youth. Summary of suicide protective factors: • • • • • • • • • • •

Family warmth, cohesion, open communication, and stability Peer support, positive social networks, and a sense of belonging School and community connectedness, safe and bully-free environment Positive school climate and suffcient school-based mental health providers Cultural or religious beliefs that discourage suicide and affrm life Coping and problem-solving skills, frustration tolerance, and confict resolution Interpersonal competence and academic or vocational success Self-esteem, resilience, and sense of life purpose and satisfaction Areas of interest and/or talent such as music, sports, arts Easy, stigma-free access to medical and mental health resources Suicide prevention programs, awareness of resources and crisis lifelines Adapted from Erbacher et al. (2015), Lieberman et al. (2008)

Warning Signs Warning signs are observable behaviors that can indicate suicidal thinking or intent. They can be considered “cries for help” or “red fags” to be taken seriously and should never be ignored or kept secret. They signal the need to directly inquire about suicidal thoughts, and if such thoughts exist, there must be immediate interventions. Summary of suicide warning signs: • • • • •

Suicide threats – direct or indirect, verbal or written statements like “I want to kill myself,” “The world would be better off without me,” or loss of meaning in life Plan or access to lethal means is disclosed, or lethal means is sought – suicide note, plan, or online posting describing a clear method and access to lethal means signals imminent danger Previous suicidal behavior or attempts – powerful predictor of future behavior Making fnal arrangements – writing a will or giving away valued possessions Preoccupation with death and suicidal themes – excessive talking, drawing, reading and/or writing, music, movies about death suggest suicidal thinking

Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 189 • • •

• • • • • • •

Referencing own death or funeral, joking about it Displaying overwhelming emotional pain or distress Changes in behavior, appearance, hygiene, friends, thoughts, and/ or feelings – depression, especially with hopelessness; sudden happiness, especially when preceded by depression; increased social isolation; withdrawal from friends, family, society; changes in eating or sleeping habits; loss of energy or fatigue; increased impulsiveness; reduced interest in previously important activities “Masked” depression or emotional distress – acts of aggression, alcohol or substance abuse, promiscuous sex, and/or risky behavior Increased hostility, anger, or agitation that seems out of character or context Self-injury such as cutting, scratching, or burning the body Inability to concentrate or think clearly, adversely affecting academics, school attendance, or other activities Feeling humiliated – school discipline problems, threat of incarceration, recent psychiatric hospitalization Searching the Internet for methods or watching documentaries about suicide Disinterest in future plans – “I won’t be here anyway” Adapted from Erbacher et al. (2015), Lieberman et al. (2008), SAMHSA (2020)

Suicide Prevention and Preparedness A foundation of suicide prevention efforts is a safe, nurturing school climate with trusting relationships and connectedness among students and adults, and high levels of student satisfaction. Universal prevention programs are most effective within warm, equitable, cooperative school environments (Miller, 2011). A recent document by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2020) recommends population-based prevention approaches that 1) prevent trauma and adverse childhood experiences, 2) promote parenting skills training, 3) establish good family supports, 4) strengthen positive coping norms, and 5) implement laws and policies that reduce substance abuse and access to lethal means. School counselors, school psychologists, school social workers, and crisis response teams must be prepared to intervene and assess when a student is identifed at possible risk for suicide. Teachers, administrators, staff, and parents/caregivers must have training in prevention, risk factors, protective factors, warning signs, and procedures for effective response. School staff must be especially vigilant for students who are vulnerable because of individual or situational circumstances. Prevention programs must be developmentally and culturally responsive, with planning for materials in primary languages, interpreters, contacts with

190 Programs and Practices community agencies, and understanding the rituals, traditions, protective factors, and stressors of diverse school populations (Lieberman et al., 2014). Culturally Responsive Suicide Prevention and Preparedness Suicide is the second leading cause of death for 15–34-year-olds and third leading cause of death for 10–14-year-olds, with American Indian/ Alaskan Native individuals most at risk (CDC, 2020a). The reported suicide rate among youth younger than 13 years is two times higher for Black children, observed in both boys and girls, compared with White children (Bridge et al., 2018), with suicide risk potentially exacerbated as African Americans have been especially vulnerable to COVID-19 (CDC, 2020b). Further, as seen in Figure 11.1, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning (LGBTQ+) youth are reported to have signifcantly more feelings of sadness and hopelessness, suicidal ideation, planning, attempts, and attempts requiring medical attention compared with their heterosexual counterparts (CDC, 2020c). Thus, it is imperative that suicide awareness, training, and assessment and intervention procedures address vulnerable populations.

Youth Risk Behavior Survey: Heterosexual vs. LGBTQ+ Youth Reporting, 2019; Grades 9-12 66.3

Percentage of High School Students

70 60

46.8

50 40

40.2

36.7 32.3

30

23.3 18.8

20

14.5

15.7 12.1

10

8.9

6.4

6.3 2.5

1.7

0 Felt Sad or Hopeless

Seriously Made Suicide Plan Attempted Suicide Considered Suicide All Students

Heterosexual Students

Needed Medical Attention

LGBTQ Students

Figure 11.1 Comparison of Suicidal Ideation, Planning, and Attempts Between Heterosexual and LGBTQ+ Youth Source: Developed by Erbacher from CDC, 2020c

Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 191 Preparedness must include training on equity, implicit bias, and systemic racism as well as trauma-informed approaches suggested in Chapter 15. Schools should consider fve essential elements to become more culturally profcient: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Value diversity. Incorporate diversity into suicide awareness and prevention curricula. Acknowledging the contributions of various cultural groups through teaching and lessons may be the greatest prevention technique as it allows all students to feel loved and accepted. Assess culture. Recognize and assess the impact of cultural differences on youth suicide risk in your school and community. Ask students about historical trauma, racial trauma, bias, and prejudice. Ask if they have been a victim of a hate crime or witnessed a hate crime. Ask students if the deaths of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, Ahmad Arbery, and others, and subsequent racial tensions have had an impact on their mental health and wellbeing. Consider what culturally based supports are available (cultural brokers, family, faith, community agencies, etc.). Manage the dynamics of difference. Develop a process for crosscultural communication, particularly for those identifed at potential suicide risk. Consider clinicians’ ability to build rapport with youth of different backgrounds. Address these differences if needed to ensure reliable and valid suicide risk assessment conversations. Allay fears of judgment. A key for postvention efforts and ensuring equal support for all students is to consider the most effective way to communicate with families. Talk with children about the best language to use with their parents, considering the need for language interpreters and preparing to understand varied parental reactions to suicide. Those from individualistic versus collectivistic cultures may respond differently to mental health supports. Ensure ongoing and open communication with families. Institutionalize cultural knowledge. Incorporate cultural knowledge into professional development plans and structure opportunities to engage parents and communities to learn about varied cultures and educate those unfamiliar with them. Knowledge includes the understanding that all youth grieve differently in the aftermath of a suicide death. School teams are encouraged to better understand each school’s climate, culture, and population and to consider reading the Handbook of Multicultural Perspectives on Stress and Coping (Wong & Wong, 2006). Adapt to diversity. Realize that change is challenging and healthy. Revisit community needs and values and include issues of diversity and appropriate resources in school policies. Adapted from the Pennsylvania Equity and Inclusion Toolkit (PDE, 2017)

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Reducing Stigma Suicide is a stigmatized act, contributing to the myth that talking about it puts suicidal ideas in people’s heads. This belief is false and destructive, as it can obstruct prevention programs and support for survivors after a suicide. It is critical to destigmatize discussion of suicide and seeking help for depression, substance abuse, and other mental health problems. Schools can educate about mental health, open communication about depression and suicide, and provide access to school-based and community resources. Schools can reinforce the idea that getting help for a problem is not a sign of weakness but rather an act of honesty and courage (Roth & Fernandez, 2018). Role of MTSS in Preventing Suicide Schools can promote prevention of the scourge of suicidal thoughts and actions. Erbacher and colleagues (2015) describe how suicide prevention can be integrated with a Multi-Tiered System of Supports: Tier 1: Universal prevention. Efforts target all students, regardless of suicide risk. Tier 1 can include screening students for mood problems, substance abuse, and risk for suicide. Examples of evidence-based prevention programs are Signs of Suicide (SOS), American Indian Life Skills Development (AILSD) curriculum, QPR (Question, Persuade, Refer) Gatekeeper Training, and the Good Behavior Game. Tier 1 includes training school staff to improve identifcation of, response to, and referral of potentially suicidal students. Singer, Erbacher, and Rosen (2018) presented a detailed list of additional Tier 1 programs for school staff or student education as well as a description of each program’s impact on help-seeking behaviors and other outcomes. Tier 2: Selective or targeted prevention. Efforts target students suspected of being at risk for suicide who have not yet directly reported suicidal thoughts or behaviors, except possibly indirectly or to close friends. Examples of evidence-based programs that reach out to potentially suicidal students are Reconnecting Youth (RY) and Coping and Support Training (CAST), both of which target at-risk youth experiencing poor school achievement and increased potential for dropout. Tier 3: Indicated or intensive prevention. Efforts target students who have already expressed suicidal thoughts or behaviors (STB). Tier 3 is generally a hybrid program of psychoeducational curricula combined with screening to increase identifcation and student self-referrals when at high risk. Evidence-based programs include Signs of Suicide (SOS) and Sources of Strength.

Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 193 Goals of suicide prevention include identifying and referring at-risk students for treatment and reducing risk factors while enhancing protective factors. Since suicide rarely happens without warning signs, students, teachers, and parents/guardians may be in the best position to recognize the need for help. Warning signs must never be ignored and intent never kept secret. Knowledge and action can save lives. Prevention Programs and Resources Signs of Suicide (SOS). An example of an effective program for adolescents, SOS encourages discussion and educates students and staff about the warning signs of depression and suicide and how to intervene. It includes a short questionnaire that screens students for depression and suicide risk. Anti-bullying programs. Since bullying and suicidal behaviors share some common risk factors, bullying prevention programs can address both peer- and self-directed violence. Anti-bullying toolkits have been developed by the Alberti Center (http://gse. buffalo.edu/alberticenter) and the Empowerment Initiative (http://empowerment.unl.edu). Youth who frequently bully others and are frequently bullied are at increased suicide risk, with LGBTQ+ youth at especially high risk. Programs encouraging acceptance of diversity are the Gay–Straight Alliance (http:// gsanetwork.org), Gay, Lesbian, & Straight Education Network (GLSEN) (www.glsen.org), and Born This Way Foundation (www. bornthiswayfoundation.org). Gatekeeper training. School gatekeepers such as students, teachers, administrators, staff, and parents/caregivers can be taught about suicide, risk factors, protective factors, warning signs, and how to get help for self and others. Mental Health First Aid USA (2012, 2015) provides free or low cost training on youth mental health, symptoms of mental illness, promoting resilience, suicide risk assessment, prevention and intervention, and suicide risk factors, warning signs, and protective factors. Similarly, QPR (Question, Persuade, Refer) training is now available online (https://qprinstitute.com/) and allows fexibility for trainers to educate peer and staff gatekeepers on suicide risk and practical strategies for how to help. Gatekeeping emphasizes trust development by school staff with students, so they feel comfortable referring themselves or peers at possible risk. The trained gatekeeper has knowledge and skills to identify and engage with youth at risk and to connect them with caring school or professional resources as needed (Erbacher et al., 2015; Walsh, Hooven, & Kronick, 2013). Social media gatekeepers. Students and educators can be trained as gatekeepers to identify suicide risk on social media. A staff

194

Programs and Practices “social media manager,” as part of a technology team with trained colleagues, can monitor networks for high risk students, provide safe messaging about prevention, resilience, community mental health resources, and suicide lifelines, and educate about cyberbullying, shared prevention roles, positive use of social media, kindness apps, and supportive communities (www.cyberbullying. us; www.LittleMonsters.com). Students can be encouraged to report cyberbullying and to use supportive language on social media. Parents can be educated and encouraged to get involved in their children’s social media and work with Facebook and other sites to remove disturbing messages or images. Information about depression and suicide can be placed on school district websites (Erbacher et al., 2015). Chapter 8 provides more information on social media. Suicide prevention lifelines. Inform about lifelines, including the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: 1–800–273-TALK (8255), text START to 741–741, or suicidepreventionlifeline.org. The suicide prevention lifeline in Spanish is 1-888-628-9454. The Trevor Project has crisis services for LGBTQ+ youth: Text “START” to 678–678. Note: A 9–8–8 behavioral health crisis response hotline has been approved to expand the existing 9–1–1 emergency response beginning in 2022. Means restriction. Since frearms are the most prevalent and lethal means of death by suicide, guns and other means such as weapons, medications, ropes, etc., should never be accessible to youth, and especially those at risk, without constant supervision. This is even more important during times of increased stress, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, when access to frearms may be more prevalent. As part of the response to the pandemic, March of 2020 was the second busiest month for gun sales ever (Collins & Yaffe-Bellamy, 2020).

Other resources and organizations: • • • • • • • • • •

Preventing Suicide: A Toolkit for High Schools (SAMHSA, 2012) After a Suicide: A Toolkit for Schools (AFSP & SPRC, 2018) Treatment of Suicidal Ideation, Self-Harm, and Suicide Attempts Among Youth (SAMHSA, 2020) Local community and cultural mental health agencies American Foundation for Suicide Prevention (www.afsp.org) National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) (www.nami.org) Suicide Prevention Resource Center (www.sprc.org) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (www.cdc.gov) National Association of School Psychologists (www.nasponline.org) American Association of Suicidology (www.suicidology.org)

Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 195 • •

The Jason Foundation (www.jasonfoundation.com) The Trevor Project (www.thetrevorproject.org)

Risk Assessment and Safety Planning Schools should review their information, resources, and sources of consultation on suicide and other crises (Reeves, Kanan, & Plog, 2010). It is suggested that districts or schools designate a trained suicide prevention expert, who can receive and act upon reports from teachers and others (Erbacher et al., 2015). However, response and risk assessment should be a collaborative, team effort by staff trained to conduct ethical assessments. Schools can respond to suicidal crises as needed and also take a proactive approach with screening programs. Early detection. Many schools use artifcial intelligence programs, such as GoGuardian, Gaggle, or Securly, to detect concerning statements typed by youth on school computers as potential warning signs. Administrators should ensure processes are in place for responding quickly to these warnings. Some of these programs, such as GoGuardian’s BEACON, allow parents to be alerted as well, which may be helpful for alerts received after hours or for students who are learning virtually. Further, Treatment for Suicidal Ideation, Self-Harm, and Suicide Attempts Among Youth (SAMHSA, 2020) recommends universal screening to identify students at risk for mental health concerns and to provide further assessment and referral if needed. Specifc universal suicide screening measures may include the Ask Suicide Screening Questions (ASQ), the Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS), or the Patient Health Questionnaire – 9 (PHQ-9) for adolescents. Chapter 12 provides more about mental health screening. Screening and assessment. Selected members of both school safety and crisis response teams can overlap and comprise a trained risk assessment team led by school mental health providers such as school psychologists, school counselors, and school social workers. When a student at risk for suicide is reported to the risk assessment team, a comprehensive assessment is conducted. Staff must clearly differentiate screenings versus comprehensive suicide risk assessments (Erbacher et al., 2015). Screening is a “key approach to increase identifcation and referral of youth at risk for suicide” (Singer et al., 2018, p. 8). Screening tools are brief measures leading to secondphase assessments when needed to more reliably and deeply assess risk. When there are clear warning signs, the student should immediately be asked whether he or she has suicidal thoughts. Failure to ask directly may not provide the permission needed for the student to share such

196 Programs and Practices thoughts. If there are suicidal thoughts, further assessment must be immediate. Often, schools prefer to send students to a hospital or crisis center for the assessment as they feel it reduces liability. When schools refuse return to school without this assessment, they are violating the Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) mandate. Referrals to emergency rooms for pediatric behavioral health concerns nationwide have increased signifcantly in recent years, though about half of these referrals are inappropriate due to low harm potential, absent suicidality or psychosis, and/or no recommended behavioral health follow-up (Bostic & Hoover, 2020). While it is logical to send youth to outside mental health providers if they are already receiving services, a hospital can be traumatizing in some situations, especially if a youth is at low risk. Moderate to high risk can indicate need for assessment at a hospital or hospitalization, but such a referral should be made with care. Collaboration with community mental health professionals is integral to ensure continuity of care. Further information on risk assessment is provided later in the current chapter.

Intervention With a Potentially Suicidal Student Interventions should be coordinated among school and community treatment providers, immediately targeting risk factors such as depression and substance abuse. Interventions can concurrently strengthen protective factors like parent/caregiver support and monitoring, a life-affrming social network, and problem-solving skills. Immediate interventions may also include parent contact, safety measures, and consideration for hospitalization. No-suicide contracts cannot be depended upon to keep the student safe and may provide a false sense of security. Instead, a safety plan must be developed that involves adult caregivers in suicide-proofng the environment and providing supervision and treatment and teaches the student about triggers as well as when and how to use coping strategies. Removal of suicide means at home, such as medication or frearms, is an integral part of safety planning. It is important to note that if suicide risk is indicated, a referral to a mental health professional is integral as other school staff, and even parents, may lack suffcient knowledge and training to assess level of risk with effcacy. Suggestions for response by teachers, school staff, and parents/ caregivers: • •

Talk with the child about suicide without fear of discussing the subject – encourage asking for help and connecting with caring adults for support Know risk factors, warning signs, and referral procedures

Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 197 • • • • • • • • •

Remain calm, showing empathy but not distress that can block open discussion Listen non-judgmentally to the expression of thoughts and feelings to understand the emotions that led to considering suicide and do not take these personally Avoid minimizing the student’s emotional distress with statements like “You should get over it” or “Everyone has problems” Supervise constantly, staying with the student until transferred to a caregiver such as a risk assessment team member Ask directly if the student is okay and how you can help Phrase questions without judgment, openly asking “have you had thoughts of suicide?” instead of “you wouldn’t consider suicide, would you?” Express concern and reassure that help is available – without minimizing present pain, the student can feel better in the future Respond immediately, escorting the student to a designated school crisis/risk assessment team member, administrator, or mental health provider Share detailed information with the mental health provider about the student’s thoughts and behavior that indicate risk Adapted from Lieberman et al. (2008)

Suggestions for friends and peers to help prevent suicide: • • • •

• • •

Know the warning signs – take programs that teach risk factors and warning signs Talk with friends without fear, listening to thoughts and feelings, letting them know you care, but not trying to prevent suicide without adult help Never make a deal to keep a friend or peer’s suicidal thoughts secret Tell a responsible adult such as your parent, your school counselor, or your school psychologist – don’t delay, thinking your message will not be taken seriously! Even if you are not sure of suicidal intent, fnd a trusted adult who will listen Act against bullying and for positive connections among peers and adults Ask if there is a crisis response team to help and, if there is none, advocate for one If anyone is having suicidal thoughts, in addition to telling a trusted adult, you or the person at risk can call 1–800–273-TALK (8255) or text START to 741–741 or connect online to suicidepreventionlifeline.org Adapted from Lieberman et al. (2008)

198 Programs and Practices Suggestions for school crisis response/risk assessment team members: •

• •

•

• • •

After being escorted to an assessment team member – usually a school psychologist, counselor, or social worker – and until a collaborative risk assessment generates a plan, constantly accompany the student everywhere, enlisting other team members to monitor while private phone contacts are made Collaboration among school administrator and response team for ongoing consultation and support while making decisions is reassuring Involve parents/caregivers in a safety plan, providing them treatment referral if needed, other school and community mental health resources as appropriate, and guidelines for constant monitoring and removal of all lethal means Law enforcement can be called if a student resists, attempts to fee, or if parents/caregivers are uncooperative in addressing risk – the team should proactively establish a relationship with law enforcement, who can possibly seek temporary hospitalization Document parent/caregiver contacts, or if parent/caregiver is unavailable or uncooperative A report of child abuse may be appropriate for parents who actively refuse to help a child at imminent suicide risk, and document contacts Follow up to confrm action on resources or referral for the student and family Adapted from Lieberman et al. (2008)

Risk Assessment Since a suicide risk assessment may be a student’s frst experience with a mental health intervention, a safe, caring environment should be provided. The student provides most information, but teachers and caregivers can inform about home and school behavior, recent stressors, and family mental health history (Eklund & Gueldner, 2012). The initial risk assessment at school takes into account risk factors, protective factors, and warning signs and also pursues suicide inquiry with pointed questions, evaluates emotional status, and requires clinical judgment. The assessment generally assigns the risk level as low, moderate, or high, and these levels determine interventions to reduce risk. Use a form to document assessment, rationales, interventions, follow-up, and all contacts. The goal is to keep the student safe and to develop a comprehensive care plan. Youth experiencing moderate to high risk are generally referred for psychiatric evaluation to determine if hospitalization is needed (Eklund & Gueldner, 2012).

Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 199 Suggested questions to ask student at risk during suicide inquiry: • •

• • • • • • • • •

Are you having thoughts about suicide? “Have you ever thought about killing yourself?” “Is the idea of suicide acceptable to you?” Were there previous attempts? “Have you ever tried to kill or harm yourself?” If there was a previous attempt, assess probability of the rescue, who thwarted the attempt, and how the student feels about the thwarted attempt (high risk is indicated by more anger or sadness that a prior attempt was thwarted) Is there a plan? “Do you have a current plan to kill or harm yourself?” Is there high intent to follow through on the plan? (high risk is indicated by a more specifc plan) If there is a method student plans to use, is there access to means, do they know how to use the means, and have they practiced it? (high risk) What are the student’s main stressors, problems, or reasons to die? Specifcally, assess feelings of burdensomeness, loneliness, and thwarted belongingness (Van Orden et al., 2010) What might trigger the student into a suicide attempt? What are the student’s reasons to live? Are there helping resources to support coping? (positive answers may reduce risk) What is the student’s intent? Does the student have a strong desire to die? What are the student’s current feelings? Any signs of depression or desperation? What is the student’s level of hopelessness or helplessness? Is there evidence of mental disorder, such as hallucinations, delusions, or commanding voices? Adapted from Erbacher et al. (2015), Lieberman et al. (2008), Lieberman et al. (2014)

Suggested questions to ask parents/caregivers, teachers, and staff: • • • • • • •

What warning signs initiated the referral? Has the student demonstrated sudden or dramatic changes in behavior, emotions, or cognitions? What support system surrounds the student? (feeling isolated/alone increases risk) Is there a history or current episode of mental disorder? (depression; alcohol or substance abuse; conduct, anxiety, bipolar disorder, or co-morbid problems) Is there a family history of suicide attempts or death by suicide? What is the student’s demonstrated level of impulsivity? Is there a history of recent deaths or losses, trauma, bullying, or victimization? Has the student lost a friend to suicide or been exposed to a suicide death online?

200 •

Programs and Practices What are the student’s current problems and stressors at home and at school? Adapted from Erbacher et al. (2015), Lieberman et al. (2008), Lieberman et al. (2014)

Risk level and suggested interventions (DOCUMENT all actions): •

•

•

Low risk (few risk factors/ideation/no plan or intent/strong protective factors). Supervise and reassure student; advise parent/guardian; help connect with school and community outpatient resources; suicide-proof environments; mobilize support system; develop a safety plan that includes treatment as needed, identifes circle of caring adults and peers, promotes help seeking when needed, promotes communication and coping skills; provide prevention lifelines, websites, and apps Moderate risk (multiple risk factors/ideation with plan/no intent/previous behaviors/few protective factors). Apply low risk interventions and consider high risk interventions such as admission for evaluation if needed, safety planning, check-ins, and suicide risk monitoring High risk (psychiatric disorders or severe situational crisis/plan and intent/ access to lethal means). Supervise student at all times; hand off ONLY to either a parent/guardian who clearly commits to seek immediate admission for mental health evaluation, or law enforcement, or a mobile crisis responder for transport to evaluation; prepare a re-entry plan for return from mental health hospitalization, including a meeting where student, parents/guardians, school, and community mental health representatives make appropriate follow-up plans that include check-ins, safety planning, and suicide risk monitoring Adapted from Erbacher et al. (2015), Lieberman et al. (2014)

Engaging Parents/Guardians When a student is at risk for suicide, the parent/guardian must be contacted and informed of the threat, usually by a school psychologist or school counselor representing the risk assessment team. Parents/ guardians should be asked about the availability of weapons, ropes, pills, or other lethal means and the need to remove access to such items. Even if the student denies suicidal intent, when information infers risk the caregivers must be notifed and enlisted in prevention (Eklund & Gueldner, 2012; Lieberman et al., 2014). The school psychologist or school counselor should try to arrange an immediate “face to face” meeting with the parents/guardians. This meeting is crucial to get assessment information, warn caregivers of the risk, educate about protecting their child, assess their cooperation, determine insurance coverage, and provide needed referral information. If the

Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 201 student resists parental involvement, it may help to explain that in most cases, the caregiver is needed to improve the situation. Prior to bringing the family together for a discussion, it may be helpful to brief the caregivers about the seriousness of the problem and discuss constructive ways they can respond to their child. Parents/guardians generally understand the history of concerns for their child, but some may deny or minimize the threat. If parents/ guardians are cooperative, a signed release of information should be obtained and immediate referral made for further evaluation as needed. If parents/guardians are unavailable, uncooperative, or there is reason to deduce that the child may be abused or at increased risk at home, law enforcement, mobile crisis, and/or child protective services should be contacted to make certain there is transport for further evaluation as needed. When referring to the most appropriate community agencies for support, cultural, developmental, and sexual orientation issues should be considered. There should be follow up to be certain caregivers followed through with referrals for evaluation or treatment, and document every step in the assessment and intervention process (Lieberman et al., 2014). Re-Entry From Hospitalization The transition from hospital back to school requires a careful, collaborative approach with the student, family, school-based mental health, school staff representatives, and outpatient mental health services. All parties must meet and make an effort to involve the student in developing both a re-entry plan as well as a safety plan to support the ability to comfortably resume normal routine. Re-entry planning is essential for youth returning to school after a suicidal crisis or hospitalization. Plans facilitate successful return to the academic environment while incorporating social and emotional supports and creating ongoing collaboration between home and school. Re-entry planning may include referral of some youth for evaluation for special education services. Safety planning must include doable tasks that distract the youth from suicidal thoughts. Peer interaction and social media must be monitored to prevent bullying and victimization. Adults and peers can create a network of social support in school and at home. Teachers should be prepared to modify academic programs to avoid overwhelming the returning student (Eklund & Gueldner, 2012; Lieberman et al., 2014). Intervention and Monitoring of Suicide Risk Intervening with students presenting suicide risk includes holistic case management and may involve suicide monitoring, safety planning, reentry planning, school-based counseling, and/or referring to outside

202 Programs and Practices mental- or behavioral-health providers. As youth spend the majority of their days at school, suicide monitoring by school-based mental health practitioners is suggested for a multitude of reasons, including liability protection, documentation, and to assess ongoing risk, particularly because suicide risk can frequently fuctuate for some individuals (Erbacher et al., 2015; Millner et al., 2017). Erbacher and Singer (2017) developed a suicide monitoring tool to check ongoing ideation, intent, and suicide planning, including frequency and duration of suicidal thoughts and behaviors. It also assesses individual warning signs, protective factors, and triggers to allow for individualized ongoing assessment and intervention focused directly on a student’s needs at specifc points in time.

Suicide Postvention and Prevention of Contagion Suicide in a school community requires a careful response that supports the opportunity to grieve but does not glorify or dramatize the act. Postvention must assess impact on the school community, identify and support affected students and staff, prevent contagion or risk for imitation, address and counteract stigma, and inform the community. After a Suicide: A Toolkit for Schools (AFSP & SPRC, 2018) is a valuable resource. Suicide Postvention Process and Procedures Suicide can have a profound impact on a school community. The school’s response to intense, complex emotions requires a balance of supporting the grieving process while preventing imitative thoughts and intent (Hart, 2012). If procedures are not in place, school teams can risk reacting rather than responding, which can lead to missteps, including missing youth who need support or inadvertently increasing contagion risk. Suggested tasks after a death by suicide: • •

•

Confrm the death and the facts. Confrm the death with authorities and family, and if possible, whether it was a suicide, before labeling the cause of death Contact the grieving family. Offer sympathy in person, asking how the school can help, offering resources, protecting personal effects for the family, identifying friends of the deceased, and discussing wishes for public or private funeral Assess level of response needed. Underestimating the suicide impact can lead to insuffcient resources for assistance, while overestimating the impact can result in extensive, unnecessary services that may sensationalize the death. School administration and crisis team leaders should consider the nature and consequences of the event, such as whether it occurred on campus, how well known the student

Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 203

•

•

•

•

was, emotional (close friends, family) and physical (witnesses) proximity of survivors, whether any students knew intent, and recent traumatic incidents such as a previous suicide, when anticipating extent of the need for crisis response Mobilize crisis response team. Based upon assessment of response needed, notify members of the school team and, if necessary, the district level team. To ensure suffcient response level, some district team members can respond directly, while others can be “on call” if needed. Response team should immediately meet for initial briefing and planning, if possible. News of the death may disseminate quickly by social media and cell phones, necessitating immediate intervention with the school community prior to team briefng Provide accurate information. As soon as possible notify and meet with staff, encourage expression of feelings, determine what and how to tell students and coordinate a plan to carefully inform students, such as a classroom script that avoids unnecessary details, expresses sympathy without glorifying the victim or the act, and shares how to get support. Provide crisis counseling, in-class support, and substitutes to relieve teachers if needed. Avoid public address announcements or school-wide assemblies to share news. Inform other district schools with siblings of the deceased or students in other schools who may be affected. Prepare letters to be sent home to parents/guardians, informing about the death, what is being done to support students, warning signs of suicidal thinking and prevention lifelines, and available family resources Triage. Implement evaluation procedures to identify students at risk for severe reactions, including those having close relationships with the deceased, witnesses in proximity to the suicide, and those considered at risk due to mental illness, previous suicidal behavior, or lack of family or social support. Students closest to the victim may struggle with feelings of guilt, anger, sadness, rejection, or isolation. Encourage affected students to seek assistance. The risk assessment team should be prepared to screen for those at risk and follow up as needed. Psychological triage is crucial to match appropriate interventions with degree of need Interventions. Establish a range of interventions according to individual need, at the universal level to support all students, targeted level for those needing more attention, and intensive level for those needing therapeutic treatment. Facilitate social support systems and safe rooms that encourage parents/caregivers, students, teachers, and staff to refer self or others for support. Distressed students should be encouraged to stay at school and use supervised safe rooms to express their emotions and receive help, though a plan for reunifcation with primary caregivers may also be necessary and supportive. Individual, small homogeneous groups (consisting of similarly affected

204 Programs and Practices

•

students), classroom, and caregiver interventions should be available for those in need, but without imposing unnecessary interventions on those coping effectively. Educate that it is normal to feel a variety of emotions, but be alert for misdirected blame or anger that could result in self-harm or violence toward others. Use teachable moments to educate about grief and provide opportunities for constructive action, such as suicide prevention programs, learning about depression, and participating in life-affrming activities (Erbacher et al., 2015; Lieberman et al., 2014; Roth, 2015) Reduce suicide contagion. Contagion occurs when suicidal behavior is imitated and can, rarely, result in a cluster of suicides in a school or geographic area. Postvention strategies to minimize contagion include: • • • • • • • •

Grieving for the deceased while avoiding sensationalism and unnecessary attention to the suicide act, including media coverage Not glorifying or vilifying the victim Identifying and supporting those at risk Encouraging referral or seeking help when needed Planning with community caregivers Enhancing protective factors Emphasizing universal prevention strategies and safe messaging Acknowledging the memory of the deceased while clearly and unambiguously encouraging students to distance themselves from the irreversible self-destructive act (Erbacher et al., 2015; Hart, 2012)

•

•

•

Address social stigma. Stigma associated with suicide must not hinder honest discussion, prevention efforts, support for survivors, and encouragement to seek help for emotional problems. Social stigma is more easily addressed in an environment where individuals have previously been working on de-stigmatizing mental illness and encouraging seeking support when needed Work with the media. Since the way the death is portrayed can have a profound effect on the community, a school district spokesperson should emphasize to news media that graphic, sensationalized descriptions of suicide can lead to contagion and must be avoided (Hart, 2012). If there is an article, avoid suicide as a front-page story and avoid photos of the victim or placing the word “suicide” in the caption, but provide helpful information such as warning signs, mental health referral options, and suicide prevention lifelines. A written statement with helpful information can be prepared for the media Monitor social media. A small group of students with supervising faculty can monitor social media and social networks, performing

Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 205

•

•

•

a gatekeeper role that identifes possible suicidal language and risk. The group can also provide safe messaging like “Suicide can be prevented” and “Available resources include . . .” Memorials and funerals. Use caution when memorializing a suicide, using best practices to avoid contagion. A brief, respectful expression of sympathy on campus, such as a moment of silence without glorifying the victim or the act, is suggested. Avoid formal ceremonies or permanent memorials such as yearbook dedications, tree plantings, or plaques that honor the deceased. Constructive options might include participation in a suicide prevention program or mental health organization. Spontaneous memorials that do not sensationalize the act should remain until after the funeral or for about fve days. School should not be cancelled for the funeral, but if the grieving family opts for a public funeral, students may voluntarily attend with parent/guardian permission and support. Monitor the funeral to identify students who appear depressed, withdrawn, or express suicidal ideation. School can provide resources before and after the funeral for processing feelings. Remove the student’s desk after the funeral or after about fve days so it does not become an informal memorial (Hart, 2012; Lieberman et al., 2014; Roth, 2015) Response team debriefng. After postvention, the crisis response team must have an opportunity to debrief in order to process personal reactions, express feelings, plan for stress management and support, and learn from what worked or needed improvement for future responses. Care for caregivers is vital for team wellbeing Long-term follow-up. Erbacher and colleagues (2015) pointed out that “sudden deaths such as suicide often take much longer to process due to the overwhelming shock and disbelief . . . along with diffculty comprehending why this happened” (p. 182). Debilitating complicated grief may manifest because suicide involves complex “social, emotional, and cultural issues including stigma, shame, and embarrassment” (Erbacher et al., 2015, p. 185). As disengagement from crisis response is happening, it is crucial to emphasize tertiary triage, which identifes vulnerable individuals who need monitoring and possibly treatment that could extend for weeks, months, or years. Anniversary dates of suicide can be a diffcult time for affected students. Since the risk of contagion continues, school teams should be prepared to comfort those who are struggling and monitor those at risk, without glorifying the suicide. Consider positive anniversary activities such as providing suicide awareness and prevention materials, discussion, or life-affrming activities (Erbacher et al., 2015; Hart, 2012; Jellinek & Okoli, 2012; Roth, 2015) ******

206 Programs and Practices Social media is an integral factor at all levels of suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention. Chapter 8 provides suggestions on how to integrate technology and social media into suicide procedures. The next section is devoted to several chapters describing school-wide programs that promote positive behavior and mental health.

References American Foundation for Suicide Prevention and Suicide Prevention Resource Center. (2018). After a suicide: A toolkit for schools (2nd ed.). Newton, MA: Education Development Center. Bostic, J., & Hoover, S. (2020). Improving the child and adolescent crisis system: Shifting from a 9–1–1 to a 9–8–8 paradigm. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors. Bridge, J. A., Horowitz, L. M., Fontanella, C. A., Sheftall, A. H., Greenhouse, J., Kelleher, K. J., & Campo, J. V. (2018). Age-related racial disparity in suicide rates among US youths from 2001 through 2015. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(7). Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (2020a). Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS) (Fatal Injury reports, 1999–2019, for National, Regional, and States [RESTRICTED]). National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Retrieved from https://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/mortrate.html Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (2020b). COVID-19 in racial and ethnic minority groups. Retrieved from www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extraprecautions/racial-ethnic-minorities.html Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (2020c). Youth risk behavior surveillance system – United States and selected sites, 2019. Retrieved from www.cdc.gov/ healthyyouth/data/yrbs/data.htm Collins, K., & Yaffe-Bellamy, D. (2020). About 2 million guns were sold in the U. S. as virus fears spread. New York Times. Published online April 1, 2020. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/04/01/business/coronavirus-gunsales.html?smtyp=cur&smid=tw-nytimes Eklund, K., & Gueldner, B. (2012). Suicidal thoughts and behaviors: Suicide intervention. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 503–523). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Erbacher, T. A., & Singer, J. B. (2017). Suicide risk monitoring: The missing piece in suicide risk assessment. Contemporary School Psychology, 1–9. Erbacher, T. A., Singer, J. B., & Poland, S. (2015). Suicide in schools: A practitioner’s guide to multi-level prevention, assessment, intervention and postvention. New York: Routledge. Gutierrez, P. M., & Osman, A. (2008). Adolescent suicide: An integrated approach to the assessment of risk and protective factors. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press. Hart, S. R. (2012). Student suicide: Suicide postvention. In S. E. Brock & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 525–547). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Jellinek, M. S., & Okoli, U. D. (2012). When a student dies: Organizing the school’s response. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 21, 57–67.

Prevention, Intervention, and Postvention 207 Lieberman, R., Poland, S., & Cassel, R. (2008). Best practices in suicide intervention. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 1457–1473). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Lieberman, R., Poland, S., & Kornfeld, C. (2014). Best practices in suicide prevention and intervention. In P. Harrison & A. Thomas (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology: Systems-level services (pp. 273–288). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Mental Health First Aid USA. (2012). Mental health frst aid USA for adults assisting young people. Washington, DC: National Council for Behavioral Health. Retrieved from www.mentalhealthfrstaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ Youth_Mental_Health_First_Aid-One_Pager.pdf Mental Health First Aid USA. (2015). Mental health frst aid USA. Washington, DC: National Council for Behavioral Health. Retrieved from www.mentalhealthfrstaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Mental-Health-First-Aid-AdultsOne-Pager_2019.pdf Miller, D. N. (2011). Child and adolescent suicidal behavior: School-based prevention, assessment, and intervention. New York: Guilford Press. Millner, A. J., Ursano, R. J., Hwang, I., King, A. J., Naifeh, J. A., Sampson, N. A., . . . & Nock, M. K. (2017). Prior mental disorders and lifetime suicidal behaviors among US Army soldiers in the Army Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers (Army STARRS). Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior: Journal of the American Association of Suicidology, pp. 1–20. Pennsylvania Department of Education (PDE). (2017). Pennsylvania equity and inclusion toolkit. Retrieved from www.education.pa.gov/Documents/K-12/ Safe%20Schools/EquityInclusion/PA%20Equity%20Inclusion%20Toolkit. pdf Reeves, M., Kanan, L., & Plog, A. (2010). Comprehensive planning for safe learning environments: A school professional’s guide to integrating physical and psychological safety – Prevention through recovery. New York: Routledge. Roth, J. C. (2015). School crisis response: Refections of a team leader. Wilmington, DE: Hickory Run Press. Roth, J. C., & Fernandez, B. S. (Eds.). (2018). Perspectives on school crisis response: Refections from the feld. New York: Routledge. Sharaf, A. Y., Thompson, E. A., & Walsh, E. (2009). Protective effects of selfesteem and family support on suicide risk behaviors among at-risk adolescents. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 22, 160–168. Singer, J. B., Erbacher, T. A., & Rosen, P. (2018). School-based suicide prevention: A framework for evidence-based practice. School Mental Health. https://doi. org/10.1007/s12310-018-9245-8 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (2012). Preventing suicide: A toolkit for high schools (HHS Publication No. SMA-12-4669). Rockville, MD: SAMHSA. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (2020). Treatment of suicidal ideation, self-harm, and suicide attempts among youth. Rockville, MD: SAMHSA. Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Cukrowicz, K. C., Braithwaite, S. R., Selby, E. A., & Joiner, T. E., Jr. (2010). The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychological Review, 117(2), 575–600. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018697

208 Programs and Practices Walsh, E., Hooven, C., & Kronick, B. (2013). School-wide staff and faculty training in suicide risk awareness: Successes and challenges. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 26(1), 53–61. Whitlock, J., Muehlenkamp, J., Eckinrode, J., Purington, A., Baral Abrams, G., Berreira, P., & Kress, V. (2012). Nonsuicidal self-injury as a gateway to suicide in young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52, 486–492. Wong, P., & Wong, L. (2006). Handbook of multicultural perspectives on stress and coping. New York: Springer.

Section IV

School-Wide Programs Promoting Positive Behavior and Mental Health

12 Universal Mental Health Screening

You can only analyze the data you have. Be strategic about what to gather and how to store it. ~ Marie Curie

Purposes and Planning of Mental Health Screening Historically, identifcation of student emotional and behavioral risk has largely been reactive, depending on teacher referral of students suspected of needing special education. Fear of stigma has often contributed to what McGrath (2010) described as the “wait to fail” approach to mental health issues, waiting until students fail socially and emotionally before getting them help. Indicators of mental health problems were often unrecognized, and the opportunity for early intervention was missed (Kamphaus, DiStefano, Dowdy, Eklund, & Dunn, 2010). Screenings and check-ups for prevention and early intervention of physical health problems is well recognized and increasingly implemented in pediatric medicine. Routine screenings of signs and symptoms for early detection of child behavioral health problems have not been generally recognized and have been implemented slowly or not at all (Bostic & Hoover, 2020). Traditional approaches such as offce discipline referrals (ODRs), suspensions, and teacher referrals are often ineffcient, delaying access to needed services (Romer et al., 2019). When opportunities for early intervention are missed, the risk for negative outcomes increases (Tolan & Dodge, 2005). Universal mental health screening within multi-tiered systems to identify students at risk for social-emotional and behavioral (SEB) concerns is more proactive and effcient than traditional approaches. Universal screening is a preventive procedure designed for use with all students to assess SEB needs and the likelihood of developing a mental health condition. SEB screening is also designed to assess resilience factors and indicators of wellbeing in order that coping skills and assets can be supported. This cost-effective approach provides the opportunity

212

School-Wide Programs

for early identifcation and services to prevent or mitigate the severity of mental health diffculties and to obtain a baseline for future monitoring and assessment (Humphrey & Wigelsworth, 2016). Goodman-Scott, Betters-Bubon, and Donohue (2019) summarized some of the benefts of universal mental health screening in schools: • • • • •

Prevention of and early intervention for mental and behavioral health problems, thus enhancing readiness for academics Use of data to guide mental health interventions Comprehensive approach that encourages systemic thinking in schools Collaboration among school and community mental health providers Greater awareness and normalization of mental health issues in schools Adapted from Goodman-Scott et al. (2019)

Best Practices in Universal Screening for Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Outcomes: An Implementation Guide, an outstanding resource for developing and implementing mental health screening, reported that schools are increasingly using systematic approaches to support mental health (Romer et al., 2019). The guide pointed out that multi-tiered frameworks are poised to provide proactive and integrated service delivery for student social-emotional and behavioral (SEB) needs, but depend on early identifcation of SEB strengths and needs. School Mental Health Quality Guide: Screening is another outstanding screening implementation guide (National Center for School Mental Health, 2020). This document lists purposes of mental health screening: •

•

•

•

Support a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS). Screening can promote an integrated continuum of mental health strategies across all tiers, including core social-emotional-behavioral skills at schoolwide and targeted tiers before problems escalate (Romer et al., 2019) Inform prevention and early intervention strategies. Systematic screening of all students for indicators of wellbeing and socialemotional distress gathers valuable information for planning and implementing targeted prevention and early intervention strategies Identify concerns specifc to certain grades or classrooms. Data can indicate strengths and concerns specifc to a subset of the school population, such as a grade or age group, that can be addressed as part of a classroom or group intervention Identify students with highest wellbeing. Collecting information about wellbeing and social-emotional strengths as well as indicators of distress can be benefcial in 1) reducing stigma about discussion of

Universal Mental Health Screening 213

•

• •

mental health, 2) enhancing student feelings of self-esteem, 3) providing useful information about all students, and 4) strengths-based questions being generally more acceptable across cultural groups Identify students at risk for mental illness or harm to self or others. Screening can identify students in immediate need of help for such behaviors as suicidal or homicidal thoughts or plans, risk-taking, offce discipline referrals, or academic diffculties Make economically sound decisions. Early identifcation and intervention that connects students and families to services is more cost-effective than later care for severe mental health problems Improve access to mental health supports. Screening is urgently needed to improve access to mental health services, which are more likely to be initiated and continued in school than in community settings, especially for racial and ethnic minority and low socioeconomic background students Adapted from National Center for School Mental Health (2020)

The School Mental Health Quality Guide: Screening details action steps for planning and implementing mental health screening: •

• •

•

•

Build a foundation. Assemble a core screening team, including leadership from school administration, staff, and the community to plan and implement the screening process and to generate diverse support Clarify goals. It is critical to clarify screening goals before selecting screening instruments and communicating with those outside the screening team Identify resources and logistics. Includes buy-in and staffng of key personnel such as available school mental health providers for administration and follow-up, teachers and paraprofessionals for classroom administration, and community-based agencies capable of timely intake of new referrals that may be generated. Key resources include data-infrastructure and Student Information Systems to track academic and behavioral data, and individuals trained in data collection and analysis Select an appropriate screening tool. The School Health Assessment and Performance Evaluation (SHAPE) System is a free online platform for school and district teams that offers a broad array of screening and assessment tool options for a variety of needs, including evidence-based, cost-effective instruments and measures of social and academic success such as grades, attendance, offce discipline referrals, substance use, and family challenges Determine consent and assent processes. Plan for the type of consent procedure needed from parents/guardians, considering the strengths and limitations of either active or passive/opt-out, voluntary student

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•

•

assent for participation, and cultural considerations, while consistently communicating in multiple formats the benefts of screening. When determining type of consent, consider state/federal laws and district policies Develop data collection processes. Data management and privacy should be consistent with the Federal Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). School screening teams are increasingly choosing to administer screening using online platforms, but the relative advantages of online versus paper and pencil methods should be considered. Regardless of methodology, there must be immediate scoring and analysis of collected data to facilitate any needed followup such as referral, especially when instruments inquire about pressing concerns such as suicidal or homicidal thoughts. The number of students for each specifc screening should be documented and data should be collected frequently after screening during the intervention phase to monitor progress Develop administration processes. Action steps include: Who to screen. Consider starting small with a pilot screening administration of one grade level or classroom before making adjustments and assessing feasibility for whole school screening. Consider relative advantages of student, teacher, and/or parent report for components of a selected screener, such as recognizing that adolescents generally are best for reporting internalizing symptoms (e.g., depression, anxiety) (Margherio, Evans, & Owens, 2019) b. When to screen. Consider decisions regarding how many timepoints will be screened, relative advantages and disadvantages of certain time-points, and the need to consult with teachers and administrators regarding optimal dates, times, or classrooms for screening, including parent–school functions when parent reports can be sought c. Staff to support screening. Clear communication during professional development days or faculty meetings can be used to inform staff about specifcs of screener administration and the purpose and value of mental health screeners, combined with teacher referrals d. Scripts. These should be provided for proctors (typically teachers, paraprofessionals, counselors, school psychologists, or community mental health providers) to ensure standardized administration. Scripts should be translated into primary languages spoken at school, with staff members and cultural liaisons present to read and answer questions about the scripts. Content of the scripts should include 1) introduction to the screening, a.

Universal Mental Health Screening 215 including its purpose, confdentiality of results, and relation to student wellbeing, 2) step-by-step instructions on how to complete the instrument, and 3) guidelines for returning completed screenings to an appropriate location •

Develop follow-up processes. It is suggested that interventions based upon screening data be implemented at the universal, targeted, and intensive levels of an MTSS framework, and that resource mapping of school and community supports, programs, and services be available to guide interventions for students at various levels of risk. Further, a follow-up schedule is suggested to ensure that students needing additional services receive them in a time-sensitive manner. Often, students identifed on a universal screen are referred for further assessment to more specifcally understand strengths and needs. Effcient followup dictates that students at high risk receive immediate safety measures and attention on the same day as identifed, students at moderate risk receive attention within the week, but including immediate safety measures as needed, and students at low risk have appropriate fndings and recommendations communicated to staff, students, and parents within a reasonable time frame. It is strongly suggested that school risk and threat assessment teams, MTSS, and community mental health partners be alerted and on call prior to screenings Adapted from National Center for School Mental Health (2020)

Schools have options and decisions to make regarding what mental health needs should be screened, who reports screening data, when and how often screenings should happen, and more. Mental health screening items can include social-emotional functioning, internalizing concerns (e.g., anxiety, depression), externalizing concerns (e.g., aggression, attention), suicidality, trauma, and school connectedness and satisfaction. Instruments can collect data from student report, teacher report, and parent report. Depending on population needs, screening can be administered any time from one to several times a year, or more often for those identifed at greater risk (Schulz, Young, & Zahn, 2020). Sources of Screening Data While teachers are the most commonly utilized screening informants, research has found that student self-report, including in the early grades, can contribute valuable information distinct from teacher ratings (Romer et al., 2019; von der Embse, Kim, Kilgus, Dedrick, & Sanchez, 2019). As students get older, they become more reliable informants, especially regarding internalizing behaviors such as anxiety and depression (von der Embse et al., 2019). However, teachers can provide valuable information about their students’ social-emotional and behavioral (SEB)

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functioning, given their knowledge of normative student behavior and the extensive time they spend with students (Romer et al., 2019). Training is recommended for teachers to increase accuracy and consistency prior to rating their students (Reinke, Stormont, Herman, Puri, & Goel, 2011; von der Embse, Kilgus, Eklund, Ake, & Levi-Nielsen, 2018). Teachers can also play a critical role after screening, when interventions and progress monitoring are needed. Regardless of the source of screening information, school teams must support those providing data, make the screening process easy and accessible, address concerns and questions, and seek input from families, students, and staff to strengthen implementation of a support system (Romer et al., 2019). Frequency of Screening School teams need to consider grade levels appropriate for screening and when screening should be administered throughout the school year. When teachers are the informants, suffcient time should be allowed at the beginning of the school year – at least one month is suggested – for them to get to know their students (LeBuffe, Shapiro, & Robitaille, 2018). Many schools with tiered systems of support administer academic screening three times a year. While there is no consensus regarding frequency of annual SEB screening measures, research has demonstrated the benefts of screening two or three times a year, which has identifed new students with each administration, provided useful data, and connected them to interventions (Miller, Chafouleas, Welsh, Riley-Tillman, & Fabiano, 2019). Eklund, Meyer, Splett, and Weist (2020c) suggested the need to administer a screener at least twice a year to evaluate the outcomes of Tier 1 interventions and increase the possibility that all students receive needed SEB interventions (Eklund et al., 2020c). Mental Health Screening Within an MTSS Framework Research has explored the use of mental health screening within the framework of a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) that delivers a continuum of comprehensive mental health services (Schulz et al., 2020). The use of MTSS has increased teacher involvement in the assessment and treatment of students having mental health needs, and has furthered the use of universal (Tier 1) strategies (Franklin, Kim, Ryan, Kelly, & Montgomery, 2012). Universal screening is a preventive procedure designed for all students, using brief instruments to assess risk for developing mental health problems (Eklund & Dowdy, 2014; Eklund & Rossen, 2016). Screening has been increasingly adopted within MTSS to facilitate teacher-initiated early identifcation of student risks (von der Embse et al., 2018). In addition to providing an opportunity for early identifcation, this cost-effective

Universal Mental Health Screening 217 approach can be used to connect students with tiered services to prevent or mitigate the severity of behavioral and mental health diffculties and to obtain a baseline for future monitoring and assessment (Humphrey & Wigelsworth, 2016). Research by Owens and colleagues (2015) found that kindergarten registration provided a unique opportunity to obtain parent-based screening information about potential social-emotional-behavioral risk, though cautions have been expressed about developmental variability, risk of false positives, and other limitations. Suggested benefts of screening at kindergarten entry by parent ratings as part of a multi-step, multi-informant process could include providing children identifed at risk with a school readiness program or supportive MTSS interventions (Owens et al., 2015). Tanner, Eklund, Kilgus, and Johnson (2018) contended that universal screening within MTSS, or individually as an assessment practice, provides three main benefts over traditional identifcation models: 1) screening for behavioral and emotional risk reaches all students in a school or classroom, ensuring that all students have access to services if needed, 2) universal screening results can be used as a benchmark to monitor students as they progress through diffcult periods of development and transitions, and 3) universal screening can facilitate the benefts of early intervention (Tanner et al., 2018). Brann, Maras, Smith-Millman, Splett, and Kilpatrick (2019) examined the usefulness of a universal social-emotional screening embedded in an empowerment evaluation framework designed to improve stakeholder capacity to plan, implement, and evaluate their own programs. Teachers at an intervention school and a comparison school rated all students with an SEL screening system in a tiered response model. The intervention school received screening results with empowerment evaluation supports, but the comparison school did not receive screening results, proceeding instead with usual decision making. Results showed that the intervention school served more students with interventions, was more likely to intervene with students having SEL needs, and implemented a greater number of small-group interventions than the comparison school (Brann et al., 2019). According to Eklund and Rossen (2016), schools are an ideal setting for identifying at-risk students due to the large population of youth in schools and the available follow-up care. However, they cautioned that even with the use of multi-tiered delivery systems that feature universal screening at Tier 1, such screenings are rarely implemented. A preliminary investigation showed that only one in eight MTSS schools utilize universal mental health screening (Bruhn, Woods-Groves, & Huddle, 2014). Barriers to implementation of universal mental health screening and ways to overcome them will be explored later in the current chapter.

