Desired Artistic Outcomes in Music Performance 9780367151386, 9780429055300

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Desired Artistic Outcomes in Music Performance

Desired Artistic Outcomes in Music Performance is about empowering musicians to achieve their professional and personal goals in music. The narrative argues that developing musicians should be supported in conceptualizing and achieving their desired artistic outcomes (DAO), as these have been recognized as key elements in a successful career transition in and beyond their studies in higher education. The text explores the nature of DAO and illustrates how higher education students can be enabled to explore and develop these. The book draws on the findings from a range of exploratory studies which: • • •

Bring to light connections between contemporary topics in music, such as artistic research and career development; Contribute to existing discussions on innovative pedagogical approaches in higher education in music; and Offer theoretical models to support the broad artistic and professional development in young musicians.

This is a text grounded in theory and practice, and which draws on case study examples, as well as historical perspectives and coverage of contemporary issues regarding employment in the music industries. The book will be of particular interest to aspiring music professionals and all those working in the areas of Music Education, Performance Studies and Artistic Research. Gilvano Dalagna is invited Assistant Professor at the University of Aveiro, Portugal, and a Fellow Researcher of INET-md. Parallel to his academic activity, Gilvano pursues a career as a performer with his group Atma Kirtana. Sara Carvalho is a Composer and a Lecturer at the University of Aveiro, Portugal, and a Fellow Researcher of INET-md. Her research work is published in several journals and book chapters, such as SEMPRE Studies in The Psychology of Music Series. Graham F. Welch is Professor and Established Chair of Music Education, University College London, and Chair of the Society for Education, Music and Psychology Research (SEMPRE).

SEMPRE Studies in The Psychology of Music Series Editors Graham Welch UCL Institute of Education, University College London Adam Ockelford University of Roehampton, UK

Ian Cross

University of Cambridge, UK The theme for the series is the psychology of music, broadly defined. Topics include (i) musical development at different ages, (ii) exceptional musical development in the context of special educational needs, (iii) musical cognition and context, (iv) culture, mind and music, (v) micro to macro perspectives on the impact of music on the individual (from neurological studies through to social psychology), (vi) the development of advanced performance skills and (vii) affective perspectives on musical learning. The series presents the implications of research findings for a wide readership, including user-groups (music teachers, policy makers, parents) as well as the international academic and research communities. This expansive embrace, in terms of both subject matter and intended audience (drawing on basic and applied research from across the globe), is the distinguishing feature of the series, and it serves SEMPRE’s distinctive mission, which is to promote and ensure coherent and symbiotic links between education, music and psychology research. Aural Education: Reconceptualising Ear Training in Higher Music Learning Monica Andrianopoulou Expertise in Jazz Guitar Improvisation: A Cognitive Approach Stein Helge Solstad New Approaches in Applied Musicology: Common Framework for Music Education and Psychology Research Adam Ockelford and Graham Welch Jazz and Psychotherapy Perspectives on the Complexity of Improvisation Simeon Alev Desired Artistic Outcomes in Music Performance Gilvano Dalagna, Sara Carvalho and Graham F. Welch For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/music/ series/SEMPRE

Desired Artistic Outcomes in Music Performance

Gilvano Dalagna, Sara Carvalho and Graham F. Welch

First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Gilvano Dalagna, Sara Carvalho, & Graham F. Welch The right of Gilvano Dalagna, Sara Carvalho, & Graham F. Welch to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-0-367-15138-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-05530-0 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC

To Clarissa and Arthur

Contents

Note on authors List of figures List of tables Series editor’s preface Introduction

xi xiii xiv xv 1

Thematic presentation 1 Rationale 3 Book structure 4 1

Rethinking music performance: the role of desired artistic outcomes

10

Introduction 10 Conceptual issues 12 General perspectives on performance 12 Music performance 15 Music performance in higher music education 16 Music performance in music industries 18 General perspectives 18 Live performance music industry 20 Music performance and career issues 22 Discussion 24 Summary 27 2

Desired artistic outcomes: conceptualization and achievements Introduction 30 Conceptualization 32

30

viii Contents Preliminary issues 32 Development 36 Dimensions 37 Achievements 41 The role of self-authorship 41 Epistemological foundation 42 Intrapersonal foundation 43 Interpersonal foundation 46 Discussion 48 Summary 50 3

Desired artistic outcomes in music performance: challenges and promotion

52

Introduction 52 Challenges 54 The formalist code 55 Moving from formalism to artistic research 58 Promotion 61 Rethinking pedagogical principles: future directions 63 Stimulating the ‘ethical traitor’ 64 The role of mentoring 68 Discussion 72 Summary 77 4

Exploring desired artistic outcomes: performers’ perspectives (part I) Introduction 79 Exploring desired artistic outcomes in music performance: developing the strategy 80 Implementing the strategy 81 Case studies 82 Case study 1: Lucius 83 Case study 2: Janis 89 Case study 3: Hector 96 Case study 4: Baden 100 Case study 5: Axel 107 Case study 6: Raul 116 Discussion 125 Summary 127

79

Contents 5

Exploring desired artistic outcomes: performers’ perspectives (part II) Introduction 129 Case studies 130 Case study 1: Lucius 130 Case study 2: Janis 137 Case study 3: Hector 140 Case study 4: Baden 147 Case study 5: Axel 150 Case study 6: Raul 154 Discussion 156 Summary 158

6

Looking for desired artistic outcomes: the artistic research project

ix 129

159

Introduction 159 The artistic research proposal 163 Prelude 163 Material thinking 167 Articulating concepts and images in desired artistic outcomes 168 Disseminating desired artistic outcomes 173 Discussion 174 Summary 176 7

Promoting desired artistic outcomes: the pedagogical project Introduction 178 The Artistic Mentoring Programme 179 Foundations 179 Addressed capacity: self-authorship 180 Covered topics 181 Dissemination 182 Dimensions 182 Understanding the emancipated performer 182 Nurturing the emancipated performer 185 Implementation 185 Case studies 186 Case study 1: Nós 186 Case study 2: Awake in a Dream 188 Case study 3: Jiao Dai 190

178

x Contents Discussion 192 Summary 194 Final thoughts

196

References Index

201 212

Note on authors

Gilvano Dalagna is invited Assistant Professor at the University of Aveiro, Portugal, and a fellow researcher at INET-md. He holds a European PhD (Music – honour and distinction) from the same university. His current research focuses on topics related to artistic research and performance studies. The outputs of his research have been presented in Portugal, the United Kingdom, Spain, Japan, Greece, Brazil, Malta, Armenia, Australia and Austria. Parallel to his academic activity, Gilvano pursues a career as performer with his group Atma Kirtana. Between 2016 and 2019, he was a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Aveiro/INET-md and invited lecturer at the School of Music and Performing Arts (Polytechnic Institute of Oporto). Sara Carvalho is a Portuguese composer interested in the interaction of different performing arts, as an extension and transformation of musical thinking, and all aspects associated with musical narrative. Her portfolio has over 50 pieces that are regularly performed, including commissions by ensembles and soloists of international merit, and prestigious international institutions. Several of her pieces are available on CD. In the field of music education, Sara is researching the influence of creative processes on the development of musical thinking, and she is a regular presenter at national and international conferences. Her work is published by SEMPRE Studies in The Psychology of Music Series. Her research has presented at national and international conferences, and is published in various journals and book chapters. Sara is a lecturer at the Department of Communication and Arts of the University of Aveiro, Portugal, and a fellow researcher at INET-md. Professor Graham F. Welch holds the UCL Institute of Education Established Chair of Music Education (since 2001). He is elected chair of the internationally based Society for Education, Music and Psychology Research (SEMPRE), a past president of the International Society for Music Education (ISME), and past co-chair of the ISME Research Commission of ISME. He holds visiting professorships at the University of Queensland (Australia) and within the United Kingdom at UEL, Liverpool and (recently) Canterbury Christ Church University, Roehampton and the Royal College of Music. He is also a member of the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) Review College for

xii Note on authors music. His publications number over 300 and embrace musical development and music education, teacher education, the psychology of music, singing and voice science, and music in special education and disability. External research funding awarded over the past decade as Principal Investigator totals over £4m and embraces over 35 projects.

Figures

I.1 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 6.1 7.1

Study design Sectors in the live performance industry A DAO-centred perspective for music performance Developmental journey toward self-authorship An explanatory model for the development of DAO Summary of engaged learning environment An explanatory model for the challenges related to desired artistic outcomes An explanatory model related to the promotion of desired artistic outcomes in higher education music institutions An explanatory model of an emancipated performer The overall structure of the Artistic Mentoring Programme (AMP)

5 21 26 42 49 63 75 76 175 184

Tables

1.1 3.1 4.1

Framework of music industries Mentoring framework in music AMPMP: topics covered during the 2nd phase

20 71 81

Series editor’s preface

SEMPRE studies in the psychology of music Series editors: Graham F. Welch, UCL Institute of Education, London, UK; Adam Ockelford, Roehampton University, UK; and Ian Cross, University of Cambridge, UK. The enormous growth of research that has been evidenced over the past three decades continues into the many different phenomena that are embraced under the psychology of music ‘umbrella’. Growth is evidenced in new journals, books, media interest, an expansion of professional associations (both regionally and nationally, such as in Southern Europe, Africa, Latin America, Asia), and accompanied by increasing and diverse opportunities for formal study, including within non-English-speaking countries. Such growth of interest is not only from psychologists and musicians, but also from colleagues working in the clinical sciences, neurosciences, therapies, lifelong health and well-being communities, philosophy, musicology, social psychology, ethnomusicology and education across the lifespan. There is also evidence in several countries of a wider political and policy engagement with the arts in general and music in particular, such as in arts-based social prescribing for mental and physical health. Research into the potential wider benefits of music for health and well-being, for example, seem to be particularly apposite at this time of global challenge. As part of this worldwide community, the Society for Education, Music and Psychology Research (SEMPRE) – looking forward to celebrating its 50th anniversary in 2022 – continues to be one of the world’s leading and longstanding professional associations in the field. SEMPRE is the only international society that embraces formally an interest in the psychology of music, research and education, seeking to promote knowledge at the interface between the twin social sciences of psychology and education with one of the world’s most pervasive art forms, music. SEMPRE was founded in 1972 and has published the journals Psychology of Music since 1973 and Research Studies in Music Education since 2008, both now produced in partnership with SAGE (see www.sempre.org.uk/journals), and we continue to seek new ways to reach out globally, both in print and online. These include the recent launch in 2018 of Music and Science – an additional

xvi

Series editor’s preface

peer-reviewed, open access academic journal. We recognize that there is an ongoing need to promote the latest research findings to the widest possible audience. Through more extended publication formats, especially books, we believe that we are more likely to fulfil a key component of our distinctive mission, which is to have a positive impact on individual and collective understanding, as well as on policy and practice internationally, both within and across our disciplinary boundaries. Hence, we welcome the strong collaborative partnership between SEMPRE and Routledge (formerly Ashgate Press). The Routledge Ashgate ‘SEMPRE Studies in The Psychology of Music’ has been designed to address this international need since its inception in 2007 (see www.sempre.org.uk/about/5-routledge-sempre-book-series). The theme for the series is the psychology of music, broadly defined. Topics include (amongst others): musical development and learning at different ages; musical cognition and context; applied musicology; culture, mind and music; creativity, composition, and collaboration; micro to macro perspectives on the impact of music on the individual, from neurological studies through to social psychology; the development of advanced performance skills; music learning within and across different musical genres; musical behaviour and development in the context of special educational needs; music education; therapeutic applications of music; and affective perspectives on musical learning. The series seeks to present the implications of research findings for a wide readership, including user-groups (music teachers, policy makers, leaders and managers, parents and carers, music professionals working in a range of formal, non-formal and informal settings), as well as the international academic teaching and research communities and their students. A key distinguishing feature of the series is its broad focus that draws on basic and applied research from across the globe under the umbrella of SEMPRE’s distinctive mission, which is to promote and ensure coherent and symbiotic links between education, music and psychology research. In this particular volume in the SEMPRE series, the authors draw on and extend the original doctoral research of first author, Gilvano Dalagna. Desired Artistic Outcomes in Music Performance’s topical focus is on how to ensure that those seeking a professional career in musical performance are able to experience formal studies that are appropriately connected both to the world of work and also to their own sustained development as musicians – personally and professionally. The narrative is underpinned by a theoretical framework which highlights the importance of making desired artistic outcomes (DAO) more explicit and valued in the learning process. The power of such an approach is subsequently illustrated by detailed case studies. The implication is that more creative approaches to music performance teaching are needed if students are to realize their artistic potential, to go beyond ‘playing the notes’ and to be empowered to imagine their own possible interpretations, such that they are able to enact more empathic connections in performance with their audiences (and themselves). Furthermore, it is hoped that such an approach will enable students to have a greater sense of ‘voice’ and ownership of their professional development as musicians, thus – for example – reducing the incidence of music performance anxiety (MPA) that can arise from

Series editor’s preface xvii an over-reliance on complex technical and interpretative skills being prescribed by others. The overall focus of the book is to envision musical performance as a journey, a series of events, in which the mastering of repertoire and choice of instrument are not the only goals, but rather to develop an understanding of how to achieve desired artistic outcomes that are able to be flexibly matched to the needs of a particular performance situation. The book offers a welcome addition to the breadth and depth of the SEMPRE series. Professor Graham F. Welch UCL Institute of Education, London, 31 March 2020

Introduction

Thematic presentation I was 33 years old and was enrolled in the second year of a PhD programme (specializing in music performance) at the University of Aveiro, Portugal. By that time, I was a classically trained guitarist who had spent a considerable period of time in higher education (almost ten years) and was committed to high technical and interpretative standards. Parallel to this, I invested time teaching classical guitar in conservatoires and music academies in Portugal and Brazil. At a glance, I seemed to be a typical student, interested in fostering my skills as a guitarist in order to demonstrate my abilities in front of a given audience. However, in my heart, I knew I was not so connected to that profile. When I realized this, my initial attitude was to reflect on my trajectory as a musician in order to find some answers. I immediately perceived that my musical influences could indicate a path to overcome such a sense of disconnection. This initial reflection showed me that, despite some differences, there was something in common between The Beatles, Ravi Shankar, Tom Jobim, Bob Dylan, Maxim Vengerov, Julian Bream and Elvis Presley: all them were my ‘heroes’. They were a source of guidance in my musical activity as a performer. Their guidance can be exemplified through several different roles that I had assumed as a performer since my teenage years, when I founded my first rock band. In my musical career, I was a singer, guitarist, bassist and sitarist, I played harmonica and I also wrote songs. All these roles were assumed due to demands in my artistic environment: if there was a need for a bassist in the band, then I assumed this function. Regardless of the role assumed, I always sought to achieve an artistic aim as a performer: to connect all my artistic influences in order to express my points of view, concerning the world as I saw it, through music: that was my desired artistic outcome. Since the early years of my journey as a performer, I faced a challenge that is well-known to several musicians: reconciling my own desired artistic outcomes with a career as a performer in the music industries. Once my family could not provide financial support for my ‘artistic ideals’, I had to find a job that would allow me to maintain my musical activity. After several unsuccessful attempts to sustain my music-making in parallel with another professional activity, I realized finally that I should follow my dream. Therefore, the first step was to look for some higher education music institution in order to achieve a ‘professional standard’ as a musician, which could assist me in reconciling my desired artistic outcome with a sustainable career as performer. When I finally enrolled at the university

2 Introduction as a classical guitar student – the institution required me to choose an area of specialization between those offered – I realized that my multifaceted profile as a musician was not so ‘valued’. The institution stimulated me to develop my technical and interpretative skills as a guitarist as much as I could, which meant that my desired artistic outcomes, as well as my interest in developing a sustainable career as a performer, were – to a certain extent – suffocated. The need to follow a path, which was not in line with my skills and interests, for a long time led to sadness and frustration in my career. I felt like I was not giving my best as an artist! I was just trying to fulfil my obligations as a classical guitarist: committed to historical and canonical conventions. Even in my activity as an instrumental teacher, I felt I was not encouraging my students to follow their own desired artistic outcomes; it seemed to me that I was just contributing to the preservation of the model that I had found in higher education. In 2011, when I started my journey as a PhD candidate, I realized that many other musicians had similar experiences in higher education. Because of this, I decided to embark on a singular adventure: to investigate musicians’ desired artistic outcomes.

This example of the first author’s experience illustrates a possible ideal shared by many aspiring musicians who, year after year, are accepted to conservatoires and universities around the world to study music performance. This ideal is to be able to reconcile their desired artistic outcomes (DAO) with the demands of studying and a career as a performer in the music industries. Music performance has been traditionally approached in some pedagogical books and treatises as a demonstration of abilities related to interpretation of scores that demands a set of refined psychophysiological skills – and, in some (worst) cases, leading to pain and injuries. Yet, the comments which began this Introduction reveal a musician who was not solely concerned with such abilities. Rather, he was interested in expanding his sense of artistry; he was not oriented to specialization, but to versatility. In his concept of music performance, the DAO were a core element. Furthermore, it is will be argued that this element is not dependent on social and institutional categories – classical and popular music, composer and interpreter, academic and practical musician, percussionist and guitarist – in order to be realized. Although DAO may be a key component for the artistic development of an emergent musician, it would seem that empirical research on this topic is almost non-existent. At the same time, different perspectives and terminologies associated with this internal phenomenon can be found in the literature (Persson, 2001; Lehmann, 1997; Neuhaus, 1973). This lack of clarity on DAO somehow restricts their understanding. In this book, we suggest that DAO are an invented mythopoetic1 narrative that is related to what musicians want to achieve, both artistically and professionally. This narrative is shaped by the individual’s social context, professional goals, musical preferences, current and past performance experiences, embodied interpretative skills, and physical and mental characteristics. DAO are personal and unique; dynamic; subjective, with some objective features; and based on opinions and emotions that define the manifestation of the self. The materialization of this narrative over practice2 is material thinking (Carter, 2004) and, because of this,

Introduction 3 DAO are a phenomenon that cannot solely be described through words; they must be materialized to be fully understood. Due to some current pedagogical practices adopted in higher education music institutions,3 in which institutionalized perspectives on performance are based on a ‘demonstration of interpretative abilities’ (Marín, Pérez-Echeverría & Hallam, 2012; Bautista et al., 2009), students’ DAO may have been somehow blurred across their artistic journey (as illustrated in the example described in the beginning of this Introduction). Taking into account these perspectives and the lack of knowledge regarding DAO, the purpose of this book is to explore the conceptualization, achievements, challenges and possible means to assist students to nurture their own DAO. The final aims of this book can be summarized as: (i) providing academic literature on a topic still under-researched; (ii) bringing to light connections between contemporary topics in the field of music, such as artistic research and career development; (iii) contributing to existing discussions on innovative pedagogical approaches in higher music education; and finally (iv) offering theoretical models for supporting a broad artistic and professional development for young musicians. The perspectives suggested in this book combine to assert that, in the twentyfirst century, the artistic training of performers and their career planning cannot be dichotomized. To avoid this dichotomy, we must look at performance as a social, communicative and multidimensional event that involves multiple properties and also sub-products.4 In order to embrace this perspective, we must look at the DAO pursued by musicians not as internal images related to a piece of music, but as a complex mythopoetic narrative that seeks to encompass all the complexity of the performative phenomenon. This perspective opens the doors for pedagogical approaches focused on versatility, rather than solely speciality. It involves new models of artistic supervisions that look to the interaction between the individuals, their environment and their practices in order to find a way to project their artistic voices.

Rationale The rationale for this book is based on the implications of DAO for the professional development of emergent musicians. Developing a career path based on music performance is a dream for many higher education musicians who will have spent hours of their academic lives seeking artistic excellence (Jørgensen, 2014; Papageorgi & Welch, 2014; Bennett, 2007; Manturzewska, 1990). Despite the difficulties involved in seeking fame, recent studies have suggested that, for savvy young musicians, opportunities to build an entrepreneurial career in music performance have never been better (Bennett, Rowley & Schmidt, 2019; Ernest & Young, 2014; Weller, 2012). The apparent growth of the music industries, especially in Europe, supports this perspective. Nowadays, the Creative and Cultural Industries (CCI) of the European Union represent a source of employment with constant growth that benefits local communities, autonomous regions and member states (Dromey & Haferkorn, 2018; Ernest & Young, 2014). The CCI currently

4 Introduction employ more people in Europe than the food and service industries. More people are employed by CCI than the car manufacture industry (approximately 2.5 times more) or the chemical industry (5 times more) (Ernest & Young, 2014). This trend has been observed since 2004, when around 5.8 million people were employed in the cultural sector, which is equivalent to 3.1% of the total employed population of the member states. While the general level of employment decreased between 2002 and 2004, the level in the cultural sector grew by 1.85%. The major employers amongst the CCIs are the music industries, the visual arts and the performing arts. These three sub-areas contribute significantly to youth employment, employing on average more young people than any other sector. Summed up, people employed in these three sub-areas accounted for more than 7 million jobs in the European Union in 2014.5 These data suggest that the creative sector is playing a key role in the economic recovery of Europe (Ernest & Young, 2014). Specifically, in the case of music industries, the results of a recent study funded by the European Union indicate that this generates over €25b per year. At the core of these industries are 650,000 performers, composers and lyricists (Ernest & Young, 2014). In order to take advantage of this current trend, musicians need be inventive; they must propose new artistic possibilities to attract a very demanding audience that is not always concerned with the importance given to a certain repertoire (Sloboda, 2013). This inventive capacity is part of musicians’ DAO, as well as in their abilities to achieve it and challenge it. Because of this capacity, musicians’ narratives have been recognized as a key element for a successful career transition from student to professional that must be further explored (Creech & Papageorgi, 2014; Sloboda, 2013; Bennett, 2012; Creech et al., 2008). At this time of the global Covid-19 pandemic, the world’s economy has experienced a severe retraction. As experienced by other sectors of economic activity, the freelance musician proportion of the CCI sector is likely to have been particularly badly affected, especially where performance is concerned. Nevertheless, there is widespread anecdotal media evidence that music making has been a very popular pastime during lockdown and that professional musicians are finding ways to remain engaged with their music and community. Arguably, the focus for this book has become even more pertinent in encouraging musicians and those who educate them to be even better prepared for a portfolio career in a changing world.

Book structure This book is organized into seven chapters that explore and refine a theoretical perspective on the conceptualization, achievements, challenges and nurturing of DAO from the triangulation of a multidisciplinary literature review, informed by exploratory studies and three subsequent projects: (i) a qualitative study (i.e., case studies); (ii) an artistic research project; and (iii) a pedagogical project (action research). Figure I.1 illustrates the study design. The use of exploratory studies is recommended in the literature as a means to develop or refine theoretical frameworks (Maxwell, 1996). The author suggests the use of pilot or exploratory studies to promote a deeper understanding of existing

Introduction 5 Exploratory studies and theoretical synthesis

Developing a theory

Artistic research

Action research

Case studies

Developing artistic outputs based on the theory

Assessing the pedagogical implications of the theory

Assessing the theory

Evaluation of the theory

Figure I.1 Study design

concepts or theories that inform the research. ‘This strategy can provide insights on the meaning that the studied phenomenon has for the actors who are involved in them and the perspectives that inform their actions’ (Maxwell, 1996, p. 80). Exploratory studies allow the researcher to refine data collection plans, providing conceptual clarification that could be explored later (Yin, 2009). Along the same line of thought, Welch (2007) encourages researchers to ‘take account of a multifaceted reality, even if the research’s prime focus may be on one particular aspect of that reality’ (Welch, 2007, p. 23). In an educational setting, the individual biographies, neuro-psychobiological dispositions of the participants, nature of the pedagogical process, and actual/intended musical behaviours, as well as contexts for learning, including various historical and socio-cultural perspectives, must be taken into account when the understanding of a phenomenon is intended (Godwin, 2019; Wiley, 2019; Bartleet & Ellis, 2009; Welch, 2007). Chapter 1 discusses conceptual issues regarding music performance in order to illustrate how DAO could be a key element in designing successful pedagogical and artistic practices related to this social phenomenon. In summary, this chapter presents a view of music performance which is more DAO-centred than score-centred; a perspective that understands performance as moments of materialization of multidimensional artistic narratives, rather than only interpreting or problematizing musical works. The pertinence of this view is based on ontological, educational and professional perspectives. More than performing in real

6 Introduction time, the contemporary performer is seen as a ‘material thinker’: someone that explores the whole event, with all its properties and sub-products, to materialize their artistic narrative. The argument presented here takes into account the recognized mismatch between the performance training offered in higher education music institutions and the current professional demands of music industries. The chapter begins with an introduction describing different approaches to the concept of performance and how this concept was shaped by different fields of knowledge. Based on the perspectives presented, some historical practices and future directions regarding music performance teaching in higher education music institutions are discussed. A concise and comprehensive perspective regarding the differences between music departments and conservatoires is also featured, followed by an overview of existing research on music performance teaching. The last part of the chapter discusses some of the recent transformations in the live and recorded music performance industry, as well as the implications for an artistic career in this segment. This discussion is informed by current perspectives on the music industries, with a special focus on the sector of music performance. In this sense, issues like the reduction of popularity and funding for Western art music performance and art music institutions, the proliferation of musical genres, the absorption of music into the media, and the rapidly changing technological landscape of YouTube, Spotify and beyond are explored. Based on all these aspects, a discussion of possible career paths related to this particular sector of music industries is also presented. The chapter ends with a reflection on existing mismatches between the pedagogical practices adopted in higher education music institutions and the current demands of artistic careers in music performance industry, bringing to light the possible role played by DAO in this process. Notions of music performance as the demonstration of technical abilities adopted in higher music education, the importance of developing new artistic concepts and pursuing a clear sense of identity, which are highlighted in the literature concerning music performance industry, are particularly addressed in the end of this chapter. Chapter 2 presents a theoretical perspective on the conceptualization and achievements of DAO in music performance. Such a perspective is informed by a multidisciplinary literature review that is complemented by two exploratory studies which exemplify the points addressed in the literature synthesis. The first study explored eight students’ perspectives on the conceptualization of DAO, their challenges in achieving their DAO, how DAO could be achieved and how higher education music institutions could assist students in nurturing their DAO as performers in music industries. The second exploratory study aimed to understand DAO in the light of advice given by elite performers in master classes (i.e., performer-teachers) through an ethnographic study that involved marginal observations of master classes in different venues around the United Kingdom. Based on the triangulation of all the perspectives discussed, an explanatory model for DAO is proposed. At the end of this chapter, a short summary is presented in order to highlight the main issues regarding the conceptualization, challenges, achievements and nurturing of DAO.

Introduction 7 Chapter 3 presents a theoretical perspective on the challenges that constrain the achievement of DAO in music performance and how higher education music institution could assist musicians to overcome these challenges. In line with the previous chapter, the narrative is structured as a synthesis between a literature review and the findings of exploratory studies which are used to provide the reader with practical examples of what is being discussed. Two explanatory models, for challenges and promotion, are also proposed in this chapter. The chapter closes with a short summary of the points discussed. Based on all the perspectives discussed thus far, Chapters 4–5 present a qualitative study, drawing on a set of case studies integrated in an action research project, which was conducted to assess the pertinence of the theoretical models proposed in the previous chapters. Both chapters describe the process of implementation of these models in the Music Department of a Portuguese university. Furthermore, in order to offer the reader contextual information regarding the process of implementation, details concerning the institution itself, and each participant who agreed to take part in the project and the issues involved in the programme’s implementation, are provided in these chapters. Examples of details provided include how the sessions were organized, how the programme fitted the pedagogical structure of the university, how participants were contacted and how they reacted to the programme’s pedagogical proposal. Perspectives from six higher education music students who participated in the project, concerning conceptualizations, challenges, achievements and promotion of DAO are described and analysed, taking into account the theoretical perspectives presented in the previous chapters. Each chapter ends with a summary whereby the main points are discussed. Chapter 6 presents an artistic research project that aimed to explore the dimensions of desired artistic outcomes discussed in the previous chapters from an insider perspective. This project, which was conducted by the first author, illustrates how artistic research oriented to produce material thinking may be a possible means of overcoming challenges that restrict the promotion of DAO. The chapter also brings to light how boundaries between popular and classical music, performer and composer, over-specialization and broad artistic profile can be dissolved when the artistic focus moves from the interest in translating a text notated in a score to the interest in expressing DAO. At the end of the chapter, a summary that describes the main points discussed is presented. Chapter 7 presents a pedagogical project designated as an Artistic Mentoring Programme (AMP), which was created to assist higher education students in nurturing their DAO as performers. The conceptualization and pedagogical foundations, as well as the structure behind this mentoring programme, were informed by the theoretical framework and are discussed in detail at this point in the book. The chapter presents AMP as an engaged learning environment that stimulates students’ development of self-authorship through artistic research projects oriented to produce material thinking. These, in turn, are supported by a mentoring interaction between students and mentor. Overall, this programme is offered as a model for artistic supervision in higher education music institutions to those interested in material thinking. Its conceptualization was informed by the theoretical framework

8 Introduction presented in the previous chapters. This chapter also describes the process of implementation of an AMP in the music department of a Brazilian university. This implementation process was organized and documented through a naturalistic inquiry that was structured as ethnographic action research whose methodological procedures are described. Furthermore, as in the previous example, details concerning the institution itself, each participant that agreed to take part in the AMP and the issues involved in the programme’s implementation are provided in order to offer the reader contextual information regarding the process of implementation. Examples of details provided include how the sessions were organized, how the programme fitted the pedagogical structure of the university, how participants were contacted and how they reacted to the programme’s pedagogical proposal. This chapter then describes participants’ attempts to practise artistic research in order to conceptualize new artistic proposals (e.g., a series of public performances) based on their own DAO. At the end, the chapter is concluded with a short summary that highlights the main points discussed. The last chapter (Final Thoughts) summarizes the main findings discussed in the previous chapters concerning DAO and proposes some future directions for approaching this concept in musical practice. First, this chapter provides a reminder for the reader of the conceptualization of DAO as a multidimensional concept shaped by past experiences, values, artistic references and expectations concerning music-making, and reinforces the need to promote educational strategies to foster a multifaceted artistic experience. Hence, this chapter also emphasizes that institutions might explore a theoretical understanding of DAO in order to avoid the blooming of prejudiced views behind artistic practices. The final chapter concludes by highlighting that theoretical and practical ideas discussed in the book can inform pedagogical initiatives in different institutions. This book combines action research, qualitative research methods and artistic research to develop the proposed arguments. It is intentionally addressed to scholars, performers, teachers and students, whose interests focus on the process of transition between higher education music institutions and professional life. In particular, this book can inform future discussions on the role of constructive pedagogies in conservatoires and music departments of universities.

Notes 1 A detailed definition of mythopoetic narrative is presented in Chapter 2 2 Practice is understood here as a process of transformation; from a current condition to a desired one (Althusser, 1969). Theory is often treated as the opposite of practice, but for Althusser (1969), theory is a type of practice. 3 There are different views concerning the conceptualization of higher education. In some countries, such institutions usually follow either an academic or a performance-based route (Jørgensen, 2014; Papageorgi et al., 2010a). The academic route is mostly offered in university music departments, while the performance route is offered more in conservatoires, at least in Europe. Despite the apparent differences, these two educational environments (i.e., university department and conservatoires) have similarities as they both aim to educate musicians (Papageorgi et al., 2010a). While university music programmes usually offer a variety of modules such as musicology, performance studies, music

Introduction 9 technology, composition and music education, conservatoires are specialist performing institutions and, as such, their main focus is on performance practice, complemented by some academic music subjects (Papageorgi et al., 2010a). However, this difference between institutions is mainly common in European and US schools (Jørgensen, 2014) so that it cannot be applied in several other countries. In order to follow a consistent position concerning higher education music institutions, this book focuses on those institutions whose teaching framework is shaped by the following existing learning cultures (Perkins, 2013): (i) cultures of specialism (i.e., privileging the development of specialised performers); (ii) cultural musical hierarchies (i.e., privileging ‘star’ students within musical hierarchies); (iv) cultures of vocational position taking (i.e., orienting students towards vocational possibilities); and (v) cultures of social networking (i.e., encouraging proactive construction and maintenance of relevant contact networks). 4 Sub-products are here understood as recordings produced from performances (e.g., CDs, teasers and DVDs). This perspective is supported by Benjamin (1968) and Fischer-Lichte (2004), who discuss the role of performance in a society dominated by mediatized representations and simulation. According to these authors, mechanical reproductions are driven by the desire to close that distance. In this process, the phenomenon is alienated from its original location, generating ‘a plurality of copies for a unique existence’ (Benjamin, cited in Auslander, 2008, p. 221). Hence, exploring the DAO of performers may not only include the live event, but also the sub-products that emerge from it. 5 Recent studies have suggested that these levels have been maintained across the years (for more information, please see Ernest & Young, 2014)

1

Rethinking music performance The role of desired artistic outcomes

Introduction In a recent lecture, John Sloboda (2018) said that higher education music institutions should rethink their pedagogical practices urgently; otherwise they would ‘close their doors’ in a near future. Although this comment seemed to be quite polemic for the students who attended this lecture, it was also supported by empirical evidence that has indicated a steady decline in audiences for Western art music concerts, particularly in the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom. This evidence emerged from regular surveys conducted by the US National Endowment for the Arts, whose results revealed a 30% drop in the last 25 years in attendance at classical concerts, opera and ballet. In Sloboda’s lecture, the author mentioned that this level of decline is also perceived in many other countries and it is specific to Western art music and jazz. The surveys conducted by the US National Endowment for the Arts highlighted that in 1992 the largest age group in the classical music audience was 35–44. In 2002, the largest age group was 45–54, i.e., implying that these were likely to be the same people, just older. These numbers can also be explained by the increasing diversification of art forms in classical venues. Specifically, in the United Kingdom, surveys have revealed that there just are not sufficient audiences to sustain the frequency of the existing concert programmes (Sloboda & Ford, 2013). Probably, the reasons behind this scenario are highly diverse and include political, historical and economic arguments, which could be possibly rejected by many contrary voices. However, one of the interpretations for these numbers is, according to Sloboda and Ford (2013), a historical understanding shared by practitioners1 concerning music performance in the Western art tradition. The author argues that there is a trend in the field to overvalue the score and constrain the possibilities regarding the relationship between the performer and the audience (Sloboda, 2013). Apart from this, there were other worrying data presented by Sloboda in the same paper that also seeks to explain the lack of engagement of contemporary audiences in concert halls: a perceived ‘barrier’ that restricts communication between performer and audience in Western art music concerts, closely related to the performers’ lack of capacity to achieve their artistic goals (Minassian, Gayford

Rethinking music performance 11 & Sloboda, 2003). The authors surveyed 53 musicians engaged in high level classical performance and found that, on average, less than 40% of their public performances were self-rated as optimal. This means that more than 60% of participants recognized that they did not reach their artistic intentions on stage. The authors were also able to discover, statistically, that performances judged as optimal were those when the performer was emotionally engaged with the music, had a clear intention to communicate (usually an emotional message) and believed that this message was received and understood by the audience. The perspectives proposed by Sloboda and colleagues criticize the current paradigm of music performance as adopted in several higher education music institutions, which overvalue the demonstration of abilities and the supremacy of the musical text. The authors assert the importance of understanding performance beyond interpretations of the score, or the demonstration of technical skills. In other words, there is a need to think of performance as a multidimensional and communicative event where the focus is not just on reiterating, reconstructing or reproducing past musical works (Fischer-Lichte, 2004; Small, 1998). Recently, due to the growing interest in artistic research, music performance has also started to be recognized in higher education music institutions as not only the interpretation of scores, but as an opportunity to problematize musical works, thus offering a critical and creative moment through which new epistemic and aesthetic properties emerge (Assis, 2018). This perspective can somehow be understood as an artistic answer to the customary paradigm previously described, drawing on the reports of the US National Endowment for the Arts. However, this paradigm shift is not sufficient to reverse the trend in the data presented through these reports, because the former is still focused on the presentation of musical works rather than the social and communicative event in which they are embedded. In a world that is increasingly oriented by simulacrums (Bauman, 2010), where audio-visual recordings have defined a pattern of excellence, the way to achieve the shift proposed by Sloboda may be in approaching music performance not only as a moment to present music per se, but as a social event that can also generate different sub-products (e.g., CDs, teasers and DVDs) and contribute towards a social transformation. In such an event, a broad and multidimensional narrative that covers other elements rather than solely music is materialized and shared. Such an autonomous event values the rapport2 established with the audience through the materialization of an artistic narrative that articulates multiple properties (e.g., repertoire, stage, instruments, advertising, visual resources, dress code, audience and future recordings). More than performing in real time, the contemporary performer is seen as a ‘material thinker’ (Carter, 2004): someone that explores the whole event, with all its properties and sub-products, to materialize their artistic narrative. This perspective places performance as a pedagogical moment that increases our stock of knowledge and enriches our worldviews through a type of communication based on rapport. In this type of performance, desired artistic outcomes (DAO) may play a special role. Based on this claim, in this chapter we propose a perspective on music performance which is more DAO-centred than score-centred; a perspective that

12 Rethinking music performance understands performance as moments of materialization of multidimensional artistic narratives, rather than only interpreting or problematizing musical works. The pertinence of this view is based in ontological, educational and professional perspectives. This chapter is organized in four main parts: (i) general issues regarding performance and music performance in particular; (ii) music performance in higher education music institutions; (iii) music performance in music industries; and (iv) music performance as a career path. Each one of these parts discusses performance from a different point of view that informs a final discussion on the importance of rethinking music performance in the light of DAO. Initially (in the first section following), a multidisciplinary review of approaches to the concept of performance, and music performance in particular, are discussed. Based on the perspectives presented, the chapter discusses some historical practices and future directions regarding music performance teaching in higher education music institutions (in the second section following). The next part of the chapter (in the third section following) discusses some of the recent transformations in the live and recorded music performance industries. This discussion is informed by current perspectives on the music industries, with a special focus on the sector of music performance. In this sense, issues like the reduction of popularity and funding for Western art music concerts and art music institutions, the proliferation of musical genres, the absorption of music into the media, and the rapidly changing technological landscapes of YouTube, Spotify and beyond, are explored. Based on all these aspects, a discussion on possible career paths related to this particular sector of music industries is also presented (in the fourth section following). The chapter ends with a reflection on existing mismatches between the pedagogical practices adopted in higher education music institutions and the current demands of artistic careers in the music performance industry, bringing to light the possible role played by DAO in this process. In order to clarify this, an explanatory model that synthesizes the ideas discussed is also presented. Such an argument does not aim to be exclusive, but rather to enrich the current debate concerning music performance, providing refined (and not necessarily new) perspectives on the same phenomenon.

Conceptual issues General perspectives on performance The concept of performance has become popular in such areas as the arts, sports, literature and social sciences. As a result of this cross-disciplinary popularity, a consensual and multidisciplinary definition for performance is likely to be quite complex. Strine, Long and Hopkins (1990) referred to this complexity as being a ‘sophisticated misunderstanding’ that is promoted by participants who are concerned with the articulation of a critical position regarding performance, instead of overthrowing different perspectives. This dialogue has enriched a plural conceptualization of performance.

Rethinking music performance 13 Notwithstanding such plurality, Carlson (2010) argues that three visions on this phenomenon have been appointed as central in this debate: performance as culture3 (analysed mainly by anthropologists), performance as social behaviour (analysed by psychologists and sociologists) and performance as language (analysed by linguists). Moreover, the emergence of performance as a form of art (discussed by artists) in the 1970s opened a field for the discussion of such perspectives in artistic practices (Carlson, 2010). All these perspectives have somehow shaped the current understanding of the pedagogical and artistic practices of music performance in higher education music institutions. The conceptualization of performance adopted by a considerable body of literature in performance studies is based on a theoretical framework developed in the 1960s and 1970s in the field of anthropology. Some authors in this field recognize performance as a cultural manifestation, which embraces a series of activities, such as theatre, dance, concerts, religious events and weddings (Schechner, 2006; Singer, 1959). This perspective was outlined by Gurvitch (1956), who suggested the existence of performance elements in any social ceremony of daily life. These authors appear to assume that such social and cultural ceremonies, i.e., performances, are activities separated from others by space, time and attitude, or all three combined. In this sense, Singer (1959) asserts that performance is defined by six main features, namely: (i) a definite time span; (ii) a beginning and an end; (iii) an organized programme of activity (a roadmap); (iv) a set of performers who are responsible for communicating a given message (an aspect that is also highlighted by Bauman, 1986); (v) an audience; and (vi) a place and occasion of performance. These same authors emphasize that performance should not be reduced to a text or a programme, but understood as a phenomenon that is based on the articulation of these elements. Following this line of thought, Alter (1990) suggested a differentiation between referential (to designate the text) and performance (to designate the exhibition of abilities). Such abilities described by Alter (1990) include communication with an audience in a social and limited ceremony, like a music concert. To a certain extent, the ideas proposed by anthropologists minimize the importance of the dimension designated by Alter (1990) as referential and focus on performance as a cultural event whose boundaries are clearly demarcated. During the twentieth century, sociological and psychological views of performance also started to become popular. Overall, such perspectives recognized that any social behaviour, from arts to politics, could be recognized as a form of performance. As anthropologists, psychologists and sociologists recognize, such behaviour presumes the existence of an act, a scene, an agent and a proposal (Carlson, 2010). Thus, this perspective sees performance as every intentional activity carried out by an individual in a period demarcated by their presence in front of a group of observers who are influenced by them. The recognition of such features has led some psychologists and sociologists to explore the concept of role-playing as a source of conceptual analysis of human performance – the changing of one’s behaviour to assume a role, either unconsciously to fill a social role, or consciously to act according to an adopted role (Carlson, 2010). This perspective also suggests

14 Rethinking music performance that the different social roles played throughout one’s life shape the individual. Following this line of thought, sociologists have focused on the interactions that surround social behaviours, while psychologists have tended to focus more on the behaviour itself (Schechner, 2006). Apart from anthropology, sociology and psychology, linguistics has been another influence that has contributed to the conceptualization of performance. This field has suggested that performance can be viewed as a language, such that linguistic analysis focuses on the communicative act. One of the first authors to discuss this perspective was Chomsky (1965), who proposed that a difference between competences – grammatical knowledge and ideal of language – and performance was the application of such knowledge in a ‘talk situation’. This perspective emphasizes the action, but maintains a concern with the procedural aspects of the language. However, definitions of performance as an autonomous activity, regardless of the competences involved, started to blossom in the 1970s. Austin (1975), for example, suggested that such communication was not necessarily concerned with an abstract idea behind it, but with the resulting effect of such idea on the audience. The same line of thought was illustrated by Van Dijk (1977), who suggested that a key aspect for reaching that effect on the audience is the intention adopted by the performer. The author suggested that intentions are developed through mental representations (i.e., context models), which encompass individual constructions of social context (Van Dijk, 1977). Such mental representations are personal and unique, dynamic, subjective, with some objective features, and based on opinions and emotions that shape the manifestation of the self. The author asserts that a performer creates such a contextual narrative based on the selection of most relevant properties behind it. Apart from these views, the interest in performance as a form of art blossomed in the 1970s through artists who were reported to be generally impatient with the forms and limitations of pre-established arts (Carlson, 2010). These artists – informed by perspectives from anthropology, sociology, psychology and linguistics – proposed a break with the hegemonic paradigm that recognized performers as a problematic deviation, or even as an aesthetic failure, in the transmission of a given text. This perspective recognized performers as creators of a given contextual narrative (i.e., as asserted by some linguists), rather than interpreters of a given text (Cohen, 1998). Carlson (2010) positioned such artists as connected to movements such as Experimentalism, Futurism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Bauhaus and Happenings. These movements are reported to have been oriented by visions that place performance as a defined activity, contextually and intentionally produced for an audience. Moreover, artistic perspectives on performance seem to have been shaped by the following features: (i) breaking the perceived boundaries between painting, music, dance, and between other art forms; (ii) analysing the relationship between the aesthetic input and the social context; and (iii) exploring alternative styles of performance (Carlson, 2010). This framing places performing arts as a basic mode of inquiry which looks at problematizing structural affirmations, while searching for alternative means to negotiate social and aesthetic structures. This suggests that the subject is decentralized, the representation is denied and the sense of reference, i.e., as text, is rejected.

Rethinking music performance 15 Music performance Music performance has been viewed and analysed in diverse ways. An influential perspective from traditional musicology has defined music performance as the reproduction or realization of scores (Ramnarine, 2010). To a certain extent, this definition illustrates an existing paradigm that highlights the importance of the text and places the performer as the medium, the conduit for the voice of the composer, expressed in a given text. The performers’ skills would influence directly the aesthetic judgement of listener and his/her emotional appreciation. Based on this, each generation of composer tends to steadily increase their use of originality in order to stimulate the ‘sense of novelty’ which is decisive for the aesthetic experience (Juslin, 2016). This perspective corresponds with other existing views that consider the performer as an ‘interpreter’ and ‘executant’ or even a possible aesthetic failure that facilitates a deviation of the ‘real’ meaning behind the music (for further details, see Assis, 2018; Sloboda & Ford, 2013, who criticize these views). Although it would seem that the definition previously described has been technically accepted for many years, the conceptualization of music performance has changed over time. Some authors have suggested that music performance is a social phenomenon (Cook, 2003, Small, 1998), as asserted by sociologists, anthropologists, psychologists and performing artists. The social phenomenon is shaped by the articulation of the following properties: • • • • • • •

A music-maker or music-makers; Some kind of knowledge which determines and informs the intentions of the music-makers, including knowledge of relevant standards and traditions of music practice; The sounds that music-makers make and act upon in relation to their musical knowledge; The instruments (including voices) of their work; The actions of performing (and/or improvising); The musical product view (i.e. a performance of a composition or an improvisation); and The context (physical, cultural and social) in which music-makers interpret, perform, or improvise music works. (Elliott, 1995)

Turino (2008), for example, proposes two expressions to refer to social performance as discussed by Cook (2003), Small (1998) and Elliott (1995). These are presentational performance and participatory performance. The first of these, presentational performance, describes situations when the audience does not participate in music-making. The second, participatory performance, involves performances where there are no artist-audience distinctions, but only participants who perform different roles. Following this line of thought, Windsor and Bézenac (2012) suggest that performance is a social and collective process. The

16 Rethinking music performance authors suggest that, in musical traditions other than Western art music concerts, the distinctions between composer, performer and listener simply do not exist. Such musical traditions recognize performance as a collective process in which groups of people coordinate and regulate their actions to achieve common goals. Ramnarine (2010) places such social practice as a method of critical and intersubjective inquiry and as a social, political, and aesthetic action. It has been suggested that musicians from the Western art music canon (cf. Davidson, 1997) tend to view performance in terms of public concerts given to an audience (Hallam, 2008). Such concerts are recognized as a musical act, where a musician or group of musicians self-consciously enacts music for an audience, based on a pre-existing work (Ritterman, 2002). Such a social act, or ritual (Small, 1998), does not emanate from the performer alone, but from an interrelationship between composer, performer and listener (Juslin, 2016; Dunsby, 2002). Notwithstanding the social aspect, there are two other features, which are constantly presented in the definition of music performance: communication and intention. Hallam (2008) asserts that communication in music performance depends on shared meanings, understanding and intentions on the part of performers and audience. Other authors place music performance as a particular form of intentional human action, which depends on the deliberate formulation of purposes in a defined context (Elliott, 1995). Intentions in music performance are also recognized as being shaped by both spiritual and emotional beliefs (Ramnarine, 2010). Such intentions differentiate between: (i) involuntary physical movements, reflexes and manifestations of character (e.g. acting impatiently); and (ii) intentional actions, i.e., performance (Elliott, 1995). Clarke (2002) reinforces the notion that such intentions depend on the construction and articulation of musical meaning in which cerebral, bodily, social and historical attributes of the performer converge at the same point. Music performance is thus seen as embodied practice, that is, a way of training the body to behave in an intended way (Ramnarine, 2010).

Music performance in higher music education The last perspective described previously has been considerably influential in curriculum development in higher education music institutions (Papageorgi & Welch, 2014). However, recent research has suggested that the importance of discussing the conceptual issues of music performance – as presented here – provide an opportunity to rethink pedagogical attitudes concerning the current demands of a musical performance career in the twenty-first century (Bennett, 2007). Currently, music performance plays an important role in higher education institutions that offer music as a programme of study. There is evidence that this component occupies 50% of the teaching practices included in the curricular programme of many institutions (Carey & Lebler, 2012). Despite the (over-)importance given to performance teaching, many music colleges continue to train and educate young students according to traditional curricula, values and expectations established in the nineteenth century (Bennett, Rowley & Schmidt, 2018; Beeching, 2012; Beeching, 2004). Moreover, except for a relatively few institutions

Rethinking music performance 17 which focus on a multi-genre approach, music performance practices in higher education have been dominated by Western art music (Jørgensen, 2014). It has been argued that the existing practices previously described were historically constructed from values institutionalized in the Paris Conservatoire in the nineteenth century (Sloboda, 2013). According to Sloboda, these values placed performers essentially as interpreters of other people’s music and paved the way for the following practices: (i) specialism in a single instrument or vocal type; (ii) the pursuit of virtuosic technique; (iii) the need for accurate realization of the composer’s score; and (iv) a standardization of exams and prizes as a means by which to monitor the quality of music performance (Ford & Sloboda, 2013; Sloboda, 2013). Institutions became the protectors of certain technical and interpretative standards, which can be observed in the contents of several manuals on how to teach music performance as published by instrumental teachers and used by students from different schools (Sloboda, 2013). This paradigm has helped to establish such standards, creating a route to employment of teacher-performers, such as Kreutzer (violin) and Czerny (piano) (Sloboda, 2013). Moreover, this cultural bias has constrained creative initiatives in students (Silverman, 2008) through its insistence on the conformity and adherence to rules of tradition and historical authenticity (Persson, 2001). This assumption can be observed through popularized expressions as ‘just play the notes’, ‘follow the score’ or ‘play what is on the page’, as reported to be frequently used by musicians from the Western art music canon (Ramnarine, 2010). Edward Said, in his book Musical Elaborations (1991), was one amongst several authors who criticized this approach. In the first chapter, ‘Performance as an Extreme Occasion’, Said offers some suggestive thoughts on the performance of classical music. He argues, first of all, that the conventions of musical performance should be analysed as products of specific historical, cultural, sociological, political and economic forces and conditions, much in the same way that texts are analyzed in cultural studies. He discusses the way that classical music is now performed as an example of such analysis. Whereas in the past, performers were also frequently composers or had a close relationship with those whose music they played, and the audience often entertained itself by performing similar music at home, Western classical music performance today has become a highly specialized and rarefied activity focused on the marketing of virtuosic performers. Concerts are, therefore, ‘extreme occasions’, cut off from the rest of life. Said closely examines the work of two performers, the conductor Arturo Toscanini and the pianist Glenn Gould, to argue that each in his own way, through particular excesses and idiosyncrasies, heightened the conventions of classical music performance to such a degree that their particularity and artificiality became overt. Recently, the emergence of artistic research in higher music education has started to question all these values (Assis, 2018). An example is the research project MusicExperiment21 (Experimentation versus Interpretation: Exploring New Paths in Music Performance in the Twenty-First Century), or ME21, a fiveyear artistic research programme (2013–2018) funded by the European Research Council, based at the Orpheus Institute in Ghent, and directed by the Portuguese

18

Rethinking music performance

researcher Paulo de Assis. This project is described by the author as an opportunity to deconstruct stratified notions of interpretation, execution and performance: The programme explored notions of ‘experimentation’ in relation to the performance practice of Western notated art music, proposing a move beyond commonly accepted codes and conventions of musical interpretation. In this new approach – corresponding to an artistic practice supported by reflections and research – the performance of past musical works is not regarded in its reiterative, reconstructive, or reproductive function. On the contrary, it insists on performance as a locus of experimentation, where ‘what we know’ about a given musical work is problematized. The performative moment becomes both a creative and a critical act, through which new epistemic and aesthetic properties of the musical work emerge. (Music Experiment 21) Despite initiatives such as that just described, other authors still point to a perceived lack of creativity in the music education system, particularly in higher education (Clarke & Doffman, 2017; Burnard & Haddon, 2016; Haddon & Potter, 2014; Burnard, 2013). Such lack of creativity suggests that the historical scenario described above still exists (Welch, 2012). This historical model has also affected the understanding of music performance as a career path in the twentieth century (Sloboda, 2013). Consequently, evidence suggests that higher education music students are facing some difficulty in finding ways to connect their passion for music performance to real-world contexts (Gaunt et al., 2012).

Music performance in music industries General perspectives Contrary to a prevailing cultural hegemony in higher music education institutions, the music industries have approached performance from a multifaceted perspective. Therefore, a critical understanding of this sector has been recognized as an important means of rethinking this social phenomenon (Dromey & Haferkorn, 2018; Bennett, 2012; Weller, 2012). However, such understanding is still incipient, and many research reports supported by national governments remain far from a discussion of how music performers, particularly those who come from higher education music institutions, can improve their links with such industries (Bennett, 2012; Bennett, 2008). Before discussing these links, this section presents some perspectives concerning music industries in a broad sense. A common definition of music industries suggests that it is a set of companies and individuals that make money by creating and selling music (Krasilovsky et al., 2007). However, it seems to be quite difficult to conceptualize as a single industry, such that some authors have asserted the expression ‘music industries’ in the plural (Williamson & Cloonan, 2007). The rationale is based on six reasons related to history, geography, inequality, conflict, education and policy.

Rethinking music performance 19 The first reason (i.e., history) is based on the fact that the term ‘music industry’ has been used as synonymous to the recording industry, which has been facing a considerable decline in recent years. This notion has excluded other branches in such sectors as live performance, music publishing, merchandising and music video. The second reason (i.e., geography) suggests that the paradigm of the music industries differ among countries. While the recording industry is a powerful branch in England, in Scotland this industry is not the main protagonist because of the great value placed on live performances. The third reason (i.e., inequality) refers to the lack of participation of small companies and lesser-known artists in the debate about a single music industry. This premise does not demonstrate the existing conflicts concerning this sector (the fourth reason), featuring those involved in this scenario. At the same time, the plurality of existing courses concerning music industries suggests that, in educational terms, this sector is not being approached in a homogeneous way (the fifth reason). Nowadays, there are a huge number of courses which approach the music industries from different perspectives (e.g., music business, music market). Finally, the existing notion of a one single industry constrains the development of policies due to the lack of understanding and recognition of this plural sector (i.e. the sixth reason) (Williamson & Cloonan, 2007). Due to the scenario described, an initial task is in defining the extent of the music industries in order to reach a broad understanding of this sector (Ernest & Young, 2014) and of its relationship with different types of music performance. Despite the difficulty of mapping out such a plural sector, it is possible to identify several components that provide a delineation of the extent of the term ‘music industries’. Such delineation includes the following groups of stakeholders (Williamson & Cloonan, 2007): (i) creative artists, such as composers, songwriters and musical performers; (ii) agents and managers who act on behalf of artists; (iii) music publishers who publish original works in various forms; (iv) record companies that are responsible for sound recordings, the promotion and marketing of recording artists, and the development of artists and their repertoire; (v) manufacturers who are responsible for the reproduction of recordings from masters produced by studios (i.e., tangible products such as compact disks); (vi) copyright collecting societies, which administer the rights of artists, publishers and record companies; (vii) promoters who negotiate and organize live performances with agents, broadcasters and venue agencies; (viii) broadcast, retail and (ix) entertainment sectors that allow the products of the music industries to reach the market (Throsby, 2002). Table 1.1 provides a brief overview of the manner in which music industries are organized, taking into account the existing framework from cultural industries. Such a framework comprises five phases where economic value is created and enhanced, including: (i) beginnings; (ii) production; (iii) circulation; (iv) delivery mechanisms; and (v) audience reception and feedback (Ambert, 2003). A key perspective in relation to the music industries is that this sector is able to grow, not so much due to the strengths of actors and processes in a particular segment of the value chain, but rather as a result of: (i) highly effective and well-utilized links between its different segments (e.g., live performance) and other industries; and (ii) the effective communication between different segments and their role-players and between the music industries and allied industries (Ambert, 2003).

20 Rethinking music performance Table 1.1 Framework of music industries Beginnings

Production

• Music • Organizations education in of bands and formal and groups through informal informal systems network and • Organized musicians’ musicians’ associations associations • Composing, involved in performing and supporting recording music training • Contractual arrangements

Circulation

Delivery mechanisms

Audience reception and feedback

• Circulation of contracts with importers and exporters of music and retails outlets • Negotiation with promoters • Licensing for copyright collection • Marketing and publicity activities

• Live • Fan clubs and performances associations • Broadcasts (TV • Monitoring and radio) of sales by • Internet producers • Retail outlets • Competitions and awards • Music journalism

Source: Adapted from Ambert, 2003

Some changes in the described structure indicate a redefinition of the framework of the music industries. There is evidence to suggest that artists are moving closer to the centre of the power structure due to the decline of the recording industry. They are gaining more control over the marketing and distribution of their own music. More and more artists are choosing to remain independent (e.g., not affiliated with any labels or producers). They are setting up their own websites to promote and distribute their music. This means that a common practice of exclusive contracts is disappearing (Dromey & Haferkorn, 2018; Parikh, 1999). Even some of the artists who build their career based on contracts established with recording companies have adopted a more independent model of management. The advent of resources such as Spotify and YouTube have completely changed the way in which music is distributed, whilst also challenging the boundaries between professional and amateur musicians (Dromey & Haferkorn, 2018; Ernest & Young, 2014). Furthermore, there has been a concern not only in performing, but also in connecting the performance with forms of distribution provided by the internet; thus, expanding the reach of something that previously was just situated and circumscribed to a restricted group of people. As artists gain more control, they are becoming gradually more conscious of the business, similar to professional athletes (Parikh, 1999). However, like the athletes, most artists do not yet have the skills and/or interests in merging their artistry with a business sense. Live performance music industry A general trend in contemporary music industries would appear to be towards an emphasis on the performance branch (Bartleet et al., 2012). The live performance industry4 comprises many diverse performances ranging from music staged at

Rethinking music performance 21 Children’s/family

Circus and physical theatre

Ballet and dance

Classical music

Comedy

Sectors in the live performance industry

Theatre

Festivals (Multi-category)

Special events Musical theatre

Contemporary music

Festivals (Single-category)

Figure 1.1 Sectors in the live performance industry Source: Adapted from Ernest & Young, 20145

large arenas and musical theatre to smaller theatres and opera and dance productions staged in regional and metropolitan venues (Ernest & Young, 2012). Many economic activities are involved, including staging, ticketing and venue hire, advertising, marketing and the actual performance by artists (Ernest & Young, 2012). This industry also generates a number of intangible benefits such as social cohesion, lifestyle improvement and cultural diversity (Ernest & Young, 2012). Figure 1.1 summarizes the sectors encompassed by the live performance industry. Despite the difficulties behind such classifications, since many of these sectors might overlap, the framework previously described allows the visualization of many professional paths in this industry. Based on the idea that performance plays a key role in the music industries, the discussion of audience views and tastes starts to be recognized by researchers as being of paramount importance for an understanding of the live performance industry (Burland & Pitts, 2014). The positive scenario earlier contrasts with the results of recent surveys focused on the audience’s attendance in music concerts, particularly in the Western art music canon (Sloboda, 2013). These results positioned Western art music concerts in a critical place, as discussed in the beginning of this chapter. This somewhat alarming scenario leads to a reflection about the expectations of potential audiences (Burland & Pitts, 2014). Based on this scenario, Sloboda and Ford (2013) discussed the dimensions in music performance, taking into account the repertoire, levels of freedom concerning the programme, the relationship between performer and audience, and the audience’s behaviour. The authors recognize the existence of four dimensions that shape the relations between performer, audience and composer: (i) established work versus new work; (ii) predictable versus unpredictable; (iii) personal versus impersonal; and (iv) active versus passive.

22 Rethinking music performance The first dimension, i.e., established work versus new work, concerns the differences between new and canonical repertoire often composed by composers who are no longer alive. The second dimension, i.e., predictable versus unpredictable, involves such factors as the nature and order of the programme, whether known in advance or not, and the level of improvisatory or ad-libbing moments. The third dimension, i.e., personal versus impersonal, relates to the level of personal engagement of both performer and audience and the relationship they establish with each other. Finally, the fourth dimension, i.e., active versus passive, concerns the audience behaviour in a music concert. The authors critically compared Western art music with other forms of live arts, where the active engagement, e.g., to clap hands or cheer at points when one feels that the performer accomplished something particularly excellent, and improvisation and new artistic approaches are widely explored. They suggest that pedagogical practices adopted in higher education music institutions contribute towards the absence of active engagement with audience in concert halls.

Music performance and career issues The data highlighted previously concerning the music industries have ‘forced’ performers to approach music as a profession that demands the same skills of those who manage a ‘small business’ (Constantoura, 2000). Because of this, research on possible roles played by performers in music industries started to emerge, in order to provide insights to guide successfully an career (Bennett, Rowley & Schmidt, 2019; Rowley, Bennett & Schmidt, 2019).6 Despite the fact that the potential of such roles is still unrealized, some conclusions founded on the literature indicate that many performers create careers that combine performance and teaching (Beeching, 2012). However, a dominant discourse that places a notion of music performance underlined by the demonstration of technical and interpretative abilities as the pinnacle of success for a musician (Bennett, 2008) constrains the definition of career aims in this field (Bennett, Rowley & Schmidt, 2019). Beeching (2012) suggests that even for doctoral students, the notions of career paths regarding performance still remain unrealized. Sometimes, this perspective leads students to feel ‘second-rate’ if they include activities beyond Western art music performance in their career portfolio (Perkins, 2012). According to the author, some music teachers and schools who reward students with scholarships and performance opportunities that relatively protect them in the ‘bubble’ of a college music degree programme strengthen this discourse. Bennett (2007) calls these perceptions of a career in music performance as musotopia. The author describes musotopia as a place ‘where performance ambitions are realized with an international performance career’ (Bennett, 2007, p. 185). This naïve dream can keep musicians uninformed about many non-traditional and entrepreneurial career paths, even when some of these paths include teaching or other approaches to music performance than Western art music concerts (Beeching, 2012). Beyond the points of view presented so far, there are other issues that should be considered when a career, particularly one focused on music performance,

Rethinking music performance 23 is discussed. Weller (2012) asserts that the music sector rewards those who are ready to perform, regardless of their chronological age or level of education. This means that a music career is not driven or limited by the passage of time, or by steps on the advancement ladder, as is often observed in more traditional careers such as banking, medicine and law. Therefore, for performance in particular, the literature reinforces the importance of challenging preconceived notions of career, reconciling romanticized ideals with realistic experiences in which possible selves can be explored (Bennett, 2012; Bull, 2018; Scharff, 2018; Papageorgi & Welch, 2014). In order to explore possible paths previously described, a set of skills is indicated in literature as being of paramount importance. Gaunt et al. (2012) indicate that performers need to develop flexibility, entrepreneurialism, personal confidence, communication skills and artistic imagination. Following the same line of thought, Weller (2012) asserts that career skills, in a new paradigm of the music industries where performers are increasingly assuming the control of their career, can include advertising, social media, merchandising, venue management and ticketing arrangements. Bartleet et al. (2012) summarize all the skills in a musical career within four groups: • • • •

Disciplinary agility: this concerns the ability to traverse different disciplinary perspectives and terminologies; such ability involves interaction, translation, and synthesis of knowledge; Social network capability: this includes the capacity to explore social media and other digital platforms; Enterprise: this includes those skills involved with the application and distribution of a creative work; and finally Effective career self-management: this consists of an on-going interaction of reflective, evaluative and decision-making processes.

Although these skills can be understood as transversal for all those who want to develop a career path based on music performance in the music industries, recent research has suggested that these skills are defined by the context and vary according to the institutional, local, regional and national factors (Lennon & Reed, 2012). Regardless of contextual issues behind the skills required for a career involving music performance, a key element, one which has been defined as crucial in many other professions, seems be to be of paramount importance: self-authorship (Magolda & King, 2004). The authors define self-authorship as: Self-authorship is the capacity to internally define a coherent belief system and identity that coordinates mutual relations with others. This internal foundation yields the capacity to actively listen to multiple perspectives, critically interpret those perspectives in light of relevant evidence and the internal foundation and make judgments accordingly. (Magolda & King, 2004, p. xxi)

24

Rethinking music performance

According to Magolda and King (2004), self-authorship encompasses and integrates three dimensions of development: epistemological, intrapersonal and interpersonal. The epistemological dimension involves the ability to assume that knowledge is uncertain and judged in the light of relevant evidence. Such a person constructs, evaluates and interprets judgments to develop their internal belief systems. The author suggests the importance of cognitive maturity to integrate disparate information when such a belief system is developed. Consequently, such a developed set of beliefs is closely related to the construction of identities (i.e., the intrapersonal dimension). This means that self-authored persons have the ability to explore, reflect on, and internally choose their values, rather than doing so by simply assimilating the expectations of others. This internal identity facilitates the interpretation and guides experiences and actions (i.e., interpersonal dimension) (Magolda & King, 2007; Magolda & King, 2004). Self-authored persons have the ability to respect both their own and others’ needs, negotiate multiple perspectives and engage genuinely in mutual relationships (Kegan, 1994). Based on the growth of the music industries, the opportunities for an emergent performer to develop an artistic career have been asserted to be better than ever before (Weller, 2012). However, previous research has positioned careers in music, and particularly those involving music performance, as unpredictable. This means that unlike students pursuing careers in the professions of engineering, finance, law or medicine, graduates in music, especially performers, rarely have a predetermined path into professional life (Weller, 2010). This may explain why some musicians who are only moved by dreams and passions are still struggling to build sustainable professional paths as performers (Bartleet et al., 2012).

Discussion Different perspectives of performance have shaped the notion of music performance over the years, increasing the complexity behind this phenomenon. Since the 1970s, a multidisciplinary debate has contributed toward the development of a broad view of performance, although it is still not clear whether current music performance practices, such as in Western art music, have been completely informed by this debate. For example, a concern with an existing moral code (Silverman, 2008) which establishes a difference between composer and performer, and overvalues scores and historical practices, seems to restrict a broader perspective on music performance, particularly in higher education music institutions. From an academic perspective, the views presented here recognize music performance as a phenomenon whose understanding has evolved over the years; from historical perspectives focused on interpretation to critical perspectives centred on problematization. Both perspectives have something in common: the focus on musical works. In fact, there is a trend in academic institutions to consider music performance as an embodied and very specialized practice that demands a set of refined psychophysiological skills. This embodied practice can be, at same time: (i) a type of critical inquiry that negotiates (and sometimes deconstructs) social and aesthetic structures; (ii) an important branch in the music industries; and (iii) a

Rethinking music performance 25 career path that inhabits the dreams of many higher education students who search for artistic excellence. A point that is still not so evident in this debate is to what extent music performance has been truly considered as an artistic and social event. Sometimes both things (art and music performance) are not presented as synonyms (Ericsson et al., 2006). The reasons why this separation is increasing can be explained by a still current perspective of music performance that emphasizes the demonstration of technical and interpretative skills. As Windsor and Bézenac (2012) suggested, musicians sometimes subject their bodies to a very high degree of physical demands in order to perform music that was not composed for their instruments. A growing body of literature dedicated to finding means to assist musicians in dealing with these demands, all them of paramount importance, supports a claim that considers performers as high competition athletes (Rink, Gaunt & Williamon, 2017; Ericsson et al., 2006; Williamon, 2004). The level of pressure to perform a very demanding repertoire in front of a given audience, and the wear caused by many hours of physical practice, are somehow disconnected from the expectancies of contemporary audiences and to the ideals of emotional communication. Moreover, this perspective can also lead musicians to feel a sense of frustration with their practice (Minassian, Gayford & Sloboda, 2003). Relatively divested from this debate are the music industries. In this segment, music performance has been clearly approached as a social event that is open to those who are ready to perform, regardless of their chronological age or level of education. As indicated by Weller (2012) and Sloboda and Dobson (2017), the music industries are not always interested only in interpreters or performers solely focused on musical works, but also in those who are imaginative and able to reveal something ‘new’ and unique to their audiences. It can be worthwhile remembering that contemporary audiences pay for tickets to ‘see something magic’ on stage and not a high competition athlete, such as the footballer Cristiano Ronaldo. If they were interested in this option, they would pay to attend a Champions League football match instead of a concert in an important music hall. If, on the one hand, the apparent disconnection between higher education music institutions and the music industries regarding the ontological issues of music performance may explain why many musicians do not know how to take advantage of the music industries’ growth, on the other hand, it can offer some useful insights to rethink how this apparent gap can be filled. As previously highlighted, the current paradigm of the music industries has shown that artists are becoming increasingly empowered. They are responsible for managing a set of functions that were outsourced in the past so that those who are interested in developing a career path as performers must be prepared not only to perform, but also to think of possible means to disseminate their work across different channels of communication7 in such a way that they can reach a good level of connection with their audiences. This involves approaching different elements associated with their performance (e.g., advertisement, self-image, dress code, audio-visual recordings, etc.) according to a coherent artistic narrative. In this paradigm, the central element is not a specific musical repertoire, but rather a broad coherent and articulated narrative.

26 Rethinking music performance This narrative is here recognized as DAO and because of the reasons presented earlier, it is an element of paramount importance in music performance. For example, recently, a renowned flute teacher emphasized the importance of ‘telling a good story’ regarding artistic production (Caryevschi, 2018). He suggested that in a competitive musical market being able to talk about what is done in a way that catches audiences’ attention may be of paramount importance. Central to this process are imagination and invention; two key points that somehow seem to be absent in the debate concerning musical terms (Correia et al., 2018). Considering music performance as an intentional activity and, at same time, forgetting the subjective world of performers, is arguably the first step in neglecting the artistic dimension involved. This consequently leads us to approach performance as any other social behaviour which does not need the audience on the other side of the line. Regardless of the reasons behind the decreasing audience, what Sloboda was claiming in the lecture cited in the beginning of this chapter is a paradigm shift, a new perspective for Western art music performance, more focused on new and unpredictable concert formats, as well as on an active and personal engagement with the audience. In other words, a perspective that can reduce the distance between higher education music institutions, music industries and contemporary audiences – perspectives centred on emancipated performers rather than only on interpreters. Based on this need, we proposed a possible alternative view (Figure 1.2) centred on DAO rather than only on musical text.

Figure 1.2 A DAO-centred perspective for music performance

Rethinking music performance 27 Different to executants who mostly focused on reproducing and reiterating musical works, or to interpreters (co-creators) who problematized musical works regardless of canonical prescriptions, the emancipated performer does not only focus on the musical work, but on creating, materializing and sharing a narrative that extrapolates it. This performer explores other properties of music performance and consequently the possibilities of sharing it through sub-products that can integrate other arts formats. This performer is a material thinker; someone more focused on multidimensional DAO than on the musical text. Material thinkers are not new in the musical world. There have been several examples since The Beatles – with all the outputs launched together with their albums – to Richard McGuire, who described his music-making as songwriter and performer as follows: I have always approached music as an artist and not as a musician. I do have to ‘feel’ a hook, that part is the emotion and it’s from the gut, but the shape of a song I still think of in terms of architecture or sculpture. (McGuire in Kirby & Busch, 2014. p. 50) The perspective here proposed may be a possible opportunity to reverse a trend of super-specialization that can separate performers and composers; classical and popular musicians; musicians from other artists. Emancipated performers are those who engage their bodies in producing materialized meaning in social events and through their outputs. They also want to take advantage of the multiple possibilities offered by the internet to expand the notion of a social and located event. Like the interpreters (co-creators), who have been recognized as artistic researchers by academia, emancipated performers are also researchers in the sense that, through their narratives, they enrich our perspectives about the world and about ourselves. In other words, their performances are not only presentational or participatory, but also pedagogical. In such events, the narrative is not only verbal, but also emphatically communicated through the artistic outputs (Correia et al., 2018). As previously highlighted, this perspective is not necessarily exclusive; rather, it is complementary. Ultimately, a central element in music performance is communication, regardless of the means employed. Moreover, it is important to remember that executants also perform, problematize and produce material thinking. The point of difference is their main focus. While the first two groups (executants and co-creators) develop a narrative essentially centred on the musical work and its potentialities, emancipated performers are those mainly focused on the DAO as a broad narrative that covers the social events and their sub-products. They may play an important role in fulfilling the conceptual gap that somehow keeps the music industries and higher education music institutions disconnected.

Summary This chapter has presented a discussion on music performance, informed by multidisciplinary perspectives concerning performance in general, and taking into account the current paradigm of this practice in higher education music institutions

28 Rethinking music performance and the music industries. Overall, a mismatch between perspectives was identified. While music performance in higher education music institutions has been essentially approached as the interpretation – and more recently, the problematization – of scores, in the music industries, this phenomenon of performance is being analyzed essentially as a social event. This mismatch has given rise to some of the reasons that maintain various academic musicians alienated from the possible opportunities that have emerged as consequences of the current growth of music industries. Moreover, the latter is also associated with the current reports that have indicated a reduction in the popularity in music performance of Western art music and jazz. Consequently, this chapter has proposed an alternative route for music performance practices, based on professional and conceptual issues. This alternative route would consist of an approach more centred on DAO, one that recognizes music performance as a social, multidimensional and communicative activity (whose time boundaries are clearly demarcated), where performers materialize an internal narrative based not only on a musical piece, but on the articulation of other properties (e.g., instruments, relationship with audience, dress code, visual media) and sub-products. In other words, performers, according to this perspective, produce material thinking which is negotiated with an audience (in the sense that the audiences engage with this material thinking with an expectation of what they will hear, see and feel) whose members – in turn – reconstruct and articulate their understanding of such communication, taking into account different individual meanings, regardless of the level of participation being adopted.

Notes 1 The practitioners here mentioned are academic musicians, i.e., those who work or study in higher education music institutions. 2 Rapport has been described as a sense of interpersonal connection that emerges from close and harmonious relationships in which the people or groups appreciate each other’s feelings or ideas, and communicate smoothly (Andreas & Faulkner, 1996). 3 In this book, Culture (capital C) and culture (lower-case c), have been adopted, based on the perspective proposed by Williams (1961). Culture (capital C) refers to civilization’s greatest moral and aesthetic achievements. ‘The not so hidden agenda of this idea of Culture, of course, is to assert and maintain social class – “high culture” and “high class” are synonymous’ (Williams cited in Auslander, 2008, p. 160). Contrary to this perspective, Williams proposes the use of culture (lower-case c) to refer to ‘all products of human activity, including language, social, political, and religious ideas and institutions, and other expressions both conceptual and material’ (Williams cited in Auslander, 2008, p. 160). In summary, culture comprises all that humans create and enact in order to make sense of their existence. 4 This is defined as those businesses and workers that organize and perform work for or in connection with performances, productions, workshops, rehearsals or concerts (including the operation of venues or other facilities, whether permanent or temporary) and that are performed in front of a live audience (Ernest & Young, 2012, p. 6). 5 Comedy was introduced in 2009. Contemporary music was renamed in 2011, having been named ‘non-classical music’ in prior years. 6 A career in music has been conceptualized as ‘something that people use to organize their behaviours over the long term and that offers a form of meaning making in individual lives’ (Perkins, 2012, p. 10). Based on this perspective, Perkins (2012) defines career as

Rethinking music performance 29 a way of life that allows people to account for effort, plans, goals and consequences and to frame internal cognitions and emotions. Perkins (2012) presents some distinctions between two dimensions in a musical career: objective and subjective. Objective facets of careers include: (i) the time spent on different activities; and (ii) the proportion of income generated from these activities (recognising that these may well be different). Subjective facts include: (iii) how a person identifies themselves (how they see themselves); and (iv) their vision for the future. According to the author, musicians who can align the subjective and objective factions of their career are those who will be successful (Perkins, 2012). 7 For example: YouTube, Spotify, Facebook, Bandsintown, BandCamp.

2

Desired artistic outcomes Conceptualization and achievements

Introduction In January of 2014, the Portuguese songwriter and pianist Helena Caspurro – during an interview for a Portuguese TV channel1 – gave the following answer to a question related to her music-making: When I make music I don’t look to make jazz or rock, I just look to simply make music, working on a concept . . . on an idea. Following the same line of thought, the Brazilian drummer Carlos Gerbase and the music producer Reinaldo Barriga Britto described an experience they shared when recording the rock band Replicantes’ first album2: CARLOS GERBASE:

In a certain way, that studio had to adapt its structure to our rough way of recording and performing, so the sound can still be rough. REINALDO BARRIGA BRITTO: A studio has a certain formality, and this formality did not fit so well with the Replicantes. CARLOS GERBASE: We recorded together because we thought it was the way to maintain the quality of the band. We are not the musicians to get the best technical execution. REINALDO BARRIGA BRITTO: So, we had to record several takes, in technical terms the least ‘bad’ for us would be the best: for them the ‘most visceral’ was the best. So, we always opted for that organicity. In 2017, the music producer Nick Patrick was involved in a project developed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and Buddy Holly Center. This project aimed to introduce the music composed by this songwriter – who died in a plane crash near the end of 1950s – to a new audience, making real a dream that was not possible to achieve when Buddy was alive: to introduce orchestral arrangements in his music. Nick described the purpose of this project in the following manner: We are today at Angel Studios in North London recording with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and Buddy Holly. What we are trying to achieve with this record is utter respect for those original recording, but by adding these

Desired artistic outcomes 31 new orchestral elements, we are trying to introduce this music to a whole new audience. It is an iconic music from an artist that had an incredible career and it only lasted such a short time.3 What do all these examples have in common? From our perspective, all of them, regardless of the contextual issues, bring to light an element that is designated by several practical musicians as ‘concept’, i.e., a given narrative associated with what musicians aim to materialize through their artistic practice. In the first example, Helena Caspurro explicitly used this term to reveal her current purpose as songwriter and pianist: to materialize a ‘concept’ (narrative). In the second, Carlos Gerbase and Reinaldo Barriga Britto remembered how this narrative was negotiated in the recording studio. Finally, in the third example, Nick Patrick described the narrative that had oriented a project which aim was to re-create the music of Buddy Holly for new audiences. This ‘concept’ is what we recognized as desired artistic outcomes (DAO) and it is a fundamental part of the subjective world of music performers. The capacity to materialize such a narrative distinguishes an artist from an art critic, or a theorist, i.e., a person who is expert in observing and describing reality (regardless of the multiple meanings that this word currently has) (Carter, 2004; Steiner, 1993). Carter (2004) designated this materialized narrative as material thinking, because the latter allows for the perception of new possibilities in the world and re-signification of our beliefs and identity (Carter, 2004). For some authors, materializing and communicating DAO are fundamental pillars in artistic life, regardless of the artistic field in which the individual is operating. An example of this is the Mexican painter Frida Kahlo. The desire to express her pain in a personal manner provided a framework for understanding suffering from a humanistic perspective. Instead of discussing conceptually and verbally the notion of pain, she materialized her perspective on this feeling. Kahlo’s work illustrates the thesis defended by Steiner (1993), who suggested that any artistic act is a critical act (an answer to the world) that first emerges through a narrative (such as revealed by the three examples provided in the beginning of this chapter). The works of Dante or Proust are perhaps the most pertinent documented examples of analytic, systematically informed material thinking. Their skills allowed them to assimilate artworks, interpret them and develop and present their critical view through new artistic creations. (Correia et al., 2018, p. 15) As Steiner (1993) highlighted, the most useful criticism of Shakespeare’s Othello is perhaps that which is found in Boito’s libretto for Verdi’s opera and in Verdi’s responses to Boito’s suggestions. Both Boito and Verdi conceptualized their creations according to the narratives that emerged through their own views of their references, i.e., Shakespeare’s Othello. These subjective constructions, previously designated as DAO, have their conceptualization and achievements further elaborated in this chapter.

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Desired artistic outcomes

The perspectives presented in this chapter are informed by a multidisciplinary literature review complemented by two exploratory studies which oriented the formulation of questions to be addressed through researching the literature. The first study explored eight students’ perspectives of the conceptualization of DAO and how DAO could be achieved. The second exploratory study aimed to understand DAO in the light of advice given by elite performers in master classes (i.e., performer-teachers) through a study that involved marginal observations of master classes in different venues around the United Kingdom. This chapter is structured as a synthesis between a literature review and the findings of the exploratory studies which are used to provide the reader with practical examples of what is being debated. The chapter is divided in three parts. The following section discusses theoretical issues concerning the conceptualization of the DAO. The focus is on the general issues, development and dimensions embedded in this narrative. The second section following discusses the required skills for the achievement of DAO. In both sections, the theoretical claims are illustrated through the results of the exploratory study. Finally, the third section following presents an explanatory model for DAO that emerged from the triangulation of all perspectives previously described. At the end of this chapter, a short summary is presented in order to highlight the main issues regarding the conceptualization and achievements of DAO.

Conceptualization Preliminary issues The existence of a narrative that guides musicians’ decisions, allowing the expression of individual intentions and thus the satisfaction of individual expectations, is not exclusive to professionals: it is also presented in the discourse of higher education music students. Apparently, the emergence of such a narrative is a natural process that emerges from students’ conceptualizations of an ideal performance. I have a concept of my performance; I try to create images that emerge naturally during my performance planning. Such an image allows me to pursue my ideal of how my performance should be. (Exploratory study nº14 – Richard, 35 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) I just reach a good performance when I have a clear view of how the performance should be. (Exploratory study nº1 – Sam, 28 years old, MMUS student, guitar) A performance is a form in your mind of what you will be doing. I create a unifying idea for the whole concert so I can establish relationships between all

Desired artistic outcomes 33 the constituent elements and foresee a shape. Whether you can exactly achieve it on the day you perform, that it is an entirely different story. (Exploratory study nº1 – students’ interview – John, 25 years old, MMus student, guitar) Approaching this narrative from a theoretical perspective is a somewhat so complex task. One author that explored this notion further was Nilakhanta Sri Ram. In the chapter on art from the book Human Interest, Ram (1968) argued that the artist, among all their functions in present-day society, would be a pontiff, i.e., a person who is responsible for connecting a superior, non-manifested, sacred and ideational plane to a sensorial dimension. The perspective defended by Ram (1968) somehow meets the platonic ‘universal idea’. Both perspectives suggest that when the artist achieves the expression of this superior or sacred idea in its fullness, i.e., without ego-interference, an important step for the expression of the ‘beauty’ – which, in Ram’s opinion, consists, in a very brief way, of the aesthetic response to a certain expression – is achieved. This almost theosophical vision finds its voice in many artistic manifestations, even in music. An example of this perspective is the musicological discourse that has proliferated since the nineteenth century, which places the performer as a channel of expression of ‘something greater’, or, as Ram (1968) argued, ‘sacred’. This ‘sacred element’, however, was usually understood as an idea, of a certain composer, represented through an abstract structure notated in a score. In fact, existing perspectives concerning the discourse musicians use to describe their DAO have been strongly influenced by a romantic perspective (Papageorgi & Welch, 2014). These discourses suggest that musicians’ primary responsibility is: (i) to rise above technical matters; (ii) to be able to increase their sensitivity to the inner spirit of the music and to communicate this spirit to others; and (iii) to widen the horizons of technical expression in musical art (Sigel, 1966; Fano & Gregory, 1917). There is a certain trend in all these discourses to associate DAO with the communication of the abstract beauty of musical structures. In this sense, and according to Holtz (2009), a musician should think of music as the true language of the heart and disclose their feelings and sensations through music (Holtz, 2009). All these views depart from a perspective of performance based on an idea of the interpretation of musical works, as highlighted in the last chapter. Although this perspective dominated the musicological discourse, particularly in teaching practices, throughout the first half of the twentieth century, the field of performance studies gradually demystified this view, suggesting that the performer, like any other human being endowed with their ‘own voice’, cannot be recognized merely as a channel of expression of an external idea (Carlson, 2010; Cook, 2003; Small, 1998; Taruskin, 1995). A midpoint between both visions (the nineteenthcentury ‘romantic vision’ and the vision asserted in performance studies) is highlighted by the musicologist and pianist Charles Rosen (2012), who suggested that the performer may indeed be recognized as a channel of expression of a ‘sacred’ or aesthetic plan as advocated by Ram (1968). However, in this case, this sacred dimension is not the idea of a specific composer shaped through a structured score

34 Desired artistic outcomes notation that obeys a series of indications postulated by a canonical discourse, but rather an idea that emerges from the experiences and expectations accumulated by the performer which generally transcends musical texts (Rosen, 2012). Following this line of thought, Persson (2001) suggested that narratives used to describe what a musician wants to achieve artistically are also shaped by perceptions and ambitions for their career. The author asserted that musicians develop internal constructions of their performance based on their professional ambitions. These ambitions might be hedonic, social and/or for achievement. Hedonic motives involve the search for positive and emotional experiences, while social motives concern the significance in belonging to a certain group that has specific desirable attributes with which one identifies. Finally, achievement motives can be exhibitionism (i.e., a desire to show the results of an effort); independence (i.e., the means to achievement are secondary to the success itself); dependence (i.e., the means to achievement are important, but do not constitute the ultimate target); aesthetics (i.e., the means also provide the target); and support (i.e., the means are extrinsically provided, mainly by teachers and parents) (Persson, 2001). Following the same line of thought, Bennett (2007) suggested that musicians’ ideals and expectations in the twenty-first century require more than an elite standard of professional performance practice. The author suggested that, in the twenty-first century, there is a need for ‘the ability to sustain one’s professional practice within a framework that meets one’s personal, professional and artistic needs’ (Bennett, 2007, p. 185). This does not mean that a musician should neglect his artistic imagination and his artistic aspiration, but rather explore the latter, taking into account their professional ambitions and perceived possibilities. Since DAO have been scarcely debated in the literature, and some of the existing evidence concerning their development has not yet been empirically explored, this narrative has been elusive to a traditional psychological research paradigm and has therefore rarely been asked (Persson, 2001). However, the interest in demystifying the subjective aspects involved in music performance has led some scientists to consider DAO in their efforts to understand the complexities of music performance, based on a perspective of performance as the demonstration of technical skills related to the interpretation of a musical text (Persson, 2001). Some pieces of evidence can be found in the literature, suggesting that musicians conceptualize a piece of music by constructing a type of affective pattern that should be materialized in performance (Persson, 2001). This construction seems to be generated by the conscious manipulation of musical memories, mainly through visualization, in order to evoke a given mood. Persson (2001) agrees that this process is shaped by musicians’ conceptualizations of performance, so that the literature has brought to light that performers only promote changes in their conceptualization of DAO if they change their whole conceptualization of performance. This apparent lack of research into DAO lead to an overlapping of terms, which may promote a misunderstanding concerning their definition: big picture (Chaffin et al., 2003), mental representations of desired performance (Lehmann, 1997) and artistic image (Neuhaus, 1973). These expressions, although used to refer to an idea of how the musical piece should be played, refer to mythopoetic inventions5

Desired artistic outcomes 35 that performers formulate, and narratives that they create to guide them in terms of performance preparation (Correia et al., 2018). This narrative is described by Van Dijk (2010) as a ‘context model’, i.e., a mental representation that intermediate internal process and external reactions. Following the same line of thought, Lehmann (1997, p. 143) stated that ‘the most important goal of performance is to match a highly vivid representation of the desired performance with the current execution’. Holmes (2005) argued that elite musicians form such representations and then search for ways of translating them into reality. Both authors noted that the imagery of ideal performances provided musicians with a concrete goal to aim for while on stage (Clark, Williamon & Aksentijevic, 2011). Because of this, some authors have emphasized the importance of developing a refined mental representation6 during the practice stages (López-Íñiguez & Pozo, 2014; Marín, Pérez-Echeverría & Hallam, 2012; Bautista et al., 2009; Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Romer, 1993; Clarke, 1988). Mental representations behind DAO should not be mistaken for a simple type of imagery (cf. Stenberg, 1999). Some authors propose the former as an outcome of complex interactions between concepts and imagery (Novak, 2010). A perceived regularity or pattern in events or objects, by which one organizes knowledge and constitutes concepts, whereas imagery is an internal experience that one may have in the absence of the real stimuli (Cumming & Ramsey, 2008). This perspective is based on two different types of learning associated with mental representations: representation learning and meaningful learning (Novak, 2010). In line with theories of mind organization, learning the definition of a word, for example, is essentially representational learning (i.e., one can have an image as a definition for performance, but not a clear concept or pattern of its meaning [Novak, 2010]). To learn the meaning of the word, which is the regularity or the pattern that the word or symbol stands for, is conceptual learning (i.e., the image reflects an internal perception of a pattern and the possible elements involved in a given concept). The regularity of patterns here described emerges from interpretations of lived experiences, rather than abstract explanations that are not associated with acquired knowledge (Novak, 2010). According to this point of view, another person besides the performer themselves cannot inculcate their mental representation in another, as this phenomenon is personal and unique; dynamic; subjective, with some objective features; and based in opinions and emotions that shape the manifestation of the self (Van Dijk, 2010), as well as being closely related to the individual’s original active experience because their mental images of experienced events draw on related neurological structures (e.g., Kleber & Zarate, 2019). The ideas asserted by Novak (2010) suggest that narratives, like DAO, articulate concepts (a given pattern which can be described) and images (internal psychophysiological symbols of the external world) that emerge through a complex mental representation of a desired performance. The following example illustrates this point. The Australian guitarist John Williams, in a documentary,7 described the process of learning of Sevilhana (a guitar piece written by Isaac Albéniz), mentioning that this piece was written according to the ‘flamenco style’, so it should be played as a dance (concept). His perspective differs, according to him, from

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Desired artistic outcomes

other guitarists who play this piece informed by the recordings and the ideas of Andres Segóvia. During the process of learning the Sevilhana, he went to Spain, got in touch with Spanish guitarists and played this piece with dancers in order to develop a big picture of a flamenco dance (image). Both elements composed his narrative that was developed through a mental representation. Development According to cognitive neuroscience, narratives like DAO emerge as a product of an internal psychophysiological processing of the results of the interaction between several organic systems (e.g., endocrine, immune, and nervous – the human bodymind [Pert, 1986]) and the brain (Damásio, 2010). This interaction results from (and influences) individual social and cultural features, enabling the realization of environment, actions and thoughts as mental images. Consequently, these images will feed psychophysiological processing in a feedback loop (i.e., a reaction to the images themselves). These perspectives are supported by phenomenological studies of music (e.g., Windsor & Bézenac, 2012) which reveal that music-makers are not only influenced by what is heard, but also by what is felt. Bodily sensations such as the degree of comfort or discomfort experienced when playing an instrument may influence musical choices, orienting music-makers towards certain ways of playing and away from others (Windsor & Bézenac, 2012). In other words, they influence the perception of affordances8 and resistances in the relationship established with the environment and the music-making in itself (Östersjö, 2008). In summary, one might argue that mental representation results from the organization and storage of information as concepts. These concepts inform the creation of mental images (internal symbols of the external world), which underlie human expression, enable life management (Cumming & Ramsey, 2008) and inform the construction of mythopoetic narratives like DAO. This network between concepts and images (i.e., mental representation) is seen as constituting the primary mediator of performance and influences the level of performance quality (Starkes & Ericsson, 2003). The following examples from the exploratory study nº2, which was based on observations of master classes,9 also illustrate a narrative where the intricate network of concepts and images is articulated. Try to imagine a scene of an opera here . . . imagine the text, the scene, the persons in an opera! You need to make clear the context you are creating. (Exploratory study nº2 – Violin master class/ performer-teacher) Now it is like a matrioska, you know? Russian folk dance! People think this piece is very serious, but it is not. (Exploratory study nº2 – Harp master class/performer-teacher) You must create a mysterious atmosphere here . . . people should ask: what is going on? (Exploratory study nº2 – Guitar master class/ Performer-teacher 1)

Desired artistic outcomes 37 The concept, a perceived regularity or pattern that can be verbalized, in this case is a critical point of view concerning the repertoire. In the first vignette, the elite performer-teacher revealed that the repertoire in question was written to imitate an opera. So, this implies that he has his concept of what opera means and the piece fits it. Because of this, the final aim, for him, is to reveal such a similarity during the performance. In order to explain his concept to the student, this teacher evoked a metaphorical description (image) of an opera, so that the student could understand the point intuitively without extensive explanations. In the second vignette, this point is even more clearly illustrated. According to the harp performer-teacher, the repertoire performed is a dance (concept) that resembles a certain type of Russian folk dance designated as ‘matrioska’ (image). The elite performer-teacher is trying to materialize such an image in a way that the dance could be perceived to the audience. In fact, these vignettes reveal that performers create these mythopoetic narratives as a means of illustrating all the artistic information that must be communicated in music performance. Dimensions As previously described, DAO are usually associated with an ideal of overcoming technical challenges in order to communicate the ‘beauty’ of the music. In the exploratory studies conducted by the first author, it was possible to verify a concern in mastering the structural elements involved in a performance and generally associated with repertoire preparation. The final aim is seen as making the narrative intelligible. You must organize the piece. How is each fragment? Dynamics? Phrasing? Tempo? You must have a clear idea about all these aspects. (Exploratory study nº2 – Lute master class/performer-teacher) You must know where the phrase starts and finishes. You must know how to articulate. (Exploratory study nº2 – Recorder master class/performer-teacher) First of all, I try to play all the notes and rhythms correctly. The next step is to make sense of all other structural elements. (Exploratory study nº1 – Robert, 30 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) When I am preparing for performance, I try to eliminate all problems that can emerge. (Exploratory study nº1 – Paul, 27 years old, PhD, guitar) For me, it is very important to mechanize the movements. (Exploratory study nº1 – Phillip, 32 years old, PhD candidate, percussion)

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Intelligibility is the not only aspect addressed in the musicians’ DAO. There is also a search for coherence, which is achieved through the articulation between the procedural elements involved. This coherence refers to a kind of ‘line of thought’ that allows the performer to establish a narrative. The data from the exploratory research studies illustrate the importance of creating a sense of connection in performance making. I have seen so many performers who are not able to connect the elements involved in their concerts. They seem to ignore the need to create a line of thought for their performance. (Exploratory study nº1 – Richard, 35 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) It is very important to practise transitions in a concert. One must be physically prepared to deal with different atmospheres during the performance. (Exploratory study nº1 – Robert, 30 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) Beyond this, another element that is also present in the participating musicians’ discourse concerning DAO is the desire to perform in a mental state that allows them to fully communicate with the audience. This mental state has been a point of interest for many researchers (e.g., Cherry, 2015; Keller & Landhäußer, 2012; Moneta, 2012; Csíkszentmihályi, 1990) and has been extensively described as flow. According to Csíkszentmihályi (1990), flow is a condition achieved when one is: (i) completely involved in what one is doing, i.e., focused and concentrated; (ii) there is a sense of ecstasy, i.e., being outside everyday reality; (iii) there is great inner clarity, i.e., knowing what needs to be done, and how well we are doing; (iv) knowing that the activity is doable, i.e., that our skills are adequate to the task; (v) there is a sense of serenity, i.e., no worries about oneself, and a feeling of growing beyond the boundaries of the ego; (vi) there is a sense of timelessness, i.e., thoroughly focused on the present, hours seem to pass by the minute; and (vii) intrinsic motivation is evidenced, i.e., whatever produces flow becomes its own reward. In recent years, a considerable body of literature associated with positive psychology has presented evidence of flow in musicians’ discourse. The search for performing fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment was clearly illustrated by participants of both exploratory studies which are feeding into the design and content of this book. Participating teachers agreed that a particular psychophysiological state should be achieved in order to facilitate the communication of a given artistic message, the domain of the structural elements involved and, consequently, the understanding of the narrative. Such a psychophysiological state is seen to be needed in order to avoid unnecessary physical and mental tension. Expressions as ‘being relaxed’ and ‘you must feel the flow’ were frequently used by the elite performers during the observed master classes. These points of view also correspond with the ideas proposed by Nachmanovitch (1991) concerning improvisation and free play as a natural act, an essential part of human life. The following examples explain this matter.

Desired artistic outcomes 39 You must perform in an organic way, with no tension. (Exploratory study nº2 – Harp master class/performer-teacher) You must be relaxed when you are playing. You need to feel the flow of the piece, but this is impossible when you’re nervous like now. You need to relax and feel the flow. (Exploratory study nº2 – Piano master class/performer-teacher) When you play, you must be relaxed. It’s the base of everything. Music can’t cause tension to your body, even if the music you are playing has a tense character. (Exploratory study nº2 – Cello master class/performer-teacher) I will talk about your attitude: you must be relaxed and free! The blood must flow when you are performing! (Exploratory study nº2 – Violin master class/performer-teacher 2) You must perform with attitude! You must be relaxed! When you have this attitude, you realize what you need so you can express something based on your own inspiration. (Exploratory study nº2 – Cello master class/performer-teacher) When you prepare a performance, you must be prepared to play it in any tempo. You must be trained, for your brain does not think in music so you must practise with your brain focused on other things. In my personal case, I practise watching TV. If I can play the passage watching TV, I am prepared to play the concert. It is important to be prepared for external incidents in performance, so the passages must be automatized. (Exploratory study nº2 – Recorder master class/performer-teacher) Following the same line of thought concerning psychophysiological state, students who participated in the exploratory study nº1 also described an ideal mental state whilst on the stage. These perspectives emphasized the importance of a sense of physical and mental relaxation, allowing the musician to be unaffected by external judgments. For some musicians, the search for this condition seems to be a motivation for engaging in performance. I seek that point where I can forget external assessment and just enjoy my music-making, like an audience member. I would like to be natural on the stage. (Exploratory study nº1 – Robert, 30 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) There is a fundamental factor in my music-making: relaxing. One of my strongest motivations in following performing is to find the point where I am completely relaxed. (Exploratory study nº1 – Phillip, 32 years old, PhD candidate, percussion)

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Another dimension that is reported to be embedded in the musicians’ DAO is the search for rapport in the communication established with their audience. Despite the evidence presented in Chapter 1 concerning a reduction in audience numbers in Western art and jazz music concerts, this aspect is still valued by musicians. For example, participants in exploratory study nº1 suggested that a performance only exists when all the efforts made to concretize their DAO are shared. If this sharing does not occur, the performer may feel boredom towards music-making. The most important thing is to develop a broad view of the performance. We must know what we want and what to do, in order to achieve it. Then, the act of performing is the act of crystallizing the shape of our intentions over a long period of preparation. That moment is like making a sculpture whose form depends greatly on the audience’s reactions, environment and repertoire. (Exploratory study nº1 – students’ interview – Peter, 35 years old, PhD candidate, guitar) Music performance is the result of my musical and personal intentions, so I plan it also thinking of the kind of audience that will be listening to me. (Exploratory study nº1 – students’ interview – David, 28 years old, MMus student, guitar) Performance is the pinnacle of all efforts you make in order to share intentions with others. If that sharing doesn’t occur, then all efforts were in vain. You don’t feel satisfaction as a musician if you don’t play in a concert or record a CD, because you do not have someone at the end of the line who listens to you, paying attention to what you want to share. (Exploratory study nº1 – students’ interview – John, 25 years old, MMus student, guitar) In performance, these musicians seek an affective (from) and effective (to) communication with the audience. Similarly, the performers-teachers observed in the exploratory study nº2 recognized the importance of sharing their musical intentions and reacting to the response of the audience in the concert hall. Despite canonical discourses that arguably overvalue conceptualizations of performance as demonstrations of technical and interpretative abilities – minimizing the role of audience – these particular performers seem to be concerned with the social event as a whole. The following example illustrates this point. The performer-teacher nº2 (guitar) dedicated time in his master class to express the importance of deepening the relationship between performers and audiences. In his opinion, there seems to be ‘a wall’ that should be taken down. It seems to have a wall in front to the classical music. Performers need to speak! Most of them do not talk with the audience. (Exploratory study nº2 – Guitar master class/performer-teacher 2)

Desired artistic outcomes 41 This perspective was shared by other elite performers who agreed on the importance of considering performance as a social event where audience members are not just passive spectators. At different points of the master classes, famous performers reminded students that they were performing for others and so their musical message should be received and understood. You are not playing alone! You are playing for other people and sometimes they do not know the piece. (Exploratory study nº2 – Cello master class/performer-teacher) You must play to me. I need to feel the sound and your message here and now! It is like when we introduce ourselves to others. (Exploratory study nº2 – Recorder master class/performer-teacher) Beyond the dimensions here described, there is also another point closely related to recent discussions on musicians’ narratives of DAO that was not referred in the exploratory studies, namely a concept of alterability, i.e., the capacity of transforming the audience through musical practices. This principle has been asserted by Carter (2004) and Steiner (1993), who suggested that artists aim to communicate materially their thoughts in a way that values their singularity; revealing something that can arouse their audience’s interest. This ‘something’ might be strange at first, but ultimately leads the audience to contemplate the artistic production. The arguments asserted by Sloboda (2013) in Chapter 1 somehow suggest that a commitment to canonical postulates has neglected this condition in music performance practices, particularly in Western art music. Taking into account the reports of the National Endowment for the Arts, it seems reasonable to consider that both alterability and strangeness could also be present in the conceptual analysis of perspectives of DAO.

Achievements The role of self-authorship Considering the perspectives concerning DAO as a complex narrative that articulates artistic imagination, professional expectations and conceptualizations concerning music performance and environment, one can argue that materializing this narrative involves the capacity to develop a set of ideas which are harmonized with the individual’s values and professional environment. As presented in Chapter 1, self-authorship is such a capacity. It allows the individual to keep a balance between elite standards of performance practice and contemporary professional requirements (Magolda & King, 2004).10 The literature suggests that the interplay of one’s view of knowledge (epistemological development), view of self (intrapersonal development) and view of social relations (interpersonal development) is clearly articulated in a self-authored person. Such a perspective asserts the idea that people are able to negotiate successfully their narratives when these dimensions are harmonized (Magolda, 2001; Kegan, 1994).

42 Desired artistic outcomes This implies that this capacity requires the cultivation of a secure sense of self that enables interdependent relations with others, rather than a stratified epistemological set of uniform beliefs (Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009). The development of self-authorship begins by following external formulas, through a crossroads phase in which one’s internal voice begins to unseat external formulas, to internally defining one’s beliefs, identity, and social relations (Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009). Figure 2.1 illustrates the interrelated epistemological, intrapersonal and interpersonal foundations that constitute the overarching phases of the journey to self-authorship (i.e., following external formulas, crossroads and self-authorship). We subsequently illustrate, through the reports of the exploratory studies, how each dimension of self-authorship is addressed in the participants’ discourse.

Developmental journey

Selfauthorship

Crossroads

Following external formulas

Epistemological

Intrapersonal

Interpersonal

Developing an internal belief system via constructing, evaluating and interpreting ideas in light of frames of reference

Crafting an internally generated sense of self that regulates the interpretation of experience and choices

Capacity to engage in authentic, interdependent relationships with diverse others in which the self is not overshadowed by the need

Evolving awareness and acceptance of uncertainty and multiple perspectives; recognizing the need to take responsibility for choosing beliefs

Tension between emerging internal values and external pressures prompts selfexploration; recognizing the need to take responsibility for crafting own identity

Struggle to reconstruct or extract self from dependent relationships

Viewing knowledge as certain or partially certain, lacking an internal basis for evaluating knowledge claims results in externally defined beliefs

own values and social identity

Framing participation in relationships as doing what will

Figure 2.1 Developmental journey toward self-authorship Source: Adapted from Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009

Epistemological foundation The epistemological dimension of self-authorship involves the ability to seek substantial evidence and develop a set of beliefs and ideals. In order to find out ‘what works (or not)’, musicians should look at developing a set of beliefs to support their decision-making, i.e., epistemological dimensions. This set of beliefs is developed through engaging with research (in the broadest sense), in order to find evidence to support such a belief system. It is important to find out information to contextualize how to play the piece. (Exploratory study nº2 – Recorder master class/performer-teacher) The following example illustrates this point. The performer-teacher gave positive feedback to a student who, according to her, was able to clarify all the structural information in performance. She seemed not to agree with all the points in his

Desired artistic outcomes 43 performance, but – in the end – the ability to have clear ideas on the musical content, and to materialize them, was highly valued by this elite performer. Bravo! Bravo! I understand your idea and your thinking. You have some technical problems here, but you play very well. I don’t know if you need to change. . . . I think I should only ask if you have some doubts or problems with this piece. (Exploratory study nº2 – Harp master class/performer-teacher) In fact, the importance of engaging in research was also highlighted by other elite performers. During an observed master class, the performer-teacher invited a student to analyse different editions of a given piece. She also invited this same student to experiment with some different fingerings based on these editions. At the end, when the student had tried several fingering possibilities, she said: Now you have tried . . . and you see? You could decide for yourself! (Exploratory study nº2 – Recorder master class/performer-teacher) Following the same line of thought, participating musicians emphasized the importance of feeding their conceptualizations of DAO. Students look for inspiration in many different sources to develop such an internal conceptualization. For example, they use references obtained from: (i) observing the performance of various experienced musicians; (ii) reading complementary literature related to the performance that they are preparing; and (iii) looking for other artistic manifestations from the same period as the musical pieces they are preparing. At the moment, in order to develop my musical ideals, I try to get as many references as possible concerning repertoire interpretation. I analyse the score, I talk with friends, I watch videos: everything. All information around the piece helps me to develop my concept of performance. (Exploratory study nº1 – Paul, 27 years old, PhD candidate, guitar) Intrapersonal foundation The intrapersonal foundation involves the capacity to choose one’s own values and identity in crafting an internally generated sense of self that regulates the interpretation of experiences and choices. The performers-teachers observed in the exploratory study nº2 recognized that a key element for achieving artistic aims on stage is the level of connection between the repertoire and the musician. According to this group of musicians, an emotional involvement with the repertoire is an important value that can influence both the music-making and the audience’s response.