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Screening Instruments Throughout a Multi-Tiered System No single universal screening instrument is appropriate for all schools. Screening tools should be aligned with the school’s multi-tiered service delivery efforts and resources. Technically sound, evidence-based, feasible (in terms of time, effort, cost, expertise) instruments should be selected that meet specifc needs of schools, districts, and populations, including diagnostic accuracy and fairness with subgroups defned by gender, race/ethnicity, language, sexual orientation, and geographic region (Pendergast, von der Embse, Kilgus, & Eklund, 2017; Romer et al., 2019). Utilizing the MTSS framework, broad instruments can be administered at the universal Tier 1 level to identify a range of psychosocial concerns, specialized instruments at the selected or targeted Tier 2 level to identify high-risk mental health symptoms, and targeted instruments at the indicated or intensive Tier 3 level to aid in identifying and classifying specifc mental health conditions (Schulz et al., 2020). Here is a non-exhaustive list of examples of instruments at each tier: Broad Instruments – Tier 1 •

•

•

•

BASC-3 Behavioral and Emotional Screening System (BASC-3 BESS) Forms: Student, Parent, Teacher Administration Time: 5–10 minutes Grades: K–12 Student Risk Screening Scale – Internalizing and Externalizing (SRSS-IE) Forms: Teacher Administration Time: 1–3 minutes Grades: K–12 Social, Academic, and Emotional Behavior Risk Screener (SAEBRS) Forms: Student, Parent, Teacher Administration Time: 1–3 minutes Grades: K –12 Strengths and Diffculties Questionnaire (SDQ) Forms: Student, Parent, Teacher Administration Time: 5 minutes Grades: K–12

Specialized Instruments – Tier 2 •

Behavior Assessment System for Children–3 (BASC-3) Forms: Student, Parent, Teacher Administration Time: 20–30 minutes Ages: 3–18 years

Universal Mental Health Screening 219 •

•

Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) Forms: Student, Parent, Teacher Administration Time: 20–30 minutes Ages: 5–18 years Social Skills Improvement System (SSIS) Forms: Student, Parent Administration Time: 10–25 minutes Ages: 3–18 years

Targeted Instruments – Tier 3 •

•

•

Beck Youth Inventories–2 (BYI-2) Forms: Student Self-Report Administration Time: 5 minutes/inventory Ages: 7–18 years Children’s Depression Inventory–2 (CDI-2) Forms: Student Self-Report Administration Time: 5 minutes Ages: 7–17 years Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children–2 (MASC-2) Forms: Student Self-Report, Parent Report Administration Time: 15 minutes Ages: 8–19 years Adapted from Schulz et al. (2020)

A study of the reliability of two universal screeners, the Strengths and Diffculties Questionnaire – Teacher Form (SDQ) and the Social, Academic, and Emotional Behavior Risk Screener – Teacher Rating Scale (SAEBRS) found strong correlations and support for the technical adequacy and generalizability of data from these screening procedures and recommended twice yearly administrations to provide early intervention for students needing attention (Kilgus & von der Embse, 2014). See Online Resource 4 on the Routledge website for more “Sample Universal and Follow-Up Mental Health Screening Instruments.”

Implementation and Follow-Up It is emphasized that prior to universal, specialized, or targeted large-scale screenings of student mental health, there must be proactive plans for suffcient mental health resources available in the school and the community to respond to identifed needs. When there are concerns about the capacity for adequate follow-up, schools can use phased roll-out, screening a smaller, more manageable subpopulation (e.g., 9th graders) and expanding over time to include all students (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019).

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Systematic Follow-Up to Screening Follow-up decision making and interventions should be data-driven. Procedures must be developed for the collection, storage, privacy, access to, and analysis of screening data. Social-emotional and behavioral (SEB) screening data can often be linked as part of a school’s electronic platforms for collected data and easily integrated with other student data such as attendance, discipline, grades, and test scores that inform data-based decision making within MTSS (Romer et al., 2019). Romer and colleagues (2019) suggested professional development focusing on areas to be screened, the value of data within a multi-tiered system, and how SEB screening data are carefully collected, stored, analyzed, shared, and used to inform interventions (von der Embse et al., 2018). They pointed out that a key element of universal screening is timely sharing of group- and student-level results with stakeholders – parents, teachers, students, and/or school and district leaders. Aggregated and disaggregated results across groups such as grade levels, schools, and demographics can be shared with relevant stakeholders in various ways to target supports and improve student outcomes (Romer et al., 2019). Dowdy, Ritchey, and Kamphaus (2010) suggested that prior to screening there be a plan for clearly articulated systematic follow-up, including a data-driven protocol, interventions, progress monitoring, and referral procedures for students identifed at various risk levels. They recommended cut-scores to determine 1) high risk students needing immediate follow-up, 2) moderate risk students needing prompt follow-up, and 3) low risk students needing non-urgent follow-up. Suggested preparation for systematic follow-up at various risk levels includes: Immediate follow-up for high risk • • • •

Refer for outside crisis services on same day as identifed Follow-up assessment Identify and establish ongoing services and supports Notify and inform family, seek cooperation, and obtain consent for ongoing services

Prompt follow-up for moderate risk • • •

Follow-up assessment Identify and establish ongoing services such as individual counseling, support groups, Check-In/Check-Out procedures, skills training, outside referral as needed Notify and inform the family, seek cooperation, and obtain consent for ongoing services

Universal Mental Health Screening 221 Non-urgent follow-up for low risk • •

Follow-up monitoring and screenings Consultative interventions like emphasizing Tier 1 school-wide practices such as SEL instruction or classroom behavior management interventions

Cut-scores have the advantage of helping to prioritize response to those most in need and consistent with available resources. They also help to identify students at high risk and scores at which parents must be notifed and involved in problem solving. Kilgus and Eklund (2016) anticipated the likely need for schools to prepare for high base rates, with many screening at greater than 15% needing follow-up. They suggested beginning with screening a manageable number of students, such as one grade level at a time, identifying and implementing Tier 1 changes and improvements, and following up with assessments to identify more specifc needs.

Example of a Focus Area: Trauma Screening Eklund and Rossen (2016) suggested the following when considering trauma screening : • • • • • •

Identify which concern(s) to examine (e.g., internalizing behaviors, trauma symptoms, sources of adversity) Select screening tool and examine cost Calculate time, training, and effort needed to administer, score, analyze, and connect outcomes to interventions Identify who will complete measures (e.g., teacher, parent/caregiver, student) Ensure that adolescents, parents, and educators know the purposes and use of the screening tools – informed consent Determine the number and timing of screenings (e.g., fall and spring)

Eklund and Rossen explained that despite advantages of trauma screening to facilitate early intervention, there is a need for caution. Concerns have been expressed about 1) possibly stigmatizing children, 2) applying interventions to individual children rather than creating a safe school environment, and 3) the challenges of obtaining reliable and valid measurements. The question of what will be measured can prove challenging, since screening for emotional trauma should focus on the reactions to overwhelming experiences (e.g., fear, loss of sleep, emotional lability), rather than the trauma itself (e.g., death of parent, physical maltreatment). Schools engaged in trauma screening may mistakenly ask about the sources of stress rather than the reactions to adversity, such as recurring nightmares. Eklund and Rossen cautioned that parents and children often do not have high agreement when reporting adverse experiences. Still, accurate

222 School-Wide Programs screening methods used with staff commitment and training can inform schools about how to focus resources. Data can inform professional development and the benefts of creating Trauma-Informed Schools. Chapter 15 describes Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS). Eklund and Rossen (2016) summarized cautions and benefts of trauma screening in schools: • • • • • • •

Screening for reactions to adverse experiences can be useful to determine risk for stress or trauma Active parental informed consent for trauma screening should always be obtained Screening tools administered to students may prove more accurate than other informants (e.g., teachers, parents) but must be provided at an appropriate developmental level Screenings can help identify individual severity and general degree of need in a school community, helping direct resources to support traumatized students Schools should plan for suffcient resources to address identifed needs prior to implementing trauma screening that may demand substantial interventions Interventions provided through an MTSS framework offer both a universal trauma-informed approach and implementation of targeted or intensive interventions when needed Need for individual services should not be determined only through screenings – follow-up assessment and individual determination of needs are critical Adapted from Eklund and Rossen (2016)

Eklund, Koriakin, Chafouleas, and Dodge (2020b) summarized recommendations for school-based providers of trauma screening assessments: • • • •

•

Be clear about what to expect during and after the trauma screening process, including possible need for extensive follow-up resources, interventions, or referral Use matter-of-fact, supportive, respectful communication throughout the process Use developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate messaging, such as tone and volume of speech that supports engagement and comfort Promote a safe physical environment throughout the process, including culturally responsive adaptations, with considerations such as lighting, sound, privacy, personal space, and/or cultural linguistic interpretations Be aware of your own emotional responses throughout the process, especially when hearing about student trauma histories

Universal Mental Health Screening 223 • • • •

Elicit only necessary information during the assessment, such as the existence and extent of traumatic stress symptoms and disorders rather than details about the trauma experience Provide the student with personal control whenever possible during the assessment, such as using self-completed measures in preference to other techniques, when appropriate Avoid phrases that might suggest judgment about the trauma experience Be aware of legal implications and practical considerations from assessment results, such as possible requirement to immediately respond or provide interventions if educators become aware of a concern Adapted from Eklund et al. (2020b), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2014)

Barriers to Implementation of Mental Health Screening Minderman and Brann (2019) pointed out that there is a research-topractice gap in MTSS models and implementation of screening for behavior and mental health. They found that unlike screening results, teacher discipline referrals disproportionately identifed students who displayed externalizing behaviors such as classroom disruptions or fghting (Eklund & Dowdy, 2014). Referrals also varied according to staff training, tolerance, and expectations (Dvorsky, Girio-Herrera, & Owens, 2014). Over 82% of surveyed participants in the Minderman and Brann study were not using screening, and when used, implementation and follow-up procedures were inconsistent across schools. Over 55% of participants had no follow-up procedures, ignoring best practice guidelines on how to implement and follow up mental health screenings (National Center for School Mental Health, 2020). Surveyed school psychologists reported barriers to implementation – most prevalent was fnding time for screening, followed by lack of training on screening for mental health, which overburdened school resources. Minderman and Brann recommended additional training for universal screening, with emphasis on developing a purpose for the screening, matching the purpose to an appropriate screening instrument, developing a screening timeline that fts school needs, and using collected data appropriately. While many mental health professionals advocate for universal screenings as a critical aspect of identifcation and early intervention for a variety of adverse conditions and potential disorders, there are barriers to widespread universal mental health screening implementation: 1. 2.

Administrators and school boards are concerned about issues of privacy. Time needed – implementing universal mental health screening can appear a complex process of choosing problems or disorders to be

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3. 4.

5.

School-Wide Programs screened, instruments to be used, relative involvement of teachers, students, or parents in completing the instruments, and at what point(s) during the school year to apply screening. There has been lack of clarity about when parental consent for screening is necessary, and whether, or under what circumstances there is a need for active or passive consent. There is a need for buy-in and, to a varied extent, training for school mental health providers, teachers, administrators, and other educators, who may be preoccupied with other initiatives and not view time allocated for universal screening as a priority. Money and resources – when a school system commits to universal mental health screening, it must also commit to developing and having readily available resources to meet the needs of identifed students, including. a.

Personnel – suffcient and accessible school psychologists, school counselors, school social workers, and MOUs with community agencies and hospitals b. Financial – cost of administration, instruments, and follow-up for meeting identifed needs, possible referrals, and resource development 6.

7.

The possible need to address and counter the view that mental health concerns are stigmatizing, and the myth that mental health screening can foster stigma, and perhaps cause rather than prevent or mitigate mental illness. The belief that schools are for teaching and learning – not for addressing mental health. Adapted from National Center for School Mental Health (2020), Schulz et al. (2020)

Overcoming Barriers to Implementation Privacy Concerns A thoughtful, transparent, inclusive process that involves key stakeholders and respects informed consent can educate about the benefts of mental health screening and steps throughout the process that assure confdentiality and caring response when needed. The privacy of data collected during screening should respect FERPA and HIPAA regulations. School leadership must decide where data will be stored, who has access, and how it will be used. Consent and release of information must conform to appropriate guidelines and procedures (National Center for School Mental Health, 2020). Time Needed The formation of a core screening team and careful process of planning and implementing a screening program requires an initial investment in

Universal Mental Health Screening 225 time; however, most screening instruments can be directly administered to students in less than 30 minutes, and many in 5 minutes or less. Screening team formation may not require a whole new team if an existing team or group is already working on behavioral or mental health. Screening can also be time-effective in that decisions about need outcomes are more quickly evident, and prevention and early intervention mean less time spent on future behavior problems (Humphrey & Wigelsworth, 2016; Schulz et al., 2020). Consent for Mental Health Screening There have been questions and confusion about the need for active or passive parental consent for social-emotional screeners. Both approaches are utilized, depending on what is screened and who reports it. Active consent means a student may only participate if the parent gives written consent. While active consent has the potential to enhance school–family trust, it may result in decreased participation, especially among economically and culturally marginalized students and those who are less connected or successful in school. Passive consent or “notice” provides parents the opportunity to opt-out of screening for academic, behavioral, and social-emotional development. Non-response by a parent/guardian means consent for screening is assumed. Passive consent generally affords the best chance to reach the largest number of students. Screening to identify risk, whether academic or emotional-behavioral, but not to clinically diagnose is usually viewed as general education practice not requiring active consent. However, follow-up efforts after initial screening such as individualized assessments for specifc disorders or consideration for special education require active consent (Romer et al., 2019). Some schools have an active consent form that is signed at registration along with vision/hearing, etc. Parents are sometimes asked to complete a parent-report screener as part of the registration process. Parents can receive “opt-out” letters explaining the screening tools and how they will be used at the beginning of the school year or in Fall newsletters. The Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment (PPRA) requires schools receiving federal funds for a program or specifcally the screening in question to notify parents and obtain consent prior to administering a questionnaire or other measure seeking information about mental or psychological problems directly linked to a child, but does not apply if a teacher or another informant completing the screening is reporting on “public,” visible behaviors. In the latter case, neither parental notice nor consent would be required. Parent consent is generally not needed for universal screening at Tier 1, whether the screening is a rating of visible behaviors by the teacher or a survey/instrument administered directly to the student, except for certain private information about the student or the student’s family (Zirkel, 2019).

226 School-Wide Programs Screening teams should seek students’ voluntary consent to participate, often at the beginning of administration, for screening that requires student report. Students may be asked to indicate “Yes, I will take this survey” or “No, I choose not to take this survey” (National Center for School Mental Health, 2020). Buy-In and Support Generating buy-in means that screening teams get input from stakeholders, including school leadership and staff, students and families, and community agencies. The screening team can conduct focus groups with key stakeholders to discuss and gather opinions and perceptions on such topics as 1) benefts of screening, 2) screening challenges and concerns, 3) consent and privacy issues, and 4) screening implementation, scoring, follow-up, and referral. Feedback about screening can also be an agenda item at staff meetings, Back-to-School Night, and PTA activities (National Center for School Mental Health, 2020). Cultural values of diverse communities should always be considered when seeking buy-in and implementing new and innovative practices. Buy-in can be supported by sharing benefts, including 1) the greater effectiveness of screening compared with traditional teacher or disciplinary referrals for identifying students struggling with mental health – especially internalizing problems, 2) recommendations shared with parents based on mental health screening lead to a high percentage of students beginning treatment, 3) early identifcation permits prevention and mitigation of school-based challenges rather than reacting later, when problems may become more severe, and 4) mental health screening can provide data that informs student-specifc and school-wide prevention practices (Kuo & Stoep, 2009; Schulz et al., 2020). Funding and Resources Arguments for cost-effectiveness include: 1) research demonstrates that screening is more cost effective and accurate than teacher training to identify warning signs, 2) early intervention to prevent and mitigate more severe mental health problems reduces later costs, 3) when screening data is presented to parents, they often seek outside resources, reducing the load on school personnel, and 4) brief reports save time and enhance decision making (Burke et al., 2013; Kuo & Stoep, 2009; Schulz et al., 2020). Screening measures can be integrated with existing data systems such as those used with Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), which tracks academic and behavioral needs and outcomes, streamlining resources. Staff training for screening can also be integrated into developing social-emotional and behavioral programs such as PBIS, Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), or Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS). Establishing memorandums of understanding (MOUs)

Universal Mental Health Screening 227 with community mental health agencies and hospitals as part of developing a MTSS can supplement the work of school-based mental health professionals and provide critical resources for screening follow-up. Stigma Honest, caring conversations about mental health within the context of a positive school climate can de-mystify and destigmatize mental health and primary prevention such as screening. Schools can develop trusting relationships among students and staff, programs designed to encourage dialogue and mutual respect, and the resilience to recognize and address personal and peer problems. Schools can fght destructive stigma and attitudes that interfere with prevention through education about mental health, mental health literacy workshops, open communication about anxiety, depression, and suicide, and easy access to school-based mental health professionals and services. Teaching, Learning, and Mental Health Confront the belief that schools are not about addressing mental health. Throughout this book, a rationale is presented that there is a critical need to address youth mental health, and that schools are in the best position to identify needs and initiate appropriate interventions. Mental health screening is one of the most cost- and time-effective ways to reach the most students to identify, prevent, and mitigate behavioral and emotional problems. Supporting student mental health supports student learning. The decision to conduct universal mental health screening means choosing not the easy path of inaction but rather the compassionate path that says the children always come frst. ****** The school-wide programs described in chapters that follow express the same sentiment: The children always come frst.

References Bostic, J., & Hoover, S. (2020). Improving the child and adolescent crisis system: Shifting from a 9–1–1 to a 9–8–8 paradigm. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors. Brann, K. L., Maras, M. A., Smith-Millman, M., Splett, J. W., & Kilpatrick, K. (2019). Evaluating universal screening with community-oriented collaboration on students’ receipt of social, emotional, and behavioral intervention. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 30(2), 183–209. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10474412.2019.1654882

228 School-Wide Programs Bruhn, A. L., Woods-Groves, S., & Huddle, S. (2014). A preliminary investigation of emotional and behavioral screening practices in K-12 schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 37, 611–634. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2014.0039 Burke, L. A., Wasserman, D., Carli, V., Corcoran, P., Keeley, H., . . . & Varik, A. (2013). A cost effectiveness analysis of four arms of a school-based mental health intervention in Europe. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1, S198–S199. Clark, A. G., & Dockweiler, K. A. (2019). Multi-tiered systems of support in secondary schools: The defnitive guide to effective implementation and quality control. New York: Routledge. Dowdy, E., Ritchey, K., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2010). School-based screening: A population-based approach to inform and monitor children’s mental health needs. School Mental Health, 2, 166–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12310-010-9036-3 Dvorsky, M. R., Girio-Herrera, E., & Owens, J. S. (2014). School-based screening for mental health in early childhood. In Handbook of school mental health (pp. 297–310). New York: Springer. Eklund, K., & Dowdy, E. (2014). Screening for behavioral and emotional risk versus traditional school identifcation methods. School Mental Health, 6(1), 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-013-9109-1 Eklund, K., Koriakin, T. A., Chafouleas, S. M., & Dodge, S. C. F. (2020b). Trauma screening and assessment. In E. Rossen (Ed.), Supporting and educating traumatized students: A guide for school-based professionals (2nd ed., pp. 325–341). New York: Oxford University Press. Eklund, K., Meyer, L., Splett, J., & Weist, M. (2020c). Policies and practices to support school mental health. In B. Levin & A. Hanson (Eds.), Foundations of behavioral health (chapter 7). New York: Springer. Eklund, K., & Rossen, E. (2016). Guidance for trauma screening in schools. Delmar, NY: The National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice. Franklin, C. G. S., Kim, J. S., Ryan, T. N., Kelly, M. S., & Montgomery, E. I. (2012). Teacher involvement in school mental health interventions: A systemic review. Children and Youth Services Review, 14(5), 973–982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. childyouth.2012.01.027 Goodman-Scott, E., Betters-Bubon, J., & Donohue, P. (2019). The school counselor’s guide to multi-tiered systems of support. New York: Routledge. Humphrey, N., & Wigelsworth, M. (2016). Making the case for universal schoolbased mental health screening. Emotional and Behavioral Diffculties, 21(1), 22–42. Kamphaus, R. W., DiStefano, C., Dowdy, E., Eklund, K., & Dunn, A. R. (2010). Determining the presence of a problem: Comparing two approaches for detecting youth behavioral risk. School Psychology Review, 39, 395–407. Kilgus, S. P., & Eklund, K. (2016). Consideration of base rates within universal screening for behavioral and emotional risk: A novel procedural framework. School Psychology Forum, 10, 120–130. Kilgus, S. P., & von der Embse, N. P. (2014). Social, Academic, and Emotional Behavior Risk Screener (SAEBRS). Minneapolis, MN: Theodore J. Christ & Colleagues. Kuo, E., & Stoep, A. (2009). Cost-effectiveness of a school-based emotional health screening program. Journal of School Health, 79, 277–285. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00410.x

Universal Mental Health Screening 229 LeBuffe, P. A., Shapiro, V. B., & Robitaille, J. L. (2018). The Devereux Student Strengths Assessment (DESSA) comprehensive system: Screening, assessing, planning, and monitoring. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 55, 62–70. Margherio, S. M., Evans, S. W., & Owens, J. S. (2019). Universal screening in middle and high schools: Who falls through the cracks? School Psychology, 34(6), 591–602. http://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000337 McGrath, B. (2010). Mental health in schools: Serving the whole child. Communiqué, 39(4), 8–10. Miller, F. G., Chafouleas, S. M., Welsh, M. E., Riley-Tillman, T. C., & Fabiano, G. A. (2019). Examining the stability of social, emotional, and behavioral risk status: Implications for screening frequency. School Psychology, 34(1), 43. Minderman, J., & Brann, K. (2019). Universal screening of mental health: An investigation of procedures and barriers to implementation. Poster session presented at NASP Convention, Atlanta, GA. National Center for School Mental Health (NCSMH). (2020). School Mental Health Quality Guide: Screening. NCSMH, University of Maryland School of Medicine. Owens, J. S., Storer, J., Holdaway, A. S., Serrano, V. J., Watabe, Y., Himawan, L. K., . . . & Andrews, N. (2015). Screening for social, emotional, and behavioral problems at kindergarten entry: Utility and incremental validity of parent report. School Psychology Review, 44(1), 21–40. Pendergast, L., von der Embse, N. P., Kilgus, S. P., & Eklund, K. (2017). Measurement equivalence in school psychology research: A primer and illustrated example of multi-group confrmatory factor analysis for non-statisticians. Journal of School Psychology, 60, 65–82. Reinke, W. M., Stormont, M., Herman, K. C., Puri, R., & Goel, N. (2011). Supporting children’s mental health in schools: Teacher perceptions of needs, roles, and barriers. School Psychology Quarterly, 26(1), 1–13. Romer, N., von der Embse, N., Eklund, K., Kilgus, S., Perales, K., Splett, J. W., Suldo, S., & Wheeler, D. (2019). Best practices in universal screening for social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes: An implementation guide. Retrieved from https://smhcollaborative.org/universalscreening/ Schulz, H., Young, K., & Zahn, M. (2020). Building capacity: How you can make mental health screening work at your school. Mini-skills Session presented at the convention of the National Association of School Psychologists, Baltimore, MD. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach (HHS Publication No. 14–4884). Rockville, MD: SAMHSA. Tanner, N., Eklund, K., Kilgus, S. P., & Johnson, A. H. (2018). Generalizability of universal screening measures for behavioral and emotional risk. School Psychology Review, 47(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-2017-0044.V47-1 Tolan, P. H., & Dodge, K. A. (2005). Children’s mental health as a primary care and concern: A system for comprehensive support and service. American Psychologist, 60(6), 601. von der Embse, N. P., Kilgus, S. P., Eklund, K., Ake, E., & Levi-Nielsen, S. (2018). Training teachers to facilitate early identifcation of mental and behavioral health risks. School Psychology Review, 42(4), 372–384. https://www.tandfonline. com/doi/full/10.17105/SPR-2017-0094.V47-4

230 School-Wide Programs von der Embse, N. P., Kim, E., Kilgus, S., Dedrick, R., & Sanchez, A. (2019). Multiinformant universal screening: Evaluation of rater, item, and construct variance with a trifactor model. Journal of School Psychology, 77, 52–66. Zirkel, P. A. (2019). Revisiting the PPRA: An amended answer. Communiqué, 47(7), 16–17.

13 Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS)

Be kind and have courage. ~ Anne Frank

Program Description and Benefts Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is a data-driven, educational approach to discipline that teaches expected school behaviors. PBIS teams implement school-wide programs to reduce disciplinary referrals and increase prosocial behavior. Teams conduct training for their entire school staff and students, who buy into the PBIS program, values, and strategies. PBIS is designed to identify and reinforce positive student behavior by continuously teaching about expected behaviors in various school settings. PBIS generally reduces discipline problems and promotes a positive school climate with more time for learning, a greater sense of safety, and improved academic outcomes. PBIS provides an effective alternative to punitive and inconsistent behavior management (Sugai, 2009; Sugai & Horner, 2006, 2009). Outcomes: Social Competence and Academic Achievement The interaction of multiple program components provides desired social competence and academic achievement (see Figure 13.1). Analysis of systems, data, and practices presents multiple sources of program effectiveness. Systems. What we do to support school staff: Team-based leadership, coaching, data-based decision-making protocols, procedures and materials developed for implementing assessment and practices, active supervision protocols Data. How we determine needs, monitor progress, and inform decisions: Climate surveys, offce disciplinary referrals, academic and behavior screening, attendance and tardy data, bullying reports and locations, frequency of nurse/counselor contacts, fdelity checklists and observations

232 School-Wide Programs

Figure 13.1 Outcomes From Interaction of Multiple Social Competence and Academic Achievement Program Components: Systems, Data, and Practices Source: Adapted from “The Evolution of Discipline Practices: School-Wide Positive Behavior Supports” (Sugai & Horner, 2002, Haworth Press/Routledge)

Practices. What we do to support students: Three to fve defned school-wide behavior expectations, procedures for teaching and acknowledging expectations, procedures for discouraging problem behaviors and reinforcing replacement behaviors, procedures for using data to develop targeted interventions Adapted from OSEP Technical Assistance Center for PBIS (https://www.pbis.org/topics/school-wide)

PBIS Within a Multi-Tiered System of Supports PBIS is a multi-tiered approach to positive behavior and prevention that complements and can be integrated with an overarching Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS). Description of activities at each tier: •

At Tier 1, the universal, school-wide program and strategies support the stated behavior expectations and values uniquely developed by each school. PBIS actively teaches students expected behaviors in a

PBIS 233

•

•

variety of school settings, such as classrooms, hallways, cafeteria, library, and school bus and acknowledges prosocial behavior. Schools determine how expected behavior will be reinforced and how the classrooms and school will recognize and celebrate achieving behavioral goals. The PBIS team collects data that informs decisions regarding strategies to address areas needing improvement. Universal screening is used to select from a continuum of evidence-based interventions. Baseline data is a starting point for continued progress monitoring to determine effectiveness of strategies and necessary adjustments At Tier 2 there are targeted, individualized programs and interventions for students needing more attention. Students having identifed problems follow a process that can begin with indicators of problem behavior, a referral, or request for assistance. Teams connect students to a range of targeted, often group-based interventions. A continuum of supports can address social skills, problem-solving skills, and coping skills or provide interventions for students experiencing anxiety, depression, or reactions to trauma, according to need. Collected data indicates the nature, extent, and progress of these targeted behavioral interventions. Strategies can include Check-In/Check-Out (CICO), Functional Behavior Assessments (FBAs) and Behavior Intervention Plans (BIPs), academic tutoring, mentoring, individual counseling or support groups, helpful apps, and/or other programs to re-teach and reinforce behavioral goals (Ross & Sabey, 2014) Tier 3 has intensive interventions for students and families most at risk and needing referral for treatment and community resources. Whether or not there is an IEP, there can be active case management by a Student Support Team that specializes in coordinating and monitoring treatment plans for the most severe cases (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019). The support team also monitors implementation fdelity data and intervention outcomes, and provides ongoing coaching, professional development, and technical assistance for staff. Partnerships with community mental health agencies, hospitals, and resources at the Tier 3 level can provide a smooth transition to vital resources, often in times of crisis. It is emphasized that for PBIS to be effective, a PBIS team must exert active leadership and school staff must be involved in supporting the program and modeling expected behaviors for students (Sugai, 2009; Sugai & Horner, 2006, 2009) Adapted from pbis.org

Behavioral and Academic Interventions Using MTSS While this chapter and book focus on social-emotional and behavioral aspects of school safety and mental health, Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) and other school-wide approaches emphasize the mutually supportive blend of both academic and behavioral

234

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interventions under a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) (see Figure 13.2). Problem-solving teams at Tiers 1, 2, and 3 can be integrated, or each team can be a subgroup or action team from a larger PBIS team functioning within an MTSS framework. Consistent with this book’s focus on social-emotional-behavioral (SEB), rather than academic interventions, the following is a non-exhaustive list of behavioral system of supports options at each tier: Tier 1 – Universal Interventions (80–90%) • • • • • •

• • • •

• • • •

All students, all settings, proactive and preventive interventions Continuum of social-emotional and behavioral (SEB) Multi-Tiered System of Supports Faculty, student, family, and community involvement, and suffcient school-based mental health professionals PBIS teams and stakeholders create a mission and vision that refect the values and expectations of the school community Behavior expectations (3–5) and rules are defned and explicitly taught in a variety of school settings Precision statements are ways of describing in detail observed problem behaviors, including their frequency, location or grade levels, days, and times, and hypotheses regarding the function of the behavior in order to develop an intervention plan to solve the problem Problem behaviors are defned and educational, inclusionary discipline polices are developed Emphasis on data-based decision making to identify, locate, and equitably respond to problem behaviors School-wide and classroom PBIS include evidence-based approaches that teach and acknowledge school values and behavior expectations Positive school climate programs and interventions such as student– staff relationships, violence and bullying prevention and intervention, suicide prevention, threat and risk assessments, social skills instruction, peer mediation, confict resolution and restorative practices, character education Universal social-emotional, behavioral and mental health screening and follow-up Culturally responsive and prosocial values and norms encouraged and acknowledged Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) lessons taught and integrated into academic curriculum school-wide Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS) awareness and strategies applied school-wide and incorporated into classroom teaching and behavior management

PBIS

Source: Adapted from “Behaviorally Effective School Environments” (Sugai, Horner, & Gresham, 2002, National Association of School Psychologists)

235

Figure 13.2 School-Wide Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS): Sample Tiered Behavioral and Academic Interventions

236 School-Wide Programs • • • •

Positive Behavior Game or Good Behavior Game is a group format to explicitly teach, remind, and acknowledge prosocial and cooperative behavior Interventions and strategies to promote student, family, and community engagement in supporting cultural responsiveness and prosocial values and norms Ongoing professional learning communities (PLCs) and professional development for teachers with follow-up coaching and consultation Data is collected and evaluated to ensure program fdelity and desired outcomes at least annually

Tier 2 – Selected Interventions (5–15%) • • • • • • • • • • • •

Targeted students who are at risk Access to Tier 1 interventions, including targeted re-teaching and frequent reinforcement of behavior expectations and values Request for Assistance form is available, followed by rapid response using high effciency small group and individual interventions Daily Progress Report (DPR) is used to support a student needing extra attention, with reminders on the form listing school behavior expectations and brief, specifc positive strategies Screening is available for more specifc identifcation of at-risk student needs Response to Intervention (RtI) for behavioral needs Individual and small group targeted skill and support groups such as anger management, behavior contracting, behavior monitoring Individual and small group confict resolution and restorative practices education Individual mentoring and coaching for positive behaviors, including strategies such as Check-In/Check-Out (CICO) Functional Behavior Assessments (FBA) and Behavior Intervention Plans (BIP) based on behavior science Problem-solving team designed interventions matched to student need, with data-based decision making and progress monitoring Evidence-based trauma intervention: • • • • • • •

Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (CBITS) (grades 5–12) cbitsprogram.org Bounce Back (K–5) bouncebackprogram.org (includes parent sessions) Youth Prevention Programs (Kaiser) Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) Support for Students Exposed to Trauma (SSET) Incredible Years Check-In/Check-Out (CICO)

PBIS • • • • • • •

237

Designate and teach how to access a calm zone or safe space that students can seek to help them regulate emotions Family and parenting involvement and educational opportunities to support positive behavior Counseling by school-based mental health professionals or community agencies Drug, substance, and alcohol abuse education Truancy and dropout reduction and outreach Data collection and evaluation of Tier 2 practices periodically and examination of fdelity data and desired outcomes at least annually Ongoing professional development for teachers on managing challenging behaviors, classroom management, conflict de-escalation

Tier 3 – Intensive Interventions and Treatment (1–5%) • • • • • • • • •

Individual students using assessment-based, intense, and durable procedures Access to Tier 1 and Tier 2 interventions as needed Behavior Intervention Plan and contracting Student Support Team problem solving and designed interventions with data-based decision making and progress monitoring Social-emotional, behavioral, and mental health screening for more specifc identifcation of needs, including clinical disorders Individual Education Plans (IEPs) with social-emotional-behavioral goals Wraparound services and treatment, including student, family, and community involvement Comprehensive supports, including formal and natural supports Evidence-based treatments: • • • • • •

• • • •

Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF–CBT) CBITS Bounce Back Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Coping Cat (anxiety) Keeping Your Cool (anger)

Family group conferencing Cooperate with community service providers and coordinate services Professional development that enhances educator cultural equity, trauma-informed practice, and effectiveness working with students having intense behavior and emotional needs Alternative schooling

238 • •

School-Wide Programs Residential or outpatient therapeutic treatment as needed Data collection and evaluation of Tier 3 programs and practices, including evaluation of fdelity and desired outcomes at least annually

Note: This list of potential interventions is not exhaustive.

ISF Integrates PBIS With Mental Health Services The PBIS website (www.pbis.org/topics/mental-healthsocial-emotionalwell-being) addressing service delivery advocates establishing an integrated system of social-emotional and behavioral supports in schools. It identifes the Interconnected Systems Framework (ISF), introduced in Chapter 3, as an emerging approach to blend PBIS with mental health service delivery. The blend of PBIS with ISF can be implemented and aligned within the tiered MTSS framework. The PBIS website provides a useful monograph titled Advancing Education Effectiveness: Interconnecting School Mental Health and School-Wide Positive Behavior Support (Barrett, Eber, & Weist, 2013). Foundational elements of ISF describe an integrated approach to mental health and behavioral wellbeing in schools: • • • •

Single system of service delivery Access to mental health support for all students Progress monitoring defnes evidence of student success Implementation guided by core features of MTSS

Single System of Service Delivery One set of integrated teams with decision-making authority to ensure: • • •

School and community mental health providers participate in the design, implementation, and evaluation of evidence-based behavioral and social-emotional programs and practices at every tier Consistency across the state, district, and schools with similar crosssystem teams Specialized roles work together on prevention and use evidencebased programs at every tier applying school and community data

Access to Mental Health Support for All Students Mental health support is available for all students in need, while socialemotional and behavioral skills are explicitly taught and reinforced by all staff, across all settings, and embedded in curricula, consistent with the tenets of PBIS and Social and Emotional Learning (SEL). As pointed

PBIS

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out in Chapter 5, cultural competence helps ensure that the range and capacity of mental health services refect community needs. Access can be increased by the way services are provided and promoted at school, ensuring services and materials are available in languages used by students and families, considering student and family access to technology, and incorporating cultural healing traditions into provided services. Progress Monitoring Defnes Evidence of Student Success PBIS teams measure success of implemented practices to attain specifc goals by tracking fdelity and monitoring outcomes for students and families. Teams make adjustments or implement new programs when desired outcomes are not achieved. Periodic data collection and analysis inform individual and program success and team decision making. Implementation Guided by Core Features of MTSS • • • • • • •

Representative teams include all stakeholders, including students, families, and the community Continuum of evidence-based interventions linked across tiers Data-driven decision making at every tier to monitor and improve effectiveness Formal process for selecting and implementing evidence-based programs and practices Comprehensive universal screening for early access to academic, behavioral, and mental health interventions Progress monitoring for both fdelity of implementation and effectiveness of outcomes Ongoing professional development and follow-up coaching, consultation, and collaborative planning to guide implementation Adapted from pbis.org

Interconnected Systems Framework 201 is a resource that teaches core features for using ISF to integrate PBIS and mental health services: • •

•

Establish one set of integrated teams. Seek opportunities to expand or merge existing teams having similar goals Use data to assess current mental health and PBIS systems. An integrated team should evaluate school and community data to determine how to meet all student needs and establish measurable goals, including mental health outcomes. Data should be reviewed prior to the start of the school year to help teams strengthen school-wide prevention efforts Identify an integrated screening process. Adopt a comprehensive universal screening process that integrates mental and behavioral health

240 School-Wide Programs •

Allocate professional development resources. Develop training and coaching that aligns goals and resources to increase staff knowledge of social-emotional and behavioral interventions and their roles within the interconnected system Adapted from pbis.org

School-Wide PBIS (SWPBIS) Cultural Responsiveness The OSEP Technical Assistance Center for Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) has designed the PBIS Cultural Responsiveness Field Guide: Resources for Trainers and Coaches (Leverson, Smith, McIntosh, Rose, & Pinkelman, 2019), seeking to systematically implement culturally responsive practices that enhance equity in school discipline. The authors advocate that rather than being applied as a separate program within PBIS, cultural responsiveness should be woven into the fabric of all PBIS implementation efforts and practices. The guide components provide a great opportunity for positive change, equity, and wellbeing for all students and educators. Leverson and colleagues (2019) stated that a positive school culture refects a shared vision of common values, beliefs, and behavior expectations. They pointed out that students who are not from the dominant culture can experience a school environment that exposes them to unintentional slights, devaluing their backgrounds and diminishing their school connectedness. School environments can either engage students and affrm their identities and cultures, or disengage them. Cultural Responsiveness and the Core Components of SWPBIS Leverson and colleagues asserted that SWPBIS principles can be used to change school cultures and systems to enhance educational equity. Cultural responsiveness can be created within core components of SWPBIS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Identity awareness Voice Supportive environment Situational appropriateness Data for equity

Identity Awareness In culturally responsive systems, school staff must be aware of their personal cultures and values and how they affect the school environment. The projection of these cultures and values can either engage or disengage the students and families they serve. Engagement can increase when school staff not only understand their own cultural identities but also understand and validate the

PBIS 241 cultures of their students, families, and school communities. Practitioners can gain an understanding of student and family identity by respectfully exploring students’ backgrounds, cultures, and values. An example of cultural understanding is knowing the meaning of the tribe or nation for an American Indian/Alaska Native student (Leverson et al., 2019). Educator teams can also explore their school’s community identity, including people’s varied beliefs, values, and expectations. School staff can connect with community agencies and attend community events. Teams can examine groups in the community and whether past experiences have strained relationships and negated value for education. Positive or negative community feedback can inform educators on how to meet their educational mission and goals. Initiating identity awareness can be supported using the Tiered Fidelity Inventory (TFI) Cultural Responsiveness Companion. Team efforts can be maximized through an action plan that systemically embeds identity awareness and cultural responsiveness into structures that support daily practices. Improved outcomes require that staff be provided support, resources, and time to engage in identity awareness (Leverson et al., 2019). SWPBIS is essentially a framework for programs and practices that ft the needs of students, families, and staff (Sugai, O’Keefe, & Fallon, 2012). The framework’s focus on systems, teaming, and data-based decision making is an ideal structure for embedding the core components of cultural responsiveness (Leverson et al., 2019). TECHNICAL AND ADAPTIVE CHANGE

When embarking on systems change, there are two types of change to consider: technical and adaptive (Heifetz, Grashow, & Linsky, 2009). Technical change involves learning and using new strategies or tools that are important but may not refect deeper change. Adaptive change involves values, beliefs, roles, relationships, and work approaches – changes in not only routines but also mindsets. After adaptive change, staff is more likely to understand and take responsibility to educate all students, including systems change that supports students of color and other underserved groups. Without changing school climate and belief systems, new practices may become routines without becoming tools for meaningful change (Leverson et al., 2019). PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND IDENTITY AWARENESS

Professional development (PD) can enhance the culturally responsive component Identity Awareness by including the following practices: •

A long-term PD plan that includes implementing the SWPBIS framework, the fve cultural responsiveness core components, and enhanced equity

242 School-Wide Programs • • • •

Select PD based on student and system outcome data Partnerships of school teams with community supports and families, using PD to orient educators to community cultures, values, and historical perspectives such as marginalization from schooling Procedures created by school teams to provide educators with explicit training and practice in specifc skills to enhance equity and examine implicit bias Procedures created by school teams to provide educators with training and practice in de-escalation skills, confict resolution, and restorative justice Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

Voice TEAM COMPOSITION AND VOICE

SWPBIS leadership teams actively stimulate ownership, voice, and broad family and community representation. While teams must be small enough for effciency, family voice is critical and can be represented using subcommittees (Leverson et al., 2019). Team composition can enhance the culturally responsive component Voice by including the following practices: • • • • •

Family/student subcommittees or access to grade-level family subcommittees on school teams Family/student representatives’ roles are clearly outlined, defned, and understood by all team members Families share ownership of system components, including celebrations and acknowledgments Families are representatives of the community and assist in reporting team discussions and data to stakeholders Family feedback is sought regarding processes such as school hiring and policies Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

FACULTY INVOLVEMENT AND VOICE

School staff engages in all universal practices at Tier 1, accepting system ownership and responsibility for sustaining effective practices for all students (Leverson et al., 2019). Faculty involvement can enhance the culturally competent component Voice by including the following practices: •

A process for school teams to facilitate two-way communication between school administration, the leadership team, and faculty that includes culturally responsive teaching

PBIS • • •

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School teams facilitate procedures for fellow staff to actively plan and deliver culturally responsive school-wide activities Regular acknowledgment for the participation of school staff in SWPBIS School teams collect feedback at least annually, and use staff, student, and family suggestions for Tier 1 systems (surveys available on pbis.org) Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

STUDENT/FAMILY/COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT AND VOICE

School teams view partnerships with students, families, and the community as vital for improved student outcomes and actively seek the voices and experiences of underserved populations to assure collaboration and representation (Leverson et al., 2019). School/family/community involvement can enhance the culturally competent component Voice by including the following practices: • • • • •

School teams identify ethnic groups within their communities and develop outreach actions for frequent two-way communication School teams have procedures to inform and actively engage families and community members in volunteer opportunities in school such as school-wide or classroom orientations or celebrations School teams actively seek, at least annually, feedback regarding stakeholder perceptions of and suggestions for Tier 1 supports School teams have procedures that connect stakeholders and community resources to Tier 1 supports and increase student and family access to resources that address all ethnic groups. School teams share information with stakeholders in multiple languages and delivery modes such as written, audio, and visual Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

Supportive Environment TEAM OPERATING PROCEDURES AND SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT

School teams take responsibility to analyze system data for needed changes, developing procedures and structures that promote data-based decision making and communication that enables stakeholders to have input (Leverson et al., 2019). Team operating procedures can enhance the culturally responsive component Supportive Environment by including the following practices: •

School teams focus on system change, rather than student change, and engage in open conversations about ethnicity/race and effects of practices on all groups

244 • • •

School-Wide Programs School teams share meeting minutes, goals, data, and decisions with stakeholders School teams establish ongoing, timely procedures for students, families, and community members to share questions, concerns, or needs School teams regularly review procedures to make certain they are utilized, effective, and equitable for all stakeholders Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

DISCIPLINE POLICIES AND SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT

School teams apply an instructional approach to discipline and equitable policies that emphasize teaching expected behaviors and social skills, rather than exclusionary, punitive discipline (Leverson et al., 2019). Discipline policies can enhance the culturally responsive component Supportive Environment by including the following practices: •

• •

•

School teams and staff review discipline policies, ensuring that inclusionary, educational practices are the norm, while exclusionary, punitive practices are carefully used for safety purposes only and include an instructional component School teams seek input from families and the community on discipline policies, trying to align them with community expectations School teams develop procedures for staff to respond to negative behavior by re-teaching skills such as code-switching – speaking or behaving differently in different settings like the neighborhood or school, with added practice, acknowledgment, and restored relationships School teams work with local law enforcement, emphasizing positive interactions with students, rather than only threatening responses to problem behaviors Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

CLASSROOM PROCEDURES AND SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT

School teams support teachers implementing SWPBIS in their classrooms, with routines and expectations explicitly taught to students and connected in meaningful ways to school-wide systems and their lives, bringing histories, cultures, and home languages of all students into the classroom environment, curricula, and instructional practices every day (Leverson et al., 2019). Classroom procedures can enhance the culturally responsive component Supportive Environment by including the following practices: •

Classroom teachers can post images of successful people from all racial groups to counter stereotypes

PBIS • • •

• •

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Culturally specifc libraries contributed by families can allow students to see themselves and their experiences in classroom images and materials Classroom teachers can encourage students to share their culture and history Classroom teachers can use transition signals such as song lyrics, call and response, motor breaks, and a range of developmentally and content-appropriate instructional methods such as whole group discussions and cooperative group activities Classroom teachers can use the Validate, Affrm, Build, & Bridge (VABB) approach, a program that is proactive and responsive to cultural issues, teaching, and learning Classroom teachers can regularly have positive, two-way conversations with families about classroom procedures and student progress using multiple languages and delivery modes, including written, audio, and visual Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

FEEDBACK AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT AND SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT

School teams encourage staff, students, families, and communities to develop and use meaningful and authentic acknowledgment systems, considering the culture of students when designing such acknowledgments as the chance to share success with friends, and understanding that new skills such as code-switching require added reinforcement (Leverson et al., 2019). Feedback and acknowledgment can enhance the culturally responsive component Supportive Environment by including the following practices: • • •

•

School teams seek feedback, at least annually, from students, families, and the community about preferences for acknowledgment and reinforcement systems School teams seek input from community connections for the acknowledgment system, such as the use of reinforcements in settings like restaurants School teams assess, multiple times during the school year, racial/ ethnic equity in acknowledgment systems such as rewards used consistently and with all student groups, using assessment tools such as the Tiered Fidelity Inventory (TFI) Walkthrough, or the Stakeholder Input and Satisfaction Survey School teams audit the frequency and use of acknowledgment and feedback during the process of re-teaching students having multiple referrals Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

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Situational Appropriateness BEHAVIOR EXPECTATIONS AND SITUATIONAL APPROPRIATENESS

School-wide expectations are a brief set of 3–5 positive words or phrases, for example Be Safe – Be Respectful – Be Responsible, that help create a clear, consistent school culture that teaches social-emotional competencies. A culturally responsive framework can be taught and learned with a focus on high standards for all students (Leverson et al., 2019). Behavior expectations can enhance the culturally responsive component Situational Appropriateness by including the following practices: • • • • •

School teams provide the staff and community with opportunities to examine and provide input about school-wide expectations and rules School teams examine expectations to ensure they are unbiased and universal Families and students are provided opportunities annually to examine and give feedback on school-wide expectations and rules before implementation Family and student orientation materials include school-wide expectations and rules and statements on possible differences between school and home School staff model expectations, often referring to them in daily interactions Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

TEACHING EXPECTATIONS AND SITUATIONAL APPROPRIATENESS

School teams develop procedures to ensure educators understand that all students need explicit teaching that clarifes school-wide expectations, includes practice of expected behaviors with performance feedback, and reduces misunderstanding about appropriate behaviors in school (Leverson et al., 2019). Teaching expectations can enhance the culturally responsive component Situational Appropriateness by including the following practices: • • • • •

When teaching “expectations” lessons, school teams and staff can incorporate student life experiences and values School teams can examine rules for values of the dominant culture that require explicit teaching about its need and how to teach it to all students School teams and staff can give students a chance to talk about their expectations at home and how they are similar or different from school School staff can explicitly teach and provide opportunities for all students to practice code-switching School teams can request feedback on lesson plans from staff, students, families, and community members

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School teams can invite family and community members to teach behavior expectations School staff can use the Validate, Affrm, Build, and Bridge (VABB) approach or other strategies to recognize and respect prior learning School teams and staff can give materials to families, affording an opportunity to defne and teach behavior expectations that ft their needs at home Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

PROBLEM BEHAVIOR DEFINITIONS AND SITUATIONAL APPROPRIATENESS

School teams and staff can understand and take responsibility for teaching explicit defnitions of situationally appropriate, wanted behavior versus universally unacceptable, unwanted behavior that help students and staff clarify objective response to inappropriate behavior without devaluing what may be acceptable at home or in the community (Leverson et al., 2019). Problem behavior defnitions can enhance the culturally responsive component Situational Appropriateness by including the following practices: • •

School teams can request feedback on problem behavior defnitions, especially more subjective ones like “defance” or “disrespect,” from staff, students, families, and community members School teams work with staff, developing behavior categories that include staff-managed, offce-managed, and situationally appropriate behaviors refected by data that transform forced-choice T-charts to more informational pi-charts Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

Data for Equity DISCIPLINE DATA AND DATA FOR EQUITY

School teams having access to current, reliable data are better able to make accurate decisions regarding staff and student instruction and support, including regular disaggregation of discipline data to assess and monitor student outcome equity from a systems perspective, before viewing it as an individual student or family issue (Leverson et al., 2019). Discipline data can enhance the culturally responsive component Data for Equity by including the following practices: • •

School teams can disaggregate their core report data by race/ethnicity and disability status quarterly School teams can calculate multiple disproportionality metrics such as risk ratios for offce discipline referrals, suspensions, achievement indicators, and special education placement at least quarterly

248 •

School-Wide Programs School teams can examine disaggregated data for trends to identify specifc situations – behaviors, locations, time of day when behavior problems and disproportionality are more likely to happen Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

DATA-BASED DECISION MAKING AND DATA FOR EQUITY

School teams can regularly collect data to problem solve and identify effective, effcient, targeted, and durable solutions – data-based decisions can focus on equity, and school teams and staff can take responsibility for outcomes of all students (Leverson et al., 2019). Data-based decision making can enhance the culturally responsive component Data for Equity by including the following practices: • • •

School teams can develop procedures for data to often be shared with stakeholders to get their input School teams can examine data for patterns indicating a need for systemic change rather than student intervention School teams can develop action plans to address concerning patterns with short-term immediate response and long-term information gathering and professional development solutions Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

FIDELITY DATA AND DATA FOR EQUITY

School teams assess fdelity of implementation of the core components of SWPBIS and identify next steps, which include teams, staff, and stakeholders being committed to enhance implementation regarding equity of all student outcomes (Leverson et al., 2019). Fidelity data can enhance the culturally responsive component Data for Equity by including the following practices: •