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Desired artistic outcomes I want to see a personal involvement with the piece here. (Exploratory study nº2 – Piano master class/performer-teacher) For all young students, if you can communicate with enjoyment, the audience immediately will respond. (Exploratory study nº2 – Voice master class/performer-teacher)

Moreover, musicians should be able to recognize their weaknesses and strengths regarding music-making. Again, substantial evidence is needed in order to find out what works (or not) on stage. This point seems to be closely related to the epistemological abilities previously described. Famous performers have emphasized the importance of students taking responsibility for their own learning. For some performer-teachers, teachers and coaches have an important role in the learning processes, but students should be able to identity their own values on their practices by themselves. In this sense, critical self-awareness seems to play a special role. When I was active, I did my own work . . . you know teachers and coaches were essential, but I had to find out what worked with me by myself . . . (Exploratory study nº2 – Voice master class/performer-teacher) You must find what is the best for you! (Exploratory study nº2 – Harpsichord master class/performer-teacher) Do what you can do! What is comfortable to you . . . I’ve never done anything if it was alienated from me . . . this is much more important for becoming musical than anything else. (Exploratory study nº2 – Voice master class/performer-teacher) The points related thus far are of paramount importance in finding a key element in the intrapersonal foundation of self-authorship: artistic integrity (i.e., following one’s personal ideals, feelings and views). Artistic integrity refers to ideals of honesty in music performance. An example of the importance of artistic integrity, as an intrapersonal value for the achievement of DAO, was reported in a master class observed in the exploratory study nº2. A student was playing a certain piece when the performer-teacher stopped and asked about her facial expression. He suggested that the latter was not correct because the piece was ‘lyrical’. Why is your face angry? It is a lyrical piece! (Student followed the instruction and changed her facial expression.) Now it is much better! Your facial expression was affecting the idea. (Exploratory study nº2 – Voice master class/performer-teacher) Definitions of personal authenticity (Kivy, 1995) and expressive authenticity (Dutton, 2005) seem to be shaped by such values. Both approaches promote the idea of personal integrity, as proposed earlier, which reflects the creativity of the

Desired artistic outcomes 45 performer’s work (Östersjö, 2008). Personal authenticity has been treated as key issue in popular music, but has not been discussed in the Western art music canon. Particularly in the case of music performance, Östersjö (2008) criticized the use of personal authenticity as a criterion in conducting aesthetic analyses. The author claims that assuming that performers are able ‘to be true to oneself’ (i.e., in the sense of culture and feelings) could be quite inconclusive. Hence, he proposed the expression artistic integrity to refer to the aesthetic values and ideals that, according to the participants’ students from exploratory study nº1, would shape performers’ DAO. These students reported that this artistic integrity in performance is present when one’s musical background and conceptualizations are taken into account. The musical experiences that accompany different stages of a musician’s development are relevant to the ability to achieve DAO, because they shape the musician’s socio-cultural expectations of music performance and thus should not be ignored. For some participating musicians, artistic integrity seems to be more valued than achieving certain interpretative standards. If you take into account the music that lives on in your memory, then this will encourage you to embrace your artistry with excitement. You have greater motivation to be involved emotionally with the music and this will be a step ahead in becoming honest with the music you are making. (Exploratory study nº1 – Peter, 35 years old, PhD candidate guitar) There are several contributing factors to a bad performance and one is certainly the lack of conviction in what you have to offer. A musician can play a piece in a way that you never thought about; however, if he or she is completely sure that this is the way to play it, then the message is so strong that you get convinced. This can’t be staged at all. If one plays something in a different way just to become unique rather than because you feel it, then you immediately see that this musician isn’t involved with the music he is making. He is not being authentic. (Exploratory study nº1 – John, 25 years old, MMus candidate, guitar) According to these musicians, the lack of such value can result in higher levels of maladaptive performance anxiety (i.e., the student tries to project an image of himself as an expert performer, but, in reality, when he is on stage, he can’t convince the audience of that – then anxiety takes over his performance and ruins it). The latter, in turn, was also related with being focused on a self-image rather than on a musical meaning. When a musician is not honest with his music-making, normally it is because he pays more attention to his self-image than to music. That is why a musician ends up choosing a repertoire that he can’t play. He wants to project an image of himself as an expert performer, but, in reality, when he is on stage, he can’t convince the audience of that. Then anxiety takes over his performance and ruins it, either by memory lapses, or tremors, or playing wrong notes,

46 Desired artistic outcomes or using excessive tension. I’ll never forget a comment of my teacher one week previous to my final recital at the university. I was telling him that, at that moment, I was not confident that I would give an excellent performance, suggesting that I would suffer from anxiety on that day. Then he said, ‘You get nervous because you give more attention to yourself than to the music. If you were just focused on the message you want to pass on, you wouldn’t get nervous at all’. From that moment, my approach to playing publicly changed dramatically. . . . You can’t imagine the impact that such a comment had on me. . . . I started to prepare for the performance paying attention to the music rather than to thinking about the expectations of others. . . . I started to feel more honest with myself and with the goals I intended to achieve musically. (Exploratory study nº1 – Richard, 35 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) Interpersonal foundation Finally, the interpersonal foundation of self-authorship, i.e., the capacity to recognize and respect different points of view in order to be able to follow artistic aims without being overwhelmed by others, was embedded in the discourse of participants of both exploratory studies. Concerning this foundation, which is closely connected to the relationship established with others, are ideas of self-respect, fulfilling self-expectations, freedom of choice and dealing with the unexpected. You must have respect for yourself and present yourself in a way where people also respect you! (Exploratory study nº2 – Recorder master class/performer-teacher) In his master class, a performer-teacher (guitar) was questioned by an audience member who asked why he did not talk about the flow of musical discourse in the performance of a participant student. The performer-teacher then asked the student for his point of view concerning this aspect and the latter said that was he happy with his interpretative decision and explained why. The audience member did not appear convinced and expressed his disagreement to the performer-teacher, who finally said: The student just conceptualizes the flow in this way. I will not change the way he (the student) conceptualizes the flow. Neither I, nor any other teacher, should constrain you when you decide something . . . we should respect your ideas. (Exploratory study nº2 – Guitar master class/performer-teacher 2) Musicians suggested that DAO should be driven by personal views and goals tailored to please individual intentions rather than being overwhelmed by the expectations of others, directly associated with music learning institutions, colleagues or even teachers. In the following example, this participating student recognized

Desired artistic outcomes 47 that he just got something from performance when he was able to deal with others’ expectations. I have a broad view of my performance and I pursue it until I reach it! I don’t care whether it pleases my colleagues or my teacher, because the moment I realize it is when I get something in return from that music. (Exploratory study nº1 – Peter, 35 years old, PhD candidate, guitar) Students, in particular, also highlighted the importance of freedom of choice when developing their DAO. This perspective has also been addressed in the literature by authors like Steiner (1993) and Rosen (2012), who emphasized the importance of a permissive process in art making. According to the reports, only when musicians are able to make their own judgments or interpretations – emerging from an intellectual evaluation of the music performance – would they have a glimpse of their DAO. From the moment that you’re allowed to have a completely free intellectual interpretation of the message within the musical text, you’ll be able to build upon it, make it grow, verbalize it, pass it to others, and play. This happens to either young or more adult students, I believe that is not exclusive to those who are in higher education. (Exploratory study nº1 – Peter, 35 years old, candidate, guitar) From the moment I have started to say to myself, ‘I am my own master’, I’ve started to become satisfied with the quality of my performance. I remember years and years of playing without feeling entirely fulfilled with my musicmaking. I was following all the advice given in school, but playing following those roles didn’t make sense to me. I only realized this when I started to teach and wonder what to say to my students to help them to achieve good results in their performances. (Exploratory study nº1 – Peter, 35 years old, PhD candidate, guitar) Furthermore, students indicated that the ability to overcome some unexpected circumstances in a live performance seems to be another requisite to achieving DAO that is connected to the interpersonal foundation. Participating musicians recognize that the unexpected in any public event is important to reshape initial conceptions and create a unique moment to express their narrative. I do not expect that a performance will be exactly as it was planned in my mind, because this will not make it unique. One must learn how to deal with unexpected circumstances. (Exploratory study nº1 – John, 25 years old, MMus student, guitar)

48 Desired artistic outcomes I really like to give a thought to my performing behaviour so that I can reflect on my own ability to adapt to the unknown circumstances and also to think about their possible impacts. Shall I move on when something goes wrong or shall I keep myself ruminating on what was wrong and keep messing up? (Exploratory study nº1 – John, 25 years old, MMus student, guitar)

Discussion Explaining DAO in a clear and concise way is somehow difficult, due to the complexity behind this phenomenon. The multiplicity of definitions and expressions by which to refer DAO increase such complexity. Nevertheless, the triangulation between theoretical and empirical perspectives here presented brought to light possible insights on how DAO are conceptualized and achieved. The exploratory studies allowed an illustration of many of the points proposed by the literature. At the same time, they also provided sources to consider DAO beyond repertoire interpretation. Aspects such as intelligibility, coherence, flow, empathy and alterability are not exclusive to Western art musicians, nor to a given instrument. Some of these values have been also discussed in relation to more general perspectives on art (for more details see Rosen, 2012; Steiner, 1993). Based on all the claims here discussed, it is possible to verify that DAO are conceptualized as a mythopoetic narrative composed of concepts (verbal patterns) and images (internal symbols of the external world), which are created according to five main aspects: (i) intelligibility; (ii) coherence (both explored mainly through structural elements); (iii) alterability – strangeness in the audience (provoked by the narrative performed); (iv) rapport (affective communication with audience); and (v) flow (a particular psychophysiological state). Figure 2.2 presents an explanatory model for DAO development. This model suggests that DAO develop through three main elements that coexist and interact in multiple dimensions: (i) the environment; (ii) the musicmaking; and (iii) the performer. Such elements shape the conceptualization of DAO. The environment dimension of this model concerns all external stimuli that lead the individual to produce possible actions, including those that result from the domains of cooperation and communication with others. The performer is a complex system that concomitantly integrates: (i) background; (ii) career expectations; (iii) conceptualizations of performance; (iv) psychophysiological processing of external outputs; and, finally, (v) the mythopoetic narrative here described as DAO. Thus, in this model, both environment and music-making are constantly feeding the performer with input information, through the senses. Then, this sensorial input is psychophysiologically processed in accordance with the performer’s background and expectations, which, in turn, shape the musician’s DAO. This narrative must be materialized in a permissive process that allows the musician to communicate, taking into account the dimensions previously described. The final action creates behavioural expressions, whose features much depend on the performer’s level of engagement and the capacity to manage affordances

Desired artistic outcomes 49

Figure 2.2 An explanatory model for the development of DAO

and resistances that may exist in this process. The actual musical result feeds into the ideal product view in real time. This feedback shapes post-hoc reflections according to the performer’s expectations and conceptualizations regarding music performance. In this model, it is assumed that the performer’s conceptualizations, present experiences, social contexts and professional goals shape embodied technical interpretative skills to afford a certain music-making activity. When one of these elements is missing or reduced in some way, students feel that they cannot achieve their intentions. This model suggests that DAO might not be inculcated, but only stimulated by others through re-significations of established concepts. The capacity required to materialize DAO in the current environment of music industries is self-authorship11 (i.e., the capacity to internally define a belief system and identity that coordinates mutual relations with others). Such a capacity is the link between career expectations, the conceptualization of music performance and the music output. As described in Chapter 1, self-authorship involves an epistemological foundation, an intrapersonal foundation and an interpersonal foundation. The epistemological foundation must be developed through searching for artistic and professional references, which in turn allow students to challenge preconceived notions of career and reconcile romanticized ideals with realistic experiences in which possible selves can be explored. This critical exercise empowers

50 Desired artistic outcomes students to make their own artistic and professional decisions (Freire, 1996). The intrapersonal foundation involves the development of a unique artistic narrative, based on values and ideals (i.e., artistic integrity), that regulates interpretation and choices. This foundation also recognizes the importance of developing a deep connection with artistic practice. In order to negotiate DAO in the music industries (i.e., the interpersonal foundation), a musician should be able to combine such artistic integrity with a set of skills, the same skills expected of any person who chooses to set up a small business. The integration of artistic integrity and an interpersonal foundation allows musicians to align the subjective and objective elements of a musical career. This integration enables a musician to be flexible and to re-define their DAO, and also takes into account the unpredictable scenario of artistic practice in the music industries. The model here described corroborates the complexity involved in the development of DAO. Synchronizing the elements that comprise this narrative in an artistic project is an aim for musicians and a point of departure for institutions which are willing to expand and rethink their teaching practices. The question placed by this explanatory model is to what extent a perspective on DAO focused on repertoire interpretation is sufficient for contemporary musicians and current perspectives of music performance.

Summary This chapter has presented a perspective concerning the conceptualization and achievement of DAO. This perspective suggested that DAO are conceptualized as a mythopoetic narrative composed of concepts (verbal patterns) and images (internal symbols of the external world), which is created according to five main aspects: (i) intelligibility and (ii) coherence (both explored mainly through structural elements); (iii) alterability (provoked by the narrative itself); (iv) rapport (affective communication with audience); and (v) flow (a particular mental state that musicians must search during performance making). In order to materialize this narrative, musicians should be able to develop and integrate the epistemological, intrapersonal and interpersonal foundations of self-authorship. The literature suggests that the interplay of one’s view of knowledge (epistemological development), view of self (intrapersonal development), and view of social relations (interpersonal development) is clearly articulated in a self-authored person. Such a perspective asserts the idea that people are able to successfully negotiate their narratives when these dimensions are harmonized (Magolda, 2001; Kegan, 1994). Hence, this capacity requires the cultivation of a secure sense of self that enables interdependent relations with others, rather than a stratified set of uniform beliefs (Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009).

Notes 1 The complete interview can be accessed through the following weblink: www.youtube. com/watch?v=eE00-49X00U&t=8s.

Desired artistic outcomes 51 2 The complete interview is part of the documentary entitled Rock Grande do Sul, which can be accessed through the following weblink: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Z3vqtvQnV2I&t=1632s. 3 This description is part of the promotional teaser of the album True Love Ways: Buddy Holly with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. The complete teaser can be accessed in the following weblink www.youtube.com/watch?v=OT3WsFCuEHg&t=1s. 4 As mentioned in the preface, the first study explored eight students’ perspectives on the conceptualization of DAO, their challenges in achieving their DAO, how DAO could be achieved and how higher education music institutions could assist students in nurturing their DAO as performers in music industries. 5 Mythopoetic inventions refer to an imaginative and metaphorical narrative created by artists, as a certain kind of fantasy, that synthesizes analogies existing between matters far apart and, apparently, most dissimilar that reveal myths, which are non-negotiable and no longer sustainable (Correia, et al., 2018; Carter, 2004). An example of mythopoetic inventions and their relationship with DAO can be seen in the work ‘The Shoes on the Danube Bank’, created by Can Togay and Gyula Pauer in 2005. Their DAO were to honour the people who were killed by fascist Arrow Cross militiamen in Budapest during World War II. In order to achieve this, they worked on a sculpture that could symbolically synthetize and communicate a painful image of a moment that is still alive in the mind of Hungarian people (mythopoetic invention): the moment when the Jewish people were ordered to take off their shoes, and were shot at the edge of the water so that their bodies fell into the river and were carried away. The sculpture represents the shoes left behind on the bank. 6 In music performance, mental representation has been considered an internal image of musical aspects, including musical gestures (Lehmann, 1997), symbol interpretation (e.g., meter and dynamics) (Palmer & Krumhansl, 1990) and emotional communication (Gabrielson, 1999). However, other authors consider mental representation in music performance as a phenomenon directly associated with artistic imagery, i.e., an aesthetic desired outcome that serves as a reference by which to guide performance preparation (Chaffin, Imreh & Crawford, 2002; Gabrielson, 1999; Neuhaus, 1973). A recurrent definition of mental representation found in domains other than music is that of represented knowledge in the brain. Knowledge represented in the form of images in the brain controls the perceptual, cognitive and motor systems when interacting with the environment (Tenenbaum & Land, 2009). Thus, it is suggested that changes in human performance are accounted for by changes in mental representations. 7 This example can be fully accessed through the following weblink: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=fXK7tgTsaGI&t=167s. 8 Affordances is a term coined by James Gibson (1979) and described in the book Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. According to the author, the term refers to all possible transactions between an individual and their environment. These transactions are independent to the individual’s ability to recognize and even take advantage of them. Affordances are intrinsically determined by the level of knowledge, i.e., the more knowledge of a certain field, more affordances are revealed in it. 9 Some authors suggest that higher education musicians develop their artistic conceptions through exchanging ideas with worldwide famous musicians (Hanken & Long, 2012; Long et al., 2011; Goto, 2004; Lalli, 2004). In this sense, master classes might be a powerful means to understand the perspectives asserted by such performers on how higher education students could nurture their DAO. Such artistic perspectives asserted by these performers have been identified as being of paramount importance for defining the professional standards in music performance (Long et al., 2012). 10 See Chapter 1. 11 See Chapter 1.

3

Desired artistic outcomes in music performance Challenges and promotion

Introduction In a master class given in Portugal to a select group of students from European conservatoires, the Portuguese pianist Maria João Pires gave the following indications to a student after his performance1: MARIA JOÃO PIRES: Why do you play staccato? Do STUDENT: No, in my version staccato is written, I

probably.

MARIA JOÃO PIRES:

you like it? think I have a bad version

No, there is no good or bad version, they are all bad, because they don’t represent even 1% of what is music . . . not 1%, nothing. . . . I mean it is just an idea of what you could do like (sings how it should be played) but (she sings how she understood what the student had played) it is a little bit . . . I don’t know; something bothers me, I am not convinced. What this means . . . this is something that has a violence! (she starts to play) Violence! Then you can’t (she play how the student played before) . . . It doesn’t convince me. This is fear (she starts to play). (the student starts to play again, while she gave some indications through singing. At the end of this section, she seemed satisfied with the execution. The student continued and she stopped his performance again) MARIA JOÃO PIRES: What is the meaning of this? What means this!? What do you feel? (there are some smiles in the audience) STUDENT: I think it is not a clear image like a ghost or something which is passing by that you can never see what it really is . . . (She still seemed not convinced) MARIA JOÃO PIRES: But before you had felt like (she made a gesture like as if she was tearing the shirt), then you can’t not (she sings how she understood what the student had played) because it does not fit. Feel with your body, don’t feel with here (she points to the head) don’t hear what I am saying, I am not talking to you, I don’t exist, you are . . . you are . . . you are feeling something. I am just helping you to feel something. Feel with all your being. (The student starts to play again)

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MARIA JOÃO PIRES:

No, don’t play like (she sings how she understood what the student had played). (The student follows to play and then she asks:) MARIA JOÃO PIRES: Why is staccato? Who says? You, you feel staccatto? . . . really . . . promise me . . . STUDENT: No, my feeling of . . . OK, my brain says it is staccato, MARIA JOÃO PIRES: Yeah! STUDENT: My sense of style says I have to play everything staccato (he starts to play). MARIA JOÃO PIRES: What is style? (The student follows to play and when he stops, she says:) MARIA JOÃO PIRES: Also, not good. STUDENT: No . . . but. (Silence in the room) MARIA JOÃO PIRES: How is about mixture between everything, no style, let’s just have an atmosphere. In this example, Maria João Pires justifies her suggestions based on her DAO: making a particular feeling (violence and fear) understood during the performance, which seemed to be more important than the indication given in the score. This videoed master class, which was published in 2008, has motivated a long debate between those who watched it. On one side of the debate are those who were happy with her attitude of putting DAO above technical issues. On the other side, there are those who asserted that she was trying to shape the student’s performance according to her own DAO, neglecting what the student wanted to achieve. One can say that both visions are valid. In fact, she was placing DAO as the highest criteria to make decisions during the class, while constantly emphasis her own view to the student. However, this was not done to inculcate DAO, but rather to assist the student in finding his own DAO and, at the same time, creating his own mythopoetic narrative for that performance. In sum, she was stimulating him to develop a personal and critical attitude. For some authors, this aspect is of paramount importance in any artistic field. Böhler (2019) suggests that artists like Shakespeare would probably have never become the cosmopolitan artists which they actually were if they had not philosophized in their art-pieces. Although for some artists this could be quite obvious, these aspects seemed to be absent during the class. The student tried to justify his artistic decisions based on formal issues embedded in the piece. However, when Maria João Pires asked about the meaning constructed by him, as well as his critical position on the piece, his answers revealed a submissive attitude. She seemed to be disquieted when she realized that the student’s DAO were constrained by canonical impositions, which seemed to have greater importance than the meaningful constructions produced by him. Currently, several music teachers across the world have joined Maria João Pires in suggesting that historical pedagogical practices, particularly in higher education music institutions, should be rethought (Jørgensen, 2014; Sloboda & Ford, 2013; Gaunt et al., 2012; Weller, 2012). At same time, this example reveals a challenge

54 DAO in music performance faced by contemporary musicians, particularly those who are in the early stages of an artistic career, which could be illustrated through the following question: how can we base our practice on our own DAO? How can we make these clear? This example somehow illustrates and synthetizes two concepts approached in this chapter (challenges and promotion), which seek to answer the three points here addressed: a formalist moral code, artistic research and mentoring. The first refers to a set of moral values established mainly in the nineteenth century that stimulate a submissive attitude in relation to historical conventions by those who are committed to it (a formalist moral code). This attitude is a key factor that constrains the possibilities of achieving the DAO on the concert platform. The second refers to a specific research orientation that has been asserted by those who are unsatisfied with the postulates of the formalist code (artistic research). Finally, the third point refers to a pedagogical approach committed to the development of self-authorship, i.e., the required capacity to achieve a DAO. This approach is mentoring, and it is a fundamental pillar to the nurturing of DAO in higher education music institutions. Based on the points discussed so far, Chapter 3 presented a theoretical perspective on the challenges that constrain the achievement of DAO in music performance and how higher education music institutions might assist musicians to overcome these challenges. As with Chapter 2, this chapter is structured as a synthesis between a literature review and the findings of fieldwork exploratory studies which are used to provide the reader with practical examples of what is being discussed. The chapter is divided in three main sections. The following two sections focus respectively on the challenges and promotion of DAO. The next section presents a discussion based on the triangulations between all perspectives discussed. Based on this discussion, two explanatory models are proposed. The chapter ends with a summary where the main points are highlighted.

Challenges My teacher didn’t encourage me to have a concept. I had just to play what was written with many repetitions until I was able to play all correct notes at a given tempo. (Exploratory study nº1 – Paul, 27 years old, PhD candidate, guitar) For example, Bach was a great improviser. Thus, why shouldn’t I be able to improvise on his score? Why should I play exactly as it’s written? Why? (Exploratory study nº1 – Robert, 30 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) I also ask this question to myself: why did Bach wrote a pianissimo here? I can’t understand, and most of the times I want to do it differently. Now I know that perhaps these dynamics are even not Bach’s intentions at all, because editors change scores or omit details of music interpretation. . . . I believe that the path to follow is to leave behind such conventions that constrain us. (Exploratory study nº1 – Peter, 35 years old, PhD candidate, guitar) Sometimes I was afraid to think about something related to repertoire interpretation. I had just to play notes at a given tempo. It was very complicated because you didn’t know what you were looking for. (Exploratory study nº1 – Peter, 35 years old, PhD candidate, guitar)

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These vignettes bring to light a key factor that is responsible for constraining musicians’ capacity to achieve their DAO. This factor is a certain type of formalist code that was idealized and empowered during the last two centuries. In the following, we discuss such a code in the light of a perspective that establishes a difference between the ethical and the moral (Dineen, 2009). The formalist code Formalism has been understood as the study of art by analysing and comparing form and style – the way that objects are made and their purely material aspects. In painting, for example, formalism emphasizes compositional elements such as colour, line, shape, texture and other perceptual aspects for aesthetic appreciation rather than iconography or the historical and social context (Gal, 2015). At its extreme, formalism in art history posits that everything necessary for comprehending art is contained within the work of art. The context for the work, including the reasons for its creation, the historical background and the life of the artist – that is, its conceptual aspect – are considered to be of secondary importance. The notion of formalism in music has been exemplified in Hanslick’s book On the Beautiful in Music (1854). Hanslick was an outspoken opponent of the music of Liszt and Wagner, which broke down traditional musical forms as a means for extra-musical communication. His opposition to ‘the music of the future’ is congruent with his aesthetics of music: according to him, the meaning of music is the form of music and, therefore, there was no room to extrapolate the beauty revealed by forms. At the same time, from this perspective, music appreciation was approached as an autonomous activity somehow disconnected from its contextual elements. Some phrases such as ‘the music should speak by itself’, ‘music is a universal language’ or ‘the music is above anything else’ are particularly common in the discourses of those who support formalism in this field (Creech & Papageorgi, 2014). This perspective of formalism shaped values in music practices and institutions, particularly in the nineteenth century when this philosophical current was in vogue. As previously mentioned, these values, in relation to the views of musicians/performers, placed performers essentially as interpreters of other people’s music and emphasized a strong focus on: (i) a single instrument or vocal type; (ii) a pursuit of virtuosity; (iii) a need for accurately realizing the composer’s score; (iv) a standardization of examinations and prizes as a means by which to monitor the quality of the musical product; (vi) the overestimation of the musical score; and (vii) a rejection of audience’s tastes and values (Ford & Sloboda, 2013; Sloboda, 2013). These values also shaped a conservatoire model that substituted religious institutions, responding to the new bourgeois needs. These conservatoires were conceived as places to teach efficient professional musicians and composers for theatres, for orchestras, for in-home teaching of the bourgeoisie, for smaller entertaining music groups and for the church. Composers should have efficient knowledge of the old canon (counterpoint forms and tonal harmony), to know how to respond to the new secular needs (songs, opera, dances, sonatas, instrumental pieces for the domestic music-making and for public and private concerts), and

56 DAO in music performance also – something truly romantic – be inventive, expressive, genius and unique. Baudelaire (1868, p. 420) synthesized this historical moment as the period of the modernization of romantic artistic practices; in his own words, ‘qui dit Romantique dit art moderne’: modern, but not too much. The values of formalists were also responsible for defining a code that regulated pedagogical practices and policy making in higher education music institutions. The commitment to preserve such values was somehow the DAO of several institutions around the globe. In contrast to the discourse of those who used performance as a kind of artistic and critical inquiry, i.e., a channel for inventing mythopoetic narratives, the formalist code positioned the performer as guardian of tradition: responsible for preserving historical canons and also the institutions. Arguably, and this could be seen in the vignettes that opened this section, this culture likely constrained the creative initiatives in students (Silverman, 2008) who were oriented to insist on conformity and adhere to traditional and historical values (Persson, 2001). This aspect can be observed through popularized expressions as ‘just play the notes’, ‘follow the score’ or ‘play what is on the page’, reportedly used by musicians from the Western art music canon (Ramnarine, 2010). At the same time, this culture also reduced the phenomenon of music performance to a demonstration of abilities, subjugating, at times, the aesthetic appreciation of formal elements embedded in the musical structure. The statements described so far are at the heart of formalist code, which has been constantly invoked to justify judgments behind the aesthetic appreciation of music. Edward Said, in his book Musical Elaborations (1991), was one among several authors to criticize this code. As highlighted in Chapter 1, Said (1991) suggested that the values postulated by the formalist moral code strongly influenced music-making in the twentieth century. Whereas in the past, musicians were also frequently composers, or had a close relationship with those whose music they played, and the audience often entertained itself by performing similar music at home, classical music performance today has become a highly specialized and rarefied activity focused on the marketing of virtuosic performers. Concerts are, therefore, ‘extreme occasions’, cut off from the rest of life. According to Said, the conventions of classical music performance were elevated to such a degree that their particularity and artificiality became overt. The relationship between the formalist moral code and music creation has also been further explored in treaties and other publications, mainly by authors who emphasize a specific notion of ideal musicians shaped by the canonical discourse supported by formalist institutions. Ideal musicians would be those individuals capable of a notable achievement: revealing the aesthetic essence behind (or through) musical structures which are normally very complex and, sometimes, revolutionary! This perspective emphasized the importance of musical structure, suggesting that ideal musicians should have the moral responsibility of deeply understanding such a structure in order to communicate it to a given audience. In other words, an ideal musician should fulfil the expectations of the postulates that traditional musicologists advertised through the formalist code. This point of view might have worked for musicians in the past, but certainly is not transversal for all those who are interested in developing an artistic career in the twenty-first century.

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The vignettes mentioned earlier also illustrate a more critical point of view, revealed by the students who participated in the exploratory study nº1, concerning preconceived ideas in music interpretation, especially when they are taught as ‘being in accordance with the composers’ intentions’. In such cases, students report becoming frustrated with superimposed performance ideas and with the fewer opportunities to deconstruct and expand the possibilities of performance. In such a scenario, DAO might not be achievable. In order to grasp the impact of the formalist code through the discourse of those who are affected by it, we seek to identify some elements that could illustrate the impact of this code in current pedagogical and artistic practices, such as from the data collected through the exploratory study nº1. We identified four factors in the students’ discourse concerning this point: (i) artistic impositions; (ii) existing traditions in music performance; (iii) academic hierarchies; and (iv) a lack of artistic integrity. Concerning the first factor (i.e., artistic impositions), students reported that the imposition of technical and expressive ideas, particularly by some teachers committed with the formalist moral code, is rather a common practice. Although this trend appears to be changing (Lennon & Reed, 2012), comments in the present investigation suggested that the encouragement of critical thinking and selfreflection still tends to be lacking in higher education music institutions. This absence of encouragement was even pointed out as a common reason for the development of musculoskeletal disorders. I remember my first years at higher education . . . students didn’t know what they were doing. They had to please the teacher when they were performing, but the concept of what to get from music was absent. (Exploratory study nº1 – Peter, 35 years old, PhD candidate, guitar) When I was a fresher, I had two fingering strategies for the same piece: one just to please my teacher when I was preparing for my exams and the other for when I was playing outside the university. (Exploratory study nº1 – David, 28 years old, MMus, guitar) The Concierto de Aranjuez was a repertoire imposed by my teacher. I didn’t want to play it as I didn’t feel confident enough. The result of doing what I had been told was tendinitis! (Exploratory study nº1 – David, 28 years old, MMus, guitar) Concerning the second factor (i.e., academic hierarchies), this was identified in the students’ discourse. The existence of academic hierarchies somehow fosters the formalist code and, at the same time, constrains artistic development. Some participating musicians assume that they do not follow, or are not allowed to follow, their own values and intentions due to such hierarchies and limited opportunity to contribute to their studio-based learning (Burwell, 2018). These students recognize that judgments in music performance are clearly based on these hierarchies, which in turn constrain artistic integrity.

58 DAO in music performance There are a lot of things I would like to do differently, but as a PhD candidate, I just can’t do what I want. All the time I have to ask the permission of my supervisor. I will just be free when I leave the institution. I can’t change this scenario because academia is based on hierarchies. (Exploratory study nº1 – Richard, 35 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) There are several musical pieces composed by renowned composers that everyone knows are almost impossible to play. Nevertheless, most people say that these pieces are important and so they should be played. If a student composed the same piece, people would find it ridiculous! My question is: what are the factors that allow you to be different from others? (Exploratory study nº1 – Richard, 35 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) In my personal point of view, all these hierarchies constrain our artistic ideas, because we are not following what we really believe! (Exploratory study nº1 – Peter, 35 years old, PhD candidate, guitar) Concerning the third factor (i.e., lack of artistic integrity), students report that DAO are shaped by the awareness of one’s own abilities and musical convictions. As noted by Hallam (2008), those who adopt a perspective of performance, as criticized by Said (1991), and drive their chosen perspective according to an unreflective attitude concerning the formalist code, may attempt to go beyond their own performing possibilities, leading to their own disappointment and that of others, i.e., the audience. Some musicians insist on performing repertoire that they aren’t prepared to perform. On such occasions, they lie to themselves and to the audience. It’s preferable to play less difficult repertoire and show what you are able to offer at that moment in your life. Thinking that the audience will not realize when you had made a step ahead of your possibilities isn’t being honest with yourself. The result can only be a disaster for you and others. (Exploratory study nº1 – Richard, 35 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) Moving from formalism to artistic research More than criticize the formalist code, it is important to reflect on its basis. At first glance, the code seems to be the great barrier that keeps higher education music students disconnected from their DAO. However, approaching the question through this point of view may not be adequate. The challenge resides in the relationship established by each musician with formalism: this relationship can be moral (recognizing moral as the ‘blind’ and unreflective attitude of following external rules), or ethical (here understood as the critical capacity of justifying choices between following or not following the rules) (Dineen, 2009). In fact,

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notions of ethics and morality are not clearly approached in pedagogical practices adopted by many higher education music institutions (Dineen, 2009). The incapacity to move from a moral attitude regarding formalism to an ethical one is a significant challenge faced, not only by musicians, but by the institutions themselves. The difference between morality and ethics are directly articulated. Traditionally, the latter is seen as a philosophical discipline that seeks to solve questions related to good and evil, right or wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. Aristotle proposed the ethic as an examination of the nature of human acts in practice (Bonhoeffer, 2000). Seen from this angle, ethics does not deal only with the responsibility behind the acts, but also with the justice of a given action, i.e., the responsible answer to a set of values that define human morality, i.e., ethos (Teixeira & Ferraz, 2018). Following this line of thought, Bonhoeffer (2000) defined ethics as an existential configuration (Gestaltung), a way of being in the world that is not ruled by stratified patterns or values, but by actions in the world that determine and sometimes re-signify such values. According to the author, ethics is the process of building the ethos individually and then collectively. Given its practical nature, any ethics would only make sense in action, so that a theoretical ethics would be an idealization rather than something with clearly defined boundaries. The ethic would not be defined by the moral codes, but by the capacity to choose consciously between preserving and transcending such codes. This perspective of ethics has been further explored and extrapolated in different fields. An example of this extrapolation has been proposed by Bonder (2007) in A Alma Imoral,2 a clear reference to The Animal Moral written by Robert Wright (1994). Informed by the perspective of ethics previously mentioned, Bonder (2007) reconstructs the meaning of ‘body’ and ‘soul’, contraposing a concept of the immoral soul found in the Bible with the concept of animal morality proposed by evolutionist psychology. According to the author, the two concepts do not refer to different entities, but to different dimensions that are present in each individual. The soul would be the conscious dimension of our evolutionary needs, the portion responsible for broken moral rules and stratified values. Its nature is, therefore, immoral, once it is not committed to moral rules. The body, in its turn, it is our conscious dimension that it is responsible for our preservation. The former is thus committed to the future, to the ‘good’, and it is oriented to treason, while the latter, committed to the past and the ‘correct’, would be oriented to preserving traditions. Although human evolution would be based on treason and not tradition, both depend on each other. Thus, the challenge, according to the author, would be to keep the existing tension between both concepts balanced. The thesis proposed by Bonder, which is based on an extensive examination of theological, sociological, psychological and philosophical publications, is, in a certain way, an invitation to treason. As long as the human being increases their discernment, the soul (the commitment to the transgression) starts to be more evident and prominent. The author reiterates that the soul has three inseparable facets: (i) the non-compliance with established rules and conventions; (ii) the noncorrespondence to external expectations; and (iii) the precious disclosure of the

60 DAO in music performance individual. Treason, however, should be conducted taking the past into account; the rules hide an opportunity to re-create and re-signify them, and this should be considered in order to keep a healthy balance between body and soul. The author asserts that every time one unreflectively opts for the body (correct and traditional) to the detriment of the soul, there is a sense of depression – such as evidenced in the study conducted by Minassian, Gayford and Sloboda (2003), which revealed a sense of frustration in performance practice and which illustrates this point. However, when one unreflectively opts for the soul, without considering the body, there is a sense of violence which is not always well received (the critics concerning some conceptual and contemporary art whose purpose is not clear or justified gain voice in this view). The honest individual would be, according to Bonder (2007), the one who is satisfied with their obeyances and transgressions, i.e., dishonesty is in the conformity of dissatisfaction regarding the balance between body and soul. The perspectives presented by this author may be pertinent to the discussion here presented. The reports collected in the exploratory study nº1 reveal a difficulty in maintaining a healthy balance between expectations and skills across the artistic career. The weight of tradition, which is sustained by competitions, manuals and recordings, is well consolidated in some music departments and conservatoires. In this sense, the balance proposed by Bonder (2007) may offer a starting point to promote the innovation suggested by Sloboda (2013) concerning concert formats and repertoire. This view has been shared by alternative voices that started to emerge in recent decades. In his book Freedom and the Arts: Essays on Music and Literature, Charles Rosen (2012) asserted the importance of ‘avoiding doctrinaire extremes when approaching art’, especially art from the past. The author suggests that ‘understanding Shakespeare only as an Elizabethan or Jacobean theatergoer, or to modernise his plays with no sense of what they bring from his age, deforms the work, making it less ambiguous and less interesting’ (Rosen, 2012, p. i). According to Rosen, ‘for a work to remain alive, it must change character over time, while preserving a valid witness to its earliest state’ (Rosen, 2012, p. i). At same time, Rosen suggests that listening with intensity – for pleasure – is the one activity indispensable for full appreciation. It allows the listener to experience multiple possibilities and avoids recognizing only the formal elements in music production. The ideas proposed by Rosen emphasize the importance of deconstructing established structures and challenging the formalist code. His arguments suggest that a conformist attitude towards a given musical or artistic product might not be enough, neither for twentieth-century artists, nor to justify artistic choices. Conversely, a sceptical, non-conformist, deconstructive and critical attitude – key elements for the postmodern condition suggested by Lyotard (Auslander, 2008) – could be of paramount importance to foster aesthetic appreciation in contemporary artistic practices. This shift claims a type of artistic attitude based on the balance between moral and ethics, body and soul. There is a need to seek the balance, i.e., there is a need for artistic research.

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Promotion Taking into account the points highlighted in the previous section, one could posit that the role of higher education music institutions in the promotion of DAO is to nurture what could be designated as an ‘ethical traitor’, i.e., the individual who is able materially to rethink the formalist code in the light of artistic principles that support DAO. In this sense, institutions should, as happens in other educational fields, be committed to the development of self-authorship. However, in order to develop such a capacity, there is a fundamental pillar in this process that must be considered: the importance of including research (particularly artistic research) in the academic tuition of young musicians. Achieving the aim here proposed involves a shift away from what Barr and Tagg (1995) have termed the ‘instructional’ paradigm that emphasizes instructors telling students what they need to know, to a ‘learning’ paradigm where instructors design active learning environments to encourage students to construct their own ideas (cf. Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009). The second situation suggests that in the pedagogical process one person (A) does not educate another person (B); neither does B educate A; rather, A and B educate each other, and that this process is mediated by the world (Freire, 1996). This implies that students and educators should be responsible for the teaching-learning environment. This shared responsibility is recognized as engaged learning environments (Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009). This perspective suggests that self-authorship gradually emerges when educators foster students’ holistic mental growth through continuous selfreflection and critical thinking (Schön, 1983). The following topics summarize the differences between the engaged learning environment, the learning environment and the instructional environment as criticized by Barr and Tagg (1995). Instructional Environment a b c d

Covers disciplinary content and grading; Requires students to verify information previously communicated; Assumes students learn the nature of disciplinary discover simplicity; and Asks students to execute imposed lessons, promoting the false idea that inquiry does not involve errors and uncertainty.

Learning Environment a b c d

Focuses on student learning and outcomes assessment; Encourages student’s voice; Assumes students learn through active engagement; and Invites them to reflect on learning.

Engaged Learning Environment a b

Focuses on students’ and educators’ capacity to discover by promoting their intellectual and personal development; Offers problems and projects necessitating on-going and serious engagement and collaboration;

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c

Assumes students can develop into mature scholars and citizens if educators provide a coherent curriculum; and Promotes the goal of students creating their own inquiries.

d

An engaged learning environment not only stimulates the development of selfauthorship, but also offers higher levels of intellectual and personal challenges and varying types of support. It fosters the epistemological, intrapersonal and interpersonal capacities that enable students to participate in discovery and interdependent knowledge construction. In a typical engaged learning environment, educators must move away from what Mitchell (2006) calls emanation and progress toward generation. Emanation relates to a dependence on ‘original sources’, while generation concerns the ability to create something that can transcend the original source (Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009). The contrast between emanation and generation can be described as follows (Mitchell, 2006): emanation involves taking care of students, providing leadership, giving answers, exercising authority, building reputation and creating legacies for ourselves; generation involves caring about students, developing their leadership, encouraging questioning, sharing authority, building relationships with students and creating networks to support learning progress. This perspective emphasizes that, when shifting from an emanative to a generative learning environment, the roles and responsibilities of students, as well as educators, must also evolve to learning partnerships. This implies that both educators and students undergo developmental processes. From this point of view, educators should clearly assume the role of assisting students to situate their experiences according to their own beliefs through opportunities to mutually construct knowledge (Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009). A key feature in engaged learning environments is the partnership established between students and educators (Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009). Such partnerships emerge through interactions that seek to deconstruct external formulas that constrain the development of self-authorship. According to Hodge, Magolda & Haynes (2009), this process must be shaped by the students’ traits, the educators’ assumed role (e.g., mentor), the learning goals and the assignments and activities proposed. Figure 3.1 summarizes the evolution of the partnership in engaged learning environments. Although engaged learning environments aim to empower students as thinkers, this approach does not imply that educators must meet students’ every wish and whim (Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009). The authors suggest that educators ‘must move away from the traditional role of the expert or the tendency to seek students’ approval and instead push students to gain intellectual, relational and personal maturity through continuous feedback, reflection, and high expectations’ (Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009, p. 11). This line of thought asserts that educators might assist students to become more internally focused by validating them as thinkers, encouraging them to accept responsibility for their own decisions and actions in ways that are consistent with their own constructed identities (Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009). Engaged learning environments assume that educators

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External formulas

Intermediate

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Capstone

Reliant upon external formulas

Developing own voice

Using internal voice to guide actions and work

Designs learning experiences to promote active student engagement

Co-designs learning experiences with students

Guides students in designing, implementing and reflecting on their own discovery projects

Key learning goals

Asking relevant questions, identify multiple perspectives

Connect inquiries to personal beliefs

Design and reflect on own inquiries, integrate learning from multiple domains, apply lessons learned to future goals

Sample assignments and activities

Simulations, role playing different perspectives, structured reflections, panels

Student-led classes, faculty-student research teams

and initiatives, portfolios, exhibitions

Figure 3.1 Summary of engaged learning environment Source: Adapted from Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009

can play a special role in students’ lives, helping the latter in brainstorming possible futures and mapping out paths to get there (Magolda & King, 2007). The following subsection considers future directions for consolidating engaged learning environments in music performance teaching, including some key issues for the embedding artistic research in academia and possible pedagogical approaches that may foster these. Rethinking pedagogical principles: future directions The historical practices previously discussed have motivated a growing discussion around traditional approaches as practised in higher education music institutions in recent years (Lennon & Reed, 2012). There is evidence to indicate a growing perception that the historical model neither prepares students for their likely futures nor helps them to achieve their own DAO (Carey & Lebler, 2012). Other authors suggest that the professional music field is changing faster than training programs, which – in turn – creates a tension between the skills prioritized and those needed to sustain a career in music (Beeching, 2012; Smilde & Halldórsson, 2013; Smilde, 2012). This perceived tension highlights the importance of designing approaches that equip musicians effectively for sustainable and successful careers (Bennett, 2012). Thus, an increasing interest in career guidance departments in higher education institutions has been observed (Weller, 2012). One aim underlying such initiatives is to facilitate the development of entrepreneurial skills due to the quick changes in the scenario of the music profession, which is challenging higher education music institutions to discuss their models and approaches of teaching and learning (Lennon & Reed, 2012). In order to prepare holistic professionals, rather than instrumentalists, insights provided by disciplines such as aesthetics, analysis, musicology (including ethnomusicology) and psychology might be of paramount importance (Clark, Lisboa & Williamon, 2014; Ritterman, 2002).

64 DAO in music performance Other authors suggest that higher education music institutions might adopt a multigenre approach, exploring other genres apart from the music of the Western art music canon (Papageorgi & Welch, 2014; Sæther, 2013). Moreover, students have different musical backgrounds and interests, which must play a central role in the learning process (Welch, 2012). Following this line of thought, some authors have suggested that the development of new environments based on collaborative learning, where different musical genres would cohabit, could be of paramount importance (Gaunt & Westerlund, 2013; Gaunt et al., 2012; Welch et al., 2008). Such a learning environment might democratize the pedagogical experience, bridging practice and theory (Gaunt & Westerlund, 2013). Moreover, these learning environments could facilitate the stimulation of students’ artistic potentials and preferences regardless of the artistic path chosen by them (Papageorgi et al., 2010a). This alternative could allow students to develop their evaluative expertise in order to monitor and evaluate their own work while it is in progress (Lebler, 2013; Sadler, 2005). The design of such learning environments must consider DAO and students’ identities, taking the previous learning experiences of students into account (Lebler, Burt-Perkins & Carey, 2009). Despite some efforts (Gaunt & Westerlund, 2013), attempts to design and promote such an environment have been scarcely tested and little evidence can be found in the literature concerning the efficacy of such models of teaching and learning (Gaunt et al., 2012). There have been ethical constraints, mainly regarding assessment, behind such initiatives that still need to be explored (Christophersen, 2013). This (last) author suggested that to engage in a collaborative learning environment may not immediately be easy for all music students. ‘Some may find it hard to meet the expectations and comply with the conventions, or to commit to the collaborative community. It is vital, for example, to distinguish between self-initiated collaboration and instructed collaboration’ (Christophersen, 2013, p. 86). There are, however, few doubts reported concerning the validity and benefits of collaborative learning in higher education (Gaunt & Westerlund, 2013). Parallel to the concern with the development of collaborative learning environments that foster musicians’ development, other ideas in music performance teaching have been discussed in the literature. In fact, there is evidence that indicates few opportunities can occur for students to share their ideas with other musicians (Jørgensen, 2009). Perkins (2012) suggests regular meetings – ideally with somebody removed from the central learning process in a safe, non-judgmental setting – in order to offer possibilities for students to discuss and share their ideas. Moreover, some authors have also debated the role of alumni as a means to enrich pedagogical experiences in higher education institutions. Weller (2012) suggests that it is possible to gain powerful insights regarding careers by staying in touch with graduates. Such initiatives might also help institutions to understand better the evolution of students’ profiles over time. Stimulating the ‘ethical traitor’ Apart from the issues presented previously, it has been recognized that higher education must encourage students to challenge stratified views of knowledge

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(Gutiérrez, 2007), as well as developing critical thinking and self-reflection; key issues in engaged learning environments (Freire, 1996). These attributes, which are fundamental pillars of self-authorship, empower the ethical traitor, as described before, allowing students to challenge the formalist code and justify their DAO. In this scenario, research (particularly artistic research) may increase its prominence in higher education music institutions. In postmodern societies, in which metanarratives are constantly being discredited (Bauman, 2010), the space for authoritarian teaching practices is increasingly unjustifiable. These points of view have been shared by the students who took part in the exploratory study nº1. Students claimed that they would benefit greatly from a learning environment that encouraged autonomy and the search (or research!) to develop their own DAO. Teaching practices oriented by research would allow students to question their values and ideas and to negotiate them with other professionals, i.e., self-authorship. My teacher encouraged me to have a picture of what I wanted with my music and to think for myself. After all, students need to be autonomous, as we will not have a teacher all the time near us! (Exploratory study nº1 – Phillip, 32 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) Moreover, these participating students emphasized the importance of higher education institutions in fostering students’ artistic voices. They seemed to criticize the lack of conviction of some musicians who just follow external formulas as proposed by institutions and that do not encourage the development of their own creativity through a research attitude. If one is not encouraged to follow a personal concept from the beginning, then time will be thrown away in just imitating a teacher or videos and recordings and having no conviction at all about what to achieve as a performer. (Exploratory study nº1 – John, 25 years old, MMus student, guitar) Although this view can seem almost obvious, artistic research is still not a consensual element in higher education music institutions (Correia et al., 2018) and a considerable part of the debate on this topic is focused on doctoral-level education, or on ontological principles that could somehow justify this research orientation in an academic environment (Correia et al., 2018; Assis, 2015; Crispin, 2015; Crispin & Gilmore, 2014; López-Cano & Opazo, 2014; Borgdorff, 2012; Östersjö, 2008). Therefore, publications on the implications of artistic research on the artistic and professional development of higher education music students, including first year students, are not common in the literature. Defining artistic research in a concise and unequivocal way seems to be as difficult as establishing possible boundaries and rules to frame it. For some authors, the differences between artistic research, practice-based research, practice as research and practice-led research still seem unclear (Kaila, Seppä & Slager, 2017;

66 DAO in music performance Schroeder, 2015). These differences could be defined according to the following premise: whilst practice-based research, practice as research and practice-led research consist of the study of practice by those involved in it, artistic research is more oriented to the development of artistic outputs based on a critical and reflexive process of investigation (Niedderer & Roworth-Stokes, 2007). Instead of discussing if this perspective is pertinent or not, we would like to highlight three points that seem to be common to this conceptual puzzle, taking into account ideas previously discussed by other scholars (Correia et al., 2018; Assis, 2015; Borgdorff, 2012; López-Cano & Opazo, 2014; Östersjö, 2008): • • •

Artistic research can only be developed by someone involved in artistic practice; Artistic research is an opportunity to evolve professionally and aesthetically; and Artistic research allows for fluctuation between different orbits of dialogue and intellectual and artistic exchange.

Beyond these conceptual – and sometimes unresolved – issues, the debate concerning artistic research has been shaped by an assumed creative dissatisfaction on the part of Western art music performers, taking into account a ‘contemporary perspective’ on knowledge production in music which has been argued as overvalued in the last decade, especially in Europe (Clarke & Doffman, 2017; Crispin, 2015). A historical reason can explain this point: in contrast to the European academy art world, which places the artist in a position to pursue artistic ends in themselves, in some other parts of the globe, such as North America, another model of academic inclusion of artistic practice has encouraged a link between artistic practice and other disciplines, such as anthropology, history and sociology (Sullivan, 2010). The reasons behind this can be summarized as follows: (i) once the ‘essence of art’ could not be taught, only technique should be approached in lessons; and (ii) arts in the academic sphere could broaden their achievements and scope (Sullivan, 2010). Possibly because of these reasons, some researchers define artistic research essentially as a ‘European phenomenon’, which was initially not completely accepted in countries like the United States (Assis, 2015). This last point seems to be crucial to understanding artistic research, even when differences between European countries can be perceived (Wilson & Van Ruiten, 2013). While in some countries, such as Spain, the conceptual overlap involving artistic practice and research seems to be clearly accepted (López-Cano & Opazo, 2014), in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the conceptual separation between those terms seems to be more explicit (Schroeder, 2015). As part of this conceptual discussion, Crispin (2015) offered some useful insights concerning the origins of artistic research in the European landscape, revealing other aspects behind the emergence of this sub-area. According to this author, the reaction of European conservatoires to the principles of the Bologna Declaration3 has played a special role in the development of artistic research (Wilson & Van Ruiten, 2013). Historically, European conservatoires built their

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reputation on ‘practical values’ that arguably overestimated the role of one-to-one teaching (Crispin, 2015; Jørgensen, 2014; Sloboda, 2013; Gaunt et al., 2012; Lennon & Reed, 2012). One challenge is that this model of education is expensive and is perceived by some policy makers as a certain kind of ‘luxury’, certainly when compared to other subject disciplines in higher education arts, humanities and social sciences. Crispin (2015) also suggested that: especially more recently, conservatoires have had to argue strenuously for the financial viability of this model in a world where educational expense is increasingly questioned, and the economic and social relevance of Western Art Music is regarded, by some, to be in decline. (p. 53) Beyond the need to justify this customary 1:1 studio-based, yet somewhat controversial, model of teaching, conservatoires have had an additional battle in their attempts to consolidate their position: to adapt their pedagogic structure according the 3 + 2 + 3 or 4 + 1 hierarchical higher education years of study model as proposed in the Bologna Declaration.4 This model, that aimed to facilitate the establishment of a European Higher Education Area (EHEA), challenged a further two key points behind the teaching practices maintained by conservatoires: flexibility and duration. According to Crispin (2015), ‘for many European conservatoires, it has meant replacing a training regime of flexible length and individually tuned age margins with one that can be accommodated within the ordered cycles of degrees leading to Bachelor, Masters and Doctoral qualifications’ (p. 54). In order to sustain some of their idiosyncrasies, conservatoires assumed a need to include doctoral programmes in their core structure. A three-year degree programme could allow for the extension of a period of studies. Beyond this, in an educational paradigm influenced by the Bologna Declaration, doctoral programmes could give institutions a different status and more money. Another rationale for this inclusion was a reported interest from international students who came to conservatoires looking for bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees, not for their own (and/ or parental) sense of achievement, but also for the eligibility that these degrees provided to those interested in developing an academic career. Based on this, the idea of bridging theoretical and practical aspects in the core of research processes increased its force. Nevertheless, one significant problem was that many scholars from the music departments of European universities remained sceptical concerning the inclusion of artistic practices as an element in research (Crispin, 2015). Some of these scholars have argued that artistic practice could bring methodological and epistemological challenges that could hardly be integrated in the current scholarly debate, such as systematizing artistic practice and developing a critical and dispassionate point of view (Leavy, 2015; Sullivan, 2010; Bell, Smith & Dean, 2009; Haseman & Mafe, 2009). Moreover, a scarcity of scholars prepared to supervise artistic research projects was another argument that constrained, to a certain extent, the acceptance of artistic research in some academic spaces (Leavy, 2015; Sullivan,

68 DAO in music performance 2010; Haseman & Mafe, 2009). Nevertheless, the historical ideas described by Crispin (2015) and the others mentioned here, and the conceptual challenges that surround artistic research, appear not to have affected its development in recent years. The emergence of doctoral programmes in countries such as Belgium, Norway and Portugal, as well as the United Kingdom, which embrace artistic research in their structure, have contributed towards a sense of consolidation of this field (Wilson & Van Ruiten, 2013). However, many questions still remain unanswered, particularly concerning academic supervision, assessment, representation and dissemination of this research profile (López-Cano & Opazo, 2014; Judith, Smith & Dean, 2009; Smith & Dean, 2009). An additional challenge is deciding which kind(s) of artistic research, among many existing proposals (Wilson & Van Ruiten, 2013) would be suitable to enrich not only doctoral-level education, but also the pedagogical structure as a whole, in addition to facing the demands associated with the complexities of musicians’ DAO. In fact, because the debate on artistic research has been strongly focused on doctoral education, its implications for career development are still unrealized. The role of mentoring An educational approach that could meet the contemporary demands and fill in the gap between musicians’ DAO and the professional requirements of the music industries is mentoring (Gaunt et al., 2012). The rationale for including mentoring in higher education music institutions is gaining force, especially in Europe, where this pedagogical approach started to become popular among instrumental and vocal teachers (Lennon & Reed, 2012). During the exploratory study nº1, for example, students emphasized the importance of an artistic mentor. Such a mentor would have the function of providing artistic and psychological support for musicians in understanding and developing their DAO and connecting it to their career expectations and perspectives. In my personal point of view, the artistic search is an internal struggle, you know? Sometimes crises come and we start to ask ourselves about the role of music in our lives. In order to face such crises, I believe that an artistic mentor would be of paramount importance. (Exploratory study nº1 – Richard, 35 years old, PhD candidate, percussion) The ‘Polifonia’ working group for instrumental and vocal teacher training in Europe (2007–2010) defined six principles5 of good pedagogical practices regarding instrumental and vocal teaching (Lennon & Reed, 2012). The search for applying these principles in higher education music institutions has reinforced a need for new educational approaches. Due to this, mentoring has become very popular (Gaunt & Westerlund, 2013). However, mentoring and teaching should not be assumed as synonymous. The first works as type of dialogic relationship (Partington, 2017) based on a ‘fellow traveller model’ (Jones, 2005). According to this

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model, the mentor works with students collaboratively in an engaged learning environment, promoting the goals of students and creating their own inquiries by offering them greater levels of challenge and agency as they develop cognitively, intrapersonally and interpersonally (Hodge, Magolda & Haynes, 2009). Parsloe and Leedham (2009) also pointed out a subtle, but important, difference that distinguishes mentors and teachers. According to them, a teacher usually has a greater knowledge than a student; a mentor should have greater perspective. Mentoring considers the individual in a broad context and recognizes the interdependence of personal and professional development (Burwell, 2016; Burwell, 2005). Because of this, some scholars present mentoring as a pedagogical approach that aims to foster a broader development of the individual instead of only stimulating certain technical skills (Gaunt et al., 2012). Despite the arguments presented here, few efforts have been made to explore mentoring in institutions, perhaps because of existing doubts regarding the best way to integrate this particular approach in the curriculum (Gaunt et al., 2012). Moreover, the notion of mentoring has remained somewhat misunderstood such that a conceptual overlap, just as with the concept of artistic research, is noted, i.e., expressions such as coaching, advising, counselling and instructing have been used as synonyms for mentoring and apprenticeship (Gaunt et al., 2012). In this section, we present some ideas that may facilitate an understanding of mentoring as a specific pedagogical approach. At the same time, some perspectives used to justify mentoring as a possible means of overcoming the current challenges of music teaching in higher education music institutions, e.g., the introduction of artistic research, are discussed. Mentoring is reported to be an effective way of enabling individuals to engage more fully with the context in which they are working (Renshaw, 2009). Its basis allows individuals to step outside their immediate situation and become detached agents of their own practice and learning (Renshaw, 2009). The main goal of mentoring may be described as assisting the mentee to integrate into the society that they inhabit as a fully functioning person. Renshaw (2009) provides a definition that also makes clear distinctions between mentoring, instructing, advising, counselling and coaching. According to this author, ‘instructing’ comprises a didactic form of imparting and passing on specialist knowledge and skills with little scope for dialogue. ‘Advising’ constitutes a conversation about professional issues that arise from practice in a specific context. ‘Counselling’ is a conversation about personal developmental issues that might emerge from professional practice. ‘Coaching’ is an enabling process aimed at enhancing learning with the intention of improving a particular aspect of practice. This approach has a short-term focus with an emphasis on immediate micro-issues. On the other hand, Renshaw argues that ‘mentoring’ is a developmental process, which includes elements of coaching and counselling, and aims to share knowledge and encourage individual development (Gaunt et al., 2012). These authors also maintain that mentoring ‘has a longer-term focus designed to foster personal growth and to help an individual place their creative, personal and professional development in a wider cultural, social and educational context’ (Gaunt et al., 2012, p. 29).

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Table 3.1 illustrates the mentoring framework in music as proposed by Renshaw (2009, pp. 3–7). He suggests four dimensions which shape the learning environment. These dimensions describe elements of effective conditions for mentoring, characteristics of reflective and reflexive interactions and qualities of effective mentors (Gaunt et al., 2012). Although this framework has been discussed in the literature, it has been argued that teaching interactions described in higher education music institutions still lean towards modes of coaching, advising and instructing rather than mentoring (Gaunt et al., 2012). The framework proposed by Renshaw (2009) was inspired by existing theories of lifelong learning which focus on experiential, transformative, reflexive and action learning, shaped by critical dialogue and reflective conversation as a means of promoting deeper integration between reflection and action (Aspin et al., 2012; Claxton, 2000; Edwards, 1997; Candy, 1991). The mentoring framework highlights the importance of critical approaches, i.e., problematizing education, through which students can develop a coherent set of beliefs harmonized with internal values, which – in turn – allow the establishment of authentic relationships with others. Such critical approaches are the aim of the problematizing approach to education asserted by Freire (1996). Problematizing education demystifies the dichotomy between teacher and student and places the latter as a human being who looks to insert themselves in the world, rather than just assuming the passive attitude concerning stratified categories in society (Freire, 1996). The premises of problematizing education emerge as a critical position, such as in the example of banking education. Banking education assumes educators to be wise men, while students are seen as naïve learners (Narita, 2014; Freire, 1996). The author warns us that in such an educational approach, contents are decontextualized from the students’ realities. This means that content is delivered in such a way that critical thinking is not encouraged. A student who does not reflect about the meaning behind such education shall only passively memorize the information. The perspectives of banking education are based on the idea that one of the teacher’s duties is to transform mentalities in order to adapt students to existing social roles. In this sense, banking education assumes that the topics in the classroom shall be defined by the teachers, while the students shall accept such decisions (Freire, 1996). It is not necessary to specify that banking education is committed with ideals of tradition and socially accepted paradigms. This point of view meets the critical position discussed in Chapter 1 concerning the current paradigm of performance teaching in some higher education institutions (cf. Gaunt & Westerlund, 2013; Beeching, 2012; Perkins, 2012; Jørgensen, 2009; Beeching, 2004). Despite recent studies that recognize changes in educational approaches (Lennon & Reed, 2012), in some institutions, pedagogical practices are still based on the historical model (Sloboda, 2013) that goes hand-in-hand with banking education. Freire (1996) suggests that this approach constrains genuine thinking by students, which also constrains the use of one’s skills, which in turn can lead to a sense of frustration. This frustration is closely related to perceptions of mismatch between one’s ideas and the way that society works. Consequently,

Encouraging the mentee to articulate emotional interconnections between their identity (e.g. artistic, creative, cultural and educational identity), motivation and professional practice. Helping the mentee to connect their selfawareness and sense of identity to their outer world, i.e. to the context in which they work and live. Learning to listen actively, including respecting silence, reading body language, focusing on the substance of the conversation and, where necessary, reframing and reinforcing what has been said.

Deepening the mentee’s awareness and conviction in what they are doing by fostering a greater understanding of context and place.

Helping the mentee to map out a future vision that is sustainable and rooted in practice-based evidence and experience.

Strengthening the mentee’s ability to challenge their preconceived views, to take risks, to make new connections and to shift their perspective. Encouraging the mentee to take action.

Source: Adapted from Renshaw, 2009, pp. 97–102

Time-based; a definite beginning and end to the mentoring relationship.

The exchange may take place through creative practice, as well as verbal interaction.

The person mentored defines the agenda and shared focus.

Assisting the mentee to develop an understanding of their relationship with their own creativity and learning (e.g., Why do you do what you do? What do you care about in your creative learning? What function does creativity play in your life?)

Empowering the mentee to take responsibility for their own learning and to seek out direct evidence from their practice and experience. Empowering them by asking neutral, open questions that encourage critical self-reflection, curiosity and a sense of enquiry.

Clear ground rules and boundaries; roles, responsibilities and expectations made explicit; confidentiality observed.

Developing the ability to be selfreflective and self-aware in order to nurture these qualities in others (e.g., questioning motivation; separating out professional from personal issues).

Aiming to develop a flexible range of language registers in order to frame appropriate questions, respond to different personal narratives and communicate meaningfully, understanding where a mentee is coming from.

Using empathy and interpersonal skills in order to ask appropriate questions regarding the personal development of a mentee.

Being willing to let go of ego, status and authority in order to understand the work of a mentee and to adopt a listening, supportive role

Credibility and experience in a particular field. Breadth of knowledge and skills to be able to make personal, creative and professional connections.

Helping the mentee to clarify their motivation, find their own voice and to deepen their understanding of who they are. Encouraging the mentee to reflect on their own story, their own biography, as a means of clarifying and deepening their understanding of themselves, their history and their personal and professional journey.

Making connections, asking open questions, listening actively, absorbing, rephrasing, reflecting, mirroring back, responding by challenging the mentee in a nondirective way.

A non-judgmental, safe environment, based on empathy, trust and mutual respect, encouraging honesty and risk-taking.

Qualities of effective mentors

Characteristics of reflexive interactions

Characteristics of reflective interactions

Aspects of a mentoring environment

Table 3.1 Mentoring framework in music

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72 DAO in music performance students may feel that the way to overcome such an uncomfortable feeling is to adapt to the social requirements (Fromm, 1982). In seeking social acceptance, individuals submit themselves to a group of people or a specific person, thinking that they are behaving genuinely instead of being overwhelmed by that group (Fromm, 1982). Freire (2014) analyses such a condition as being similar to the conditions of those who trust 100% in charismatic political leaders. At a first glance, it might be unthinkable to establish some kind of relationship between the scenario described here and the existing paradigm of music performance in higher education music institutions. However, Beeching (2004) warns us about the well-recognized practice of some teachers who deceive students with ideas concerning performance and career. It is possible that banking education denies one’s history and assumes a fatalist perspective concerning the social construction of realities (Freire, 2014). On the other hand, problematizing education is positioned as the opposite to a banking education approach. Freire (2014) asserted that the fellowship established between teachers and students in the problematizing approach stimulates genuine thinking, which – in turn – leads to consistent reflection about one’s role in the world. This is one of the main ideas behind self-authorship in higher education (Magolda & King, 2004). In the postmodern theory of performance, such critical reflection concerning the existing structures that can constrain artistic practice is not only discussed, but also warmly encouraged (Carlson, 2010). Problematizing education must be adopted by mentors as a means of demystifying visions concerning industries and pre-established futures (i.e., teaching or playing in orchestras) and conventions in a musical career (Gaunt et al., 2012). According to Gutiérrez (2007), the emancipatory and critical proposal asserted by Freire (2014) is only possible through a process of the declassification of stratified views and categories that surround existing knowledge. Gutiérrez argues that people sometimes need to restrict their ideas and clarify them, since multiple and complex desires are socially refused. This repression of unusual ideas and perspectives places individuals in such a way that adaptation to society becomes ‘soft’. Declassification consists of deconstructing the dominant structure – mostly a hierarchical structure – and reclassifying parameters out of that organization (Gutiérrez, 2007). Notwithstanding this, the author accepts that to a certain extent, the declassification itself involves some type of new classification. Following this line of thought, Latour (1994) had previously warned us of the importance of developing flexible and plural classifications in order to allow a less reduced and decontextualized perspective on the world. Particularly in higher education music institutions, this seems not only to be needed, but is also a challenge due to the historical and political constraints discussed in Chapter 1.

Discussion This chapter approached several key issues that are seen to be at the forefront of the musicological and pedagogical debate in higher education institutions – questions like how a musician can overcome the formalist moral code, how this same musician can keep the balance between ethics and morality in musical practice,

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how artistic research can be used as an effective way to support teaching practices in higher education music institutions, and how the latter can be fostered, not only in the minds of scholars and researchers, but also in the agenda of practitioners directly involved in policy making in higher education music institutions. Providing answers for these questions is a challenging task, but, at the same, answers are needed. The literature has been concerned with the importance of adopting practices that do not neglect the intersection between professional and artistic development. Among other things, this could be achieved through the involvement of alumni, stimulating collaborative learning in moments where students can share their experiences in a safe and unregulated environment. Certainly, this is of paramount importance, but it may not be enough. In order to develop self-authorship, the required capacity for the materialization of the DAO, there is a need to embrace perspectives that stimulate musicians to situate their artistic and professional training in a bigger picture; i.e., considering their past, references, objectives, values and conceptions. In this sense, mentoring can gain a certain useful prominence. Despite the problems involved in defining the current role of higher education music institutions (Gough & Scott, 2008), there is evidence to suggest that education in music involves the development of the whole person, rather than just technical and interpretative skills (Burwell, 2016; Burwell, 2012; Burwell, 2005; Gaunt et al., 2012). Nevertheless, such skills are still adopted as criteria for evaluating successful learning in many higher education music institutions (Bennett, 2012; Bennett, 2008). However, the current challenge in such an environment seems to be in assisting students to conceptualize musical practice as a plural and multifaceted phenomenon that reflects one’s personal values and identity, instead of restricting their views to the development of technical and interpretative standards (Gaunt et al., 2012). Certainly, mentoring is not the only way to achieve this aim, but it can be a useful means of expanding the pedagogical possibilities concerning Western art music, where pedagogical experiences occur under the tuition of an expert in the field (Burwell, 2012). Possibly, one can argue that this role could be performed by the instrumental teacher, but this is also an arguable point. If, on one hand, it is recognized that higher education students develop a close relationship with their instrumental or vocal teacher (sometimes putting all the responsibility for their learning on the teacher’s shoulders), on the other hand, the importance of a multidisciplinary artistic and professional perspective in academic training, asserted by some authors mentioned in this chapter, reinforces the need to reconsider this aspect. The formalist code has somehow overshadowed the importance of expanding teaching practices through an overvaluation of the importance of a demonstration of instrumental and vocal abilities to the extent that musicians’ value these accordingly. However, and this has been further explored in the previous chapters, some musicians do not agree with this and seem to be more oriented towards approaching their practice as a critical act, rather than fulfilling expectations of a given code. This critical act does not reside in the ideal of replicating performances, but

74 DAO in music performance in counter statements of the world, in an engaged attitude with the artistic material, looking for clarification of its real meaning on the concert platform. This critical act is based on the assimilation of artworks, their interpretation and presentation through new artistic creations, as a re-signified reading based on their experience of the reference work. This is the read-write attitude proposed by remix culture6 (Navas, 2012; Lawrence, 2008), which is based on a justified treason, instead of tradition, oriented by ethical principles (Correia et al., 2018). This attitude seems to be crucial in the sustenance of artistic practices in a demanding and challenging professional environment. Indeed, current transformations in the music industries, such as the reduction of popularity of, and funding for, art music institutions, have challenged musicians to rethink formalist perspectives on musical production based on a ‘reading only attitude’ – criticized by Rosen (2012), as a means to bringing forward one’s artistic voice. In this scenario, artistic research gains its voice. However, the answer for how institutions can move from pedagogical approaches based on formalism to artistic research is still unclear. The points highlighted so far have sought to reveal that mentoring could be a possible pedagogical approach to fill in this gap, but, also, this is not enough. There is still a lack of research on how mentoring can be successfully introduced in higher education music institutions, i.e., individually or collectively, what its function would be, such as supporting career development or instrumental and vocal training. From our perspective, the answer for the last question would be the middle ground between both options. In fact, artistic training and career development are not necessarily disconnected components of music education in music departments or conservatoires. Making this intersection clear may be a possible function of mentoring, but also of artistic research. If we take into account some of the perspectives presented in Chapter 1, which emphasized the importance of a more expansive view concerning music performance, based on material thinkers who search for new repertoire, unpredictable behaviours and a personal relationship with the audiences, as well as an active attitude from the audience, then this new research orientation gains a new prominence in the discussion. Regardless of the perspective adopted, it is been recognized that artistic research is a vehicle for new insights and deconstructions of stratified views, not only for a specific repertoire, but for the artistic condition as a whole. However, it is worthwhile to discuss which kind of artistic research higher education music institutions are looking for: a model committed to musicological or ethnomusicological postulates, which overvalue formalism or encourage methodolatry, or a model committed to the needs of those who directly interested in engaging with it, i.e., those who may use research to reconfigure old mythopoetic narratives. Although it is not possible to provide a consensual and definitive answer for all these questions, the following two explanatory models may clarify and synthesize some of the challenges faced by students in their process of the materialization of DAO and how institutions may help them to overcome these challenges. These models depart from the three dimensions discussed in Chapter 1 to explain selfauthorship (the required capacity to achieve DAO).

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The first model concerns the challenges faced by musicians concerning their DAO (Figure 3.2). These challenges refer, essentially, to the difficulty in dealing with the formalist moral code. While attempting to achieve their DAO, various scholars argue that higher education music students seem to be held back by the epistemological, intrapersonal and interpersonal challenges. The first model refers to stratified and dichotomy discourses concerning musical practices. These discourses do not stimulate students to develop an internal belief system and goals. This scenario has been favoured by a historical discourse which emphasizes the importance of fulfilling the composer’s intentions, encouraging musicians to pursue an ideal of virtuosic technique and adhere to rules of tradition and historical authenticity in order to reach external expectations and conventions. Such rules seem to value specializing in a single instrument or vocal type and may lead musicians to incorporate actions that go against the characteristics of the instruments that are used. The second challenge refers to a lack of a personal connection with

Desired artistic outcomes: Challenges

Keeping the balance between to betray or to follow the formalist moral code

Interpersonal challenges

Difficulties in articulating values, ideas and resourcing in the professional environment

Figure 3.2 An explanatory model for the challenges related to desired artistic outcomes

76 DAO in music performance artistic practices. Finally, the third challenge refers to the difficulties in articulating values, ideas and resources in the professional environment. In order to counter such a scenario, DAO could be nurtured in higher education music institutions through engaged learning environments based on mentoring models of pedagogical supervision, as proposed by Renshaw (2009) and others. This involves stimulating emancipated performers to produce material thinking through artistic research projects. The following explanatory model (Figure 3.3) suggests that this process involves epistemological, intrapersonal and interpersonal support. Epistemological support refers to providing conceptual insights that can enrich artistic practices. The intrapersonal support concerns encouraging students while taking their previous experiences and future career perspectives into account. Finally, the interpersonal support refers to assisting students to find means to represent and disseminate their artistic work in(out) side academia.

Desired artistic outcomes: Promotion Adopting mentoring to stimulate emancipated performers to produce material thinking through artistic research

Interpersonal support

Assisting students to find out means to represent and disseminate their artistic work in(out)side academia

Figure 3.3 An explanatory model related to the promotion of desired artistic outcomes in higher education music institutions

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Such programmes should also seek to facilitate the development of evaluative expertise, which enables students to monitor and evaluate their own work while it is in progress. This involves regular meetings, ideally with somebody removed from the central learning process in a safe, non-judgmental setting (i.e., interpersonal support). Moreover, the environment here suggested should be conceptualized as transformative, reflexive and action learning-focused, shaped by critical and collaborative dialogue as well as by reflective conversations. According to this perspective, encouraging students to match their own preferences by adopting a multi-genre approach, i.e., including genres other than Western art music, would be of paramount importance. In engaged learning environments based on mentoring, the role of the artistic mentor might be to assist students to harmonize their DAO, taking into account their previous learning experiences, conceptualizations of performance and expectations involving a musical career. This perspective of mentoring focuses on: the individual’s long- as well as short-term development and takes into account the whole person rather than just focusing narrowly on transmitting a specific professional skill needed to meet an immediate challenge. Mentoring considers the individual in a broad context and recognizes the interdependence of personal and professional development. (Gaunt et al., 2012, p. 28) In other words, this perspective assumes that the mentor must ‘assist the learner to integrate as a fully functioning person within the society they inhabit’ (Garvey, Stokes & Megginson, 2009 p. 21). Moreover, other authors indicate that students do not necessarily build the ability to develop their own set of beliefs through one-to-one tuition (Gaunt, 2006; Burwell, 2005; Abeles, Goffi & Levasseu, 1992). ‘Their frame of reference can be relatively narrow, focused on the music and the musicians, leaving out the wider context of audience, and engagement with society’ (Gaunt et al., 2012, pp. 27–28). In this scenario, a longer trajectory of personal and professional development is largely absent. These perspectives make claims for specific environments where the promotion of self-authorship must be explored.

Summary This chapter has suggested that DAO are constrained by an existing formalist code that has shaped instrumental teaching-learning in higher education music institutions. This code emphasizes the importance of fulfilling the composer’s intentions rather than the performer’s DAO. The insights discussed in this chapter concerning the promotion of DAO in higher education institutions lead us to advocate the need to design engaged learning environments based on mentoring models of pedagogical supervision as proposed by Renshaw (2009) and others. This involves stimulating emancipated performers to produce material thinking through artistic research projects.

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Notes 1 The entire master class can be found at the following weblink: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Wt44_q73SGs&t=209s. 2 The Immoral Soul. 3 The Bologna Declaration refers to an agreement between 29 European countries to establish a European Higher Education area which supported the free movement of students, the acceptance of equivalent entry qualifications, and a standard approach to undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. See www.eurashe.eu/library/modernising-phe/ Bologna_1999_Bologna-Declaration.pdf. 4 These formulas represent: 3 (undergraduate) + 2 (master’s) + 3 (doctorate), and 4 (undergraduate) + 1 (master’s), respectively. 5 The six principles are to be a: (i) performer and artistic role model (creating musically rewarding learning environments); (ii) planner and organizer (setting objectives, monitoring and evaluating effective teaching and learning; (iii) communicator and pedagogue (developing students’ musical potential); (iv) facilitator (creating supportive and collaborative learning environments); (v) reflective practitioner (professional growth and development through reflective practice and self-evaluation); and (vi) advocate, networker and collaborator (contributing to the musical life of school, community and society) (Lennon & Reed, 2012). 6 Remix culture, sometimes read-write culture, is a cultural attitude in a society that allows and encourages derivative works by combining or editing existing materials to produce a new creative work or product.

4

Exploring desired artistic outcomes Performers’ perspectives (part I)

Introduction The first part of this book presented a theoretical perspective on the conceptualization, achievement, challenges and promotion of desired artistic outcomes (DAO) in the light of a broader view of music performance. This theoretical perspective presented DAO as created mythopoetic narratives that performers aim to materialize on stage. Such a materialized narrative is designated as material thinking. DAO are shaped according to the individuals’ background, artistic career choices and conceptualizations of music performance, and can be constrained by a submissive attitude concerning a formalist code, i.e., a set of values established in the nineteenth century that still influences pedagogical practices in higher education music institutions. In order to address this scenario, it is suggested that musicians should develop self-authorship, i.e., the capacity to develop an internal set of beliefs and identity that coordinates a mutual relationship with others, through mentoring programs that stimulate pedagogical practices based on artistic research that is itself oriented to produce material thinking. Exploring the pertinence of these perspectives empirically is somewhat problematic: as DAO are not always consciously considered by institutions and students in their practice, they could be difficult to observe and analyse. In order to overcome this obstacle, we decided to promote an initiative specially designed to encourage students to pursue their DAO so that the latter could be identified and analysed. This initiative consisted of an Artistic Music Performance Mentoring Programme (AMPMP). Basically, the programme consisted of a series of individual and collective meetings where students could reflect and discuss their own ideas and values regarding music performance in a safe and non-judgemental environment. This chapter presents the first part of a qualitative study based on a set of case studies, i.e., participating musicians who agreed to take part in this initiative. The chapter starts by describing how the programme was conceptualized and implemented. After this, a total of six case studies are presented, i.e., a pianist (n = 1), guitarists (n = 2), a percussionist (n = 1), a cellist (n = 1), and a songwriter (n = 1). The results are presented through a narrative that describes the perspectives of each participant concerning the points discussed in the previous chapters. The following

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section features the issues highlighted in each case study. The chapter finishes with a summary, where all the main points are synthesized.

Exploring desired artistic outcomes in music performance: developing the strategy The programme was divided into two phases. The first consisted of individual sessions which aimed to identify the students’ DAO, while the second consisted of collective sessions with the aim to discuss DAO collectively. Moreover, those who took part in the programme were encouraged to present a free artistic proposal, such as a set of concerts, where their values and ideas could be exemplified. These proposals could be presented in the music department; other academic venues, i.e., other departments on campus; or outside the university. The programme was implemented by the first author (acting as the mentor) during a period of one academic year and was open to all those interested in taking part. The 1st phase of AMPMP comprised individual sessions, where students could speak of their perspectives concerning DAO. This initial phase was used as a means to create rapport between the students and the mentor, as expected in mentoring interactions. The strategies initially adopted were conversations and outcome frames. Conversations were approached using The Wabash National Study of Liberal Arts Education Interview framework (Magolda & King, 2007). Outcome frames, which were used as an attempt to represent students’ DAO, were approached through audio-visual recordings of other performers brought to the sessions by the students. The 1st phase involved two or three meetings, depending on the level of relationship previously established between the mentor and the students. Based on the findings that emerged, the 2nd phase of AMPMP was prepared. The idea behind this phase was to promote a collaborative learning environment where students could learn from other experiences, particularly concerning the conceptualizations, challenges, achievements and nurturing of DAO. Moreover, this phase aimed to stimulate students to express their own ideas, justifying beliefs and choices, as suggested in the engaged learning environment proposed by Hodge, Magolda & Haynes (2009). Unlike its predecessor, the 2nd phase of AMPMP featured expositive seminars and workshops, where students could explore their artistic ideas in the light of the dimensions of DAO. Table 4.1 displays the agreed workshops and seminars. The selection of these topics followed the results of the 1st phase, which were enriched by students’ suggestions on possible issues to be discussed. The final schedule indicated a substantial concern with the social aspect of DAO, reinforcing students’ needs to overcome interpersonal and intrapersonal challenges, which were perceived to constrain a deep connection with an audience. During the 2nd phase, studying biographies of selected artistic models was widely explored as a means of enriching the discussions. Students and the mentor suggested examples of biographies in the sessions. Following the principles of

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Table 4.1 AMPMP: topics covered during the 2nd phase Seminars

Workshops

Conceptualizing music performance

Preparing to nurture DAO: building a portfolio career Preparing for expressing DAO: overcoming musculoskeletal training as an optimization practice

DAO: understanding the concept Understanding audiences: current trends in the Western art music canon

Preparing to express the DAO: strategies for effective and affective music communication (part I)

Connecting DAO and music industries I: perspectives on the required competences to achieve DAO in the music industries Connecting DAO and music industries II: how can DAO be achieved in the music industries?

Preparing to express the DAO: strategies for effective and affective music communication (part II) Reports on the Experience: reflections on the attempts to achieve DAO

engaged learning environments, where students and mentor share responsibilities, in this phase of the AMPMP, two participants gave the second and the fourth workshops (David and Raul), since both had expertise in those topics. A former higher education student (Julia) who was developing several artistic projects outside academia facilitated the last session. The mentor facilitated all other sessions in the 2nd phase. Apart from the phases previously described, all participants who took part in the individual and collective sessions were invited to present an artistic proposal (public performances) which exemplified their perspectives concerning DAO.1 In order to define this proposal, conceptualizations of performance, past experiences in music performance and artistic influences were taken into account.

Implementing the strategy The sessions of AMPMP started to be implemented in March 2014 in the music department of a Portuguese university. Despite the difficulties regarding available venues for conducting the sessions, the institution offered two specific rooms to carry out all the proposed activities expected in the programme. The head of the department facilitated access to audio-visual facilities, and all departmental needs were also respected. The mentor was responsible for contacting technical staff to request all the resources needed to carry out AMPMP. Once all the resources were facilitated, an induction was organized with the participants who agreed to take part in the programme. This session aimed to clarify the purpose and the foundations behind this initiative. The induction was conducted in order to let participants know how the idea emerged and who were responsible (i.e., the mentor and supervisors). All the ethical procedures

82 Exploring DAO (part I) adopted to conduct the programme were discussed and the consent forms were delivered to all participants. A special emphasis was given on AMPMP being a prototype, so that participants were expected to act as informants and fellow researchers, providing feedback concerning the activities proposed as well as the topics covered. The mentor proposed a draft of possible topics that could be discussed in the individual and collective sessions, namely: career planning, optimizing music performance, musical communication and portfolio. This first draft was drawn up on the assumption that the programme would have a six-month duration (i.e., all the activities, including public performances, would be concluded by the end of August 2014). Some students criticized this idea, suggesting that an artistic proposal would demand time to become realized. Participants suggested that they may require additional time to prepare their performances, taking into account the development of each artistic proposal. Based on this, students and mentor agreed to individual meetings for the 1st phase, respecting the availability of both participants and venues in the music department. Despite some difficulties in finding suitable dates to undertake the individual sessions, the public performances seemed to be the point of high interest of all participants, who frequently requested systematic opportunities for performance in higher education during the meetings. Once an initial schedule was agreed, the mentor became responsible for building a webpage for AMPMP on a social network (Facebook) and a pedagogical environment on an e-learning platform (Moodle). Such online resources were adopted to facilitate the dissemination of the artistic proposals developed within the programme (on Facebook) as well as the material used in the sessions (on Moodle). At the end of the induction phase, participants were requested to think about their artistic proposals. Following the principles of ownership described in the previous chapters, this decision was totally free for all participants, who were encouraged to explore new instruments, chamber music, and other artistic approaches (e.g., dance and theatre). At the end of this initial session, participants were also requested to think about possible themes to be discussed in the subsequent sessions, taking into account their interests regarding music performance and the music industries. On the other hand, the mentor became responsible for negotiating the proposed dates for the first internal performances with the head of the music department and the technical staff.

Case studies The most frequently discussed topics during the implementation of AMPM embraced four main aspects: (i) participants’ background (before higher education, in higher education and artistic influences); (ii) conceptualizations (perspectives on music performance); expectations (career and AMPMP); and (iii) DAO (conceptualizations, challenges, achievements and nurturing). For ethical reasons, musicians are here designated as Axel, Baden, Hector, Janis, Lucius and Raul.

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Case study 1: Lucius Lucius is a Venezuelan guitarist. He is 25 years old and is registered in the first year of a master’s degree in Western art music. Although his interest in arts began when he was still living in Venezuela, his musical studies only began when he moved to Portugal approximately 12 years ago. By the age of 16, Lucius decided to study guitar after a period of five years studying percussion at a Portuguese conservatoire. This decision was motivated by the desire to express his artistic ideas through an instrument closely related to his musical taste. Lucius reported a great interest in Hispanic music. In particular, traditional music and dance from Venezuela had aroused his interest since childhood. Background – before higher education: I started with percussion in a conservatoire here in Portugal. Five years later, I decided to change instrument, so I chose classical guitar. I was interested in playing an instrument through which I could really express my musical tastes. (1st phase/1st session) Background – artistic influences: I loved Hispanic music, especially music from Venezuela. In Latin America, there were traditional bands that used to play this repertoire. I remember I had an uncle who was a singer. He really appreciated traditional music from our country. This scenario has influenced me. (1st phase/1st session) After two years studying guitar at a Portuguese conservatoire, Lucius had his first experience as a guitar teacher; by this time, he had gone to university. Lucius recognized that such teaching activity had contributed to his growth, but also it had reduced his time spent practising. When asked about his artistic and professional development at university, Lucius demonstrated a certain degree of disappointment. He felt that such disappointment was still influencing him. Apparently, this feeling was associated with the perceptions of teaching styles adopted in the classes he was attending. In addition, Lucius criticized the pedagogical approach used in his guitar lessons. He recognized some sense of insecurity in deciding what to perform; this lack of security was responsible, according to him, for a sense of demotivation. Despite his beliefs that such a scenario is common in all higher education institutions, Lucius was still searching for a new pedagogical environment which could increase his motivation. Background – in higher education: I have had a negative experience of university. I found myself lost. Actually, I think I am still lost at this moment. Sometimes, I think things are looking up, but – at the end – when I go to the classes and I realize that the teacher has spent 10 minutes saying something that could be said in just four or five minutes, I go down again. All this stuff kills my motivation . . . . I get really upset with the exams! Sometimes, my teacher does not listen to me during

84 Exploring DAO (part I) the lessons, but he criticizes me in the same way, as if he had listened to my programme . . . . I think the scenario is the same in all institutions, but I would like to have a pedagogical environment that could increase my motivation. (1st phase/1st session) He decided to join the group of students in the AMPMP because of the opportunity to leave his ‘comfort zone’. He understood that the programme could encourage him to engage with different artistic practices as well as taking his music to other audiences than higher education students. Expectations – AMPMP: I found it would be a good opportunity to leave my comfort zone. I could explore other artistic approaches, taking my music to other audiences than students. (1st phase/1st session) The idea to leave his ‘comfort zone’ seemed also to be present in his perspectives on possible career paths. Lucius demonstrated an interest in participating in competitions in the future. He associated the construction of a consistent performance-based portfolio with prizes in competitions, so that such a path would help him to find new performance opportunities in Portugal, or even in other countries. Moreover, Lucius’s discourse seemed to indicate that competitions would be a source of financial support, even when such support is not clearly specified in his discourse. When asked about why he was not participating in guitar competitions at this moment, Lucius assumed that he was not yet prepared. He revealed his financial resources would not allow him to engage in such events. Moreover, his professional activity was seen as constraining the achievement of this aim. He felt that he spent considerable time teaching, which could be used for practice. Although his discourse does not clearly highlight this point, Lucius placed his activity as guitar teacher as a ‘second option’ in his expectations regarding music-making. However, he did not see himself as extremely focused on competitions. He just believed that this path was a professional demand and a requirement for all young performers in Europe. Regardless of his interest in competitions, Lucius would like to have an international experience as a higher education student. He manifested a willingness to follow his studies at a college in Germany. Lucius believe that both projects – the competitions and the period studying abroad – could be achieved at same time. Expectations – career: I would like to participate in guitar competitions because I think this would help me to earn money. At the same time, this could assist me to build an interesting curriculum. Moreover, competitions could open doors for new concerts here and abroad. . . . I don’t have time enough to prepare a specific repertoire for a given competition and, because of this, I would like to have a year off just for practice. I am not planning to do this now, but

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perhaps in two or three years. I would like to follow my musical studies in Germany. When I achieve this, my priority will be competitions. I am not an aficionado of competitions, but the European market requires that young musicians have prizes in their curriculum vitae. Nowadays, I think that a career involving music performance requires prizes, otherwise one would need a great amount of luck! . . . At this moment, I am not prepared to do it because I don’t have enough money. Moreover, I can’t study for the time required to achieve such a thing because I spend a lot of time teaching guitar in conservatoires. (1st phase/2nd session) Lucius’s perspectives on performance seem to be closely related to descriptions found in traditional musicology which place the performer as someone who transmits the idea behind a pre-established repertoire. In this sense, both perspectives, on career and performance, seem to be articulated. The following descriptions reveal such an articulation and DAO committed to the formalist code discussed in the previous chapters. Perspectives on music performance: Music performance is the recreation of a given repertoire. Such repertoire could be new or preestablished. (1st phase/1st session) DAO: The role of the performer is to put in practice the ideas written in the score. A good performance is achieved when both performer and audience are satisfied. (1st phase/1st session) Despite this apparent commitment to a formalist code, the ideal of innovation is also present in his discourse, mainly when Lucius describes his DAO with more details. He demonstrated great concern over the standardized format of concerts in Western art music, so that he believed that some change in this scenario is still possible. Lucius complained about most guitar concerts which are intended only for other guitarists, and this realization seemed to encourage him to find other types of audience for his concerts. He sought to develop a personal concept for his performances based on a multidimensional approach that was not only focused on repertoire, but on other aspects that could attract audiences. He exemplified such aspects by the use of different guitars with the same tuning in the same concert. Despite being interested in rethinking most aspects of the social event (e.g., communication with audience), he seemed to believe in some conventions, i.e., there is a conscious attitude of keeping the balance between treason and tradition, regarding the formalist code, in his discourse. This was explained by his desire to keep his performance practices associated with the Western art music canon, regardless of the innovation proposed. When talking about innovation, Lucius revealed a perspective on performance more centred on the social event than the demonstration of abilities.

86 Exploring DAO (part I) DAO: I would like to develop a concept for my concerts where I could bridge a repertoire and a scenario that would allow me to touch a new audience, not only musicians. . . . I would like to expand my audience. There is a need to open doors for people who are not guitarists. Sometimes I think we are just playing for other guitarists! . . . I would like to innovate using two guitars on the stage. Each guitar would be tuned differently. . . . I would like to innovate, but within the classical music world. I wouldn’t like to move away from the classical music environment, but – at the same time – I think I could promote some changes in this environment. Maybe in the dress that I wear, in the communication established with the audience and so on. I hate performing a concert using black clothes. I think all these things are very stratified. If a person who does not know classical music were to attend a concert, he/she would compare such a concert with a funeral. (1st phase/2nd session) Lucius also revealed a specific concern about his mental state at the stage. He assumed a need to find more opportunities to improvise and to approach errors and mistakes as a natural thing. Once more, his comments reveal an attempt to keep a balance between treason and tradition, so that such improvisation should not be associated, according to his view, with canonical repertoire. DAO – performers’ behaviour: I would like to feel more comfortable on stage. I like the improvisatory approach adopted by popular musicians. I miss this in classical music concerts. This is nothing to do with going on stage to improvise on a piece by Bach. . . . I don’t have enough knowledge to do this. I am talking about being free to make mistakes and let them go. (1st phase/2nd session) During the conversations, particularly in the 1st phase of the AMPMP, Lucius’ discourse brought to light some of the epistemological, interpersonal and intrapersonal foundations of self-authorship to the achievement of DAO. Regarding the intrapersonal foundations, he emphasized the importance of a deep connection with artistic practice and a unique artistic identity. According to him, every person has these features, so the challenge is in finding the means to put them forward. As a listener, Lucius revealed that he tried to find this feature in other performers, even when his exigency with technical and interpretation was recognized by him as high. Regarding the epistemological foundations, Lucius brought to light several aspects which seemed to be associated with the current demands in music industries, as discussed in previous chapters. He asserted that a performer must leave what he calls a ‘comfort zone’ in order to open the mind and discover new paths to follow. Moreover, he highlighted the importance of disciplinary agility to facilitate the connection with the world outside of academia, i.e., interpersonal capacities. According to him, a good professional standard might be achieved where these features (i.e., self-belief, respect for audience and disciplinary agility) are preserved. Lucius also believed that the

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audience must never be underestimated; this means performers should play what they believe and not ‘lie’ to the audience. According to him, this is a key aspect of the achievement of DAO. Achievements – epistemological: However, it’s also important to leave the comfort zone! Discover new paths! Sometimes we feel we are forcing the stuff, but at the end of the day, we realize we really enjoy what we are doing. (1st phase/2nd session) Achievements – intrapersonal: We should enjoy our activity, and I think the stuff should not be forced. . . . I like people who are able to express a personal capacity, something that makes you unique. When you listen to Ricardo Gallen, you realize that is different; he has a personal mark. The same thing happens with Julian Bream. I think it is what each person has to give as a performer. (1st phase/2nd session) Achievements – interpersonal: I think one should be able to establish relationships with other areas. Moreover, it’s important to believe in our music-making and also believe that audience should enjoy that. We shouldn’t underestimate the audience. One shouldn’t be afraid of performing Fernando Sor, wondering if that music is only for guitarists! Why should one think in such a way? . . . Most of us aren’t elite performers, and there are so many variables in a music career, I believe we can be good professionals earning money and doing a good job. (1st phase/2nd session) Despite all his interest in innovation and change in the concert format, such features have not yet been explored by Lucius because, according to him, such ideas would not be accepted in his home university. Moreover, a lack of knowledge on communicative skills was also reported during the conversations, as well as some levels of maladaptive performance anxiety, due to his difficulty in maintaining a balance between innovation and tradition. These problems seem to constrain Lucius in achieving some of his aims, particularly the establishment of a deeper relationship with the audience. Possible reasons listed by him for this epistemological challenge also include a perceived lack of time for practicing, a lack of conviction on what to perform and experience performing. Challenges – epistemological: Nowadays, I am feeling unable to decide what repertoire I should play and what pieces are more suitable for me. I would like to have consistent support from my teacher to make such decisions . . . . Although I would like to change some stuff, I know I can’t do it here, so I don’t feel comfortable. . . . I don’t have consistent experience communicating with an audience, and I think I am not able to manage performance anxiety. When I feel confident, I get confident during all my concerts, but until then it is unpredictable, so I don’t know how I would be on stage. Maybe the lack of practice and

88 Exploring DAO (part I) performance experience increases this problem. . . . Yes, I would need more performance experience! I should fill in this gap! I have attended so many courses, but there is a lack of performance experience in my curriculum vitae. (1st phase/3rd session) Apart from the epistemological challenges described previously, Lucius also revealed a difficulty in negotiating his DAO with current audiences for Western art music, i.e., interpersonal challenges, particularly with those people who do not have musical training. In the following discussion, he suggested that current social demands and tastes constrain the possibility of just sitting down for a while to listen critically to music. He suggested that sometimes the level of appreciation in a concert is measured by elements involved in a given performance other than the music itself. Apparently, his perspectives on innovation in concert formats do not include the exploration of other media. Challenges – interpersonal: There is an issue that is not so explored: the audience is not intellectually prepared for attending concerts. Most people go to the concert without being prepared to listen what is being played. I agree that innovation is good, but – at the end of the day – we are limited by current social taste. Nowadays, people are not used to [sitting] down in a chair to listen to music. We can use several other media in a concert, but this doesn’t mean that the audience will enjoy the music; maybe they liked the show as a whole, but not the music itself, you know? Although Lucius assumed general audiences do not understand the music performed in concert halls, the same audience should not be underestimated. This topic was also discussed in the collective sessions of the AMPMP, when Lucius reflected and discussed this point with his colleagues. He asserted that preconceived views of the potential of a given repertoire limit performers in achieving their artistic aims. Challenges – interpersonal: I think we underestimate the audience. We go on stage thinking that the audience wouldn’t like a Sarabanda because is quite slow. I go to the stage very concerned about playing a piece that I find wonderful, but everyone else says doesn’t work. My question is: who defines this? Sometimes, we underestimate the general audience, but at [the] same time, we overestimate opinions from other musicians. Concerning the nurturing of DAOs in higher education music institutions, Lucius complained of a perceived lack of critical thinking and also of creativity, which could facilitate the connection between the social aspect of performance and artistic training. He seemed to believe that a broader connection between

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practice and theory is needed in institutions. In addition, Lucius asserted a multidimensional approach to performance, which could encourage students to explore public advertisement and possible behaviours on stage. These suggestions seem to meet the perspectives of epistemological support regarding the nurturing of DAOs highlighted in the previous chapters. Nurture – epistemological: One is teaching guitar and suddenly a student asks: what does adagio mean? I think, OK, I know what adagio means, but any course at university stimulates me to question why that tempo in a certain period of history was called adagio! Why we are still using such an expression? This is just a little example based in the interpretative domain, but there are so many aspects that we could be encouraged to think about at university, from advertisement to attitude on stage. I think this would be more useful than just to overload classes with theory. (1st phase/2nd session) Although Lucius’s reports illustrated a great interest in deconstructing existing traditions of music performance in the Western art music canon, his capacity of keeping a balance between the formalist code was quite restricted at the beginning of his experiences during the AMPMP. This need was also restricting his potential to develop the intrapersonal foundation of self-authorship; here exemplified by the attempts to develop his personal brand, which was defined by him as something that distinguishes one performer from another. In the beginning of the AMPMP, Lucius was a student who faced epistemological challenges exemplified by his doubts concerning what repertoire he should play and how it should be played. Consequently, his reports revealed some insecurity concerning the acceptance of his artistic ideas, i.e., interpersonal challenges. Case study 2: Janis Janis is a Brazilian pianist. She is 26 years old and is enrolled in the first year of a master’s degree in Western art music. Janis started her musical learning at the age of 9 in a school in her native country. She described herself as a talented young pianist who from the first years demonstrated several musical skills. Apparently, her talent was recognized early on by her piano teacher, who realized that Janis was able to ‘get things quickly’. Janis said that her piano teacher demonstrated such enthusiasm that she offered her three piano lessons per week. She also encouraged Janis to participate in piano competitions. Background – before higher education: I started when I was very young, at the age of 9. By that time, I was enrolled in a very good school. In that school, I had a piano teacher who saw something special in the way I played because I used to get things very quickly. I used to play my repertoire and the repertoire that a colleague of mine would play. . . . I remember my father had a CD that I used to listen to. I used to play

90 Exploring DAO (part I) all the music from that CD by ear. So, when my piano teacher realized that, she encouraged me to participate in competitions. By that time, I was having three lessons per week. (1st phase/1st session) Janis’s interest in music seemed to be motivated by an environment fed by Brazilian music. Apparently, she was influenced by the music that her father used to listen to. Such influences guided her musical taste, so that Western art music was something that she just got in touch with at school. When asked about other musical influences, she brought up examples of boy bands, soundtracks and musical styles other than Western art music. According to her, this apparent gap between her musical taste and the music that she learned at school constrained the development of some musical skills (e.g., composition, improvisation, playing by ear). The time spent practising piano repertoire and the insecurity in discussing her musical tastes with her teacher were recognized by Janis as possible reasons for the disappearance of such skills. Nowadays, Janis feels that is too late to recover the abilities acquired in the past. Background – artistic influences: My father always listened to Bossa Nova and Tom Jobim. Because of him, I knew an album called ‘Mangueira’. I used to sing all the songs from that album. Concerning classical music, that was not my cup of tea! Such music was just introduced in the school. . . . I used to listen to boy bands and soundtracks, but I couldn’t talk about this with my piano teacher, so when I was at home, I played that stuff by ear! At that time, I was able to improvise and compose new music, but I didn’t have any idea of harmony. Nowadays, I think all those skills disappeared because I spent a lot of time playing classical music, so I didn’t have time to follow up this practice. When I decided to restart this practice, I felt I did not have enough time to recover those skills. (1st phase/1st session) When asked to explain why she was not comfortable talking to her teacher about her musical tastes, Janis described a traumatic experience in her native country when she was attending a higher education music institution. That experience included artistic repression. Janis said that even when a certain level of freedom was allowed, there was a great focus on the formalist code in the performance practices. Janis’ reports seem to indicate the existence of competition in that environment, which also constrained her artistic development. Background – in higher education: My piano teacher repressed me. I was afraid to talk with her about my taste for popular music, improvisation and composition. When I moved to another teacher, I had a certain degree of freedom, but when I proposed popular music, she didn’t accept! We go to college to play Beethoven sonatas and spend a lot of time practising that! I think this is not enough because it is necessary to find time to study many other disciplines. Because of all this, my

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pleasure in performance disappeared. I remember a competition that I took part in many years ago. I won first prize, but I was not happy with myself because my demotivation was so strong. . . . This was the trouble [the relationship with the teacher]. I think it was because her that l lost my sound. I was always recognized by my sound and people used to say it was so impressive to see a little girl with such ability. Nowadays, this feature has disappeared. . . . Everyone talked to me about that [sound]! They recognized that my sound was powerful! I remember that there was a competition between students in my institution. My colleagues used to say, ‘Janis played so well, but something has happened because she is not playing as she did before’. At that time, I almost gave up. (1st phase/1st session) The decision to follow a musical career was appointed by Janis as an important factor that increased such a feeling of pressure. In fact, external recognition was highly valued by her, even when this aspect was not clearly highlighted in her discourse. Nowadays, when asked about her expectation of a career in music, Janis seemed not have a clear and defined focus. On the one hand, she seemed not to have a problem in assuming her interest in connecting music and theatre. This interest emerged through a positive experience with a group in Brazil. In fact, Janis was attracted to the AMPMP because of her interest in exploring an artistic idea previously developed in her native country. On the other hand, despite traumatic experiences in higher education, the idea of being a concert pianist who participates in competitions is also viewed with approval. In addition, Janis demonstrated some interest in composition, since other people had encouraged her to invest some effort in such a path. However, she believed that music composed by her would not be accepted and recognized by others, mainly her peers. Such perceptions led Janis to believe that she was not good enough to invest time and effort in composition. Expectations – AMPMP: I decided to participate in the programme because I was interested in developing the same proposal that I was engaged in with my group in Brazil [musical theatre]. (1st phase/1st session) Expectations – career: This is so funny! I would love to be a concert pianist – the kind of pianist who participates in competitions! I stopped all these things because I felt it didn’t make sense to me. My current teacher knows that I want something bigger than this. I would like to take part in a musical theatre company. When I was living in Brazil, I was in a group that explored music and theatre. It was so nice! There was a good energy with those people, so I got very sad when I had to leave them to come to Portugal. . . . There are so many people who talk about these things to me [composition], but I think all the stuff that I compose is so traditional, that I gave up. I don’t compose atonal music or something like Ligeti, so I think that I am not good enough. (1st phase/2nd session)

92 Exploring DAO (part I) When asked about what musical performance means, Janis emphasized the importance of rapport between performers and audiences. In her opinion, performers must express preconceived musical ideas, taking into account their personal interests and values. She said that a good experience in musical performance happens when that ideal is achieved. Apparently, these perspectives emphasize the importance of social event instead of focusing on the realization of scores. Perspectives on music performance: Performance is an artistic manifestation whose final aim is communicating an affective idea through the manipulation of sounds. Performers must express their ideas taking into account their values and interests. A good performance experience is only lived when such communication is achieved. (1st phase/2nd session) This conceptualization of music performance seemed to shape Janis’s perceptions of DAO. Nowadays, she appeared to be interested in communicating in a certain way such that the audience would feel absorbed by her music. Apparently, a performance committed to technical standards is not enough for her, although the structure and mental states plays an important role in her DAO. In fact, avoiding unnecessary physical tensions and controlling technical demands are reported by her as artistic aims to be achieved on the concert platform. DAO: What is music? It is something that touches us, so I would like to achieve it on stage, touching the audience. I don’t want to be in a concert where the audience is thinking about their personal problems. I would like to see my audience enjoying the music, forgetting everything that disturbs them. (1st phase/2nd session) DAO: I want to solve all my technical issues. (1st phase/2nd session) DAO: I want to deal with my performance anxiety. I would never stop performing. (1st phase/2nd session) In order to achieve such a DAO on stage, Janis asserted that performers must follow their personal beliefs concerning what they really want to play, i.e., the intrapersonal dimension of self-authorship. Janis suggested that some performers play a certain type of music just to follow canonical traditions, i.e., they are more committed to the formalist code than to achieving a sense of connection to the audience. They look to be accepted by their counterparts. In order to overcome such conventions, she implied that there was a need for the development of a greater sense of maturity. Janis’ discourse does not suggest that a performer should avoid playing music from the Western art music canon, but rather should respect their musical and personal background. In addition, she highlighted the role of charisma in the communication established between

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performer and audience. In her view, this feature was not related with virtuosity, but with ‘something special’ that even a young performer can achieve. Achievement – intrapersonal: First of all, one should play what one believes. If you are playing Bach because you are being obliged, the result will not be good! I believe in pleasure: pleasure should exist in performance. I know too many people who avoid playing popular music because they think their counterparts would not accept them. . . . I think what I am expressing here is a very advanced thought, so one should have a good level of maturity to follow this path. In some cases, classical music is the music that a person listens to from childhood, but in most cases, people are familiar with other types of music . . . . I think a performer must have charisma because that is one’s energy that is there. Charisma for me is that very special feature that makes everyone stop to look and listen. Anyone can develop such a feature, even young performers. . . . Some time ago, there was a concert here where all the students played. I remember a girl who played in different way and I knew she had something special. Virtuosity is something that doesn’t impress me; I can see a lot of this in several performers. I prefer when I discover someone with charisma. (1st phase/3rd session) Janis recognized some interpersonal challenges that constrained her from achieving her DAO. Apparently, many reasons can be associated with such challenges. The first one is a difficulty in maintaining a balance between artistic practice and career development. She complained of the increasing demands that pressure young artists to develop management skills. Janis believed that such demands restrict artistic development and somehow keep musicians alienated from the professional market. Challenges – interpersonal: One should be multifunctional. It is important to develop a lot of skills. The big deal is: how can I find time to practise? We need someone to help us. Even I have lost a lot of opportunities because I didn’t know how to produce myself. . . . We are not prepared for producing ourselves. I was enrolled in a course on music industries, but it was only theory. In the end, students are just prepared to play, but they are not prepared to produce themselves. This is a problem that crosses generations! Our teachers were not stimulated to do this by themselves, so they can’t help us. (1st phase/3rd session) This challenge faced by Janis was particular addressed in a seminar promoted by the AMPMP, which was led by a former student (Julia) who reported her challenges after graduation. This workshop was highly valued by Janis, because the invited speaker talked about difficulties in the transition between academic and professional life. According to her, the development of some requirements for successfully navigating the professional market, such as the need for an

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Exploring DAO (part I) internal belief system, had not been explored when she was a student. Once Julia was not interested in a position in a higher education institution, she did not find the required support to assist her in the transitions between higher education and the professional life. Challenges – interpersonal: I identify myself with this book [Beyond Talent – Beeching (2004)]. I think the author described in a precise way the feeling that most higher education students have during the process of transition between higher education and the professional market. I usually say that I have 21 years of profession, but only five of career. It was only five years ago that I started to realize how a musical career works. When I left university, I didn’t have any information about the industries. I didn’t have an artistic identity, and I didn’t know that I need one to successfully navigate in the music industries. I didn’t have the tool to promote my artistic activity, so one could say I was completely blind. Since I was not interested in an academic position, as many of my colleagues were, I got lost. (Julia, invited former student) Concerning the interpersonal challenges, Janis also revealed a conflict between her desire for artistic freedom and the need to follow conventions regarding music interpretation, i.e., a difficulty in maintaining a balance between treason and tradition in her performance practice (see Chapter 3). According to her, the reasons for such difficulty reside in the concern in meeting external expectations. In fact, she seemed to be overwhelmed by a sense of an artistic tradition which did not allow non-elite performers to explore creative practices. She believed that higher education pianists are not renowned pianists as such, who are allowed to have problems and do what they want on the concert platform. Challenges – interpersonal: I think there’s a conflict, you know? My teacher said, ‘You have to play Bach, Chopin and Mozart in your exam’. When he said that, I asked, ‘Well, should I wear black clothes?’ and he said, ‘For sure’. I asked him about talking to the audience during the performance and he didn’t like the idea because the performance was an exam. When I realized that I couldn’t do anything, I stopped talking. I realized I would be forced to do all the things that he wanted. (1st phase/3rd session) Mentor: In your personal view, what is composition? Janis: Well, I think it is a part of the composer, so I am afraid to change something. I don’t want to do that. Mentor: Don’t you want or don’t you feel comfortable? Janis: I do not feel comfortable. Mentor: Would you do it if you could? Janis: Yes, I think so. (1st phase/3rd session)

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Challenges – interpersonal: When I started to realize that music was my profession, everything changed. Before that, music was a pleasure. I used to think ‘It is so nice! I am 13 years old and I am appearing in a TV show’. Now I think there is a weight, you know? I always had positive results, so I should continue to achieve such results; people expected this from me. But how could I do it with a teacher who didn’t give me support? (1st phase/1st session) Challenges – Interpersonal: Nowadays, my biggest problem is technique. There are some colleagues who ask, ‘Where is your technique?’ . . . I think in my personal case; all this happens because I am very concerned with what people expect from me . . . This is funny! There are so many musicians who make a lot of mistakes and they are fantastic [at] the same time. Sometimes, we see them as extraordinary human beings, and we think that they do not suffer from maladaptive anxiety and things like that. Some days ago, I was very happy when a friend of mine said that Horowitz didn’t play for several years due to performance anxiety. I thought, ‘Oh, my God; he was a human being, like me!’ The problem is that I think they are superstars so they can do what they want! (1st phase/3rd session) Based on her experience as a student, Janis believes that higher education music institutions should expand their teaching approaches to cover other artistic possibilities in order to nurture students’ DAO. She also suggested the importance of promoting a deeper connection with musical industries. Nurture – interpersonal: I think it’s important to expand teaching practices to cover other artistic possibilities; people can’t be doing things in the same way. Sometimes students want neither to follow a career as a classical performer nor as an instrumental teacher. I think it would be important to promote a deeper connection between institutions and the professional market! (1st phase/3rd session) The scenario described by Janis suggests that even talented young musicians could face challenges in reaching their DAO, mainly when external expectations seem to overcome artistic interests. Despite her focus on the social dimension of DAO, which was illustrated through her interest in communicating with an audience, Janis demonstrated a great concern with technique, which consequently seemed to affect her mental state on stage. The abilities of composing, improvising or even playing by ear were apparently suppressed by the need to be accepted by her counterparts. Such suppression was also fed by the need to follow existing conventions in musical interpretations. In fact, Janis reported a difficulty in maintaining a balance between treason and tradition, regarding the formalist code, in her practice. Now, Janis suggests that higher education music institutions could expand their teaching practices to cover other artistic possibilities than Western art music. The desire to integrate other

96 Exploring DAO (part I) artistic possibilities in her music-making (e.g., theatre) could represent a search for such musical practice that could represent her self-belief and charisma (i.e., intrapersonal capacities). Janis’ discourse revealed a need for a pedagogical approach whereby artistic research could somehow be valued. Her interest in moving from an established to a new repertoire, from a predictable to unpredictable concert model, from an impersonal to a more personal relationship with the audience, and from a passive to an active audience, revealed a search for new paths for music performance. Case study 3: Hector Hector is a Brazilian guitarist. He is 25 years old and is enrolled in the first year of master’s degree in Western art music. His interest in music, particularly in guitar, arose when he was 13 years old. Initially, he was just interested in music as a hobby and during this time his artistic influences were mainly rock bands. After a period playing guitar in groups with his friends, Hector discovered Western art music. Apparently, this musical genre fascinated him. Background – before higher education: I used to play with my friends in rock bands, but when I discovered classical music, I became fascinated. I started to study guitar and because [of] this, I left the bands. (1st phase/1st session) Background – artistic influences: Nirvana was the band that stimulated me to learn music. Also, I used to listen to some guitarists such as [Joe] Satriani, Steve Vai and Jimi Hendrix. (1st phase/1st session) At the age of 19, Hector went to college in his native country. During this period, he was engaged in regular and deep practice; therefore, his main concern was artistic development, rather than other professional skills such as networking. According to him, there was a good environment for studying music in that college, and Hector counted on the help of two teachers. He described his experience in higher education as positive because of the opportunities to develop some sense of autonomy. According to him, such autonomy was also encouraged by one of his teachers who stimulated Hector to find out ‘what made sense for him’ instead of following a path assumed as easier. During his time in higher education in Brazil, Hector had the opportunity to participate in several courses and workshops, which allowed him to get in touch with some worldwide performers, as well as develop an awareness of existing perspectives concerning guitar pedagogy. At this time, he also decided to participate in competitions. Apparently, he was attracted by the pedagogical benefits behind such events. However, from his point of view, the experience in competitions increased his maladaptive performance anxiety, which was felt mainly before he got on stage. Hector recognized that even now such feeling constrains his music-making.