• •

School teams can collect additional data during site visits or evaluations via the School-Wide Evaluation Tool (www.PBISApps.org) or the SWPBIS Tiered Fidelity Inventory (TFI) (Algozzine et al., 2014; www. pbis.org), making certain to ensure the representativeness of interviewees and assess evidence of cultural imaging during observations School teams collect and use perceptions and input from students, families, and community members regarding implementation fdelity for ongoing improvement School teams collect feedback in multiple languages and delivery modes such as written, audio, and visual Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

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ANNUAL EVALUATION AND DATA FOR EQUITY

School teams and staff understand their critical role and are accountable to the stakeholders and communities they serve, using annual evaluation procedures to engage a wide, representative range of stakeholders in two-way conversations about goals and progress (Leverson et al., 2019). Annual evaluation can enhance the culturally responsive component Data for Equity by including the following practices: • • • •

School teams can report patterns of disaggregated data to show effectiveness of the system for all students and compare trends with the school vision School teams can actively request and incorporate evaluation feedback from family and community members School teams can present annual evaluation results through community outreach and discussion sessions Annual evaluation results can be made available in multiple languages and delivery modes such as written, audio, and visual Adapted from Leverson et al. (2019)

Brandywine School District Case Study: An Integrated Approach Major tiered models such as MTSS or PBIS can be used as overarching frameworks within which other frameworks, programs, and practices can be integrated. School leadership teams can decide how they want to confgure their systems and programs. Whatever the framework, components of evidencebased interventions that address identifed needs can be integrated within it. Pell and Carroll (2019) presented suggestions to effectively integrate and align programs and interventions: • • • • • • •

Use data to identify and select programs to integrate Create an Integration Action Plan with a realistic, deliberate timeline to coordinate thoughtful program implementation and integration Identify key components of each intervention or program to be integrated Identify areas that share common aims, goals, and practices that can be consolidated Identify differences in key components and decide if these enhance one another or should be modifed or negotiated Identify programs or practices that are redundant and decide how best to consolidate and streamline them for effciency and effectiveness Identify needs that are not being addressed by current programs and practices and decide how to incorporate evidence-based interventions that cover the gaps

250 • •

School-Wide Programs Use data to evaluate programming and make needed adjustments to improve and sustain desired outcomes Example: Combining the components of PBIS with the competencies and lessons of SEL can contribute to a positive school climate and decrease emotional problems Adapted from Bear, Whitcomb, Elias, and Blank (2015), Bradshaw, Bottiani, Osher, and Sugai (2014), Whitcomb (2018)

Pell and Carroll (2019) presented recommendations for integrating PBIS and SEL: 1. Commit to coordinated implementation of PBIS and SEL. 2. Obtain school staff and community buy-in. 3. Engage stakeholders to form a leadership or integrated implementation team. 4. Develop a vision for an integrated model, highlighting common components. 5. Conduct a SWOT analysis – Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats – to facilitate a fact-based, data-driven approach to build on what is working well, address what is lacking or needs improvement, take advantage of factors enabling success, and minimize risk factors disabling chances for success. 6. Carefully select SWPBIS and SEL programs, developing and using data and decision-making guidelines. 7. Create an Integration Action Plan with a realistic, deliberate timeline to coordinate thoughtful program implementation and integration. 8. Develop job-embedded professional development activities. 9. Launch SWPBIS and SEL together. 10. Develop an ongoing technical assistance plan. 11. Use data for continuous program evaluation and make needed adjustments to improve and sustain outcomes. Adapted from Bear et al. (2015), Bradshaw et al. (2014), Whitcomb (2018) Note: These recommendations are described in more detail in Chapter 19. A long-term partnership for the integration of service delivery frameworks and programs provides an instructive model for others having similar implementation goals. Megan Pell and Donna Carroll (2019) described the work of a project made possible by a School Climate Transformation Grant (SCTG), which funded the partnership among the Brandywine School District and two other districts, the Delaware Department of Education, and the Delaware Positive Behavior Support Project (DEPBS) (www.delawarepbs.org), joining forces during parts of six school

PBIS 251 years and summers. They worked to achieve the benefts of broad professional development that taught, integrated, and implemented major components of school improvement frameworks and programs, including Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS), Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS), and other complementary programs and practices. The project began with a representative leadership team considering the district’s strategic planning goals, data on existing discipline trends, existing and emerging socioeconomic and poverty trends, and existing equity discussions and school safety and social-emotional programs. A district vision and mission were developed with specifc strategies and activities to 1) support the vision and mission and 2) identify evidence-based programs to be strengthened or integrated and implemented. The following are examples of some of the mission strategies and activities: • •

Provide a safe and healthy learning and working environment to maximize student learning Empower all students to develop character, compassion, civility, and community consciousness

Activities • •

• • •

Critically review each school’s behavior support program and analyze discipline data to determine effectiveness of proactive, equitable, positive character development and behavior Develop a core district team to be trained in implementation of proactive, restorative discipline programs such as No Bully System, Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), Responsive Classroom Research and implement a Compassionate Schools model in all sixteen schools as a means of wraparound support for students identifed as having a barrier to learning caused by chronic emotional trauma Work collaboratively with school Wellness Centers to develop a district wellness policy that supports academic, social, and emotional development Additional activities at individual schools per their unique needs

Pell and Carroll described a thoughtfully planned timeline over the course of parts of six school years (2013–14 through 2018–19) that included professional development, book studies, and implementing programs and practices to support students, educators, families, and communities. Among the stated purposes were integration of programs and practices, professional collaboration, ongoing cycles of training and technical support, consistent administrative leadership and support, and the development of shared

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language, expectations, values, and norms that contribute to student prosocial behavior, mental health, and educational equity. Brandywine Big Timeline: March 2014–February 2019 Year 1. Introducing the topic – communication with schools (3 months) Year 2. Exploring the need for change Year 3. Partnering for a cause Year 4. Getting more intentional Year 5. Getting more systematic School Year #1 (2013–2014) Spring 2014 – Communication With Schools • • • •

District explored the foundational need for Trauma-Informed Schools Statistician employed to defne trends of concern and quantify student differences Book study: The Heart of Learning and Teaching: Compassion, Resiliency, and Academic Success (Wolpow, Johnson, Hertel, & Kincaid, 2011) District-wide professional development (1 day) targeting schoolbased mental health providers • • • •

School counselors School psychologists School social workers Wellness Centers

School Year #2 (2014–2015) Summer 2014 through 2014–2015 – Exploring the Need for Change: Need for Thinking and Doing Differently •

• • •

Study of extensive data demonstrating signifcant increase in low income, marginalized families, African American and ELL students, students with disabilities, including social-emotional needs, and other at-risk students Data on demographics was a catalyst for demonstrating need School Climate Transformation Grant provided momentum for continued activities, professional learning, and development of programs and practices District and school planning for 2015–2016 summer and fall kick-off

School Year #3 (2015–2016) – Partnering for a Cause • •

Summer and fall 2015 kick-off Book study: Excellence Through Equity: Five Principles of Courageous Leadership to Guide Achievement for Every Student (Blankstein, Noguera, & Kelly, 2016)

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Administrators Deans School psychologists School counselors School social workers

Fall – establish a shared initiative to start staff PD and activities focused on becoming a trauma-informed district via memorandums of understanding (MOUs) that included: • •

Brandywine School District (BSD) schools Compassionate Schools Collaborative – provided PD and content • Delaware Courts/Offce of the Child Advocate • Children and Families First (community mental health agency) • Delaware Children’s Department • Nemours Hospital/Health Care

• •

DE-PBS Project – guidance for implementing MTSS framework in all schools Additional data collected and disaggregated to further identify needs and establish baselines to recognize changes in outcomes • • • • •

Foster care involvement School discipline data School attendance data School dropout data Academic achievement scores

School Years #4–6 (2016–2018) School Activities • •

Summer 2016 – start of onsite PD series, continuing through school years PD series topics: • • •

•

Brain Architecture Game – introduction to the Adverse Childhood Experiences study (ACEs) Toxic Trauma and Impact on the Brain Importance of Educator Self-Care

PD series methods and venues: • • •

After school: Faculty meetings, collaborative presenters – mandatory Saturdays: Delaware State Education Association (DSEA) – voluntary Summer: Compassionate Schools, DSEA, DE-PBS Project – voluntary

254 School-Wide Programs • •

Online PD series – Schoology Electronic Platform Online PD series topics: • •

•

Homelessness in Delaware Our Fragile Children (poverty and disabilities)

Online PD series methods and venues: •

Anytime – voluntary

School Year #4 (2016–2017) District Activities – Getting More Intentional •

August 2016 – district-wide, all staff, some linkage to trauma •

•

Fall 2016 – district-level decision •

•

Trauma-related data questions asked in conjunction with the Delaware School Climate Survey

February 2017 – district-wide Compassionate Schools meeting • •

•

Community mental health for struggling students

Administrators Compassionate School Pre-Training Readiness Assessment

MTSS landscape collected – “Therapeutic Survey” • School Climate Team Questionnaires requested information about: • • • • • • •

• • • •

Team members Meeting times Governance of climate efforts Vision Strategic alignment School-wide Tier 1 focus Strategies at Tier 1, 2, and 3

Support staff: National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) Suicide Prevention Refresher for the district crisis response team: PREPaRE School Crisis Prevention and Intervention model and training Onsite PD programming continued with strong staff participation • The inclusion of MTSS language in trauma-related trainings Trauma-related staff survey #1: 8 items using a Likert response scale (To a great extent . . . To some extent . . . To a small extent . . . Not at all) •

Here is a sample of several of the 8 items surveyed: • At this school, students’ exposure to traumatic or adverse events negatively impacts their ability to learn • I received training on trauma and adversity and its impact on students

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When students experience traumatic or adverse events, there is a process to inform staff

School Year #4 (2016–2017) School Activities – Getting More Intentional •

Tier 1 Mindfulness training • • • • •

Staff training Student training Family training Trail training – mindfulness trail designed by elementary school, including travel through woods with planned mindfulness exercise stops Be Calm (consistent with one of an elementary school’s SW expectations)

School Year #5 (2017–2018) District Activities – Getting More Systematic •

Trauma-related staff survey #1: changed to 10 questions using Likert response scale •

• •

2 new questions asked: • I feel comfortable helping students who are experiencing traumatic or adverse events • I feel that my school provides support to me in helping students who are experiencing traumatic or adverse events 1 question dropped: • This school supports the positive wellbeing of staff

District support meeting – attempt #1 (new district leadership)

School Year #5 (2017–2018) School Activities – Getting More Systematic •

More school-specifc Tier 1 programming • • • • • •

School, pastor, and police neighborhood walks Summer symposium (1-day training for schools selected after application process indicating commitment, partnership with Compassionate Schools, trauma-informed practices, and self-care) Mindfulness training in schools Team TRUST book study, Schoology blog, peer-peer support Book study: Fostering Resilient Learners: Strategies for Creating a Trauma-Sensitive Classroom (Souers & Hall, 2016) Book study: Riley the Brave – The Little Cub With Big Feelings!: Help for Cubs Who Had a Tough Start in Life (Sinarski, 2020)

256 •

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Visit strong MTSS model school •

•

Reintegration for fghting – restorative justice

“Neighborhood walk” once per month on Friday after school walk in city community neighborhood – partnering with local police and pastor

School Year #6 (2018–2019) District Activities •

July 2018 – weekend administrator retreat • • •

MTSS Equity conversations Mindfulness practices – continued during the school year

School Year #6 (2018–2019) School Activities •

Summer 2018 – PD for teachers •

•

District-led PD workshops

• CBITS/Bounce Back, Character Climb, Seasons of Respect • Ending the Silence • Mindfulness • Sandy Hook Promise Riley the Brave (Sinarski, 2020)

School Year #6 (2018–2019) 2 Day Fall Kick-Off District-Wide Activities •

Equity presentation by Paul Gorsky • •

•

Brandywine School District DAY OF HOPE, part 1 • • •

•

Book study: Reaching and Teaching Students in Poverty: Strategies for Erasing the Opportunity Gap (Gorski, 2017) All secondary staff

Full day into evening events for teachers, students, families MINDING YOUR MIND – youth speaker who experienced mental health issues Sandy Hook Promise trainings facilitated in schools – Signs of Suicide (SOS), Say Something, Start With Hello

Brandywine School District DAY OF HOPE, part 2 •

Fall Kick-Off PD. Showing of the flm Resilience for all elementary school staff followed by panel discussion with community stakeholders

PBIS 257 Tier 1 panel. Elementary teacher, school nurse, school psychologist • Tier 2 panel. Local pastor who provides mentoring, child psychologist from children’s hospital, community mindfulness instructor • Tier 3 panel. Therapist from children and families community agency Evening event for families: • Highlight events of the day • Inspirational youth speaker • Representatives from community resources •

•

•

New teacher orientation • • •

Introduction to Compassionate Schools model Mindfulness Self-care for educators

School Year #6 (2018–2019) School Activities Continue •

Compassionate Schools Collaborative Test Lab Grants – 8 BSD teachers invited after submitting a readiness application, with technical support/training offered. Test Lab Grants were for: • • • • •

•

Calm Corner Drum Circle Regulation Zones ReVIBE QIGONG

Book studies continue: Teaching With Poverty in Mind: What Being Poor Does to Kids’ Brains and What Schools Can Do About It (Jensen, 2009) •

Tier 1 intervention with staff and peer modeling of approach strategies: • Approaching students with self-regulation in mind • Providing choices and ensuring consistent frst responses

School Year #6 (2018–2019) District Activities Continue •

4-day Restorative practices training with International Institute for Restorative Practices (IIRP) • •

45 key staff trained, including outside agency partners Conversations planned to discuss alignment with other initiatives and implementation

258 School-Wide Programs •

Tier 1 and Tier 2 team leader and administration professional learning community (PLC) • • •

All schools Paid leadership building and programming funds Part of the integration/alignment planning and messaging

Lessons Learned: Integration Must Be Purposeful • • • • •

Collaborative relationships need to be built Vocabulary matters Administrative support and consistency is critical Tools are helpful Bottom line: Be intentional and strategic

Collaborative Relationships Need to Be Built Pell and Carroll reported extensive partnerships among school, district, local community, state, federal, and private organizations, agencies, and programs to establish systems that signifcantly enhance school achievement, emotional, behavioral, and physical health of students, and educational equity for all. Here are some of the group resources partnering to build cooperative, goal-oriented relationships: • • • •

The folks who have the content and training related to trauma and brain science The folks who make structural decisions that provide the infrastructure, resources, and logistics for programs and activities The folks who have the community perspective, with resources that serve the physical, safety, mental health, and spiritual needs of children and families The folks who provide technical assistance with implementation science and MTSS through the PBIS methodology

Vocabulary Matters Pell and Carroll pointed out the importance of understanding the meaning, purposes, and interdependent relationships among frameworks and the shared lens through which programs and practices are connected to them. Vocabulary matters in being able to describe and operationalize: “What this looks like at Tier 1 . . .” “What this looks like at Tier 2 . . .” “What this looks like at Tier 3 . . .”

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Administrative Support and Consistency Is Critical Pell and Carroll emphasized that administrative leadership and consistency are critical when considering: • •

Who has the vision? Building administration buy-in

They also suggested that planners leverage the bigger context: • •

Governor support: Delaware is a mandated “trauma-informed state” Legislation mandating social-emotional and behavioral programming

Tools Are Helpful Pell and Carroll identifed specifc tools that facilitated implementation and evaluation: •

Integration • •

•

Integration Module with Whitcomb Tool Hexagon Tool – evaluates organizational readiness

Trauma •

ARTIC Scale (Attitudes Related to Trauma-Informed Care Scale)

INTEGRATION MODULE WITH THE WHITCOMB TOOL

The Delaware PBS Project has a link for “SEL & SWPBIS Integration,” developed by Sara Whitcomb (2018) and adapted from Bradshaw and colleagues (2014). With a focus on integrating social-emotional learning (SEL) and School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS), the module reviews the two approaches, provides a rationale for integrating and aligning them, and provides practical strategies supporting integration in schools. The module’s purpose is to enhance school professionals’ understanding of these approaches, how they complement one another, and how they can be effectively integrated to support student learning and development. Whitcomb (adapted from Bradshaw et al., 2014) also provided an ongoing technical assistance plan with guided questions such as the following examples: •

What additional supports will be needed for initial installation of practices, for building fuency, for enhancing and adapting fully implemented practices?

260 • • •

School-Wide Programs Are there additional professional development needs for teachers and staff to feel confdent implementing? Are there additional resources, such as time or money, that your building needs to support practices? Are there barriers that will make implementation diffcult? Is there a need to think about reducing goals and/or extending timelines for implementation?

HEXAGON TOOL – EXPLORING CONTEXT

The Hexagon Tool (Metz & Louison, 2019) is a planning measure to evaluate an organization or setting’s implementation readiness for new programs and practices by applying six broad factors: 1) need, 2) ft, 3) capacity, 4) evidence, 5) usability, and 6) supports. Each of these six factors can graphically share pieces of a hexagon, each having detailed criteria to evaluate whether that factor scores high, medium, or low on a rubric during early-stage exploration to determine readiness for implementation. The six components of the Hexagon Tool are described in Chapter 18. ARTIC SCALE (ATTITUDES RELATED TO TRAUMA-INFORMED CARE SCALE)

The ARTIC Scale (Baker, Brown, Wilcox, Overstreet, & Arora, 2016; http://traumaticstressinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/ ARTIC-Webinars-2016_Final.pdf) measures attitudes, favorable and unfavorable, of staff providing trauma-informed care using fve main subscales indicating staff attitudes about: • • • • •

The underlying cause of problem behavior/symptoms (Subscale 1) Staff responses to problem behavior (Subscale 2) Staff on-the-job behavior (Subscale 3) Staff feeling of self-effcacy at work (Subscale 4) Staff reactions to the work (Subscale 5)

Two supplementary subscales indicate attitudes about: • •

Staff members’ personal support of Trauma-Informed Care (TIC) (Subscale 6) System-wide support for TIC (Subscale 7)

Versions of the ARTIC Scale are available for organizations at various stages of implementing Trauma-Informed Care. Results of the ARTIC provide data that can inform program improvement, professional development, and training needs (Baker et al., 2016). ******

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The next chapter focuses on Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), a complementary program featured with PBIS in the Brandywine School District case study.

References Algozzine, B., Barrett, S., Eber, L., George, H., Horner, R., Lewis, T., . . . & Sugai, G. (2014). School-wide PBIS Tiered Fidelity Inventory. OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. Retrieved from www.pbis.org Baker, C. N., Brown, S. M., Wilcox, P. D., Overstreet, S., & Arora, P. (2016). Development and psychometric evaluation of the attitudes related to traumainformed care (ARTIC) scale. School Mental Health, 8(1), 61–76. Barrett, S., Eber, L., & Weist, M. (Eds.). (2013). Advancing education effectiveness: Interconnecting school mental health and school-wide positive behavior support. Center for Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. U.S. Department of Education. Bear, G. G., Whitcomb, S. A., Elias, M. J., & Blank, J. C. (2015). SEL and schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports. In J. T. Gullotta, C. Domitrovich, P. Goren, & R. Weissberg (Eds.). Handbook of social and emotional learning (pp. 453–467). New York: Guilford. Blankstein, A. M., Noguera, P., & Kelly, L. (2016). Excellence through equity: Five principles of courageous leadership to guide achievement for every student. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Bradshaw, C. P., Bottiani, J. H., Osher, D., & Sugai, G. M. (2014). The integration of positive behavioral interventions and supports and social and emotional learning. In M. D. Weist, N. A. Lever, C. P. Bradshaw, & J. S. Owens (Eds.), Handbook of school mental health: Research, training, practice, and policy (pp. 101–118). New York: Springer. Clark, A. G., & Dockweiler, K. A. (2019). Multi-tiered systems of support in secondary schools: The defnitive guide to effective implementation and quality control. New York: Routledge. Gorski, P. C. (2017). Reaching and teaching students in poverty: Strategies for erasing the opportunity gap. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Heifetz, R. A., Grashow, A., & Linsky, M. (2009). The practice of adaptive leadership: Tools and tactics for changing your organization and the world. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Press. Jensen, E. (2009). Teaching with poverty in mind: What being poor does to kids brains and what schools can do about it. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Leverson, M., Smith, K., McIntosh, K., Rose, J., & Pinkelman, S. (2019). PBIS Cultural Responsiveness Field Guide: Resources for trainers and coaches. OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. Retrieved from www.pbis.org Metz, A., & Louison, L. (2019). The Hexagon Tool: Exploring context. Chapel Hill, NC: National Implementation Research Network, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Based on Kiser, Zabel, Zachik, & Smith (2007) and Blase, Kiser, & Van Dyke (2013). Pell, M. M., & Carroll, D. (2019). Growing the good: Strategies for integrating traumainformed practices within a PBIS framework. Presentation at the 16th International Association for Positive Behavior Support, Washington, DC.

262 School-Wide Programs Ross, S. W., & Sabey, C. V. (2014). Check-in check-out + social skills: Enhancing the effects of check-in check-out for students with social skills defcits. Remedial and Special Education, 36(4), 246–257. Sinarski, J. (2020). Riley the brave – The little cub with big feelings!: Help for cubs who had a tough start in life. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Souers, K., & Hall, P. (2016). Fostering resilient learners: Strategies for creating a trauma-sensitive classroom. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Sugai, G. (2009). Reaching all students: RTI & SWPBS [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from w w w. p b i s . o r g / p b i s _ r e s o u r c e _ d e t a i l _ p a g e . aspx?Type=1&PBIS_ResourceID-807 Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2002). The evolution of discipline practices: School-wide positive behavior supports. Child & Family Therapy, 24(1–2), 23–50. Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2006). A promising approach for expanding and sustaining the implementation of school-wide positive behavior support. School Psychology Review, 35, 245–259. Sugai, G., & Horner, R. H. (2009). Defning and describing schoolwide positive behavior support. In W. Sailor, G. Dunlap, G. Sugai, & R. Horner (Eds.), Handbook of positive behavior support (pp. 307–326). New York: Springer. Sugai, G., Horner, R., & Gresham, F. M. (2002). Behaviorally effective school environments. In M. Shinn, H. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavioral problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 315– 350). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Sugai, G., O’Keefe, B. V., & Fallon, L. M. (2012). A contextual consideration of culture and school-wide positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14, 197–208. Whitcomb, S. (2018). Aligning SEL with PBIS efforts. Keynote presentation to the Department of Elementary and Secondary Education PBIS Training Academy, MA. Wolpow, R., Johnson, M. M., Hertel, R., & Kincaid, S. O. (2011). The heart of learning and teaching: Compassion, resiliency, and academic success. Olympia, WA: Washington State Offce of Superintendent of Public Instruction Compassionate Schools.

14 Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)

Joy, feeling one’s own value, being appreciated and loved by others, feeling useful and capable of production are all factors of enormous value for the human soul. ~ Maria Montessori

Program Description and Benefts The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2020) defnes Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) as the process through which children and adults acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities, manage emotions and achieve personal and collective goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain supportive relationships, and make responsible and caring decisions. According to CASEL, many schools are using SEL as a coordinating framework for a partnership of educators, families, and communities to promote social, emotional, and academic learning. SEL can be embedded in school strategic plans and professional learning and integrated into programs, curricula, and classroom instruction to drive school-wide practices, inform educator–student relationships throughout the system, and create a welcoming, caring climate for learning. It is imperative that schools implementing evidence-based SEL programs appropriate for their students and context provide excellent training for administrators, teachers, and support staff. The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) included language that encourages schools to provide staff development and programming that enhance school safety, ensure educational equity, and include socialemotional programming. Clark and Dockweiler (2019) asserted that systematically teaching social-emotional and behavioral (SEB) strategies can increase the likelihood that students will feel connected with school, become more resilient, and lead more meaningful social lives (Aspen Institute, 2018).

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Buchanan, Gueldner, Tran, and Merrell (2009) surveyed teachers’ knowledge, perceptions, and practices related to social-emotional learning in the classroom. They found that many teachers subscribe to the importance of SEL, believe schools should participate, and view training and support from professionals helpful, but feel that current academic demands decrease the opportunity for teaching SEL. This fnding indicates the need for schools to understand the benefts of SEL programs and effcient, best practices for implementing and integrating them. SEL can signifcantly contribute to positive school relationships, with improved discipline, increased prosocial behavior, and reduced bullying (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011; Goldweber, Waasdorp, & Bradshaw, 2013; Nickerson, 2018; Nickerson, Fredrick, Allen, & Jenkins, 2019; Taylor, Oberle, Durlak, & Weissberg, 2017). Among the relevant SEL competencies are self-management, including impulse control and self-discipline; social awareness, including empathy and respect for others; relationship skills, including social engagement and teamwork; and responsible decision making, including solving problems and ethical responsibility. In addition to social competencies, there are specific practices designed to support the goals of SEL. Restorative circles (Amstutz & Mullet, 2014; Armour, 2016; Gonzalez, Sattler, & Buth, 2018; Payne & Welch, 2015; Schiff, 2018; von der Embse, von der Embse, von der Embse, & Levine, 2009) serve as a process that brings together three parties in confict – those who acted, those directly impacted, and the wider community within a systemic context – to dialogue as equals. The process is facilitated by a community member until actions are determined that resolve the confict and bring mutual beneft. The process involves three stages: 1) identify the key factors in the confict, 2) reach agreements on next steps, and 3) evaluate the results. The process invites shared power, mutual understanding, self-responsibility, and effective action (www. restorativecircles.org). Mindfulness practices and programs, described further in Chapter 15, can contribute to student stress management, emotion regulation, and general wellbeing. Movement-based SEL activities designed for the classroom can provide rhythmic, self-soothing exercises that can nurture socialemotional skills such as group cooperation, problem solving, impulse control, self-awareness, creativity, and delayed gratifcation (Dow, 2019). When implementing SEL, there is a need to develop the social-emotional skills of staff members and improve relationships among and between adults and students. Reilly (2018) pointed out that relationships between teachers and students can “serve as scaffolds” to support children struggling with depression and other emotional diffculties so they can develop, practice, and internalize self-regulation skills. These relationships can best exist in a system that values emotional safety and social skill development by providing educators with ongoing professional development and an infrastructure that supports integration of

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social-emotional learning across intervention tiers, educator positions, and academic curricula (Greenberg, Domitrovich, Weissberg, & Durlak, 2017). Examples of SEL programs designed to decrease symptoms of anxiety and depression include: • • •

Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) Social Decision Making/Social Problem Solving RULER Approach

Note: See book Appendix or Online Resource 1 for list of evidencebased SEL and other programs. SEL as a Priority During Pandemics or Ongoing Severe Crises Teachers proactively demonstrated compassion and made accommodations for students. If students were unable to complete their assignments because they needed technology, a device was provided; if students needed to adjust their submission times due to their irregular sleep patterns, changes were made; if students were unable to describe their feelings in advisory or during class, they were provided time to speak with a teacher or a counselor, where they could say as much or as little as they desired. And if a student or family member was directly impacted by COVID, a care package was sent out and follow-up was made. ~ Candace Hughes, Principal of the Urban Assembly School for Collaborative Healthcare

This quote serves as a reminder of the meaning and beneft of SEL, especially during emotionally traumatic times. Key Meta-Analyses and Other Studies Showing Benefts Durlak and colleagues (2011) conducted a meta-analysis of SEL program outcomes involving universal SEL interventions in pre-K through 12th grade. They found signifcant improvements in mental health, socialemotional skills, socially appropriate behavior, positive attitudes, and academic achievement (Durlak et al., 2011). Taylor and colleagues (2017) found in their meta-analysis of schools teaching SEL that gains in academic performance of SEL students compared with non-SEL students were still evident 3.5 years later. They also found more positive social behaviors, fewer conduct problems, and lower drug use. Some studies examined in their analysis also found an increase in high school and college graduation rates (Taylor et al., 2017). Rossen and Cowan (2015) stated that school-wide SEL programs can provide a layer of support for children and adolescents that may prevent or alleviate symptoms of emotional distress, including anxiety. Yang, Bear,

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and May (2018) conducted a quantitative study of associations between engagement in school-wide social-emotional learning and student engagement in classroom environments across elementary, middle, and high schools. They found that supportive classroom environments and positive student–teacher relationships can positively infuence student conduct and engagement in SEL programs. Aidman and Price (2018) conducted a qualitative case study of perceptions toward school-wide implementation of the Second Step SEL program in a middle school. They noted that lessons creatively developed by teachers expanding upon the scripted SEL curriculum were generally well received by their students. Among suggestions generated from their study were for teachers to have a dedicated planning time to implement the SEL program and to creatively integrate SEL competencies into the academic curriculum and normal routines throughout the school day. Low, Cook, Smolkowski, and Desfosses (2019) also studied the impact of the school-wide Second Step SEL program over the course of two years. They found signifcant improvements in SEL competencies in Second Step, compared with non-Second Step schools. Kennedy (2020) conducted a qualitative study of student and educator perceptions of SEL programming. She found a wide array of positive survey responses indicating far-reaching benefts for student and teacher participants. Educators advised that schools must meet various implementation requirements in order to have a successful SEL program. Suggested requirements included professional development, opportunities for implementation planning, collaborative planning with colleagues, a regular schedule of lessons for students, communication of strategies with families, and building the school’s capacity to develop SEL. Kennedy found that, notably, educator opinions varied as to who should deliver SEL instruction. While SEL programs such as Second Step are often implemented by school counselors, school psychologists, and school social workers, CASEL believes it is important for teachers to take responsibility for conducting lessons and incorporating SEL into classroom functions. Responsive Classroom is a longstanding SEL approach implemented by classroom teachers. School-based mental health professionals can play a variety of direct and supportive roles such as instructing students or reinforcing their SEL competencies, training teachers in SEL concepts and practices, and consulting with or coaching educators and teams to effectively implement programs and build skills. CASEL Elaborates on the Competencies of SEL Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), as conceived by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2020), includes fve core competencies taught across diverse settings. These competencies include 1) self-awareness, 2) self-management, 3) social awareness, 4) relationship skills, and 5) responsible decision making. The diverse settings in

Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) 267 which these competencies are expressed are classrooms (using SEL curriculum and instruction), schools (using school-wide practices and policies), and homes and communities (using family and community partnerships). CASEL’s fve SEL competencies are listed here, with defning elements: 1.

Self-awareness a. b. c. d. e.

2.

Self-management a. b. c. d. e. f.

3.

Perspective-taking Empathy Appreciating diversity Respect for others

Relationship skills a. b. c. d.

5.

Impulse control Stress management Self-discipline Self-motivation Goal setting Organizational skills

Social awareness a. b. c. d.

4.

Identifying emotions Accurate self-perception Recognizing strengths Self-confdence Self-effcacy

Communication Social engagement Relationship building Teamwork

Responsible decision making a. b. c. d. e. f.

Identifying problems Analyzing situations Solving problems Evaluating Refecting Ethical responsibility

These competencies are represented on the CASEL Wheel (2017) (see Figure 14.1), a framework for systemic social and emotional learning within the ecological contexts of classrooms, schools, and homes and communities (www.casel.org).

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Figure 14.1 Framework for Systemic Social and Emotional Learning Source: CASEL (2017)

SEL competencies and defning elements encompass many admirable personal qualities and skills that can enhance individual, group, and community wellbeing, satisfaction, and productivity. They are broad in scope, with a wide variety of often overlapping areas of focus for development. Numerous programs and interventions have been developed to address various aspects and goals of the fve competencies. Selecting from these programs can be a daunting process that requires effective leadership from school administrators, school-based mental health professionals, teachers, and other stakeholders represented on a school leadership team.

Building Equity in SEL Dena Simmons (2019) contended that SEL is often taught while ignoring the sociopolitical context of injustice and inequity that pervades the lives of marginalized students. She emphasizes that when SEL does

Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) 269 not explicitly confront these forms of violence and other social inequities, its potential to help students navigate injustice, develop skills for youth agency, participate in peaceful civic engagement, and create social change will diminish. Presenting SEL programs that fail to recognize and address issues of historical and current racism, racist policies, and the need for social justice miss the essential opportunity to include and empower all students and create a more equitable culture and climate for school communities. Creating equitable school communities also means caring for and involving educators and families in gaining awareness, knowledge, and a place in the decision-making process. The wellbeing of educators and family caregivers must be addressed, and they must be provided with opportunities to develop social-emotional skills and trauma-informed care. The National Equity Project (www.nationalequityproject.org) provided a chart, Social-Emotional Learning & Equity: Pitfalls & Recommendations, to develop social-emotional competencies that promote equity for students of color and students living in poverty. Potential pitfall #1. Understanding the purpose of SEL from a defcit mindset with a focus on developing skills that students of color or their families do not possess. Recommendations: • Understand that all learning is social and emotional for all students • Situate programs and initiatives in the historical, sociopolitical, racialized context for students of color and students living in poverty • Locate the problem being solved with SEL not in individual students, but rather in our collective response to learning conditions created for students of color and students living in poverty Potential pitfall #2. Over-emphasizing self-management and selfregulation, while under-emphasizing the development of meaningful student agency to lead change and contribute to more humanizing and equitable structures of teaching and learning. Recommendations: • Use SEL to build on student assets to facilitate understanding and learning • Begin by listening and valuing student experience and narratives • Use story-telling and sharing to build empathy

270 School-Wide Programs Potential pitfall #3. Devaluing resistance to practices students experience as unwelcoming, hostile, or dehumanizing by interpreting resistance as non-compliance, defance, and evidence of poor self-management. Recommendation: • Deconstruct biased school expectations, cultural norms, and ways of communicating to expand defnitions of success and normative behavior that include experiences, cultural ways of knowing, and aspirations of students and families of color Potential pitfall #4. Contending colorblind and identity neutral principles and values. Recommendations: • Expand self-awareness to include acknowledging and understanding social entities regarding race, class, gender, nationality, family structure, and how each contribute to one’s sense of power and agency in various contexts • Normalize talking about race and understanding events and experiences through the lens of race, culture, and power Potential pitfall #5: Avoiding discussion of race or assuming that only students of color need to talk about and understand race. Recommendations: • Use practices that build learning communities that talk about and refect on the experience of race, including racialized events in our country and communities • Build “racial literacy” among all students as a critical dimension of SEL competence • Build social awareness and empathy skills by student sharing of personal experiences in their communities and schools Potential pitfall #6. Underestimating unconscious infuences leading to actions that oppose our stated values. Recommendations: • Use explicit strategies to mitigate effects of implicit bias and stereotypes through affrmation activities • Use knowledge of social-emotional learning to acknowledge, address, and heal from the impacts of racism and systemic oppression and to create liberatory learning environments

Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) 271 where students of color and students living in poverty experience a sense of belonging, agency to shape their learning content and process, and the opportunity to thrive Adapted from a chart developed by the National Equity Project

The Role of SEL in Academic Opportunity Learning the social and emotional competencies has been found to enhance academic opportunity and improve academic achievement and long-term outcomes (Durlak et al., 2011; Taylor et al., 2017). Aspects of SEL contributing to academic opportunity and achievement include 1) becoming profcient in core competencies and elements that directly support the ability to learn by instilling heightened readiness and attention, 2) motivation and organizational skills for learning, 3) interpersonal and problem-solving skills, 4) competencies and elements that help create mutually satisfying student–teacher and student–student relationships, making it easier for teachers to engage students in a variety of teacher directed, self-directed, or cooperative learning models, and 5) integrating core competencies and elements into academic subject matter, making lessons and learning more personally meaningful, emotionally and cognitively congruent, and more interesting and accessible for all students. Jones and Kahn (2017) emphasized that social, emotional, and cognitive domains are interconnected in the learning process and contribute to achieving excellent academic outcomes. Cognition and emotion work in tandem – self-control is a skill that includes a cognitive-inhibition component that can work effectively or ineffectively depending on the individual’s emotions and the situation. Students who gain a feeling of belonging and a sense of purpose, who can work cooperatively with peers and teams to solve problems, who can refect and set goals, and who can manage stressful situations and persevere will have enhanced opportunities to learn. Jones and Kahn (2017) alluded to a body of evidence that “major domains of human development – social, emotional, cognitive, linguistic, academic – are deeply intertwined in the brain and in behavior, and all are central to learning” (p. 4). They emphasized that social and emotional development is multifaceted and integral to how learning happens. The Aspen Institute, with whom Jones and Kahn are affliated, asserts that not only can social, emotional, and cognitive competencies be taught throughout life, but also teaching effective SEL programs and practices can improve teacher effectiveness and wellbeing. Academic instruction that is integrated with social-emotional competencies is viewed as essential to the success of our youth, our educational system, and to a society where children should have opportunities to learn skills they will need to succeed as individuals and as contributing citizens.

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The Role of SEL in Violence Prevention Nickerson (2018) viewed violence as a complex societal problem that must be addressed through comprehensive, universal prevention approaches that promote physical and psychological safety. She advocated Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) that specifcally teaches identifying emotions, empathy, problem solving, self-control, and confict resolution as part of a comprehensive plan that can help create safer schools with less aggressive behavior, fghting, bullying, and harassment. Nickerson and colleagues (2019) found a direct relationship between student reports of school staff using SEL techniques and a reduction of bullying and personal victimization. Nickerson and colleagues also cited research that found learning social and coping skills can protect perpetrators of bullying from later negative outcomes, such as escalating aggression or violent behavior (Ttof, Bowes, Farrington, & Losel, 2014). SEL instruction fosters qualities of school climate like feelings of belonging and connectedness that are associated with less bullying (Goldweber et al., 2013). While carefully selected, sequential, and explicit programs like Second Step and the 4Rs Program are important, Nickerson (2018) pointed out that other formal and informal SEL techniques can be used with students. Schools can have dedicated circle time or advisory periods when students have an opportunity to share feelings or discuss current events and issues of personal concern. Teachers can integrate social-emotional skills into curriculum such as literature, social studies, or health lessons.

The Role of SEL in Crisis Intervention Sara Castro-Olivo (2018) offered anecdotal evidence of benefts of prior SEL training for Spanish-speaking English Language Learner (ELL) students coping with the sudden death of their teacher. Many of the students had become frustrated with the teacher’s erratic behavior due to her physical decline and medications, but she had not shared with any staff or students that her diffculties were related to terminal illness. At the time of the teacher’s death, Castro-Olivo was evaluating the effectiveness of a culturally adapted, 12-lesson SEL program for students enrolled in 6–12th grades. When the students were informed of the teacher’s death, the most evident emotions were shock, sadness, and guilt. Castro-Olivo perceptively observed: I started going to each table but spent more time at tables with kids who were part of my study. It was not intentional, but the students who knew me from the study seemed more open to me and willing to share their feelings and ways they were processing them. . . . I was surprised to see the level of resiliency these kids were demonstrating. The guilt theme kept emerging from table to table, but they were truly utilizing the skills they had learned as part of the SEL program. They

Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) 273 used specifc vocabulary words we had introduced in the program and gave me a few examples on how they were “reframing” their grief and guilt. I was proud to see how the students who were participating in my study were applying the skills, but deeply saddened to see that not all the tables were engaging in the same level of discussion or even any discussion at all. This experience helped me realize the importance of teaching SEL programs to all students so they can be more fuent in emotional language for situations like this. All students deserve the basic emotional literacy to engage in these constructive conversations when they are needed, and to know that it is okay to become emotional and process these feelings with others. . . . In the program I was evaluating prior to the crisis, we had taught students self-awareness, social awareness, empathy, problem solving, anger management, cognitive restructuring and positive thinking. Being aware of their own feelings truly helped the students identify thinking errors and reframe those errors for more positive thoughts and behaviors that allowed them to better cope with the situation. (p. 89) Refecting upon this incident, Castro-Olivo (2018) pointed out that she noticed a difference in the groups who had been exposed to SEL skills and those who had not. The SEL-trained students were more comfortable sharing their feelings, and the emotions they experienced and shared seemed appropriate for the situation. In addition, they seemed to be processing their guilt and grief at a faster rate than students who had not been part of the SEL study. Students who had been in the SEL study appeared to move toward expressing appreciation and making tributes to their teacher at a faster rate than those without SEL training. Castro-Olivo suggested that while more research is needed, the experience motivated her to continue promoting SEL programs in all classrooms to ensure that all students have the basic emotional literacy skills and ability to identify and manage their feelings, especially during unexpected traumatic events. She refected that the experience helped her realize the importance of universal SEL interventions and the need to have crisis responders be part of the community they serve. Castro-Olivo asserted that mental health providers should be visible in schools, and co-leading SEL efforts at the universal level is a logical way to ensure their involvement in providing students with the skills and support they will need in any situation. Castro-Olivo (2018) shared that the experience also emphasized the need to always practice from a culturally responsive lens, pointing out that our schools are diverse settings and not all students cope with grief the same way. Practitioners must be familiar with the communities they serve and recognize the crucial role culture and language play in the way students and staff process their grief. A language interpreter using one wrong word can leave a group of students feeling alienated, and this

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could lead to an even stronger, less adaptive grief reaction. Castro-Olivo emphasized that working with cultural liaisons and continuously striving for cultural competence should be our number one goal. Culturally adapted SEL can be a signifcant tool for working toward this goal.

Guide to Planning and Implementation CASEL provides useful implementation guidance, suggesting each school or district must essentially: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Identify and prioritize areas of need. Select from the many evidence-based programs and interventions to fnd a good ft to address identifed needs within the unique school context. Implement selected programs and interventions with suffcient training, fdelity, and necessary adjustments while maintaining integrity. Evaluate for desired outcomes and, if necessary, make changes for improvement.

CASEL provides a theory of action, adaptable to other programs, that includes activities that guide the planning and implementation of systemic SEL: • • • • • • • • • •

Engage stakeholders in ongoing SEL planning and implementation Assess SEL-related resources and needs Develop an SEL vision and long-term plan Develop SEL learning standards and assessments Adopt evidence-based SEL programs Develop an implementation plan Design and implement effective professional development systems and supports Integrate school-wide policies, programs, and activities to foster social, emotional, and academic learning for all students Model social-emotional competence by school staff Monitor SEL implementation processes and student outcomes, using data to improve practice

Note: A description of CASEL guidelines for selecting evidence-based programs is provided in Chapter 16. Devaney, O’Brien, Resnik, Keister, and Weissberg (2006) suggested ten steps for implementing SEL that can also be applied to other programs: 1. Commit to school-wide SEL, and champion it! 2. Engage stakeholders, forming a steering committee with real authority and responsibility for the work.

Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) 275 3. Develop and articulate a shared vision that gives students hopes and dreams that bring energy and positive focus to the work. 4. Conduct a needs and resource assessment, identifying specifc issues to address and building from what is already working. 5. Develop an action plan, including a plan for attaining goals and objectives. 6. Select evidence-based programs and strategies – a shared framework and vocabulary that provide consistency and coherence. 7. Conduct initial staff development, ensuring that faculty understands SEL theory and practice. 8. Launch social-emotional skills instruction in classrooms, helping staff to become familiar and experienced with SEL. 9. Expand instruction and integrate SEL school-wide. 10. Revisit activities for continuous improvement and problem solving early on.

Integrating SEL With Programs and Curriculum Elias, O’Brien, and Weissberg (2006) suggested ways that SEL could be integrated school-wide: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Create organizing and unifying themes, values, and visions for your school. Involve students in integrative service projects – secondary schools should involve all students in some service-related activity. Implement SEL skill-building curricula linked to existing school subject areas. Infuse SEL competencies into existing academic subjects. Adapted from Elias et al. (2006)

According to Reilly (2018), for schools to achieve interrelated academic, personal, and social competencies, they must shift away from a segregated approach to academics and emotional health. They should create an integrated, systemic framework in which interrelated competencies for both students and educators are developed and sustained through safe, positive relationships. Reilly recommended social-emotional learning as an ideal basis for this framework, providing an instructional approach that promotes emotional components that facilitate learning. Social-emotional learning is viewed as the “integrative glue” that connects initiatives like culture and climate, classroom management, academic supports, and selected interventions (Durlak, Domitrovich, Weissberg, & Guillotta, 2016). Reilly (2018) presented two central tenets for successful instruction based upon SEL: 1.

A caring, responsive school climate for both students and adults. An emotionally safe school climate encourages the self-refection

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2.

School-Wide Programs adults need to examine and adjust practices that promote student wellbeing. Children’s emotions, behaviors, learning, and regulation are inextricably tied and cannot be considered separately. Strong relationships with teachers, positive messages about ability and worth, and fexible approaches to teaching support student emotional health and access to learning.

Reilly emphasized the importance for administrators to recognize the demands associated with teaching. In a stressed system, teachers may underestimate their skills and experience, become confused and discouraged, and lose confdence when expected to learn a disjointed new curriculum that addresses student mental health. However, when presented with an integrated social-emotional approach, teachers have clear methods to identify and refer students needing services and are encouraged to use their engagement skills to promote emotional health and learning. As described in the previous chapter, tiered models such as MultiTiered System of Supports (MTSS) and School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) can serve as overarching frameworks within which programs and practices can be integrated. An example of integrating programs previously described in Chapter 13, Pell and Carroll (2019) presented recommendations for integrating PBIS and SEL: 1. Commit to coordinated implementation of PBIS and SEL. 2. Obtain school staff and community buy-in. 3. Engage stakeholders to form a leadership or integrated implementation team. 4. Develop a vision for an integrated model, highlighting common components. 5. Conduct a SWOT analysis – Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats – to facilitate a fact-based, data-driven approach to build on what is working well, address what is lacking or needs improvement, take advantage of factors enabling chances for success, and minimize risk factors disabling chances for success. 6. Carefully select SWPBIS and SEL programs, developing and using data and decision-making guidelines. 7. Create an Integration Action Plan with a realistic, deliberate timeline to coordinate thoughtful program implementation and integration. 8. Develop job-embedded professional development activities. 9. Launch SWPBIS and SEL together. 10. Develop an ongoing technical assistance plan.

Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) 277 11. Use data for continuous program evaluation and make needed adjustments to improve and sustain outcomes. Adapted from Bear, Whitcomb, Elias, and Blank (2015), Bradshaw, Bottiani, Osher, and Sugai (2014), Whitcomb (2018) Note: These recommendations are elaborated in more detail in Chapter 19 Sustaining and Scaling Up of SEL and Academic Innovations Elias, Zins, Graczyk, and Weissberg (2003) tackled the challenging issue of not only how to implement, but also how to sustain and scale up socialemotional and academic innovations. Among the identifed implementation barriers are often unrecognized structural features blocking reform, including a narrow and decontextualized “programs and packages” perspective of change processes, poor management of time and other resources, and inadequate attention and understanding by staff implementing planned reforms. The study identifed possible solutions for success and growth of innovative practice, including the need to incorporate social-emotional learning as an integral part of academics and the need to understand the ways diversity provides an ever-changing context for implementation. Elias and colleagues discussed three major points to address identifed problems: 1) the need to prepare education professionals with the range of skills needed to lead efforts to scale up school reform, 2) the importance of an action-research perspective that uses data and system feedback to monitor fdelity and progress outcomes, and 3) the need to more effectively document stories of educational innovation and efforts to scale up so that contextual details of schools and their students’ experiences can inform what is required for success. Integrating effective SEL programs into school curriculum can have benefcial outcomes that support sustaining and scaling up the programs. These outcomes include reducing current levels of student behavioral and emotional problem symptoms, helping reduce future occurrences of these problems, and enhancing the ability of all students to successfully engage in academic learning (Elias et al., 2003). ****** The next chapter presents Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS), another school-wide prevention program, which together with PBIS and SEL promotes positive behavior and mental health.

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References Aidman, B., & Price, P. (2018). Social and emotional learning at the middle level: One school’s journey. Middle School Journal, 49, 26–35. Amstutz, L. S., & Mullet, J. H. (2014). The little book of restorative discipline for schools: Teaching responsibility; creating caring climates. New York: Good Books. Armour, M. (2016). Restorative practices: Righting the wrongs of exclusionary school discipline. University of Richmond Law Review, 50(999), 1000. Aspen Institute: National Commission on Social, Emotional, and Academic Development. (2018). How learning happens: Supporting students’ social, emotional, and academic development. Washington, DC: Author. Bear, G. G., Whitcomb, S. A., Elias, M. J., & Blank, J. C. (2015). SEL and schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports. In J. Durlak, T. Gullotta, C. Domitrovich, P. Goren, & R. Weissberg (Eds.). Handbook of social and emotional learning (pp. 453–467). New York: Guilford. Bradshaw, C. P., Bottiani, J. H., Osher, D., & Sugai, G. M. (2014). The integration of positive behavioral interventions and supports and social and emotional learning. In M. D. Weist, N. A. Lever, C. P. Bradshaw, & J. S. Owens (Eds.), Handbook of school mental health: Research, training, practice, and policy (pp. 101– 118). New York: Springer. Buchanan, R., Gueldner, B. A., Tran, O. K., & Merrell, K. W. (2009). Social and emotional learning in classrooms: A survey of teachers’ knowledge, perceptions, and practices. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 25(2). Castro-Olivo, S. M. (2018). Death of an ELL teacher: School researcher experiences a crisis. In J. C. Roth & B. S. Fernandez (Eds.), Perspectives in school crisis response: Refections from the feld (pp. 85–95). New York: Routledge. Clark, A. G., & Dockweiler, K. A. (2019). Multi-tiered systems of support in secondary schools: The defnitive guide to effective implementation and quality control. New York: Routledge. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). (2020). What is SEL? Retrieved from www.casel.org/what-is-sel/ Devaney, E., O’Brien, M. U., Resnik, H., Keister, S., & Weissberg, R. P. (2006). Sustainable schoolwide social and emotional learning (SEL): Implementation guide and toolkit. Chicago, IL: CASEL. Dow, C. B. (2019). From A to Z with energy!: 26 ways to move and play. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing. Durlak, J. A., Domitrovich, C. E., Weissberg, R. P., & Guillotta, T. P. (2016). Handbook of social and emotional learning. New York: Guilford. Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82, 405–432. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x Elias, M. J., O’Brien, M. U., & Weissberg, R. P. (2006). Transformative leadership for social-emotional learning. Reston, VA: Principal Leadership. Elias, M. J., Zins, J. E., Graczyk, P. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2003). Implementation sustainability, and scaling up of social-emotional and academic innovations in public schools. School Psychology Review, 32, 303–319. Retrieved from https:// www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02796015.2003.12086200

Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) 279 Goldweber, A., Waasdorp, T. E., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2013). Examining the link between forms of bullying behaviors and perceptions of safety and belonging among secondary school students. Journal of School Psychology, 51, 469–485. Gonzalez, T., Sattler, H., & Buth, A. J. (2018). New directions in whole-school restorative justice implementation. Confict Resolution Quarterly, 1–14. https:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/crq.21236 Greenberg, M., Domitrovich, C., Weissberg, R., & Durlak, J. (2017). Social and emotional learning as a public health approach to education. The Future of Children: Social and Emotional Learning, 27(1), 13–32. Jones, S. M., & Kahn, J. (2017). The evidence-base for how we learn: Supporting students’ social, emotional, and academic development. Washington, DC: National Commission on Social, Emotional, and Academic Development: The Aspen Institute. Kennedy, E. A. (2020). The perceptions of educators and students towards a program in social emotional learning. Education Dissertations, 90. https:// repository.wcsu.edu/educationdis/90 Low, S. P., Cook, C., Smolkowski, K., & Desfosses, D. (2019). Two-year impact of a universal social-emotional learning curriculum: Group differences from developmentally sensitive trends over time. Developmental Psychology, 55, 415–424. Nickerson, A. B. (2018). Can SEL reduce school violence? Educational Leadership, 76(2), 46–50. Nickerson, A. B., Fredrick, S. S., Allen, K. P., & Jenkins, L. N. (2019). Social emotional learning (SEL) practices in schools: Effects on perceptions of bullying victimization. Journal of School Psychology, 73, 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jsp.2019.03.002 Payne, A. A., & Welch, K. (2015). Restorative justice in schools: The infuence of race on restorative discipline. Youth & Society, 47(4), 539–564. Pell, M. M., & Carroll, D. (2019). Growing the good: Strategies for integrating traumainformed practices within a PBIS framework. Presentation at the 16th International Association for Positive Behavior Support, Washington, DC. Reilly, N. N. (2018). The bond of social-emotional learning. Educational Leadership, 75(4), 56–60. Rossen, E., & Cowan, K. C. (2015). Improving mental health in schools. Kappan, 96(4), 8–13. Schiff, M. (2018). Can restorative justice disrupt the “school-to-prison pipeline?” Contemporary Justice Review, 21(2), 121–139. Simmons, D. (2019). Why we can’t afford whitewashed social-emotional learning. ASCD, 61(4). Taylor, R. D., Oberle, E., Durlak, J. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2017). Promoting positive youth development through school-based social and emotional learning interventions: A meta-analysis of follow-up efforts. Child Development, 88(4), 1156–1171. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12864 Ttof, M. M., Bowes, L., Farrington, D. P., & Losel, F. (2014). Protective factors interrupting the continuity from school bullying to later internalizing and externalizing problems: A systematic review of prospective longitudinal studies. Journal of School Violence, 13, 5–38.