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Background – in higher education: When I was a fresher, I practised as much as I could; I was so very concerned with my development that I didn’t care so much about my professional future. . . . There was a good environment. Sometimes they [teachers] didn’t agree with each other, so I had to make my own decisions. One of my teachers encouraged me to reflect on why I should do things in a certain way instead of another. . . . I wanted to open my mind, and I found that competitions would stimulate me to deepen my practice. . . . When I was in competition, the minutes before the concert were a source of panic. When I was on stage, it was nice, but before, [it] was really problematic. It was quite difficult to perform. (1st phase /1st session) Hector was attracted to the AMPMP because he recognized that the programme would be a good chance to reflect on his conceptions of music-making. Moreover, he had just arrived in Portugal when the AMPMP was announced, so this initiative was a chance of getting to know other colleagues. Expectations – AMPMP: I had just arrived at the department when the programme started, so it was a good chance to get to know other colleagues. Moreover, I found the idea very interesting, so I realized that this programme could help me to rethink my conceptions. (1st phase / 1st session) During the conversations, Hector revealed some concerns with his career. He seemed not to have a clear plan for his professional future. Despite this, there were some interests in his discourse which could be an initial source for defining a professional project. First, he demonstrated an interest in collaborating in the dissemination of Western art music. Second, he appeared to be interested in using performance as a means to attract new audiences. Hector exemplified his plan by describing a project conceptualized by a colleague. Such an artistic proposal consisted of arranging concerts in poor neighbourhoods where people do not have access to paid concerts. Besides his ideas concerning music performance, Hector also demonstrated an interest in teaching. He seemed open to expanding his teaching activities, including topics other than guitar. Although teaching was not assumed to be his main aim, Hector did not expect to make a living as an artist. Expectations – career: Even nowadays, these things happen! I don’t have a clear plan of my future, so what I try to do is to be prepared, as much as I can. On the one hand, this is an advantage, because you are very concentrated on what happens, instead of conjectures. On the other hand, I think this can be problematic for a career, because professional choices require planning. In our business, networking and planning are very important. . . . There was one guy in my home university who used to do this [social projects]. I used to visit some urban slums just to see

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DAO: I would like to stimulate the audience to know about the composer. . . . I would like to expand the artistic possibilities, engaging in a project that involves other forms of art, such as theatre and dance. It could be a very attractive alternative. (1st phase/1st session) Hector believed that his DAO can be achieved, at least from his point of view, through a deep connection with the music performed, i.e., an intrapersonal foundation of self-authorship. He did not assert that music should be played according to all his aesthetic preferences. He thought that performers should believe in the music that they are playing. Hector highlighted that this connection could be maximized through an accessible repertoire. This perspective seems to place satisfaction as a key element in artistic activities. Achievements – intrapersonal: In my case, I have to believe in what I do; I should be very satisfied in terms of quality. . . . I think sometimes it is preferable to play easy repertoire than try to play all styles just to say that you’re able to do that. At the end of the day, things looks like always the same in such circumstances . . . you can’t get the narrative. . . . I don’t think that one should play in a way that I would expect to listen. If I can see a performer is being true to him/herself, then I think it’s fine! (1st phase/1st session) Despite this, Hector referred to some difficulties in reaching his DAO. He recognized a lack of concern in establishing a relationship with the audience, i.e., interpersonal challenges, even when his concept of performance indicated the importance of such a feature. Although he seemed to be conscious of his DAO, when he says that this is able to formulate a narrative, the tools to materialize it were not clear for him. As is the case with many other musicians, Hector seemed to be more focused on realizing the composer’s intentions than expressing his own artistic ideas, and thus the balance between treason and traditions is somehow undermined. Moreover, a lack of capacity for self-assessment was also present in his discourse. Challenges – interpersonal: Musically speaking, I think that sometimes I understand and I am even able to formulate a concept, but at the end of the day, I feel I am not able to achieve what I want. It is something that just doesn’t happen and I don’t know why. . . . I don’t care about the audience, so they probably will not think about me. If I never thought about the audience, then they would probably realize this lack of concern. Sometimes this is secondary or something that I just think about a few minutes before the concert. I was always focused only on the score and on the composer’s intentions. (1st phase/1st session) Nowadays, when higher education is a topic of reflection, Hector says that even with his good experience, some aspects still seem critical, mainly concerning

100 Exploring DAO (part I) the nurturing of DAO. He thinks that students need to be encouraged to develop critical thinking and autonomy to make their own decisions; they need epistemological support. Talking about his experience of courses and workshops, he recognized that some worldwide performers seemed to be less concerned with students’ development than unknown teachers. Hector felt also that some teachers seemed to invite students to reproduce musical ideas instead of provoking critical reflections. Despite concerns with artistic commitments, which he recognized as fundamental for a musical career, networking and planning were perceived as equally important in higher education, i.e., for interpersonal support. Hector realized that, in his musical journey, such skills were not so much explored as artistic development. Nurture – epistemological: There were some deficiencies. I would not mention the names, but I can say there are some teachers who just encourage students to play in a certain way without explaining why. It is just something like: ‘playing like this or playing like that’. I think this attitude does not help the student to make decisions. . . . Sometimes, lesser-known teachers are more concerned with your learning than worldwide performers. At least I could see this through my experience. (1st phase/1st session) Nurture – interpersonal: I think that artistic excellency is of paramount importance, but other competencies are still necessary. Higher education institutions should encourage students to develop these competencies. There are so many aspects to a musical career that one can’t restrict things. A performer should play very well, but it’s important to leave the practice room; otherwise, things will not happen. (1st phase/1st session) The recognition of performance as a means of communication seems to shape Hector’s DAO. An interest in developing a solid narrative for his concerts was appointed as a strategy to reach a deeper relationship with his audience. Hector seems to be interested in engaging with other forms of art in order to develop such a narrative. Concerning the achievement of DAO, his discourse seems to meet descriptions of artistic integrity. However, the promotion of such internal conceptualization seems to be constrained by the lack of epistemological and interpersonal skills that restrict his artistic expression and consequently the connection with audience. Despite his positive experience of higher education, his discourse also suggests a lack of epistemological and interpersonal capacities regarding the nurturing of DAO. Case study 4: Baden Baden is a Brazilian violoncellist who concluded a master’s degree in Western art music. He is 33 years old and is currently concluding a performance certificate at a French conservatoire. His musical studies started in his native country

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when he was 7 years old. After some time studying horn, at the age of 17, Baden decided to study cello. The friendly environment at the music school, instead of musical taste, motivated this decision. Background – before higher education: At that point, I was studying music because my friends were involved in this. By that time, I didn’t have a personal taste in music. . . . I did not really reflect on the decision to learn an instrument: it was just something that happened. (1st phase/1st session) Despite this, Baden seemed to have a great passion for music. He described himself as having an affection for popular Brazilian music. Baden said that such a passion was so much a part of his background that it was stronger than his taste for any other music style. Apparently, this repertoire was clearly associated with good experiences from in his childhood. Background – artistic influences: I can’t explain. The fact is that I always listened to this [popular Brazilian music], so it is in my background. It is something that always gives me a good feeling. I loved spending some time with my father just listening to Brazilian music. That was funny because my colleagues at school listened to heavy metal and I was so different in this respect. . . . Brazilian music is so strong for me that I just listen to it! I can’t say I like another type of music in the same way. (1st phase/1st session) Like other students in the AMPMP, Baden’s period in higher education seemed to be affected by the teaching/learning relationships established with his teachers. Apparently, he was not encouraged to develop a set of beliefs and critical skills. He indicated such a lack as a key factor which had constrained his musical and professional development. From his point of view, this was a gap that seemed to affect his capacity for making decisions and doing things by himself, even nowadays. Background – in higher education: My teachers used to say: ‘You should play this’ or ‘You should play that’. So, it was not clear enough why things worked in such a way. . . . Except for my first teacher, who was a very good teacher, my experience with higher education teachers worked in the following way: all the things that I played were ‘right’ or ‘wrong’. They neither explained why such things were right or wrong, nor gave strategies to correct it. I felt that my path was marked by persistence and a great amount of personal effort to overcome these problems. (1st phase/1st session) Baden was currently unemployed and so he decided to accept the invitation to take part in the AMPMP. The programme attracted him because of the

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performance opportunities offered. Since Baden left university, such opportunities have become quite reduced. Expectations – AMPMP: I would like to perform. I am not performing currently, so I am really interested in doing something to feed the practice that I love so much. (1st phase/1st session) Baden said that his musical dream was to take part in a popular Brazilian music group. He believed that the experience of playing in such a group could give him more freedom to experiment than he was used to in Western art music. Baden had artistic models that inspired him in following this path. However, he believed that it was quite late in terms of his age to play such music. Baden said that he did not have enough of a musical background to engage in such a repertoire because he had never studied popular Brazilian music at university. Due to this perception, Baden decided to study ‘classical Brazilian music’. He believed that, as a classical musician, his artistic dream should be shaped according to his possibilities. Expectations – career: What strikes me is that when we talked about the AMPMP, I immediately thought: my dream would be playing in a group dedicated to popular Brazilian music. . . . When I am listening to Brazilian music, the following question arises in my mind: how could my cello fit into this music? I would love to play this type of repertoire. I spent a lot of time wondering how it would be playing in a group dedicated to this. I think popular music gives a certain type of freedom that I can’t find in classical music. . . . Jacques Morelenbaum is a good example! He is not a great violoncellist, but I find extraordinary his initiative in joining these two worlds. (1st phase/1st session) Mentor: Why don’t you do the same? Baden: Because nowadays I am on another path. I am a classical musician who is focused on a classical repertoire. I am not able to play samba, and that is funny because I have listened to popular Brazilian music my entire life, but I am not able to dance. Taking into all this account, I decided to play classical Brazilian music. (1st phase/1st session) When asked what music performance meant to him, Baden recognized it as an artistic manifestation, where communication played an important role. According to him, performers must express a musical idea, taking into account their own beliefs and desires. Following this line of thought, Baden believed that a positive experience is successfully achieved when both performers and audiences achieve their expectations. He exemplified his point of view by remembering a positive experience during a concert some time ago. According to him, this experience impacted on his life due to the perception of a good affective communication established with the audience. Nevertheless, Baden believed that on that occasion,

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his performance was not good enough, at least in terms of technique. Moreover, he recognized that a good performance should promote a high sensation of pleasure in the performer. In fact, his descriptions indicated a proximity between ideals of good performance and flow experience. According to him, the loss of a sense of time and space can be recognized as symptoms of this positive condition. He seemed to experience such a feeling when he was practising, but his comments did not include such experiences in front of an audience. Perspectives on music performance: Music performance is an artistic manifestation whose aims are to touch an audience through sound. The performer’s role is to express their ideas, taking into account their own beliefs and desires. A good performance can only be achieved when both performers and audience are satisfied. . . . I remember some time ago, during a lesson here at the university when the teacher asked, ‘What was your best performance experience?’ I think my best performance experience was that one when I finished the concert and some people in the audience were crying. Curiously, in that concert I didn’t play so well, but the people were affected in the same way. . . . A good performance is when I feel good; when I have pleasure in music-making. It is when the confidence is there when I lose a sense of time, when I forget I am on stage. That is a good performance for me. This happens when I am practising in my room! (1st phase/1st session) Despite his discourse emphasizing the role of communication in music performance, Baden’s descriptions concerning his DAO were more focused on the structure than other dimensions. His perceptions of what should be achieved on the concert platform were based on such descriptions as ‘technically perfect’, ‘playing all the notes right’ and ‘avoiding mistakes’. His discourse clearly indicated the technical and interpretative elements that he expected to cover. DAO: As a musician, I think I always approach music performance from a technical perspective. My evaluation takes into account whether I have played out of tune or whether my articulation and my phrasing were played correctly. In the end, my concept is based on all these matters. . . . In order to approach the concert platform, a performer should have all concepts defined – I mean structural aspects. My teacher says that I should play vibrato in a given way, so I should think about that. I can’t play vibrato just in the way that I think sounds good, because I must be aware of what I am doing. One should be conscious of decision-making. It is important to justify why things are played in a given way. . . . My first concern is playing everything correctly. When I achieve this, it’s good; otherwise, it is not. (1st phase/2nd session) Concerning the achievement of DAO, Baden recognized the role of honesty and self-giving in music performance. According to him, such elements are

104 Exploring DAO (part I) fundamental for defining a good performer, who should be concerned with a personal message, i.e., the intrapersonal foundation of self-authorship, instead of technical and interpretative dimensions, contrary to his own perceptions of DAO and music performance. Achievements – intrapersonal: I definitely admire the self-giving of a performer, when one believes in what is being done. This is something I really value! I think this is more important than technical and interpretative aspects. I think the performance should be natural, so one can’t lie to the audience. There are some performers that you can see are lying, but the audience will realize this one day because there is no enjoyment in such performances, just unnecessary tension. . . . I think one should be honest, trying to give one’s best! Of course, everyone has limitations and it is important to know what you can achieve. Because of this, I think it’s very important that one understands personal feelings in order to convey a coherent musical message. (1st phase/2nd session) Following this same line of thought, Baden also suggested that, in competitive environments, the only way to achieve DAO was to find a distinguishing feature that revealed something new to audiences. Apparently, this view seemed to clash with perceptions of the importance of keeping to established conventions on performance. Achievements – intrapersonal: We should be able to identify what needs to be improved. We need to innovate in some way, so we can’t insist on doing something that everyone else is doing. . . . I am trying to say we need a personal mark, you know? Mainly when one is starting a new project. If I am interested in making a string quartet, then I need to find out what makes my quartet different. There are a lot of outstanding string quartets around the world, so why would someone be interested in my quartet? One way to achieve this is seek out new repertoire. (1st phase/2nd session) When asked about the challenges that constrain the achievement of his DAO, Baden demonstrated a great lack of confidence in his skills. He revealed an absence of perception of what to achieve with his artistry, i.e., an epistemological challenge. This lack of communicative intention appeared to be closely related to his somewhat excessive focus on technical and interpretive skills. Baden believed that he did not have the required skills to perform demanding repertoire. This perception seemed to affect his confidence in his own artistic capacities. Moreover, he assumed the need for a patient teacher who would justify his opinions. He seemed to be looking for a teacher who could be responsible for answering his questions on what is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ in music performance, i.e., paradoxically, he was looking for the same environment that

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he criticized in his previous higher education experience. This particular need appeared to be reinforced due to a recent negative experience involving dialogue in his cello classes. He said that his teacher became furious when he questioned him about the reasons behind a given musical instruction. Additionally, Baden revealed a great concern about reaching other expectations, so that this concern also restricted him from achieving what he sought both artistically and professionally. Even his participation in the AMPMP was a source of apprehension to him, due to possible opinions formed by the mentor concerning his way of playing the cello. Challenges – epistemological: This is big deal for me: to find out the aims or what I am trying to express with my music. Sometimes, I think I can express something special. I can’t say why I want this or why I want that. . . . I don’t look for other dimensions in musical performance than technique, because this disturbs me. If I am able to play all the passages correctly, then the concert is good; otherwise, I get frustrated. I don’t think about the audience, because the first thing that comes to my mind is: have I played everything correctly? . . . I think I have several technical limitations. I can’t play fast passages and, because of this, I feel I have to practise scales and arpeggios every day. All these things disturb me. . . . Sometimes, when I have to play something fast, a bad thought comes and says that I am not able to do it. If I were a more confident, such thing wouldn’t happen. . . . I think my behaviour on stage should improve. I think I need more confidence, particularly regarding technical aspects. (1st phase/2nd session) Challenges – interpersonal: This is something I miss. Sometimes, I am practising and I make a certain decision. I know what I am doing is correct, but I feel I need someone to confirm what I am doing, someone to say: ‘Yes, you are right, this is correct!’ . . . In my personal point of view, ‘correct’ is what my teacher says. When one is a student the final decision is made by the teacher, so when I am practising, I try to think, ‘Well, what would he say about this?’ . . . I guess I need to find a patient teacher to teach me harmony, analysis and all these matters that were not explored before. . . . He (current teacher) got really upset! I just tried to ask why the passage should be played in a given way, but he felt as if I was challenging him, you know? . . . We make music, so we need an audience. However, we shouldn’t care so much about what the audience would think about us. I think this is a big deal for me. . . . I get very concerned with others’ opinions. Some time ago, when you said we would have performance in the AMPMP, I thought you would think: ‘How was Baden able to obtain a master’s degree in performance playing in such way?’ I know this is not the best way of approaching these things, but it is how I feel. I think I shouldn’t disappoint anyone. (1st phase/3rd session)

106 Exploring DAO (part I) Concerning the nurturing of DAO in higher education music institutions, Baden felt that the educational system should be reformed. There is a need for more openness and the stimulation of self-reflection, i.e., epistemological support. He felt that his professional development could be different if he had someone encouraging such reflection and discussion. Baden complained of an excessive focus on instrumental lessons instead of a broader musical development. According to his experience, other modules and courses seemed to be neglected in higher education music institutions. This neglect was caused by a common belief of both students and teachers: the instrument is of higher importance than everything else. Nurture – epistemological: The system failed badly on this point. You have a structure, so you should do things as expected in that structure. There was no openness for discussion and no one asked me, ‘Have you ever thought of your artistic identity?’ or ‘What do you expect to achieve as a musician?’ I didn’t think about these things by myself; my teachers didn’t encourage me to have such self-reflection. . . . There was this mentality: one should be focused on the instrument and that was all! Even the teachers followed this idea. I will tell you a little story: once I was in a musical perception class and suddenly the teacher just opened a book and started to define what a metronome is. My colleagues and I started to laugh! That was unbelievable! We were higher education students! For sure, all of us knew a metronome. I think this little story can help you realize how lessons used to be at that time. . . . At the end of the day, all young musicians want to perform, so I didn’t care much about what I would like to do in the future, nor why I was making music. Because of this, I feel there is a gap in my professional development that I should fill. (1st phase/3rd session) Apparently, there was a mismatch between the conceptualization of music performance proposed by Baden and what he aimed to achieve on stage. His DAO seemed to be clearly shaped by the formalist code, particularly in his search for virtuosity. Possibly because of this, it was hard for him to achieve a balance between tradition and treason concerning this point. Despite these issues, Baden believed that artistic integrity is of paramount importance for the achievement of DAO. The reports here presented seem to indicate that he was seeking a set of beliefs in order to harmonize his identity with the external world (i.e., self-authorship). This perception placed Baden as a student who was still depending on external formulas to support his ideas. His example shows that this gap is not the failure of a given institution in particular: he studied in three different countries with different teachers. Moreover, his report also shows that this gap is not only a challenge for younger students: Baden is 33 years old and he had concluded his master’s degree. This example illustrates the importance of fostering self-authorship. Particularly in this case, this capacity could help the student to find a repertoire in which the technical challenges could be managed, instead of restricting the communicative potential.

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Case study 5: Axel Axel is a percussionist. He is 33 years old and is enrolled in the second year of a PhD programme. He started his musical trajectory at the age of 8, playing guitar by ear. From that time, Axel has demonstrated an ability in improvising and creating music and was influenced by rock bands. Axel used to search for recordings of famous bands in order to find repertoire to learn by ear. He also used to record rock and roll shows, and that practice was a great stimulus which encouraged him to invest time and effort in music. Background – before higher education: I was 8 years old when I picked up a guitar for the first time. That guitar did not have strings, but I wanted to play or make a ‘noise’ anyway. I found a toolkit where my father used to store some fishing equipment. I took a single fishing line and I placed it on my guitar. That sounded nice, so I began learning some little pieces. When my father saw my efforts, he decided to buy a set of strings for me. Once he understood that I was really engaged in learning that instrument, he gave me all the support I needed. (1st phase/1st session) Background – artistic influences: I have a sister who used to listen to rock and roll at that time, . . . so I began to listen to her albums, and as long as I did that my curiosity increased. The music that I listened to was Guns N’ Roses, Skid Row and other hard rock bands, you know? I liked to record shows that were broadcast on TV. This practice was a great stimulus for me at that time. (1st phase/1st session) After spending some time playing guitar in rock bands with his friends, Axel decided to begin his college education. Because of his lack of background in classical guitar, he decided to apply for a music education degree, where the performance practice was not the core. However, he felt that this course would not reach his expectations to become a professional performer and so he decided to learn a new instrument from scratch in order to move onto a course based on performance. Following the advice given by some friends, he decided to apply for a bachelor’s in music/ percussion. In his first attempt to be accepted on such a course, he was successful. Despite being enrolled in a degree in performance practice, Axel faced some challenges regarding his artistic profile. He did not have background in Western art music. Besides this, his taste for rock and roll seemed not be valued in the institution. On the one hand, Axel felt that conversations about rock and roll would not be welcome in the college. On the other hand, the friends who played with him in the band seemed not to be interested in Western art music. Axel described this phase as a ‘limbo’, where his identity was quite blurred due to the environmental conditions. He criticized the apparent mismatch between the musical environments that surrounded his musical journey. He believed that this feature negatively affected his studies in higher education, since he was not encouraged to explore his own artistic voice and ideals.

108 Exploring DAO (part I) Background – in higher education: That was funny; I think it was like being in limbo, you know? I went to university and I had to learn classical music, so I had to love that, otherwise the institution would not accept me. . . . If I just loved and played rock and roll, I couldn’t go to college to study music. I could perform rock and roll with my band, but I had to learn that new language [classical music] at the same time. . . . In the end, I could not talk with my friends about the music that I used to listen to at university. At the same time, my colleagues would not understand if I approached them saying, ‘Did you listen to that new solo performed by [Guns N’ Roses guitarist] Slash?’ It would not make sense! (1st phase/1st session) Axel was attracted to the AMPMP by the opportunity to present his own compositions, as well as by an opportunity to reflect on his own artistic intentions. Expectations – AMPMP: I think the programme could allow me to present my own compositions. Moreover, it will be a good opportunity to reflect on my own artistry. (1st phase/1st session) Axel said he understood music performance to be an artistic manifestation, where sound is the core element in the communication established between performer and audience. According to him, a good experience in performance is achieved when the performer masters all elements involved in such an event and reaches such a communication. Perspectives on music performance: Music performance is an artistic manifestation where performers communicate their musical ideas mainly using sound sources. . . . The performer’s role is communicating his artistic intentions, so that a good experience in performance depends on the performer’s capacity to master the elements involved in such an event. (1st phase/1st session) During the collective discussion in the AMPMP programme that was focused on the ontological aspects of music performance, Axel sought to assert a position that did not dichotomize musicians and artists. This dichotomy had deeply affected his artistic activity due to his interest in experimenting with different artistic approaches. Perspectives on music performance: Axel: I have thought about these matters. What is a musician? What is an artist? Is a musician an artist? Sometimes we establish such differences saying this guy is an artist, but that one is not; he is only a musician. I think in other artistic domains rather than music such a distinction doesn’t happen . . . I can’t see this division in other artistic domains! Visual artists can be painters or sculptors, or they can even work with films. At the end, they

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define themselves as artists. In music, this distinction is very defined. If you are musician, you should only play an instrument. My question is: what about those guys who are interested in connecting a passion for photograph with music-making. Are they musicians or artists? (2nd phase/2nd session) Axel’s DAO was very present in his reports to the point of approaching career planning and his artistry as the same thing. He was clear that his current main interest was in composing his own music, experimenting with new instruments and connecting his sources of influence (rock and roll, and classical music). Axel said he would like to promote a concert where the audience could have a wider view of performance through the integration of other media (e.g., visual projection and lights). According to him, he had not had this opportunity when he was a graduate student in Brazil. DAO: I would like it if the audience had a wider experience of what music is. Music is the most important, for sure, but I would like it if people could leave the concert hall remembering not only the music that was played, but the other elements as well. . . . I want the audience to have a more sensorial experience than just sitting down listening to music. If I were able to achieve this outcome, I would be very happy . . . Why shouldn’t one mix things? Why should one make such classifications? This is not only an assemblage, but it is what I try to achieve as a musician. This connection wasn’t encouraged when I was a graduate student. (1st phase/1st session) The concerns in creating rapport, illustrated in the conceptualization of performance proposed by Axel, seemed to meet his perceptions of DAO. Axel revealed in the conversation a desire for expressing an affective message harmonized with his background and beliefs. He was interested in playing a certain type of music where the energy of rock and roll and the refinement of classical music could be combined. His concerns seemed to be driven by an interest in understanding how two particular elements could be successfully conjugated together: timbre (classical music) and groove (rock and roll). Moreover, Axel brought to the conversation another concern: amplifying the sound of his performance. He said that such amplification might be essential to instigate reactions in the audience, in order to move their attention to other aspects in the concert than aesthetic admiration. DAO: I thought about these things some days ago: the features which would make me happy at the end of my concerts. I think it would be to reach my desired artistic outcome. Due to my recent involvement with composition, I could say this outcome would be illustrated by the interest of the audience in my artistic work. If I was able to reach such a result, I would be very happy. I don’t know whether this is a

110 Exploring DAO (part I) desired artistic outcome, but at least it is a desired outcome. After all, it is very difficult to catch and retain the audience’s attention. . . . I always try to play plugged in, because I want the audio to cover the entire hall. I think the audience must not be indifferent, so the sound cannot just be listened to; it should be also ‘watched’ and ‘felt’. The sound I produce can’t just be audible; it must reach the audience in such a way that any other noise must not be able to distract their attention. . . . I want the audience to realize that what I am doing on stage is part of my life. I want them to realize there is a life beyond the stage. I love rock and roll, so I don’t want to be shaped as a classical performer, because this is nothing to do with me. . . . If one is giving a public performance, then the audience feedback is of paramount importance. Otherwise, one would be just recording albums. However, one must understand that audience interest or curiosity is more important than likes and dislikes. I don’t require the audience to ask questions, so if they are asking questions at the end of the concert, it is because they liked it! I think this would be proof that they were matched by the performance. In the end, this is what I try to achieve. (1st phase/2nd session) These descriptions demonstrate a great concern for the audience. Axel recognized that the social event played a great role in his ideal. Since composition came into his life, the final aim of performance became the awakening of the audience’s interest. Axel seems to be concerned with stimulating the curiosity of the audience instead of collecting aesthetic opinions about his musicmaking. In fact, transforming audience perspectives in way that stimulates their curiosity (alterability) was a point highly valued by him. Axel did not see his interest in the audience as a negative aspect. According to him, all artists interested in live performance should take the audience’s perspective into account. On the other hand, he seemed not be worried with likes and dislikes from external feedback. Throughout the AMPMP meetings, Axel demonstrated that he was not exclusively focused on the social event. The structure and mental state on stage seemed to play an important role in his DAO. In contrast with other participant musicians, Axel seemed not to be concerned with playing all the notes correctly, or even achieving technical perfection. Nowadays, he believed that the structure should develop in such a way that allowed the performer to improvise on stage. After all, the performer should create a coherent and intelligible narrative with the musical material, instead of playing isolated notes. On the other hand, his behaviour on stage appeared to be the weak point of Axel’s performance, because he recognized that the communication with the audience and its structure were his main foci of attention. Concerning such behaviour, Axel was now interested in bringing to his concerts the same sense of naturalness that he used to experience in a rock band. He sought a balance between naturalness and appearing disinterested.

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DAO: The music I am trying to make nowadays, even the music I compose or the music that I interpret, must bring the refinement of classical music and the energy of rock and roll, because anyone who played in a rock band knows how such energy touches people. I try to reach a balance, which is above my taste for rock and roll. That is what I am trying to achieve, I don’t want to let people feel indifferent in my concerts. I don’t want to push for just aesthetic admiration. I think this is my biggest desire as a musician. (1st phase/1st session) DAO: The structure should be clear enough in order to allow improvisation on stage. It is completely different when one is playing single notes instead of conceptualizing music in small pieces; one should create a shape with the musical material. (1st phase/2nd session) DAO: I believe that my behaviour on stage could be improved. Nowadays, I am exploring creativity, the quality of the music that I perform, the sonority and other aspects of my desired artistic outcome. I have to work hard in order to achieve the attitude that I expect on stage. All the things I am talking about involve communication and naturalness. I don’t want to be disinterested on stage in a way that looks like those musicians who have not practised. On the other hand, I don’t want to be a character or a person who is completely different in daily life. (1st phase/2nd session) Axel always asserted a great emphasis on experimentation in his perspectives of DAO, possibly because of his interest in seeing artistic research and performance as a broad form of art. According to him, performers should innovate and find new artistic approaches for the repertoire, even with canonical pieces, in order to find out new means to sustain their DAO. This attitude, which was recognized as intuitive and natural, could also be explored in other elements on stage (e.g., such as using microphones to amplify the sound). Axel suggested that musicians should not forget that they are contemporary human beings, so that the platonic ideal of reaching an authentic historical interpretation should be rejected. Achievements – epistemological: Yeah! I was thinking about this! I used to be a quite ‘purist’, you know? I used to think that the music should be played this way because of the composer’s intentions. Sometimes it’s important to approach canonical repertoire reflecting on what this repertoire would sound like nowadays. It is a matter of translating this repertoire for our reality. I know that this idea is not easy to put into practice, but this could be a way to express our creativity, even in those pieces where the composer wrote everything. I believe that this attitude could attract an audience. Moreover, it is a way to update our performance! We can play early music, but why not reconstruct it? Even those guys who are interested in playing romantic music in a given way following historical rules would never be able to achieve this. We

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Axel also believed that DAO can be developed outside the practice room. In his personal case, such internal conception was described as something natural that emerged through the relationship established with the repertoire during the performance preparation. Such naturalness would be an important element in artistic integrity, which could be also a tool to deal with maladaptive performance anxiety. He believed that the performer should express what he does best. Achievements – intrapersonal: I think the best strategy to deal with performance anxiety is authenticity; one should be true to oneself. This has enormous value. Sometimes on stage, people use clothes that are nothing to do with them; it is just a character created for a specific situation that is not part of real life. . . . I have tried to be authentic; doing something that I believe in. It doesn’t matter whether such a thing is good or bad, formal or informal. . . . The most important thing is what we believe! It is not only about satisfaction. I could adopt any musical profile, but at the end of the day, this wouldn’t work. The key point is to find out what I can do. This search should be based on authenticity. This is a skill which does not require systematic physical practice. It is something one can develop in daily life. One can develop the personal style of being oneself. This can be done walking, eating or even talking. When I am on stage, I am developing my style in the same way. . . . When I choose a given repertoire, I have to select some pieces, and I think such selection is based on what I want to achieve. This helps me to shape the big picture of my performance, you know. Therefore, I should assume that my concept is constantly being shaped. (1st phase/2nd session) The intrapersonal foundation of self-authorship was an aspect highly valued in Axel’s reports. The following vignette illustrates a moment when he emphasized the importance of a personal mark as a distinguishing feature. He also believed that this personal mark, when associated with a good capacity for selfpromotion, was a fundamental pillar in the achievement of DAO. Achievements – intrapersonal Julia: How would you define yourself as an artist? That was the first question a musical producer who was interested in my work asked me. From my personal point of view, the definition of an artistic identity is very important. Such identity emerges when you have mastered the

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procedural aspects involved in performance, when you know what to offer to the industries. Axel: Yeah! I agree with you. As performers, we don’t have a regular job, so we need to discover our job. In order to create it, we must be original in looking for something that makes us special. Recently, I started to think about what makes me special. Why should someone attend my concerts? What could I bring to an audience? . . . The example I brought is not only a performer; he is also a composer. He has been involved in several concerts and this aspect caught my attention. His name is Gabriel Prokofiev. He is currently organizing concerts called ‘non-classical’. Basically, this is a type of concert where one can be sitting or walking while the concert is taking place. The audience can talk and drink as if they were in a pub. At the end of the concert, people can talk about the experience they had attending the event. In this concert people spend almost three or four hours at the venue. Moreover, Gabriel is also a DJ. He realized that the sound played in the venue where such performances take place should be suitable for the concert, so he decided to work as the DJ of the ‘non-classical’ concert. Nowadays, he is being requested to work as a DJ at other similar events. Taking into account that he is not a well-known composer, he decided to use this opportunity to advertise his own music on occasions where he works as a DJ. Gabriel also created an independent record label with the aim to connect classical musicians with rock producers. Axel revealed some challenges which seemed to constrain the achievement of his DAO in his career. Despite his interest in developing a broad social event, he recognized that technique was still a source of concern during his performances. Moreover, Axel appeared to struggle to consolidate his artistic identity as performer and composer. There was an apparent concern to adapt his profile according to the perceptions of how a percussionist should behave on stage. The academic environment that surrounded him seemed to exacerbate such concerns. Furthermore, the difficulty in classifying his artistic work and the lack of a personal mark were also brought to light as possible factors that constrained his DAO, i.e., as intrapersonal challenges. Axel felt somewhat insecure because he did not have a formal education as a composer. He also emphasized a perceived lack of support in his home university and the difficulty in finding external collaborators who could contribute to his artistic projects. Challenges – intrapersonal: This seems to be easy, but it is not. Currently I am at the stage where I don’t know exactly what I am doing. Is it experimental music? Is it classical music? Is it progressive rock? I can’t say; I don’t know! . . . I recognize that I have not found my personal mark as performer. Most percussionists are involved with new media; they are engaged in music for film. What I am doing seems to be different from other musicians, but for percussionists, it is not. (1st phase/2nd session)

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Exploring DAO (part I) Challenges – interpersonal: It’s not always that I get what I want on stage; I need to feel more comfortable when I am playing in front of an audience. . . . I get concerned with technique because the attitude on stage is something new for me. If I were playing in a rock band, I would have a broader view of performance because that is something that I am used to. . . . I recognize I am trying to shape myself as a percussionist. This is something that I am still attached to. I still believe that I have to get this because I am at the university. Since I am a higher education student, I should play some repertoire that any other percussionist should play. It is because of the external opinions! I still feel concerned with external opinions. I know these things can be overcome with maturity, but this is a big deal for me. Since I am not a formally educated composer, I feel I can’t write my own music. . . . The creativity is constrained due to the technical support given by the university. One can’t access the concert hall to experiment new artistic possibilities. . . . Generally speaking, higher education music courses are solitary. Teachers inculcate in you the idea of a solo musician. Students are always alone, because everything, from the evaluations to the instrumental classes, is solitary. A performer should be able to carry all the demands alone. Because of these things, it is hard to find musicians who can collaborate with you. (1st phase/3rd session)

At that time, Axel also recognized the importance of learning how to negotiate DAO professionally, but this seemed to be difficult for him. Although he believed that this condition can only be achieved with the assistance of professionals from other fields, the example brought by him of a performer capable to achieve DAO was a person who self-promotes their own artistic work, as described previously. At the same time, he also recognized that musicians must learn how to communicate with other such professionals. Apparently, self-production seemed to scare him, as he believed that in developing such skills, practice will be neglected. Challenges – interpersonal: I think there is a lack of connection between musicians and producers. I don’t believe musicians should sell their work. On the other hand, I don’t think this is wrong. I have produced myself, as have many other musicians that I know. Musicians schedule gigs and develop a personal website, taking their own pictures. However, I think there is a consolidated market composed of professionals who are studying all these things and they are prepared to help us in what we want. One should be able to establish connections with such professionals. The world is very specialized, so one cannot do everything by oneself. If I had someone to schedule my gigs, I would be grateful. Unfortunately, I don’t have such a facility, so I have to do everything by myself. . . . Sometimes we have to do so many things that we can’t find time to practise. However, we mustn’t forget that the solution

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is not waiting for someone who does all these things for us. We should be able to produce ourselves; but we need help with this. Therefore, I would say the most important skill is finding the right people to help us. (1st phase/3rd session) Another point of difficulty concerning this issue was the perspective on treason and tradition related to the formalist code. Because of his perspectives on DAO and music performance, as well as his interest in artistic research, Axel was more oriented to treason in relation to the code, in order to find new possibilities for his repertoire rather than strictly following it. He asserted the importance of innovating an artistic proposal in order to attract the audience. As mentioned earlier,2 the conventions around music-making had been recognized as contextual by the students, in that following preconceived rules just to please composers’ intentions and traditions can distance the audience from the concert hall. Challenges – interpersonal: Even the concept of historically informed performance is very controversial! There is no such thing! All of us know this! I think this historical attitude sometimes disappoints the audience. History can be very attractive for musicians who are interested to know the repertoire that was played in a given historical period. What I am proposing here is that we should think in another way. Should we adapt music for lute written by John Dowland to a folk guitar? I believe that just using other instruments would attract an audience. Maybe John Dowland would find this nice! He didn’t have access to instruments like the electric guitar. . . . As artists, we should rethink the concert format. On the one hand, we can see this data that the audience is reducing in Western art concerts. On the other hand, we have more people studying music than ever. This means that the competition is increasing! We mustn’t forget that as performers, we don’t have a regular job. Have you ever thought about this? We should create our job! In order to achieve this, we should know what distinguishes us. If I start doing what everyone else does, why should anyone hire me? As classical musicians, we should learn more from pop musicians, mainly concerning the relationship established with the audience. Even silly things like talking to the audience could result from this. We should break the existing walls between audience and musicians. Axel believed that DAO should be nurtured in higher education music institutions. He recognized the importance of encouraging the development of this skill in young musicians who are starting a musical journey in higher education. After all, this was a key element, according to him, that distinguished an artist from someone who ‘just plays an instrument’. Critical thinking is the strategy asserted by Axel to foster DAO, i.e., epistemological support. However, he recognized that the lack of a set of beliefs at the beginning of a musician’s higher education does not facilitate critical discussions. He believed that young

116 Exploring DAO (part I) students were concerned neither with the subjectivity involved in musical performance, nor with its social elements in the concert hall. These aspects could be further explored through critical thinking and self-reflection. Nurture – epistemological: A mental representation of what is being pursued with music performance is of paramount importance. However, I am trying to figure out how this kind of approach could be offered for young students who are starting their musical careers. It is difficult to find a personal concept, and we know that such a thing is the aspect that differentiates an artist from someone who just plays an instrument. On the other hand, it is difficult to approach such things with a young student who is very concerned with the instrument; they are very focused on controlling their instrument. Nevertheless, I think students should be encouraged to develop a personal concept from the beginning of their musical development. . . . It is important to discuss and reflect on how to achieve what you want. One can learn everything about technique, but without subjectivity all these matters will not make sense. . . . Critical thinking is very important! Sometimes it is more important than the time spent on physical practice. These things make sense to me now; the importance of the desired artistic outcome. However, I wasn’t concerned with these things before. (1st phase/3rd session) Due to his maturity, Axel seemed to have a clear understanding of his artistic aims concerning most of the dimensions of DAO and the importance of research to reach such aims. In fact, his artistic production was very close to material thinking. His experience as a performer and composer in different domains could explain such maturity. However, he still seemed to be overloaded by intrapersonal and interpersonal challenges that constrained him from achieving his DAO on the concert platform. In fact, negotiating his DAO professionally, as well as maintaining a balance between treason and tradition concerning the formalist code, seemed also to be key challenges for him. The difficulty in consolidating his artistic identity as composer/performer, as well as concerns with external evaluations, seemed to be at the forefront of this scenario. Despite assuming that the development of DAO depends on maturity, Axel recognized the importance of critical approaches to foster that phenomenon in higher education music institutions. Case study 6: Raul Raul is 39 years old. He is a multi-instrumentalist performer and songwriter who concluded a PhD in Ethnomusicology in 2013. He started to demonstrate an interest in the arts, especially in popular music, during his childhood. At that time, Raul demonstrated a great interest in songwriting and, after a period studying flute and guitar, he decided to write his first songs, which were inspired by pop music from the 1980s. Since that time, Raul had an idea of which DAO he wanted to materialize.

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Background – before higher education: Despite several different influences such as progressive rock, I was focused on developing my own musical identity. I would like to be natural on stage. (1st phase/1st session) Raul also demonstrated a concern that would shape his entire musical career: the search for his own musical identity. In order to develop such an identity, he went to a higher education music institution to study music education; there were no courses where he could further explore his passion (songwriting) in his native region. His contact with musicians on this course who had different profiles encouraged him to get in touch with other musical styles. However, a lack of a background in Western art music challenged Raul at the beginning of his journey in the institution. He faced some difficulties, especially regarding music theory. Even the instrumental classes brought him some challenges because he was not used to educational approaches focused on the Western art music canon. Background – during higher education: When I went to higher education, I got in touch with other styles and languages, particularly in contemporary music, which led me to find other artistic approaches. . . . By that time, I was involved with some guys who played progressive rock. Since I was also a flautist, not only a singer, I realized that I could explore the instrumental aspect in my songs further, instead of just the text. . . . Concerning the flute lessons, it was difficult, because the educational approaches were focused on classical music. I had no classical background, so I had to practise a lot. In addition, I had some problems in music theory because most of my musical learning was by ear. (1st phase/1st session) Raul described himself as a songwriter whose artistic focus was mainly on regional music from Brazil. This feature also guided him in his search for artistic models. Raul said that he could not assume the artistic position of an instrumentalist, since he had not focused his efforts on developing instrumental expertise. Because of this, he searched for artists who create their own music, regardless of the instrument. In order to clarify this search, he demonstrated an interest in artists whose artistic proposal could be clearly identified, regardless of the instruments adopted. Background – artistic influences: At that time, I got used to Elomar Ferreira Melo, Saulo Laranjeira and Rolando Boldrin. I realized I could do what they were doing in my music-making. I realized I could use my personal experiences without discarding external influences. . . . I also have a personal identification with Zeca Baleiro. He is an artist who is not concerned with being a singer or an instrumentalist. However, he always knew that he was a guy who created new music, so that his

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Exploring DAO (part I) music is his differential. I think this is my vocation. My influences are not great virtuosi, but musicians with an artistic proposal. . . . They [Uakti] have a thematic work that goes beyond technical aspects. That is something I really appreciate. (1st phase/1st session)

Regarding his current expectations of a musical career, Raul seemed to be very interested in following a path based on music performance. He was the only participant in the AMPMP who had recorded a commercial album. He was attracted by the programme because of the possibility to reflect collaboratively on his music-making, as well as his expectations of a career. Raul was interested in knowing other musicians’ views and, based on these views, reflecting on his own position as an artist. He believed that conversations with other musicians would be a positive way to re-define his musical ideas. Moreover, Raul assumed his interest in playing with a band. Expectations – AMPMP: I was interested in reflecting on some aspects regarding the common structure of the concerts. I found that knowing what other people were doing could be a good means to achieve this aim. Moreover, I would like to see how those people could interpret my ideas. (1st phase/1st session) Expectations – career: Actually, I would like to have a band because it is complicated to deal with all the demands on a concert platform. The responsibility is huge; everything must go right. Even when the music is simple, everything must be played very well. (1st phase/1st session) When asked to describe his conceptualization of music performance, Raul emphasized the importance of the process rather than the product. He was the only participant who described music performance as a process. According to him, the performer’s role was to reflect on artistic possibilities in order to find new paths to improve the communication with the audience. Perspectives on music performance: Music performance is the process by which we make music. I think the process is more important than the product. . . . The performer’s role is to reflect on artistic possibilities in order to find out new paths regarding the communication with the audience. . . . A good performance happens when there is a sense of empathy between performer and audience. (1st phase/1st session) The importance of self-reflection, emphasized in his conceptualization of music performance, seems to shape the DAO pursued by Raul. He assumed a desire for developing an artistic project in which a comic aspect would be of paramount importance. According to him, he paid careful attention to the potentialities of narrative in his repertoire. Despite the instrumental dimension in his DAO, technique was not his primary concern. Raul did not seem to be

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unconscious of the structure, so he looked for a means to pass on his musical message as well as possible. Moreover, he wanted to integrate other languages into his artistry, regardless of his level of experience in that field. In the end, the search for naturalness as an ideal behaviour also seems evident in his DAO. DAO: My first concern is trying to be as natural as I can. . . . I want to further explore the comic element in my performance. . . . I am composing new music, exploring other languages. For example, I don’t have any background in samba, but I have used samba in my songs. . . . I think this is closely related to the narrative. When a repertoire is being defined, we should balance technical and interpretative demands. This is part of the narrative because it is related to the organization of the programme. If one is interested in a concert where ‘fun’ is a key point, then all other aspects should be defined according to this. The key point is building on a narrative around such a conception. On the other hand, if one is interested in incorporating scenic elements, then the repertoire should not be so technically difficult; otherwise, the performer would not be free to explore the scenic elements on stage. (1st phase/1st session) According to him, naturalness is a fundamental element in achieving DAO and such a condition comes with maturity. Raul seemed to believe that attempts to reproduce recognized successful approaches constrain the possibility to develop such naturalness. Achievements – intrapersonal: This is something that arises with maturity. I know a musician who uses a specific technique from the cello in his way of playing classical guitar. He picked up this technique unconsciously because he was interested in solving another technical problem. When things happen in this way, it’s fine. I think it is problematic when one goes in the other direction: just bringing in something because it looks original. I think a key element is naturalness. I will give you an example: if one picks a successful case, trying to re-create it just because it worked for someone else, then that person is condemned to fail. It is important to realize that the successful comes with naturalness. (1st phase/2nd session) Raul also brought to light the discussion of a specific expression that is a fundamental pillar in achieving DAO: ‘impressiveness’. According to him, this feature should be practised and stimulated. He emphasized that performers must feel what is being conveyed in order to arouse this feeling among the audience. Based on his conviction on this topic, he was invited to give a workshop during the AMPMP that was specially designed to stimulate ‘impressiveness’. He proposed an exercise followed by a group discussion on how performers could achieve their DAO on stage. Based on techniques from drama, the exercise

120 Exploring DAO (part I) proposed by Raul consisted of asking a student to simulate a performance (using only gestures) just thinking about what should be conveyed. In this exercise, the DAO was fundamental in reaching the artistic truth as proposed by Raul. The volunteer for this exercise was Hector, and the following vignettes illustrate an attempt to stimulate ‘impressiveness’. This workshop had very positive feedback from those participants who attended. Some of them, such as Hector, also said that it completely changed their way of approaching music-making. Achievement – Intrapersonal Raul: I will ask you (Hector) to play a piece of music from your repertoire thinking about the ideal sound. So please imagine you are playing perfectly. We are not concerned with technique. We are looking beyond this. You should play the music without the instrument, thinking about what you want to convey. Let’s try to reflect on possibilities we have never thought of, OK? (Exercise) Raul: So, what did you feel? Hector: I was thinking about the matters we were talking about here at the AMPMP. I was wondering how I could make my message clear to the audience, so I wrote a kind of libretto to guide me in this process. I am also thinking about how my next artistic proposal should be; I don’t have a repertoire defined. I am just concerned with developing a desired outcome to guide me on what I want to convey. Raul: So, you created a narrative, did you? Hector: It’s a libretto, like an opera. Raul: OK, and where were your thoughts during this last performance (the exercise)? Hector: Well, I couldn’t use my hands because I was playing. At the same time, I couldn’t force some facial expression and I can’t restrict what I am feeling. Therefore, I tried to think about my own narrative [Hector describes his narrative]. Mentor: I can’t say I picked up all the things you said, but I understood many elements when I looked at your eyes and your gestures. Moreover, your breathing helped me to understand some of these matters you are talking about. Hector: It’s difficult. I think you have to prepare for this as you prepare for the musical instrument. Raul: OK. Now let’s move on and talk about the character you created in your narrative. You said that the character was a soldier who died in the war. Did you see him?