280 School-Wide Programs von der Embse, N., von der Embse, D., von der Embse, M., & Levine, I. (2009). Applying social justice principles through school-based restorative justice. Communiqué, 38(3), 18. Whitcomb, S. (2018). Aligning SEL with PBIS efforts. Keynote presentation to the Department of Elementary and Secondary Education PBIS Training Academy, MA. Yang, C., Bear, G. G., & May, H. (2018). Multilevel associations between schoolwide social emotional learning approach and student engagement across elementary, middle, and high schools. School Psychology Review, 47, 45–61.

15 Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS)

Haiku Child, give me your hand That I may walk in the light Of your faith in me. ~ Hannah Kahn

Program Description and Benefts Adverse Effects of Trauma and Effective School Response Adverse childhood experiences and emotional trauma can have an extremely negative effect on students’ learning, behavior, and physiological wellbeing throughout life (Johnson, 2018; Rossen, 2020). Childhood trauma has been linked to diffculties with academics, social problems, psychopathology, and school absence, dropout, and suspension rates (Larson, Chapman, Spetz, & Brindis, 2017). It is estimated that 66% of students reaching the 10th grade have endured one or more traumatic experiences (Copeland, Keeler, Angold, & Costello, 2007). This formidable problem has been further complicated by lack of educator awareness and informed response. Research revealed minimal teacher training on student trauma, leaving most teachers not understanding the challenges of trauma and behavior that many students present (Sitler, 2009). When school-based mental health professionals understand the effects of emotional trauma, they can support students and their families, as well as help teachers understand and respond to those effects (Fritz, Coleman, Parker, Ivey, & Hodges, 2020). Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS) can make a meaningful difference with positive strategies for all students, regardless of whether they have been traumatized. The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP, 2016) stated that trauma-sensitive approaches can be integrated within a MultiTiered System of Supports (MTSS) to promote 1) student feelings of

282 School-Wide Programs physical, social, and emotional safety, 2) staff understanding the effects of trauma on students, 3) positive and culturally responsive discipline policies and practices, 4) school-based access to comprehensive mental and behavioral health services, and 5) community collaboration. Wolpow, Johnson, Hertel, and Kincaid (2011) provided ten principles of compassionate schools: 1. Focus on culture and climate in the school and community. A schoolwide approach can encourage compassion, resilience, and support for academic success. 2. Train and support all staff regarding trauma and learning. Understanding that children who experienced trauma often have diffculty with power and control can help teachers avoid power struggles, give choices, and provide opportunities to appropriately express power and control. 3. Encourage and sustain open and regular communication for all. Check assumptions, observe, and question to understand, noticing student gifts and talents as well as challenges. Listen actively to what students are saying. 4. Develop a strengths-based approach in working with students and peers. Trusting relationships, though diffcult to form, become more possible when educators refuse to give up, maintain a calm approach to problems, and provide opportunities for success, such as helping others through guided activities that create mutual trust, self-esteem, and a sense of belonging. 5. Ensure discipline policies are both compassionate and effective. Programs such as Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), restorative justice, and confict resolution can be helpful, as well as maintaining consistent, high expectations for behavior and achievement and setting limits and educating about behavior. Educators can be coaches providing constructive feedback and helping students reframe negative interactions. 6. Weave compassionate strategies into school improvement planning. When trauma-informed practice is incorporated into school improvement plans, it demonstrates that administrators will plan for necessary infrastructure, resources, and ongoing professional development. 7. Provide tiered support for all students based on their needs. MultiTiered System of Supports (MTSS) coordinates a continuum of comprehensive resources, programs, and services. 8. Create fexible accommodations for diverse learners. Socialemotional and behavioral lessons can be integrated into the classrooms and curriculum. Learning can be designed for success with differentiated, culturally responsive instruction, and timely, tiered academic supports when needed.

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9. Provide access, voice, and ownership for staff, students, and community. Educators can collaborate to form professional learning communities (PLCs), forge partnerships with families and community agencies, and collect ideas for school improvement from students, parents, and the community. 10. Use data to identify vulnerable students and determine outcomes and strategies for continuous quality improvement. Complementary, integrated initiatives like MTSS and PBIS make data-driven decisions about individual student and school-wide needs. Progress monitoring of student achievement and program outcomes guides thoughtful, informed improvements. The Role of TIS in Violence Prevention Nguyen-Feng, Carroll, and King (2020) explained that while interpersonal violence can be emotionally and physically harmful to the target, even witnessing violence without personal victimization is associated with negative academic and emotional outcomes (Hurt, Malmud, Brodsky, & Giannetta, 2001; Nguyen-Feng et al., 2020). Keeping in mind a systemic, three-tiered approach, TIS violence prevention (see Chapter 10) starts at universal Tier 1, with a positive school climate (see Chapter 4) that includes primary prevention programs and practices. Responding to a continuum of needs, Tiers 2 and 3 proceed with targeted and intensive interventions respectively, with problem solving to match interventions with the degree of student need. Individual and group interventions and problem solving throughout the system beneft students who have experienced emotional trauma and their unique needs for a specialized level of support. It is imperative that schools support students with a history of either victimization or perpetration of interpersonal violence. Punitive practices such as suspension have not only been ineffective but can also infame the cycle of violence in communities and schools (Lamont et al., 2013). There has been success using system-level and student-level approaches to school violence prevention. Nguyen-Feng and colleagues (2020) outlined system-level and studentlevel approaches to violence prevention. System-level approaches to violence prevention: •

Developmental Designs emphasize SEL competencies that integrate academic and social learning to optimize academic achievement and a sense of belonging (Bartholomay, Klug, & Tyink, 2014). They assume educators can create a sense of community and empathy, and understand the devastating environmental factors that impact many students. Developmental Designs transition from an emphasis on compliance to an emphasis on strong relationships

284 •

•

•

School-Wide Programs Restorative practices emphasize helping students problem solve and learn to solve problems together. Especially relevant for students with violent histories, research has demonstrated that schools using restorative practices have improved attendance and racial equity and reduced discipline problems (Gregory, Clawson, Davis, & Gerewitz, 2016). Restorative practices create relationship building activities such as confdential talking circle, which encourages talking about feelings and current topics. Confict resolution and mediation skills are taught and enacted Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports emphasize a multitiered approach to student behavior and needs with a continuum of programs and practices (Horner, Sugai, & Fixsen, 2017). Research demonstrated that PBIS reduces school violence such as bullying (Waasdorp, Bradshaw, & Leaf, 2012). PBIS uses group approaches to discuss how to handle interpersonal problems such as gossip, disrespect, bullying, and other violent behaviors. PBIS encourages a culture of reporting violence to responsive educators Responsive Classrooms (RC) emphasize the relationship between SEL competencies and academic success. The four key domains of RC are 1) academics, 2) positive community, 3) effective management, and 4) developmentally responsive teaching. A longitudinal study found improved academic outcomes compared with a control group (Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2014). RC addresses reactions to perceived differences among peers that may relate to bullying. RC emphasizes creating a safe community where all students feel a sense of belonging facilitated by practices such as group meetings, checking in to ensure students feel heard, or creating after-school programs encouraging positive connections

Student-level approaches to violence prevention: • • •

Educators manage their own anxiety and distress, grounding themselves frst, in order to support students Speak up when abuse is suspected, since dialogue upholds students’ view of caring teachers guarding against school violence (Wilcox, Tillyer, & Fisher, 2009) Connect with other individuals at school and in the community, encouraging collaboration among school mental health professionals, administrators, and staff with students and families, supporting bullied students, and making violence awareness, prevention, and intervention into sustained school practices Adapted from Nguyen-Feng (2020)

Rohde-Collins (2020) explained that chronic community violence can have devastating effects on children’s development. Exposure to cumulative violence experienced by many urban African American students

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interfered with academic opportunity and performance (Burdick-Will, 2016; Sharkey, Schwarts, Ellen, & Lacoe, 2014). Strategies to support students coping with community violence: • • • • • •

• • • •

•

•

•

Reinforce that the violence is not the student’s fault. Validate feelings, but reinforce not being responsible for the actions of others Avoid assumptions that all students react the same way to violence. Personal factors, history, and development affect students’ perceptions, which sensitive questions can explore Develop a variety of before- and after-school options. Prevent exposure to community violence and increase time in a safe, caring environment Get involved in the community. Service-learning projects can educate about values, commitment, civic responsibility, and neighborhood pride Increase parent/caregiver involvement and trust. Engaging families in school activities can be a powerful positive infuence Encourage writing and journaling. Stimulates self-refection, coping, resilience, and venting strong feelings; examples of prompts: • What are some things you value? Why? • Refect on a quotation • Free writes (student choice) Maintain routines and high expectations. Classroom routines and educator expectations that their students are intelligent and capable can mitigate trauma Reinforce safety. Teachers regularly remind students that their school is working to be safe and adults are helpers Don’t force conversations. Some students fear sharing experiences, lacking trust that educators will be respectful – educators can inform students they are available to listen Use teachable moments to demonstrate problem solving. Teaching SEL skills, stress management, and modeling adaptive reactions – deep breathing, empathy, or peaceful problem-solving strategies Be fexible. Since traumatized children may miss instruction or directions, teachers can provide multiple ways for students to get information, and allow makeup work and turning in projects in small sections Brainstorm. Brainstorming can help students generate ideas about how to stay safe and manage emotional responses. Ideas include avoiding dangerous situations, or responding to emotional triggers with calming strategies, mindfulness, or texting crisis lifelines Be prepared to report possible abuse. Exposure to chronic community violence is associated with increased risk for child abuse and domestic

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School-Wide Programs violence (Fortson, Klevens, Merrick, Gilbert, & Alexander, 2016) – educators must follow mandated reporting of maltreatment Know when to ask for help. Students should understand self-referral or be immediately referred to school mental health or MTSS when they demonstrate severe trauma reactions Be prepared with trained crisis response. Crisis response should occur for acute traumatic incidents at school or in the community Adapted from Rohde-Collins (2020)

An MTSS Model for TIS Programs, interventions, and strategies to address needs of students affected by traumatic stress can be implemented at each of the three levels of multi-tiered support (Quezada, 2019). The following is an example of a multi-tiered trauma-informed approach: Tier 1 universal measures: • • • • • • • •

Promote awareness and wellness among educators and parents Create safe and supportive school and classroom environments Provide staff and parent training, mental health literacy, and professional development and consultation Implement school-wide prevention programs such as PBIS, SEL, and bullying prevention Teach and practice stress and anxiety management strategies such as mindfulness, resilience, and coping skills Provide universal mental health screenings with appropriate, evidencebased tools (see Chapter 12) Implement an evidence-based academic curriculum with embedded social-emotional learning, structured for student success Build connections among adults and peers and with community resources

Tier 2 targeted measures: • • • • • •

Provide individual and group supports and early intervention programs such as counseling services or Supports for Students Exposed to Trauma (SSET) Provide adult mentors and peer/adult social supports Teach and practice emotion regulation, social skills, and problem solving Provide mediation, confict resolution and restorative practices Collect data from multiple sources and monitor progress of interventions for informed decision making Provide appropriate psychoeducation when needed

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Tier 3 intensive measures: • •

•

Refer to community resources for individual and family support Refer for appropriate evidence-based therapeutic treatments such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (CBITS), Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT), Bounce Back, or Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Refer to programs that teach and practice stress management, coping and problem-solving skills, self-effcacy, and resilience Adapted from Quezada (2019)

Staff Resources and Funding to Support TIS Staff Buy-In for TIS Baker, Augenstern, Moberg, Robey, and Saybe (2020) cautioned that becoming a Trauma-Informed School is a complex, multi-year process. They pointed out that school staff often have varied expectations and concerns, depending on their past experience with school reform or TIS. Given the complexity and scope of TIS, staff buy-in is essential for program success (Baker et al., 2020). When there is program buy-in, studies found increased enthusiasm, more likely engagement in practices, greater implementation fdelity, and improved sustainability (Filter, Sytsma, & McIntosh, 2016). Staff buy-in can be increased when members of the leadership team work with other staff to create a TIS action plan, model TIS activities and behaviors, and recognize staff efforts (Chafouleas, Johnson, Overstreet, & Santos, 2016). Administrators can demonstrate support by providing ongoing professional development and resources to align teacher coaching and programs, and modifying policies and procedures to integrate TIS practice (Wittich, Wogenrich, Overstreet, Baker, & The New Orleans Trauma-Informed Schools learning Collaborative, 2019). Chapter 16 further explores securing program buy-in. School Mental Health Professionals Promoting TIS The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP, 2016) delineated how uniquely trained school psychologists can provide comprehensive mental and behavioral health services to support all students: •

Develop data collection and management plans to help coordinate comprehensive service delivery

288 • • • • •

School-Wide Programs Consult with colleagues to develop interventions that reduce barriers to learning Work with administrators and teams to implement school-wide mental and behavioral health programs Promote policies and procedures that ensure positive and safe learning environments for all Provide ongoing professional development of trauma-informed practices and other initiatives that promote school safety and mental health Educate families about the adverse effects of stress and trauma Adapted from NASP (2016)

Laws and Grants That Support Funding for TIS Keeping current with federal and state laws and grants can generate opportunities to advance Trauma-Informed Schools (NASP, 2016). The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) supported increased access to mental and behavioral health services. It expanded local decision-making control to address specifc, identifed needs such as emotional trauma. It is encouraging when laws recognize the link between mental health and academic success. Highlights: • •

•

Student Support and Academic Enhancement Grants (SSAEG) provide substantial funds for a fexible block grant Required involvement of specialized instructional support personnel (SISP) in district plans and applications for funds, including a needs assessment of safe and supportive learning conditions and access to personalized learning experiences supported by technology At least 20% of SSAEG funds must be used to improve student mental and behavioral health, school climate, or school safety, including trauma-informed policies and practices

Supportive School and Classroom Learning Environments Eklund and Rossen (2016) suggested common components of TIS: 1.

School-wide focus. While many students may not be impacted, there is often a range of stress, and providing treatment only for those experiencing trauma symptoms is like waiting for others to fail. Instead, the focus should be school-wide practices such as family engagement, positive behavior supports, and classroom instructional strategies and management. Mental health screenings proactively identify students affected by trauma (see Chapter 12).

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Dedication to a safe school environment. Described in Framework for Safe and Successful Schools (Cowan, Vaillancourt, Rossen, & Pollitt, 2013) and summarized in Chapter 3. Building student capacities. Recognition that social-emotional skills related to resilience, coping, and building relationships need to be explicitly taught and nurtured (see Chapter 14). Building staff capacities. Providing professional development on enhancing awareness, effective and positive discipline, strategies to educate and support students experiencing stress and trauma, and strategies to prevent educator vicarious trauma and burnout.

What Educators Should Know and How They Should Respond Diamanduros, Tysinger, and Tysinger (2018) pointed out that a child’s ability to manage reactions to traumatic experiences is assisted by protective factors such as a supportive family, strong system of social support, and effective coping and problem-solving skills. They suggested that schools can help affected students adapt by using trauma-informed practices to help emotionally traumatized children feel safe and protected: • • •

• • • • • • •

Understand the effects of trauma and provide emotional support to help students feel protected, improving focus on schoolwork Identify strengths and help students develop competencies in the classroom – counsel and teach stress management, coping skills, and resilience Provide a safe place and designated person with whom the student can choose, but not be forced, to talk about the traumatic event, feelings, or worries. The safe place can be used if the student begins feeling overwhelmed and needs to relax and manage stress Maintain consistent school routines, letting students know in advance of any changes, such as a schedule change or planned fre drill Understand that some behavior problems can relate to previous traumatic experience, and teach and reinforce positive alternative behaviors when possible Discuss behavior expectations, establishing acceptable ways to reinforce positive behavior, and clear limits for inappropriate behavior Provide choices, giving students a sense of control Offer breaks if it appears a student is becoming overwhelmed Be aware of environmental cues that could trigger an emotional reaction or remind the student of a traumatic event Be aware of other students’ reactions that might adversely affect a traumatized student, and protect the student from exposure to negative comments or questions

290 School-Wide Programs • • • •

Be aware of signs a student is reenacting trauma, understanding this may be a way of coping, but not being drawn into a traumarelated role Understand the potential effect of trauma on school functioning, including diffculty with concentration and memory, learning problems, lower grades, and absences Provide support for academic work and, as needed, help organize assignments and homework and allow shorter assignments and additional time to complete work Maintain close communication with the student’s parents/guardians and let them know how their child is adapting and how they can partner in support Adapted from Diamanduros et al. (2018)

Build Relationships and Self-Esteem Never jump to “What’s wrong with you?” Avoid assuming disruptive behavior is willful. Instead, “What’s happening with you?” “What’s going on?” “How can I help?” “I’m here if you want to talk.” Craig (2016) advised teachers to focus on relationships, not reenactments, with children having early trauma histories. She explained that children reenacting trauma can destroy relationships with authority fgures like teachers. The ability of teachers to form positive relationships with students demonstrating trauma-affected behavior requires powerful self-monitoring skills that allow suffcient objectivity, while observing what is happening. This objectivity is invaluable when de-escalating behavior, helping teachers not to react or escalate hostile actions but rather to redirect behavior in calm, respectful, sometimes playful ways. These interactions present opportunities for teachers to express comfort, build trust, and validate the student–teacher relationship. Children can be reassured that their relationship with the teacher can tolerate strong emotions, in turn helping them to better tolerate and control uncomfortable emotions (Craig, 2016). Safe, predictable classrooms can show students ways to use their minds to regulate their emotions. Children whose stress regulation has been compromised by early trauma may experience debilitating behaviors and the inability to fnd and sustain a comfortable arousal level. Children primed to fght in stressful situations can become hyper-aroused, defant, or aggressive under stress. Children primed for fight or freeze in stressful new learning situations may appear unmotivated, disinterested, or fall

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asleep. The trauma-sensitive teacher can strive to reduce the student’s perceived internal and external stress by incorporating instructional practices like mindfulness activities, movement, deep breathing, music, stretching, and opportunities for self-refection. Working with children to help them seek a comfortable level of arousal helps maintain positive relationships (Craig, 2016). Recognize Student Trauma Responses Flight responses: • • • • • •

Withdrawal Leaving the classroom, or hiding Cutting class Daydreaming Sleeping, or appearing to sleep Easily overwhelmed

Fight responses: • • • •

Acting out Aggression/defance/arguing/screaming Acting silly Hyperactivity

Freeze responses: • Appearing numb/unable to act/staring blankly • Refusing or unable to answer • Refusing attempt to get needs met Adapted from Souers and Hall (2016) Trauma-Informed Classroom Strategies General classroom strategies – from trauma-informed to trauma-skilled: • • • • •

Make sure students have basic needs. Breakfast/lunch, snacks and water Build relationships. Though it may take time, positive relationships increase feelings of safety and trust Greet students. By name, with a smile, and with eye contact, showing genuine interest in their interests Morning meeting. Provides a safe, respectful forum for students to share information about themselves Mentors. Can be adults or peers, depending on the environment and needs

292 • • • • • • •

School-Wide Programs Positive reinforcement. Let students know when they have done something good! Rule of thumb: four positive comments for every one correction or redirection Build self-esteem. Opportunities for success, praising the effort over the product Structured classroom environment. Clear, consistent, posted classroom rules/expectations that are reviewed, especially after long breaks Schedule. Classroom schedule should be posted, and students advised in advance about changes Movement. Classrooms should allow movement, periodic “brain breaks,” or times when students walk or stand while working, without distracting others Noise. Loud noises can be a trigger, so adults should strive to use a calm, even tone talking with students, and warn them about events such as fre drills Calming strategies. Practice mindfulness, progressive relaxation, or deep breathing each morning so students can learn to use those strategies when needed Adapted from Flatau and Mikolajczyk (2018)

Classroom strategies for a triggered student: • • • • •

ASK! “What can I do to help you?” Give space and time Stay calm – speak in a soft, calm tone Reassure safety for the student and the rest of the classroom Offer pre-planned safe space Adapted from Sporleder and Forbes (2016)

Bostic and Hoover (2020) shared de-escalation strategies for children and adolescents: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Do not yell over a screaming child to be heard Do not try to reason or make demands Use distraction Be aware of your body language and respect personal space Get on the child’s level Validate feelings, not actions Acknowledge child’s right to refuse, be non-judgmental, and avoid saying “no” Use refective listening or silence Answer questions but avoid verbal aggression Decrease stimulation Use deep breathing exercises or calming visuals/visualization Suggest a movement break

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Hertel and Johnson (2020) summarized recommendations for educators focusing on academic/cognitive and behavioral/social-emotional functioning. Recommendations for academic/cognitive functioning: • • •

•

Provide experiences and opportunities to build resilience skills Maintain high academic and behavioral expectations for all students, while being fexible – create calm zones to help students complete academic tasks Provide opportunities for success – academic frustration can be misidentifed as apparent disinterest. Plan warm-ups, differentiated instruction, and at least one activity per day designed for success Provide strategies to instill intrinsic rewards for progress, through visible charts, tangible and verbal reinforcement, or targeted recognition of effort and products; students who feel intrinsically positive about their accomplishments show increased long-term benefts (Tough, 2016)

Recommendations for behavioral/social-emotional functioning: • • • •

• •

Recognize negative behaviors may relate to previous trauma – manage the classroom environment and potential triggers that may interfere with coping behaviors (Pickens & Tschopp, 2017) Acknowledge and respect boundaries when a student discloses trauma – response to family issues should express concern for safety rather than force more details Provide opportunities for practicing self-regulation through thoughtful refection, deep breathing, self-monitoring, and the student setting apt consequences Use careful judgment when reporting behavior problems – acting out behavior in school may be adaptive survival in a home with violence; a safe school can educate about alternative behaviors, rather than less productive punishment and exclusion Help students distinguish skills developed at home from those needed to navigate the school setting – teach expected and prosocial behaviors Teach students an emotional vocabulary, which can help them identify and understand their emotions, enhance self-awareness, and develop emotion regulation and empathy Adapted from Hertel and Johnson (2020)

Fritz and colleagues (2020) identifed individual, classroom, and school-wide strategies that school psychologists can use to support teachers educating trauma-impacted students.

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Individual strategies for school psychologists to support teachers: • • • • •

Assist with modifcations and strategies such as reducing classwork/ homework, organizing tutoring sessions, and counseling Aid teachers in selecting soothing techniques such as drawing, deep breathing, or exercising to help manage emotions (NASP, 2015a) Have an “open door” policy, available for consultation Improve teacher awareness of the school psychologist role – providing consultation and sharing strategies for trauma-impacted students Model and teach strategies such as mindfulness

Classroom strategies for school psychologists to support teachers: • • •

Ensure that teachers understand the need to be empathetic and listen to all student concerns (NASP, 2015b) Ensure that each teacher’s classroom provides a safe haven, encouraging confdence in student abilities (NASP, 2015b) Classroom Crisis Intervention (CCI) provides a process to help groups of students who all experienced a similar degree of trauma from the same acute traumatic incident (Brock et al., 2016)

School-wide strategies for school psychologists to support teachers: • •

Assist in the systematic implementation of a school-wide Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) for trauma, offering a continuum of programs and services (Rossen & Cowan, 2013) School-wide strategies can include universal screenings for trauma Adapted from Fritz et al. (2020)

Teach Emotion Regulation and Calming Strategies Students who develop effective emotion regulation skills appear to perform better in school and are at less risk for mental health symptoms (Project CoVitality, 2020). Mindfulness for Student and Teacher Wellbeing Many students, regardless of trauma history, experience high levels of stress coping with the demands of school and life. While healthy stress is normal and can be a source of motivation, toxic stress can interfere with attention, emotion regulation, sleep, and readiness to learn. Teachers struggling with toxic stress can experience decreased productivity and creativity, and symptoms can escalate to anxiety, frustration, burnout, and attrition (Flook, Goldberg, Pinger, Bonus, & Davidson, 2013). Developing the practice of mindfulness involves awareness of one’s present thoughts,

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emotions, sensations, and the environment, and can improve the ability to manage stress and feel a sense of calm and wellbeing (Mindful Schools, 2018; Raes, Griffth, Van der Gucht, & Williams, 2014). Mindfulness-based interventions have been used extensively in educational settings to train both teachers and students in self-care and wellness (Roeser et al., 2013). There is evidence that mindfulness can enhance attention and memory (Baijal, Jha, Kiyonaga, Singh, & Srinavasan, 2011), emotion regulation (Metz et al., 2013; Roemer, Williston, & Rollins, 2015), resilience (Jennings, Snowberg, Coccia, & Greenberg, 2013; Semple, Lee, Rosa, & Miller, 2010), breathing and relaxation practices for calming, and personal awareness that heightens compassion and understanding the experience of others (Condon, Desbordes, Miller, & DeSteno, 2013; Schonert-Reichi et al., 2015). Intervention to Reduce Anxiety: Support for Students Exposed to Trauma (SSET) Support for Students Exposed to Trauma (SSET) is a school-based group intervention program for 8–10 trauma-exposed students, implemented by teachers or school counselors. It includes ten lessons designed to reduce anxiety, worry, and depression through psychoeducation, relaxation training, cognitive coping, and social problem solving. It was evaluated on middle school students but suggested for late elementary through early high school students, ages 10 through 16 years (Jaycox et al., 2009). Trauma-Sensitive Support for Return From a Pandemic Trauma-sensitive approaches can be extremely relevant for supporting students and teachers during and returning to school after a pandemic such as COVID-19, or other ongoing severely traumatic events. Support for returning teachers is critical as they must care for their students. The degree of ease or anxiety experienced by returning students and teachers when schools reopen will likely be extremely variable. Developmental considerations and level of understanding can be expected to infuence children’s reactions. Cultural considerations are crucial, as the coronavirus pandemic has been especially devastating in communities of color. A child or educator’s experience during the pandemic, including illness or death of loved ones, will determine the need for support. Though it would be ideal if returning students had received distance learning and emotional support during the time they were away from school, many did not have this help. It is imperative that schools and their mental health professionals prepare for the varying needs when children return. There must be suffcient school mental health staff available, supplemented by Wellness

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Centers and community agencies if needed. It is suggested that all students and educators will beneft from a re-entry orientation that reassures them about their health and wellbeing at school and prepares them for new adaptations to the school environment designed for their safety. Note: Online Resource 6 on the Routledge website offers “Sample scales to indicate emotional impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on youth and families.” The varying needs of students can also be addressed systemically by applying the mindset and strategies of Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS). A trauma-sensitive approach can teach emotion regulation, help prevent escalation of anxiety and other debilitating feelings, and help students exercise self-control and de-escalate maladaptive emotions when they happen. Trauma-informed strategies for returning students: •

•

•

•

Encourage and support a sense of safety. Children who have constantly heard about unseen dangers can beneft from reasonable reassurance that schools are a safe place for them to learn and thrive. When students’ sense of safety has been compromised, educators can show they are working to protect and care for them. Educators can connect with students and each other, encourage dialogue, address fears and concerns, provide opportunities for fun play with peers, and orient students to changes designed to protect them. Educators can encourage families to minimize children’s exposure to scary television news and social media Build rapport and relationships with students. The ability of educators to patiently connect with and actively listen to student concerns and worries, to respond with empathy, and to refer for more help if needed is crucial. Consistent with the principles of TIS and PBIS, whenever possible educators can try to understand the source of negative behavior and use that behavior as an opportunity to educate about positive alternative behaviors Establish a predictable routine. After what has been in most cases a huge disruption in children’s usual routines, schools can provide a signifcant service by reestablishing consistent routines, language, and behavior expectations that are reassuring and calming. Examples are having a regular warm-up activity, social-emotional learning lesson, and posting an illustrated daily schedule Empower students and give them choices. After a long period of time when children have been disempowered with limited choices, educators can provide opportunities for cooperative and prosocial activities, and positive choices related to academics, social interaction, and personal interests. Empowerment can strengthen hope for the future

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Develop a feelings vocabulary and social competencies. Consistent with the goals of SEL, when students develop the ability to express emotions about their experiences, their ability to constructively control and manage feelings can be enhanced. The benefts of social competence are magnifed when coping with traumatic events

Trauma-Informed and Culturally Responsive Classrooms Isaiah Pickens (2020) explained that the Trauma-Informed Culturally Responsive (TICR) approach integrates insights into the context that contributes to student behavior, commits to learning how to engage student identity, strengthens student–educator relationships, and promotes safer, more academically oriented classrooms. Students with emotion regulation problems can more readily shift to calm behavior with teachers who establish relationships based on three cornerstone skills of the TICR approach: 1. 2.

3.

Creating psychologically safe school environments. Students feel able to manage stress, be authentic, be willing to make mistakes, and recognize educators countering harassment. Honoring student identities. Identities can be shaped by traumatic life experiences and challenges from being marginalized by race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or other qualities that infuence decisions, behavior, and goals. Making each interaction with students meaningful. Rather than simply teaching a diverse group of students, teachers can develop inclusive classrooms that welcome and value all students.

Pickens used the metaphor invisible backpack to represent the life experiences, messages received, and personal expectations that traumatized and marginalized students often carry into classrooms. The contents of the invisible backpack guide beliefs and behaviors, but often remain undisclosed, forming barriers to relationships and opportunities for learning. Reframing Educator Understanding of Student Behavior TICR emphasizes a change in mindset referred to as a reframe (Pickens, 2020). When educators understand how traumatic life experiences and discrimination have flled their students’ invisible backpacks, they can develop the ability to expand their explanation of student behavior – the strengths and challenges students bring into the classroom. Bridge TICR Program training supports reframing that leads educators to powerful shifts in attitudes (Pickens, 2015).

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Expanding Awareness and Building on Strengths Recognizing that life narratives and the contents of invisible backpacks can either undermine or empower successful school performance, educators can create transformative opportunities for students to propel academic achievement (Pickens, 2020). Students who experience trauma and discrimination often expect unfairness. Negative beliefs are malleable when adults calmly, consistently show concern for students’ wellbeing and acknowledge their perspective. Educators can demonstrate care and trustworthiness when they ask questions about students’ lives and how students can apply learning to their lives. Questions can help educators learn how to create classrooms safe for learning. Educators can then adjust classroom practices, refecting good faith, improving academic experiences, eliminating intimidation, and creating opportunities to revere and respect students’ rich, multifaceted cultural identities and histories (Pickens, 2020).

A Trauma-Informed Approach to Evaluations Striving to integrate trauma-informed practices in schools should also include psychoeducational evaluations. During parent interviews, it is important to ask and assess if a child has experienced any traumatic events, such as child abuse, death of loved ones (including pets!), or family stressors such as divorce, fnancial strain, or an unexpected move. It is important to know if a child has witnessed the death of a loved one, community violence, domestic abuse, or other stressors before classifying as a special education student. It is important to ask specifc and detailed questions because parents may not consider some events traumatic or adverse childhood experiences unless asked directly. Note: Online Resource 8 provides a “Parent Interview Form that incorporates history of potential trauma and symptoms.” If trauma is indicated, assessments can include follow-up scales to further evaluate trauma and possible post-traumatic stress, particularly assessing the impact on a child’s academic and school functioning. Examples of scales include: • • • •

Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTR) Traumatic Events Screening Inventory for Children (TESI-C) Revised Trauma Symptom Checklist (TSC) UCLA PTSD Reaction Index for Children and Adolescents – DSM 5 Version

Note: Online Resource 5 provides a more extensive list of “Sample scales to follow up and further evaluate indicated trauma and possible post-traumatic stress.” Adapted from Wyckoff and Franzese (2019)

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There are also multiple scales available for assessing childhood attachment, parent relationships, behavioral and social-emotional functioning, and parenting stress (see Wycoff & Franzese, 2019 for scale details). Considering the stressful nature of a pandemic and racial inequity, questions specifc to these problems are also warranted and integral to truly understanding a child’s functioning. Questions may include: • • • • • • • • • •

The impact of the pandemic How social distancing has impacted them Activities they engage in while home Racial inequity, systemic and implicit racism experienced Racial tension and inequity witnessed How they are coping Feelings of hopelessness Suicidal thoughts and behaviors How they feel they are doing academically What supports they have at home or virtually Adapted from Erbacher and Wycoff (2021) ******

The next major section explores effective professional development for comprehensive school safety and mental health.

References Baijal, S., Jha, A. P., Kiyonaga, A., Singh, R., & Srinavasan, N. (2011). The infuence of concentrative meditation training on the development of attention networks during early adolescence. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 1–9. Baker, C. N., Augenstern, A. N., Moberg, S. A., Robey, N., & Saybe, M. C. (2020). Developing school staff buy-in for trauma-informed schools. In E. Rossen (Ed.), Supporting and educating traumatized students: A guide for school-based professionals (2nd ed., pp. 359–371). New York: Oxford University Press. Bartholomay, T., Klug, E., & Tyink, S. (2014). Developmental designs self-coaching guide: Refection, feedback, and strategies for high student engagement. Minneapolis, MN: Origins Program. Bostic, J., & Hoover, S. (2020). Improving the child and adolescent crisis system: Shifting from a 9–1–1 to a 9–8–8 paradigm. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors. Brock, S. E., Nickerson, A. B., Reeves, M. A., Conolly, C. N., Jimerson, S. R., Pesce, R., & Lazzaro, B. (2016). School crisis prevention & intervention: The PREPaRE model (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Burdick-Will, J. (2016). Neighborhood violent crime and academic growth in Chicago: Lasting effects of early exposure. Social Forces, 95, 133–157. Chafouleas, S. M., Johnson, A. H., Overstreet, S., & Santos, N. M. (2016). Toward a blueprint for trauma-informed service delivery in schools. School Mental Health, 8, 144–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-015-9166-8

300 School-Wide Programs Condon, P., Desbordes, G., Miller, W. B., & DeSteno, D. (2013). Meditation increases compassionate responses to suffering. Psychological Science, 24(10), 2125–2157. Copeland, W. E., Keeler, G., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2007). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(5), 577– 584. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.577 Cowan, K. C., Vaillancourt, K., Rossen, E., & Pollitt, K. (2013). A framework for safe and successful schools [Brief]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Craig, S. E. (2016). The trauma-sensitive teacher. Educational Leadership, 74(1), 28–32. Diamanduros, T. D., Tysinger, P. D., & Tysinger, J. (2018). Childhood trauma: Information for educators [Handout]. Communiqué, 47(1), 37. Eklund, K., & Rossen, E. (2016). Guidance for trauma screening in schools. Delmar, NY: The National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice. Erbacher, T. A., & Wycoff, K. (2021). A tale of two pandemics: Equitable and trauma-informed threat assessment processes. Communiqué, 49(5), 32–35. Filter, K. J., Sytsma, M. R., & McIntosh, K. (2016). A brief measure of staff commitment to implement school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 42(1), 18–31. https://doi. org/10.1177/1534508416642212 Flatau, K., & Mikolajczyk, E. (2018). Trauma informed care: A toolkit for educators. Philadelphia, PA: Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine. Flook, L., Goldberg, S. B., Pinger, L., Bonus, K., & Davidson, R. J. (2013). Mindfulness for teachers: A pilot study to assess effects on stress, burnout, and teaching effcacy. Mind, Brain, and Education, 7(3), 182–195. Fortson, B. L., Klevens, J., Merrick, M. T., Gilbert, L. K., & Alexander, S. P. (2016). Preventing child abuse and neglect: A technical package for policy, norm, and programmatic activities. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/can-prevention-technical-package.pdf Fritz, S., Coleman, R., Parker, B., Ivey, J., & Hodges, T. (2020). Trauma: What teachers know and how we can help [Poster session]. Baltimore, MD: Convention of the National Association of School Psychologists. Gregory, A., Clawson, K., Davis, A., & Gerewitz, J. (2016). The promise of restorative practices to transform teacher-student relationships and achieve equity in school discipline. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 26, 325– 353. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474412.2014.929950 Hertel, R., & Johnson, M. M. (2020). How the traumatic experiences of students manifest in school settings. In E. Rossen (Ed.), Supporting and educating traumatized students: A guide for school-based professionals (2nd ed., pp. 27–44). New York: Oxford University Press. Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., & Fixsen, D. L. (2017). Implementing effective educational practices at scales of social importance. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 20, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-017-0224-7 Hurt, H., Malmud, E., Brodsky, N. L., & Giannetta, J. (2001). Exposure to violence: Psychological and academic correlates in child witnesses. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 155, 1351–1356. Jaycox, L. H., Langley, A. K., Stein, B. D., Wong, M., Sharma, P., Scott, M., & Schonlau, M. (2009). Support for students exposed to trauma: A pilot study. School Mental Health, 1(2), 49–60.

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Jennings, P. A., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013). Improving classroom learning environments by cultivating awareness and resilience in education (CARE): Results of a randomized controlled trial. School Psychology Quarterly, 28, 374–390. https://doi.org/10.1037/ spq0000035 Johnson, M. E. (2018). The effects of traumatic experiences on academic relationships and expectations in justice-involved children. Psychology in the Schools, 55(3), 240–249. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22102 Lamont, J. H., Devore, C. D., Allison, M., Ancona, R., Barnett, S. E., Gunther, R., . . . & Young, T. (2013). Out-of-school suspension and expulsion. Pediatrics, 131, e1000–e1007. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-3932 Larson, S., Chapman, S., Spetz, J., & Brindis, C. D. (2017). Chronic childhood trauma, mental health, academic achievement, and school-based health center mental health services. Journal of School Health, 87(9), 675–686. Metz, S. M., Frank, J. L., Reibel, D., Cantrell, T., Sanders, R., & Broderick, P. C. (2013). The effectiveness of the learning to BREATHE program on adolescent emotion regulation. Research in Human Development, 10(3), 252–272. Mindful Schools. (2018). Why mindfulness is needed in education [Handout]. Retrieved from www.mindfulschools.org/about-mindfulness/mindfulnessin-education/ NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee. (2015a). Supporting students experiencing childhood trauma: Tips for parents and educators. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. NASP School Safety and Crisis Response Committee. (2015b). Creating traumasensitive schools: Supportive policies and practices for learning [Research summary]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. NASP. (2016). Creating trauma-sensitive schools: Brief tips and policy recommendations [Handout]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Nguyen-Feng, V. N., Carrol, T., & King, L. (2020). Students affected by interpersonal violence. In E. Rossen (Ed.), Supporting and educating traumatized students: A guide for school-based professionals (2nd ed., pp. 277–294). New York: Oxford University Press. Pickens, I. (2015). Bridge Trauma-Informed Culturally Responsive (TICR) program. New York: iOpening Enterprises. Pickens, I. (2020). A trauma-informed and culturally responsive approach in the classroom. In E. Rossen (Ed.), Supporting and educating traumatized students: A guide for school-based professionals (2nd ed., pp. 45–88). New York: Oxford University Press. Pickens, I., & Tschopp, N. (2017). Technical assistance bulletin. Reno, NV: National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges. Project CoVitality. (2020). Emotional regulation in the classroom. Retrieved from www.covitalityucsb.info/infographics/sehs-subdomains.html. Quezada, G. V. (2019). Multi-tiered systems of support for trauma-informed schools. Poster Session presented at the convention of the National Association of School Psychologists, Atlanta, GA. Raes, F., Griffth, J. W., Van der Gucht, K., & Williams, J. M. G. (2014). Schoolbased prevention and reduction of depression in adolescents: A cluster-randomized controlled trial of a mindfulness group program. Mindfulness, 5(5), 477–486.

302 School-Wide Programs Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Larson, R. A., Baroody, A. E., Curby, T. W., Ko, M., Thomas, J. B., . . . & DeCoster, J. (2014). Effcacy of the Responsive Classroom approach: Results from a 3-year, longitudinal randomized controlled trial. American Educational Research Journal, 51, 567–603. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214523821 Roemer, L., Williston, S. K., & Rollins, L. G. (2015). Mindfulness and emotional regulation. Current Opinion in Psychology, 3, 52–57. Roeser, R., Schonert-Reichi, K. A., Jha, A., Cullen, M., Wallace, L., Wilensky, R., . . . & Harrison, J. (2013). Mindfulness training and reductions in teacher stress and burnout: Results from two randomized, waitlist-control feld trials. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 787–804. Rohde-Collins, D. (2020). Students exposed to community violence. In E. Rossen (Ed.), Supporting and educating traumatized students: A guide for school-based professionals (2nd ed., pp. 147–163). New York: Oxford University Press. Rossen, E. (Ed.). (2020). Supporting and educating traumatized students: A guide for school-based professionals (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Rossen, E., & Cowan, K. (2013). The role of schools in supporting traumatized students. Principal’s Research Review, 8(6), 1–8. Schonert-Reichi, K. A., Oberle, E., Lawler, M. S., Abbott, D., Thomson, K., Oberlander, T. F., & Diamond, A. (2015). Enhancing cognitive and social-emotional development through a simple-to-administer mindfulness-based school program for elementary school children: A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 52–56. Semple, R. J., Lee, J., Rosa, D., & Miller, L. F. (2010). A randomized sample of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for children: Promoting mindful attention to enhance social-emotional resiliency in children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(2), 218–229. Sharkey, P., Schwarts, A. E., Ellen, I. G., & Lacoe, J. (2014). High stakes in the classroom, high stakes on the street: The effects of community violence on students’ standardized test performance. Sociological Science, 1, 199–220. Sitler, H. C. (2009). Teaching with awareness: The hidden effects of trauma on learning. The Clearing House, 82(3), 119–123. Souers, K., & Hall, P. (2016). Fostering resilient learners: Strategies for creating a trauma-sensitive classroom. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Sporleder, J., & Forbes, H. T. (2016). The trauma-informed school. Boulder, CO: Beyond Consequences Institute, LLC. Tough, P. (2016). Trauma-informed classrooms. The Atlantic. Retrieved from www. theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/06/howkidsreallysucceed/480744/ Waasdorp, T. E., Bradshaw, C. P., & Leaf, P. J. (2012). The impact of schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports on bullying and peer rejection. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 166, 149–156. https://doi. org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.755 Wilcox, P., Tillyer, M. S., & Fisher, B. S. (2009). Gendered opportunity? Schoolbased adolescent victimization. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 46, 245–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427808330875 Wittich, C., Wogenrich, C., Overstreet, S., Baker, C. N., & The New Orleans Trauma-Informed Schools learning Collaborative. (2019). Barriers and facilitators of the implementation of trauma-informed schools. Research and Practice in the Schools. Manuscript submitted for publication.

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Wolpow, R., Johnson, M. M., Hertel, R., & Kincaid, S. O. (2011). The heart of learning and teaching: Compassion, resiliency, and academic success (2nd ed.). Olympia, WA: Washington State Offce of Superintendent of Public Instruction Compassionate Schools. Retrieved from https://rems.ed.gov/docs/OSPI_ TheHeartofLearningandTeaching.pdf Wycoff, K., & Franzese, B. (2019). Essentials of trauma-informed assessment and intervention in school and community settings. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Section V

Professional Development for School Safety and Mental Health

16 Developing Effective Professional Development

Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of the mind to think. ~ Albert Einstein

While working as a school psychologist, I (Jeff Roth) used to look forward to professional development. Besides a welcome change in routine, there was the hope that something meaningful would happen. In those days, attending professional development was a bit like playing a slot machine. Some “hits,” more “misses,” but the intermittent reinforcement (and the district requirement) kept us coming back with some enthusiasm. Later, as a coordinator, fellow school psychologists and I sometimes had more say choosing the training provided to us. We deliberately sought learning that addressed educator needs, trying to get a “hit” every time. I learned that involving educators in identifying professional learning needs and securing their buy-in signifcantly increased the odds of getting a “hit.” Frustration, Fear, and Flameout I recall reading a blog in which a school psychologist expressed frustration about being expected to provide yet another topic for training teachers about student emotional wellbeing. She recognized the benefts of such training but felt alone and unprepared for the expectation of providing so much of it. If a school psychologist, often advocating for socialemotional learning, feels overwhelmed, imagine the apprehension of teachers charged with one of the most challenging professions on earth. Already struggling with the demands of curriculum, classroom management, and successful student learning, extensive professional development targeting mental health can seem a burden rather than an asset. It is understandable that the school psychologist charged with conducting a workshop does not want to be set up for failure (Jeff Roth). This chapter is about meeting the challenge of developing effective professional development for school safety and mental health. When a school’s leadership team creates a mission statement, vision, and a needs

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assessment, they inform about programs to pursue and strive to involve stakeholders in ownership of program selection, training, and implementation. The leadership team must realize that the concerted, intensive efforts to bring new programs to a school will come to nothing unless there is well-planned organizational change and excellent professional development.

The Process of Organizational Development and Change Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, and Wallace (2005), commenting on effective implementation of evidence-based programs, emphasized the role of organizational change and intentional redesign. They identifed elements important to organizational change: •

• • •

• •

Leadership commitment to the implementation process. Studies found with high management commitment that productivity gains were fve times higher than with low management commitment. They identifed some of the many functions of leadership: • Initiate and guide the organization through the complex process of change • Set and clearly communicate explicit goals throughout the organization, resolving conficts with other goals and reinforcing persistence • Help create details of activities, processes, and tasks that operationalize implementation policies • Inspire, guide, and provide direction • Recruit, select, train, advance, and make other staff moves that further implementation aims Involvement of stakeholders in planning and selecting programs to implement. Encourage buy-in and ownership during and beyond implementation Creation of an implementation leadership team. Comprised of consumers, stakeholders, union, and community leaders to oversee the process “Unfreezing” current organizational practices. Including possible use of external consultants or trainers, changing practices and integrating functions, and reinforcing new levels of organizational management Resources and infrastructure. For extra costs, effort, materials, access to expertise, and re-training for new organizational roles for implementation Alignment of organizational structures to integrate selection, training, performance evaluation, and ongoing training. Including human resource functions such as changing job descriptions, compensation, and attention to morale

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•

Alignment of organizational structures to achieve horizontal and vertical integration. Including training for educators and lead teachers, staff trainers, administrators, and resource liaisons and partners Commitment of ongoing resources and support. To provide time and scheduling for participatory planning, collaborative leadership, coaching, evolution of teamwork, and more Adapted from Fixsen et al. (2005)

Secure Stakeholder Buy-In Throughout the Development Process Teachers must have opportunities to translate their enthusiasm for teaching into creative instruction and collaborative planning with colleagues. They must trust that administrators and mental health professionals will work beside them, consult with them, and join them to evaluate programs. Problems with programs must be viewed as opportunities to make adjustments that improve them. Teachers must believe these programs will make a positive difference in their teaching practice and the lives of their students. As schools commit to professional development, they must keep the doses manageable. They must avoid rushing and trying to ft too much into too little time. Instead, PRIORITIZE! Allow suffcient time to assess educator needs, provide selected training topics, and plan for followup support after training. A key consideration is implementing a userfriendly, long-term, coordinated plan with educator input that does not overwhelm teachers and other stakeholders. Effective professional development involves a longitudinal, prioritized, integrated approach, including technical assistance and periodic booster trainings. An effcient professional development plan begins with a school leadership team comprised of school administrator(s), school-based mental health professionals, and both experienced and relatively new teachers who are respected by the school staff. A dedicated leadership team is one of the keys to managing extensive professional development by setting a foundation forged in a mission, vision and goals to strive toward while planning, conducting a needs assessment, prioritizing needs, and researching and selecting evidence-based programs and practices. A trusted, credible leadership team can encourage stakeholder buy-in and support. Professional development utilizes existing school programs and resources such as professional learning communities (PLCs), described in Chapter 3, to align new strategies that further academic, safety, and mental health goals. PLCs help secure buy-in by providing a learning process for groups of teachers to develop, evaluate, and improve interventions, promoting teacher leadership and encouraging collaboration

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to refect on innovative programs and deepen understanding and skills. Effective professional development builds the capacity of the educational system, including community, school-wide, and individual relationships to address areas of need and share knowledge.

Administrator Support and Teacher Buy-In: Critical for Success Before buy-in, there must be rapport, the close relationship that can be formed by people working together. Rapport embodies a sense of trust, mutual respect, comfort, even admiration that can develop over time between friends, colleagues, or someone who is leading, mentoring, or guiding another person toward a goal. In a school setting, for a new program to be accepted, it is immensely helpful to have rapport with the person proposing that program. Often, that person presenting the proposal is an administrator, lead teacher, school psychologist, or an outside consultant. Beyond the status of the presenter, the program must be perceived as needed, practical, and having a chance to succeed. McGraw and Koonce (2011) emphasized that administrator leadership is essential to the success of long-term change processes. They identifed the central role played by administrators in the adoption, implementation, and maintenance of all school-wide programs and innovative interventions. Administrators supporting change can secure needed infrastructure, identify needed resources, and design policies that encourage implementation and maintenance of the intervention (Hall & Hord, 2006). Facilitators of change such as school psychologists, counselors, and administrators are most successful when they have developed collaborative, trusting relationships with their staff. Cynicism expressed by an administrator or school mental health professional toward a new program or practice is a prescription for failure. A cynical approach can happen even with potentially benefcial programs, if insuffcient time or resources are perceived. The last thing change agents want is for teachers who have seen programs come and go to believe they are being set up for failure. “Here is another training module that has nothing to do with reading, writing, or mathematics.” A teacher feeling stressed and pressured to demonstrate academic achievement may not recognize that the most recent “non-academic” initiative can signifcantly enhance school climate, student mental health, teacher satisfaction, and academic achievement. How do we share tons of information and multiple programs without overwhelming our audience? Wilson and Berne (1999) argued that learning cannot be mandated. Teachers required to attend professional development programs arrive with a differing range of perceptions, teaching knowledge, and instructional behaviors. They may also differ in their openness to learning new programs and practices. Therefore, it is critical that those presenting professional development offer meaningful topics and are prepared to

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engage in constant negotiation and dialogue to enlist teacher feedback, understanding, and support. Professional development for educators can model the importance of ongoing learning and help to establish a culture of learning throughout the school community. The foundation of professional development is strengthened by administrative support and teacher buy-in. An essential aspect of educator professional growth is collaborative learning communities – from the frst year and throughout an educator’s career. According to Tschannen-Moran and Chen (2014), the collective effcacy of teachers – their belief that the faculty as a whole can take steps needed to produce desired student outcomes – signifcantly affects whether teachers will successfully implement instructional approaches learned from professional development. The infuence of school administrators on school climate, teacher effcacy and morale, student behavior, and the effectiveness of new programs cannot be overstated. Recognizing the critical role of school administrators in supporting new practices, Tallerico (2014) summarized leadership responsibilities for effective professional development design: •

•

•

•

Enhance coherence. Involves connection and complement or ft meaning that content selected for training is connected to “top priority directions” and that previous initiatives must be considered so that learning is cumulative, enhancing and reinforcing prior knowledge, but is not redundant Increase duration. Longer duration enhances professional development in that 1) opportunities to digest, practice, and refect upon new learning are increased, and 2) the incorporation of effective features such as depth of subject knowledge and reinforcement of coherence are facilitated Foster collective participation at the school level. Effectiveness of professional development is enhanced when teachers participate in training with their grade-level, subject-area, or interest topic colleagues Use active learning strategies. Opportunities for active learning with “hands-on” practice is essential for transfer of new skills to the classroom. Discussion, exercises, simulations, role playing, peer observation of teaching, joint planning, peer coaching, and team demonstrations, or written products, are examples of active learning strategies

Tallerico (2014) emphasized that administrators and facilitators must sense, openly discuss, and resolve conficts and differences of opinion among staff when they arise. Process questions such as “where are we in the process and where do we need to go?” or “what is getting in the way of

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our movement toward goals?” can support open, constructive communication. Resolution of differences also models for teachers, many of whom will exert leadership on collaborative teams. Tallerico reminded leaders to be prepared to counteract stories of failure and negative anecdotes that can block motivation. Careful listening can help address the specifcs of a toxic story, not disparaging the teller but sharing current examples of collaboration and improvements. Education leaders can model openness to input and refect hopefulness and optimism in their language, attitudes, and actions. Rossen and Cowan (2015) suggested that school leaders take steps to improve mental health services through often “untapped resources”: • • •

•

•

Make optimal use of school mental health professionals. Easy, stigmafree access to mental health providers and improved provider-tostudent ratios Mine your data with purpose. School-wide data collection, often by school psychologists, can help identify behavioral, mental health, and other issues on which to focus Work collaboratively. Mental health supports must be provided for students to achieve academic goals, but this requires collaboration among staff, district resources, community partners, and other schools and districts if needed Tap all potential funding sources. School mental health providers are eligible for Medicaid reimbursement in many states, IDEA allows districts to spend up to 15% of funds on general education learning supports, and public and private grants are available, especially if mental health services involve a pressing issue or school-community partnership Engage families. Critical partners in supporting mental health, engagement can be supported by understanding families’ cultural attitudes and experiences with mental health and help seeking Adapted from Rossen and Cowan (2015)

Professional learning communities (PLCs), or learning teams, require that school leadership adapt schedules that allow grade-level, content-area, or project-focused teams to collaborate on solving problems and developing innovative programs and teaching strategies. See Chapter 3 for more information about PLCs. Hord and Hirsh (2009) suggested how principals can support learning communities : •

Emphasize to teachers that you know they can succeed – together. Express the belief that teachers working together can pool expertise to make learning happen

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Expect teachers to keep knowledge fresh. Share the expectation that teachers can develop their skills through ongoing training and collaborative study Guide communities toward self-governance. Learning communities are most effective when they are democratic and participatory. From the beginning, share authority and decision making, while gradually preparing and urging community members to assume leadership roles Make data accessible. Effective learning communities become profcient at using data for decision making Teach discussion and decision-making skills. Help teachers develop skills in group facilitation and making decisions together, especially if professional collaboration is new to the school Show teachers the research. Among the benefts of professional learning communities demonstrated by research are: 1) collective responsibility for student success, 2) increased understanding of how teachers help students achieve, 3) getting feedback and assistance from peers, and 4) professional renewal – learning can be deeper in the social context Take time to build trust. Professional learning communities must maintain an atmosphere of trust and comfort between teachers and the principal, and among the teachers. Trust can be strengthened by providing guided practice in facilitating conversations, decision making, managing confict, and maintaining the focus on enhancing student and teacher learning

Fullen, Cuttress, and Kilcher (2005) noted that even when new practices are implemented with integrity, there may be an implementation dip, in which using new knowledge and skills sometimes results in teacher and student performance getting worse before it gets better. Awareness of this phenomenon is important to avoid prematurely abandoning reform efforts because of initially disappointing outcomes. Teachers need encouragement if they stumble when frst using new practices. Improvements in student achievement generally take time. The possibility of an implementation dip and time needed for positive outcomes also supports the rationale that ongoing follow-up and technical support for teachers enacting new practices is vital for success. School Mental Health Professionals Sharing Leadership and Training School psychologists, with principals and other school leaders, can constructively deal with resistance and move change processes forward. School psychologists can assist leadership teams, creating effcient and effective planning processes for new interventions. School

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psychologists can use consultation to validate concerns and address problems. They understand that some staff will need more time, and possibly more training and incentives, than others to adopt and implement new programs. School leaders who facilitate and manage professional development and program implementation must be provided knowledge and skills in organizational development and change processes. We must develop our professional developers. It is expected that outside consultants and trainers hired by districts and schools have organizational knowledge and skills. An effective training process will develop the capacity of districts and schools to conduct their own training and program development. The Training of Trainers (ToT) model is an example of an effective way to build district or school capacity to teach specifc programs, including those that address school safety and mental health. School mental health professionals, administrators, and lead teachers can also develop skills needed to understand organizational change and the science of implementing and evaluating programs. Eagle, Dowd-Eagle, Snyder, and Holtzman (2015) advocated for an interdisciplinary partnership between school administrators and school psychologists, each uniquely positioned to apply complementary areas of expertise, including shared leadership and consultation with an individual, or an organizational system-level focus to drive implementation of services. In the example of MTSS, administrators have expertise in logistics, funding, and fostering environments that support effective, sustainable implementation (organizational drivers), while school psychologists have content expertise in core components of MTSS such as data-based decision making, evidence-based interventions, systemic problem solving, and staff skill building (competency drivers). Both administrators and school psychologists can share knowledge of leadership for technical and adaptive change (leadership drivers). Chapter 18 will describe more about categories of implementation drivers. Eagle and colleagues emphasized that building administrators must provide enough time for staff competency development through training and ongoing coaching. School leaders are described as “symphony concertmasters,” making certain that all players are in harmony with each other. The distributed leadership model (Spillane, 2006) is cited for its collaborative nature, which encourages principals, school psychologists, and other educators to share as leadership drivers for MTSS implementation. Principals and school psychologists can encourage, facilitate, and reinforce teachers and staff changing or expanding roles and responsibilities, and provide them with additional professional development to build their capacity to welcome new roles (Eagle et al., 2015). It is crucial that change agents such as school psychologists, school counselors, and school social workers have strong collaborative relationships and effective communication with school administrators.

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Suggestions for school psychologists to make the most of time-sensitive meetings with administrators include: •

Know your audience – when crafting your message, consider your administrator’s: • • • • •

•

Arrive at the meeting with a goal or plan and how to accomplish it. Bring: • •

•

Data that support and illustrate your case 1–2-page written summary of your key points to preserve the message

Defne the problem, shaping it with concern for all impacted populations: • • • • •

•

Primary concerns Hidden or overt agendas Possible barriers to understanding Competing considerations Ability or likelihood to take action

Students (with data that addresses areas of need, whether academic, behavioral, or social-emotional) Staff (skills, collaboration, school or classroom climate, morale, development and training) Parents (communication, involvement, collaboration) Administrators (achievement progress and needs, school climate, resource allocation, staff development priorities) Community (access to services, involvement, collaboration, safety)

Suggest actions or solutions, with detailed information about implementation steps: •

What needs to be done? What contributing resources can be tapped and how will staff be affected? • What role can you play in implementing the solution and monitoring effectiveness? Tell administrator how you can help • Whenever possible, share that solution plans will be developed with others using team problem solving • Present solutions in terms of benefts they will bring to the school, framing them from the administrator’s point of view (improved student achievement, positive school climate, better use of resources) When presenting ideas to an audience: • •

Pick your main message, stating it at the beginning Support the main message with 2–3 key messages and how the issue affects learning

316 Professional Development • • •

“Put a face on the message” by providing personal examples or stories Suggest specifc solutions Describe how school psychologists and other school mental health professionals can play essential roles in supporting school wellbeing Adapted from NASP (2009)

Multiple Roles of the School Psychologist Beyond their traditional focus on diagnostic assessments for special education eligibility, Nastasi, Moore, and Varjas (2004) summarized the broad range of mental health services provided by school psychologists: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Direct service providers for students with, or at risk for, mental disorders. Indirect service providers for families of students with mental health needs. Prevention specialists who develop, implement, and evaluate programs that promote mental health or prevent social-emotional problems. Consultants with teachers and administrators facilitating classroombased or building-level mental health services. Advocates for school-based services for children. Assessment and development of procedures for screening and identifying students at risk for mental health problems. Professional developers for school staff in topics related to mental health. Coordinators of system-wide or interagency community efforts.

While researching this book, throughout the literature the authors found words similar to “School psychologists are in a unique position to . . .” followed by a myriad of possible areas of intervention to facilitate positive change. These words were often used because they are true. This is an exciting time to be a school psychologist, when the possibilities for leading change appear almost limitless. The traditional needs to assess and support student learning and behavior remain evident, along with a substantially greater emphasis on supporting school safety and student mental health. Given daunting expectations for advocacy and leadership in facilitating professional and program development, school psychologists are in a unique but also vulnerable position. Just as schools must assess their needs and set reasonable priorities, so must school psychologists examine the interface of their professional values, knowledge, and skills with identifed needs and resources of their schools, and set reasonable

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priorities. No one person – even a highly trained school psychologist – can do it alone. And no one team can do it all. School psychologists, school counselors, school social workers, administrators, and teachers play a critical role in advocating for needed professional development and implementing mental health programs and services. Buy-in for school mental health professionals means being willing to assume leadership roles. Buy-in for school mental health professionals also means getting appropriate training to train others and develop programs. In order to best provide collaborative leadership for school reform efforts, school psychologists and other school mental health professionals must receive training in organizational development, facilitating professional and program development, and program content areas of need. This training can occur through undergraduate and graduate university work, post-graduate workshops and training modules, and Training of Trainers (ToT) models to facilitate new program and content areas. School psychologists and other school mental health professionals can list professional development topics they are prepared to facilitate and distribute that list to schools, administrators, teacher groups, parent groups, and community agencies. Professional development topics could also be publicized through newsletters, print and social media, school and other websites, and faculty and PTA meetings. Eklund and colleagues (2020a) pointed out that many school psychologists are not providing mental and behavioral health (MBH), services even with the high need. Their survey of school psychologists found psychologist-to-student ratios far below professional caseload recommendations, with minimal delivery of weekly prevention-oriented and targeted, direct MBH services. To expand MBH delivery, Eklund and colleagues recommended increased awareness and support among school and district administrators, and access to training and professional development for MBH services (Eklund et al., 2020a). It is clear that a shortage of school psychologists and school-based mental health professionals must be addressed with recruitment efforts, including focused efforts such as the NASP Exposure Project, to attract racially and ethnically diverse practitioners (Barrett, Harper, Hudson, & Malone, 2020). Education News and Trends reported: 1.7 million students with NO school counselors 3 million students with NO school nurses 6 million students with NO school psychologists 10 million students with NO school social workers (NEA Today, 2019, Volume 37 Number 5)

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Needs Assessment and Program Selection Resource Mapping as Part of Needs Assessment Resource mapping is a strategy that can help schools to identify or develop a broad range of available supports and resources (Lever et al., 2014). According to Crane and Mooney (2005), resource mapping is a systembuilding process to align resources, strategies, and desired outcomes. Within the multi-tiered framework, a resource mapping process can identify resources that address needs at each tier of supports. (Lever et al., 2014). As part of a systemic needs assessment using school data sources, resource mapping can improve existing school–community partnerships, collaboration, and coordination. Working as a team to develop resource mapping can also identify a broader array of resources and increase student, family, and staff awareness of listed resources (Lever et al., 2014). Of critical importance for professional development, resource mapping can facilitate identifying resource gaps that need to be flled and integrating new resources with effective pre-existing resources and programs. School-based and community supports often do not reach students and families in need because of insuffcient resource mapping and awareness: • • •

Busy school staff may not share resources they are aware of with each other, necessitating improved sharing of school and community resources The decision to use a given resource is often related to a funding stream or mandate, or as a reaction to an incident rather than as part of a systematic process of mapping available resources Awareness of a program may be limited to a school or a small group of individuals in the school – even when services are available to the entire community Adapted from Lever et al. (2014)

Mapping resources graphically, according to a system of multi-tiered supports, helps to organize available resources within the school and the larger community into a standardized, clear, centralized format accessible to all staff. This can create clarity as to who can make referrals for services, how referrals are made, and follow-up plans to monitor referral success (Lever et al., 2014). Resource mapping assists school teams in the following ways: 1.

Documents broad resources accessible within a school, its district, or the larger community.

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Helps identify new or additional resources to sustain and build upon existing initiatives, or fll in gaps in support. Illustrates and documents resources across a Multi-Tiered System of Supports to monitor effectiveness and build capacity for a comprehensive care system. Increases awareness of school staff of the diverse resources available in the school and community. Adapted from Lever et al. (2014)

Assess Critical Needs for Training and Programs A leadership team or MTSS team to can develop a process to identify training content areas that ft school needs. A variety of methods can be used to assess and prioritize a school’s critical program needs. Areas of need and specifc programs can be identifed by informal, informed discussion, brainstorming, and consensus by the leadership team or MTSS team based on the school’s previous, current, and anticipated experiences and problematic issues. A leadership or MTSS team can also utilize a more formal needs assessment, including surveys of stakeholders or collection of data that indicates a problem such as disproportionately high rates of suspensions or low rates of participation in advanced academic classes by African American students, or increased reports of bullying or suicidal ideation. It is important that program choices ft the school’s needs, culture, values, and diverse population of students, educators, and families. Chapter 18 will describe other important considerations when assessing needs, including the school’s readiness and capacity to implement, the availability of supportive infrastructure and suffcient resources, and the evidence-base of a program being compatible with school characteristics and needs. When assessing critical needs, it is imperative to keep in mind that selected programs will require training, implementation, coordination by educators and teams, maintenance, and collection of outcomes data to make improvements and sustain effectiveness. Selection of effective professional development and programs must take into account the needs of the entire school community, including students, teachers, administrators, staff, families, and community agencies. Establishing partnerships can help identify and provide for either common or dedicated training. The extent of specifc training may be viewed as community-wide, district- or school-wide, or needed only for certain groups such as administrators, teachers, families, and school and community mental health providers, or combinations of groups such as administrators and mental health providers. Suggested ways of organizing assessment and selection of programs for training include: 1. 2.

Core and selected programs. Programs within tiers of a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS).

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Professional Development Programs by clusters of needs.

Selecting Training for Core and Selected Programs While there is no “one size fts all” for professional development and programs, some training needs are basic and essential for all schools. They are universally relevant, regardless of location, population, and culture. They include knowledge, skills, and coordinated teams that all schools should have. They constitute a core set of evidence-based content and initiatives such as safety and crisis response teams; threat and risk assessment teams; school-wide programs such as suicide and bullying prevention, cultural responsiveness, and valuing diversity; and a multi-tiered system of academic, social-emotional, and behavioral supports. A variety of complementary core programs, values, and norms can be integrated and aligned to help create a positive school climate. In addition to a core set of essential programs and training, the leadership or MTSS team can use an informal, consensus-driven process and a formal needs assessment to identify selected areas for training and programs. Some training needs are indigenous to specifc geographic areas, for example preparation for natural disasters such as foods, hurricanes, tornadoes, wildfres, or earthquakes. It is essential that schools in areas that experience these types of potential disasters have knowledge, skills, and coordinated teams trained for response to them. Programs and training may also be selected or strengthened based upon identifed school issues that must be addressed, such as racial inequities or spikes in bullying or threats of suicide. Occasionally, an unanticipated situational crisis or event may indicate a need for training or program emphasis, which can often build upon or adapt previous training or an established program. Selecting Programs Within Tiers of MTSS A leadership or MTSS team can organize and plan their needs assessment and selection of school safety and mental health programs and training by analyzing the tiers of MTSS. For example, •

•

Tier 1 universal programs. Could include the school safety and crisis response teams, threat and risk assessment teams, mental health screening, and positive school climate, including integrated schoolwide programs such as PBIS, SEL, TIS, bullying, and suicide prevention Tier 2 targeted programs. Could include Response to Intervention (RtI), Functional Behavior Assessments and behavior intervention plans, counseling and mentoring, Check-In/Check-Out, and support groups for social skills training, anger management, anxiety

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management, grief, trauma, LGBTQ+/Gay–Straight Alliance, or divorce support Tier 3 intensive programs. Could include community mental health and ethnic support agencies, cultural community leaders, family support services, tutoring/academic support, Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (C-BITS), wraparound services, or MOUs with community service organizations

See Chapter 6 (Table 6.1) for a more detailed list of program options organized within a multi-tiered system. An alternative to grouping programs by MTSS tiers is to cluster programs according to specifc areas of related needs. Selecting Programs by Clusters of Needs Related programs addressing critical needs can be prioritized according to clusters such as 1) school safety and crisis prevention/intervention, 2) school-wide/school climate programs, and 3) mental health and prevention programs. Professional development can focus on programs in one cluster at a time or focus on one program in each of multiple clusters at the same time, targeting dedicated groups for training. The following is a plan that informs professional development needs, listing clusters of program options grouped according to related areas of need: School safety/crisis cluster • • • • • • • •

School safety team School crisis prevention and response team PREPaRE training Safety/Vulnerability needs assessment of physical and psychological safety Threat assessment team Risk assessment team Technology team social media monitoring/gatekeeping Teacher stress management

School-wide/school climate cluster • •

Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) Positive school climate program (school-wide) • School climate survey – needs assessment • School connectedness and relationships (student–teacher, student–student, teacher–teacher) • Cultural responsiveness and diversity appreciation

322 • • • •

Professional Development Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) Trauma-Informed School (TIS) Responsive Classroom (RC)

Mental health and prevention cluster • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Mental health needs assessment Universal mental health screening Response to Intervention (RtI) Youth Mental Health First Aid training for staff/students/families Suicide prevention program Bullying prevention program Dropout prevention program Mentoring support Counseling/coaching students Mindfulness program Confict resolution/restorative practices Cultural/ethnic community partnerships Bibliotherapy book collection Support groups • • • • • •

•

LGBTQ+/Gay–Straight Alliance support groups Social skills groups Grief support groups Anxiety management groups Anger management groups Divorce support groups

Intensive interventions • • • • •

Memorandums of understanding (MOUs) with community agencies, mental health, hospitals, law enforcement, fre fghters Suicide intervention/postvention Individual Education Plans (IEPs) Section 504 Plans Therapeutic interventions by community agencies

Select Evidence-Based Programs That Fit School Needs There must be informed selection of programs and practices that are a good ft for school needs, resources, culture, context, and student diversity, and integrated with effective pre-existing programs and practices. Using evidence-based prevention involves applying the relevant research and data while planning and implementing a program. It involves engaging in an evidence-based practice and selecting or developing evidence-based programs (Suicide Prevention Resource Center (SPRC), 2002–2019a, b)

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Engaging in evidence-based practice includes: • • • • • •

Decision making based upon the best available scientifc evidence Using data and information systematically Applying frameworks designed for program planning Engaging the community in decision making Conducting a comprehensive evaluation Disseminating what is learned to decision makers and stakeholders Adapted from SPRC (2002–2019a)

Selecting evidence-based programs: • • • •

Information about evidence-based programs can be found in registries listing evaluated programs and literature reviews that summarize study results Consider programs that have evidence related to the objectives, outcomes, and targeted population of the selecting school Make certain a program’s basic theory of change is consistent with desired outcomes of the selecting school Pay attention to the criteria used in registries to indicate that a program is evidence-based Adapted from SPRC (2002–2019b)

Using evidence-based program registries and lists thoughtfully: • • • • • • •

Caution: A listed evidence-based program that demonstrated effectiveness in one or more research outcomes may not be a good ft for your population, setting, resources, or goals Avoid simply “picking from the list,” and instead thoughtfully consider the unique plans and needs of your setting Start with a local needs assessment of the problems, resources, and needs to be addressed before making a selection Understand the registry or list, examining the defnitions, criteria, and evidence ratings being used Assess relevance, looking for programs that address the factors infuencing the identifed problems and desired outcomes for your setting Examine the evaluated outcomes and their evidence of effectiveness when choosing programs relevant for your population, setting, resources, and goals Consider practical ft, choosing programs that work for your population, setting, culture, resources, and your capacity and readiness to act Adapted from SPRC (2002–2019b)

Note: Book Appendix or Online Resource 1 provides a non-exhaustive list of “Highly rated, evidence-based programs.”

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Cultural considerations in selecting and implementing evidence-based programs: • • • •

•

Culturally competent approaches are crucial to program success Remember that many evidence-based programs were not developed or demonstrated effective with diverse populations Consider frst doing a small pilot study on the current target population and evaluate effectiveness before implementing a full-scale program that was evaluated using a less diverse population Consider using practice-based evidence (PBE) programs, which are practices embedded in local cultures and viewed as effective by the community – PBE practice draws upon cultural knowledge to develop programs respectful to local defnitions of wellness, but should also be evaluated for effectiveness. PBE is described in more detail in Chapter 18 PBE also represents “ground up” participatory program design, rather than the often used “top down” process in which evidencebased interventions (EBIs) having a different research basis are disseminated to local communities Adapted from SPRC (2002–2019a, b)

The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2016) provided guidelines for selecting evidence-based Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) programs. These guidelines may be adapted for selecting other types of evidence-based programs. CASEL delineates three key principles to support effective selection, implementation, impact, and sustainability of evidence-based SEL programs: Principle 1. School and district teams, rather than an individual, engage diverse stakeholders to identify shared priorities in the program selection process. Principal 2. Implementing evidence-based [SEL] programs within systemic, ongoing district and school planning, programming, and evaluation leads to better practice and more positive outcomes for students. Principle 3. It is critical to consider local contextual factors (e.g., student characteristics, programs already in place) when [using the CASEL Guide and] gathering additional information in order to make the best decisions about which programs to implement. CASEL organized steps to serve as further guidance for selecting evidence-based programs: Step 1: Use the SELect guide to identify program candidates. CASEL provides a guide that lists evidence-based SEL programs. Similarly, school leadership teams can research other literature and directories when engaging in a selection process for other types of programs.

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CASEL recommends reviewing three aspects of each program being considered: program design, implementation support, and evidence of effectiveness. Program design. Provides details that indicate whether the program is a good “ft” for the prospective school’s vision and current programs, student and staff population, specifc needs, and context. Specifc considerations to guide discussion of program “ft”: • • • •

Grade range covered Approaches to promote SEL (or any selected program) Number of SEL lessons (or lessons of any selected program) Settings that promote and reinforce SEL (or that promote and reinforce any selected program)

Implementation support. Considers factors such as the preparation, training, and resources needed to implement an effective program: • Recommended training model. Does the training model provide suffcient training and support, and is the model feasible? • Technical assistance and implementation supports. Does the program provide administrative supports, ongoing coaching, and opportunities for professional learning communities? Are tools for monitoring implementation provided that allow collection of information or data to improve quality? • Train the Trainer. In order to sustain the program, does the program offer a train the trainer model that builds internal capacity at reasonable cost? Evidence of effectiveness. Involves looking at research outcomes and whether the study sample, design, and effects are similar to the selecting school’s population, context, and desired outcomes. Factors indicating whether successful results can be anticipated in the school considering the program include: • Study demographics. Was the study conducted with a population sample similar to the students in the selecting school? • Study design. Since randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are generally more rigorous than quasi-experimental designs, programs with more studies and more RCTs are likely to have a stronger research base • Outcomes demonstrating effects. Programs should demonstrate strong outcomes in the selecting school’s identifed areas of need

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Professional Development Step 2: Review program descriptions to narrow your search. Program descriptions provide information about specifc program designs. There is detailed information about the range of grade levels and the skills the program teaches. Program outcomes may be summarized and a link to the program’s website can provide further information. Some programs make efforts to adapt to specifc cultural contexts, and some program content may be designed to help teachers adapt activities to the cultures or linguistic needs of their students. Step 3: Gather additional information about your top program candidates. When a leadership team narrows selection candidates to three or four programs that appear to meet their needs and goals, explore those programs more deeply. It is advisable to contact the program provider. Gather additional information on these key issues: • Program costs. Costs for training and materials may be separate or combined. Costs may also depend on unique circumstances such as whether the district can support Training of Trainers, or had previous training • Training and support for implementation. Initial training to implement a specifc program is essential, and ongoing training and support such as periodic review and discussion, a buddy system, on-site coaching, or consultation is highly recommended • Continuing program evaluation. A process for regularly evaluating implementation integrity and student outcomes should be in place • Review materials. Carefully review materials before deciding to select any program. Preview of sample lessons is generally cost free • Information about others who have experience with the program. It is strongly suggested to get feedback from other districts and schools, preferably in person. Many programs provide a list of regional schools that have used the program. Ideally, they will be similar to the school considering selection, and close enough to visit and observe Step 4: Assess the cultural sensitivity and linguistic responsiveness of the program. Youth and their families learn best when material is culturally and linguistically relevant and appropriate. Consider a program’s cultural and linguistic appropriateness: • How does the program ensure that language, content, and activities are appropriate for the school community? • Has the program been evaluated with populations similar to the participating school?

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• Are there program evaluations that provide information about cultural and linguistic appropriateness for various student groups? • Are schools in communities with culture and languages similar to the participating school using the program, and can they be contacted? CASEL suggests that a subcommittee comprised of parents, school staff, and community stakeholders representing cultural perspectives help review programs being considered. Step 5: Contact and visit schools using the program. Contact one or more schools using the program and speak with teachers who have used it. If possible, observe the program, or if at a distance, arrange telephone interviews. Step 6: Completing the selection process and beyond. When a program is selected, planning for effective implementation includes developing strategies to support implementation. Strategies can include teacher observation and feedback, peer coaching, training to incorporate the program into daily routines, time for teachers to meet and refect on progress, and use of program self-assessment tools to assist evaluation. During the frst year of implementation, it may be useful to begin with a modest effort or pilot and improve as needed, before scaling up and expanding the program school-wide. Adapted from the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2016). What is SEL? ****** Having taken the important steps to prepare a school to commit to professional development, lead the process, assess needs, and select programs, the next chapter addresses best practices in presenting quality training and follow-up.

References Barrett, C. A., Harper, E., Hudson, N., & Malone, C. (2020). The NASP Exposure Project: Research in practice to advance strategic goals. Communiqué, 48(7), 12–14. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). (2016). What is SEL? Retrieved from www.casel.org/what-is-sel/ Crane, K., & Mooney, M. (2005). Essential tools, improving secondary education and transition for youth with disabilities: Community resource mapping. Retrieved from www.ncset.org/publications/essentialtools/mapping/ Eagle, J. W., Dowd-Eagle, S. E., Snyder, A., & Holtzman, E. G. (2015). Implementing a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS): Collaboration between school

328 Professional Development psychologists and administrators to promote systems-level change. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 25(2–3), 160–177. Eklund, K., De Marchina, S. L., Rossen, E., Izumi, J. T., Vaillancourt, A., & Kelly, S. R. (2020a). Examining the role of school psychologists as providers of mental and behavioral health services. Psychology in the Schools, 57(4). doi. org/10.1002/pits.22323 Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature. Tampa, FL: University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, The National Implementation Research Network (FMHI Publication @231). Fullen, M., Cuttress, C., & Kilcher, A. (2005). Forces for leaders of change. Journal of Staff Development, 26(94), 54–59. Hall, G. E., & Hord, S. M. (2006). Implementing change: Patterns, principles, and potholes. (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Hord, S. M., & Hirsh, S. A. (2009). The principal’s role in supporting learning communities. Educational Leadership, 66(5), 22–23. Lever, N., Castle, M., Cammack, N., Bohnencamp, J., Stephan, S., Bernstein, L., . . . & Sharma, R. (2014). Resource mapping in schools and school districts: A resource guide. Baltimore, MD: Center for School Mental Health. McGraw, K., & Koonce, D. A. (2011). Role of the school psychologist: Orchestrating the continuum of school-wide positive behavior support. Communiqué, 39(8), 4–6. Nastasi, B. K., Moore, R. B., & Varjas, K. M. (2004). School-based mental health services: Creating comprehensive and culturally specifc programs. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). (2009). Communicating effectively with administrators. Communiqué, 38(1), 26. Rossen, E., & Cowan, K. C. (2015). Improving mental health in schools. Kappan, 96(4), 8–13. Spillane, J. P. (2006). Distributed leadership. San Francisco, CA: Wiley. Suicide Prevention Resource Center (SPRC). (2002–2019a). Evidence-based prevention [Handout]. Education Development Center. Retrieved from www.sprc. org/keys-success/evidence-based-prevention Suicide Prevention Resource Center (SPRC). (2002–2019b). Finding Programs and Practices [Handout]. Education Development Center. Retrieved from www. sprc.org/strategic-planning/fnding-programs-practices Tallerico, M. (2014). District issues: Administrators at all levels involved in teachers’ professional development. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 125–144). New York: Guilford. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Chen, J. A. (2014). Focusing attention on beliefs about capability and knowledge in teachers’ professional development. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 246–264). New York: Guilford. Wilson, S., & Berne, J. (1999). Teacher learning and the acquisition of professional knowledge: An examination of research on contemporary professional development. Review of Research in Education, 24, 173–209.

17 Best Practices in Professional Development

The function of education is to teach one to think intensively and to think critically. Intelligence plus character – that is the goal of true education. ~ Martin Luther King

Amy Smith (2012), in her President’s Message to the National Association of School Psychologists, related that the topic of professional development can elicit a reaction of sighs and eye-rolling by educators. After a day of training, educators are often left wishing they could have used the time on other pressing tasks. Teachers need professional development, yet fear it will prove to be a waste of their precious time. “I should be setting up my room and planning my lessons, not listening to this drivel.” How can we engage educators in looking forward to professional development, seeking it out, and enjoying sessions that truly help them be more effective teachers and more responsive to their students?

Effective Training in Engaging Formats Professional development must be of high quality, presented in a way that holds teachers’ attention, motivates them, and even inspires them to recognize the benefits of what they are learning. They must find relevant ways to utilize their learning when working with students, parents, and each other. Professional development must fit what is happening in the school – complement what is working well and change what is not working. Teachers must perceive ways they can use new knowledge and develop the necessary skills to apply it. There must be follow-up to ensure that the teacher is comfortable and confident, not left alone without the technical support needed to improve new skills.

330 Professional Development Trainers, Target Populations, Models, Venues, and Technology Trainers Perry and Boylan (2018) studied a pilot program for facilitators of professional development designed for “developing the developers.” The program involved video observation, peer review, and applied theories of professional learning. They found the program helped participants gain insights about their training practice and identify learning needs to further improve facilitation skills and knowledge related to professional development. Who will provide training? There are a variety of options, along with pros and cons to consider. Often, a district or school receives training from an outside trainer affliated with a specifc program. This outside trainer often provides follow-up consultation to support start-up. The advantage of having an outside program representative provide training is that this person has knowledge and expertise in that specifc program and is fuent in initial training and follow-up. A disadvantage is that the outside trainer is not a readily available resource to address program needs, and the capacity of the school to conduct further training is not developed unless the outside trainer trains a selected team of individuals to assume that role. A Training of Trainers (ToT) model occurs when an outside trainer with expertise trains individuals or a team within a school or district to assume training responsibility for a program. This approach has the advantage of building the capacity of that school or district to continuously train incoming educators, provide booster training, expand the scale of a program, and provide in-house consultation and coaching for skill development. A ToT approach is also cost effective, with reasonable stipends to compensate district or school trainers. The ToT approach has been successfully used with a number of academic, school safety, and social-emotional programs, including the PREPaRE model (Brock et al., 2016) for school crisis prevention and intervention. Another signifcant training resource is district or school staff who have had previous training or developed expertise in programs and practices that address identifed school interests or needs. Examples are teacher leaders, Professional Learning Community (PLC) groups, school psychologists, school counselors, or school social workers who have received formal training or completed in-depth research and study of programs such as Culturally Responsive Teaching, Trauma-Informed Schools, restorative justice, or Responsive Classroom practices. It can be empowering to have in-house collaborative team planning for training, or have in-house co-facilitators share planning and presentation of a topic.

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Target Populations Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, and Wallace (2005) emphasized staff selection for implementation as a key ingredient at every level: • • •

Selection of effective practitioners who will perform the program Selection of organization staff, including skilled trainers, coaches, process and outcomes evaluators, and administrative facilitators Selection of staff for purveyor groups, with the term “purveyor” meaning an outside individual or group who represents a program or practice and works to implement that program or practice with fdelity and desired outcomes

Who will be trained? What is the specifc target population who will beneft from the training? Some school-wide programs, such as mental health literacy, positive school climate, suicide prevention, culturally responsive teaching, or Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), are taught to the entire school faculty and adapted for support staff, families, and the community. Other training, such as facilitating professional learning communities (PLCs), establishing a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) delivery model, teaching lessons in Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) and integrating SEL with academic subjects, Training of Trainers (ToT) for PREPaRE or PBIS, or conducting a mental health screening process are taught to subgroups of the school community such as leadership or MTSS teams, teacher leaders, administrators, families, or school-based mental health professionals. It is helpful to identify discrete target populations for each professional training. Needs assessment and prioritizing can help identify populations most in need of training. School-wide training of an entire staff generally requires the full attention of professional development resources. Because certain training may target a specifc, more limited population subgroup, planners and trainers may choose to broaden training options and scope, working with different groups concurrently, during the same approximate timeline. Models What training models make sense? What are effective training techniques? Research has identifed effective training models and techniques for professional development, including direct instruction, modeling, role-playing, and in-class training (Slider, Noell, & Williams, 2006). It is benefcial for teacher peers to have an opportunity to discuss and refect upon their practice. A somewhat controversial topic is whether the oneshot workshop model is valuable or a waste of time. Is there a clear-cut answer? This question and further discussion of effective training models and techniques will continue in more detail later in the current chapter.

332 Professional Development Venue Options and Technology What venue options are most accessible, impactful, and convenient? Smith (2012) encouraged fellow school psychologists to conduct professional development activities for colleagues using a variety of venues, including inservice training, workshops, parent/caregiver meetings, staff meeting presentations, online modules, professional learning communities, and informal after school or lunch time professional gatherings. Professional learning can also be ignited through discussion, case studies, articles, study groups and book studies. Professional development can be designed in order that multiple mediums or venues are available to communicate information, develop knowledge, and practice and refne skills. The following summarizes venues and format options that promote ongoing learning: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Professional learning communities and peer study groups focusing on shared needs or topics of interest, planning lessons, problem solving, improving practice, and/or learning a new strategy Coaching new practices by an experienced teacher or facilitator in the classroom setting and sharing refections/outcomes Mentoring new or early career educators Co-planning lessons with follow-up critique and review of student work samples Peer observation with performance feedback and discussion of outcomes/insights Viewing and discussing videos of master teachers at work Videotaping and deconstructing a lesson, identifying what, how, and why it was taught Faculty, grade-level, content area, or interest group study meetings School-wide training programs or workshops on specifc areas of identifed need Group work on program integration and curriculum alignment Attending conferences on identifed areas of need and sharing learning Individual study or action research that may be shared with other educators Online courses, modules, learning communities, websites, and blogs Partnerships with colleges/universities with training resources and opportunities to take or present courses on identifed topics of need or interest Adapted from Griffth, Ruan, Stepp, and Kimmel (2014)

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Advances in Technology Lieberman and Miller (2014) pointed out that advances in technology provide powerful tools for teacher development. Teachers have opportunities to take in-person or online courses and workshops on a program, and then form networks, partnerships, and communities of practice to support new learning. Interactive websites and online learning provide more opportunities for teachers to share their work and access professional development. Online networks and learning communities can promote authentic professional learning connected to actual practice. Online networks, coalitions, and partnerships for professional learning are not limited by traditional roles, hierarchies, or bureaucracies. They provide opportunities for teachers to cross organizational boundaries and meet teachers from different settings for collaborative work and learning from peers. Technology assisted consultation and learning modules developed by school psychologists are now viewed as an antidote to the barriers to inperson consultation, including shortages of school psychologists and the limited time available to consultants and teachers (Bloomfeld, Lehman, Clark, & Fischer, 2019). Terri A. Erbacher, co-author of the present book, described the tremendous value of technology as a venue option during the COVID pandemic and beyond. She provided over 30 presentations across 8 months of the pandemic on platforms such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Google Meet, Blue Jeans, Blackboard, Collaborate Ultra, and others. Her expertise has grown as she learned to take attendance for a whole event on Zoom, enable participants to chat questions, do polls that are anonymous or not, and do breakout rooms where there is more participation than in person! She has learned to annotate slides viewed virtually by participants, use a whiteboard, and put herself into a PowerPoint! Ferriter (2009) described how technology expands opportunities for educators to engage in continuous professional development. Among the available digital tools, many educators are now writing blogs and wikis about teaching and learning. Ferriter pointed out that in addition to opportunities for refection and sharing of ideas, digital tools like blogs and wikis provide more venues for teachers to collaborate and exert leadership. Huber (2010) discussed upgrading professional learning using web 2.0 tools that are based on professional learners being both consumers and producers of information. Among the technological sources of information she described are blogs for interchange of ideas, forums and webinars on specifc topics, Twitter for sharing information and resources, wikis for collaborative sharing, nings for creating social networks, and Moodle, which provides an organized interface for e-learning that can include forums, newsletters, databases, and wikis for building online collaborative communities.

334 Professional Development Huber proposed structures to optimally use information technology: Structure 1: Share access to information. Using web 2.0 tools, any learning organization member can post information and resources that can be accessed by all other members. Forums or communities accessed by logging onto Moodle allow for posting questions or sharing information, which can lead to substantive, sustained conversations about teaching and learning. Structure 2: Look inward for insight. Instead of looking outward for expertise, teachers using web 2.0 tools can synthesize learning, for example, mindfulness or social-emotional learning strategies, and distribute those ideas across the organization. Structure 3: Protect learning time. Shared e-mail folders, weekly newsletters, forums, and Moodle permit communication focused on not only upcoming events but also substantive conversations, data, resources, and other information from faculty meetings. Technology can also attend to administrative minutia, saving more time at faculty meetings for professional learning.

Plan, Implement, and Evaluate Training Effectiveness Guskey and Yoon (2009) asserted that regardless of how professional development is presented, it must be carefully planned, implemented, and evaluated for effectiveness. They stated that the disparaged workshop method can indeed be wasteful when it is the one-shot variety that offers no genuine follow-up or sustained support. However, teacher workshops and summer institutes have been effective with improved learning when the focus was evidence-based practices, active learning experiences, and opportunities for teachers to adapt new practices to their classrooms. Guskey and Yoon emphasized that well-implemented professional development must allow suffcient time for quality learning and deeper understanding to develop new initiatives and analyze student outcomes. Time must be used wisely so that the training is well organized and purposefully directed. Guskey and Yoon also emphasized the vital importance of follow-up activities – timely, job-embedded support as educators adapt new curricula and practices to their classrooms and the needs of their students. Guskey and Yoon (2009) shared four major implications of professional development for new programs: 1. 2.

Those who plan and implement professional development must critically evaluate its effectiveness. All practitioners must demand stringent evidence of effectiveness from consultants and purveyors of new practices.

Best Practices in Professional Development 335 3.

4.

New strategies or programs should always begin with implementing small-scale, carefully controlled pilot studies designed to test their effectiveness. Positive results enhance credibility, while negative outcomes indicate needed modifcations or a change in direction. Both researchers and practitioners need to more rigorously study professional development.

Thomas Guskey (2014) emphasized that good professional development evaluations result from reliable and valid outcome measures. Three basic questions explore measuring the effectiveness of professional development: 1.

What does measuring the effectiveness of professional development mean? Evaluations designed to determine value address: • •

2.

What purposes do professional development evaluations serve? Categories of evaluation purposes are planning, formative, and summative: •

•

•

3.

Is this activity leading to intended results? Is it better than what was done previously?

Planning evaluation occurs before a professional development activity begins. It appraises training goals, the plan to achieve goals, evaluation plan, and likelihood of plan completion considering time and resources Formative evaluation occurs during the professional development to provide ongoing information about whether it is proceeding as planned and expected progress is being made. It analyzes conditions needed for success and whether they can be improved Summative evaluation occurs after completion of professional development to provide feedback about the activity’s overall value, what was accomplished, positive or negative consequences, and costs versus benefts

What are the critical levels of professional development evaluation? Informationis analyzed at each of fve hierarchical levels from simple to more complex. Each level builds on previous levels, so success at earlier levels facilitates success at later levels: Level 1: Participants’ Reactions. Typically measured by questionnaires at the end of an activity. Process questions: Did they like it? Was it worthwhile? Note: See Online Resource 7 for an example of a “Sample Workshop Evaluation Form” that begins to inquire about participants’ learning (Terri A. Erbacher).

336 Professional Development Level 2: Participants’ Learning. Measures new knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Evaluation can involve assessment of learning indicators, skill demonstration, or portfolio. Process question: Did they gain intended knowledge and skills? Level 3: Organizational Support and Change. Focuses on organizational factors that can disable or enable professional development success. Process questions: Were changes the training promoted aligned with the school’s mission? Were suffcient logistics and resources available? Was implementation facilitated and supported? Level 4: Participants’ Use of New Knowledge and Skills. Examines whether participant learning is being used in their practice. Evaluation may involve questionnaires, interviews, journal refections, or direct observations. Data helps adjust programs for improved effectiveness. Process question: Did they effectively apply the new knowledge and skills? Level 5: Student Learning Outcomes. Addresses the effects on student learning based on professional development goals. Evaluations should include multiple measures of learning and behavior. Assessments facilitate adjusting instruction and content. When social-emotional learning is implemented, indicators of prosocial behavior are relevant. Process questions: Was student performance or achievement affected? Was emotional wellbeing infuenced? Adapted from Guskey (2014) Information collected throughout the process can guide planning, development, and implementation for program success. Guskey (2002) advised that while some educators recognize the importance of evaluating event-driven professional development like workshops and seminars, they forget less formal, ongoing, job-embedded activities – study groups, action research, collaborative planning, curriculum development, structured observations, peer coaching, mentoring, etc. Regardless of the form, each of the fve process levels of professional development is important, providing vital data for improving quality. Backward Planning as a Basis for Accountability Guskey (2002) advised that when planning professional development to improve student learning, the order of the fve process levels of evaluation must be reversed. Plan backward, starting at level 5, and then work back through each of the levels until reaching level 1. Consider frst desired student learning outcomes, such as developing confdence for learning, building problem-solving skills, or improving collaborative skills with classmates (level 5).

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Next, consider what evidence-based instructional practices and policies will effectively apply the professional development knowledge and skills designed to produce desired outcomes (level 4). Make sure evidence from a similar educational context validates practices consistent with desired outcomes. Next, consider aspects of organizational support that must be in place for practices and policies to be successfully implemented (level 3). Suffcient resources and structures such as well-organized time for implementation must exist or be added, while aspects of the organization that pose barriers such as a “zero tolerance” discipline policy must be removed. Next, decide what knowledge and skills the participant educators must have to effectively implement the selected practices and policies (level 2). What must the educators know to successfully adapt the innovative practice to their specifc context? Finally, consider the set of experiences that can best enable the needed knowledge and skills to be acquired (level 1). Workshops or seminars paired with follow-up such as collaborative planning and opportunities for practice with feedback, PLCs, organized study groups, and other activities can be effective and generate enthusiasm. Remember the value of gathering ongoing data to evaluate outcomes and make adjustments as needed.

Transfer Knowledge and Skills to Classroom Practice Green (1995) stated that it is insuffcient to simply provide teachers with new knowledge or practices to produce changes in teaching and improvements in learning. Knowledge and skills presented in workshops or inservice contexts must be transferred to classroom contexts with deliberate actions. There must be administrative support, respect for staff needs and experiences, suffcient funding, enabling norms for acceptance of innovation, and needed school and community resources. Tallerico (2014) asserted that direction setting must answer the essential question, “What should be the focus of teacher professional development?” She further explained that direction setting by administrators involves: • • •

Maintaining knowledge of recent teacher professional development Streamlining to fewer professional development priorities Deepening teachers’ content knowledge in selected areas of curriculum

Tallerico summarized embedded professional development processes and formats: •

Individually guided involves trusting teachers to address content priorities through processes such as reading, refective journaling,

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•

•

•

writing and posting online, video-analysis of instruction, creating portfolios, or completing online courses. Supportive administrators can incorporate checkpoints to make sure self-selected activities are consistent with the school’s collective priorities Collaborative problem solving involves teachers working in small groups toward selected priorities, and can involve whole-school cultural shifts away from teacher isolation to collaborative work in professional learning communities (PLCs). Administrators supporting successful collaborative problem solving must model skillful group facilitation or provide groups with effective facilitators or training in productive group facilitation Observation and assessment of teaching also involves teacher collaboration, pairing teachers for reciprocal observation of each other’s classrooms, followed by refection on student engagement, thoughts and actions during instruction, and dialogue with constructive feedback for improvement. Also called peer coaching or collegial supervision, supportive administrators trust this model’s formative, non-threatening growth orientation that differs from summative supervisory evaluations Action research involves teachers purposefully experimenting with selected aspects of practice, either independently, in small groups, or as part of whole-school professional development. Action research generally includes three basic steps: 1. 2. 3.

•

Select a question or area of interest Collect relevant outcomes data through classroom experimentation Change classroom practice based on analysis of results

Encouraging administrators can stimulate curiosity, support risk taking regardless of experiment result, and incorporate checkpoints to ensure that self-selected activities contribute to the school’s collective priorities. Training is a process that often begins with expert direct instruction, but should comprise four components designed for learning new skills and transferring them to classroom practice: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Theory. Presenting a rationale that defnes the value and use of the program or skill Demonstration. A demonstration or modeling of the program or skill, usually by an expert trainer or lead teacher in the classroom Practice. Educators practice the program or skill in natural work settings and receive feedback under skilled direction Follow-up or coaching. Long-term assistance ensuring the program or skills practiced during training are correctly transferred to the work setting Adapted from Tallerico (2014)

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Griffth and colleagues (Griffth et al., 2014) identifed coaching techniques to enhance teaching practice: • • •

Demonstrations by the coach teaching the class, while the teacher observes and notes signifcant aspects of instructional practice Shadow coaching whereby the coach models a brief, simple procedure and the teacher immediately implements what the coach demonstrated Side-by-side coaching across several lessons includes 1) the coach demonstrating while the teacher watches an instructional strategy, 2) the teacher and coach together implementing the instructional strategy with new content, and 3) the teacher ultimately implementing the new strategy while the coach watches

Note: See Chapter 3 for more on qualities of coaches and coaching procedures. Swan Dagen and Bean (2014) reported essential features of professional development that emphasize organizational involvement where the teacher works. They cited three essential features of effective professional development that strengthen a collaborative culture : 1.

2.

3.

Coaching. Coaching works best when teachers are receptive, recognize the importance of learning from others, and trust that the coach will work with them in a supportive, collegial manner. Teacher leadership. Individually or collaboratively, teachers can infuence colleagues, administrators, students, and other members of the school community to improve practice. Teacher leadership and professional development are linked when a school culture encourages teacher leaders to plan and implement professional development. Teachers are co-learners when they plan and facilitate growth experiences. Professional learning communities. School collaboration can be signifcantly enhanced by creating professional learning communities (PLCs). PLCs are described in more detail in Chapter 3, and elaborated in relation to implementing, evaluating, and sustaining programs in Chapters 18 and 19.

Swan Dagen and Bean summarized four key points about the context of school professional development: 1.

The most effective professional development is job embedded, relating to classroom practice, respecting teachers as active learners, and

340

2.

3. 4.

Professional Development helping them achieve deeper understanding of their subject and instructional practice. “Professional development is a journey, not a single event.” Teachers must understand and value the opportunity for ongoing, in-depth, active learning that is focused on prioritized needs and goals of the school, rather than multiple, possibly redundant and confusing initiatives that limit teachers’ ability to implement new practices with integrity. Enabling teachers to practice new initiatives in the classroom with support and feedback, often through coaching or mentoring, can signifcantly build knowledge and skills. Professional development can be enhanced when it occurs in a collaborative culture that emphasizes teachers as leaders and learners, and schools as places for both students and teachers to learn. Adapted from Swan Dagen and Bean (2014)

High Quality Professional Development Quatroche, Bauserman, and Nellis (2014) identifed fve traits that describe effective professional development as 1) instructive, building a teacher’s knowledge with new content and instructional strategies, 2) refective about theory-based practice over time, 3) active, engaging teachers in classroom action research and a learning process that increases their instructional repertoire, 4) collaborative, engaging teachers in study groups striving for classroom and school improvement, and 5) substantive, with attention to long-term implementation, evaluation, and maintenance. Green (1995) addressed constructing a high-quality staff development program: •

Basic considerations • Nature of adult learning. Professional development programs must include opportunities for self-directed and collaborative learning • Perceived need as a foundation for staff development. Before staff development, there must be clear evidence of need • Organizational climate. Effectiveness of communication processes, leadership, and norms; improvements can be built into the project • Administrative support as a foundation for staff development. Administrative involvement on a school leadership team must be evident; management of logistics and resources is essential • Time. Providing suffcient time for planning is crucial for success

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Best practices in implementing a staff development program • Step 1: Identifcation of needs and priorities. Must be handled with care and effciency • Step 2: Goal setting. Staff participation in setting concrete goals increases likelihood of commitment to goals • Step 3: Training and feedback. There is a need to ensure training transfers from the staff development context to the daily school context; Joyce and Showers (1983) suggested frst working on a skill, then practicing it in the work context while receiving feedback and coaching. Showers, Joyce, and Bennett (1987) shared prerequisites for effective training, practice, and feedback: • • •

• •

•

Present effective techniques. New techniques and programs must be evidence-based and effective Present well-defned, concrete, and specifc information. The more explicit the material presented, the more clearly staff understands it Provide opportunities for practice and feedback. Observe classroom demonstrations, experiment with new methods, and refect upon practice. Microteaching involves teaching a brief lesson followed by structured feedback Build on staff choice and control. Choice built into goals conveys respect for adult learners’ capacity for self-direction Incorporate staff stages of concern. Hall and Horde’s Concerns-Based Adoption Model (1987) asserts that developers should understand participant stages of concern, which can be explored through brief check-ins to seek teachers’ views about development – addressing concerns is important so uncertainty does not evolve into rejecting new ideas

Step 4: Implementation, evaluation, and maintenance • • •

Implementation. After training, practice, and feedback, newly implemented practices must have mechanisms for continued development such as collaborative groups Evaluation. Examines whether original development goals are being met, how new practices are being implemented, and need for improvement Maintenance. Development efforts integrated into the school’s mission more easily transition into the maintenance phase when new practices are integrated into daily practice Adapted from Green (1995)

342 Professional Development Reutzel and Clark (2014) cautioned that while respecting teachers’ knowledge and skills, we must not assume they have suffcient knowledge given the challenges of implementing new innovations. As a district or school builds its capacity through professional development, teachers’ knowledge and skills in prioritized areas of identifed need can grow rapidly, but not all at once. Plan for Building Program Capacity High quality professional development must plan for building program capacity utilizing effective structures for service delivery. Nantais, St. Martin, and Barnes (2014) explored professional development delivering multi-tiered services. They identifed a different focus of districts or schools who are early or advanced in MTSS implementation. Those early in MTSS primarily focused training on effective program implementation, resources, and benefts. Those with advanced MTSS implementation focused more on establishing or expanding necessary systems, data, and practices. MTSS extended beyond training events to promote transition into practice through capacity building and training of benefcial programs and practices, coaching and consultation to improve skills, and developing collaborative problem solving and data-based decision making (Nantais et al., 2014). However, expansion required thoughtful planning and prioritized adding of programs identifed by needs assessment over a reasonable, manageable time frame. Nantais and colleagues emphasized that continuous professional development, data analysis, and multiple levels of technical assistance are needed for successful implementation of an integrated MTSS model. They suggested that school psychologists work district-wide with other school mental health providers, teachers, administrators, and support staff to create continuity of efforts to build capacity across all schools. School psychologists and other school leaders can play key roles by providing training, technical support, performance feedback, data collection and analysis, and booster sessions to strengthen and expand MTSS programs and practices. Developing MTSS implementation must include school administrative and leadership team planning, encouragement, and support to assure needed funding, procedures, logistical supports, personnel, and other resources (Nantais et al., 2014). Nantais and colleagues advocated professional development at multiple tiers of the MTSS model. They suggested ongoing staff trainings at Tiers 1, 2, and 3. After data reviews (3 per year) of student outcomes at each tier, trainings would continue to develop and improve supports and practices. Ongoing coaching, observation, and consultation would continue enhancing practices and capacity, followed by further trainings to strengthen supports at each of the three tiers. MTSS teams would work with staff to ensure quality implementation of practices

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and service delivery at all tiers. Professional development within an integrated MTSS model should be systematically designed to maintain an infrastructure that promotes continuous improvement and sustainability, and the development of local capacity for coaching, training, and evaluation. Quatroche and colleagues (2014) pointed out that when internal personnel lack expertise or resources in specifc areas of need, districts can seek external resources to build the capacity to implement new initiatives. External resources can include program trainers, education consultants, webinars, professional organizations, commercial programs, educational workshops and conferences, and programs offered through universities, consortiums, or non-proft advocacy groups. However, they cautioned that while using external resources can be effective, it requires careful planning and leadership, especially when entering contractual partnerships with external providers. In addition to requiring that providers adhere to best professional development practices, key issues must be considered for external resources to maximize positive impact: •

•

•

Alignment with state regulations and district initiatives. External trainers must provide professional development that is consistent with local initiatives and improvement plans to be perceived as relevant by participating educators Consistency of message and recommended practices. All staff members, including teachers, administrators, support staff, school nurse, school mental health providers, and others should be included in the plan, and their training should emphasize similar messages and practices Planning for sustainability. Bier, Foster, Bellamy, and Clark (2008) suggested principles that foster sustainability of professional development partnerships and initiatives: 1) basic partnership agreements must be formed and sustained, 2) various partner members’ priorities and commitment must be mutually supportive, and 3) the organization as a whole should support the partnership’s expanded objectives The principal’s role is emphasized in sustaining partnerships by establishing the structure and maintaining the involvement of school and external partner representatives, and by exerting leadership to facilitate collaboration, refection and discussion among partner members and school staff. Sustainability of professional development also requires planning for suffcient project duration for teachers from the same school to have opportunities to try new practices in their classrooms, get feedback, and engage in refective discussions for deeper learning.