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Mentor: Maybe you were he, weren’t you? Hector: No, I think it was an imaginary character. Raul: OK, but where was he? Hector: Ah! OK, now I’ve got what you are saying. I was him. Raul: Did you feel what you wanted to express to the audience? Hector: I got confused somewhere, so I kept concentrating on his death [the character]. Raul: Did you feel his death? Hector: Not so much. Raul: So, what do you think you can do next time in order to feel his death? Hector: Maybe I could maximize the feeling in some way Raul: That is a keyword: feeling. How can we maximize the feeling? Mentor: Maybe one can bring to mind some past experience associated with the intended feeling. I have personal experience of this. Some time ago, I was studying a funeral march composed by Fernando Sor, which was written as a memorial to a lady who lived in the fourteenth century. This piece starts with an ostinato that lead me to imagine the funeral of such lady. One day I was playing this piece to my wife, who was trying to give some suggestions concerning the interpretation of this piece. I remember that it was difficult to incorporate such suggestions, so I decided to think about a personal experience involving a funeral, instead of thinking about a funeral that didn’t make sense for me. I started to think about the funeral of my uncle who died very young. The images of my grandmother crying came to my mind as well as the image of the coffin being carried. I remember that I played all of the piece with this image in mind so that at the end I was almost crying. My wife became scared and she said that my performance was completely different. She said that I was able to incorporate all the issues that we were talking about. To a certain extent, the image I pursued brought a very deep sadness concerning death. The image I evoked allowed me to live that feeling in such a way that I couldn’t have achieved if I had thought about the funeral of a person that I didn’t know. Raul: You couldn’t bring a better example of what I am trying to say. This is what Stanislavsky calls artistic truth. Based on what you have said, my questions are: why is it important to reflect on this? What would we like to reach with our performance? Hector: I think the answer is to evoke in the audience the feeling you are trying to convey.

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Exploring DAO (part I) Mentor: I would say I want to express myself. Janis: Yeah! Mentor: I mean all the internal constructions that I have created, my experiences and so on. Raul: Do you think this is something that every musician thinks about? Mentor: Maybe not. I know some people who don’t think in such a way, but I can say I am deeply touched by a performer who is able to do it. Hector: Ok, but music is something with different facets. Do you want to express a particular point from your life, or your entire life? Mentor: I want to express what I felt at a given moment in my life. The feeling that I had when my uncle died, for example – the fear of little child who didn’t know death and had to face this. If I could express what I felt at that moment, I would be very satisfied. Raul: Stanislavsky suggested the stimulation of affective intentions in order to awaken such feelings. He uses the expression ‘artistic truth’ or something that we really believe, but how can we do it? Do you think that it is just needed to think about the feeling? Janis: No, this is not enough. Hector: Yes, because this is not only in the mind, right? Raul: For sure! We need to feel what we are trying to achieve. I would sum it up in one word: impressiveness. I think we spend a lot of time thinking about what we want to express. We forget that we must feel what we want to convey. Lucius: That is true! Lucius: Impressiveness – that is a very interesting concept. Could you recommend something to read? Raul: I am not sure this is an academic concept, so I can’t recommend books about this. This is something that emerged through conversations with other colleagues. Hector: But that is a good point. Sometimes we think we are conveying a message, but in the end, we are not achieving this. Lucius: For sure! Sometimes we don’t have anything to convey, just good moments and that’s all.

Raul commented about the challenges he faced in reaching his DAO on stage. He reported on his efforts to harmonize his narratives with his past experience and with his background.

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Challenges – Intrapersonal: This was a challenge for me [defining a character]. I worked with a guy who used to say, ‘You should develop a character’, but I was interested in being myself. . . . That was my concern. I would like to develop a concept that harmonized with my experiences and beliefs. I didn’t want to be a fake. (1st phase/2nd session) Moreover, he recognized that it is not easy to combine experimentalism and songwriting. He thought that his music was restricted to audiences from his native country, as people from other countries may not understand his artistic message. Raul also experienced some difficulty in consolidating his artistic identity (i.e., an intrapersonal challenge), although this point was of paramount importance for him. He seemed to be unable to classify what he was currently doing. Throughout his life, he had not focused on a specific instrument in the same way that his colleagues had; thus, he felt a certain degree of confusion concerning his artistic position. Challenges – epistemological: I would like to be engaged with experimentalism. I find this exciting; it is something that grabs my attention. The challenge is that I don’t know how to do it. . . . Developing a bodily awareness of the space, but these are not the only gaps that I have. There are so many other things in performance that a musician must develop. . . . I have so many ideas that I can develop, but I don’t know how to combine them. I don’t know whether I must have parallel projects or establish priorities. (1st phase/1st session) Challenges – interpersonal: Concerning communication with the audience, I think I have a tendency to overload the emphasis on regionalism. . . . This is a big deal for me, because I think I can fit into any musical language. . . . Actually, I think I am at a crossroads. . . . I am not so optimistic. Since I was on the border between flute and guitar, I didn’t develop instrumental expertise. . . . Nowadays, I think my artistry would fit better in Brazil than in Portugal, because of the regional features in my music. If I decide to stay here, I will have to focus my attention on another professional market, such as world music or something like that. However, this decision would force me to adopt an approach that is not my strong point. (1st phase/1st session) Raul also complained of some demands in his perception of the music market that constrained his DAO: in some instances, music performance is prepared for pleasing other musicians’ taste instead of considering the whole social potential of an artistic event. This view found a consensus of agreement between all the students involved in the discussions on this topic: sometimes musicians adopt an extremist position that underestimates the broad audience and overestimates the specialized audience. Raul asserted that a dialogue between both views should be encouraged in order to promote a deeper understanding of this issue.

124 Exploring DAO (part I) Challenges – interpersonal: Sometimes I have this feeling when I am playing my own music! Maybe the audience would find this very slow. I think there is also a certain kind of extremism. People who are only concerned with the business are interested in playing something just to please the audience. On the other hand, some classical musicians make their concerts so ritualistic that the social event is really massive. In such concerts, the audience could be unmoved for more than one hour just listening while the musician is performing. The audience is not able to discover who the composer is and sometimes not even what piece of music is being performed. There is a need for more dialogue between such extreme positions. One should learn from the other. (1st phase/3rd session) He also complains of the excessive focus on technical elements in the concerts promoted by some musicians, particularly those who are involved with a higher education music institution. According to him, this aspect restricts the artistic possibilities and keep audiences distanced and disinterested. Challenges – interpersonal: Raul: I came here to attend Andy’s concert and I realized that musicians were the main audience. I think guitarists made up 90% of the audience, to be honest; people who are specialists in that instrument. Evaluations would be based only on technique. If there were one musician in an audience of 100 people, we would play for this musician instead for the other 99 people. I strongly believe that this concept should be rethought. There are a lot of musicians who are not concerned with technique, and these musicians are also able to develop professional work in the industries. (1st phase/3rd session) Concerning the nurturing of DAO, Raul believed that higher education music institutions should invest more effort in finding ways to support musicians who are interested in an artistic career, i.e., interpersonal support. Raul criticized the existing scenario in higher education institutions which seemed to restrict a critical understanding of the music industries. Such criticism was based on his personal experience of higher education. He believed that career paths were not properly explored by the institutions, or by teachers. Nurture – interpersonal: If I had to give advice to myself when I was a young musician, then I would say: try to concentrate your effort on finding a position in the music industries, instead of spending lots of hours practising. This is not a matter of marketing, but of finding performance opportunities. . . . I think higher education courses occupy all the time we have, so one cannot explore career paths. This is a big deal, because if one spends lots of time practising, it’s not possible to perform. The music industry works in a different way; a musician must network in order to be recognized by the audience. I think higher

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education students should invest more in these aspects than just musical development. . . . Higher education music institutions don’t prepare students to face the professional market. Sometimes you can hear teachers talking about a lot of silly things. Most of them do not know about issues of copyrighting, for example. A musician must have good promotional material in order to attract an audience and find ways to offer such material. However, the institutions, at the least the institutions where I have studied, didn’t provide assistance in these aspects. (1st phase/3rd session) In contrast with the other musicians who participated in the AMPMP, Raul was not committed to the formalist code. Instead, he had been searching for his DAO since the beginning of his career, even when he was not enrolled at an institution. However, it was difficult for him to keep this attitude in an environment where this was not apparently valued. This can explain why he valued the intrapersonal aspect so much as a key element for achieving DAO, but – at the same time – this pinpointed the interpersonal challenge as a key issue in his case. Raul revealed a difficulty in negotiating his artistic identity in an environment where his reference points were not so present in the audience’s mind and, at the same time, he did not find it easy to identify the means to overcome this. The case here presented brings to light a point that has not been discussed previously: Raul did not view himself as a flautist, guitarist or singer. The specialization embedded in the formalist code was a concern for him, once he was not focused on virtuosity in his performances. At the same time, the label of ‘multi-instrumentalist’ was not comfortable for him, although he recognized that it was good way to present himself. Perhaps Raul was a good example of a future artistic researcher: someone more committed to developing artistic possibilities and presenting a new view ‘through music’ than ‘on music’. Because of this, he could show us important aspects to take into account for developing new pedagogical approaches in the future. In fact, this can illuminate some thoughts on the importance of a deeper dialogue between popular and Western art music.

Discussion When the AMPMP was created, the idea was to stimulate students to promote their DAO in order to study them. As mentioned elsewhere in this book, the study of DAO brings challenges for the researcher due to the constraints that restrict musicians in pursuing and materializing this narrative. However, the reports presented here have revealed that ideas such as the AMPMP could be a starting point for rethinking performance teaching in higher education music institutions. All the musicians who took part in the programme reported finding value in the initiative and recognized it as a good example of what could (and should) be done institutionally. This includes aspects such as the freedom to develop an artistic proposal harmonized with their own interests (regardless of the instrument and the repertoire involved), the openness to discuss topics related to the music industries and

126 Exploring DAO (part I) to talk about their doubts and feelings, explaining their opinion. The potentialities arising from encouraging musicians to pursue their DAO were clear; they have opportunities to integrate other artistic approaches and, at the same time, understand the possible complexity of their ideas. However, in order to take advantage of such an initiative, institutional support is of paramount importance to avoid those problems that restricted, for example, Axel in materializing his DAO. The descriptions presented in these case studies brought to light several perspectives concerning the conceptualization, challenges, achievement and nurturing of DAO. These perspectives were rich and detailed, and at the same time, revealed similarities among students, regardless of the instrument and style (e.g., Western art music, rock and roll, jazz) associated with them. Even when these students had a higher education experience where Western art music was the main focus, most of them seemed to nurture plural expectations and ideals. Although students demonstrated a great desire to follow a consistent career as performers, as suggested by other authors (Bennett, 2007), some of these students were also interested in rethinking their performance practices and embracing new possibilities. The plurality of expectations and profiles identified in the study described here could explain the contrast among students concerning the conceptualization of DAO. On the one hand, students such as Lucius had expectations regarding a solo career as guitarists in a Western art music concert environment and seemed to overvalue the structural dimension of DAO. He recognized that outstanding technical and interpretative skills are of paramount importance in a successful career involving music performance. However, on the other hand, musicians such as Raul and Axel, whose reported expectations related to composition and experimentation, seemed to be very concerned about developing and achieving a broad DAO. They recognized that technique was not the main concern on the concert platform. Although the levels of expertise could explain such differences, one could argue that, even with such conditions, all these students demonstrated an interest in finding the means effectively to explore the communication of their ideas to the audience. This perspective places rapport as an important dimension that could be further explored in the pedagogical approaches adopted by higher education music institutions. Following the same perspective proposed by Sloboda (2013) in Chapter 1, students seemed to feel the need to connect more deeply with their audiences and innovate a means of reaching such a connection. Here, artistic research could be of particular importance. The cases reported here also illustrate the importance of self-authorship for the achievement of DAO. The intrapersonal and interpersonal foundation in particular were constantly referred by the participants who sought innovation, artistic integrity and the ability for self-promotion in their reports. Although the importance of these elements was almost a consensus among the students, the demands for achieving them were equally consensual. Arguably, at the core of these challenges is the difficulty in keeping the balance between treason and tradition concerning the formalist code. The postulates of such a code were present in student’s reports, as well as their searches to overcome this.

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Overall, the cases presented here met the perspectives discussed in the previous chapters and, at the same time, enriched them due to a high level of detail provided by these participants. Based on these details, there are elements that could be rethought in the pedagogical approaches adopted by higher education music institutions. The first concerns the importance of a mentor in the academic journey of these students. As discussed previously, students, particularly those who are interested in an artistic career, are likely to intensify their relationship with their instrumental teacher during their time in a higher education music institution (Papageorgi et al., 2010b; Purves et al., 2005). Although this relationship can be positive, as it seemed to be for Hector, it can be quite complex, as was revealed by Janis and Baden. In this sense, the presence of someone detached from the learning environment of instrumental and vocal lessons, as suggested by Perkins (2012), could stimulate students to make sense of their experience, establishing connections between their values and ideas in their academic journey. Participants in the AMPMP frequently revealed a willingness to innovate, to expand their artistic possibilities and the possibilities of how they might present their music to others (and themselves). It was also possible to see that, when a certain degree of freedom was allowed, the interest in moving from a specialized attitude concerning music-making – which somehow can classify artists as singers, flautists, pianists and guitarists – starts to be more commonplace. Perhaps, a first step towards reaching this condition professionally would be in recognizing students as artistic researchers, as critical artists who are able to negotiate treason and traditions in their practice, and to explore performance in a broad sense with all its properties and possible sub-products. However, in order to do this, artistic research should be viewed as a possible way of positioning music practice in professional environments; a way in which the formalist code is problematized and constantly expanded by those who have to deal with it repeatedly on the concert platform. This principle of an extensive grounding and versatility might prepare students to engage as performers who meet the current demands of the music industries. The mentoring programme proposed here (AMPMP) aimed to stimulate debate about musical careers and allow for the observation of the development of students’ DAO in performing music in natural settings.

Summary Overall, this chapter has sought to discuss the conceptualization, achievements and challenges faced by six musicians in achieving their DAO, as well their perspectives on the role of higher education music institutions in this process. Such a discussion was based on the perspectives presented in the previous chapters concerning these points. This chapter also revealed a contrasting and plural conceptualization of DAO that seemed to be constrained by several epistemological, intrapersonal and interpersonal difficulties that emerged as a consequence of the ‘right or wrong’ model of teaching and learning, which seemed to have been experienced by most of these students. Concerning achievements, this chapter has highlighted how

128 Exploring DAO (part I) self-authorship – the required capacity suggested in the theoretical framework to achieve a DAO – was recognized as crucial by the participants. Their experiences also highlighted a need for appropriate pedagogical strategies to foster such development, based on research, in higher education music institutions.

Notes 1 Chapter 5 presents a detailed description of the artistic proposals of each participant. 2 Chapter 3.

5

Exploring desired artistic outcomes Performers’ perspectives (part II)

Introduction This chapter presents the second part of the qualitative study described in Chapter 4. Based on a set of case studies, the chapter describes the attempts to promote students’ DAO at AMPMP through public performances. As mentioned in Chapter 4, all participants who took part in the individual and collective sessions were invited to present an artistic proposal in such performances which exemplified their perspectives concerning DAO. In order to define this proposal, conceptualizations of performance, past experiences in music performance and artistic influences were taken into account. A total of four performances were carried out. The first two performances were organized at the end of each phase (i.e., Experimental Performances), while the other two were organized outside the university, at different venues (i.e., Final Performances). This scheme took into account participants’ availability to participate in the activities proposed in the programme. In these performances, the mentor helped the students to conceptualize and advertise their concerts. Such advertisement used mainly social networks. Students provided pictures and press releases that facilitated this process, which also had the assistance of a graphic designer. At the end of each performance, students met with the audience, whose members sometimes provided feedback regarding their perceptions of each concert. Students were free to stop at any time or to present more performances than originally scheduled. The criteria for defining the artistic proposal took into account students’ perceptions of DAO, which were discussed during the sessions. Moreover, each student was encouraged to reflect on their strongest artistic points, as well as their expectations of music-making, before proposing such a project. Notwithstanding these possible constraints, students were free to experiment with new artistic approaches and even new instruments if they wanted. The key point behind the artistic proposals was to encourage students to put into practice their ideas concerning DAO so that possible changes were also allowed during the programme. Given its ‘in-progress’ nature, students and mentor discussed possible dates to schedule the public performances expected in AMPMP. Students were happy to perform in both internal performances (i.e., Experimental Performances I and II) and the public versions (i.e., Final Performances I and II). Since they were mostly

130 Exploring DAO (part II) employed as instrumental teachers in conservatoires, the first internal performance was scheduled for April 2014, with the next public events to be organized according to participants’ availability.

Case studies During the performances, the challenges faced by each student to achieve DAO, as well as their achievements, were explored. Moreover, changes in students’ proposals were also considered. As mentioned in the last chapter, for ethical reasons, musicians are here designated as Axel, Baden, Hector, Janis, Lucius and Raul. Case study 1: Lucius Lucius expressed an interest in presenting a concert in the AMPMP dedicated to Latin American repertoire. He believed that the guitar repertoire had stagnated, and, because of this, it should be expanded. Lucius found in this stagnation an opportunity to innovate and move from a formalist code to an artistic research centred approach. DAO: My intention is to disseminate new repertoire for guitar. Particularly, I would like to focus on Latin American music, and maybe other styles as well. I think both here and in my native country, the repertoire remains almost the same; people seem to play the same composers everywhere! (1st phase /1st session) Despite this interest, his proposal could be described as a typical guitar concert where he would have the chance to explore some more unusual elements (e.g., taking two guitars on stage, talking to the audience and using lights on stage). Overall, the concerts integrated in the AMPMP would be a good chance, according to him, to explore the communicational dimension of his DAO. DAO: It is a typical guitar concert where I try to interact with the audience. I am wondering about promoting some change in the concert format. Maybe I could take two guitars on stage, each with different tuning. In addition, I think it would be interesting to have some lighting on stage. (2nd phase/2nd session) On several occasions, Lucius complained about the lack of time to prepare for his concert because of his activity as a guitar teacher. Since he could not prepare the planned repertoire, he decided to pick pieces from his current programme, specifically those more important in the repertoire, as well as some pieces considered by him as ‘easier’. In the Experimental Performance I, Lucius presented his proposal as described. Once he got a second guitar, as expected, the idea of bringing two instruments onto stage was achieved. The repertoire played by Lucius in this first concert included the following works: Estudo nº8 (Heitor

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Villa-Lobos), Sarabanda (Johann Sebastian Bach), Sonata (Johann Sebastian Bach), Un Dia de Noviembre (Leo Brouwer), Invocación e Danza (Joaquin Rodrigo) and Torija (Federico Moreno Torroba). After this first performance, Lucius said that the great challenge for him was to overcome his anxiety. He assumed that this feeling was caused by his concern to impress the audience due to his interest in the audience’s feedback about the use of two different guitars on stage. At the end of his concert, he seemed to be quite disappointed with the final result. Despite what he called ‘good’ moments, his expectations regarding technique and interpretation were not achieved, according to him. Because of this, Lucius was not able to talk to the audience as he had expected. The announcement of each piece was the only moment dedicated to talking during the concert. The following description reveal a preoccupation more centred on impressing other people than necessarily achieving DAO. Challenges – interpersonal: I was very anxious! I would like to test the audience reaction concerning the two guitars I would use on stage. I was also interested in the contrast between these guitars in terms of interpretation. In the end, I knew that many guitarists would be there, and I was interested in getting their reactions to what I was doing. . . . When the concert finished, I felt I had caught the audience at some moments; but I realized I wasn’t able to reach a good technical and interpretative result, so the concert was not good. On several occasions, I felt I was going down. (Experimental Performance I) Some members of the audience also felt Lucius’s anxiety, and they commented to him about the impression that he had given. These comments also encouraged Lucius to keep Un Dia de Noviembre in the repertoire; Lucius considered this piece as one of the easiest, so that it was included only ‘to complete the repertoire’, i.e., it was not particularly valued by him. This piece was considered by those audience members as a good example of a piece where Lucius achieved a good technical and interpretative control, which allowed him to communicate affectively and effectively with the audience. During the sessions, Lucius commented that the repertoire suggested by his teachers was very difficult when compared to his technical standards. In the end, he recognized that it was not possible to develop a deep sense of connection with the repertoire in the Experimental Performance I (i.e., as an intrapersonal challenge). Challenges – intrapersonal: It is complicated to have a good performance when one is not feeling comfortable with repertoire, so during my concert, I was not able to truly communicate with the audience. It is obvious that I was interested in conveying a convincing message, but how could I convince the audience when I was not convinced at all? The repertoire I am studying at the moment is very difficult for me! (Experimental Performance I)

132 Exploring DAO (part II) The other musicians in the AMPMP encouraged Lucius to choose an easier repertoire than the one in the previous programme that he had played at the Experimental Performance I. In particular, one of his colleagues encouraged him to pay attention to the narrative of his DAO, choosing repertoire that could facilitate the construction of a performance where technique was not the main concern. Lucius seemed to accept the suggestion and decided to rethink the repertoire. He decided to find a common theme for his concert which could drive his artistic proposal. Following this line of thought, Lucius proposed a repertoire of Latin American music for the Experimental Performance II. He decided to follow his intention to play such music, so this desire motivated him to designate his artistic proposal as Iberian-American Music for Guitar. According to him, this concept would allow the inclusion of Spanish and Portuguese composers, as he seemed to be very enthusiastic about this repertoire. Following the same line of thought, we suggested to Lucius that he should explore another of his passions in the next concert: performing his own music. As previously described, composition is an artistic path that he wanted to pursue. He agreed to think about the idea, but it became very clear that the next performance would not be the ideal moment to present his compositions. In the Experimental Performance II, Lucius proposed a more extensive repertoire, comprised entirely of music by Iberian-American composers. Following the positive feedback provided in that performance, he decided to keep Un Dia de Noviembre in the program. Moreover, other movements of the piece composed by Federico Moreno Torroba were included. Consequently, the repertoire performed by Lucius included the following pieces: Castillos de España (Federico Moreno Torroba), Estudos nº 8 and 10 (Heitor Villa-Lobos), Invocación y Danza (Joaquin Rodrigo) and Un Dia de Noviembre (Leo Brouwer). At the end of this concert, Lucius seemed to be happier with the result compared with the first performance. His colleagues gave positive feedback about the repertoire and his capacity to achieve the required technical elements of his performance. Lucius talked to the audience, describing the pieces, the idea of his artistic proposal, and his happiness in performing for them. The following comment illustrates the reasons why Lucius felt that the Experimental Performance II achieved better results than the first concert: an achieved sense of connection with his artistic practice. Achievement – intrapersonal: Generally speaking, I think that the result was better than the last concert. This new repertoire is getting mature. (Experimental Performance II) Lucius barely managed to participate in the Final Performance, due to work commitments. However, he had a different attitude compared to the previous two performances. He engaged in the promotion of his concerts, contributing regularly to advertising, creating his own press release and making suggestions about how his concert should be promoted. Concerning the repertoire,

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Lucius decided to include a musical piece that he had composed, as well as his arrangement of a Spanish dance. The piece composed by him was dedicated to the Cuban composer Leo Brouwer, whom Lucius had always admired. He composed this music to illustrate his current feeling concerning the composer: a close connection, due to his artistic admiration, and, at the same time, a distance (due to political differences). Lucius gave the title Aunque Que las Ideas Nos Separem (‘Although the Ideas Separate Us’) to this piece and explained this narrative in order to encourage the audience to reflect on the possible harmony that can exist between ‘differences’ and ‘admiration’. The repertoire chosen by Lucius for this performance was thus as follows: Castillos de España (Federico Moreno Torroba), Estudos nº 8 and 10 (Heitor Villa-Lobos), Invocación y Danza (Joaquin Rodrigo), Un Dia de Noviembre (Leo Brouwer), Aunque las Ideas Nos Separem (Lucius) and Malagueña, Op. 165 (Isaac Albéniz – arranged by Lucius). Lucius felt satisfied with the concert, as well as with the audience feedback. As in the last concert, he said several times how happy he was to be performing for them. He constantly emphasized that the mature stage of this repertoire allowed him to be more natural on stage. Such maturity allowed him to pay attention to other aspects, such as the advertisement of the social event promoted by him. Lucius acknowledged that the AMPMP had helped him to acknowledge new perspectives, opening his mind to possible new connections regarding his music-making activity. According to him, this epistemological recognition stimulated the participants to leave their comfort zone, establishing partnerships with areas other than music. Nurture – epistemological: The programme stimulated me to leave my comfort zone, looking for new paths for my artistry. Now I know that I can expand my ideas, establishing networking with untried areas. This understanding helped to open my mind. (Final Interview) Lucius also referred that the programme helped him to expand his idea of music performance, being not only focused on the realization of scores, but also on the social event as a whole. Particularly, his experience in the programme stimulated Lucius to find evidence that could justify his decisions concerning all dimensions involved in a concert. Lucius seemed to be aware that just following external expectations and ideas concerning these dimensions could never be enough to achieve his aims. According to him, the main achievement of the AMPMP was to encourage his engagement with this epistemological search. Nurture – epistemological: I am currently organizing a music festival in my conservatoire, and I decided to invite two colleagues from the AMPMP to perform in that event. I am not an expert in event production; I just like to participate in some initiatives. However, after my experience in the AMPMP, I think I am more conscious of what

134 Exploring DAO (part II) elements can affect the quality of a music event. Nowadays, I constantly question: how could I expand my budget? How should I deal with advertisement? How can I find financial support? How can I negotiate my proposal with music producers? I don’t expect the university to give me all these answers, but stimulating me to find them would be very important in my career. I would open my mind to new ideas and perspectives that could assist me to justify my decision. From my personal point of view this was the main achievement of the AMPMP: encouraging me to find ideas and perspectives to justify my decisions. (Final Interview) Lucius also reported that the programme assisted him to connect theoretical insights to practical aspects. He stressed that this connection needs to be expanded in higher education music institutions in order to stimulate students to find the evidence to justify their own artistic and professional decisions. The following example suggests that Lucius perceived a mismatch between theory and ‘hands-on’ activities, which in turn lead to demotivation regarding musicmaking in such pedagogical environments. Again, the role of the AMPMP seemed to have been to be filling this gap through the promotion of contextualized activities that can mimic possible situations experienced outside academia. Nurture – epistemological: The workshops proposed in the programme were good examples of how to connect practice and theory. All the activities involved practical elements, such as how to disseminate an artistic proposal involving a consistent theoretical support. . . . In my opinion, we should expand this programme in order to bridge this gap between theory and practice. One goes to higher education very motivated to study composition, but the theoretical overload ends up killing such motivation. It is quite common for students to realize that the course they chose has nothing to do with their expectations. I think this mismatch happens because of the theoretical overload in higher education: we can’t be so theoretical. On the other hand, practice alone is not enough; otherwise, how would one justify choices and opinions? The middle path is the balance between practice and theory, and I think the AMPMP is a good example of how this balance can be achieved in higher education. This is a prototype that must be implemented in other universities. . . . One cannot develop practical experience just through reading and writing papers: hands-on is very important. Why don’t higher education teachers stimulate us to produce our concerts? Why don’t they ask us to find financial support? One doesn’t need to be involved in big productions; just small experiences would be enough. We need to learn how to find the answers instead of assuming external opinions as the final answer to our questions. Based on all these things, I think that the AMPMP can be a good prototype to fill in the practical gap in higher education music institutions. (Final Interview)

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Lucius referred several times in his final interview to his perception that the programme allowed him to rethink his values through self-assessment, which seemed to be lacking in his experience of higher education. The following examples highlighted that such self-assessment, encouraged in the AMPMP, can lead students to increase their self-knowledge and their perspectives on music performance making. According to Lucius, increasing self-knowledge may be more important than the achievements behind an artistic proposal. Nurture – intrapersonal: The most important thing was to open our minds and stimulate us to analyse ourselves. Such analysis allows us to recognize new perspectives and attitudes. . . . The programme enriched our self-knowledge. This is definitely more important than our artistic proposal, because our proposal is closely related to the resources available. If I were involved with chamber music, I would develop an artistic proposal inspired by this instead of presenting a concert of Latin American music as I did. The key point in the AMPMP was the opportunity to develop the capacity to assess ourselves, which will be highly important in future situations. (Final Interview) Lucius also referred that the experience in the programme helped him to increase the interpersonal dimension of self-authorship. According to him, the programme encouraged the participants to establish professional relationships in the music industries. He emphasized that the activities proposed by the programme promoted a deeper awareness of how negotiations with music producers and cultural venues can be explored. His description brought to light that pedagogical approaches based on the promotion of DAO may help to break down a perceived ‘wall’ regarding artistic practices in higher education music institutions. Achievement – interpersonal: Other aspects that I liked a lot were those ‘semi-academic’ experiences, you know? A good example was the workshops and sessions where we could discuss how to advertise a music concert. It’s obvious I have experience of doing this, but the programme helped me to realize the potential of other elements that can enrich my perspectives on how this issue can be explored. . . . This programme had very interesting aspects, such as encouraging us to reflect on how to deal with a music producer. . . . Perhaps my colleagues could have other perspectives, but in my opinion, this programme can be a good prototype of how to break down some existing walls in higher education. (Final Interview) Following this line of thought, Lucius complained about a perceived lack of critical debate in higher education. In some cases, he recognized that this absence of support is evident for those who are not interested in following an academic career. Again, pedagogical approaches based on DAO, like the AMPMP, were

136 Exploring DAO (part II) mentioned as a means to fill in this gap. The activities concerning the music industries proposed in the programme stimulated debate on common doubts that seemed to be very rarely discussed in some institutions. This scenario can sometimes lead to naïve beliefs regarding professional life. Some students come to higher education music institutions dreaming of a performance career (Bennett, 2007), but they are not encouraged to reflect on their potentialities to follow such a dream. In this sense, the debates promoted by the AMPMP were considered to be a powerful mechanism by which one can overcome naïve beliefs that surround a career path in music performance. Nurture – interpersonal: The debates in the AMPMP helped us to think deeply about music industries. All the things discussed in these debates were practical and useful. Most of us came here to study music, but what happens after that? My professional life is my exclusive responsibility? Why must I do everything by myself? . . . As we discussed before, people come to higher education, but they are not encouraged to follow their dreams. I think this programme would be a good means to fill in this gap. (Final Interview) Lucius also emphasized the benefits behind discussions of different perspectives brought by other colleagues with different backgrounds. According to some of them, this opportunity enriched the pedagogical environment. The lack of assumed hierarchical positions among students facilitated the interchange, which was not common for some of them. This respectful and collaborative learning was recognized as a positive contribution for decisionmaking in future situations. Nurture – interpersonal: I found it very interesting talking with musicians from other types of backgrounds than Western art music. It was very useful to understand how they think. Even in moments where different perspectives shocked me, I could pick up elements that could complement each different vision of performance and career. (Final Interview) Lucius’ experiences provide an example of the potentialities of pedagogical approaches focused on DAO in higher education. His reports concerning the experience in the AMPMP revealed a student who increased his interpersonal capacity of self-authorship and, at the same time, empowered his critical thinking. This last aspect stimulated him to embrace an artistic research attitude as a means of finding the balance between treason and tradition regarding the formalist code. This search also leads Lucius to compose and arrange new music and develop a DAO that included several aspects of his own performance. In the last concert in the AMPMP, he acted as a material thinker, approaching other properties of his concert and its sub-products according to a unified and consciously developed DAO. This approach led him to choose a repertoire

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according his present capacities, which in turn allowed him to reach higher levels of rapport in his relationship with the audience. In his own opinion, the programme empowered him to find the means to justify his own belief and expand the views of his own artistry. Case study 2: Janis Since the 1st phase of AMPMP, Janis had emphasized her interest in developing an artistic proposal based on Forest Scenes by Robert Schumann. Different from other students, her concerns in exploring DAO through artistic research was clearly evident. She would like to create a concert where all the elements would allude to a ‘forest’ and, because of this, the ‘narrative’ would play a special role in her artistic proposal. Moreover, Janis seemed to be interested in including popular Brazilian music and so prepared piano arrangements for her concert. This idea emerged during the 1st phase, when Janis assumed her passion for that type of music, which was not part of her music-making. DAO: My idea for this project is to pick up some pieces from Forest Scenes by Robert Schumann. It consisted of nine short pieces, actually. . . . My idea is to create a concert based on the idea of ‘forest’. I want to include Brazilian music and some prepared piano arrangements. The final aim is to connect popular Brazilian music and my idea of forest, so everything in this concert should be related with forest. . . . It’s a piano recital where the narrative is very important. (1st phase/1st session) Although the DAO was present in her discourse, she seemed not conscious of the complexity of the proposal. She would like to include a yoga teacher doing postures, as well as several mirrors displayed on stage to support her interpretation of the Forest Scenes. Moreover, Janis was wondering about including other media, such as lights and projection. We told her that the AMPMP could not provide all those elements, and so she had to be responsible for acquiring the equipment. As expected, in the Experimental Performances I, Janis was not able to provide all the elements described in the previous paragraph. The lack of resources and preparation led her to present a piano recital, whose repertoire was constituted by the Forest Scenes, as well as by the Sonata for violin and piano, which was performed with a colleague who shared chamber music lessons with her. At the end of her concert, Janis decided to include her arrangement of Correnteza (i.e., a song composed by Tom Jobim). Since the Forest Scenes were associated with poems, Janis decided to recite these texts during the concert. The repertoire performed by Janis in the Experimental Performance I was the following: XôXô Passarinho (Heitor Villa-Lobos), Forest Scenes (Robert Schuman), Sonata/Allegretto (Maurice Ravel) and Correnteza (Tom Jobim). Taking into account Janis’ concerns regarding performance anxiety, as previously described, she was very concerned with her behaviour on stage. She

138 Exploring DAO (part II) recognized her use of beta-blockers to perform at her concerts, mainly at those carried out in her native country. She seemed happy with the results, mainly because she was able to play without memory loss (another of her concerns). Janis’ descriptions suggested that she was focused on dealing with the possible challenges that an unknown instrument can bring. She also emphasized the importance of including a piece of music that established a deeper connection between her tastes and her piano training (i.e., intrapersonal capacity). Achievement – intrapersonal: I think I got to understand the piano, you know? This is a challenge for all pianists because we can’t have the instrument in the backstage like guitarists, for example. The best part of that concert for me was the Tom Jobim song. (Experimental Performances I) The audience praised Janis for the concert, but some people said that they did not understand the role of the poems recited by her. She found that including poems in a piano concert could be very innovative, so that the audience’s understanding was not her main concern. This search for innovation (i.e., epistemological capacity) also justified the inclusion of popular Brazilian music at the end of her concert. According to her, all these things are unusual for the audience in piano recitals. Achievement – epistemological: I think that my declamations during the concert were quite innovative, considering all the traditions behind piano recitals. Moreover, the Brazilian music I performed at the end reinforced this innovation. (Experimental Performance I) During the sessions, Janis’ interest in deepening the relationship with the audience seemed to grow. She became interested in finding out new means to innovate this relationship which could be easily adaptable. Following this idea, she proposed a concert for the Experimental Performances II where the audience would be on stage with her. The repertoire remained almost the same, except the sonata for violin and piano was not included. Janis used incense to create what she called ‘atmosphere’ during the concert. At the end, she got good feedback and seemed happy with the result. Janis said that such innovations recalled her last artistic proposal developed in Brazil, where the interaction with an audience was of paramount importance to the final result. Janis did not participate in the Final Performances. Some troubles concerning her piano exam affected her participation. In the end, she assumed that there was a need to be realistic about her ideas, recognizing that the media required for the Experimental Performance I could not easily be achieved. This example highlights the importance of negotiating DAO by taking into account the resources available, i.e., interpersonal capacity. The limitations of such a capacity seemed to be a challenge for Janis. Achievement – interpersonal: I understood I should be realistic. We can’t create a circus. (Final Interview)

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On the other hand, Janis seemed to be very happy with the chance to follow a personal willingness to perform a piece that was closely related to her musical tastes and her childhood. She recognized that such an achievement was not allowed in her piano lessons, and so the AMPMP was a good opportunity to put such a thing in practice. Achievement – interpersonal: The best achievement concerning my artistic proposal was the arrangement I have created. Nowadays, I am writing another one. This music [Brazilian popular music] was something that I always heard during my childhood, but I couldn’t play this for my piano teachers. (Final Interview) As previously mentioned, Janis assumed her attempts to promote this connection in her piano lessons existed, but they were unsuccessful. On the other hand, the artistic activities proposed by the AMPMP allowed a scenario that she had not previously experienced. Such openness illustrated how DAO can be favoured in environments where students are free to explore what they want to achieve artistically, in a broad sense. Particularly in the case of Janis, this openness led her to realize that some points in her artistic proposal should be rethought, taking into account the resources available. Janis assumed responsibility for her own actions and opinions concerning her artistic proposal. Achievement – interpersonal: When I was a child, I used to listen to popular music, such as bossa nova and MPB, so piano and classical music were something parallel, you know? During the activities proposed by the AMPMP, I could connect the music I loved with my instrument in an environment with no judgments. Some time ago, I tried to do the same in my piano lessons, but it wasn’t allowed because I had to follow the rules. In this sense, the programme was very important to me because it gave me a chance to do what I really wanted to do artistically; there were no strings attached. I could include several other things in my artistic proposal as you know, but I didn’t do it because I realized that it would be quite difficult. But what really matters? It was my decision! (Final Interview) Another point highlighted by Janis regarding her experience of the AMPMP was the stimulus to challenge existing traditions in music performance. According to her, the AMPMP promoted debates that covered aspects recognized as problematic by the participants, such as, for example, the intersection between career planning and artistic development. Overall, Janis’s reflections emphasized the importance of building an epistemological foundation of self-authorship, i.e., developing a belief system based on both available evidence and sharing of experiences. Nurture – epistemological: We spend a lot of time practising without thinking of how we can disseminate our artistic work. Perhaps the

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Exploring DAO (part II) connection between artistic practice and career planning could be a possible solution to avoid this lack of professional awareness among music students. Many students realize that much more than just practicing is needed to navigate successfully the music industries. In my opinion, one of the aims behind the AMPMP is promoting this connection between career planning and artistic development. The gap between these two branches seems to be quite evident in higher music education. . . . I really enjoyed all sessions and seminars, particularly that workshop given by Julia. My opinion isn’t based on the fact that she is a pianist; she didn’t talk about the piano, actually. I found that she brought to light a reality that is quite common among music students; most of them aren’t realistic about the music industries. As musicians, we want to make a living performing, but we don’t have any notion about the things behind this desire. That workshop helped us to realize these things. . . . The programme stimulated us to rethink our artistic practice, as well as our relationship with such practice. In my personal view, this was fundamental. (Final Interview)

Janis also emphasized the benefits of the lack of assumed hierarchical positions among students in the AMPMP. According to her, this aspect facilitated the interchange, which was not common for some of them. This respectful and collaborative learning approach was recognized as a positive contribution toward decision-making in future situations. Nurture – epistemological: I found the idea of promoting an environment for discussing and sharing ideas to be very good. I can’t see anything like this in higher music education. Sometimes institutions seem like a bubble, you know? (Final Interview) Janis’s experience in AMPMP illustrated that, regardless of the DAO pursued, the ability to negotiate between her ideal and the external possibilities must be taken into account. Sometimes, the ideal of innovation could not be directly associated with the inclusion of other technical elements on stage (e.g., yoga teachers and mirrors), but rather with the ability to pursue a coherent narrative that reflects one’s tastes and values as she sought to achieve through her arrangements. Case study 3: Hector The artistic proposal Hector brought to the AMPMP was a lecture recital dedicated to the Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos. He was involved with this proposal before he arrived in Portugal, performing such a concert in different venues in his native country. Hector justified this decision by his interest in disseminating Villa-Lobos’s music in Portugal. During the 1st phase of the AMPMP, he emphasized his interest in exploring the ‘discourse behind the

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music’, suggesting that the intelligibility of the structure could play an important role in his DAO. Moreover, Hector was interested in engaging with other forms of art, connecting music with theatre or dance, for example. In the Experimental Performance I, Hector presented his proposal exactly as just described (i.e., as a lecture recital on the works of Heitor Villa-Lobos). This concert would be the first opportunity for Hector to perform in Portugal, so he was pleased about this opportunity. The challenge to realize this idea resided in the size of the concert organized by him. He would need about three hours to carry out the lecture and the recital. We decided to cut some pieces from the repertoire so that the whole social event was carried out in one hour. Thus, the repertoire performed by Hector in the Experimental Performance I was as follows: Preludios 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, Suíte Popular Brasileira, Mazurka Choro, Schottish Choro, Valsa Choro, Gavota Choro and Chorinho. Despite the anxiety he felt before the concert, Hector seemed to be happy with the result achieved. Hector said he was trying to overcome technical and interpretative concerns, keeping his focus on the feeling of confidence that he would like to convey to the audience. After some pieces, he felt that this ideal mental state was achieved. Achievements – intrapersonal: During the concert, I was getting more confident, but the minutes before going on stage were really difficult. I was very anxious and concerned with possible errors I could make on stage! (Experimental Performance I) At first glance, the audience provided positive feedback concerning Hector’s performance. However, some people did not understand why the lecture behind the concert was important. Hector spent most of the time talking about the life of Heitor Villa-Lobos, and this appeared not to be appreciated by a considerable part of the audience. At first, he seemed to be quite reluctant to change some elements of his idea. However, during the sessions of the 2nd phase, particularly those focused on communication with the audience, Hector assumed a willingness to find a means to connect the insights discussed in the programme with his artistic proposal. The following examples illustrate some of the facts that motivated Hector to engage with the ideas proposed in the programme. The first concerned a moment in a particular session when we put the following question to him: for whom was he playing? He seemed to be quite confused by this question, saying that he always played only for himself. We insisted in asking what he would like to communicate with his music, but he said he had never thought about this; probably there was no such message in his performances. The second example concerns a workshop given by another participant, where Hector was a volunteer in a given exercise. He was asked to perform a piece with a message in mind to convey to the audience. At the end of the exercise, Hector seemed to be very affected by the communicative potential that music could have on people. Based on these experiences, Hector completely changed his artistic proposal, and he decided to invest in a new format. In the Experimental Performance

142 Exploring DAO (part II) II, he presented a guitar recital based on new repertoire which was chosen by taking into account certain requirements of a summer course that he intended to attend in the following month. Thus, the repertoire performed by Hector in the Experimental Performance II was the following: Prelúdio Americano n° 3 (Abel Carlevaro), 2 Estudos Op. 6 (Fernando Sor), Canticum (Leo Brouwer), Choros n° 1 (Heitor Villa-Lobos), Madroños (Federico Moreno Torroba), Suíte n°2 BWV 997 (Johann Sebastian Bach) and Concerto de Aranjuez/Adagio (Joaquim Rodrigo). At the end of the concert, Hector seemed to be happy with the results achieved, but this was only a first impression. He called us the following morning to ask for our opinion about the concert. He seemed not convinced about his own achievements. Hector also perceived an apparent lack of interest on the part of the audience. We asked him why such pieces represented his DAO and he was not able to answer. We said that the programme sought to motivate students to nurture their DAO, so he could take this into account in deciding repertoire for future performances. The experience in the Experimental Performance II reinforced Hector’s idea to reinvent his proposal by taking into account his own DAO. Based on this, he developed Homero o Contador Épico.1 Hector described this new proposal as a monologue, with the text written by him. In this monologue, he incorporated a character that tells stories interspersed by guitar pieces. From his point of view, this project was harmonized with his ideals and values because it integrated literature (one of his passions) with guitar recitals and storytelling. DAO: The 45-minute performance, Homero: O Contador Épico was a search for ways to maximize my interaction with the audience, obtaining a more effective artistic communication, beyond the desire to include certain qualities that reflected my personal singularities – bringing to light my creativity. Despite the fact that the title refers to the figure of Homer, the only character that is performed by an actor was Romeho (pronounced Romeo), which was represented by me. Although I used some excerpts from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, I wrote the script of the presentation, and was freely inspired by the book Vozes Plurais: filosofia da expressão vocal (2011) by Adriana Cavarero. The synopsis of the plot can be described like this: the protagonist Romeho narrates his journey since he met his beloved, Juliet. Like the romantic pair from the Shakespearean classic, fate imposed an arduous challenge on the union of both: a curse suffered by Juliet that transformed her body in a guitar. Because of this – among other things – the discourse uttered by her is now unintelligible. After some unsuccessful attempts to solve this problem, Romeho then goes after Homer, an important ‘aedo’, in a last and desperate chance to save his beloved. Without Homer appearing, the helpless Romeho will have to realize that he will be the only one capable of freeing Juliet’s fate. Once the mythological figures are

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immersed in the script – such as Echo, Orpheus and the Mermaid – are also ‘storytellers’ (troubadours, bards and minstrels), I find it pertinent to classify the spectacle as a ‘meta story’, i.e., a story whose narrative contemplates other stories. The plot can be seen as an assemblage, where Shakespearean characters, mythological figures and philosophical ideas (especially from the existentialist current) are interwoven. The Final Performances in the AMPMP were the first opportunity for Hector to present his new proposal. He did not appear confident due to the lack of experience in telling stories on stage. Based on this, a friend of him made the following suggestion: try to transform this performance into an open rehearsal where people can make comments, providing feedback at the end. Hector accepted this idea, and – at the end – all the audience stayed to discuss their impressions and doubts about this artistic proposal with him. The following descriptions illustrate how Hector developed his new idea. The report suggests the importance of his DAO and emphasized the role of the AMPMP in the development of his proposal. DAO: I would like to catch up all of them that were not here when we started. I want to talk about this proposal that I presented here for the first time; this is completely new for me. First of all, I would like to thank the mentor for the invitation to take part in this project; not only for the invitation, but for all provocations and for the meetings. The programme did not intend to lead me to present this particular proposal. The idea was to encourage us to find artistic approaches that could suit our personality better. Moreover, I would like to thank my colleague from AMPMP, because he gave us a workshop that changed my way to approach music communication. I can say that this change affected my way of playing and aroused in me other artistic interests. One such interest was storytelling; I always wanted to connect storytelling and music, but I didn’t know how to do this. I would like to create a narrative. I realized that a monologue could be the means to achieve this. I would also clarify that this is just starting so there are many things which still need to be developed. (Final Performance I) Despite the anxiety perceived during the concert, Hector felt that he had accomplished his ideal with this new proposal. However, he perceived that other artistic areas involved in this concert still left him quite concerned, since all these elements were new for him. Achievements – intrapersonal: I really enjoyed this experience, and I can say I got happy accomplished with my proposal. It is obvious that I was nervous because there were so many domains involved here in which I do not have any expertise. (Final Performance I)

144 Exploring DAO (part II) Hector emphasized the importance of the narrative in his new proposal, even when this aspect was not clear enough to him. He was interested in dealing with his DAO in such a way that the need to think about every single part of the music structure could be minimized. According to him, there was also a concern with new elements in his concert, which constrained him from feeling what he wanted to convey. Challenge – intrapersonal: During the concert, I spent some time thinking about the characters in my story after the last note in each piece. In future performances, I think I will be able to do it naturally. Currently, this is still a challenge that is constraining the feeling I want to convey. (Final Interview) Hector seemed to be driven by an interest to rethink existing conventions in the Western art music canon. At the same time, he wanted to develop higher levels of rapport in his relationship with the audience (as emphasized in his previous phases). Hector was not interested in including other media in his concert, unlike some other musicians; rather, he would like to simplify all the elements involved. DAO: I would like to deconstruct the traditional concert, where lights are only on me while you are all in darkness. In that format, I can’t see who you are! This scenario would lead me to play the same way all the time and I was not interested in such thing. I would like to have a deep interaction with the audience. I was interested in a social event that could be as portable as possible. I am not a big fan of technology, so things as lights were not in my plans. I wanted to be simple. (Final Performance I) Hector explained to the audience how his artistic proposal emerged and how his DAO was shaped by the elements of the repertoire. He was motivated by his colleagues to develop a narrative around his music conception in order to connect the elements involved in the performance. Apparently, Hector was looking for a rationale for the inclusion of every single element in his concert in order to clarify his communicative intentions to the audience. DAO: This idea emerged after a workshop. He asked me what I wanted to convey with my music, and I gave him an analytic answer based on the structural elements of the music. After that workshop, I continued to think about his question, and because of this, I created the monologue based on a given story. I didn’t want to close my proposal in the sense that I couldn’t see the connections between the parts. I would like all the things involved in such concert to have a rationale for me, so most of the music performed was chosen taking into account what I wanted to convey. (Final Interview)

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Several members of the audience praised Hector’s initiative in presenting this artistic proposal. The following examples illustrate that such interest was motivated by the artistic connections promoted by Hector. Achievement – interpersonal: As a consumer and not musician, it was very nice to attend this concert because there was much more than music involved. (Audience member – Final Performance I) Achievement – interpersonal: I found this proposal very good! One comes here and sees that there is not only such a stratified thing as an instrumental music. (Audience member – Final Performance I) Hector presented exactly the same proposal in the Final Performance II, but the moment for discussion at the end of the concert was not included. The feedback was very similar to the previous performance, where people praised him because of the artistic connections involved. Hector continued to invest in his proposal, presenting it at other venues and reflecting on his artistic decisions in conferences. Of all the musicians that took part in the AMPMP, Hector was the only one who performed in all the concerts promoted. His reflections suggest that in this proposal, he could meet his artistic integrity, i.e., intrapersonal foundation. This meant that the fulfilment of his own beliefs and identity shaped the construction of Homero: O Contador Épico. Achievement – intrapersonal: I was looking to find my identity and my own beliefs. I think I achieved this aim with my final proposal. It’s obvious that this search is not finished, but at least I find myself being more genuine than before; with something that reflects my artistry. . . . I found I could put across some other faces of my personality that I could not before, at least in instrumental music. I like to communicate other matters than only music. I love reading and having other types of experience than music. (Final Interview) After his participation in the AMPMP, Hector recognized that the experience encouraged him to reflect on his practice and consciously develop his DAO. Achievement – epistemological: Now I know that when I have a desired artistic outcome, I have to find out the means to accomplish this on stage, instead of my early unconscious attitude of just doing things and letting it go. I think the programme was very important in helping us to acquire such understanding. (Final Interview) Hector also emphasized that the AMPMP had encouraged him to define an internal sense of self, based on his own artistic identity and purposes. The experience of thinking of music performance as a communicative event based on DAO stimulated him to transcend a structural bias in his understanding of music. This