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•

Sustainability and capacity building can also be promoted when schools opt for a Training of Trainers (ToT) model, which involves a district or school sending a core group of educators for training in a school-wide initiative and how to teach and facilitate its implementation so that they become an in-house training team. Evaluating the effectiveness of professional development. An evaluation plan shows whether goals are being met, provides for accountability, demonstrates what has been accomplished, and identifes needed adjustments or changes to strengthen outcomes Adapted from Quatroche et al. (2014)

Plan for Integration With Effective Pre-Existing Programs One of the benefts of multi-tiered supports is that they organize and coordinate programs and services at various levels of need throughout the system, from school-wide to individual student and family, so that appropriate interventions can reach the entire student population. Multitiered supports are strengthened when they identify available resources at each tier within both the school and the community. Resource mapping, introduced in Chapters 3 and 6, and elaborated in Chapter 16, is a strategy that can help schools to identify a broad range of supports and resources. This process can help identify both pre-existing programs and resources to be aligned and integrated with new initiatives, and help identify gaps in needed services. A review of a school’s model of school safety and mental health service delivery and resources must tackle the challenge of how to provide, in a user-friendly way, the variety of comprehensive professional development that is needed to implement, evaluate, and sustain an effective integrated system. Integrated services require an integrated system of professional development.

Supportive Follow-Up to Training Even the best evidence-based programs will fail without ongoing technical assistance and mechanisms for maintenance. Multiple Follow-Up Options for Program and Skill Building Effective professional development includes follow-up designs for ongoing knowledge, skill, and confdence building through such approaches as scheduled review modules and booster training sessions, supportive consultation, coaching, Training of Trainer (ToT) models, master teacher collaboration, and embedded professional learning communities (PLCs).

Best Practices in Professional Development 345 Consultation provides a structured approach that supports the delivery of prevention-based interventions (Meyers, Meyers, & Grogg, 2004) and can be a key means of following up training to build skills for interventions under MTSS. Macklem and Kalinsky (2000) pointed out that training and workshops can provide opportunities for teachers to request consultative follow-up to support implementation of new initiatives. Consultation can support change at multiple levels of the school system, including the student, classroom, school, or district levels. Romer, Green, and Cox (2017) found that educators who felt prepared to use the MTSS model to provide services were more likely to engage in supporting a student. Consultation can enhance educator knowledge and understanding of the MTSS process, their role in implementing it, and the benefts for the school and community. Through indirect service and multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS), consultation develops an array of staff and program resources to promote prevention, early intervention, and mental health. Consultation can help provide technical support and coordinate existing system-level programs within MTSS. Consistent with “Advances in technology” presented earlier in this chapter, the Internet provides an exciting resource for access to information on many topics relative to student mental health. Consultation, continuing education, and learning modules are readily available from web providers such as the Coalition to Support Grieving Students, National Association of School Psychologists (NASP), and the National Child Traumatic Stress Network. Computer-mediated consultation helps overcome service delivery problems. Online interactive communities provide growing opportunities for peer consultation among mental health providers (Macklem & Kalinsky, 2000; Meyers et al., 2004). Workshops can be a powerful vehicle for getting important information to teachers and support staff. Workshops also provide an opportunity to inform groups about the availability of technical assistance such as follow-up consultation, coaching, learning communities, study groups, and other resources so that individualized support and education can be provided. Training modules with supportive follow-up constitute another proactive means of strengthening student mental health services. A review of professional development programs designed to improve the quality of student–teacher interactions found the programs more successful when training was followed by consultation (Sabol & Pianta, 2012). ****** This chapter has discussed best practices in professional development, planning for implementation of new programs, and supportive followup after training. Given that many programs are considered vital to

346 Professional Development school needs, the next chapter will summarize essential ideas for successfully implementing, evaluating, and sustaining multiple ongoing programs.

References Bier, M., Foster, A. M., Bellamy, G. T., & Clark, R. (2008). Professional development school principals: Challenges, experiences, and craft. School-University Partnerships: The Journal of the National Association for Professional Development Schools, 2(2), 77–89. Bloomfeld, B., Lehman, E., Clark, R., & Fischer, A. J. (2019). School-based teleconsultation applications. In A. J. Fischer, T. Collins, E. Dart, & K. Radley (Eds.), Technology applications in school psychology consultation, supervision, and training. New York: Routledge. Brock, S. E., Nickerson, A. B., Reeves, M. A., Conolly, C. N., Jimerson, S. R., Pesce, R., & Lazzaro, B. (2016). School crisis prevention & intervention: The PREPaRE model (2nd ed.). National Association of School Psychologists. Ferriter, B. (2009). Learning with blogs and wikis. Educational Leadership, 66(5), 34 – 38. Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature. Tampa, FL: University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, The National Implementation Research Network (FMHI Publication @231). Green, S. K. (1995). Best practices in implementing a staff development program. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology – III (3rd ed., pp. 123–133). National Association of School Psychologists. Griffth, P. L., Ruan, J., Stepp, J., & Kimmel, S. J. (2014). The design and implementation of effective professional development in elementary and early childhood settings. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 189–204). New York: Guilford. Guskey, T. R. (2002). Does it make a difference? Evaluating professional development. Educational Leadership, 59(6), 45–51. Guskey, T. R. (2014). Measuring the effectiveness of educators’ professional development. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 447–466). New York: Guilford. Guskey, T. R., & Yoon, K. S. (2009). What works in professional development? Kappan, 495–500. Hall, G., & Horde, S. (1987). Change in schools: Facilitating the process. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Huber, C. (2010). Professional learning 2.0. Educational Leadership, 67(8), 41–46. Joyce, B., & Showers, B. (1983). Power in staff development through research on training. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Lieberman, A., & Miller, L. (2014). Teachers as professionals: Evolving defnitions of staff development. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 3–21). New York: Guilford Press.

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Macklem, G. L., & Kalinsky, R. (March, 2000). School consultation: Providing both prevention and intervention services to children and school staff. Paper presented at the convention of the National Association of School Psychologists, New Orleans, Louisiana. Meyers, J., Meyers, A. B., & Grogg, K. (2004). Prevention through consultation: A model to guide future developments in the feld of school psychology. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation. 15, 257–276. Nantais, M., St. Martin, K. A., & Barnes, A. C. (2014). Best practices in facilitating professional development of school personnel in delivering multitiered services. In P. L. Harrison & A. Thomas (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology: Systems-level services (pp. 71–82). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Perry, E., & Boylan, M. (2018). Developing the developers: Supporting and researching the learning of professional development facilitators. Journal of Professional Development in Education, 44(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/1941525 7.2017.1287767 Quatroche, D. J., Bauserman, K. L., & Nellis, L. (2014). Supporting professional growth through external resources. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 431–444). New York: Guilford. Reutzel, D. R., & Clark, S. K. (2014). Shaping the contours of professional development, PreK – 12: Successful models and practices. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 67–81). New York: Guilford. Romer, N., Green, A. L., & Cox, K. E. (2017). Educator perceptions of preparedness and professional development for implementation of evidence-based practices within a multi-tiered system of supports. School Mental Health, 10, 122–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9234-3 Sabol, T. J., & Pianta, R. C. (2012). Recent trends in research on teacher-child relationships. Attachment and Human Development, 14, 213–231. Showers, B., Joyce, B., & Bennett, B. (1987). Synthesis of research on staff development: A framework for future study and a state-of-the-art analysis. Educational Leadership, 45, 77–80, 82–87. Slider, N. J., Noell, G. H., & Williams, K. L. (2006). Providing practicing teachers classroom management professional development in a brief self-study format. Journal of Behavioral Education, 15, 215–228. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10864-006-9033-7 Smith, A. R. (2012). President’s message: Leaders and professional development. Communiqué, 41(3), 2. Swan Dagen, A., & Bean, R. M. (2014). High-quality research-based professional development: An essential for enhancing high-quality teaching. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 42–63). New York: Guilford. Tallerico, M. (2014). District issues: Administrators at all levels involved in teachers’ professional development. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 125–144). New York: Guilford.

Section VI

Putting It All Together

18 Implementing, Evaluating, and Sustaining Integrated Programs and Practices

However beautiful the strategy, you should occasionally look at the results. ~ Ian Gilmour

Your school has decided to proceed with extensive professional development over an extended period of time. You and the leadership team want to have the best chance to successfully implement its longitudinal plan. You learn that programs must be evidence-based, a good ft for your school’s context and resources, and adapted to your school’s specifc needs, while maintaining treatment integrity. You and the leadership team realize that even after excellent training, there remains a need for knowledge of best practices in implementation, evaluation, and maintenance. You also realize that simply implementing programs without the necessary school climate and mechanisms to support practice with skill development, resources, and ongoing evaluation is a recipe for failure.

Setting the Stage for Successful Implementation Your best opportunity for success is to follow best practices throughout the process: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Establish a leadership team, involving stakeholders, promoting buy-in, and developing a mission, shared vision, and goals. Have enthusiastic administrator logistical support, encouragement, and shared leadership. Conduct an assessment of needs, strengths, climate, and infrastructure, including resource mapping. Select and prioritize evidence-based programs that ft your school context and needs. Provide effective training that integrates new programs with preexisting practices that work. Implement and adapt programs to school context while maintaining treatment integrity.

352 7. 8.

Putting It All Together Evaluate practice and outcomes periodically to adjust and improve programs. Provide ongoing, supportive follow-up that develops skills, capacity, and sustains desired outcomes.

As expressed in Chapter 2, schools provide a unique opportunity to identify and support students experiencing trauma as well as socialemotional and behavioral problems. To realize this opportunity, teachers, administrators, school-based mental health professionals, and other school staff can establish Compassionate Schools, provide a continuum of services, and collaborate with mental health resources in the school and the community. The Mental Health Technology Transfer Center (MHTTC, 2020) advised that transitioning from training to implementation of new practices and systems of supports requires change at district, school, and staff levels, including shifts in policies and procedures. They suggested considering these questions while beginning to implement practices that support student mental health: • • • • • •

How can programs be implemented that address the needs and concerns of both the school and community? What outside assistance might be needed to guide the implementation process? Who in the district and schools can help spearhead implementation? Which local mental health providers and agencies can assist with implementation? How can parents, families, students, and staff be involved in the process of designing programs and monitoring progress? What resources and infrastructure, including funding, are available to facilitate the plan?

Cook and Black (2020) cautioned about common implementation pitfalls: • • • • • • •

Inadequate time for professional development, coaching, and collaboration Lack of leadership support Turnover of leadership team members Failure to integrate with other initiatives Diffculty shifting staff perspective Relying on one key leader rather than a team Signifcant staff turnover after training

Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, and Wallace (2005) shared that implementation is fundamentally most successful when: •

Practitioners are carefully selected and receive coordinated training, coaching, and regular performance assessments

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Organizations provide the necessary infrastructure for timely training, skilled supervision, consultation and coaching, and periodic process and outcome evaluations Communities and consumers are involved in the selection and evaluation of programs and practices State and federal funding sources and policies create a welcoming environment for program implementation and operations

Utilizing effcient processes and best practices while implementing, evaluating, and sustaining new programs and practices helps to ensure school improvements and successful outcomes. Attention to how these programs are progressing and open communication about their strengths and needs helps maintain teacher and other stakeholder enthusiasm about expanding their program repertoire. Pre-Implementation Planning Fixsen and colleagues (2005) emphasized the importance of determining the readiness of an organization to accept innovative change. Scales measuring organizational readiness for change include items to determine: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Motivation, including perceived need for improvement, training, and pressure for change. Institutional resources, including administrative support, space, time, training, technology, and funding. Staff attributes, including desire for growth, effcacy, infuence, and adaptability. Organizational climate, including clarity of vision and goals, cohesiveness, autonomy, and openness to communication and change.

The Hexagon Tool (Metz & Louison, 2019) is a planning measure that helps to systematically evaluate new and existing programs and practices for implementation readiness (see Figure 18.1). The Hexagon Tool examines the following six components: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Need explores how well the program or practice meets identifed student, teacher, family, and community needs. Fit with current initiatives, including alignment with priorities, family and community culture and values, impact on other initiatives, and alignment with organizational structure. Supports for training, staffng, expert technical assistance, coaching and supervision, racial equity impact assessment, data systems and technology, administration and system supports. Evidence of program strengths, including 1) number of studies, 2) population similarities, 3) diverse cultural groups, and 4) effcacy

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5. 6.

or effectiveness; outcomes, including “Is it worth it?” and fdelity data; cost effectiveness data. Usability, indicated by a well-defned program, working models for observation, previous replications, operationalization, and adaptations for context. Capacity to implement, indicated by staff ability to meet minimum qualifcations; ability to sustain staffng, coaching, training, data systems, performance assessment, and administration, including 1) fnancial capacity, 2) structural capacity, and 3) cultural responsivity capacity; buy-in process operationalized, including a) practitioners and b) families.

If a team conducting this evaluation, applying the National Implementation Research Network (NIRN) site and program indicator rating scale, fnds any of the six critical components seen in Figure 18.1 lacking, they

Figure 18.1 NIRN Hexagon Tool Source: Metz & Louison (2019)

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can bolster weak areas before the start of the school year or implementation. It is recommended that members of the evaluating team be assigned to one or more of the six components, collect relevant data, and report back to the evaluation team on level of readiness in each of the six components. Clark and Dockweiler (2019) suggested that the pre-implementation evaluation team should consider the fundamental questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Which needs will be targeted? How will targeted needs be systematically supported? What resources are needed? Which outcome measure(s) will be monitored? Does evidence support continuing or revising practices?

Practitioner Readiness and Foundational Actions Recognizing the need for effective leadership to develop policies and funding to sustain comprehensive school safety and mental health efforts, Cowan, Vaillancourt, Rossen, and Pollitt (2013) recommended foundational actions by principals and other school leaders. These actions, summarized in Chapter 3, highlight the need for administrators to recognize their potential to support satisfying, productive school environments. While active principal support is essential to inspire school staff, the extent to which staff enthusiasm is maintained depends on ways they are involved in the process, how problems are solved, and perceived benefts and desired outcomes. Reutzel and Clark (2014) cautioned that all professions suffer, to some degree, from an inability to secure practitioner compliance with evidence-based practices. Jaquith (2014) emphasized that effective implementation requires that the school setting be receptive to new practices. If implementation fdelity follows a rigid script rather than professional judgment or feels coercive, then those who value learning as a socially constructed activity will object to a mechanistic, compliance-oriented process. Lyon and colleagues (2019) noted the beneft of procedures to improve readiness, support, and the chance for positive outcomes of new interventions. They introduced Beliefs and Attitudes for Successful Implementation in Schools (BASIS), a brief, pragmatic pre-implementation strategy that applies education, social infuence techniques, and group motivational interviewing to enhance attitudes, norms, and intentions for adopting, implementing, and sustaining programs. Implementation strategies should optimally target weakening barriers that can block, and strengthening factors that enable, intervention success. The BASIS approach signifcantly improved determinants of implementation fdelity, though gains were not sustained. Results suggest that additional booster sessions can help maintain positive implementation shifts and facilitate delivery of interventions over time.

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Implementation Science and Evidence-Based Interventions Eagle, Dowd-Eagle, Snyder, and Holtzman (2015, p. 161) described implementation science as “the scientifc study of effective practices for implementing evidence-based interventions into practice with fdelity and sustainability.” Facilitating effective systems-level change can be a complex process, requiring understanding of the components of the evidence-based program and delivery system (MTSS), effective implementation practices, and an interdisciplinary approach (Eagle et al., 2015). The Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence (2015) plan for safe schools identifed steps to successful program implementation: Step 1: Match Needs to Resources Schools have unique, changing climates – periodic assessments can identify needs and priorities. Needs assessment and resource mapping can connect needs to resources. Identify target population: Age, race, culture, socioeconomic levels, and geographic location can all affect the selection of the best program ft. Identify resources: Human resources • Adequate staff? • Volunteers needed? • Staff training needed? Financial resources • Budget able to support selected programs? • Grant funding necessary? • Donations and sponsorships needed? Physical resources • Facilities available for training? • Infrastructure adequate for selected programs? Step 2: Identify Appropriate Program The many program options can be overwhelming for a selection team. There are lists of evidence-based programs (see Appendix). Programs researched in settings similar to the selecting school are recommended. Here are further guidelines to consider when examining program characteristics: • •

Clearly written, standardized materials Formal, enjoyable staff training

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Technical assistance to overcome problems A theory-driven approach Limited complexity A fdelity checklist to support quality implementation

Step 3: Implement Program Quality implementation is critical for meeting program objectives. Here are some factors that contribute to successful program implementation: • • • • • •

Buy-in from all, beginning with the principal and planning team Strong leader support with distributed leadership Clear lines of authority with open communication Quality training that adapts procedures to context while maintaining treatment integrity Supportive follow-up and periodic program review High staff retention/low turnover

Step 4: Monitor Process To ensure the quality of a program, monitor the implementation process: • • • • • •

All recommended components and training Student and staff engagement Parent/family participation Program satisfaction by implementers Obstacles addressed with problem solving or adjustments Climate survey indicates needed adjustments

Step 5: Evaluate Outcomes Evaluation planning should begin early in the program selection and implementation process. The following help determine program success meeting identifed needs: • • • • •

Consult with university evaluators, departments of education, or others to develop evaluations Evaluate fdelity and outcomes, comparing results with research effects Measure program effects on identifed needs or program objectives Use outcomes data to inform decisions to make program changes Develop an ongoing evaluation process to improve desired outcomes and sustain program effectiveness Adapted from Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence (2015)

358 Putting It All Together McGrath (2010) suggested the following considerations when developing, implementing, and evaluating new school mental health programs: • • • • • • •

•

•

Systems change theory can guide program development, implementation, and evaluation A cultural audit or school climate assessment at the beginning can involve individuals and groups at all levels, including students, teachers, administrators, families, staff, and volunteers Universal screenings can provide useful information about student mental health needs Engage parents/families and community partners early on, sharing meaningful partnerships and resources Educate teachers, staff, and families about critical information such as Mental Health First Aid (2012, 2015) and strategies for social-emotional learning Create and practice emergency plans, including threat/risk assessment, school safety, and crisis response teams trained with models such as PREPaRE (Brock et al., 2016) Create a positive school climate, culture, and norms of behavior, informed by such models as PBIS (Sugai & Horner, 2006, 2009; Sugai, O’Keefe, & Fallon, 2012), and selected prevention programs such as SEL, TIS, mindfulness, and social skills Conduct strength-based as well as defcit or disability assessments – strength-based assessments measure emotional and behavioral competencies needed to develop relationships, manage stress, and promote optimal development (Nickerson, 2008) Utilize appropriate assessment methods for social, emotional, and behavioral skills, including observation, behavior rating scales, and work products Adapted from McGrath (2010)

Evidence-Based Interventions: Challenge of Science to Practice Evidence-based interventions (EBIs) can be viewed as an exciting, sometimes frustrating contribution to the implementation of school programs and practices (Aarons et al., 2014). While effective EBIs are available, there are challenges regarding science to practice, particularly adapting interventions across diverse student and school cultures (Nastasi, Moore, & Varjas, 2004). Research that supports an intervention’s effectiveness often does not replicate the complexity of real practice (Greenhalgh, Howick, & Maskrey, 2014). Ingraham and Oka (2006) emphasized the need to adapt EBIs to diverse school populations and discussed cultural considerations during implementation in various contexts. Shaw, Varona Pevez, and Shah (2014) discussed the need for scientist-practitioners who not only utilize EBIs but also integrate these empirically supported

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practices with practitioner knowledge about the characteristics, values, and needs of people being affected (Shaw et al., 2014). Resistance to change is signifcantly reduced with the selection of interventions that ft the school context and result in successful outcomes. Shaw and colleagues (2014) summarize considerations when selecting an EBI that fts the school population, culture, and context: • • • •

•

Unique characteristics of the student sample. Involves capturing the specifc needs of students who may be different from the research basis of the EBI Relevance to target population. Involves recognizing that the demographic and learning characteristics of the research sample rarely matches the target population receiving the intervention Resources. Involves the concern that the research basis for an EBI may use resources that are unavailable to the school receiving the intervention Match to school culture. Involves the ft between the EBI and the school culture, indicated by its values, community norms, teacher preparation, and openness to innovation. An example of a mismatch is to implement a behaviorally based EBI in a school that does not use or train teachers in behavioral methods Context and treatment integrity. Involves inserting an EBI into a system with the fexibility needed for the intervention to work, while implementing with methods as similar as possible to those used in the research Adapted from Shaw et al. (2014)

Shaw and colleagues (2014) proposed a new research-to-practice paradigm based upon implementation science, studying methods to promote the systematic integration of research fndings and evidence-based practices into public policy and professional practice (Forman et al., 2013). The evidence-based intervention (EBI) primarily asks, “What works?” Implementation science primarily asks, “How does it work?” How effective are outcomes in various settings, what knowledge is required, what are unintended consequences, with what populations does it work, what resources does it require, and is it consistent with the culture and values where it is implemented? School psychologists applying implementation science to EBIs can become scientist-practitioners, integrating good science with good practice in a research-to-practice profession. It is critical to know not only what innovative, evidence-based practices work, but also how, where, when, why, and for whom they work (Shaw et al., 2014). While treatment integrity, or implementing EBIs as they were intended, contributes to effectiveness of outcomes, flexibility with implementation design is needed to be responsive and adapt to the

360 Putting It All Together targeted system (Long, McIver, Olinger, Bolognino, & Renshaw, 2015). Durlak and DuPre (2008) asserted that high expectations for implementation integrity are unrealistic, the ability to go beyond strict adherence to treatment integrity is important, and positive results are common even when levels of treatment integrity are as low as 60%. Long and colleagues (2015) described the implementation of a mindfulness curriculum called MindUp to illustrate that effective implementation of EBIs requires understanding the need for a dual focus on treatment integrity and intervention adaptation. Treatment integrity must be fexible enough to allow a deliberate process during which intervention content and procedures may be modifed to improve ft, while continuing to recognize the EBI’s core components and concepts. Implementing with a dual focus means: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Consider and address adaptation issues in advance. Attempt to select an intervention with content and procedures that ft the school context and student population. Identify elements of possible mismatch that might reduce a selected intervention’s effectiveness. Examine the intervention’s core components, logic model, and theory of change to promote adherence to the original design, while making research-informed adaptations. Consider necessary resources as part of determining adaptation to materials. Consider necessary training and implementation supports needed to maximize treatment integrity. Document adaptations made and monitor treatment integrity to assess effects throughout implementation. Adapted from Long et al. (2015)

According to Lung (2018), evidence-based practice (EBP) is a model that enhances accountability by using objective criteria for comparison among studies. However, there is a problem with generalization since most successful EBP interventions happen in controlled settings delivered by trained personnel, while few interventions are studied in naturalistic settings (Owens et al., 2014). Lung (2018) summarized challenges with EBP in the feld: •

Implementation diffculty. Laboratory studies give little attention to factors in the feld that can adversely affect implementation (Langley, Nadeem, Kataoka, Stein, & Jaycox, 2010). Factors which can compromise intervention integrity: • School climate. Effective intervention should be aligned with school philosophy, educational policies, and values (Langley et al., 2010) • Teachers’ workload and preparation. Teachers have enormous workloads and increasing responsibilities. Adding interventions and training can be counterproductive

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Staff turnover. Staff turnover is another obstacle to sustaining integrity Limited ecological validity. Assessments and interventions are developed with rigorous standards, but generalizability can be a problem: • Cultural sensitivity. There are often few culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students in standardization samples • Defnitive evidence. Psychological symptoms are complicated, making identifcation of contributing factors diffcult Tenuous contribution of assessment to treatment planning. Use of assessments in developing interventions may not improve treatment outcomes Diffculty with knowledge dissemination. EBP derives from research, but complex methodologies make them less accessible •

•

• •

Interplay of Evidence-Based Practice and Practice-Based Evidence Recognizing limitations of evidence-based practice (EBP), Lung (2018) cited practice-based evidence (PBE) for measuring intervention effectiveness in natural settings like schools with diverse populations. When PBE is applied to EBP, there is a “circular continuum of clinical perspectives to explain behaviors and guide decisions” (Lung, 2018). The complementary use of both EBP and PBE adopts a scientist-practitioner model helping close the gap between research and practice. Evidence-based practice (EBP) provides a strong knowledge base from which prevention programs can be developed. Practice-based evidence (PBE) provides a kind of feld manual to support implementation that can be 1) relevant to target populations, 2) incorporated with multiple settings, and 3) integrated with other systems of care. The interplay of evidence-based practice (EBP) and practice-based evidence (PBE) can be integral to developing effective prevention practice, enabling collaboration among service recipients, implementers, administrators, and researchers, and feedback supporting practice sustainability (Lung, 2018). The concurrent use of EBP and PBE contribute synergistically to the development of evidence-based intervention designs combined with effective service delivery in specifc practice contexts. Categories of Implementation Drivers The National Implementation Research Network (NIRN) has proposed a conceptual framework of three main categories of implementation drivers: • • •

Organizational drivers Leadership drivers Competency drivers

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Organizational Drivers Changes made at the systems level to make certain the work environment is prepared to effectively implement interventions. Organizational drivers are comprised of best practices in systems intervention, facilitative administration, and decision-support data systems (Forman et al., 2013). SYSTEMS INTERVENTION

Financial, social, political, and cultural climate can infuence a system’s priorities and the resources needed to support interventions and programs introduced to that system (Fixsen et al., 2005). FACILITATIVE ADMINISTRATION

Leadership practices can support implementation processes, including ways administrators create inviting environments to implement new interventions and programs. District-level and school-level management, including principals and leadership teams, are key to shaping the context and readiness for change (Elias, Zins, Graczyk, & Weissberg, 2003). DECISION-SUPPORT DATA SYSTEMS

Data collection systems monitor the effectiveness of interventions and any required adaptations during implementation. School psychologists or colleagues can organize effcient data collection and evaluation systems and analyze and share the data (Hicks-Hoste, 2015). Shared outcome data can be used to improve interventions and motivate enthusiasm for further implementation. Leadership Drivers These are ways that program leaders solve problems related to implementation processes, including staff motivation dips and technical issues like insuffcient resources (Ogden & Fixsen, 2014). The barriers rated most serious are lack of time, resources, and fnances (Hicks, Shahidullah, Carlson, & Palejwala, 2014). Lack of necessary resources may require adaptations and fexibility by principals, school psychologists, and other school leaders planning and implementing evidence-based programs (Durlak & DuPre, 2008; Elias et al., 2003). Competency Drivers These implementation factors include staff selection based upon attitudes toward innovation, skill profciency, and access to supports, such as professional development training and coaching (Durlak & DuPre, 2008).

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STAFF SELECTION

Staff who recognize a need or believe innovations will lead to positive outcomes are more likely to implement evidence-based interventions with fdelity (Aarons, 2004; Durlak & DuPre, 2008). Since practitioners’ readiness, attitudes, and beliefs can infuence their willingness to learn and implement EBIs, these factors should clearly be considered when resources such as training or coaching are allotted. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT TRAINING

While training provides practitioners with skills required for program implementation, teachers rarely receive pre-service training or follow-up coaching to support students’ mental health and behavioral needs (Koller & Bertel, 2006). Teachers self-identify as the primary implementers of classroom-based behavioral interventions but report a lack of experience and training on providing these supports (Reinke, Stormont, Herman, Puri, & Goel, 2011). See Chapters 16 and 17 for more about professional development and the role of school psychologists and colleague school mental health professionals. COACHING

Coaching supplements professional development training by reinforcing and enhancing new knowledge and skills, best provided through direct classroom observations followed by performance feedback (Kretlow & Bartholomew, 2010). Valuable technical support is also available through consultation. See Chapters 3 and 17 for elaboration of coaching and consultation.

Evaluating Programs for Evidence of Effectiveness Clark and Dockweiler (2019) remind us that sustaining the vitality of successful programs requires effective evaluation, refection, and revision. New programs are created through courage, innovation, and the capacity for refnement with lessons learned along the way. Necessary risks include unintended consequences, poor treatment effect, and negative trends. Data must be collected and evaluated regularly to provide feedback on program effectiveness and service delivery. When data demonstrates desired student or program outcomes, there is cause for celebration. When data demonstrates lack of improvement or decline in desired outcomes, refection and problem solving are needed. The urge for a “quick fx” based upon faulty assumptions without adequately evaluating program components and service delivery will likely be ineffcient and off-target. A collaborative team can thoughtfully refect on the data, examine aspects of implementation where the data leads, and develop a plan of corrective action that targets needed changes.

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Evaluating Outcome Data and System Feedback Fixsen and colleagues (2005) described the term feedback mechanism as a regular fow of information assessing the performance of individuals, teams, and organizations regarding use of an intervention. Feedback mechanisms can provide system feedback by collecting performance data using multiple methods and sources. Among the methods for evaluating innovative practices in schools are surveys and rating scales; interviews; observations and videotapes of teachers; data indicating student satisfaction, behaviors, and academic achievement; and surveys of perceived effectiveness of outcomes by teachers, administrators, leadership teams, professional learning communities, and families. Ongoing performance assessment and feedback throughout the system support continuous improvement of outcomes. Performance assessment, including measures of implementation fdelity, provide critical components for evaluating implementation (Fixsen et al., 2005). Measures of context fdelity include antecedents in the setting needed for high performance level, such as training, suffcient coach–practitioner ratio, acceptable caseload, available skilled colleagues, and availability of specifc program resources. Measures of compliance fdelity outline core components of research-based interventions being used as they were designed to be used and determine the extent to which core components are delivered with skill by the practitioner. The results of fdelity measures and staff evaluations can have practical uses, including information that 1) coaches can use to sharpen their work developing practitioners, 2) administrators can use to assess the quality of training and coaching, 3) program trainers can use to guide effective development for implementation, and 4) researchers can use as a study outcome measure. Clark and Dockweiler (2019) stated that a system is only as strong as its refective practices and fexibility to continue or change practices based upon outcome data and new information. Termed a feedback loop, this process involves applying many relevant sources of quantitative data such as achievement data, discipline data, and graduation rates, and qualitative data such as teacher and parent/caregiver satisfaction surveys. Ongoing systems that provide formative and summative feedback inform MTSS teams enabling “better data-based decisions in continuous improvement practice of implement-review-revise cycles” (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019, p. 13). Evaluating Key Drivers of Implementation Hicks-Hoste (2015) emphasized that school psychologists be aware of not only the implementation drivers – organizational, leadership, and competency drivers – that infuence program implementation, but also their professional skills that place them in a position of leadership in recognizing and navigating potential barriers. School psychologists can use their

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assessment, consultation, and intervention skills to evaluate and infuence these drivers to successfully apply them to unique school contexts. To support these efforts, the National Implementation Research Network (NIRN) has developed an assessment guide, Implementation Drivers: Assessing Best Practices (Fixsen, Blase, Naoom, & Duda, 2013). Implementers of new interventions can use this guide to evaluate the extent to which implementation teams are using best practices, assigning specifc responsibilities to team members, and establishing a timeline for managing implementation drivers throughout the process (Hicks-Hoste, 2015). Treatment Integrity: Challenges and Opportunities Treatment integrity involves implementing interventions with methodology as close as possible to the original research that serves as evidence of effectiveness (Hagermoser Sanetti & Kratochwill, 2014). Shaw and colleagues asserted that with increasing multicultural diversity in classrooms, strict intervention models and rigid applications of treatment integrity are not likely to be suffciently responsive (Shaw, Boulanger, & Gomes, 2015). The conundrum is how to adapt to diverse contexts and student populations while maintaining as much treatment integrity as possible. It is suggested that a small pilot study be enacted to sense the program’s effectiveness with the current diverse population. In this circumstance, careful data collection and evaluation of pilot outcomes provide a vital opportunity to determine potential effectiveness and needed adaptations in the school context. Another potential problem is that an EBI may have had many resources during research that may be unavailable to a teacher in a classroom targeted for intervention. Before EBI implementation, there should be an analysis of availability of needed resources. The fewer the resources in the target classroom compared with those in the original research, the more likely there will be low treatment integrity and different outcomes (Kendall & Beidas, 2007). Evaluation may demonstrate that the intervention is either not a good ft, or signal the opportunity to identify critical resources needed to support effective outcomes in the current school context. Teachers view treatment integrity as a valuable practice but have reported that the assessment of treatment integrity can feel coercive and continuously evaluative (Boulanger, Varona Prevez, Shah, & Shaw, 2014). Although a majority of teachers (62%) experiencing treatment integritydriven implementation of EBIs reported that they enjoy learning new skills that address classroom problems, 82% reported they were unlikely to sustain the new practices after the monitoring of treatment integrity ended (Boulanger et al., 2014). How can teachers be encouraged to sustain effective programs with integrity?

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Clearly, when implementing new interventions, teachers must be provided with meaningful training, technical skill development, suffcient resources, user-friendly assessment methods, easily accessed outcome results, time for collaborative planning, and encouragement to sustain programs. According to Shaw and colleagues (2015), an effective treatment integrity model encourages teachers to implement interventions while respecting their experience, knowledge, skills and resources, the needs of their students, and the culture of their school and community. Matching school culture and the EBI requires analysis of both, including values, theoretical orientation, community norms, teacher preparation, and openness to innovation (Forman, 2015). Making Adjustments and Recognizing Improvements The Open-Source Analogy Model (OSAM) is a proposed enhancement to treatment integrity through which interventions can be more fexibly adapted to the unique needs of educators, students, resources, training, and the local system, while maintaining the theory-driven core of the intervention (Shaw et al., 2015). Shaw and colleagues (2015) summarized the characteristics of OSAM: • • • • •

• • •

Materials for all psychological and educational interventions are available for free and easily shared All interventions should be grounded in theory All psychological and educational interventions have a core set of theoretically based procedures that cannot be changed by implementers EBIs should have a prototype set of implementation strategies that users can simply follow without changes, like a lesson plan Implementation strategies can be adapted to meet the needs of students, resources, context, and systems. Examples of modifcations include using a video to illustrate a procedure, using student roleplays to practice concepts, changing lesson length, adding mindfulness techniques, using applied behavior analysis principles, adding culture-specifc examples, and changing lessons from whole classroom to small group interventions All changes from the prototype lesson plan are reported and documented Regardless of changes to the implementation plan, outcome measures such as targeted behaviors, attendance, academic achievement, and other constructs related to the lesson plan are constant All interventions using OSAM implementation are dynamic and can be modifed according to effective ideas based on outcome measures used during the process

OSAM is considered likely to improve implementation quality and sustainability by empowering teachers, consistent with self-determination theory, which predicts that teachers experiencing autonomy, competence, and

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Table 18.1 Getting to Outcomes (GTO) Steps and Accountability Questions Steps

Accountability Questions

1. Needs/Resources

What are the underlying needs and resources to be addressed? What are the goals, target population, and objectives (i.e., desired outcomes)? What evidence-based models and best practice programs can be used to reach the goals? What actions need to be taken so the selected program fts the cultural context? What organizational capacities are needed to implement the program? What is the plan to implement the program? Is the program being implemented with quality? (Formative) How well is the program working? (Summative) How will continuous quality improvement strategies be included? How will a successful program be sustained?

2. Goals 3. Best Practices 4. Fit 5. Capacities 6. Plan 7. Process Evaluation 8. Outcome Evaluation 9. Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) 10. Sustainability

Source: Adapted from Maras et al. (2012)

relatedness will be highly motivated to engage in activities, and performance, persistence, and creativity will be enhanced for innovative classroom practices (Claro, Boulanger, & Shaw, 2015; Deci & Ryan, 2012). Maras, Wandersman, Splett, Flaspohler, and Weist (2012) described Getting to Outcomes (GTO), a 10-step framework (see Table 18.1) developed by Wandersman and colleagues (Wandersman, Imm, Chinman, & Kaftarian, 2000) to facilitate effective implementation of evidence-based programs and to improve local practices (Maras et al., 2012). The steps of GTO can be used by school team leaders to help work with a team of stakeholders, including school staff, community members, and family representatives to develop, implement, and evaluate practices and improve program outcomes. GTO is a process with potential to signifcantly enhance program training and practice by providing an empirical approach to planning, implementing, and evaluating evidence-based practices (EBPs) (Maras et al., 2012). The Quality Implementation Tool (QIT) was designed to assist organizations using the Getting to Outcomes (GTO) planning and implementation process (Meyers et al., 2012). Forman, Lubin, and Tripptree (2014) identifed steps for successful implementation, evaluation, and sustainability of interventions: •

Make a good match. Will intervention characteristics be a good ft for the school context? Strong evidence is related to randomized, controlled trials showing effectiveness in school settings, including a setting similar to the practice setting where the intervention is being considered.

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Putting It All Together Desirable characteristics for a new intervention: • •

•

•

•

•

•

•

Perceived as better than current practice (relative advantage) Perceived as compatible with needs, values, norms, and past positive programs • Perceived as easy to understand (less complex), easily tried on a limited basis like a pilot study before scaling up (trialability), and having observable outcomes (observability) • Perceived as potentially improving implementer performance (task relevance) • Perceived as adaptable (fexible) and readily modifed to ft the school context Develop implementer and stakeholder support. Support from potential implementers such as teachers and school mental health providers, and from school administrators and families, is essential. Develop opinion leaders into champions for new interventions Provide training and technical assistance. Quality training and technical assistance is critical, since implementation success depends on implementer competence and skill. Technical assistance can transform workshop knowledge into skillful practice Develop organizational support within existing systems. Developing a collaborative relationship with the principal can help ensure that structures (e.g., new teams, workgroups) and procedures (e.g., referral systems, resource partnerships) are established. Implementation efforts can be recognized through faculty meetings, newsletters, and parent meetings. School leaders can develop a multidisciplinary leadership team, build social network support, and share data Adapt interventions for diverse populations. Implementers must understand how their own culture infuences their attitudes and reactions toward culturally diverse students. Selecting and adapting interventions in a culturally informed manner, in collaboration with families and the community, can enhance adaptation Evaluate implementation. Evaluate to determine outcomes, receive feedback on intervention fdelity, and make needed adjustments. Evaluate whether there are suffcient resources, funding, time for teamwork, skilled staff, administrative and organizational structures, data collection and information systems, and stakeholder support Evaluate sustainability. After initial implementation and practice, the expectation is that institutionalization will occur. Han and Weiss (2005), addressing sustainability of teacher-implemented classroom mental health programs, identifed four factors essential for sustainable programs: a. Acceptable to school and teachers b. Effective

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c. Feasible d. Flexible and adaptable Interventions viewed as most feasible and most likely to be sustained required the least resources and funding. Adapted from Forman et al. (2014)

Sustaining Gains Through Program Maintenance Fostering Institutionalization of New Programs Program gains can be sustained through attention to maintenance needs, strengthening enabling variables, tackling disabling variables, informing stakeholders about program effectiveness and celebrating improvements, and fostering institutionalization of desired knowledge, skills, values, and norms. Fixsen and colleagues (2005) asserted that an implementation site must be sustained in the years subsequent to the intense work (often 2 to 4 years) of establishing an evidence-based program. Skilled practitioners and trained staff leave and must be replaced. There are changes in leaders, program requirements, and availability of funding. There are new social problems, partners come and go, external systems frequently change, political alliances are temporary, and champions move on to other causes. Implementation leaders and staff must maintain awareness of the “shifting ecology of infuence factors” and make necessary adjustments to maintain the program’s functional components as well as fnancial and political support. The goal at the sustainability phase is survival and continued program effectiveness in the context of a changing world (Fixsen et al., 2005). Nastasi and colleagues (2004), summarizing their Participatory CultureSpecifc Intervention Model (PCSIM) of school mental health service delivery, suggested planning strategies to facilitate program sustainability and institutionalization: 1. 2.

3.

Stakeholders should review program data, identify goals for continuing or modifying the program and initiating new efforts, and plan for follow-up initiatives. Necessary infrastructure must be in place to support future initiatives. Provide follow-up training for stakeholders to build their capacity for research, intervention, evaluation, and the participatory process. Identify individuals who can assume leadership roles in sustaining the process. Facilitate communication and network development between schools and community mental health agencies, and other resource partners. Adapted from Nastasi et al. (2004)

There is a mutually benefcial interacting relationship between the implementation, evaluation, and sustainability of a program. Effective planning

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and implementation followed by perceptive evaluation guiding adjustments and improvements that support desired outcomes are key building blocks of program sustainability. Sustainability of ongoing school safety and mental health programs is further enhanced by: • • • • • • •

Ongoing, active administrative support, encouragement, and problem solving School climate that supports innovation, professional growth, and teacher leadership, and that maintains an effective service delivery system Core of responsible staff such as a leadership team invested in sustaining quality programs and having authority to maintain them as part of school culture Ongoing evaluation for improvement and periodic new goal setting Purposefully sustaining needed personnel, training, resources, morale, and funding Ongoing professional development and collaborative learning communities, booster sessions, consultation, coaching, and skill building Regularly sharing/celebrating positive outcomes with stakeholders

Critical points along the way to help ensure sustained success: • •

• • • • • • •

Utilize best practices throughout the development process, including hard work and attention to detail by the leadership team, school staff, students, families, and community partners Secure buy-in from key stakeholders such as administrators, teachers, and PLCs accepting the development process not just for one or two discrete goals, but for an expanding series of interventions for multiple, often interrelated needs Connect with the Education Association to enlist cooperation and support throughout the development process Select programs and practices perceived as needed and benefcial for students and teachers Create a positive school climate and organizational structures such as MTSS that coordinate service delivery and the integration of programs and services Include data collection and evaluation that demonstrates and improves desired outcomes Implement quality follow-up using multiple modes of ongoing training and skill building that sustain effective programs Incorporate relevant media and technology into training venues and content Recognize and express appreciation to teachers and facilitators for their time, hard work, and dedication throughout the process

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A critical factor in sustaining school safety and mental health programs is the degree to which they are embedded in effective service delivery systems. Chapter 3 described a variety of delivery systems featuring school safety and mental health. An effective service delivery system such as MTSS is a determinant of whether these programs and practices will thrive. Effective delivery systems can provide a continuum of services, ready access to resources, and desired outcomes, and support best practices in implementing, evaluating, and sustaining successful programs. ****** The next and fnal chapter consolidates guidance for integrating and managing multiple programs and practices.

References Aarons, G. A. (2004). Mental health provider attitudes toward adoption of evidence- based practice: The Evidence-Based Practice Attitude Scale (EBPAS). Mental Health Services Research, 6, 61–74. Retrieved from www.springer.com/ public+health/journal/11020 Aarons, G. A., Green, A. E., Willging, C. E., Ehrhart, M. G., Roesch, S. C., Hecht, D. B., & Chaffn, M. J. (2014). Mixed-method study of a conceptual model of evidence- based intervention sustainment across multiple public-sector service settings. Implementation Science, 9, 183. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13012-014-0183-z Boulanger, M. M., Varona Prevez, L., Shah, S., & Shaw, S. (2014). Teacher perceptions of support and treatment integrity: A consultation model of school – based intervention. Paper presented to the convention of the Canadian Psychological Association, Vancouver, BC. Brock, S. E., Nickerson, A. B., Reeves, M. A., Conolly, C. N., Jimerson, S. R., Pesce, R., & Lazzaro, B. (2016). School crisis prevention & intervention: The PREPaRE model (2nd ed.). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence. (2015). Safe communities, safe schools: Action guide. Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. Clark, A. G., & Dockweiler, K. A. (2019). Multi-tiered systems of support in secondary schools: The defnitive guide to effective implementation and quality control. New York: Routledge. Claro, A., Boulanger, M. M., & Shaw, S. R. (2015). Targeting vulnerabilities to risky behavior: An intervention for promoting adaptive emotion regulation in adolescents. Contemporary School Psychology, 1–10. http://doi.org/10.1007/ s40688-015-0063-9 Cook, E., & Black, P. (2020). Effective implementation and evaluation of traumainformed schools. In E. Rossen (Ed.), Supporting and educating traumatized students: A guide for school-based professionals (2nd ed., pp. 373–395). New York: Oxford University Press.

372 Putting It All Together Cowan, K. C., Vaillancourt, K., Rossen, E., & Pollitt, K. (2013). A framework for safe and successful schools [Brief]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Motivation, personality, and development within embedded social contexts: An overview of self-determination theory. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), Oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 85–107). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfor dhb/9780195399820.001.0001 Durlak, J. A., & DuPre, E. P. (2008). Implementation matters: A review on the infuence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 327–350. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10464-008-9165-0 Eagle, J. W., Dowd-Eagle, S. E., Snyder, A., & Holtzman, E. G. (2015). Implementing a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS): Collaboration between school psychologists and administrators to promote systems-level change. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 25(2–3), 160–177. Elias, M. J., Zins, J. E., Graczyk, P. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2003). Implementation sustainability, and scaling up of social-emotional and academic innovations in public schools. School Psychology Review, 32, 303–319. Retrieved from https:// doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2003.12086200 Fixsen, D. L., Blase, K. A., Naoom, S. F., & Duda, M. A. (2013). Implementation drivers: Accessing best practices. Chapel Hill, NC: National Implementation Research Network (NIRN) v. 4/2013. Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature. Tampa, FL: University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, The National Implementation Research Network (FMHI Publication @231). Forman, S. G. (2015). Implementation of mental health programs in schools: A change agent’s guide. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Forman, S. G., Lubin, A. R., & Tripptree, A. L. (2014). Best practices in implementing evidence-based school interventions. In P. L. Harrison & A. Thomas (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology: Systems-level services (pp. 43–55). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Forman, S. G., Shapiro, E. S., Codding, R. S., Gonzales, J. E., Reddy, L. A., Rosenfeld, S. A., . . . & Stroiber, K. C. (2013). Implementation science and school psychology. School Psychology Quarterly, 28, 77–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/ spq0000019 Greenhalgh, T., Howick, J., & Maskrey, N. (2014). Evidence-based medicine: A movement in crisis? British Medical Journal, 348. https://www.bmj.com/ content/348/bmj.g3725 Hagermoser Sanetti, L. M., & Kratochwill, T. R. (Eds.). (2014). Introduction: Treatment integrity in psychological research and practice. In Treatment integrity: A foundation for evidence based practice in applied psychology (pp. 3–11). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Han, S. S., & Weiss, B. (2005). Sustainability of teacher implementation of schoolbased mental health programs. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 665–679. Hicks, T. B., Shahidullah, J. D., Carlson, J. S., & Palejwala, M. H. (2014). Nationally certified school psychologists’ use and reported barriers to using

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evidence- based interventions in schools: The infuence of graduate program training and education. School Psychology Quarterly, 29(4), 469–487. https://doi. org/10.1037/spq0000059 Hicks-Hoste, T. B. (2015). Facilitators and barriers to the implementation of mental health evidence-based interventions. Communiqué, 44(1). Ingraham, C. L., & Oka, E. R. (2006). Multicultural issues in evidence-based interventions. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 22(2), 127–149. https://doi. org/10.1300/J370v22n02_07 Jaquith, A. (2014). Changing the relationship between professional development policy and the practitioner’s role. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 82–102). New York: Guilford Press. Kendall, P. C., & Beidas, R. S. (2007). Smoothing the trail for dissemination of evidence-based practices for youth: Flexibility within fdelity. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 38, 13–20. Koller, J. R., & Bertel, J. M. (2006). Responding to today’s mental health needs of children, families, and schools: Revisiting the preservice training and preparation of school-based personnel. Education and Treatment of Children, 29, 197– 217. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/42899882 Kretlow, A. G., & Bartholomew, C. C. (2010). Using coaching to improve the fdelity of evidence-based practices: A review of studies. Teacher Education and Special Education, 33, 279–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406410371643 Langley, A. K., Nadeem, E., Kataoka, S. H., Stein, B. D., & Jaycox, L. H. (2010). Evidence-based mental health programs in schools: Barriers and facilitators of successful implementation. School Mental Health, 2, 105–113. Long, A. C. J., McIver, E. C., Olinger, R. M., Bolognino, S. J., & Renshaw, T. L. (2015). Balancing treatment integrity and client responsiveness: Adapting a mindfulness curriculum. Communiqué, 43(8). Lung, S. L. M. (2018). Evidence-based practice and practice-based evidence in school psychology. Communiqué, 47(1), 8–9. Lyon, A. R., Cook, C. R., Duong, M. T., Nicodimos, S., Pullman, M. D., Brewer, S. K., . . . & Cox, S. (2019). The infuence of a blended, theoretically-informed pre-implementation strategy on school-based clinician implementation of an evidence-based trauma intervention. Implementation Science, 2–30. https:// implementationscience.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13012-0190905-3 Maras, M. A., Wandersman, A., Williams Splett, J., Flaspohler, P., & Weist, M. (2012). Getting to outcomes: A best practice process to help schools achieve desired outcomes. Communiqué, 41(4), 4–8. McGrath, B. (2010). Mental health in schools: Serving the whole child. Communiqué, 39(4), 8–10. Mental Health First Aid USA. (2012). Mental health frst aid USA for adults assisting young people. Washington, DC: National Council for Behavioral Health. Retrieved from www.mentalhealthfrstaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/ Youth_Mental_Health_First_Aid-One_Pager.pdf Mental Health First Aid USA. (2015). Mental health frst aid USA. Washington, DC: National Council for Behavioral Health. Retrieved from www.mentalhealthfrstaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Mental-Health-First-Aid-AdultsOne-Pager_2019.pdf

374 Putting It All Together Metz, A., & Louison, L. (2019). The Hexagon Tool: Exploring context. Chapel Hill, NC: National Implementation Research Network, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Based on Kiser, Zabel, Zachik, & Smith (2007) and Blase, Kiser, & Van Dyke (2013). Meyers, D. C., Katz, J., Chien, V., Wandersman, A., Scaccia, J. P., & Wright, A. (2012). Practical implementation science: Developing and piloting the Quality Implementation Tool. American Journal of Community Psychology, 50(3–4), 481–496. MHTTC. (2020). Supporting student mental health: Resources to prepare educators. Mental Health Technology Transfer Center Network in partnership with the National Center for School Mental Health. Nastasi, B. K., Moore, R. B., & Varjas, K. M. (2004). School-based mental health services: Creating comprehensive and culturally specifc programs. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Nickerson, A. B. (2008). The use and importance of strength-based assessment. School Psychology Forum, 2(2). Retrieved from www.nasponline.org/publications/spf/issue2_2/nickersonabstract.aspx Ogden, T., & Fixsen, D. L. (2014). Implementation science: A brief overview and a look ahead. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, 222, 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1027/21512604/a000160 Owens, J. S., Lyon, A. R., Brandt, N. E., Warner, C. M., Nadeem, E., Spiel, C., & Wagner, M. (2014). Implementation science in school mental health: Key constructs in a developing research agenda. School Mental Health, 6, 99–111. Reinke, W. M., Stormont, M., Herman, K. C., Puri, R., & Goel, N. (2011). Supporting children’s mental health in schools: Teacher perceptions of needs, roles, and barriers. School Psychology Quarterly, 26, 1–13. https://doi. org/10.1037/a0022714 Reutzel, D. R., & Clark, S. K. (2014). Shaping the contours of professional development, PreK – 12: Successful models and practices. In L. E. Martin, S. Kragler, D. J. Quatroche, & K. L. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of professional development in education: Successful models and practices, PreK – 12 (pp. 67–81). New York: Guilford. Shaw, S. R., Boulanger, M. M., & Gomes, P. (2015). Enhancing treatment integrity: A proposed model for improving implementation and supporting teachers. Communiqué, 44(4), 23–25. Shaw, S. R., Varona Prevez, L., & Shah, S. (2014). Evidence-based interventions: Necessary but not suffcient for a profession of scientist-practitioners. Communiqué, 43(1). Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2006). A promising approach for expanding and sustaining the implementation of school-wide positive behavior support. School Psychology Review, 35, 245–259. Sugai, G., & Horner, R. H. (2009). Defning and describing schoolwide positive behavior support. In W. Sailor, G. Dunlap, G. Sugai, & R. Horner (Eds.), Handbook of positive behavior support (pp. 307–326). New York: Springer. Sugai, G., O’Keefe, B. V., & Fallon, L. M. (2012). A contextual consideration of culture and school-wide positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14, 197–208. Wandersman, A., Imm, P., Chinman, M., & Kaftarian, S. (2000). Getting to outcomes: A results-based approach to accountability. Evaluation and Program Planning, 23, 389–395.

19 Integrating and Managing Multiple Programs and Practices

I can do things you cannot, you can do things I cannot; together we can do great things. ~Mother Teresa

Integrating Through Systems Thinking In The Fifth Discipline (1990), Peter Senge states that systems thinking requires us to “give up the illusion that the world is created in separate, unrelated forces.” Senge views human endeavors as systems “bound by invisible fabrics of interrelated actions” (p. 7). He observes that being “part of the lacework . . . makes it more diffcult to see the whole pattern of change” (p. 7). We “focus on snapshots of isolated parts of the system, and wonder why our deepest problems never seem to get solved” (p. 7). Systems thinking is a conceptual framework of knowledge and tools developed to make the interrelated patterns clearer, and to help us see how to create organizational change. When educators think systemically, many opportunities to integrate programs and practices become clear. When these initiatives are combined, they can become more effcient, more effective, and more comprehensive. More interventions are possible while expending less energy and effort. There is less redundancy and confusion, more focus and coordination. There are targeted interventions to address needs and relevant data to indicate when needs are being met. Patterns of change and goals become clearer to stakeholders, who play a more active, collaborative role in achieving them. Mission, Vision, and Goals The process of systemic change must be thoughtful and deliberate. Effective management and integration of new programs is essential, given the complexity and time needed to complete the implementation process. A school leadership team of representative stakeholders, with input from other school teams and the community, can reach consensus on a mission

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statement and a vision of the educational environment – the climate and culture they want to create. Building consensus on a mission and vision refects the essential values of the school community. Having a common mission, vision, and language can facilitate goal setting and guide school improvement planning. A specifc set of goals and activities can be developed to implement staff and program development, build a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS), and integrate programs. Goals and action steps are generated from and can be traced back to the stated mission and vision. Critical system elements that further the integration of initiatives such as administrative and team leadership, infrastructure and resources, professional development, cultural responsiveness, a system of service delivery, and others described throughout this book are summarized in this chapter. Essential Suggestions to Integrate Programs Systemically • • • • • • • • • • • •

Apply systems thinking to leadership, MTSS, programs, and teams Integrate service delivery, programs, practices, and infrastructure consistent with the mission, vision, and values that create a positive school climate Design professional development that aligns programs with initiatives already working Integrate programs and practices having complementary functions Integrate culturally responsive teaching, relationships, respect, and appreciation for diversity throughout the school environment, programs, and curriculum Use MTSS to coordinate integrated programs, services, and partnerships Integrate teams having overlapping programs and functions, coordinating collaborative planning groups within MTSS Integrate systems of data collection, easily accessed data-sharing, and data-based decision making Integrate programs into daily practice – curriculum, instruction, behavioral interventions, and norms Develop a long-term, feasible, incremental professional development plan, using pilot studies before scaling up Provide time for teams to collaboratively plan and address overlapping programs and functions, using a master schedule to facilitate multiple team membership Integrate funding streams and grants for fexible use and focus on current needs

Throughout the school community, consistency matters, and it can be attained through a common vision and behavior expectations, a common language, and common practices that are valued and acknowledged.

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Application of implementation science to the school’s unique context and culture can facilitate developing innovative programs and organizational change. Repeating the implementation process carefully and deliberately will improve effciency over time, making it easier to implement additional programs.

Integrating With Leadership and Logistics Leadership Supporting Collaboration and Planned Innovation School administrators and leadership teams play a critical role in supporting and encouraging innovation and providing for the logistics and resources necessary for collaborative planning and integration of initiatives. Among the logistics and resources leaders can infuence are: • • • • • • • •

Building a shared understanding of the vision, mission, and goals Encouraging buy-in and active involvement by teachers, school-based mental health professionals, support staff, families, and community partners Advocating for and sustaining suffcient staffng of school-based mental health professionals and support staff Providing time and a master schedule for collaborative planning and professional development to implement, evaluate, and sustain new programs and practices Encouraging shared leadership and team structures that support a system of coordinated service delivery with integrated programs Facilitating functional roles for staff trainers, training, and ongoing technical support (coaching, consultation, booster sessions) Finding and developing funding streams to support staff and program development, infrastructure, and resources Maintaining integration of services through school and community partnerships, and ongoing program evaluation and improvement

A “systems change” perspective enables consideration of how altering the way schools integrate innovation can help sustain effective changes. Sparks (2018) reported that sustained change is more likely when leaders explore how a change will affect and be affected by all the moving parts of the system. Here are three common ways administrators can better integrate improvement efforts: 1. 2.

Deliberately and explicitly build a shared understanding of purposes and goals. Develop strategies for improvement with people from diverse parts of the system to understand how interventions will work in the dayto-day context.

378 Putting It All Together 3.

Adjust the strategy based on multiple trials and ongoing experience, including pilot studies, evaluations, and refnements before taking them to scale. Adapted from Sparks (2018)

With strong administrative buy-in, there must also be teacher buy-in and commitment by school-based mental health professionals who are prepared to play a major role in facilitating change. Beyond buy-in, there is a need for administrators, teachers, and support staff to become meaningfully involved in the process, including forming collaborative teams in school and with families and resources in the community. When implementing new interventions, teachers must be provided with meaningful training, technical skill development, suffcient resources, user-friendly assessment methods, easily accessed outcome results, and encouragement to sustain programs. Administrative Support for Planning Logistics Collaborative planning requires creativity to fnd needed planning time. Suggestions for creating more time for collaboration and gaining support for schedule changes are detailed in Chapter 2. Given that the number of school teams may be extensive and include overlapping membership on multiple teams, administrators should develop a master schedule prior to the start of the school year. This will contribute to consistent and reasonable intervals between meetings, and help to avoid conficting meeting times. With these established weekly and bi-weekly meeting times, members can plan their attendance in advance (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019). Other signifcant organizational timelines such as dates, times, and topics for professional development, and targets for implementing new programs and practices, should be established prior to the start of the school year (Forman & Crystal, 2015). Plan for Suffcient Access to Key Roles It is important to examine the current ratios of school psychologists, school counselors, and school social workers, and to work with districts and states to develop a long-term plan to reach recommended ratios in these professions and other key leadership roles (NASP, 2017). At the same time, school administrators can plan to reduce psychoeducational and standardized testing responsibilities, enabling school psychologists, school counselors, and lead teachers more time for participation on teams, training, data collection, consultation, coaching, and other critical support roles. Specially trained school mental health staff and other specialized instructional support personnel (SISP) who understand the interconnected factors

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affecting service delivery can consult with and empower principals to more effciently distribute resources, evaluate service effectiveness, and adjust supports to meet changing student needs. Enhanced access and collaboration with community providers helps strengthen and expand services to meet more intense student needs. When school and community mental health professionals collaborate, they can provide a broad range of integrated services.

Integrating With Infrastructure and Resources Supportive Infrastructure If new school safety and mental health programs are to work optimally, there must be an infrastructure in place that supports them – structures and resources through which they can be organized, coordinated, and delivered in a way that ensures the best chance to achieve desired outcomes. An infrastructure that supports cohesive, integrated program development requires administrative support, funding, and logistics. It includes leadership teams assessing needs, implementing programs, evaluating outcomes, and planning for ongoing training and technical support. A key element is a service delivery model such as a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) with collaborative teams coordinating a continuum of interventions. A strong infrastructure includes the systems, policies, teams, and resources necessary to align functions and processes for optimal effciency whenever possible, including integration of overlapping and pre-existing programs, unifying data collection from multiple sources, and monitoring student and program outcomes to continuously improve services. Adelman and Taylor (2014) suggested system development mechanisms to integrate infrastructure for school supports: • • • • •

Build school-site infrastructure. Establish and sustain organizational and operational mechanisms linked into an effective, effcient school infrastructure Build infrastructure for a family of schools. Connect schools in a complex or feeder pattern to maximize use of available resources and funds Connect with the district offce infrastructure. Ensure that site-based school cluster efforts are linked to and nurtured by the central offce Connect schools across districts. Necessary in small rural districts and where schools are organized into separate high school and elementary districts Build school-community collaborative[s]. Connect school and community infrastructures and braid school–community resources

380 •

•

Putting It All Together Evolve a comprehensive, multifaceted, cohesive system of learning supports. Rethink and re-deploy resources in ways that evolve student services into unifed and comprehensive learning supports treated as a primary component of school improvement System development mechanisms cannot be isolated, but must connect with each other as part of an integrated infrastructure. A leadership team or MTSS team must be connected with the other development mechanisms such as administrative leadership, curriculum and instruction, safety and crisis response, behavioral supports, socialemotional learning, and PLCs. Representatives from the leadership team and principal’s planning team must ensure essential development mechanism connections to MTSS and increasingly integrate with classroom instruction Adapted from Adelman and Taylor (2014)

Resource Mapping: Integrating Resources and Services A needs assessment can evaluate current and needed resources and supports. Available services in all tiers of MTSS can be evaluated. Resource mapping, introduced in Chapters 3 and 6, and elaborated in Chapter 16, is a process that helps schools identify the range of supports and resources available to students, educators, and families. This process can help identify both effective pre-existing programs and resources to be aligned with new initiatives and gaps in needed services. Is there ineffective activity or redundancy? Essentially, a gap analysis identifes existing and needed resources to support the school’s vision for a comprehensive, integrated approach to addressing barriers to learning and promoting healthy development (Adelman & Taylor, 2014). Teams can use resource mapping to maintain a referral database of reliable resources to support socialemotional and behavioral (SEB) health (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019). Braiding Programs, Services, and Resources McIntosh, Goodman, and Bohanon (2010) discussed how braiding initiatives promotes their strength and sustainability. When new initiatives compete with each other, both can be put at a disadvantage. Though consolidation requires time and effort, braiding and integrating interrelated systems can strengthen and sustain them. Braiding refers to the process of weaving initiatives into the fabric of other initiatives by identifying how parallel practices and resources can be combined into a coherent set of responsibilities with a common language. Braiding involves partnering complementary resources or mechanisms that drive them (delivery systems, personnel, teams). An example of braiding mechanisms that drive resources is for school-based and community mental health agencies to form a partnership that strengthens

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and expands available services. Another example is to pool personnel from various crisis teams to increase available responders who can be deployed during an emergency. A family of schools (neighboring or feeder pattern schools) might braid resources to address common concerns. Funding and training resources can be braided to expand opportunities for joint professional development. A family of schools can also explore how community resources might be woven into the effort. Neighboring schools can share programs or personnel, minimizing redundancy and reducing costs. Braiding of funding streams and grants available to schools, districts, and community entities can help schools realize their vision of comprehensive safety, mental health, and learning supports for all students (Adelman & Taylor, 2014).

Integrating With Professional Development It is important to recognize that it takes time, patience, and commitment to achieve acceptance for implementation of innovative programs. Goals may best be achieved gradually, with careful planning and monitoring for successful outcomes. Frequent program changes can lead to staff resistance to future change (Cowan, Vaillancourt, Rossen, & Pollitt, 2013). Professional development (PD) must be planned and presented in a way that supports teachers rather than presents a burden. Training must involve teachers in meaningful collaborative teams and leadership roles. Professional development must integrate new programs and coordinate them within a Multi-Tiered System of Supports. Integrated Professional Development Integrated Services Require an Integrated System of Professional Development When a professional development planning team, possibly a subgroup of the school leadership or MTSS team, considers the next PD topic for their school, they should not consider that topic in a vacuum. It is not an isolated topic, but part of a systemic plan. They must be deliberate and thoughtful as they are planning for present and projected future priorities. They should think about the topic taking into account their school’s mission, vision, and goals, data from their needs assessment and resource mapping with staff and community input that led to their selected and prioritized program needs. The immediate PD topic may be a needed core program such as crisis response, suicide prevention, threat assessment, or MTSS, or it may be a needed selected program topic for response to their unique geographic concerns, such as preparation for tornadoes or response to foods (see Chapter 16 for discussion of core and selected programs). Whatever the chosen topic, they should consider it as one of

382 Putting It All Together a series of multiple PD topics generated from long-term planning that will build the capacity of their school with comprehensive safety and mental health programs. Considering the data of their school’s needs assessment and program priorities, they can look at long-term needs according to an organized approach such as what is needed on each of the three tiers of their MTSS delivery system (see Chapter 16, “Selecting Programs Within Tiers of MTSS; see Chapter 6, Table 6.1) or they can think in terms of clusters of needs (see Chapter 16, “Selecting Programs by Clusters of Needs”). In a sense, they are planning not simply for the next PD, but estimating a series of timely PD presentations over the coming months and years based upon prioritized needs, which are not written in stone and can change over time. Consistent with long-term planning and follow-up prescribed by Table 19.1, the team must be mindful of planning for follow-up technical assistance and future booster sessions to maintain and deepen the knowledge and skills of the immediate PD topic, ensuring that training transfers into the daily school context. Table 19.1 provides, at a glance, a visual representation of immediate and future PD with technical followup. The table can be utilized to plan for anticipated PD – not just for the next needed topic, but for categories and clusters of needs over the coming years. It provides a long-term professional development plan with a feasible, manageable timeline for training that implements and integrates multiple programs. Planning for current and future training must integrate programs and resources to avoid redundancy, conficts, and confusion. Planning must continue to develop infrastructure and resources, integrating and aligning programs and services within a coordinated delivery system with ongoing technical assistance and training. Integration of programs requires an ongoing PD process for all staff: • • • •

Workshops provided on a regular basis Specifc follow-up with technical assistance for classroom teachers to build fuency and skills Data collection on skill fuency, lesson plan content, feedback indicating fdelity and desired outcomes Supportive follow-up coaching and consultation in all classrooms to check and improve fdelity of implementation Adapted from OSEP PBIS Technical Assistance Center

How Many Programs at One Time? Caution: Schools adopting three or more programs at once, with three or more separate teams and action plans, risk having separate, competing programs interfere with improving their overall system of supports. Lack

Table 19.1 Professional Development Plan at a Glance Includes Long-Term Management of Prioritized Training Categories/Programs, Target Populations, and Scheduled Technical Follow-Up and Booster Sessions

Category/ Program

Target Group

Required (R) Voluntary (V)

Initial Training Date

Follow-Up Coaching Date

Review Session Date

Booster Training Date

Repeat Initial Training as Needed Date

Review Session Date

Booster Training Date

Multiple Programs and Practices 383

384 Putting It All Together of effciency can jeopardize the collective strength of their approaches and increase the possibility that staff become unwilling to complete yet another tool (Bohanon & Wu, 2012). It is strongly suggested that school leadership teams carefully, incrementally, plan for the addition of cumulative, needed programs, adding or integrating programs only when previous ones are well established and assimilated into successful, daily practice. Ideally, the careful addition/integration of programs that yield desired outcomes will build the school’s capacity to develop future innovative programs. Generally, one new program at a time makes sense, especially for a schoolwide program involving most of staff, students, and teachers. It is conceivable that a bundle of two or three related new programs can be developed at the same time if there is overlapping team membership and coordination, and/ or major responsibility for implementation and skill development is limited to one or more self-contained teams without involving major responsibilities from the larger school staff. Program training sometimes targets a subgroup of the school population such as crisis or threat assessment team members. Embedded Professional Development and Alignment Professional learning communities (PLCs) provide meaningful alignment through site-based, embedded professional development. Effective professional development utilizes existing school programs and resources such as PLCs to integrate and align new strategies and skills that further goals. Staff training can also be aligned with existing or developing socialemotional and behavioral programs such as PBIS, SEL, or TIS. Professional Development and Capacity Building Nastasi, Moore, and Varjas (2004) point out that capacity building is not a specifc strategy or activity but rather a long-term endeavor. Effective professional development can build the capacity of the educational system, including school-wide and community populations. Capacity building enhances the internal resources of schools or organizations to conduct their own training to implement, evaluate, and sustain programs. Building local capacity and competency for planned, ongoing training with a variety of trainer and training resources and venues can include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Training of Trainers (ToT). Trained coaches, mentors, and consultants with experience in specifc areas. Embedded learning communities. Technology webinars, blogs, and online communities of practice. Expert outside trainers when needed. Training sessions arranged at school, district, multi-district, or conference levels.

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School psychologists and other school mental health providers within a district or buddy districts can each plan to specialize in different programs and then share expertise and training with each other. In this way, key personnel can divide tasks and integrate knowledge and skills to expand total system capacity. A Multi-Year Model of Professional Development Pell and Carroll (2019) described a thoughtfully planned timeline over the course of parts of six school years (2013–14 through 2018–19) that included professional development, book studies, and implementing programs and practices to support students, educators, families, and communities (see Chapter 13). Among their goals were integration of programs and practices, professional collaboration, ongoing cycles of training and technical support, consistent administrative leadership and support, and the development of shared language, expectations, values, and norms that contribute to student prosocial behavior, mental health, and educational equity.

Integrating Programs Within MTSS Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) is a service delivery model that coordinates and integrates a continuum of school safety, mental health, and behavioral and academic support programs and practices. A program such as Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) utilizes a similar three-tiered approach that integrates well within the overarching MTSS model. Other programs that can be coordinated and integrated within MTSS are Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS), and other prevention programs and school-wide initiatives. MTSS also provides a framework for organizing ongoing training and development that nurtures teacher satisfaction and student learning. Figure 6.1 in Chapter 6 illustrates the integration of programs and practices within the protective umbrella of MTSS. Programs and interventions that support a continuum of school safety, mental health, and learning are best integrated and delivered within a school-wide Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) that includes: • • •

Integration of a continuum of coordinated, evidence-based interventions, prevention programs, and school-based teams and community services Systematic data collection, analysis, and data-based decisions to inform needed services and program improvement indicated by outcomes Implementing quality academic curricula, while integrating socialemotional learning, mental health and trauma-informed supports, and positive behavior initiatives

386 • • • • • • • •

Putting It All Together Building upon and aligning new initiatives with existing programs and resources (RTI, PBIS, SEL, TIS) integrated within MTSS Assuring embedded professional development, collaborative learning, and a master schedule that provides suffcient meeting time for team planning and problem solving Explicitly including all MTSS service delivery and initiatives in the school improvement plan Braiding available funding streams to increase the scale of existing efforts Aligning relevant professional development with MTSS principles and procedures, and developing necessary staff competencies and teamwork Integrating training, technical assistance, and capacity building from school, district, state, and national resources Establishing memorandums of understanding (MOUs) with community mental health agencies and hospitals to enhance MTSS capacity and support school mental health providers Patience, commitment, and strong community-wide leadership Adapted from Cowan et al. (2013), NASP (2017)

School-Wide PBIS (SWPBIS) Integrated Within MTSS School-wide PBIS is a multi-tiered approach to behavioral support that complements and can be integrated with an overarching MTSS with a mutually supportive blend of both academic and behavioral interventions. MTSS or PBIS problem-solving teams at Tiers 1, 2, and 3 can work independently or be integrated as subgroups or action teams functioning under a larger MTSS team. Interconnected Systems Framework Integrates PBIS With Mental Health Services The blend of PBIS with the Interconnected Systems Framework (ISF) can be implemented and aligned within the core features of a tiered MTSS framework. The PBIS website provides a useful monograph titled Advancing Education Effectiveness: Interconnecting School Mental Health and School-Wide Positive Behavior Support (Barrett, Eber, & Weist, 2013). Interconnected Systems Framework 201 is a resource that includes core features and ideas for getting ISF started in schools, establishing one set of integrated teams, and adopting a universal screening process that integrates mental and behavioral health (www.pbis.org). More detailed points are provided in Chapter 13.

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Integrating With Collaboration and Teams Recognizing that school safety and positive school climates are achieved not by purchasing a program or piece of equipment but rather by continuous, collaborative, committed efforts, A Framework for Safe and Successful Schools (Cowan et al., 2013) proposed that school safety is supported by integration of new and existing school initiatives and collaboration among staff, families, and with community partners. All student and family behavioral, mental health, and social services can be integrated within the context of school culture and learning (UCLA Center for Mental Health in Schools and the National Association of School Psychologists, 2010). Collaboration strengthens the ability of schools to provide coordinated services to address school safety and mental health. Team collaboration facilitates an integrated approach, rather than isolated groups addressing different facets such as discipline, technology, or school climate. The powerful collaboration of professional learning communities and coordinated teams provides a systematic process of educators working together to analyze and improve classroom practice and the school environment. Building Collaborative Relationships and Partnerships Pell and Carroll (2019) reported extensive partnerships among school, district, local community, state, federal, and private organizations to establish systems that enhanced school achievement, student emotional, behavioral, and physical health, and educational equity. Building partnerships with government, mental health, law enforcement, and community agencies serves students and families and removes barriers between comprehensive, coordinated education and community resources. Collaborative relationships supplement the functions of school counselors, school psychologists, school social workers, and school nurses as a “hub” for services. Integrated Teams Integrating Programs Teams working to integrate programs and practices can begin by integrating themselves. There is a need for thoughtful planning to integrate teams accomplishing complementary tasks with common roles and functions, and to involve staff in membership, including some overlapping members of multiple teams for which they have specifc expertise. School-based mental health professionals can become members of multiple teams that focus on social-emotional and behavioral health and student safety. They can also participate in or consult with other teams such as school leadership. A challenge is to integrate teams and membership without burdening them with too many functions and responsibilities.

388 Putting It All Together Planning for team logistics and meeting times with a master schedule allows multiple teams and memberships to optimally function. School size, resources, and the commitment of administration and staff determine the extent of available team functions and determines whether there can be individual teams to coordinate each of the three MTSS tiers, or whether one team with multiple case managers will coordinate all three tiers. Consolidating functions and teams can make participation on multiple teams more manageable and effcient. For very small schools or districts, the need to partner with “buddy” schools and districts, and with community agencies to cover needed functions, is amplifed. An extensive list of potential support teams and functions is listed in Chapter 6. Integrating teams with similar or complementary functions can improve effciency and strengthen effectiveness, but requires care not to assign any one team too many responsibilities. For example, it makes sense to have overlapping membership and coordination on school safety, crisis response, threat, and risk assessment teams. Complementary programs and practices are also represented by PBIS, positive school climate initiatives, SEL, TIS, universal screenings, and bullying prevention. Other examples are potentially combining the school leadership and MTSS team; PLCs and focus or interest groups; and mental health consultation, coaching, and collaborative teams. In addition to the school leadership team, instead of six teams, schools might consider integrating functions and tasks to form three teams, each with several action groups with overlapping coordination and membership. In many cases, teams with complementary functions will not be activated at the same time. Here are some examples of integrated team clusters and services with complementary functions and overlapping membership: School safety and crisis preparedness • • • •

PREPaRE crisis preparedness, training, and response teams School safety team Risk assessment team (threat to self; potential suicide) Threat assessment team (threat to others; potential homicide)

School-wide behavioral health and interventions • • •

•

Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) Team Functional Behavior Assessments (FBAs) and Behavior Intervention Plans (BIPs) Behavioral programs such as PBIS, classroom management, managing severe behaviors, and mental health; Behavioral Health Team with training in emotional trauma, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT) PLCs supporting behavioral and mental health

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School-wide mental health and social-emotional supports • • • • • • • • • •

PLCs supporting behavioral and mental health Trauma-Informed School (TIS) team Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) team Social-emotional learning (SEL) team Youth Mental Health First Aid Teen Mental Health First Aid Educator Mental Health First Aid Family Mental Health First Aid Universal screening of social-emotional and behavioral risk, with follow-up CBT, DBT, CBITS (Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools)

School climate and prevention • • • • • •

Bullying prevention Suicide prevention Cultural responsiveness and diversity appreciation Monitoring social media and technology Family and community collaboration Extracurricular activities, social media and technology, and school connectedness

Integrating Programs and Practices Integrated services enhance comprehensive, sustainable school improvement and reduce program redundancy. Integrated programs and practices require leadership by the principal and leadership team, and the commitment of all staff. When programs and practices are integrated, their complementary components and functions are blended into a coordinated, cohesive mechanism with increased effciency and effectiveness. Alignment of new programs and services with preexisting interventions can streamline and strengthen already effective initiatives. Pell and Carroll (2019) presented suggestions to effectively integrate and align programs and interventions: • • •

Use data to identify and select programs to integrate Create an Integration Action Plan with a realistic, deliberate timeline to coordinate thoughtful program implementation and integration Identify key components of each intervention or program to be integrated

390 • • • • • •

Putting It All Together Identify areas that share common aims, goals, and practices that can be consolidated Identify differences in key components and decide if these can enhance one another or should be modifed or negotiated Identify programs or practices that are redundant and decide how best to consolidate and streamline them for effciency and effectiveness Identify needs that are not being addressed by current programs and practices and decide how to incorporate evidence-based interventions that cover the gaps Use data to evaluate programming and make needed adjustments to improve and sustain desired outcomes Specifc example: Combining the components of PBIS with the competencies and lessons of SEL can contribute to a positive school climate and decrease internalizing and externalizing emotional problems Adapted from Bear, Whitcomb, Elias, and Blank (2015), Bradshaw, Bottiani, Osher, and Sugai (2014), Whitcomb (2018)

Note: These suggestions are also presented in Chapter 13 An example of fnding points of intersection between key components is evident when implementing both a social-emotional learning curriculum and a new reading curriculum. The school team responsible for integrating and aligning initiatives identifes how the key components of the SEL curriculum can be integrated with the reading curriculum, enhancing student engagement (Cook & Black, 2020). Integrating School-Wide PBIS and SEL There are three primary reasons why it is important for schools to integrate and align SWPBIS and SEL strategies: 1.

2.

Integration can reduce fragmentation and redundancy. Bradshaw and colleagues (2014) found that the average school implementing SWPBIS was also implementing fve different social-emotional programs per year that often overlapped in content and were introduced to students in different classes or settings. Fragmented programming without a unifed vision and common language can confuse students and adults and make it challenging to integrate skills across settings throughout the day. SWPBIS and SEL are complementary. SWPBIS supports a healthy school climate in which students learn social skills and follow school rules and behavioral expectations. SEL encourages students to

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3.

391

develop social and emotional competencies related to positive behavior and self-discipline. SWPBIS and SEL in combination can enhance one another. While aspects of SWPBIS and SEL are similar, there are also signifcant differences, including strategies that, when added to an integrated model, can strengthen the quality and effciency of practices and outcomes. Adapted from Bear et al. (2015), Bradshaw et al. (2014)

Adaptable for integration of other programs, here are primary recommendations for integrating PBIS and SEL: 1. Commit to coordinated implementation of PBIS & SEL •

Administrator involvement required in setting a vision, allocating resources, and planning for ongoing professional development 2. Obtain staff and community buy-in • • • •

Insure staff understand the key features of each model Have staff share examples of PBIS and SEL being implemented in their classrooms Build agreements on how to move forward Include online links to useful resources for integration such as sample forms, activities, tools, etc.

3. Engage stakeholders to form a leadership or integrated implementation team • • • •

PBIS team of 6–8 members, representative of the school community Team plans and monitors SWPBIS Team supports an integrated model by including leaders of complementary initiatives such as SEL, Trauma-Informed, etc. If there is a “coach” or team facilitator, that person should be knowledgeable and experienced with SWPBIS, SEL, and other complementary approaches and committed to their integration

4. Develop a vision for an integrated model, highlighting common components •

•

School teams and communities developing a shared vision of the school culture can write valued rules and behavior expectations on Post-It notes, or draw their 3–5 PBIS expectations from the SEL curriculum Language can be a natural point of integration for simultaneously implementing complementary approaches

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5. Conduct a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) •

• • • •

SWOT facilitates a data-driven approach to build on what is working well, address what is lacking or needs improvement, take advantage of factors enabling success, and minimize risk factors disabling chances for success An integration approach that is authentic to a school’s culture should know existing programs, how well they are working, and barriers to alignment Current and proposed structures can be evaluated by mapping on paper all social-emotional and behavioral programs, their strengths, gaps, common features, and barriers to effective implementation Understanding the school community’s global perceptions of school climate strengths and weaknesses can be helpful Evaluation results can provide useful data for implementing SWPBIS and SEL practices with fdelity, effciency, and effectiveness

6. Carefully select SWPBIS and SEL programs, developing and using data and decision-making guidelines •

•

In addition to a SWOT analysis, it is helpful to develop a needsbased integration plan to generate student needs and preferred outcomes – the goal of reducing discipline referrals could indicate rules and expectations taught, while the goal of increasing social-emotional competencies suggests more emphasis on SEL lessons and activities Timelines and routines for data management can inform decisions about need for program changes indicated by school climate data, social-emotional competency data, bullying data, discipline referrals, and screening results

7. Create a comprehensive school/district Integration Action Plan • •

Develop an action plan or road map with a realistic, deliberate timeline to help manage thoughtful program implementation and integration Bradshaw and colleagues (2014) provided an action plan template that includes developing a purpose for integration efforts, articulating procedures for selecting and monitoring progress of implementing practices, developing measures to refect on fdelity and quality, and developing a data-informed implementation timeline for teaching lessons, review, and initiating practices

8. Develop job-embedded professional development activities •

Creating an integrated model of SEL and SWPBIS requires that all staff share an understanding of the conceptual basis of the model

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•

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Teams can plan professional development within the school day, with success enhanced when professional learning communities (PLCs) develop structures to support ongoing learning A small portion of every faculty meeting can be used to share student data and update SEL and SWPBIS practices, followed by “exit tickets” for staff to provide feedback on what is going well and where they are struggling New and early career teacher orientations such as monthly meetings provide opportunities for professional development, problem solving, and learning about the integrated SWPBIS and SEL plan

9. Launch SWPBIS and SEL together •

Developing an integrated action plan and implementation support facilitates a yearly “launch” of planned school-wide booster sessions 10. Develop an ongoing technical assistance plan • •

Schools often need to develop a technical assistance plan for support by an external consultant or internal experts or coaches A technical assistance plan can include the content, timeline, and format for assistance to build sustainable capacity for effective practices

11. Use data for continuous program evaluation and make needed adjustments to improve and sustain outcomes • •

Develop effcient routines for collecting, managing, and using data to make school-wide, grade level, classroom, and individual student decisions Use fdelity data to understand the effciency and effectiveness of an integrated system of programs and practices Adapted from Bear et al. (2015), Bradshaw et al. (2014), Whitcomb (2018)

Integrating School Safety and Crisis Teams Here are some recommendations for integrating school safety and crisis teams: • •

Establish and regularly convene a dedicated safety/crisis response team Contribute to ongoing safety and improved school climate by supporting a school-wide, evidence-based, tiered service framework

394 • • • • •

• •

Putting It All Together Develop a school safety and emergency preparedness and response plan with regularly reviewed risk assessment and periodic response training Address the range of potential school crises, focusing on crises most likely to occur Improve early identifcation and support for students at risk of harming self or others, including trained risk and threat assessment teams and screening Provide ongoing training for all school staff on safety and crisis plans, including regularly scheduled practice and coordination with community responders Develop memorandums of understanding (MOUs) with community mental health agencies, ethnic leaders, hospitals, and law enforcement that defnes specifc responsibilities of the school resource offcer (SRO) Model collaborative problem solving and team-driven interventions Provide funding for sustainable evidence-based crisis preparedness, response, and recovery planning and training to establish school safety and crisis teams Adapted from Cowan et al. (2013), NASP (2017)

Integrating Programs Into School Contexts and Populations When new evidence-based programs are implemented, there is often a need to adapt them while maintaining their integrity, and also to make adaptations to the organization that is accepting the programs. When an evidence-based program is being implemented with a population that is culturally different from the original research sample, a small pilot study can determine the program’s effectiveness with the current diverse population. Careful data collection and evaluation of pilot outcomes can determine potential effectiveness and needed adaptations. Practice-based evidence, described in Chapter 18, is also relevant for evaluating the effectiveness of a new program applied in a real school setting with a population different from the research sample. When evidence-based interventions must be adapted for a diverse student population, the following guidelines are suggested: • • •

Maintain essential or core components of the intervention Adapt the intervention for language, culture, norms, and other contextual examples to increase relevance Continuously monitor student outcomes to determine effectiveness and possible need for adjustments

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Integrating Interventions Using MTSS Service Delivery The more systems, programs, or interventions a school district tries to independently implement, the greater the likelihood that none of them will succeed. Staff can feel overwhelmed, confused, and burnt out on multiple initiatives that compete for time and attention on an inevitable collision course. Thoughtful planning for integration of programs and initiatives over time, including training and technical support, can be a remedy for the chaos of too many initiatives at once. In Chapter 10, Rossen and Cowan (2012) advocated that bullying prevention must be part of a comprehensive, cohesive, and integrated school-wide system that creates a cultural norm of safety, connectedness, acceptance, and support. Rather than adopting a fragmented, standalone bullying program, integrating bullying prevention school-wide using MTSS service delivery as a key element of positive school climate initiatives creates a far more powerful and normative intervention. In Chapter 11, Erbacher, Singer, and Poland (2015) described how suicide prevention can be integrated with a Multi-Tiered System of Supports. In addition to universal, targeted, and intensive interventions to prevent suicide through MTSS, it is emphasized that a foundation of suicide prevention efforts is a safe, nurturing school climate with trusting relationships and connectedness among students and adults and high levels of student satisfaction.

Integrating Cultural Responsiveness Cultural responsiveness and appreciation for diversity are viewed not as addons but rather as essential components of schooling, woven into the fabric of school leadership, climate and culture, values and norms, curriculum and instruction. Cultural responsiveness is integrated into other key systems, structures, and programs such as social-emotional learning and traumainformed practice, supportive academic interventions and practice, ongoing professional development and collaborative learning, positive behavior management and restorative practices, easy access to safety and mental health programs, and meaningful partnerships with families and the community. The PBIS Cultural Responsiveness Field Guide: Resources for Trainers and Coaches (Leverson, Smith, McIntosh, Rose, & Pinkelman, 2019) advocated that rather than being applied as a separate program within PBIS, cultural responsiveness should be integral to all aspects of PBIS. A detailed description of the guide’s recommendations to systematically implement culturally responsive practices to enhance equity in school discipline is provided in Chapter 13. Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT) Deep cultural understanding and empathy can enable teachers to respect and appreciate the differences, values, and strengths that culturally

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diverse students bring to the school setting. Teachers can then form student–educator partnerships that create an inclusive school climate and build upon cultural values, experiences, and strengths as a foundation for learning. Sehgal, Jeffries, and Rappaport (2018) pointed out that educators wanting to support students of color must understand the impact of discrimination and racism on mental health. They suggested that professional development can promote cultural refection, giving educators an opportunity to examine their experiences with race and the subtle ways that stereotypes may be inadvertently reinforced. Hammond and Jackson (2015) pointed out that culture itself is an important transporter of learning, and addressed the question of how to best support culturally, linguistically, and ethnically diverse (CLED) students taught mostly by White educators. They suggested an approach called culturally responsive teaching (CRT), described in Chapter 5.

Integrating Data Collection, Analysis, and Decision Making A basic tenet of MTSS is data collection from multiple sources to inform data-based decisions. Data collection can utilize multiple methods of measurement such as interviews, surveys, focus groups, screening instruments, and records of student behavior, engagement, and learning. Procedures must be carefully developed for the collection, storage, privacy, access to, and analysis of data. All student, school climate, and program data can be integrated as part of electronic platforms like an MTSS Database. Screening measures can be integrated into existing data systems such as PBIS that track academic and behavioral needs and outcomes, streamlining and improving resources. MTSS integration and use of school climate and other collected data: •

MTSS can create data-driven accountability systems that refect a comprehensive picture of all student and school performance, inform instruction and interventions, and guide school improvement efforts • Integrate accountability measures to include multiple methods and indicators of student achievement and physical, mental, and behavioral health • Base educational decisions on multiple data sources • Include school environment measures, e.g., school climate, school safety, family engagement • Ensure that measures are valid and reliable for all student subpopulations, including diverse races/ethnicities and those with disabilities

Multiple Programs and Practices

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•

•

•

•

•

•

Use accountability systems that produce data to regularly inform instruction, intervention programs, and school-wide improvement efforts • Use accountability data to identify and improve areas of need, rather than to determine punitive or disciplinary action MTSS can identify how to use school climate data with other indicators of school success. Integration of school climate data with other sources of information increases the capacity to assess overall school functioning. Sources include discipline referrals, universal socialemotional and behavior (SEB) screenings, attendance records, suspensions and expulsions, teacher turnover, graduation rates, and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) data MTSS can include input from multiple groups. Select assessments that allow input from a broad range of stakeholders, including students, families, teachers and staff, school mental health providers, administrators, and the safety team MTSS can create a schedule for data collection. Climate data should be collected at least annually to assess needs and celebrate successes. Assessments within the frst and last 45 days of the school year measure progress over time MTSS can create a plan to analyze and use the data. Analyzing school climate data next to complementary data (discipline, attendance, etc.) can strengthen the ability to implement targeted interventions that ft a school’s context and needs MTSS can create a plan for sharing data. Easily accessible climate data shared with the school community can help keep school climate a priority in achieving improvement and success Adapted from NASP (2019)

Integrating Funding Streams A Framework for Safe and Successful Schools (Cowan et al., 2013) suggested blended, fexible use of funding streams – superintendents collaborating with principals to anticipate future governmental, grant, and other funding streams to ensure adequate and sustained fow to improve school safety and mental health, and to increase the scale of efforts. Braiding available funding streams can expand fnancial resources. There must be a dedicated budget to initiate a comprehensive MTSS framework. Fiscal management and strategic resource allocation demonstrate determination to dedicate funds to align each initiative with the overall improvement plan for effciency and enhanced outcomes (Clark & Dockweiler, 2019). Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, and Wallace (2005) pointed out that since funding streams can dry up, schools with programs that are most

398 Putting It All Together cost effective and build internal capacity for ongoing professional development, implementation, and evaluation using school, rather than external resources, have the best chance to sustain initiatives.

Summary: Implementing, Evaluating, and Sustaining Programs Follow best practices throughout the process of program development: 1.

Establish a leadership team or MTSS team involving key stakeholders, with administrative commitment to supporting intervention teams, professional learning communities, collaboration, and the implementation process. a.

Commit to initiate and guide the school through the process of change b. Develop and clearly communicate a mission statement, vision, and explicit goals with action steps, resolving conficts with previous goals c. Help create details of activities, processes, and teams that operationalize implementation plans d. Inspire, guide, sense needs, and provide direction e. Recruit and train staff and teams, select and develop programs, and make other organizational moves that further implementation 2.

Conduct an assessment of needs, strengths, school climate, infrastructure, and resources (using resource mapping) with district-wide and community input and support. Identify gaps in existing services, including unmet school safety and mental health needs such as building and campus physical security and trained crisis and risk/ threat assessment teams. a.

Encourage teacher and other key stakeholder (students, Education Association, community leaders) buy-in and involvement during needs assessment and program implementation b. Review application of current resources to determine: •

• • •

Are school mental health professionals providing staff training in mental health literacy, crisis prevention and response, suicide prevention, student resiliency, and other needed information? Do school mental health staff participate in relevant team meetings and contribute ideas on addressing student needs? Is there redundancy in service delivery that can be eliminated with service integration? Are multiple, overlapping initiatives happening in different school areas or with different groups of students, which can be integrated for greater effciency and effectiveness?

Multiple Programs and Practices 3.

4.

5.

399

Select and prioritize evidence-based programs and practices that ft perceived needs and the unique school culture, context, and population, with input and support from teachers and other key stakeholders. Implement an integrated approach that connects social-emotional and behavioral programs, mental health services, and academic instruction and learning; for example, are behavioral interventions and trauma-informed practices integrated as part of the school-wide discipline and classroom management plans. Develop a multi-tiered service delivery model such as MTSS to provide, coordinate, and evaluate a continuum of integrated programs and services. a.

Prepare to “unfreeze” current school structures and practices with possible use of external consultants or trainers changing and integrating practices and reinforcing new systems of management and functioning b. Enhance communication and collaboration among school staff, families, and school-based mental health professionals – engage students and families as partners in planning and implementing programs and practices that develop and maintain a safe, healthy school environment c. Provide suffcient time for planning and problem solving by regular team meetings and professional learning communities (PLCs) d. Identify present and potential community partnerships with mental health agencies, community leaders, law enforcement, and other resources, developing memorandums of understanding (MOUs) to clarify partner roles and responsibilities and assigning school mental health providers or administrators to coordinate these partnerships 6.

Develop infrastructure, resources, positive climate, and personnel needed for new structures, extra costs, hard work, materials, access to school-based and community mental health services, and retraining for new roles and functions. a.

7.

Commit to ongoing logistical support and resources to schedule time for collaborative leadership and planning, access to mental health services, and professional development that advances the school’s mission, vision, goals, and values

Provide effective long-term professional development for school staff, families, and community partners that integrates new programs and aligns them with pre-existing practices that work. a.

Align with existing school climate initiatives, data collection and program evaluation, progress monitoring, and staff functions and morale

400

Putting It All Together b. Align with training for educators and lead teachers, administrators, school-based mental health and staff trainers, and resource liaisons and partners c. Incorporate media and technology into training venues and content

8.

Implement and adapt evidence-based programs that maintain treatment integrity. a.

9.

Evaluate programs adapted to ft a school context and diverse student population using both evidence-based practice and practicebased evidence

Evaluate training, implementation, and outcomes with data collection from multiple sources to adjust and improve programs and practices. a.

Recognize and express appreciation to teachers, trainers, administrators, support staff, families, community members, and other contributing stakeholders for their time and effort throughout the process

10. Provide ongoing, supportive follow-up and technical support, i.e., coaching, consultation, and booster sessions to build skills and sustain desired outcomes. Adapted from Cowan et al. (2013), Fixsen et al. (2005)

Limitations in Developing School Safety and Mental Health Programs • • • • • • • •

Shortages of school-based mental health professionals Shortages of community agencies and resources Insuffcient training at graduate and practitioner levels for school psychologists and other school mental health professionals to facilitate program and organizational development High caseload of many school-based mental health professionals Administrative demands on school mental health providers that limit involvement in school safety and mental health programs and development Insuffcient pre-service and post-graduate training for teachers and administrators in student mental health needs and mental health literacy Insuffcient school mental health provider training to strengthen competencies in specifc program content and general program and organizational development Negative perceptions related to provision of mental health services in schools

Multiple Programs and Practices •

401

Inadequate funding and policies related to the provision of school mental health

Mister Fred Rogers said, “When I was a boy and I would see scary things in the news, my mother would say to me, ‘Look for the helpers. You will always fnd people who are helping’.” Educators have the amazing opportunity to be helpers by developing school safety and mental health programs and practices. Do as much as you can to meet school needs, but only as much as you can do well.

References Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2014). Best practices in the use of learning support leadership teams to enhance learning supports. In P. L. Harrison & A. Thomas (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology: Systems-level services (pp. 181–195). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Barrett, S., Eber, L., & Weist, M. (Eds.). (2013). Advancing education effectiveness: Interconnecting school mental health and school-wide positive behavior support. Washington, DC: Center for Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. U.S. Department of Education. Bear, G. G., Whitcomb, S. A., Elias, M. J., & Blank, J. C. (2015). SEL and schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports. In J. Durlak, T. Gullotta, C. Domitrovich, P. Goren, & R. Weissberg (Eds.). Handbook of social and emotional learning (pp. 453–467). New York: Guilford. Bohanon, H., & Wu, M.-J. (2012). Integration of social, behavioral, and academic initiatives – Part 1. Communiqué, 41(2), 4–5. Bradshaw, C. P., Bottiani, J. H., Osher, D., & Sugai, G. M. (2014). The integration of positive behavioral interventions and supports and social and emotional learning. In M. D. Weist, N. A. Lever, C. P. Bradshaw, & J. S. Owens (Eds.), Handbook of school mental health: Research, training, practice, and policy (pp. 101– 118). New York: Springer. Clark, A. G., & Dockweiler, K. A. (2019). Multi-tiered systems of support in secondary schools: The defnitive guide to effective implementation and quality control. New York: Routledge. Cook, E., & Black, P. (2020). Effective implementation and evaluation of traumainformed schools. In E. Rossen (Ed.), Supporting and educating traumatized students: A guide for school-based professionals (2nd ed., pp. 373–395). New York: Oxford University Press. Cowan, K. C., Vaillancourt, K., Rossen, E., & Pollitt, K. (2013). A framework for safe and successful schools [Brief]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Erbacher, T. A., Singer, J. B., & Poland, S. (2015). Suicide in schools: A practitioner’s guide to multi-level prevention, assessment, intervention and postvention. New York: Routledge. Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature. Tampa, FL: University of South

402 Putting It All Together Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, The National Implementation Research Network (FMHI Publication @231). Forman, S. G., & Crystal, C. D. (2015). Systems consultation for Multitiered Systems of Supports (MTSS): Implementation issues. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 25, 276–285. Hammond, Z., & Jackson, Y. (2015). Culturally responsive teaching and the brain: Promoting authentic engagement and rigor among culturally and linguistically diverse students. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Leverson, M., Smith, K., McIntosh, K., Rose, J., & Pinkelman, S. (2019). PBIS Cultural Responsiveness Field Guide: Resources for trainers and coaches. OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. Retrieved from www.pbis.org McIntosh, K., Goodman, S., & Bohanon, H. (2010). Toward true integration of academic and behavior response to intervention systems – part one: Tier 1 support. Communiqué, 39(2), 14–15. NASP. (2017). Policy recommendations for implementing the framework for safe and successful schools [Brief]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. NASP. (2019). Guidance for measuring and using school climate data [Brief]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Nastasi, B. K., Moore, R. B., & Varjas, K. M. (2004). School-based mental health services: Creating comprehensive and culturally specifc programs. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pell, M. M., & Carroll, D. (2019). Growing the good: Strategies for integrating traumainformed practices within a PBIS framework. Presentation at the 16th International Association for Positive behavior Support, Washington, DC. Rossen, E., & Cowan, K. C. (2012). A framework for school-wide bullying prevention and safety [Brief]. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Sehgal, P., Jeffries, J., & Rappaport, N. (2018). Combatting race-related stress in the classroom. Educational Leadership, 75(4), 51–55. Senge, P. M. (1990). The ffth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday/Currency. Sparks, S. D. (2018). One way to avoid “Reform Fatigue”? Look at the broader system, report says. Education Week’s blogs – Inside School Research. Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/leadership/one-way-to-avoid-reform-fatiguelook-at-the-broader-system-report-says/2018/11 UCLA Center for Mental Health in Schools and the National Association of School Psychologists. (2010). Enhancing the blueprint for school improvement in the ESEA reauthorization: Moving from a two- to a three-component approach [Advocacy statement]. Whitcomb, S. (2018). Aligning SEL with PBIS efforts. Keynote presentation to the Department of Elementary and Secondary Education PBIS Training Academy, MA.