146 Exploring DAO (part II) search seemed also to bring to light his purposes regarding music-making. He asserted that they had not experienced this before. Nurture – intrapersonal: It helped me to find my own identity and purpose in my artistry. My artistic proposal is not concluded, but I think I am more genuine as an artist than before. I think I can express something that really comes from me. . . . Before the programme, I didn’t give importance to my artistic purposes and affective communication with the audience. I used to conceptualize music as something structural, so my function as performer was not important. I was extremely focused on the elements of the musical discourse. (Final Interview) He also said that the AMPMP encouraged him to establish professional relationships with the music industries. Hector emphasized that the activities proposed by the programme promoted a deeper awareness of how negotiations with music producers and cultural venues can be explored. Nurture – interpersonal: Because of the programme, I am changing my way of approaching the places where I am interested in playing. I am now spending time reflecting on which places I could offer my artistic proposal. (Final Interview) Hector also suggested that the opportunity to establish contact with colleagues with different levels of experience and backgrounds allowed him to rethink his music-making activity, realizing his potentialities as an artist. Based on this perception, he suggested that – in his personal opinion – the experience of the AMPMP was more useful than the instrumental lessons. Nurture – interpersonal: It was really beneficial! From my personal point of view, it was more useful than instrumental lessons, which were the main point of interest for me when I arrived in Portugal. It was something new for me. The contacts established with other colleagues led me to rethink my music-making in such a way that I could realize how my artistry could be expanded. (Final Interview) The opportunity to unpack existing conventions in music performance allowed him dialogue with other existing creative approaches. During the 1st phase, Hector expressed his willingness to connect his music-making activity with other artistic manifestations than music. In the AMPMP, this willingness seemed to be achieved through the inclusion of scenic elements in his concert. Nurture – interpersonal: I never thought that I could include scenic elements in my concerts, because most musicians do the same everywhere. In the AMPMP, I could achieve this aim. (Final Interview)

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The following example illustrates that the experience in the AMPMP assisted Hector to identify his DAO in music performance. He recognized the importance of developing a set of beliefs that allowed him to avoid an unconscious attitude concerning his artistic practices. The questions that arose in? the AMPMP stimulated the search for answers on several topics, which he had never thought about. Nurture – epistemological: I think the programme stimulated me to find what I want, in questioning myself on why I choose this and not that, instead of my common unconscious attitude of doing what is easier. . . . There were so many questions asked during the programme that I didn’t know how to answer because I have never thought about those topics. . . . The programme stimulated me to rethink my position as an artist. Nowadays, I reflect on what I want to communicate, what I want to achieve on the concert platform. (Final Interview) The report provided by Hector revealed the potentialities of moving from pedagogical approaches committed to demonstrations of instrumental abilities towards artistic research oriented to producing material thinking as a means to assist musicians to challenge their own DAO. Through the activities promoted in the AMPMP, Hector rethought his perspectives concerning performance, career and DAO. He started with a project committed to the formalist code and ended with an artistic research project, and which was not limited to the AMPMP as he presented this same project in other concert opportunities and conferences. Apart from the benefits for the materialization of his DAO, this brought to light another particularity not approached in the previous cases: the articulation between artistic outputs and discursive elements (e.g., texts). The interest in articulating talks and discourses in Hector’s concerts was clearly evidenced at the beginning of the programme, but he did not know how to connect both elements. After using somewhat conventional strategies such as talking about composers’ lives and formal issues in the repertoire, Hector decided to use the textual component as a ‘artistic element’ in his performance: he was not only focused on the repertoire interpretation, but on exploring other properties and sub-products of music performance. The monologue created by him was a strategy to invoke an emotional ‘fantasy’ with the audience. In fact, the concerns of revealing something ‘hidden’ in the repertoire exemplified evidence of a musician who had started to be more focused on deconstructing stratified configurations and rethinking his own position as artist. In fact, Hector started his journey in the AMPMP as a guitarist and ended up as a material thinker, who had evolved epistemologically, intrapersonally and interpersonally. Case study 4: Baden During the AMPMP sessions, Baden always expressed his passion for Brazilian popular music. Therefore, his interest was to develop an artistic proposal

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where he could explore this passion which was not part of his music-making so far. However, as described before, Baden believed that he did not have the technical and theoretical knowledge to perform this type of music. Because of this, he decided to present a proposal based on what he called ‘classical Brazilian music’. The main focus of his proposal was to disseminate lesser-known repertoire to the audience. Baden seemed interested in finding a relationship between the composers and the pieces chosen for integrating his repertoire. He criticized the attitude of some musicians who perform a standardized repertoire; he classified that attitude in a concert as ‘annoying’. DAO: I don’t want to present something annoying, like those guys who go on stage to play all Bach’s suites at the same time; anyone can deal with this! I would like to disseminate new works in my concerts. (1st phase/1st session) Baden presented this proposal for the Experimental Performance I, as described previously. He invited other musicians to join him in playing repertoire comprised mostly of pieces previously performed in other concerts. The repertoire was composed of pieces for cello solo (1st), cello and guitar (2nd), cello and oboe (3rd and 4th), and cello and piano: Prelúdio (Almeida Prado), Três Peças (Heitor Villa-Lobos), Elegia (José Guerra Vicente) and Divertimento (José Guerra Vicente). The Experimental Performance I was affected by a problem that seemed to shake Baden considerably. His bow broke at the beginning of the concert, so that he spent several minutes finding another cellist in the music department who could lend him a bow. Given such a problem, Baden felt very frustrated with his performance. He was not able to develop a deep connection with the repertoire. The feedback on the side of the audience was also not positive, according to him. He considered the hypothesis of offering the same concert again in order to reverse what he understood as a bad impression due to several mistakes during that performance. Baden also said, in self-justification, that he had not had enough time to prepare for the concert. He revealed that his idea was to present a chamber music recital (cello and guitar) based on Brazilian music. Taking into account the lack of time, he decided to fill in the gaps in the repertoire previously presented, asking other colleagues to play with him. Challenges – interpersonal: In the first performance, I couldn’t prepare a concert only for guitar and cello as I wanted; we just got to play two pieces. Because of this, I had to fill the gaps in the repertoire. (Experimental Performance I) In the Experimental Performance II, Baden was able to prepare and present a concert of Brazilian music for cello and guitar as he expected. In this concert, the repertoire was completely changed, so the pieces for chamber groups other

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than cello and guitar were cut. His new artistic proposal included the following pieces: Noturnos (J. F. F. Burgmüller), Duas Peças (Heitor Villa-Lobos), Valsa de Esquina nº 8 (F. Mignone) and Eu quero é sossego (K-Chimbinho e Hianto de Almeida). At the end of Experimental Performance II, Baden seemed happy with the result achieved. He recognized that this concert was closer to the proposal suggested in the AMPMP: to encourage students to develop an artistic proposal based on their own DAO. Baden recognized that the definition of a fixed chamber music group (i.e., cello and guitar) ended up meeting the focus of his proposal (disseminating Brazilian music), However, he was not able to present it in the Experimental Performance I due to time restrictions. Baden was not able to present his artistic proposal in the Final Performance because his colleague could not continue playing with him due to work commitments. He seemed very sad about this, and he did not want to invite another guitarist to play with him. Despite this, Baden felt he was able to realize his ideas in the program, particularly in the Experimental Performance II. Achievements – intrapersonal: In the second concert, we defined a focus: the artistic proposal was a chamber music recital [cello and guitar] based in Brazilian music. I can say that this concert was closer to the AMPMP’s proposal than the first one, which was almost a surprise. . . . I had been interested in this idea since the first concert [cello and guitar]. When I got those scores, I talked with my fellow guitarist about a concert based on that repertoire [Brazilian music]. The problem was that the first concert was earlier than I was expecting, so I had to prepare the entire repertoire very quickly. . . . In the second concert, I could achieve what I wanted. I wanted to play Brazilian music, and I could do it in the time available. (Final Interview) After his participation in the AMPMP, Baden reflected on his experience as a higher education music student, particularly on those aspects that could be improved. He complained about a perceived lack of critical debate in higher education and recognized that this absence of support was most evident for those who were not interested in following an academic career. The activities concerning the music industries proposed in the programme stimulated debate on common doubts that seemed to be hardly discussed in his institution. This scenario can sometimes lead to naïve beliefs regarding professional life and, because of this, some students come to higher education music institutions dreaming of a performance career. However, they are not encouraged to reflect on their potentialities to follow such a dream. In this sense, the debates promoted in the AMPMP were considered by him as a powerful mechanism with which to struggle with naïve beliefs that can surround music performance and careers. Achievement – interpersonal: From my critical point of view, higher education music institutions just help those who are interested in an

150 Exploring DAO (part II) academic life. No teacher encouraged me to thinking critically. Before the AMPMP, I didn’t have any idea of what a portfolio means. Now I think this will greatly impact my future as a musician. (Final Interview) Baden’s example suggests that promoting DAO can be a process embracing several aspects other than music. In this case, the lack of connection to a higher education music institution seemed not to allow him to develop his proposal in the time suggested by the programme, confirming that each student has individual particularities that need to be taken into account. On the other hand, situations like that experienced by Baden at the end of the programme (a colleague’s refusal to participate) should be considered by the mentor in order to provide assistance, encouraging students to be resilient in their ideas. Case study 5: Axel For his performances in the AMPMP, Axel revealed that he was interested in an artistic proposal where approaches other than music (e.g., visual projection and lights) could be combined. He wanted to improve his relationship with the audience, breaking the apparent walls between the latter and the artist. Axel believed these resources would allow him to convey his musical message. Taking these interests into account, Axel planned a concert where he could play his own compositions, exploring experimental music and some degree of improvisation. According to him, the current paradigm of the Western art music canon should be rethought, mainly concerning the ‘rules’ that shape the concert format. DAO: I am just interested in establishing a deeper connection between artist and audience, because this is also a problem in the concert paradigm. It cannot be so evident, but is quite different when one is talking with the audience; it seems the walls among the two are being broken. . . . Sometimes, I think that there is a great formality at the beginning of concerts; people know how to behave so I think that it should be broken at some moments. I don’t mean people can be totally relaxed to the point they start to talk. (2nd phase/1st session) During the 1st phase, Axel manifested a great interest in composition, as well as in creating a bridge between rock and roll and Western art music. Thus, in the Experimental Performance I, Axel proposed a percussion recital where he could perform two pieces composed by him: Liquid Memories and The Sound Remains Almost the Same. Unlike his colleagues, Axel asked to carry out the Experimental Performance I with an audience comprised only of some invited friends. He was very concerned about performing his music because it was not written. External opinions were perturbing for him. Moreover, there were other aspects that affected Axel’s concert: we could not provide the lights or the projection requested by him for his performance.

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Despite the technical constraints and the reduced audience, the positive feedback after the concert seemed to be evident, even when such comments came mostly from Axel’s friends. The second piece he performed appeared really to engage people, and the interest in Axel’s composition was quite obvious. During the 1st phase, Axel asserted that one of his artistic aims was to provoke the audience’s curiosity; they should not be indifferent (alterability). We asked him why people were so interested. His answer seemed to attribute such interest to the fact that most of the friends who attended his concert were not used to this type of repertoire. According to him, if the concert were carried out in a place where people were used to contemporary music for percussion, the impression would be quite different. Regardless of this, the audience seemed to recognize Axel’s improvisation skills, as well as his naturalness on stage. He commented that such improvisation was not premeditated, but a consequence of his lack of preparation. Axel said that he tried to keep to the structural elements of the musical discourse even in the improvisatory passages of his concert. Concerning the comments about his naturalness on stage, Axel seemed happy with such recognition. He said that such naturalness reflected the fact that the music he made emerged from his own artistic values and perspectives. Achievement – intrapersonal: It is good to know what I am doing is something natural, you know? I am not trying to do something because I know someone else will like it. What I am doing is something that comes from within me, so it’s very natural. I am happy to know that my behaviour on stage reflects what I am feeling, so I want to explore such things deeply. . . . One cannot forget that the body is something very important. Sometimes, the music is not conveying the message by itself, so the body can help. (Experimental Performance I) Axel was highly motivated to explore his own pieces in later performances proposed by the AMPMP. He also published a comment on his Facebook page emphasizing the importance of the programme in assisting students to nurture their DAO in higher education. Such apparent enthusiasm could be the reason that led Axel to ask the mentor to become his producer. Based on his understanding of the programme, Axel thought that the latter could help him to produce his career by managing his agenda. The mentor thanked Axel for this and asked him why he should accept this invitation. As a producer, the mentor was interested in understanding which features made Axel a unique performer. He was not able to give an answer and seemed quite shocked by this question. The mentor asked him how he could offer this work, since he did not believe that his name could attract an audience, as he described in the 1st phase. Once again, Axel was not able to answer the question, saying that such thoughts were quite new for him. After this conversation, Axel promoted a concert which was not related to the AMPMP, whose advertisement brought his name into the title (i.e., instead of just ‘Percussion Recital’). He said that this decision was based on our conversation and on the

152 Exploring DAO (part II) insights discussed during the sessions which seemed to change some of his beliefs. Achievements – interpersonal: It can’t be clear, but I am learning about all these matters we have been discussing at the AMPMP! (2nd phase/3rd session) Despite such enthusiasm, Axel could not participate in any other performances promoted by the programme. It was not possible to meet all his requirements concerning technical resources. Axel requested the concert hall for two days just to install his equipment, and the music department did not agree to this condition. The mentor tried to articulate other dates and venues, taking Axel’s requirements into account, but this initiative was not successful Axel said that he had other concerns that possibly affected his participation in the AMPMP. He wanted to play a different repertoire in each concert. Apparently, he realized this idea would not be the best at that time. Challenges – interpersonal: I think there were some logistical constraints, mainly concerning instruments and venues that affected my participation in the programme. It is not easy to organize a percussion recital! (Final interviews) Challenges – interpersonal: I was interested in presenting new material in the later concerts because I didn’t want to repeat pieces; maybe this was an error because I could refine those pieces. If I had to summarize what constrained my participation in the AMPMP, I would place logistics and the desire to present new performances as the top two. (Final interview) In sum, Axel said his experience in the AMPMP allowed him to increase his confidence in following his passion for composition. The performances produced by the programme stimulated him to present his musical works, which received good feedback from the audience. Axel confessed that he was so focused on the idea of being an interpreter that one aspect of his musical identity was almost neglected: he had never believed in himself as a composer. Achievement – epistemological: The performances I played in the programme had such good feedback that I got stimulated to show my own compositions. I never believed in myself as a composer, so I didn’t pay much attention to my own music. Even now, I think I should pay attention, but I am very attached to the idea of being an interpreter. However, the programme helped me to realize that such creative activity be of huge value and this was very significant for me; realizing that my music can be good enough. I think this is more a personal achievement than anything else. (Final Interview)

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According to him, the programme created an environment where musicians could think artistically with no strings attached. Achievement – intrapersonal: What most attracted me in the programme was the fact that there was space where I could think artistically with no strings attached, such as being evaluated or needing to fulfil someone else’s expectations. The programme allowed me to show more of my creations as an artist, and I loved that. (Final Interview) Axel reported that this aspect helped him to explore his artistic creations. Apparently, he did not pay attention to his own potential as a composer before the AMPMP. Moreover, the discussions encouraged him to advertise his concerts using his own name, instead of the title ‘Percussion Recital’ as he used to do. He considered this aspect a new strategy to bring his artistry closer to the audience and to expand his DAO. Achievement – epistemological: The programme stimulated me to create my own music, something that I had always wanted to do. Composition was like a hobby, you know? I have never believed in the potential of my own creativity, so I didn’t disseminate my music. During the sessions, workshops and performances promoted by the programme, I realized that I should pay some attention to this artistic path. . . . I wasn’t convinced that a standard percussion recital could fulfil my artistic proposal. I never liked those labels such as ‘classical music’ and ‘classical percussion’, but I didn’t know why. Our conversations during the programme helped me to realize what bothers me regarding such questions (advertising a concert as a percussion recital instead of using the artist’s name only). It’s obvious that there are a lot of things that really disturb me in the classical music world; so many aspects need to be further discussed. However, recognizing my artistry regardless of the label associated was a good insight because it helped me to locate what I do in the real world. I think I am closer to that world now than before. (Final Interview) Further to this line of thought, Axel reported that the AMPMP assisted him to re-define his concept of music performance. According to him, the programme stimulated a reflection that started earlier than the 1st phase. The activities proposed allowed Axel to explore the conclusions reached through such reflections. Achievement – epistemological: The programme helped me to rethink my concept of public performance, as well as my concept of an artist. I remember we talked about these issues before the programme. I used to read some stuff about this topic before the programme started, but the AMPMP was the encouragement to explore these things in a systematic way. (Final Interview)

154 Exploring DAO (part II) Axel also valued the activities concerning the music industries proposed during the programme, which, according to him, stimulated a debate on common doubts that seemed to be hardly discussed in some institutions. Axel reinforced his perception that the current pedagogical structure sometimes leads to naïve beliefs regarding professional life, so that some students come to higher education music institutions dreaming of a performance career, but they are not encouraged to reflect on their potential to follow such a dream. Achievement – epistemological: This critical debate must be further stimulated. Students must be challenged to rethink their views. They must be asked about topics that they hadn’t reflected on before. Sometimes students are not conscious about what a recital means, but they want to make their living by performing classical music recitals. (Final Interview) Axel’s example illustrates that even ideals of innovation can affect a clear DAO. He seemed to pursue a DAO based on his personal tastes concerning art in general. However, the difficulties in promoting a concert based on his requirements confirmed that sometimes the capacity to negotiate internal conceptions could be of paramount importance, mainly when technical resources are limited or reduced. His journey throughout the programme brought to light a musician very close to the theoretical perspective proposed in the previous chapters. In fact, Axel was the participant with the busiest performing schedule. Despite this, the programme stimulated him to really rethink his concept of performance and his own DAO. This aspect helped him to bridge composition and performance, a unique element in his concerts. Both elements were still considered by him when approaching a performance, with all its properties and sub-products, from a broad perspective. Case study 6: Raul Based on his perspectives on music performance, Raul proposed a project to be developed through the AMPMP. He was interested in presenting his songs and increasing the levels of rapport with his audience. At the same time, Raul wanted to use the programme as a laboratory for this project that would be presented in Brazil in the near future. DAO: Basically, it is a concert where I would like to present my own songs, which I designate as popular music. . . . I would like to develop an artistic proposal with the intention to present this in Brazil. I am also concerned in exploring my skills as a frontman. . . . I want to deeply explore the contact with the audience, including conversations or jokes between the pieces. (2nd phase/1st session)

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Raul expressed an interest in combining music and talks in his proposal. He wanted to explore some practices used by comedians. He exemplified these interests with a narrative focused on ‘sit down comedy’. Raul explained that his interest was based on the influence that theatre had on his artistic trajectory. He recognized the stage as a laboratory where he could experiment with possible artistic ideas. DAO: I was wondering about creating the concept of ‘sit down comedy’ where I could use voice and guitar. I understood that comedians create a roadmap, like musical theatre; I would like to follow this idea in my project in order to work with talk and music in a structured way. . . . This is something that I used to explore. Since I started to think about this concept, I started to work collaboratively with actors and directors. I used to ask such collaborators to suggest books and papers that could help me find a means to develop an innovative concept of bodily perception to be explored on stage. Such a concept should be quite different from what musicians pursue. Nowadays, I consider the stage as a laboratory. It’s very important for a musician to experiment with artistic ideas before drawing conclusions on what works and what does not. (2nd phase/1st session) Given that Raul was preparing such a proposal before the AMPMP, he asked to present his concert at the Final Performances, particularly as the repertoire was still being composed. We accepted his requests, and he continued to attend the sessions as the other students did. During the sessions, Raul seemed to be very interested in understanding how music could represent a concept that he was exploring further in his proposal; he called this concept regionalism. Raul was interested in constructing a narrative where elements from his native region could be used. As agreed, Raul presented his proposal during the Final Performance I. The repertoire presented included songs from his first album, as well as new songs composed for his current artistic proposal. Raul considered the Final Performance I a pilot, as he was interested in experimenting with new ideas (e.g., the comic element). He called his proposal Coração Analógico, the same name of the first piece performed in his concert. Raul’s artistic proposal for Final Performances I and II included original songs he composed. Despite positive feedback from the audience, Raul did not seem very convinced of the potential of this concert. He recognized that his economic situation after completing the PhD was problematic, as he was unemployed. Possibly this issue may have affected his emotional state during the performance and his views on the audience’s feedback. Raul presented this same proposal in a concert that he promoted at the university before the Final Performance II. In both situations, he played the same repertoire. His confidence seemed to be better compared with the first performance, but his conversations after the concert still revealed some pessimism

156 Exploring DAO (part II) regarding his professional situation, even with the clearly positive feedback that he had from the audience. At the end of the AMPMP, Raul considered that he had achieved his aims concerning the artistic proposal. Although possible elements were still being developed, he acquired some confidence concerning his ideas after the experience in the programme. Moreover, Raul suggested that the AMPMP reinforced his confidence in his artistic path. Achievement – intrapersonal: There were no changes; things were exactly as I was planning. I think the programme helped me to acquire confidence. I could see that in given meetings, where we discussed all those things, my perspectives concerning an artistic proposal and industry were going in a good way. So, I became convinced of my opinions. . . . I think I could accomplish my proposal. It’s obvious that some elements should be improved, but this is something that comes with time . . . The Programme helped me to rediscover my confidence. In several meetings, I realized that my perspectives concerning performance and career were going in a good direction. (Final Interview) At this point, he also recognized the importance of the workshop that he gave during the AMPMP. According to Raul, this activity allowed him to gather information on topics that would enrich his proposal in the future. Achievement – epistemological: Despite the reduced audience, the workshop that I gave made me very happy. It was particularly interesting because I was not studying those matters, so I decided to use that opportunity to rethink a lot of different issues concerning my own artistic proposal. (Final Interview) Raul seemed aware of his DAO, and maybe his experience in AMPMP has led him to consider this concept in his creative process. His Final Performances also suggested that even when the dimensions of DAO are being considered, a lack of confidence can restrict a musician’s perception of his own achievements.

Discussion Overall, students’ proposals were diversified. Lucius and Janis opted to base their proposals in their academic repertoires due to time constraints. On the other hand, other musicians (such as Hector) developed an artistic proposal essentially based on the themes discussed in the sessions. To a certain extent, the aim behind the performances was achieved, since the musicians engaged in proposals apparently closely connected with their values and ideas. When such a connection was not evident, mainly in the Experimental Performances I (as Lucius and Baden), the concerts that followed allowed students to develop their ideas, getting closer to their DAO.

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Concerning the challenges, the results showed that students faced problems concerning the resources need to accomplish their ideas. The openness suggested in AMPMP encouraged musicians to propose concerts whose resources were not available at all. Particularly, Janis and Axel could not follow up performing due to the demands behind their concerts. AMPMP did not have the means to provide all the materials they needed to achieve what they wanted on stage. In the case of Axel, the search to change the repertoire constantly seemed to constrain him from getting engaged with a specific project, as well as to define the resources needed to achieve his project. These facts suggest that the openness for students to be free to produce their own proposal could bring opportunities for contextualized learning, where students can realize what may ‘work or not’, following their own experiences. The number of performances could also be negotiated, since some students were not interested or prepared to perform in all concerts (Baden). A possible alternative would be to organize performances taking into account the progress of the artistic proposals. Concerning the achievements, the importance of continuity seemed to be highlighted as an important factor in successfully achieving DAO. Students who were focused on a performance where the resources were harmonized with their possibilities were those who achieved their aim. This finding does not mean that changes were not welcome. Hector re-conceptualized his proposal, taking into account the discussions in the sessions, and he was happy with the result. The commitment in finding one’s artistic path seems to be the key to defining an artistic project with the perspective of continuity. In this sense, future implementations of AMPMP must take into account that each student has time and that on-going projects can also be welcome in this initiative, since they can serve as a source of inspiration for musicians who are just seeking to make sense of their DAO. The cases here presented illustrate the importance of artistic research as a core element in the pedagogical structure of institutions. Participants in the AMPMP frequently revealed a willingness to innovate, to expand their artistic possibilities and the possibilities of how they might present their music to others (and themselves). It was also possible to see that, when a certain degree of freedom was allowed, the interest in moving from a specialized attitude concerning musicmaking – which somehow can classify artists as singers, flautists, pianists and guitarists – starts to be more commonplace. Perhaps, a first step towards reaching this condition professionally would be in recognizing students as artistic researchers, as critical artists who are able to negotiate treason and traditions in their practice, and to explore performance in a broad sense with all its properties and possible sub-products. However, in order to do this, artistic research should be viewed as a possible way of positioning music practice in professional environments; a way in which the formalist code is problematized and constantly expanded by those who have to deal with it repeatedly on the concert platform. This principle of an extensive grounding and versatility might prepare students to engage as performers who meet the current demands of the music industries. The mentoring programme proposed here (AMPMP) aimed to stimulate debate about musical careers and

158 Exploring DAO (part II) allow for the observation of the development of students’ DAO in performing music in natural settings.

Summary This chapter aimed to bring to light students’ attempts to promote DAO in AMPMP through an artistic proposal conceived according to their professional and artistic expectations, as well as their perspectives regarding music performance and career discussed in the individual and collective sessions. During these performances, the challenges faced by students, as well as their achievements, were observed in order to enrich an understanding of DAO. The inclusion of such performances aimed to provide a laboratory where students could test their artistic ideas, looking for evidence concerning its applicability.

Note 1 ‘Homer: The Epic Storyteller’.

6

Looking for desired artistic outcomes The artistic research project

Introduction When Robert Pirsig referred to a lack of scientific creativity in the science and art produced in academia (in the acclaimed Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance [1974]), he was complaining about two issues in particular. These issues were elements in the discussion contained in the previous chapters, namely an emphasis on a secondary discourse and a certain kind of concern with the rules and values proposed by institutional codes. This point of view was also shared by other authors, such as George Steiner, who asserted that academic environments sometimes are more oriented to following canonical discourses and supporting a given type of artistic heritage (on behalf of its historical, sociological and political importance), regardless of the artistic quality and meaning recognized. There is, however, a point of convergence in the views proposed by both authors, whose publications are separated by more than 10 years: the search for quality and the new. Despite an apparent focus on these two issues, it is the word ‘search’ which is most important for this argument. Both authors assert the value of a genuine search for new forms of thinking and understanding reality (regardless of the multiple meanings that this word can have), even for science or art. The ‘search for something’ is the cornerstone of any research process, and it was evidenced as fundamental for the materialization of DAO by those whose reports were previously presented in this book. However, although this aspect can be seen as consensual, there are two questions concerning the relationship between DAO and research that must be answered: (i) is there a research orientation that is more suitable for the promotion of DAO?; and (ii) how can students, educated through a set of ideas postulated by the formalist code, move from canonical ideas to the critical exercise of research? Taking into account the perspectives presented thus far, we would say that the research orientation1 appropriate for this purpose is artistic research. According to a range of authors, artistic research can be an important element in reversing a perceived stagnation in music performance practices, caused by the formalist code, when compared to other artistic manifestations, such as theatre, dance and even musical composition (Assis, 2015; Doğantan-Dack, 2015; Frisk & Östersjö, 2013; Östersjö, 2008). However, artistic research must be conceptualized and developed

160 Looking for desired artistic outcomes to attend to the artist’s needs, instead of perpetuating postulates and methodological frameworks from the social sciences; to meeting the expectations of scholars interested in sustaining an academic paradigm informed by ‘secondary discourse’ (i.e., adopted by external observers) on artistic outputs and their processes, rather than producing new artistic outputs. Artistic research must be a platform which transcends disciplines, integrating different aspects of the artist’s life in projects that, at the same time, criticize dominant views and reveal new mythopoetic narratives. According to Carter (2004), this type of creatively driven artistic research allows artists to engage in the highest intellectual act: invention. Carter (2004) suggests that writing songs, producing a performance and writing a new story are acts of myth-making that allow us to bring to light something that was not perceived before. In sum, this is a form of research that should be driven to creating rather than only observing, analysing and describing a phenomenon. Obviously, any creation requires some kind of observation, analysis and description, but in artistic research, this is not the focus: the focus is materializing a critical thought (DAO) that problematizes a given topic (Foucault, 1969). This materialization of thought is what Carter (2004) designated as material thinking, and it is the output of artistic research. Material thinking allow us to rethink, deconstruct and propose new mythopoetic narratives that contribute to our process of ‘becoming’2 through artistic outputs like performances, sculptures and paintings. Recognizing material thinking as the output of artistic research implies that the former is a type of knowledge. The examples provided in the first chapter illuminate this perspective. The Mexican painter Frida Kahlo enriched our knowledge of human suffering through the clarification of the DAO that oriented her paintings. When Nick Patrick revealed his DAO for the project involving the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and Buddy Holly’s music, we gained a new view of the songs written by Buddy and, at the same time, it was possible to imagine how this music would sound if Buddy were still alive. This perspective it is not necessarily new in artistic research. The Portuguese artistic researcher Paulo Assis brought insights to this field from the philosophy of biology and communication that support this claim. Informed by the ideas concerning human evolution proposed by Ladislav Kováč (1986), which suggest that human evolution is a continuous process of knowledge acquisition and complexity, Assis (2018) asserts that a new meaning revealed through creative performance enriches the epistemic complexity of a given concept or process and thus increases our stock of knowledge. Also crucial to Assis’s proposal is the research of Subrata Dasgupta (1996), who suggests that a new artefact is knowledge because it embeds an epistemic complexity of operative principles that are articulated in the artefact. Thus, any artefact brings an evolutionary past and a set of potential actions that can reveal new configurations for this same artefact. Traditional research conducted in academia has been concerned with the evolutionary past of things, adopting an archaeological attitude in understanding why things are the way they are. Artistic research, in turn, is focused on the set of potential actions that an artefact can bring to light. According to Steiner (1993), the artist, as the ‘true’ decoder of signs, is in a privileged position to undertake this task, once their criticism involves not only

Looking for desired artistic outcomes 161 declarative or discursive knowledge, but also procedural knowledge that is embedded in the materiality of the performance, as suggested by Östersjö (2018, p. 18): One could think of the results of a piece of artistic research as situated in three domains: the artistic, the embodied, and the discursive. The artistic domain is characterised by its materiality, instantiated through the embodied knowledge of the artist(s) involved in the creative process. The embodied domain is what is often referred to as tacit knowledge. The discursive domain embraces what in recent years has been referred to, following Nowotny, Scott, and Gibbons (2006), as Mode 1 and Mode 2 of knowledge: Mode 1 refers to traditionally conceived knowledge production – produced in theoretical or experimental environments – while Mode 2 knowledge is produced within the context of application. Although Mode 2 knowledge produced outside the artistic field can sometimes be ‘considered to be part of the context of application from the outset’ (Greenhalgh & Wieringa 2011, 507), in connection with artistic research, Mode 2 knowledge also requires a translation from the artistic and embodied domains . . . It is my strong conviction that the promise of artistic research is the possibility of creating direct interactions between the artistic, embodied, and discursive domains. Still, when thinking-in-music, the clearest outcome must be represented in artistic form. Even when some of these claims have been clearly accepted, not only by artistic researchers, but also by scholars from other fields, one can ask: what is the pertinence of problematizing existing narratives and revealing them through discourse? Like critics and theorists, artists – and this has been exemplified in the previous chapters – also want to communicate the products of their imagination through creative research where thought is not only verbalized, but also emulated. This idea of an artistic output is where the articulation between discourse and performance can be a possible means of reaching a deep connection with the audience, as asserted by musicians and researchers in the previous chapters. At the same time, this can expand the possibilities of innovation (as emphasized in Chapter 5) and reveal such innovation in music performance practice. Material thinking is also a chance to bring together artistic practice and research in a way that responds to the arguments of those, such as Pirsig (1974), who suggest a lack of scientific creativity in artists who are based in higher education music institutions. Since their integration in music departments, academic artists have benefited from a stability provided by those institutions interested in keeping an avant-garde status (Correia et al., 2018; Steiner, 1993). According to these authors, the current academic expectations and standards lead artists to shape their productions according to the interests of the academic environment in order to keep their academic position. Consequently, there is a focus on technique and the formalist code that is oriented in an artistic production which can be discussed in terms of technique and procedures. Although the results of such discussions could be presented to general audiences, they were initially directed at the same peers responsible for the academic standards that shaped the artistic production in the first place. Contrary to

162 Looking for desired artistic outcomes this trend, we argue that material thinking can allow the artistic researcher to reveal and discuss the DAO that are emulated in the performance and in its sub-products, as well as the pertinence of artistic production to the world. It is an opportunity to communicate their subjectivity through their practice. Although they share some common points, material thinking is not conceptual art. Rather, it provides a possibility to establish a middle path between concepts and the material. Conceptual artists have been interested in a type of art where the concept(s) or idea(s) involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic, technical and material concerns (Correia et al., 2018), so that some works of conceptual art may be constructed by anyone, simply by following a set of written instructions; the idea of art dependent on craft skills is almost rejected. An example of this view was represented in the performance “Little Monkeys” (Macaquinhos), created in Brazil in 2011. This performance consisted of a group of men and women who create performance art, naked, by exploring each other’s anuses. The reactions of the Brazilian audience were diversified, from harsh criticism to compliments. The group of artists in this case was not committed to aesthetic perspectives of art, but rather to a discussion of existing views and taboos regarding art, following the same line of thought proposed by Marcel Duchamp in 1917 through ready-made objects. Contrary to conceptual artists like Duchamp, artistic researchers who produce material thinking are interested in validating their work through the artistic form or happening (Correia et al., 2018; Östersjö, 2018). They are interested in challenging the perceived violence of imposed meanings using art (Rosen, 2012), but believe that this can only be achieved through the clarification of the pertinence of materiality. In this sense, material thinkers are not so distant from platonic views of art, which value the artistic production according to ideals of beauty. An example of this claim was presented by Roger Scruton (2009) in a documentary produced by BBC Scotland entitled Why Beauty Matters. The author appears rehearsing a Stabat Mater composed by Pergolesi. Scruton suggests that the composer wanted to represent the grief of the Holy Virgin beside the cross of the dying Christ. However, the DAO involved were more complex: there was a search to symbolize the composer’s suffering through the lines of the piece, showing the way through which our deep and troubling emotions can achieve freedom and union through music. The voice of Mary is performed by two singers, the melody rises slowly, painfully, resolving a dissonance only to be gripped by another dissonance as the voices clash, representing the suffering and sorrow within her. A simple and sacred text; a mother stands grieving and weeping at the cross on which her son is hanging. Given that Pergolesi was suffering from tuberculosis when he composed this Stabat Mater, he was, according to Scruton, the Christ dying on the cross. In fact, Pergolesi died a few months after the work’s completion. This understanding, according to Scruton’s point of view, is of paramount importance in understanding this music that is not complex in its structure, but is full of conscious meanings which were manipulated through music materials – a fundamental pillar in material thinking. Scruton suggested that this message encourages us to think without the theological and conceptual apparatus of our human condition and relationship with

Looking for desired artistic outcomes 163 the spiritual and the sacred, proposing that death is our destiny, but not the end of us. The only perspective that differs from the view of material thinking proposed by Scruton from the view proposed in this book is the existence of ‘unique and definitive’ meaning. Material thinking is a consequence of a poststructuralist society where stratified and unique meanings are challenged, deconstructed and re-configured. This is, at the same time, both a task and a DAO for artistic researchers: enriching our epistemic complexity and understanding. Informed by these premises, this chapter presents an artistic research project oriented to produce material thinking. It discusses an artistic output that criticizes existing stereotypes concerning an understanding of Indian music practices by Westerners. This chapter also brings to light how boundaries between popular and classical music, the performer and the composer, over-specialization and a broad artistic profile, can be dissolved when the artistic focus moves from an interest in translating a text notated in a score to an interest in expressing DAO. This chapter begins by describing the project, i.e., presenting the reasons that motivated the author3 of the project to develop it. Following the presentation of material thinking, it involves a dialogue between the text described here and the artistic outputs that can be accessed via web links. The chapter ends with a summary that describes the main points discussed.

The artistic research proposal Prelude At certain point of this research, I4 realized that many of the conclusions and points discussed should not only be approached from a theoretical point of view, but also as an artist who tries to make sense of his perceptions of the world through his artistic voice. More than suggesting a balance between treason and tradition, there was a need to feel the implications of this in my daily artistic practice. Thus, I decided to engage in a project that moved from an idea of musical performance as the interpretation and realization of a given text to the expression of my own DAO through material thinking. This decision led me to formulate three initial concerns that functioned as a starting point for my project. The first question concerns a long period of assimilation of different types of musical traditions, which somehow blurred my understanding of what was my current DAO at that time. As mentioned in the Introduction of this book, my DAO as musician was to express my emotions and points of view concerning the world where I live and how the latter shapes me; I was strongly influenced by a perspective of art as expression, which is common for musicians (Carroll, 1999). Although this seemed to be still a value for me, it was not clear which point of view I would like to express through my music, or through my art. Therefore, this was the first question. The second question was related to the most suitable way to express my point of view, while the third concerned the challenges I would face in reaching my aims. In sum, I had to find my own DAO, and the means to achieve it and overcome the possible challenges that I would face.

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During my journey as a PhD candidate, and parallel to my activity as a classical guitarist, I started to deepen my study of Eastern philosophy and – because of this – I became involved with Indian sacred music, due to its close connection to meditation practices. As a yoga practitioner, such involvement was motivated by some experiences performing bhajans5 in yogi ceremonies in Portugal, Brazil and the United Kingdom. From the first time, some elements of this practice drew my attention. In contrast to the music tradition in which I was involved, based on the ideal of meta-performances proposed by Said (1991), Indian sacred music is not oriented to demonstrate abilities, but rather to realize the connection between the individual and sacred element of life. Because of this, the music is not complex in its structure, it is open to improvisation and it does not require high levels of performance skills by the performers. It is a type of participatory performance (Turino, 2008), usually performed during a group event, with one or more lead singers, accompanied by instruments like the tabla, harmonium, tambura, different types of percussion and sometimes dancing (Kaminsky & Long, 2011). In fact, my experience as a bhajan player revealed a level of integration between the performer and audience that I had never felt before, either in Western classical or in popular music. However, it was also possible to note a lack of understanding on the part of both audiences and performers concerning the bhajans’ lyrics and a stereotyped vision of this type of performer by those who are not involved with this culture. This vision was shaped by an understanding of Indian music as something psychedelic and associated with the hippie movement of the 1960s. This stereotype was also perceived by musicians like Ravi Shankar, who criticized Western views of his culture. Many people these days think that Indian music is influencing pop music to a high degree. But my personal opinion is that this is just the sound of sitar and not the true Indian music that one finds in pop songs. Except for a few groups who I think are musically creative and adventurous, pop musicians use the sitar in an extremely shallow way, just as a new sound or gimmick . . . this should not upset those who sincerely love Indian music as classical music. One instrument can serve many styles of music. . . . The Beatle scene and the sitar explosion brought me immediately into a position of immense popularity with young people . . . But I have had to pay for this. On the one hand, I have been facing criticism from the very ‘traditional’ people in India who says I am commercializing and cheapening my music with the pop and lowering my standards of playing the sitar. These charges I have had to face mostly in my own country, but also to some extent from classical musicians abroad. On the other hand, I was confident about one thing: I knew I would be able to present the correct perspective of our music to young people all over the world so that they would have a better understanding of it. . . . Along with the teenagers, there was another large group, known as ‘hippies’ who became my zealous admirers. I found it even more difficult to bring them to an understanding and appreciation of our music from the correct viewpoint. The reason for this was, I felt, that many of them were involved

Looking for desired artistic outcomes 165 with various kinds of hallucinogenic drugs and were using our music as part of their drug experiences. Through in the beginning I was hurt by their approach to Indian music as ‘psychedelic’, spiritual and erotic experience, I later realized that it was not wholly their fault. I discovered that a few self-appointed ‘gurus’ had been propagating misinformation over the last few years about India, saying that almost all the noted ascetics, thinkers and artists in India use drugs. These ‘gurus’ went as far as saying that one cannot meditate properly, play music or even pronounce the sacred OM unless one is under influence of such drugs. . . . It was, of course, gratifying to see that many people love India, but expression of this love was superficial, and their understanding of India’s way was very shallow. Wearing beads and bells and flowers and carrying joss sticks came across as a mimicry and a mockery of the real thing. (Shankar, 1968, pp. 102–103) Shankar’s (1968) criticisms focus on a stereotyped view, not only of music, but of Indian culture as a whole. In fact, this is also perceived in relation to other topics, such as yoga and meditation, which are viewed by many Westerners as separated activities whose purpose is seen as something uniquely physical and mental. As suggested by him, this view was strongly empowered by countercultural movements from the 1960s that associated Indian culture and spirituality with drugs. At the same time, Shankar’s comments also reveal a strong sense of tradition, like the one underpinning Western art music, that shaped classical and sacred music. The following example illustrates how the author approached this point. In his first meeting with the former Beatle George Harrison, Shankar took note of his interest in Indian music and more precisely in sitar. Then, in June 1966 at a friend’s house in London, I met George Harrison and Paul McCartney of The Beatles. I found them to be very charming and polite young men, not at all what I had expected. George talked to me about the sitar and said that he had been very much impressed with the instrument and its sound and my playing of it since he first heard me. I told him that after hearing so much about his accomplishments, I would like him to show me what he had done with the sitar. With an awkward and childlike expression, he said shyly that it was really not very much. I was struck by his deep humility. George explained to me he had had no real training with the sitar, but had done some experiments with it on his own, using his knowledge of the guitar as a background, and he expressed, very sincerely, his desire to learn from me to play the sitar. I carefully explained to him that one must undergo many long years of study and practice of the basics before one can play even a single note properly. . . . In his lesson, I had George practice all the correct positions of sitting and some of the basic exercises. This was the most that one could do in six years learning these basics. (Shankar, 1968 p. 101)

166 Looking for desired artistic outcomes The commitment to tradition as perceived in Shankar’s view is common in manuals of Indian music (as in his own book), but did not fit the expectations of George Harrison. If we analyse the latter’s artistic production, we can see that Harrison approached Indian music based on the idea of a musician who used Indian instruments, but did not consider himself as a sitarist nor a classical performer. Since the 1960s, when The Beatles introduced the sitar in the song ‘Norwegian Wood’ featured on the LP Rubber Soul, due to the established contact between George Harrison and Ravi Shankar, several other artists expressed their interest in exploring this music tradition. However, this exploration was, for the most part, restricted to the adoption of instruments, particularly the sitar, in mostly tonal songs. This practice, in the view of musicians like Ravi Shankar, did not deepen all the potentialities and characteristics of Hindustani6 music. According to Shankar, the music of northern India cannot be restricted to the simple use of its more common instruments. There are structural elements, such as ornate improvisation, the omission of harmonic and contrapuntal elements, the presence of a constant pedal note and the observance of the melodic structure known as raga that define much of what can be recognized as ‘Indian music’ (Shankar, 1968). In addition, Ravi Shankar, drawing on several treatises on Hindu music, argues that the separation between Hindu music and the philosophy of yoga can greatly restrict the understanding of the first, especially if the aspirant to study this type of music is purely interested in the technical and expressive field of an instrument, as was the case of several European and US artists who ventured to explore their understanding of the possibilities of this music. As an example of such integration, there are certain elements in the vocabulary, both of music and the philosophy of yoga that are common. The example described ahead illustrates this similarity: the words Arohana (upward) and Avarohana (downward) mean, at the same time, an ascending and descending melodic musical movement and the movement of attention upward and downward in certain yoga practices. If, on the one hand, the exploration of musical practices from the Indian subcontinent was not properly explored by some Western artists interested in its potentialities, on the other hand, other Western artists sought in their creative genesis to deepen exclusively this musical tradition. This artistic positioning restricted many of the elements that could allow for a deeper dialogue between Indian music and other Western or popular music traditions. Examples include the many mantras of the Sama Veda (the main Hindu scripture dedicated to music), which remains sung and recorded in Sanskrit by Western artists. The justification to remain faithful to the original language of these songs is to preserve their expressive content. An example is the US musician Naren K. Schreiner,7 who openly recommends the study of Sanskrit music in its original language. In spite of the innumerable benefits that this artistic posture can bring to those interested in understanding this music, it is also responsible for the distance between these songs and the Western public, especially those interested in the possible benefits that the performance of this music can bring to those who sing it. It was on the basis of the picture described here that the following DAO emerged: bringing to light an understanding of Eastern philosophy through an artistic project that would rethink identified

Looking for desired artistic outcomes 167 stereotypes concerning this culture in Europe and the United States. This understanding should depart from an element that it is fundamental to Indian musical practices: the notion of sacred. Material thinking In order to materialize this proposal, I started a music group, along with other colleagues, called Atma Kirtana, a Sanskrit name that means ‘devotional songs of the soul’. This name was defined by taking into account our interest in using bhajans as our main artistic source. At this point, it is also important to make clear our view on the differences between bhajans and kirtans. Both words have been used as synonyms, but in fact they are not. Lavezzoli (2006) and Brown (2014) suggest that the bhajan is melodically more free and is performed by a single singer with or without one or more musical instruments. Kirtan, in contrast, presents a more defined structure and typically involves a call and response musical structure, similar to an intimate conversation, or a sharing of ideas. It includes two or more musical instruments and the prosodic principles are the same from the Vedic era (Alanna, 2014). While the Kirtan requires more audience participation through musical dialogue, bhajans are more frequently experienced in silence, or by singing along (Nye, 2013). Despite our interest in using bhajans as a starting point, the idea to include kirtana in the group’s name emerged as possibility of revealing a common point between these two genres: the devotional. Once the DAO was defined, we understood that the sacred should also be a core element for the artistic proposal, because of its importance in Indian philosophy. The word ‘sacred’ refers to the activity of giving meaning to a given symbol (Eliade, 1968) that, although remaining hidden (Bonder, 2007), takes this same symbol from banality and places it in a special place. George Battaile (1989) also discussed this notion of sacred through his concept of heterology, i.e., the science of what is completely other (hetero = other). The ‘completely other’ is, according to this author, closely related to notions of the ‘sacred’, but not as it is commonly associated in contemporary Western discourse with goodness (versus evil) and reverence. Battaile, like the authors previously described, understood the sacred as fundamentally ambivalent: on the one hand, set apart as holy and revered; on the other hand, set apart as accursed and dirty. In his opinion, the idea of sacred in modern Western society is distorted by the current perception of ‘religion’ which is too closely associated with institutions that regulate and prohibit access to the sacred. For Battaille (1989), religion was a field of activity and experience that could not be reduced to social utility or moral values. It does not simply make good workers and good citizens. ‘There is within religion an impulse toward excess and extravagance that belies its orientation toward otherness and reveals its potential for subversion (treason) of social order (tradition)’ (Auslander, 2008). As a starting point, I can say that we agreed with such authors concerning the notion of sacred as something that is hidden (put aside) and evoked through the making of meaning. However, given the DAO that oriented this proposal, we adopted the Vedic perspective of the sacred dimension as the hidden dimension

168 Looking for desired artistic outcomes that permeates all creation. Thus, the human task would not be to understand or reach this dimension, but rather awaken it in order to recognize the sacred everywhere and everything. This connection depends, according to ancient scriptures such as the Bhagvad Gita, on yoga, i.e., a state of control (niroda) of mental waves (nivriti). Any attempt to reach such a state can be recognized as a religious path, in the sense that religion is to re-ligare or re-connect to the sacred dimension of life. In this sense, music and arts can be a religious path to reach yoga, i.e., the required state to understand the sacred. There are different ways to reach this state. According to Hinduist tradition,8 one can reach yoga through service (karma yoga), devotion (bhakti yoga) intellectual study (jnana yoga) and developing the ability of control the body’s energy (kriya yoga). Music has been considered a type by bhakti yoga. In Ram’s (1968) opinion, the role of the artist, as described in Chapter 2, is to be a pontiff, a bridge between this sacred dimension and the world, i.e., remembering the yogi through their practice (karma, bhakti, jnana or kriya) about the importance of awakening this in our daily lives. This perspective, which is the core of Hindu philosophy, is also present in Western culture, particularly in the platonic idea of a spiritual world. In recent decades, a British composer approached this same topic in an article where he agreed with the view proposed by Sri Ram (Tavener, 1995). However, the crucial point that differentiates the approach to the sacred, according to a Hindu point of view, is the perception of separateness. Hindu philosophy asserts that the sacred dimension corresponds to Brahman, the absolute and non-manifested that is not only behind moral rules, and on the perception of beauty, but rather in every thought and action in the material world. This was the meaning that my colleagues and I wanted to materialize in our artistic project. Articulating concepts and images in desired artistic outcomes Taking into account our interests, we conceptualized a project designated as Seven Stars: the Songs of Chakras (Sete Estrelas: O Canto dos Chakras). In order to develop this project, we used: (i) documentary research, including sources from yoga philosophy (e.g., Bhagavad Gita and Sama Veda), references on yoga and treatises on Northern Indian music (Kauffman, 1968; Stevenson, 1961; Danielou, 1949); (ii) experience reports from performers (Ravi Shankar, David Courtney, Alla Raka, Vilayat Khan and George Harrison); (iii) the study of Indian instruments (harmonium, sitar, tambura); and (iv) shared compositions of lyrics and music. The study of the Indian instruments informed the compositional process of the works that were part of this project. It was also the basis for the interpretative decisions adopted by the performers. This project comprised seven songs written in Portuguese, and subsequently translated into Spanish, that described the journey of a yogi who has self-realized the sacred dimension behind the material world. Ancient literature on yoga, e.g., Bhagvada Gita and the Yoga Sutras by Patanjali, has asserted that the path to reach such self-realization is to re-draw the energy that is connected to the sense to the seven nervous centres (chakras) which are allocated in the spine. According to

Looking for desired artistic outcomes 169 this literature, these seven chakras remain dormant in common people, but are awakened in yogis, especially kriya yogis. The techniques used by these yogis to achieve this aim are designated pranayama, whose meaning is ‘control (yama) of vital energy (prana)’. Through pranayama, the kriya yogis are able to awaken subtle force, designated as kundalini. Although there is no consensus in yogic literature on where kundalini is located, a common understanding is that the latter remains dormant in the lower chakras. The songs dedicated to each chakra approach the gradual self-realization of the yogi as a journey that starts in the first chakra and ends in the last one. The lyrics are based on the descriptions of the symptoms of the awakening of each chakra. There was a concern to avoid Sanskrit terms in the lyrics due to our aim to make their meaning as clear as possible. A similar project, released in 2011, named ‘Songs of the Divine Master’ (Canções do Divino Mestre) also used songs written in Portuguese to approach the mythic story told in the Bhagavad Gita. However, Sanskrit terminology9 was used by the composer who tried to keep the story as close as possible to the referential text. Following another line of thought, our idea was to avoid expressions in other languages to refer to the main points of yogic terminology in each of the seven songs. Concerning the structure, we explored the framework of ragas10 for composing the songs. Since yoga was defined as a state of connection to the sacred where the mental waves are controlled, our idea was to create an atmosphere that could allude to an idea of ‘something static’. This idea was reinforced by the inclusion of a pedal sequence of notes played by the tambura; a clear reference to the sacred dimension that was present in the yogi’s journey. This element also allowed the representation of the static in the concert, i.e., the chosen feature associated to the sacred. Ancient scriptures like Sama Veda have associated the awakening of each chakra with a specific raga. The first song was called ‘Awakening the Serpent’ (O Despertar da Serpente).11 The instruments used in this song were harmonium, sitar, violin, voice and digital tambura. It was dedicated to the first chakra (mooladhara chakra): the basis of the kundalini energy. This Sanskrit word means ‘root’ or ‘foundation’ and it is allocated in the coccyx. This chakra is associated in yogic literature to the earth, the colour red and a sense of connection and stability in daily life. In order to bring these elements to light, we decided to keep a very simple and stable music structure, i.e., to restrict melodic movement on the harmonium (that sometimes created some certain problems with the tambura), and to use lyrics that tried to express a great sense of connection which resulted from the awakening of the serpentine force (kundalini). The raga chosen for this song was hansadhwani, which is appointed in yogi literature as associated with mooladhara chakra. At the same time, we decided to use this song as an alap: an opening section for the entire concert. Traditionally, musicians educated according to the postulates of classical Indian music performance play an opening, improvisatory, unaccompanied (except for the tambura drone) and introductory section for the raga. This is an opportunity progressively to introduce the elements that would be then developed throughout the raga. In this case, the singer and the violinist had an opportunity to use this section to feel the audience’s presence, the environment and the synchronicity