Appendix Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs

Using evidence-based program registries and lists (SPRC, 2002–2019): • • • • •

Caution: A listed evidence-based program demonstrated effective in changing one or more outcomes may not be a good ft for your population, setting, resources, or goals Avoid simply “picking from the list” and instead thoughtfully consider the unique plans and needs of your setting Start with a local needs assessment of the problems and needs to be addressed before making a selection Assess relevance, looking for programs that address the factors infuencing your identifed problems and desired outcomes Examine the evaluated outcomes and their evidence of effectiveness when choosing programs relevant for your population, setting, resources, and goals

The following programs represent a non-exhaustive list compiled by reviewing multiple raters up to and including the year 2018. Programs are organized into categories of focus, though there is some overlapping of focus among categories. All programs presented have been rated as evidence-based by one or more rating entity. Each program listed could have signifcant treatment results in one setting, but not signifcant results in another. It is important that school context, assessed needs, and diverse population and culture be taken into account when selecting a program for implementation. The following are the rating organizations that served as the basis for the list: Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence (CSPV) (University of Colorado) Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy Collaborative for Academic Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) Colorado Department of Education

404 Appendix National Registry for Evidence-Based Programs and Practices (NREPP, 2015) Offce of Justice Programs Offce of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) Oklahoma State Department of Education (bullying programs) Promising Practices Network (PPN, 2014) Selected articles from the National Association of School Psychologists Communiqué Selected books discussing professional development and evidencebased programs Suicide Prevention Resource Center (SPRC) What Works Clearinghouse

Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Bully Busters Program

Grades K–5 and grades 6–8

Bullying Prevention – PBIS (BP – PBIS)

Elementary school version; middle and high school version

Bullying Prevention Program (Dr. Beane)

Preschool through high school, with lesson plans per grade

KiVa Antibullying Program (developed in Finland)

Curricula developmentally targets grades 1–3, 4–6, and 7–9

Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (BPP)

Elementary, middle, and high schools

Education and awareness to prevent bullying, while providing children, parents, and educators with resources and counseling Bullying prevention program designed to be implemented as part of a school’s universal positive behavior supports system School-based bullying prevention program including an implementation team, manual, strategies, staff development and involvement, curriculum, and parent education School-based bullying prevention program with lessons delivered to all students in grades 1, 4, and 7, including a whole school, multilayered approach to address individual-, classroom-, and school-level factors Bullying prevention approach that includes school-wide, classroom, individual, and community interventions to change social norms and create a safe, positive school climate

Bullying Prevention

Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs

405

Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Second Step Bullying Prevention Unit (SS – BPU) Steps to Respect

Grades K–8

StopBullying.gov

Pre-K through grade 12, and beyond

Whole school bullying prevention program with interactive lessons School-wide bullying prevention program using social-emotional learning (SEL) lessons and literature A US Government website providing extensive evidencebased information about bullying, cyberbullying, prevention, training, and a blog, all designed to help stop bullying

Grades 3–6

Family-Based Interventions Attachment-Based Family Therapy (ABFT)

Ages 12–18 years

Child–Parent Center Program (Chicago, IL)

Ages 3–9 years

Children With Problematic Sexual Behavior – Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (PSB-CBT) Families and Schools Together (FAST)

Ages 3–18 years

Family Matters Parent Training and Information Center

Early childhood through adulthood

Family Thriving Program (FTP)

Infant through 8 years

Functional Family Therapy (FFT)

Ages 11–18 years (and younger siblings)

Ages 4–12 years

Designed to treat major depressive disorder, suicidal ideation, and reduce anxiety School- and family-based early childhood program providing quality educational and family support services in high needs communities Family-based treatment intervention for children and youth who engaged in problematic sexual behavior Multifamily group intervention to build protective factors for children and empower parents for primary prevention Empowers parents and professionals to achieve strong outcomes and enhance the quality of life for students with disabilities Cognitive and motivational reframing addresses caregiver challenges and improves parents’ understanding of their children Family-based intervention for treatment of violent, behavioral, school, and conduct problems with youth and their families (Continued)

406 Appendix (Continued) Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Guiding Good Choices (GGC)

Ages 9–14 years

Harlem (N.Y.) Children’s Zone – Promise Academy Charter Middle School

Early childhood, elementary, middle, and high schools, and college

HOMEBUILDERS Program

Age newborn through 17 years

Incredible Years-Parent

Infants, toddlers, preschool, and elementary school age

INSIGHTS into Children’s Temperament

Grades K–2

Multidimensional Family Therapy (MDFT)

Ages 11–18 years

Multisystemic Therapy (MST)

Ages 12–17 years

Nurse–Family Partnership (NFP)

Pregnancy through 2 years

Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT)

Ages 2–7 years

Promotes healthy, protective parent–child interactions and strives to prevent risk for early use of alcohol and drugs Comprehensive support to children and families addressing critical aspects of community life, including living conditions, drug use, failing schools, violent crime, and chronic health problems In-home, intensive family preservation and therapeutic treatment service to avoid unnecessary placement into foster care and other institutions Strengthens parent competencies and involvement in child’s school and learning to promote academic, social, and emotional skills Developed in partnership with African American and Latina/o community members, uses teaching practices and socialemotional (SEL) lessons for children and caregiving adults Family-based therapeutic treatment and prevention program for adolescents with drug and behavior problems, and delinquency Collaborative, family-focused, community-based treatment program for juveniles with serious criminal offenses, severe emotional issues, and possibly substance abuse Home visits by nurses to lowincome, frst-time mothers to educate them on parenting, share resources, and do health checks during pregnancy and continuing for two years following birth Intervention that combines play therapy and behavior therapy to treat young children with disruptive behavior problems

Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs

407

Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Parent Management Training– Oregon Model (PMTO)

Ages 4–12 years

SNAP Under 12 Outreach Project (Stop Now and Plan)

Ages 6–12 years

Strengthening Families Program (SFP)

Developmental programs for ages 6–11 years, 10–14 years, and 7–17 years

Strong African American Families Program (SAAF)

Ages 10–14 years and also a program for adolescents

Syracuse Family Development Research Program (FDRP)

Infancy through 5 years

Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP)

Versions for ages 6 and under, 6–12, and adolescents

Structured intervention designed to help parents and caregivers manage children’s behavior by promoting social skills, cooperation, and by preventing and reversing the development of conduct problems Family-focused intervention, with screening and assessment, for children under age 12 displaying aggressive and antisocial behavior, with goal to keep them in school and out of trouble Parenting and family skills training program helping parents/caregivers effectively communicate, provide emotional support, and practice consistent discipline Family-based 7-week program for youth and parents/ caregivers designed to strengthen parent/caregiver abilities, educate youth, build family strengths and racial pride, and respect African American family culture Early childhood program serving marginalized families with home visitation, parent training, and individualized day care to improve children’s cognitive and emotional functioning and reduce behavior problems Evidence-based, low-cost parenting intervention to improve parent/child communication, help children learn from consequences of their own choices, and improve family functioning

Treatment Foster Care Oregon

Ages 12–18 years

Provides a community-based treatment alternative to institutionalization for youth from multiple foster homes who have severe emotional and behavioral disorders (Continued)

408 Appendix (Continued) Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Triple P Positive Parenting Program

Adapted for ages toddler through 16 years

Home-based, individually administered training program for parents of disruptive children

Mental Health Promotion, Mindfulness, and Anxiety Mitigation Active Minds

Ages 14–25 years

Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (Community-Based Mentoring) Coping Cat

Ages 5 through young adulthood

Coping with Stress Course

Ages 13–18 years

MindUP

Pre-K through grade 8, with 3 developmentally appropriate sets of lessons

Go Grrrls Program

Grades 6–9

Go Noodle

Ages 5–10, grades K–5, with adult supervision

Mindful Ozzie Program

Age 6 years, grade 1 Children and adolescents ages 8–15 years

Primary and Secondary Control Enhancement Training (PASCET)

Ages 7–13 years

Supports mental health awareness and education, including programs to open up conversation, reduce stigma, encourage help seeking, and prevent suicide Mentoring, self-esteem, behavior improvement Treatment program for children with various anxiety disorders, fosters coping and resilience Targets adolescents at risk for depression, experiencing depressive symptoms or “demoralization,” and uses cognitive-restructuring techniques Mindfulness curriculum with lessons that teach children social-emotional knowledge and skills, stress and emotion regulation, and development of positive relationships Prevention program for early adolescent girls designed to develop social skills and a healthy transition to adulthood Movement and mindfulness videos created to beneft physical wellness, academic success, and social-emotional health Mindfulness program for early elementary children School-based program treating mild to moderate depression, teaching children techniques for feeling in control of their lives and managing their moods

Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs

409

Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Reaching Educators, Children, and Parents (RECAP)

Developmental programs ages 4–8 years and 9–12 years Grades 1–6

School-based programs for children experiencing cooccurring internalizing and externalizing emotional problems School-based program to increase bonding to school and family and develop skills as a protective factor against school failure, drug abuse, delinquency, teen pregnancy, and violence Psychoeducational group intervention designed to reduce depressive symptoms and stress by enhancing coping skills Teaches parents, caregivers, teachers, school staff, peers, and others the importance of early intervention, risk factors, warning signs, and how to help and refer youth having a mental health or addiction challenge or crisis

Seattle Social Development Project

Teaching Kids to Cope (TKC)

Adolescents

Youth Mental Health First Aid

Ages 12–18 years

Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) and School Climate Bridge TraumaInformed Culturally Responsive (TICR) Program (Pickens, 2015)

Preschool through high school

Career Academies

Grades 9 or 10 through 12

Check-In/Check-Out (CICO)

Elementary, middle, and high schools

Comer School Development Program (SDP)

Pre-K through grade 12

Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline (CMCD)

Pre-K through grade 12

Professional development training to support integration of trauma-informed, culturally responsive practices to reframe educator understanding of student behavior School within-a-school model offers a learning community focusing on a career theme integrated into core curriculum Targeted (PBIS Tier 2), personalized intervention to reduce problem behaviors and encourage behavioral goals Evidence-based education reform grounded in the principles of child and adolescent development, family involvement, and positive school climate Classroom and school-wide reform model has teachers and students share responsibility for learning, classroom organization, and instructional management to improve behavior and achievement (Continued)

410 Appendix (Continued) Category/Program

Age Range

Description

EL Education

Pre-K through grade 12

Establish – Maintain – Restore (EMR) Method (Duong et al., 2019)

Middle school grades

Fourth R: Skills for Youth Relationships

Grades 7–12

Functional Behavior Assessments and Behavior Intervention Plans (FBAs & BIPs)

Pre-K through grade 12

Gay–Straight Alliance

Middle schools through high schools

School-wide partnership creating inclusive classrooms of active, engaged learning that supports every student in a culture of respect, responsibility, courage, and kindness Brief training for teachers designed to improve student– teacher relationships and student behavior Promotes healthy relationships by reducing risk behaviors and developing resources and programs, including positive school climates, violence and bullying prevention, and increasing relationship skills and healthy decision making Targeted intervention process to understand events that predict a student’s problem behavior patterns and replace them with a plan for positive behavior support Supports LGBTQ+ youth organizers of school- and community-based programs working for safe, supportive environments

Good Behavior Game

Elementary school and recently middle school adaptations

Great Expectations

Elementary and secondary grades

Incredible Years-Parent

Infants, toddlers, preschool, and elementary school age

Incredible YearsTeacher Classroom Management

Ages 3–8 years

Classroom and systemic behavior management game that helps teachers reduce behavior problems and create a positive learning environment Professional development program providing administrators and teachers skills to create school harmony, excitement, and inspiration for academic excellence Strengthens parent competencies and involvement in child’s school and learning to promote academic, social, and emotional skills Prevention program to strengthen teacher classroom management strategies and promote children’s socialemotional skills

Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs

411

Category/Program

Age Range

Description

PEERS Curriculum

Developmental programs for preschoolers, middle school, high school, and young adult Elementary, middle, and high schools

Social skills training intervention for youth with social challenges and especially autism spectrum disorders

Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) Positive Family Support – Family Check-Up (PFS)

Ages 11–17 years

Project ACHIEVE

Preschool through high school

Student Engagement Project http:// k12studentengagement. unl.edu

Pre-K through grade 12

Teacher–Child Interaction Training (TCIT)

Ages 3–6 years

Teaching Students to Be Peacemakers

Ages 5–14 years, with some use through high school

Validate, Affrm, Build & Bridge (VABB) – a program within the Center for Culturally Responsive Teaching and Learning (CCRTL)

Pre-K through high school, and beyond

School-wide, educational, datadriven behavior management system with universal, targeted, and intensive tiers of support Promotes a school culture that increases family–school engagement and positive working relationships between caregivers and schools using 3-tiered interventions that complement PBIS Help schools maximize the academic, social, emotional, and behavioral achievement of all students, including multitiered support systems for students with academic and behavioral problems A project of the University of Nebraska – Lincoln striving to build and sustain student engagement emphasizing a multi-tiered system of evidencebased programs, including alternative strategies to exclusionary discipline practices Professional development, Training of Trainer model designed to strengthen teacher– child relationships, manage disruptive behaviors, and improve children’s social, emotional, and behavioral competence School-based confict resolution program designed to teach students and staff how to manage their conficts through negotiation and mediation skills, preventing violence A program that supports being culturally responsive by purposeful planning to validate, affrm, build, and bridge students when talking with, relating to, and teaching them (Continued)

412 Appendix (Continued) Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) Al’s Pals: Kids Making Healthy Choices Competent Kids, Caring Communities (CKCC)

Pre-K through grade 3 Pre-K/early childhood program or Grades K–5 social-emotional classroom curriculum

Facing History and Ourselves

Grades middle through high school

4Rs (Reading, Writing, Respect, Resolution)

Pre-K through grade 8

HighScope Educational Approach for Preschool

Preschool

I Can Problem Solve (ICPS), also known as Interpersonal Cognitive Problem-Solving curriculum Incredible Years-Child

Preschool through grade 6

Kimochis www.kimochis.com

Pre-K–K and grades 1–5

Lions Quest Skills for Action

Developmental programs include grades pre-K–5, 6–8, and 9–12

Ages 2–8 years

Social-emotional learning; core lessons and boosters School-wide program to develop competent kids within the context of a caring community by building socialemotional competencies, strengthening home-school partnerships, and developing leadership for SEL practices Social-emotional learning, engagement, and violence prevention by integrating history of prejudice and injustice into curriculum Interactive skill lessons to develop social and emotional learning (SEL), managing feelings, listening, empathy, assertiveness, resolving confict, honoring diversity, and preventing bullying Early education initiative that fosters creativity, confdence, and independence to gain knowledge and skills in academic, social, emotional, and physical domains A universal primary prevention program with lessons for social and emotional learning and violence prevention Focus on parents, teachers, and children; social-emotional learning; reduce behavior problems; lessons provided Comprehensive socialemotional learning programs, including manual, lesson plans taught 3X per week, and portal with resources and videos Social-emotional learning (SEL) program, including teacher training and curriculum to develop character, skills, and positive expectations preparing for meaningful adult roles

Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs

413

Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Lions Quest Skills for Adolescence (SFA)

Ages 10–14 years in grades 6–8

Michigan Model for Health

Preschool through grade 12

Open Circle Curriculum

Grades K–5

Youth development program uniting educators, parents, and community members to develop social-emotional (SEL) skills and competencies to resist drug use Skill-based health curriculum with lessons in social-emotional learning and healthy lifestyles Social-emotional learning (SEL) program with lessons to develop skills for managing emotions, empathy, positive relationships, and problem solving

Peacemaking Skills for Little Kids/Creating Caring Children (PeaceWorks)

Pre-K through grade 2

Positive Action (PA)

Pre-K through grade 12

PREPaRE Curriculum (Goldstein)

Middle through high school

Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS)

Pre-K through grade 6

Raising Healthy Children

Responsive Classroom

Grades 1–8, with after school tutoring grades 4–6, and middle and high school booster sessions K–8

RULER Approach

Grades K–8

Social-emotional learning (SEL) program with activities provided to promote character, cooperation, and confict resolution Evidence-based social support, social-emotional learning, and scripted lessons with materials included for whole school reform Curriculum teaching socialemotional competencies presents 10 course-length interventions to reduce aggression, stress, and prejudice Social-emotional learning; focus on teachers and students; improving children’s ability to understand and regulate emotions; lessons provided Social-emotional learning (SEL) approach to positive youth development, including teacher workshops and family interventions Student-centered socialemotional learning (SEL) approach to teaching discipline, using practices to create safe, joyful, engaging classrooms and communities School-wide approach to socialemotional learning (SEL) combining lessons, activities, feeling words, and language arts (Continued)

414 Appendix (Continued) Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Second Step SocialEmotional Learning Program (SS – SEL)

Pre-K through grade 8

Skillstreaming

Preschool through high school and special needs

Program for social-emotional learning (SEL) of skills and concepts designed to help children thrive in supportive, successful learning environments Social skills training program with social-emotional learning (SEL) and skill development

Social Decision Making/SocialProblem-Solving Program

Grades K–8

Steps to Respect

Grades 1–6

Stop and Think Social Skills Program (Project Achieve series)

Pre-K through grade 8

Strong Kids Program (Strong Start, Strong Kids, Strong Teens)

Developmental programs for pre-K, grades K–2, 3–8, and 9–12

Student Success Skills (SSS)

Grades K–12

Tools for Teaching Social Skills in Schools (Boys Town)

Grades K–12

Tools of the Mind

Pre-K–K

Tribes Learning Communities (TLC)

Grades K–12

Social-emotional learning (SEL) program, including lessons to develop self-control, social awareness, and effective decision-making skills, while targeting violence, substance abuse, related problem behaviors, and stressors School-wide bullying prevention program using social-emotional learning (SEL) lessons and literature Social-emotional (SEL) skills program that addresses interpersonal, survival, problem solving, and confict resolution skill levels Promotes social-emotional learning (SEL) skills, resilience, strengthens assets, and increases coping skills with developmental curricula Social-emotional learning (SEL) model that helps students develop key cognitive, positive social, selfmanagement, and study skills Social-emotional learning and skill development with lessons adapted for multiple grades, ages, and needs Social-emotional learning, teaches cognitive, social, emotional, and academic skills Social-emotional learning (SEL) process that creates a culture promoting learning, collaborative skills, community agreements, bully proofng, confict management, discipline, and academic achievement

Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs

415

Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Wyman’s Teen Outreach Program

Ages 12–18 years

Youth development program using social-emotional learning (SEL) designed to build educational success, leadership skills, healthy behaviors and relationships, and a sense of purpose

Substance Abuse Prevention Adolescent Community Reinforcement Approach (A-CRA) Athletes Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS)

Ages 12–24 years

Brief Alcohol Screening and Intervention for College Students (BASICS) Jackson County (Ore.) Community Family Court

College students aged 18–24 years

LifeSkills Training (LST)

Elementary, middle, and high school students

Multisystemic TherapySubstance Abuse

Adolescents

Teams-GamesTournaments Alcohol Prevention (TGT)

Ages 13–18 years

Too Good for Drugs (TGFD)

Grades K–12

High school male athletes, ages 14–17 years

Ages infant through 10 years

Behavioral treatment for youth and young adults with substance use disorders Drug prevention and health promotion program designed to reduce risk factors for steroid use, alcohol, and illegal substances Harm-reduction intervention for college students drinking alcohol heavily or at risk Family court drug program that coordinates services and interventions to rehabilitate parents with substance abuse whose children are wards of the State of Oregon Substance-abuse prevention program to reduce risk of alcohol, tobacco, drug abuse, and violence, while promoting social-emotional learning and health Therapeutic treatment program to develop family structure and incentives for healthy behaviors, prosocial peers, and reduce delinquent and substance-using behavior Program is an approach to alcohol prevention that combines peer support with group reward structures Universal prevention education program using skill development designed to mitigate risk factors and enhance protective factors related to alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use (Continued)

416 Appendix (Continued) Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Suicide Prevention and Depression Mitigation Active Minds

Ages 14–25 years

Supports mental health awareness and education, including programs to open up conversation, reduce stigma, encourage help seeking, and prevent suicide

American Indian (Zuni) Life Skills Development

Ages 14–19 years

Applied Suicide Intervention Skills Training (ASIST)

Ages 13–17 (adolescent), 18– 25 (young adult), 26–55 (adult), 55+ (older adult)

Care, Assess, Respond, Empower (CARE), also known as Counselors Care (C – CARE)

Ages 14–19 years

Coping and Support Training (CAST)

Ages 14–18 years, grades 9–12

Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)

Ages 14 years through adult

Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed Adolescents (IPT-A)

Ages 12–18 years

Lifelines Curriculum

Grades 8–12

More Than Sad

High school, grades 9–12

School-based, culturally sensitive, suicide prevention and life skills program for American Indian adolescents Designed as a 2-day training program to prepare a community of “gatekeeper” caregivers ready, willing, and able to help persons at risk and prevent suicide School-based suicide prevention for high-risk adolescents, reducing risk factors and increasing protective factors, includes assessment and intervention process School-based, small group counseling for at-risk youth designed for suicide prevention and other positive outcomes Therapeutic treatment for targeted mental health challenges, including suicidal ideation and self-harm Outpatient treatment for adolescents struggling with mild to moderate depression severity, and their families, but not for those acutely suicidal, homicidal, psychotic, bipolar, or actively abusing substances School-wide, comprehensive suicide awareness, response, and prevention program that educates faculty, parents, and students on facts about suicide and their roles in prevention Educates students, parents, and educators about mental health, specifcally to understand depression and prevent teen suicide

Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs

417

Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Penn Resilience Training for College Students

Designed for college freshman, but adapted for many populations

Brief prevention program for students at risk for depression, based on cognitive therapy for depression

QPR (Question, Persuade, Refer) Gatekeeper Training for Suicide Prevention Reconnecting Youth

Adolescents through adults

Signs of Suicide Prevention Program (SOS)

Middle (ages 11– 13) or high school (ages 13–17)

Sources of Strength

Elementary, middle, and high schools, and other diverse settings and age groups

Youth Mental Health First Aid

Ages 12–18 years

Educational program designed to teach gatekeepers how to recognize and refer individuals at risk for suicide Classroom-based intervention, targets youth at risk for dropping out of school and/or at risk for suicide Universal, school-based suicide prevention and depression awareness and education program, including brief screening Prevention of suicide, violence, bullying, and substance abuse by training, supporting, and empowering students as peer leaders, building protective infuences, and connecting them with caring adult advisors at school and in the community Teaches parents, caregivers, teachers, school staff, peers, and others the importance of early intervention, risk factors, warning signs, and how to help and refer youth having a mental health or addiction challenge or crisis

Ages 14–18 years

Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS) and Crisis Intervention Attachment, SelfRegulation, and Competency (ARC) Bounce Back Program

Bridge TraumaInformed Culturally Responsive (TICR) Program (Pickens, 2015)

Youth from early childhood through adolescence Ages 5–8 years and 8–11 years, developmentally adapted Preschool through high school

Intervention and treatment for children and youth, families and systems experiencing complex trauma School-based, social-emotional learning (SEL) for elementary students exposed to stressful and traumatic events seeking to enhance resilience Professional development training to support integration of trauma-informed, culturally responsive practices to reframe educator understanding of student behavior (Continued)

418 Appendix (Continued) Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Cognitive Behavioral Interventions for Trauma in Schools (CBITS)

Grades 5 through 12

Compassionate Schools: The Heart of Learning and Teaching (Wolpow et al., 2011)

School age children

Creating Healing School Communities (Santiago, Raviv, & Jaycox, 2018) Flexible Framework: Trauma Sensitive Schools

School age children

School-based, targeted group and individual intervention for trauma-exposed children to reduce symptoms of PTSD, depression, behavioral problems, and to improve school functioning Trauma-informed schools training based on handbook: The Heart of Learning and Teaching: Compassion, Resiliency, and Academic Success School-based interventions for students exposed to trauma

Head Start Trauma Smart

Healthy Environments and Response to Trauma in Schools (HEARTS)

PREPaRE Curriculum (Crises)

Prolonged Exposure Therapy (PE) Support for Students Exposed to Trauma (SSET)

Preschool through Collaborative, whole-school organizational model for high school schools and districts to create trauma sensitive schools Early childhood, targeted Young children trauma intervention designed in Head Start to support trauma-exposed classrooms children, their parents, families, and teachers Promotes school success for Grades K–8 trauma impacted students using a whole-school approach with a multi-tiered framework including trauma-informed, culturally sensitive discipline and classroom management strategies Preschool through Comprehensive school crisis prevention and intervention high school model specifcally designed for school safety, crisis response, and crisis response teams Cognitive behavior based, Adolescents with manualized protocol for PTSD treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder School-based group intervention Late elementary for 8–10 trauma-exposed through early students implemented by high school, ages teachers or school counselors, 10–16 years including 10 lessons to reduce anxiety and depression using psychoeducation, relaxation training, cognitive coping, and social problem solving. Free online training and resources

Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs

419

Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Trauma Affect Regulation: Guide for Education and Therapy (TARGET)

Ages 13 through adult

Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT)

Children and adolescents

Trust-Based Relational Intervention (TBRI)

Traumatized children and youth

Trauma-informed, strengthsbased approach to education and therapy for survivors of physical, sexual, psychological, and emotional trauma, teaching skills to regulate emotions Targeted, trauma-informed therapeutic treatment for children and adolescents impacted by trauma, and their parents or caregivers Trauma-informed, attachmentbased intervention that provides a method of caregiving for trauma-exposed children

Violence Prevention, Restorative Practices, and Dropout Prevention Aggression Replacement Training (ART) Anger Coping Program

Grades 6–12

Career Academies

Grades 9 or 10 through 12

Check and Connect

Grades K–12 with dropout prevention focus through high school Grades 4–6

Coping Power Program (CPP)

Ages 8–12 years

Don’t Suspend Me: An Alternative Discipline Toolkit (Hannigan & Hannigan, 2017)

Grades K–12

Early Risers Skills for Success Program

Ages 6–10 years

Training for violence prevention, healthy and safe children Cognitive-behavioral program with child and parent components for children with a history of aggressive behavior problems School within-a-school model offers a learning community focusing on a career theme integrated into core curriculum Dropout and disengagement prevention program for high school students with learning, behavioral, and/or emotional disabilities Cognitive-based intervention for aggressive children and their parents during transition to middle school Suspensions are ineffective, while alternative discipline methods can create positive, meaningful, long-term changes in the behavior of challenging students Preventive intervention targeting elementary school children with aggressive behaviors at high risk for conduct problems (Continued)

420 Appendix (Continued) Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Eisenhower Quantum Opportunities

Grades 9–12

First Step to Success

Preschool through grade 3

Group Violence Reduction Strategy (GVRS) (New Orleans, LA)

Youth involved in community and gang violence

I Can Problem Solve (ICPS), also known as Interpersonal ProblemSolving curriculum Job Corps

Preschool through grade 6

Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT)

Ages 6–11 years

National Guard Youth Challenge Program

Ages 16–18 years

Offce of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP)

Programs are designed to meet various needs of youth of all ages, with a focus on adolescents

Youth development program for disadvantaged adolescents provides education, service and development activities, and long-term fnancial incentives Collaborative home and school early intervention to help children at risk for developing aggressive or antisocial behavior patterns, using a trained behavior coach Intervention to address patterns of gang violence through focused deterrence and partnership of law enforcement, community members, and social services A universal primary prevention program with lessons for social and emotional learning and violence prevention Largest free residential education and job training program, helps eligible youth complete their high school education, trains them for meaningful careers, and assists obtaining employment School-based intervention designed to prevent anti-social behavior and delinquency by addressing aggressive and atrisk social behaviors at school, and supporting more consistent parental supervision Intervention with at-risk youth to develop values, skills, education, and self-discipline to succeed US Department of Justice supports state and community efforts to protect children and communities through programs to prevent youth violence, reduce delinquency, and help youth in the system re-enter society and build successful futures

Ages 16–24 years

Highly Rated, Evidence-Based Programs

421

Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Operation Peacekeeper

Ages 10–18 years

PeaceBuilders

Pre-K through grade 12

Community and problemoriented policing program designed to reduce gang involvement and gun violence among youth Violence prevention curriculum and professional development program that teaches a common language and sets behavioral expectations, reduces aggression, and transforms into a safe, cooperative, academically successful school climate

Project BUILD (Broader Urban Involvement and Leadership Development) Quantum Opportunity Program (QOP)

Ages 10–17 years

Reconnecting Youth

Ages 14–18 years

Resolving Confict Creatively Program

Pre-K through grade 8

Responding in Peaceful and Positive Ways (RIPP) Restorative Justice (McClusky et al., 2008)

Grades 6–8, ages 10–14 years

High school youth ages 13–18 years

Grades K–12

Violence prevention curriculum designed to help youth in detention overcome problems faced in their communities such as gangs, crime, and drugs Intensive development program for socioeconomically marginalized youth that offers case management, mentoring, tutoring, other education and support services, and fnancial incentives Classroom-based intervention, targets youth at risk for dropping out of school and/or at risk for suicide School-based violence prevention program developing confict resolution and socialemotional learning (SEL) skills with lessons provided School-based violence prevention program, teaching confict resolution strategies and skills Based on the premise that students in confict can work together to resolve problems and repair damaged relationships, and that the perpetrator of an incident can take responsibility and potential victims, bystanders, and families can decide what should be done to repair harm and reconcile relationships (Continued)

422 Appendix (Continued) Category/Program

Age Range

Description

Restorative Practices (Gregory et al., 2016) (International Institute for Restorative Practices [IIRP])

Grades K–12

Initiative that seeks to bring together those who harmed others with those who were harmed to repair harm and seek social justice that builds relationships, achieves discipline, and reduces crime, violence, and bullying through participatory learning

Safe Dates

Ages 11–17 years

Social Decision Making/ProblemSolving Program

Grades K–8

Student Engagement Project http:// k12studentengagement. unl.edu

Pre-K through grade 12

Think First Anger and Aggression Management Program

Grades 9–12

Too Good for Violence (TGFV)

Programs for grades K–5 and 6–8

Violence prevention program helps adolescents distinguish between caring, supportive relationships and controlling, manipulative, or abusive relationships Social-emotional learning (SEL) program, including lessons to develop self-control, social awareness, effective decision-making skills, while targeting violence, substance abuse, related problem behaviors, and stressors A project of the University of Nebraska – Lincoln striving to build and sustain student engagement emphasizing a multi-tiered system of evidencebased programs, including alternative strategies to exclusionary discipline practices School-based group intervention for anger management and violence prevention by teaching students social processing and behavioral skills needed to reduce aggressive responses to anger Promotes character, values, social-emotional learning (SEL) skills, and attitudes and behaviors that differentiate feelings and actions, encourage peer respect, and celebrate diversity

Index

Note: Page numbers in italic indicate a fgure and page numbers in bold indicate a table on the corresponding page. 4Rs Program 272, 412 academic achievement 17, 68–69, 231–232, 232, 310 Acceptance and Commitment Therapy 237, 287 administrators 4, 12–13, 16, 21, 25–27, 40–46, 108; administrator support 310–318; best practices in professional development 338–339, 342–343; and crisis prevention, preparedness, and response 148–149, 152–153; developing effective professional development 309, 319; implementing, evaluating, and sustaining 351–352, 361–362, 364; integrating and managing 377–378, 399–400; and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports 253–254; and positive school climate 70–71; and suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention 197–198; and TraumaInformed Schools 287–288; and universal mental health screening 223–224; and violence prevention, threat assessment, and intervention 166–167, 179–181 Adverse Childhood Experiences study (ACEs) 14, 253 African American students 190, 252, 319; and culturally responsive school mental health services and education 76, 84–86, 88; and Trauma-Informed Schools 284–285; and violence prevention, threat

assessment, and intervention 169, 178 A Friend Asks 126 Alberti Center for Bullying Abuse Prevention 165, 168, 193 American Indian Life Skills Development (AILSD) 192 anti-bullying 39, 63, 126, 162–168, 186, 193 anti-gay 89 anti-LGBTQ+ 90 anti-social 19 anti-violence 167 ARTIC Scale (Attitudes Related to Trauma-Informed Care Scale) 259–260 Ask and Prevent Suicide 126 Ask Suicide Screening Question (ASQ) 195 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) 52 assortativity 130 Back-to-School Night 111, 226 BASC-3 Behavioral and Emotional Screening System (BASC-3 BESS) 218 Be Calm 255 Beck Youth Inventories–2 (BYI-2) 219 Behavioral Health Team 388 behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) 170–171 Behavior Assessment System for Children–3 (BASC-3) 218 Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) 236–237

424 Index Beliefs and Attitudes for Successful Implementation in Schools (BASIS) 355 bibliotherapy 168, 322 bidirectional communication 109 bilingual 115 bipolar disorders 15, 95, 187, 199 bisexual 190 bi-weekly 100, 378 Black students see African American students Born This Way Foundation 167, 193 Bounce Back 236–237, 256, 287 Brain Architecture Game 253 Breathe2Relax 126 Building Mental Health Literacy 40 Bully Tag 126 Calm Corner 257 caregiver education 107–116 CASEL Wheel 267 Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence 356–357 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 52, 194 change processes 28–29, 313–314 Character Climb 256 Check-In/Check-Out (CICO) 220, 233, 236, 320 Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) 219 Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTR) 298 Children’s Depression Inventory–2 (CDI-2) 219 Classroom Crisis Intervention (CCI) 294 coaching 44–46; best practices in professional development 338–345; developing effective professional development 325–327; implementing, evaluating, and sustaining 352–354, 362–364; integrating and managing 377–378; and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports 236, 239–240 co-chairs 101 code-switching 244–246 co-facilitators 330 Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (CBITS) 236–237, 256, 287, 321, 389 co-leading 273

co-learners 339 collaboration: integrating with 387–389; norms of collaboration 68–70; teacher collaboration 5, 19, 26, 338, 344; see also family – school collaboration Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) 263, 266–268, 274–275, 324–325, 327 Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS) 195 community: context 76; participation/engagement 77, 97–98; partnership 41, 312; see also school community co-morbid 199 Compassionate School Pre-Training Readiness Assessment 254 Compassionate Schools 251, 253–254, 257, 282–283, 352 Compassionate Schools Collaborative 253, 257 Comprehensive School Mental Health Systems (CSMHS) 40, 98 Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines (CSTAG) 175–178 consultation 45–46, 51, 113–114, 294, 314, 342–345; to address mental health 113–114; promoting mental health through 44–45; and training 143–145 Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) 283 Coping and Support Training (CAST) 192 Coping Cat 237 Counseling, Psychological, and Social Services Coordinators (CPSS) 40 COVID-19 pandemic 43, 54, 77, 114, 172; and monitoring social media and technology 119–120; and professional development 333; and social and emotional learning 265; and suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention 187, 190, 194; and Trauma-Informed Schools 295–296 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) 38, 164–165 Crisis Intervention Teams (CITs) 41

Index crisis preparedness 7, 38, 136, 144, 388, 394 crisis prevention: cultural competence 138; cultural needs assessment 141; developmental competence 138; drills and exercises 142–143; Incident Command System (ICS) 137–138, 143; media plans 139, 149; memorandums of understanding (MOUs) 162; needs assessment 135, 139–141; school safety and crisis response teams 135–139; special needs competence 138; strategies for prevention and preparedness 139–145 crisis response: briefngs 139, 146, 149, 152; caregiver training 139–141, 144, 147; crisis interventions 146–147, 149–151; indicators of crisis severity 145; level of response 145; psychological triage 146–147; reciprocal support with principals 149; recovery 136–137, 141, 147, 151, 153–155; reunifcation with primary caregivers 140–141; stabilizing teachers and staff 148–149; urban response 141–142; variables predicting risk for trauma 147 crisis response team/crisis intervention team (CIT): advocating for training 41, 136–137; care for the caregiver 154–155; need for training 320; responder protective factors 200; vicarious trauma 154–156, 181 Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) 21 culturally, linguistically, and ethnically diverse (CLED) 86, 396 culturally responsive: affrming culture and identity 80; culturally responsive teaching (CRT) 82–87, 395–396; school psychology practice 80–81, 81 culturally responsive school mental health services and education: confronting harassment of LGBTQ+ students 89–91; and Indigenous youth and communities 80–82; a model for 76–80; and social justice advocacy 87–89; teaching 82–87; valuing diversity 82–87

425

culturally responsive teaching (CRT) 24, 86–87, 330–331, 395–396 cyberbullying 120, 127–128, 165, 187, 194 Daily Progress Report (DPR) 236 data-based decision making 7, 37, 52, 220, 234–237, 248 data collection and analysis 4, 42, 101, 239, 342 decision making 108–112, 264–269, 313–314, 396–397; and multitiered system of supports 95–98, 100–101; and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports 234–237, 238–239 de-escalation 292 Delaware School Climate Survey 254 Developmental Designs 283 diversity 41, 114–116, 320; valuing 82–87 Down’s Syndrome 168 Drum Circle 257 early intervention 16–17, 51, 102, 211–212, 217–226 Education Association 253, 370 e-learning 333 el respeto 79 Employee Assistance Program (EAP) 149 Empowerment Initiative 169, 193 Ending the Silence 256 English Language Learner (ELL) 115, 252, 272 Establish–Maintain–Restore (EMR) 67 Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) 27–28, 263, 288 extracurricular activities 12, 72, 389 familismo 79 Family Connection meetings 113 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) 172, 214, 224 Family Online Safety Institute (FOSI) 127 family – school collaboration: cultural diversity and partnerships 114–116; family engagement 108–110, 112–113; family involvement in a multi-tiered system of supports 110–112; school and family consultation to address mental health 113–114; understanding family systems and challenges 107–108

426 Index Fear Of Missing Out (FOMO) 120 foundational practices see caregiver education; culturally responsive school mental health services and education; family – school collaboration; monitoring social media and technology; MultiTiered System of Supports (MTSS); positive school climate Framework for Safe and Successful Schools, A (2013) 36–37, 41–42, 49, 94, 289, 397 Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) 196 Functional Behavior Assessments (FBA) 233, 236, 320, 388 funding programs 24, 27 Gaggle 195 Gay–Straight Alliance 167, 193, 321–322 Getting to Outcomes (GTO) 367, 367 GoGuardian 195 Good Behavior Game 192, 236 Great Kindness Challenge 126 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) 214, 224 Hexagon Tool 259–260, 353–354, 354 homogeneous groups 147, 151, 179, 203–204 Human Centered Design/Liberatory Design Process 88 hyperactivity 291 implementation pitfalls 352 implementation science: evidencebased intervention (EBI) 356–362; evidence-based practice (EBP) 360–361; implementation drivers 314, 361–365; intervention adaptation 360; intervention fdelity 368; practice-based evidence (PBE) 361; scientist-practitioners 358–359, 361; treatment integrity 351, 357, 359–360, 365–366 implementation support 325, 360 Importance of Educator Self-Care 253 Incident Commander 149 Incident Command System (ICS) 137–138, 143 Incredible Years 89, 236 Indigenous Conceptual Framework 80–81, 81

Indigenous youth and communities 80–82 individual crisis intervention (ICI) 147 Individual Education Plans (IEPs) 233, 237, 322 infrastructure to support programs and training 36–44 inservice training 54, 332 integrating multiple programs: with collaboration and teams 387–389; and cultural responsiveness 395–396; data collection, analysis, and decision making 396–397; funding streams 397–398; implementing, evaluating, and sustaining programs 398–400; with infrastructure and resources 379–381; with leadership and logistics 377–379; limitations in developing school safety and mental health programs 400–401; within MTSS 385–387; and practices 389–395; with professional development 381–385; through systems thinking 375–377 Integration Action Plan 249–250, 276, 389, 392 Integration Module with Whitcomb Tool 259–260 Interconnected Systems Framework (ISF) 51–52, 238–240, 386 International Institute for Restorative Practices (IIRP) 257 Internet 120–121, 128, 180, 189, 345 Keeping Your Cool 237 Latinx/Hispanic students 78–80, 85–86, 115 leadership teams 4–5, 28, 30, 42–44, 351–352, 362–364; integrating multiple programs 375–377, 379–380, 388–389; and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports 242, 249–251; professional development 307–309, 324–326, 340–342 LGBTQ+ students 89–90, 168, 187, 190, 190, 193–194 life-affrming activities 66, 151, 153, 180, 204–205

Index limitations in developing school safety and mental health programs 400–401 logistics and personnel 4 machismo 79 marianismo 79 Massively Multiplayer Online RolePlaying Games (MMORPGs) 121 memorandums of understanding (MOUs) 38, 42, 162, 171, 253, 224, 226–227; and integrating multiple programs 386, 394, 399; and professional development 321–322 memorials 123, 126, 147, 152–153, 181, 205 mental health: cultural considerations in practice 79, 214, 295, 358; model for culturally competent services 76–80; practices supporting 44–49; school and family consultation 113–114 Mental Health First Aid 8, 22–23, 40, 193, 358, 389 Mental Health Technology Transfer Center (MHTTC) 22–24 mentoring 39–41 meta-analyses 265–266 microteaching 341 MindUp 360 mission statement, vision, and goals 376, 398 monitoring social media and technology: impact of technology on school communities 119–121; managing social media for school safety 121–127; parent monitoring of social media 127–130; social media and technology research 130 Moodle 333–334 MTSS see Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children–2 (MASC-2) 219 multidisciplinary teams 40, 70, 170, 172, 176, 368 Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) 94–98, 235; behavioral and academic interventions using 233–238; collaborative problemsolving teams 98–102; continuum of services 13–14, 43, 51, 97, 139, 162, 371; data-based decision-making

427

231; integrating programs 105, 385–387; monitoring intervention outcomes 95; program options for 3 tiers 103; three-tiered model 40, 95, 102–106, 103; for TIS 286–287; universal academic and mental health screening 94–95, 101 My Teaching Partner-Secondary (MTP-S) 67 My3 126 National Association of Professional Development Schools (NAPDS) 55 National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) 70–71, 80, 96–98, 161, 281–283, 287–288; see also PREPaRE School Crisis Prevention and Intervention model and training National Association of School Resource Offcers (NASRO) 40 National Board Certifcation 28 National Center for School Mental Health 212–215, 223–224 National Implementation Research Network (NIRN) 354, 354, 361, 365 National Incident Management System’s Incident Command System 143 National School Reform Faculty 48–49 needs assessment 139–141, 318–323, 380–382; cultural 141 nings 333 No Bully System 251 non-compliance 67, 270 non-response 225 Open-Source Analogy Model (OSAM) 366–367 organizational development 4–5, 16, 308–309, 314, 317, 400 Our Fragile Children 254 over-reacting 168–169 over-response 145 pandemic see COVID-19 pandemic paraprofessionals 213–214 Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) 236 Participatory Culture-Specifc Intervention Model (PCSIM) 45, 50–51, 369 Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) 195

428 Index personalismo 79 phubbing 128 Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS): behavioral interventions in a multi-tiered system 233–238; Brandywine School District long-term case study 249–261; culturally responsive schoolwide PBIS 240–249; integrated within MTSS 232–233; mental heath services using ISF 238–240; program description and benefts 231–232 Positive Behavior Game 236 positive behavior supports (PBS) see Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) positive school climate: benefts 62–68; connectedness 62–63, 68, 71–72; respect/rapport 62, 64, 69; school climate data/ problem-solving 70–72; school-wide programs 61, 63, 68; student–teacher relationships 64–69, 72 post-traumatic stress 298 postvention, suicide 202–206 pre-implementation planning 353–355: foundational actions 355; Hexagon Tool 353–355; practitioner readiness 355 PREPaRE School Crisis Prevention and Intervention model and training 63, 143–144, 153–154, 254, 330 primary prevention 44, 95, 139–140, 161–163; crisis response plan 139, 162; physical safety 162; psychological safety 38–39 problem solving 41–44, 70–72, 98–102, 113–115, 150–151; and integrating multiple programs 393–394; and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports 233–237; and professional development 336–338; and social and emotional learning 264–265, 271–275; and Trauma-Informed Schools 283–289 professional development schools (PDS) 55 professional development/staff development: administrator support and teacher buy-in 310–317; basic considerations 340;

best practices in implementing 341; building program capacity 342–344; embedded processes and formats 337–338; follow-up for program and skill building 344–345; integrated MTSS model 342–343; organizational development and change 308–309, 314; pre-service training 28–29; reform fatigue and lack of alignment 25, 28–29; role of administrators and mental health professionals 314, 316–317, 331; stakeholder buy-in 309–310; steps for effective professional development 315; training for school mental health professionals 309, 313–314, 317, 331 professional learning communities (PLCs) 46–48, 312–313, 330–332, 337–339, 387–389, 398–399 program development: buy-in 317; evidence-based programs 314, 358; implementation 5, 43, 314, 358, 398; integrated programs and practices 5, 43, 376, 379, 398; longterm development/longitudinal development 5, 376; multiple programs 5, 16, 376, 379, 398; prioritized programs 43; schoolwide programs 61; selection 43; sustaining programs 398–400 Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) 89, 265 prosocial behavior 98, 231, 233, 264, 336, 385 Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment (PPRA) 225 psychological frst aid (PFA) 22, 146–147, 149–150, 156 Psychological First Aid for Schools (PFA-S) 179 QIGONG 257 QPR (Question, Persuade, Refer) 192–193 Quality Implementation Tool (QIT) 367 racism: effects on educators and students 84–86; equity design 88–89; low income and economic marginalization 78, 87; systemic 82 reciprocal nature of school safety and mental health 8

Index Reconnecting Youth (RY) 192 re-entry 180–181, 200–201, 296 Regulation Zones 257 Relational Teaching and Learning 84 resource mapping 43, 318–319, 380 Response to Intervention (RtI) 30, 94, 99, 236, 320–322 Responsive Classroom 251, 266, 322, 330 restorative practices (RP) 89, 96, 257, 284, 286, 322, 395 re-teaching 236, 244–245 re-training 308, 399 re-traumatization 153 ReVIBE 257 RULER Approach 265 safety plan 126, 168, 176, 196, 198, 200–201 Safety Plan app 126 Salem-Keizer Student Threat Assessment System (STAS) 175 Sandy Hook Promise 256 Say Something 256 school-based mental health professionals 12–16, 41–42, 97, 377–378 School Climate Team Questionnaires 254 School Climate Transformation Grant (SCTG) 250, 252 school community 7, 41, 62–63, 68–71, 101–102, 202–203; integrating and managing 391–392; and violence prevention, threat assessment, and intervention 165, 167, 179–182 school counselors 41–42, 170, 252–253, 317, 378 school crisis 136–137, 141–145, 154–155, 197–198 school culture 240, 358–359, 387 School Development Program (SDP) 64 School Health Assessment and Performance Evaluation (SHAPE) 40, 213 school leaders 3–5, 21–22, 42–44, 72, 312–314 school mental health providers 27, 101–102, 342–343, 385–386, 399–400 school models supporting partnerships and professional

429

development: community schools 53–54; professional development schools 55; school–community partnerships 54 school nurses 4, 42, 78, 101, 257, 317 Schoology Electronic Platform 254 school psychologists 27, 41–46, 63, 113–115, 142; ACLU recommended ratios 170; culturally responsive 78–80, 87–88; and integrated programs and practices 362–364, 378; and multi-tiered system of supports 95–97, 101; and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports 252–254; and professional development 307, 310–317, 329–333, 342; and suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention 197–198, 200–201; and TraumaInformed Schools 287–288, 293–294; and universal mental health screening 223–224; and violence prevention, threat assessment, and intervention 169–170 school-related violence: cumulative grief 161; homicide in the community 14, 161; long-term follow-up 181–182; planning school re-entry 180–181; response to school-related violence 161, 178–180; shootings 14–15, 160–161, 169; supporting students and community 179–182; traumatic violence 179–180 school resource offcers (SROs) 40–42, 64, 70, 101, 165, 172, 394 school safety: and crisis response teams 135–139; infrastructure and resources to support programs and training 36–44; limitations in developing 400–401; managing social media for 121–127; mental health service delivery models 49–53; practices supporting school safety and mental health 44–49; school models supporting partnerships and professional development 53–55 school safety and mental health programs: barriers 24–30; benefts 16–24; need 12–16 school safety team 100, 144, 166, 321, 388

430 Index school social workers 42, 170, 252–253, 317 School Threat Assessment Training 175 School-Wide Evaluation Tool 248 Seasons of Respect 256 Second Step program 266, 272 Secret Service Model 172, 175 Securly 195 service delivery: Interconnected Systems Framework (ISF); models of service delivery; multi-tiered 4, 49, 94–98, 218, 379, 385–386, 399; service array 77; see also MultiTiered System of Supports (MTSS) sextortion 120 shared leadership 4, 70, 99, 138, 314, 351, 377 Short Messaging Service (SMS) 119 SIGMA Threat Management 175 Signs of Suicide (SOS) 192–193, 256 Social, Academic, and Emotional Behavior Risk Screener (SAEBRS) 218–219 social and emotional learning (SEL): in academic opportunity 271–272; building equity in 268–271; competencies 266–268; in crisis intervention 272–274; culturally adapted SEL 115, 272–274; description and benefts 263–268; embedded in strategic plans and professional learning 263; integrating with programs and curriculum 275–277; planning and school-wide implementation 274–275; in violence prevention 272 Social Decision Making/Social Problem Solving 265 social justice: advocacy 24, 78, 87–89; disrupting inequity 88–89 social media and technology: apps 122, 126–128, 194, 200, 233; benefts and risks 119–121; cyberbullying 120, 127, 165, 187, 194; impact on school communities 119–121; internet addiction 120–121; managing for school safety 121–127; monitoring 127–130; online communities 125–126; research 130; safe messaging 122, 162, 194, 204–205; social media manager 121, 194; social networking 120–122;

technology and crisis response 123–125 Social Skills Improvement System (SSIS) 219 Sources of Strength 192 specialized instructional support personnel (SISP) 42, 46, 288, 378–379 Stakeholder Input and Satisfaction Survey 245 Start With Hello 256 STOPit 126 Strengths and Diffculties Questionnaire (SDQ) 218–219 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) 250, 276, 392 stress management: mindfulness 18, 66, 155, 264, 285–286, 294–295; self-care 21–22, 114, 155, 253–257, 295; vicarious trauma 21, 151, 154–156, 180–181, 289 Strong Teens 115–116 Student Information Systems 213 Student Risk Screening ScaleInternalizing and Externalizing (SRSS-IE) 218 students: Indigenous children, youth, communities 80–82; Latinx/ Hispanic 78–80, 85–86, 115; LGBTQ+ 89–90, 168, 187, 190, 190, 193–194; see also African American students Student Support and Academic Enhancement Grants (SSAEG) 288 Student Support Team 233, 237 Student Wellness Centers 67, 251–252 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) 39–41, 49, 94, 189, 222–223 successful intervention sustainability: assure sustained success 370–371; fostering institutionalization 369–370; sustaining gains through program maintenance 369–371 successful program implementation 356–357: evaluate evidence of effectiveness 363–369; making adjustments and recognizing improvements 366–369; master schedule 100, 376–378, 386, 388 suicide intervention: engaging parents/guardians 200–201; means restriction 294; monitoring

Index for safety 196, 198, 200–201; risk assessment 191, 193, 195–200; risk assessment team 195, 197–198, 200, 203; risk level and interventions 196–206; safe re-entry from hospitalization 201; safety plan 196, 198, 200–201; strategies for response/dialogue 194–198, 202–203, 205; suicide attempt 15, 125, 187, 194–195, 199 suicide postvention: care for survivors 204; contagion 202–205; grief 204–205; safe messaging 194, 204–205; tasks after a death by suicide 202–206 suicide prevention and preparedness 189–196; access to mental health providers 188; culturally profcient 191; culturally responsive 189–190; gatekeeper 186, 192–193, 205; hopelessness 189–190, 199; integrated with MTSS 192–193; mental health literacy 227, 331, 398; prevention programs 188–189, 192–194, 204–205; protective factors 187–188; reducing stigma 192; risk factors 186–187; role of school climate 186, 188; safe messaging; stigma 194, 204–205; safety planning and assessment 195–196, 200–201; suicidal ideation 187, 190, 194–195, 205; warning signs 188–189 Support for Students Exposed to Trauma (SSET) 236, 286, 295 support staff 25–26, 153, 342–343, 377–378 SWPBIS Tiered Fidelity Inventory (TFI) 241, 245, 248 Teacher–Child Interaction Training (TCIT) 67 teachers supporting student mental health 22–24; mental health literacy 23; teacher challenges 23; teacher roles 22 Teacher Training Programs (TTPs) 108 teamwork 144, 267 technical support/follow-up 45, 77, 382–383, 383 telemental health 41 Test Lab Grants 257 Therapeutic Survey 254

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threat assessment and management 170; Behavior Threat Assessment and Management (BTAM) 170–171; Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines (CSTAG) 175–178; culturally competent threat assessment 178; law enforcement 40–41, 169–172, 198, 200–201; pitfalls 168–170; procedures 170–176; Threat Assessment Decision Tree 176–177, 177; threat assessment team 100, 170–172; threat management strategies/safety plan 176; U.S. Secret Service 169 threat assessment team 100, 170–172 Threat Assessment Toolkit 175 Tiered Fidelity Inventory (TFI) 241, 245, 248 time, fnding 24–26, 47, 223 Toxic Trauma and Impact on the Brain 253 Training of Trainers (ToT) 137, 162, 314, 317, 326, 330–331, 344 Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF–CBT) 237, 287 Trauma-Informed Culturally Responsive (TICR) 297 Trauma-Informed Schools (TIS): adverse effects of emotional trauma 281–283; culturally responsive learning environments 297–298; developing trauma-sensitive classrooms 281, 291–292, 295–298; pandemic trauma-sensitive support 295–297; program description and benefts 281–286; role of TIS in violence prevention 283–286; staff resources and funding to support 287–288; supportive school and classroom learning environments 288–297; teacher response and de-escalation 292–293; TIS within MTSS 281–282; trauma-informed approach to evaluations 298–299 Trauma Symptom Checklist (TSC) 298 Traumatic Events Screening Inventory for Children (TESI-C) Revised 298 triage: primary 146, secondary 146, 152, 153; tertiary 147, 153, 180, 205 UCLA Center for Mental Health in Schools 287

432 Index UCLA PTSD Reaction Index for Children and Adolescents – DSM 5 Version 298 under-response 145 United States Department of Education 169, 178 United States Secret Service (U.S. Secret Service) 169, 172, 175, 178 Universal and Follow-up Mental Health Screening Instruments 219 universal mental health screening: barriers to implementation 217, 223–224; frequency of screening 216; implementing 212–215; instruments in a multi-tiered system 218–219; overcoming barriers 224–227; purposes and planning 211–219; screening within MTSS 216–217; sources of screening data 215–216; systematic follow-up 220–223; trauma screening 221–223 Validate, Affrm, Build, & Bridge (VABB) 245, 247

violence prevention 160–162; bullying prevention 165–168; physical safety measures 164–165; primary prevention 162–163; promoting school safety 163–164; school resource offcers 165; school threat assessment 168–178; types of school-related violence 161 wellbeing: student 14, 30, 69, 161, 215, 276, 294–295; teacher 294–295 Wellness Centers 67, 251–252 Wellness or School-Based Health Centers (SBHCs) 78 White: educators 86, 396; majority White schools 88; students 169, 190 Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model 52–53, 78 worldview 80–81, 85–86, 116 Youth Mental Health First Aid 23, 40, 322, 389 Youth Prevention Programs 236