170 Looking for desired artistic outcomes regarding the tambura and the harmonium. We realized that this song was an opportunity to simultaneously maintain the sense of stability resulting from the awakening of this chakra (symbolized by the similarity between the harmonium and tambura, the lyrics and the melodic structure) and the joy of being in this state (expressed by the singer’s solos over the alap). The second song was called ‘Dance of Duality’ (Dança da Dualidade),12 based on the raga yaman. The instruments used in this song were harmonium, violin, voice, percussion and digital tambura. It was dedicated to the second chakra (swadhishtana chakra). The Sanskrit word swa means ‘one’s own’ and adhisthana means ‘dwelling place or residence’. Therefore, swadhisthana means ‘one’s own abode’ (Satyananda, 1984). Its location is at the base of the spinal column, at the level of the coccyx or tailbone. This chakra is associated in yogic literature with water, the colour orange and the flexibility and duality of daily life. In order to bring these elements to light, we decided to use the music structure to alternate different moments based on the presence of the percussion. The sections where the percussion was present represented moments in life where instability and turmoil are perceived. In these sections, there was more melodic movement and rhythmic instability. When the percussion was absent, the intention was that the stability and calmness from the previous song would be perceived. This interplay between both parts continues throughout this song, as a reminder that daily life is also shaped by ups and downs that demand balance between flexibility of opinion and immutability in consciousness. Also, there were some moments in this piece when the distinctions between both sections seem unclear deliberately. This procedure was adopted to remind the listener that sometimes ups and downs are not clear enough in our lives; there are moments classified as downs that in the future we may realize as enabling great progress in our existence. This message was clearly highlighted in the main verse. The lyrics of the main verse described the yogi who awoke swadhisthana chakra as someone who perceived the flow of life, like a river, and allowed it to follow its course without losing the inner consciousness. The third song was called ‘Astral Traveler’ (Viajante astral),13 based on the raga maulkauns. The instruments used in this song were harmonium, sitar, violin, voice, percussion and digital tambura. It was dedicated to the third chakra (manipura chakra). Yogic literature describes this centre as being derived from two Sanskrit words: mani meaning ‘jewel’ and pura meaning ‘city’. Therefore, manipura literally means ‘city of jewels’. Other perspectives describe manipura as mani-padma, which means ‘jewelled lotus’. Its location is reported to be directly behind the navel on the inner wall of the spinal column. This chakra is associated in yogic literature to fire, the colour yellow and qualities such as strength and confidence in daily life. The song presents a lyric that describes the person who awoke the manipura chakra as a brilliant and confident human being, who pays tribute to the ‘golden jewel’ (manipura) that illuminates and protects the whole body. This idea of protection and a body free of illness is clearly appointed by some yogis as a consequence of awakening manipura. Furthermore, the verses show a yogi who awoke manipura as a person who is aware of their journey towards self-realization of the sacred in their daily life and, despite the challenges and troubles, follows

Looking for desired artistic outcomes 171 their own destiny towards the final awakening. The presence of the sitar, particularly the arpeggios, was designed to allow the creation of an effect like a pearl necklace moving across the music. The fourth song was called ‘Love Simply for Loving’ (Amar Simplesmente por Amar),14 and it was based on the raga bhairav. The instruments used in this song were harmonium, voice, percussion and digital tambura. It was dedicated to the fourth chakra (anahata), which is also known as the ‘heart chakra’. Its location is believed to be situated in the spinal column on the inner wall, directly behind the centre of the chest. This chakra is associated in yogic literature to air, the colour green and qualities such as love without expectations. Yogi literature describes anahata as a very important centre that represents a bridge between the spiritual and physical environments. Anahata means ‘unstruck or unbeaten’, because of its relationship with the heart. Due to this relationship, anahata is also described as ‘the set of love without expectations’. To open the anahata chakra in the spiritual sense means the realization of an all-embracing divine love, free from the capriciousness of worldly emotions. In this song, we decided not to include lyrics. Since love is something that must be felt, the words would not be able to describe what the awakening of this chakras represents. Instead of this, we included an improvisatory section for the singer that was meant to represent a feeling that can be expressed by the voice, but not always by words. The inclusion of very soft percussion was justified by the desire to represent the reported capacity of some yogis to hear some frequencies that are not perceived by most people. The fifth song was called ‘Bhagavatar’,15 a Sanskrit word that means the one who praises the divinity through songs and it was based on the raga janasammohini. The instruments used in this song were harmonium, voice, drums, guitar, harmonica and digital tambura. It was dedicated to the fifth chakra (vishuddi), which is also known as the ‘throat chakra’. Yogi literature describes vishuddi as a centre of purification that also represents communication and discrimination. Its location is seen as being situated in the cervical plexus directly behind the throat pit. It is associated with the colour green and the ether. Awaking vishuddhi represents the capacity to understand the universe and communicate this understanding to others. Because of this, the fifth song was composed as a bhajan; a very simple text that described a person who achieved this condition. Instead of simply performing a bhajan in the common sense (a short lyric written in Sanskrit and accompanied by harmonium), we arranged the music in such a way that it resembled a folk-rock song. This was to remind people that the meaning of bhajans resides in the act of dedicating the singing to praising the sacred or the divinity and not in structural elements. The idea of evoking elements from folk-rock in the instrumentation and arrangement were motivated by a willingness to recall artists such as Bob Dylan, who always demonstrated a critical understanding of the world in his songs. In this song, the lyrics are simple and repetitive, following a principle of kirtans. The sixth song was called ‘Under the Blue Sky of the Astral World’ (Sob o céu azul do mundo astral),16 and it was based on the raga bagshree. The instrumentation of this song was harmonium, voice, percussion, sitar and digital tambura. It was dedicated to the ajna chakra, which is reported to be located in the brain,

172 Looking for desired artistic outcomes behind the point between the eyebrows, at the top of the spinal cord medulla. The word ajna has a Sanskrit root and means ‘to know, obey, or follow’. Literally, ajna means ‘command’ or ‘the monitoring centre’. Its colour is purple and, differently from the other chakras, there is no element associated with it. This is the fundamental chakra for yogi practitioners. In Vedic astrology, ajna is the centre of Jupiter, which symbolizes the guru or preceptor. Therefore, this centre is also known as the ‘guru chakra’. In many traditional schools, this chakra has also been called the ‘eye of intuition’, and it is the door through which the individual enters into a state of astral consciousness. This is described as a state of absolute nothingness, where the empirical experiences of name and form, subject and object, do not penetrate (Satyananda, 1984). In this completely static state, the mind is extinguished, the common consciousness ceases to function and no perception of the ego remains. Ancient scriptures as the Bhagavad Gita suggest that when one develops ajna, all knowledge can be accessed directly without the aid of the senses. When ajna is awakened, the meaning and importance of the symbols dissolves and intuitive knowledge arises effortlessly. Until the ajna chakra is awakened, a person is reported to be under illusions, seeing things incorrectly and having great misconceptions about love and attachment, hatred and jealousy, tragedy and comedy, victory and defeat, and so many other things. When ajna awakens, a person escapes from this delusion. In this awakening, one can fully understand the relation between cause and effect in the sensory world. The sixth song explored this point mainly through the lyrics that tell the story of a person who, after awakening this chakra, realized in their internal nature all mysteries of the world. There was a concern in this song to create a certain kind of atmosphere to induce audiences to formulate an eidetic image of what the astral world could be. The strategy used was to include the sitar. Its sonority, contrasting with the low frequencies of the harmonium and tambura, allowed us to allude to the high frequencies of the astral world, as described in Bhagavad Gita, which cannot be heard by ordinary people. The seventh song was called ‘We are one’ (Somos um),17 and it was based on the raga darbari kanada. The instruments used in this song were harmonium, voice, percussion, violin and digital tambura. It was dedicated to the sahashara, which is said to be located in the brain, behind the point between the eyebrows, at the top of the spinal cord medulla. Like ajna chakra, sahashara has no colour or element associated with it. In contrast to what is commonly said in many representations of chakras’ symbology, sahasrara is not a proper chakra, but a point where the progressive ascension through the different chakras culminate. It is the crown of expanded awareness. The chakras by themselves are only steps to sahasrara, the place where the ‘real power’ resides. The Sanskrit word sahasrara means ‘one thousand’ and because of this, sahashara is described as a ‘lotus with one thousand petals’ which are multicoloured. This description is not truly literal, as the ‘one thousand’ is an expression adopted to refer to the vastness of sahashara. Further explanations of sahasrara are somewhat complicated, as it cannot be categorized or limited. Because of this, yogi tradition refers to sahasrara as the merging of the consciousness in the divine or sacred, rather than a defined centre; a synonym

Looking for desired artistic outcomes 173 to yoga or the state of union that emerges after the controlling of mental waves. In this song, the lyrics sought to address all these points. Like the previous song, the verses describe a yogi who, after reaching sahasrara, realized his essence as totally merged in the sacred. The sense of ‘I’ completely disappears, as well as the illusion that obscure the eyes. Beyond the lyrics, we also explored this sense of connection through other elements in the structure. The percussion at the end was purposely included to refer to the time that, even when yoga is reached, the fluctuations of the mind can still persist. This temporary state of awakening is designated as sabikalpa samadhi, i.e., a union that is not definitive. The dissonances that sometimes appeared between the violin and the harmonium were to represent a sense of incapacity to deal with the sahashara awakening, manifested by several yogis who publicly described their experiences. The song concluded with a coda where just the tambura and the voices remained, to resemble the element that was behind all previous songs: the sacred. This finale was also included to represent the nirbikalpa samadhi: a definitive awakening. Disseminating desired artistic outcomes Presenting Seven Stars in front of an audience was not a simple task. Given the complexity of the information involved and possible preconceptions that could exist (mainly from those who were not used to all this symbology), we realized that an explanation of all this narrative was not only important in understanding the concert. Rather, the explanation should be another artistic element to be negotiated in the concert hall. In order to do this, we included a video18 to be presented, hoping to increase the intelligibility of our DAO in a way that could be more interesting for the audience. The video, through its images, enriched the power of the visualization of the verbal descriptions and the meaning construction for the audience members. Since our aim was to present a perspective on the sacred based on the idea of a hidden dimension behind the material world, we tried to approach the concerts as ‘true rituals’ where each dimension should have significance. The sound of the tambura constantly playing in the concert hall represented the sacred dimension that is always present and static, behind the waves of agitation in the audience and the musicians. The light colours on the stage were used to represent the colour of each chakra, seeking to reinforce the message in the videos. The candles and the incense were used to symbolize wisdom and intuition, according to practices adopted by yogis on their altars. The concert was organized as a mix of participatory and presentational performance, where the audience could sing the songs, clap their hands, meditate or just watch the musicians perform. When possible, we organized the hall in a way that people could stay seated, on the floor or on chairs. An important point in these concerts was to make clear that we were neither musicians trained in Indian classical music, nor people without musical backgrounds performing mantras and bhajans. Rather, we were professional musicians who were looking to use their music abilities to express their personal and shared understanding of yogi traditions, using their own language and sources, in ways

174 Looking for desired artistic outcomes that did not necessarily use Sanskrit terms nor even the specific dress code adopted by Indian musicians. Our aim was to show people that yogis are not necessarily people who live in the Himalayas making contorted body postures or meditating for long hours. Contemporary yogis are regular people, living in our cities, searching for a balance between their values and their social demands. For them, everything is sacred; there is no distinction between spiritual or material things because the sacred is behind every part of the universe. This was a concern when preparing our press kit. We wanted to give a clue (through photographs, banners and promotional texts) to people who were influenced by this culture, but were not immersed in it. The concert was presented in more than 30 venues in Portugal and Spain. We also recorded the songs on an album entitled Seven Stars: The Song of the Chakras.19 Audience feedback in each concert revealed, at the same time, intelligibility of the underlying message. The alterability was reported by audience members who were used to participating in kirtans and yoga events. Overall, they were surprised to hear songs on chakras sung in Portuguese and by musicians who did not present themselves using a dress code typical of Indian musicians. Moreover, people who were in touch with this topic and symbology reported how they learned from this concert. According to them, several points that seemed to be unclear in traditional literature were described in the concert in a way that allowed them to make connections between the literature and elements of daily life. This clarification enriched their views and increased their knowledge of yogi philosophy and its possible implications in Western societies.

Discussion As previously referred to in the literature, artists can be seen as outsiders and, consequently, their views can sometimes help us to rethink our position as human beings and our beliefs about ourselves and about the world (Carter, 2004; Steiner, 1993). As described by Correia et al. (2018, p. 14): The artist, through the capacity to perceive analogies existing between matters far apart and, apparently, most dissimilar, mythopoetically creates ‘poetic wisdom’ that reveals myths, which are non-negotiable and no longer sustainable (Carter, 2004). Artists, in a broad sense, establish new relationships with materials and with degraded environments promoted by myths, allowing for the emergence of new ones. When this process is revealed through a discourse adequate to the creative process, it enables societies to understand how they were formed, and this is essential knowledge for societies’ sustainability. Inventing mythopoetic narratives as DAO that illuminate perspectives on human interest was exactly the purpose of the research example presented here. This was the DAO that was described in the introduction to this book. After several years performing according to the formalist code and following a canonical indication of what should (or should not!) be played, I decided to put into this project my

Looking for desired artistic outcomes 175 ideal view of what I should do as artist. Although I had been trained as a classical guitarist, there was something that I wanted to achieve with Atma Kirtana that was absent before its creation. Following the perspectives proposed by Ram (1968), who positioned the artist as someone that connects the ideal and material world, i.e., a pontiff, I decided that this was to be the highest principle in my decisions concerning this project; it was an ethical stance that oriented decision-making in all subsequent processes. In relation to this ethical principle, I realized that I should learn new instruments and also re-explore some previous abilities that I discovered I had lost. All of this required deep research into something and this ‘something’ was knowledge of classical Indian music, on bhajans, on yoga and on chakras. This knowledge was synthesized and represented through a performance that was not necessarily presentational or participatory in the sense suggested by Turino (2008). Rather, it was pedagogical; for me, a new type of performance, which was more than aesthetic appreciation, and which aimed to reveal a perspective on the world through the juxtaposition of two different modes of knowledge embedded in the artistic production: declarative and procedural. A pedagogical oriented performance is not a performance to test things, or to present the biography of a dead composer to contemporary audiences. It is a type of performance that seeks to reveal mythopoetic narratives through the materiality of art making, increasing our stock of meaning on the world and consequently contribute to our evolution. Producing the pedagogical performances in this project involved deep research with results which were constantly scrutinized by the audiences at the concerts and also in rehearsals with the other musicians. An example was the attempt to make clear to the singer what each song represented. She is Indian and was used to approaching the symbology of chakras using other terms. The possibility of knowing how a Western musician understood some of the fundamental pillars of her culture was useful in rethinking her understanding of her maternal culture. Carrying out this project made me realize that I was not necessarily a guitarist, a sitarist or a songwriter. I was an emancipated performer producing material thinking (Figure 6.1), an artistic researcher committed to desired artistic outcomes, promoting ethical treason20 of stratified views and codes in order to materialize

Searching and clarifying alternate meanings

An ethical traitor

Emancipated performer

Committed to desired artistic outcomes

Acting as artistic researcher

Figure 6.1 An explanatory model of an emancipated performer

176 Looking for desired artistic outcomes and reveal alternative meanings (i.e., reconfiguring old mythopoetic narratives on behalf of a deep comprehension of the human conditions). The emancipated performer articulates concepts and images, as described in the previous chapters, to make their DAO intelligible in such a way that it can stimulate audiences to reflect on their views and perspectives. As Robert Musil described in his novel The Man Without Qualities (1943), artists are oriented by a sense of possibility instead of a sense of reality which seeks to explain the world and its relationships. The sense of possibility is not based on scientific thought, but on the imagination of possible realities (such as those described in this chapter and in Chapter 5) that stimulate our capacity to make connections between perspectives and cultural products. This project is offered as a possible exemplification of how artistic research can expand the possibilities of promoting DAO and, at the same time, bring about an innovation desired by emergent musicians. As described in Chapter 5, the search for innovation is not uncommon for musicians, as is a need to project their artistic identity and negotiate their DAO professionally as performers. Due to the clarification and unpacking of the DAO through the use of promotional texts and explanatory videos, it was found to be possible to increase the potentialities of the dissemination of this project. The project was presented in a variety of concert halls and alternative spaces, rather than only in academic spaces. The DAO, as here presented, is not a construction set apart from customary musical practice. Rather, it is suggested that musical practice is enriched when it is critically explored, as it can empower the artistic voice of the musician. Because of this, we suggest that artistic research can be used as a means of bringing critical insights into the nature and implications embedded in the DAO. Thus, it seems reasonable to consider pedagogical approaches that stimulate musicians to conduct artistic research in order to reach this aim. Although this is not easy, the consequences could be quite useful. For example, the data from the case studies suggest that artistic research can be a means of reducing the boundaries between popular and classical music, the composer and interpreters, singers and instruments. As highlighted in Chapter 2, it is possible that at least some audiences are searching for events that transcend these boundaries. From our perspective, material thinking could be a means of overcoming the challenges faced in some concert halls. In order to produce material thinking, we need more artistic researchers committed to finding a balance between the search for new mythopoetic inventions and the traditions established by the formalist code. This could be a key contribution of artistic research, not only to the institutional status of academic artists, but also to their positions as academic musicians in the music industries.

Summary This chapter has presented an example of an artistic research project that was oriented to materializing DAO in music performance through artistic research. This project was developed by the first author, based on the theoretical perspectives presented in the previous chapters. The artistic output was an example of material thinking, whose implications were also presented. This chapter also brings to light

Looking for desired artistic outcomes 177 how boundaries between popular and classical music, the performer and the composer, and over-specialization and a broad artistic profile, can be dissolved when the artistic focus moves from an interest in translating a text notated in a score to an interest in expressing DAO in an expanded notion of performance.

Notes 1 Research orientation refers to the epistemological position adopted by the investigator. Correia et al. (2018) indicated that artistic researchers are not orientated to observe, analyse and describe phenomenon (although their work may involve this), but to create new phenomenon (artistic outputs) whose pertinence is clarified through verbal discourse. 2 Deleuze and Guattari (1987) proposed becoming as an end in itself; an effort to create a future differs from the present. This idea harmonizes with major trends in performance theory that likewise value action and process. 3 First author of this book. 4 The following sections are described in the first person, as they refer to a project developed by the first author. 5 The term bhajan refers to any song in which the lyrics are based on religious themes and spiritual ideas expressed in any language from the Indian subcontinent (Lochtefeld, 2002). It is associated with a set of practices adopted by the Bhakti movement, i.e., the theist devotional trend of Hinduism. The songs express ideas from scriptures, legendary epics, the teachings of saints and the loving devotion to a deity (Cush, Robinson & York, 2012). 6 This term refers to the traditional music from the Indian subcontinent (Moutal, 1991). 7 Sangita Yoga – new album by Naren: www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8btTzzQG0Y. 8 Although Hinduism has been commonly understood as a certain type of religion (considering religion as an institution like the Church) there is no single religion that can be called Hinduism. This term refers to a set of different practices and spiritual philosophies that emerged in the Indian subcontinent. There are, however, common points among these practices that are shared by their practitioners. These points were grouped and designated Hinduism (Lochtefeld, 2002). 9 Krishna, Arjuna, Bharata, buddhi, Kurukshetra. 10 A raga is a melodic framework, used in Indian classical music, for improvisation. The latter has no direct connections or association with the common concepts of Western art music. Each raga is a set of melodic structures whose motifs, are considered in the Indian tradition to have the ability to ‘colour the mind’ and influence the emotions of audience. 11 Seven stars – the songs of the chakras/Awaking the serpent: http://atmakirtana.com/ Awaking-the-serpent. 12 Seven stars – the songs of the chakras/Dance of duality: http://atmakirtana.com/ Dance-of-duality. 13 Seven stars – the songs of the chakras/Astral traveler: https://atmakirtana.com/ Astral-traveler. 14 Seven stars – the songs of the chakras/Love simply for loving: https://atmakirtana.com/ Love- simply-for-loving. 15 Seven stars – the songs of the chakras/Bhagavatar: https://atmakirtana.com/Bhagavatar. 16 Seven stars – the songs of the chakras/Under the blue sky of the astral world: https:// atmakirtana.com/Under-the-blue-sky-of-the-astral-world. 17 Seven stars – the songs of the chakras/We are one: https://atmakirtana.com/We-are-one. 18 Chakras explanation – kundalini awakening process: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=hoCAx2-dsbA. 19 Seven stars – the songs of the chakras: https://atmakirtana.com/ seven-stars-the-songs-of-chakras. 20 See Chapter 3.

7

Promoting desired artistic outcomes The pedagogical project

Introduction In the previous chapters, it was suggested that music performance is a social, multidimensional and communicative activity (whose time boundaries are clearly demarcated), in which performers materialize an internal narrative based not only on a musical piece, but on the articulation of other properties (e.g., instruments, the relationship with the audience, dress code, visual media) and sub-products (e.g., CDs, DVDs, programme notes, photographs). This created narrative is the DAO. In such a process of materialization, thus far we have demonstrated that higher education music students face some difficulties in dealing with a formalist code that shapes their artistic practices, which in turn constrains their DAO. In order to overcome these challenges, it is suggested that these musicians must develop self-authorship through mentoring programs that are specially oriented to assist them in developing artistic research projects that culminate in what we term as material thinking. Based on all these claims, this chapter presents a pedagogical project designated the Artistic Mentoring Programme (AMP), which was created to assist a group of higher education students to develop self-authorship and consequently nurture their DAO as performers in music industries. Overall, this programme is offered as one possible model for artistic supervision in higher education music institutions, open to those who are interested in material thinking. Its conceptualization was informed by the theoretical framework presented in the previous chapters. The AMP does not dichotomize artistic development and career planning. Rather, such a model explores the interaction between the individuals, their environment and their practices in order to enable them to find a way to project their artistic voices. This programme is a proposal for artistic training based on versatility rather than speciality. Because of this, its purpose is to a complement existing pedagogical practices in higher education music institutions. The arguments that support the AMP are based on a perspective that recognizes music education as a process that involves the development of the whole person, rather than just technical and interpretative skills (Gaunt et al., 2012). Notwithstanding such a viewpoint, such skills are still adopted as criteria for evaluating successful learning in many higher education music institutions (Bennett, 2012; Bennett, 2008). Therefore, the current challenge in such an environment seems to be in assisting students to conceptualize musical practice as a plural and

Promoting desired artistic outcomes 179 multifaceted phenomenon that should reflect their personal values and identity, instead of practice being a restriction of their views towards the development of technical and interpretative standards (Gaunt et al., 2012). This chapter first presents a detailed description of the structure of the AMP. This includes foundations, addressed capacities, covered topics and dimensions. This is followed by a description of an online implementation of this programme, as well as three resulting projects. This experience emphasized that a model of music performance teaching, oriented to assisting students to promote their DAO through artistic research, may bring opportunities for contextualized learning, where students can realize what may ‘work or not’ in relation to their DAO and according to their own experiences. Finally, a short summary highlights the main points discussed.

The Artistic Mentoring Programme Foundations The construction of the AMP was based on the mentoring framework proposed by Renshaw (2009), which takes into account the whole person rather than just focusing narrowly on transmitting a specific professional skill needed to meet an immediate challenge. This perspective considers the individual in a broad context and recognizes the interdependence of personal and professional development. In the AMP, an artistic mentor primarily assumes the fellow traveller mode proposed by Jones (2005) and seeks to work collaboratively with students in an engaged learning environment. Jones identifies three ways of approaching teaching/ learning interactions in adult education: gatekeepers, midwives and fellow travellers. In each of these interactions, there is a different alignment between the teacher, the learner and the material. In the gatekeeper model, the teacher introduces the material as they see it, while the student assumes the posture of an apprentice. In the model of the midwife, the teacher plays the role of facilitator, spending a lot of time selecting materials and preparing appropriate scaffolding. The teacher appears to take a back seat in the activity, and the learners have to discover and engage with the materials themselves. In the fellow traveller model, teachers and students are seen as on more of an equal level: learners find themselves taking on new roles, with the teachers also learning from the students. In this model, teachers and students work closely together (Jones, 2005). According to Jones, the fellow traveller model can reduce the hierarchies in higher education music institutions, such as those criticized by students in the previous chapters of this book. The AMP was conceptualized according to the following features, which have been recognized and discussed in the previous chapters. Such features were defined explicitly in order to ensure the appropriate conditions were likely to be in place for the stimulation of self-authorship. • •

Participants can explore more than one instrument at same time instead of emphasizing a single instrument or vocal genre; New performance approaches are stimulated, rather than the pursuit of technical virtuosity and standardized patterns concerning music interpretation;

180 Promoting desired artistic outcomes • • • • • • • • • • • • •

The main focus is the communication of artistic ideas with an audience instead of technical and interpretative skills concerning repertoire; There is a concern with professional integration, as well as with strategies to promote this; Participants are encouraged to explore performance as a broad event with several dimensions and sub-products (e.g., audio-visual recordings); The pedagogical environment is centred on collective activities, such as master classes, public performances and workshops, rather than only on 1:1 studio-based individual lessons involving a teacher and a student; The aims are established by the student according their personal ambitions as performer; The activities are organized in phases, similar to action research in which there is planning, action and reflection; There is a search for the development of an artistic and professional autonomy that is centred on the student and their personal biography; The person being mentored defines the agenda and the shared focus; The exchange may take place through creative practices and verbal interactions; Students are encouraged to understand the relationship with their own creativity and learning processes; Students are encouraged to map out a future vision that is sustainable and rooted in practice-based evidence and experience; Students should be guided to find their own desired artistic outcome(s) and to deepen their understanding of who they are, by reflecting on their own history and biography as a means to clarify their perception of themselves; and finally The pedagogical environment should create a connection between the student’s self-awareness and the context in which they work and live.

Addressed capacity: self-authorship There is evidence that interest in designing higher education learning environments that promote student (and staff) self-authorship is gaining increasing importance in the higher education agenda in some countries, such as the United States (Magolda & King, 2007). Research has provided evidence that confirms the relationship between self-authorship and a capacity to successfully navigate in professional life (Magolda, 2001; Kegan, 1994). Moreover, there has been a reported consensual view among researchers concerning the role of self-authorship for achieving many contemporary higher education learning outcomes (Magolda & King, 2007). Becoming self-authored requires that students ‘learn to negotiate and act on [their] own purposes, values, feelings and meanings rather than those [they] have uncritically assimilated from others’ (Mezirow, 2000, p. 8). However, we would argue that most higher education students have not yet developed (or had the opportunity to develop) these capacities. The reasons behind such lack of development resides in a socialized practice of uncritically accepting knowledge from authorities (including well-intentioned advice) (Magolda & King, 2007).

Promoting desired artistic outcomes 181 These authors recognize such authorities as being the many influential people in students’ lives who are inclined simply to offer advice (such as parents, teachers and senior students). Consequently, young students are likely typically to view knowledge as certain and possessed by such authority figures. They do not see themselves as active agents in the construction of knowledge, and their interest in acquiring others’ approval can often restrict their ability to engage in debating multiple perspectives (Magolda & King, 2007). In order to promote self-authorship in higher education music institutions, the AMP focuses on three core skills, which are identified as of paramount importance in overcoming the condition of following external formulas, in order to become a self-authored person (cf. Magolda & King, 2007): • • •

Complex epistemological capacities: to enable the acknowledgment of multiple perspectives, critically analysing knowledge, and judging relevant evidence in context to make informed decisions about what to believe; Complex intrapersonal capacities: to enable critical analysis of one’s values, experiences, expectations and social identities in order to construct a coherent, internal, robust sense of self; and Complex interpersonal capacities: to enable authentic interdependent relationships with diverse others in which mutual perspectives and needs are recognized and negotiated.

Covered topics Structurally, the AMP was organized as a package of individual and collective sessions and public performances, delivered as an academic module, that cover a set of five main topics: (a) Conceptualization of arts and performance: The first topic comprises the presentation of several conceptual perspectives on arts and performance. Based on these perspectives, the mentor should assist students to develop a coherent perspective on arts and performance that fits their values and expectations; (b) Desired artistic outcomes: This comprises the presentation of the theoretical framework of DAO. The mentor should assist students to map out and understand their DAO, as well as any challenges that might restrict its achievement; (c) Artistic career development: This comprises the presentation of different perspectives regarding artistic careers and the music industries. The mentor should assist students to identify what they can offer as performers/material thinkers in the music industries; (d) Artistic research: Based on the achievements of the previous topics, the mentor assists students to conceptualize an artistic research project to produce material thinking; and (e) Material thinking: In the final topic, the mentor assists students to materialize their ideas through artistic practice.

182 Promoting desired artistic outcomes Dissemination The participants have the opportunity to present an artistic research project through performances and/or their sub-products, taking into account their professional aims as performers and their DAO. Based on this proposal, participants are encouraged to conceptualize the advertising and networking needed to promote their concerts. The mentor acts as producer, supporting this process. All the students are encouraged to search for possible concert halls to present their artistic proposal. This is a collaborative activity involving the students and the artistic mentor, part of whose role is to facilitate the negotiation between the artists and the chosen venues. In particular, the role of the mentor is to create the conditions for students to move from emanation (i.e., dependence on ‘original sources’) to generative learning (i.e., the ability to create something that can transcend the original source),1 as proposed by Mitchell (2006). The mentor facilitates the establishment of new networks in order to increase the likelihood that students can succeed with their artistic proposals. Dimensions The pedagogical support provided by the mentor is offered in two dimensions: (i) understanding the emancipated performer; and (ii) nurturing the emancipated performer. Each dimension involves action planning, monitoring of the student’s behaviour and reflections on the results. Understanding the emancipated performer The first dimension consists of individual sessions in which the mentor stimulates students to expand their views of music performance, discussing their desired artistic outcomes, and identifying and problematizing existing career paths. Through the individual sessions, the mentor helps to develop the artistic research project proposed by the student, as well as their plan for its dissemination. Throughout the individual sessions, the focus is on social cultural expectations, artistic values and the ideals of each student. The aim is to understand how students’ music-making is shaped by their educational and social environment. This exploratory process allows for the identification of students’ conceptualizations of their DAO, as well as challenges in achieving it.2 Conversations are employed as the initial mentoring strategy, based on a key premise in the principles of problematizing education, since they can stimulate students to rethink and deconstruct their views (Gutiérrez, 2007). Moreover, conversations stimulate students to take part in an engaged learning environment by the collaborative definition of topics to be discussed (Freire, 1996). Conversations in the AMP also meet the principles of The Wabash National Study of Liberal Arts Education Interview. This is an interview guide structured to learn how student characteristics, including their views of knowledge, self, and social relations, mediate their participation in educational experiences (Magolda & King, 2007). These authors created this conversation guide to help mentors who wish to engage students in guided reflection (Magolda & King, 2007). ‘The key element is encouraging students to make sense of their experience rather than the educator making sense

Promoting desired artistic outcomes 183 of it for them’ (Magolda & King, 2007, p. 9). The authors suggest arranging the conversation in four general phases: (i) getting acquainted; (ii) encouraging the student to reflect on important experiences of their choosing; (iii) encouraging the student to interpret those reflections; and (iv) concluding the conversation. It is important for the success of the conversations that topics are directed by the students’ interests and by their willingness and ability to reflect on and interpret the experiences that they choose to share. Therefore, the examples of the following questions are illustrative, in that each conversation should be shaped by a student’s individual history. •

•

•

•

Getting acquainted and building rapport: This is the start of the conversation, when the mentor invites students to talk about themselves, seeking an understanding of their trajectory as musicians. Possible questions in this phase include: could you tell me about your experience of performing music? Why did you decide to study music? Who are your influences? What makes a good performer in your opinion? When you are on the concert platform, what do you intend to achieve? How do you think you can achieve it? What does music performance mean to you? How do you see yourself in the future? What is the role that music performances play in your life? Encouraging reflection about important experiences: The next group of questions is used to encourage students to identify, reflect on and make sense of their salient experiences, scrutinizing the points through follow-up questions. This phase can also be a means of re-conceptualizing judgments of past experiences related to music-making. Possible queries include: can you tell me about good and bad experiences involving music performance? Why do you think those experiences were bad/good? Encouraging the interpretation of these reflections: This consists of inviting students to ‘make sense’ of the stories that they have shared. The goal at this point is to help students interpret how their experiences have affected them and how they might use insights from this conversation to inform their DAO and career decisions. Possible approaches to prompt this interpretation include the following questions: based on your experience described so far, how do you see yourself now? How do you think these experiences have shaped your perspectives on career and performance? Concluding thoughts: At the close of the conversation, students are invited, following their reflections, to recognize how their experiences and views shape their perspectives according to their aims as performers.

After such identification, students are encouraged to search for artistic references in order to illustrate their DAO. Instead of assuming this search as the stratification of students’ DAO, the AMP recognizes that this strategy can be a means of elucidating the concepts behind this narrative through accessible examples. This strategy consists of encouraging students to select audio-visual examples of artists who are taken as references for what students want to achieve. The second step is to investigate the biographies of such artists in order to recognize possible strategies that students can use to promote their DAO in a professional capacity. Figure 7.1 illustrates the structure adopted.

Regarding arts and performance Assisting students to enrich their perspectives on what are arts, what is their function as artists, what is the role of audience and what are the importance of performance in their lives

Desired artistic outcomes in music performance Assisting students to understand their perspectives on what they want to achieve as performers

Expectations of career as performers Assisting students to understand what they could offer as performers in music industries

Artistic research Assisting students to using research to develop new artistic outputs

Material thinking Assisting students to articulate their ideas with materials

Content

Dissemination Assisting students to disseminate their artistic outputs developed through research in(out) academic environment

Assisting students to develop self-authorship

Artistic Mentoring Programme

• Perspectives of arts and music performance

• Discussing students’ desired artistic outcomes

• Problematizing existing career paths

• Supervising students concerning their research process

• Supervising students concerning the strategies adopted to disseminate their artistic project beyond academia

Individual sessions (purpose)

Understanding the emancipated performer

Figure 7.1 The overall structure of the Artistic Mentoring Programme (AMP)

• Conversations with purpose: (i) getting acquainted; (ii) encouraging the student to reflect on important experiences of his or her choosing; (iii) encouraging the student to interpret those reflections in order to identify possible challenges faced by them; and (iv) concluding the conversation • Analysis of role models using audio-visual resources: (i) Searching for audio-visual examples of artists who have inspired students’ trajectory (ii) analyzing those examples in order to identify which elements are valued by students in each artist

Mentoring strategies for individual sessions

Nurturing the emancipated performer

• Expositive sessions: Seminars, workshops and master classes delivered by invited alumni in the area or by the mentor on possible challenges regarding the contents addressed by the program • Group discussions: Collective discussion where participants have feedback from their colleagues on questions and ideas that may well integrate their artistic proposal; the idea is to promote an environment where students can learn from other experiences and scrutinize their views • Presenting and discussing different strategies to disseminate the artistic project beyond academia

• Presenting and discussing different views and perspectives concerning music performance

• Exploring and discussing desired artistic outcomes

• Exploring and discussing notions and possibilities of career paths in performing arts

• Introducing artistic research as a research area (e.g. presenting and discussing research methods concepts)

Mentoring strategies for collective sessions

Collective sessions (purpose)

Promoting desired artistic outcomes 185 Nurturing the emancipated performer Parallel to the individual sessions, collective discussions are adopted as a means of enriching students’ points of view concerning their DAO. Collective discussions with colleagues concern the topics covered by the programme. In particular, the purpose of these sessions is: (i) to present and discuss different possible strategies to disseminate a project beyond academia; (ii) to introduce artistic research as a research area (e.g., presenting and discussing research methods and concepts); (iii) to explore and discuss notions and possibilities of career paths in the performing arts; (iv) to explore and discuss desired artistic outcomes; and (v) to present and discuss different views and perspectives concerning music performance through material thinking. Higher education music students have pointed out a lack of collective discussion involving their peers in the teaching/learning environment in higher education (Perkins, 2012; Weller, 2012). This lack was also briefly reported in another study (Clark & Williamon, 2011). The sessions in these dimensions are characterized by a peer-learning atmosphere, where seminars, workshops and master classes are delivered by the mentor and invited alumni from the focus area. The participants have feedback from their colleagues on questions and ideas that may integrate with their artistic proposal. The idea is to promote a social environment where students can learn from other experiences and scrutinize their views, particularly about musical arts, performance, careers and DAO. Moreover, this phase aims to stimulate students to develop their own voice, justifying beliefs and choices, as suggested in the engaged learning environment proposed by Hodge, Magolda & Haynes (2009).

Implementation An online version of the AMP was implemented during one academic year, beginning in March 2017, in the music department of the Universidade Federal do Piauí (Brazil). This implementation was included in the pedagogical structure of the university as an extension course that involved six students (Caio, Jackson, Cassio, Karol, Érico and Izídio) and a member of the faculty who facilitated the video-conferencing resources and all departmental needs regarding this implementation. Moreover, this faculty member was responsible for contacting and selecting participants. Overall, this initiative was well received by this academic community, due to their interest in establishing robust connections between professional markets and academic environments. An induction was organized with the all participants who were interested in this pedagogical proposal. This induction session aimed to clarify the aims and the foundations behind this AMP initiative. This explanatory presentation was also used as a means to let participants know how the idea had emerged and who were responsible (i.e., the mentor and supervisors). All the ethical procedures adopted to conduct the programme were discussed, and the consent forms were provided for all participants. Once an initial schedule was agreed, the mentor became responsible for building a webpage for the AMP on a social network (Facebook)

186 Promoting desired artistic outcomes and a specific website for the programme. These online resources were adopted to facilitate the dissemination of the artistic research projects developed within the programme. At the end of the induction, participants were requested to think about their artistic proposals (DAO). Their decision was totally free for all participants, who were encouraged to explore the possibilities of new instruments, chamber music, other artistic approaches (e.g., dance and theatre) and so on. In the following section, three projects that emerged from this implementation of the AMP are described.

Case studies Case study 1: Nós The first case reported here was an artistic project developed by Caio (pianist) and Jackson (singer). These two students decided to work together because of their common interests regarding music-making. Caio only had his first experience with a formal musical education when he began studying at the music department. Before this, he had informal musical training that included some experiences learning electric and classical guitar and piano. His musical influences featured rock bands (initially) and Western art music (more recently). Nowadays, Caio feels that he needed to develop more security on the stage in order to be able to establish a dialogue with the audience. Jackson had a similar trajectory. His experience involving formal musical education began when he enrolled in higher education. However, his focus was centred on performing, teaching and researching music from a singer’s perspective. When Caio and Jackson started their journey in the AMP, they were interested in a project that combined their artistic and professional interests. Although their academic development was focused on piano and voice, respectively, each student had other passions and interests. Caio recognized himself as an ‘open minded’ musician, but with some technical gaps as a pianist. Despite his current focus on Western art music, becoming a professional pianist was not a shortterm goal. He was more interested in composing soundtracks and themes. One of his professional dreams was to become a music producer, specializing in jingles and soundtracks. He also wanted to integrate music and photography in his artistic practice, as well as making video clips. Jackson, in turn, recognized himself as multifaceted musician who needed improve his scenic skills. As a performer, his priority was working for a musical theatre company. He had accumulated some experience working on small productions supported by the music department. One of his short-term aims was to be accepted onto a postgraduate course in musical theatre in order to follow his passion. In the first individual sessions, Caio and Jackson were stimulated to think how an artistic project could integrate all these passions and the novelty that this project could bring to their artistic development. From the very beginning, both

Promoting desired artistic outcomes 187 were very interested in exploring the relationship between music, theatre and cinema, creating new possibilities of enriching their musical communication on stage. They wanted to produce short films where the musical and visual elements could be clearly articulated. However, and this issue was clear for them, there were time and financial obstacles that would restrict them in achieving their aim. For some weeks, we worked together on a concert format whereby both elements could be explored, taking into account the resources available and the possibilities to innovate. After researching and analysing some examples of shows that were discussed during the collective sessions of the AMP, Caio and Jackson realized that the articulation between the musical and visual elements was not clearly evident. In some cases, it was not even justified. This was the gap that their proposal addressed. Based on these perspectives, Caio and Jackson proposed a show called ‘Knot’ (Nós), a kind of musical where the narrative was developed between a real time performance and scenes from a short film. The film complemented the real performance, expanding the possibilities of scenarios and actors that a real performance would have. The live performance was entirely dedicated to monologues from the main character, interpreted by Jackson. This show explored the suffering of a young undergraduate student, immersed in a deep depression. In their opinion, it was an attempt to have this suffering reported from an insider perspective. In this story, you will travel to an unknown world – a land where no other human being has ever been able to reach. However, this is a one-way trip, where no route can be traced or programmed. The final destination is the mind of Matthew, a 25-year-old student who apparently lived a normal and successful life; with a promising future. Living alone, he leads a hectic routine like any metropolitan citizen, between university and internship. Over time, his routine begins to undergo sudden changes and there are constant changes in mood and health, even hallucinations. This condition progresses to more serious disorders. Having no one to turn to, and because of the various losses that occurred to him, this promising young student reaches the deepest level of depression to the point of thinking that death would be his only way out. Now, can you imagine watching all this from inside the boy’s own mind? (Caio and Jackson, Final Report) The Portuguese word Nós means both ‘knots’ and ‘we’. It was chosen to represent the complexities of human relationships and the possible consequences. Parallel to the development of this spectacle, these students founded a music production office (Set-Mus), which would be responsible for the future events that they conceptualize. The project proposed by this pair of students required them to develop skills such as songwriting, scriptwriting, acting, photography and filmmaking. Not all these skills had been explored by them before the AMP. Given its

188 Promoting desired artistic outcomes orientation, i.e., stimulating students to move their focus to a DAO-centred approach, Caio and Jackson discovered that they were more than a singer or a pianist: they were material thinkers, interested in ways to materialize their narratives. During the creative phase of this project, Caio and Jackson sought to explore the potentialities of the other colleagues by inviting them to take part in their project. There were members with knowledge and experience in photography, filmmaking and composition, and others in writing, singing, dancing, theatre and poetry. The members worked as volunteers who were interested in assisting Caio and Jackson to consolidate their project. The colleagues’ duties involved the creation of a logo, a screenplay, soundtrack compositions and original songs for the show. Over the collective and individual sessions of the programme, Caio and Jackson had the opportunity to discuss and reflect on challenges and potentialities to increase the professionalism of this show, taking into account their perspectives on music-making and its possibilities in the market. Examples of topics discussed further included images, distribution, disclosure and target audiences. At the end of the first year, Nós was presented in the auditorium of the music department. The feedback was so positive that both decided to use this show as the research subject in their academic assessments. After concluding their participation in the AMP, which coincided with their graduation, these students progressed to Set-Mus and started to develop artistic projects with local artists. In these projects, they were not only material thinkers, but also mentors who used their experience of the AMP with other musicians. This was an opportunity to deepen the insights discussed in the programme and, at the same time, develop their music production office. The AMP, besides contributing directly to this whole process, was essential so that each of the artists involved in the course could discover new artistic possibilities that were not previously explored. The Artistic Mentoring Programme, besides contributing directly to our whole development, was essential to the perception our individual potentials and later the union of them for the sake of an action. Just as in the course of each meeting, it was possible to meet, discuss and reflect on various subjects and themes regarding music-making and its possibilities in the market. (Caio and Jackson, Final Report) Case study 2: Awake in a Dream The second project was developed by Cassio and Karol. Cassio is a pianist and started his musical trajectory at the age of 12, learning guitar and double bass. After some experience playing in rock bands, he changed his focus and decided to learn piano. After some time studying this instrument, he went to university, where he expanded his interests to visual audio recording and music production. His artistic influences comprised rock and roll, symphonic metal and Western

Promoting desired artistic outcomes 189 art music. Cassio described himself as an eclectic artist, i.e., familiar with several types of music that he was also able to perform and record. According to him, the development of his DAO was strongly focused on the intelligibility of the structural elements. Because of this, he recognized that his performance skills must be improved. Cassio reported during the sessions that, although he had a good knowledge, it was difficult to materialize his projects. He lacked focus and depth in his work. When he joined the AMP, Cassio had a plan of following his studies in soundtrack composition in a foreign country. He also expressed his interest in creating a small business to work as an independent producer and teacher. Karol, in turn, started her musical trajectory at the age of 15, playing guitar and singing in choirs. Her musical influences were very similar to those described by Cassio. Particularly, in her case, the Renaissance and medieval music were a great source of interest. Karol enjoyed writing poems and lyrics, and she aimed to write a book in the future. She also described herself as a person who felt some difficulties in dealing with stratified rules and aims. When she began the programme, she was also interested in following her studies in musical theatre and composition in a foreign country. The development of her DAO was more focused on the relationship established with an audience in a social event than on other dimensions, such as, for example, the structure. Throughout the collective and individual sessions, Casio and Karol were stimulated to think of a project that could articulate their passions and their future professional interests. Based on this, they created what they called a ‘society’ entitled Mabon. This society would be like a laboratory for developing projects that involved soundtracks, songwriting, symphonic rock and Western art music. The first project developed was Awake in a Dream, a musical based on storytelling to describe the life of a young dreamer (Lorna) who, for an unexplained reason, woke up in a world different from anything she had ever seen. Strongly inspired by progressive rock and thematically associated with fantasies, the story was presented in between eight songs written by Karol and arranged by Cassio. This show was a chance for Cassio and Karol to respond to preconceived ideas of progressive rock based on great and complex instrumentations, as they were the only ones involved in the production. This project was seen by them as a good chance to enrich their portfolio with projects that could connect them to possible professional career steps, i.e., a master’s degree in songwriting and soundtrack composition. Originally, the idea was to launch the story online and later in print. This would allow people to read and simultaneously access the soundtrack, which would be also available on the internet. Throughout the sessions, Cassio and Karol were challenged to present their story in a concert where both elements could be combined by the artists in real time. The production of Awake in a Dream involved the development of the tale, composing arrangements (initially only for piano and voice and posteriorly for a virtual orchestra created by Cassio), recording the virtual instruments and voices, mixing and mastering. All the arrangements and recordings were made

190 Promoting desired artistic outcomes by these two students using their own equipment. After their first presentation in the main auditorium of their home university, Cassio expressed their views concerning their participation in the AMP. The Artistic Mentoring Programme helped us mainly in the expansion of what would become the Mabon, adding the performance as part of our identity, as well as the possibilities of launching and distributing our outputs. This was very important for the development of the project. The systematisation of the activities helped us to establish goals and objectives for materialising our show (Cassio and Karol – Final Report) Case study 3: Jiao Dai The third project presented here was developed by Érico and Izídio. Érico started his musical journey at the age of 6, teaching himself guitar and double bass. After some years, he started composing and performing his own songs and this motivated him to learn piano. Érico described himself being very fond of this instrument. His musical influences were mainly rock bands such as The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, David Bowie, Marilyn Manson and The Arctic Monkeys, and popular Brazilian music. Parallel to music, Érico had developed works as a visual artist and writer; he was writing a book when he began the programme. From the first sessions, Érico described himself as an artist interested in conceptual music. Izídio, in turn, was also a self-taught musician. He started playing double bass and guitar at the age of 15. After some years, when he was 23 years old, he was playing in rock bands composing songs, producing recordings and arrangements. His musical influences were centred on rock and roll, especially The Beatles, David Bowie and Guns N’ Roses, and popular Brazilian music. When the programme began, Izídio described himself as an artist who sought to innovate and deconstruct conventional standards. However, he recognized a lack of focus at that time. His academic career has been marked by some intrapersonal difficulty in achieving his DAO. Given the multiplicity of interests and their multifaceted nature, i.e., playing various instruments and various types of music, he had had some difficulty in understanding his role in the music industries. When both students began their journey in the AMP, the idea to create a conceptual project emerged. Their interests were clearly centred on a search for a type of project that, starting from experimentalism, could approach political problems from a local perspective. The concern with a regional language that could be understood by the audience was at the forefront of their concerns. Izídio and Érico said that this search was centred on what they called a ‘dystopic environment’, i.e., an imaginary state shaped by a great sense of oppression, deprivation and despair. Dystopias are generally satirical and demonstrate the fragility of the current conventions of present-day society.

Promoting desired artistic outcomes 191 Based on these perspectives, and on the interest in working on a project that could combine the different capacities and ideas of these two musicians, the Jiao Dai was created: an experimental and progressive musical project. This project explored the human condition as a basis for song composition, seeking themes such as solitude, routine and labour alienation. The lyrics were composed by Érico, while the arrangements and the production were carried out by both. According to their own descriptions, Jiao Dai could be understood as follows: With atmospheric sounds blending aspects of progressive rock, experimental and industrial as well as other genres, Jiao Dai constructs a cold and claustrophobic aura that, balanced by melodies and lyrics, deepens in the psychological sphere, exposing an emotional and complex portrait of the contemporary human being. (Érico and Izídio – Final Report) In order to materialize the project, Izídio had to study recording, mixing, capturing and mastering. Érico concentrated on increasingly polishing his songs and devoted himself to exploring possible strategies to integrate his music and painting. A central idea in the construction of this project, given its political orientation, was to develop it in the most independent way possible. After the first presentation of the project in the main auditorium of the music department, both students recognized that the experience of taking part in the AMP was fundamental for them. The programme helped us a lot, because we did not have much of an idea of how to disseminate our work. We also had no notion of how to promote our material commercially, including how the music industry works. The perspectives presented by the programme helped us formulate goals in the short, medium and long term. Of course, some have not been able to materialize because of the political and social crisis that we have been living in here in Brazil and it has been very difficult to get a little money to buy some equipment or record music; all the time the money ends up draining away for some very immediate need; basic things . . . but we’re able to manage this in a way that, in the long run, we could treat this project in the way it was intended in the beginning; a quite different experimental project. (Érico and Izídio – Final Report) They are currently building a studio to produce their own work. This will allow them to have more freedom to experiment with new songs; during a certain phase of the programme, Érico felt that his songs were getting quite predictable and away from his DAO.

192

Promoting desired artistic outcomes And soon we will be ‘putting Jiao Dai there’ in the way it was actually devised: a project that is experimental, metaphysical and spiritual . . . equipped with a strong image. Since the first presentation we never stopped working on it. (Érico and Izídio – Final Report)

Recently, Érico has had an opportunity to develop his work further as a visual artist, and he has been invited to exhibit his paintings in relatively renowned art galleries in his city. For him, the experience of the programme has helped to address this opportunity more professionally and according to his ideals. The programme ended up serving me a lot in this respect because I learned how to treat my art and the dissemination of it. . . . I learned how to treat it commercially and how to make people visualize what I produced in the way that I intended. Thanks to the themes we discussed throughout the programme, I have been able to reach more members of the public in my performances and installations; I have been able to expose my works in more and more esteemed places. Right now, I was called to make an exhibition at a more prestigious art gallery here in Piauí. They selected two of my works; is an extremely exquisite place, in a way that I had never set out. I think I’ve been achieving this through a dissemination and a treatment of my work as a visual artist, based on the precepts of the programme. I think the programme helped us to learn how to shape what we have at hand and our goals, making them happen in the short, medium and long term. . . . I know how to be cautious in times that require difficult choices. The communication with the audience, the communication with the media. I think this project served to enrich our outlook on our own production. . . . I am also very pleased that it has had an effect in an area that I had not expected as my visual art. Certainly, thanks to the programme, I was introduced to new artists as Jupiter Apple and that was a huge influence for me. . . . I did not compose in Portuguese, but now I feel that I can imagine the atmosphere of Portuguese lyrics in my music. I think I am also able to use them in favour of the structure of my music. (Érico – Final Report)

Discussion In the twenty-first century, the artistic training of performers and their career planning cannot be dichotomized. To avoid this dichotomy, we must look at performance as a social, communicative and multidimensional event that involves multiple properties and also sub-products. In order to embrace this perspective,

Promoting desired artistic outcomes 193 we must look at the DAO pursued by musicians not as internal images related to a piece of music, but as a complex mythopoetic narrative that seeks to encompass all the complexity of the performative phenomenon. This perspective opens the doors for pedagogical approaches focused on versatility, rather than solely speciality. It involves new models of artistic supervisions that look to the interaction between the individuals, their environment and their practices in order to find a way to project their artistic voices. The previous paragraph, which was presented in the Introduction of this book, was intentionally ‘pasted’ here as a reminder that the AMP was conceived as a pedagogical approach that exemplified the characteristics described in this chapter. The AMP does not recognize the apparent dichotomy between performance practice and career that has been identified in some higher education institutions, as highlighted by other authors (Perkins, 2012; Bennett, 2007; Beeching, 2004). The rationale behind such fusion resides in the recognition that conceptualizations of performance, career and DAO go hand in hand. This integrative position regarding career, DAO and music performance leads to an educational approach that combines a multidisciplinary perspective concerning the foundations that support the AMP. A combination of perspectives is adopted, taking into account that a DAO is an individual and unique phenomenon, so it cannot be promoted socially through a set of stratified strategies or a ‘one-model-fits-all’ approach. This perspective is also asserted in education by other authors who advocate a non-existent stable ontology for approaching a social phenomenon that proceeds from ‘atoms’ to ‘molecules’ to ‘materials’ (Bazzul & Kayumova, 2015). Rather, social formations are assemblages of other complex configurations, and they – in turn – play roles in other, more extended structures (Little, 2012). This perspective does not mean a collage of several strategies in order to accomplish a task, but a multidisciplinary construction of the understanding of a given phenomenon. Taking into account the current paradigm in higher education music institutions, one might argue that programmes such as the one proposed here may be a ‘fantasy’ which would only work in an ideal world. An awareness of the idealistic position of this programme is assumed. However, this initiative was developed as an alternative – as previously stated – and as a complementary approach. Because of this, the first implementation was focused on grasping the consequences of embarking on such a pedagogical plan, rather than seeking ‘proof’ that this programme works, or even whether such a programme should be applied exactly according to its description. Such a naïve perspective would go against the main principles discussed in this chapter and elsewhere. This first implementation revealed that complementary approaches, such as the one proposed here, although involving a small group of students, could play an important role in higher music educations. Due to the structure and aims of the AMP, students had not only to expand their views of performance, arts and career, but also to bring other skills to their academic environment, skills that

194 Promoting desired artistic outcomes had been somewhat hidden in their academic experience thus far. They had the opportunity to think about career development as performers from a perspective that was beyond current views, focusing on mastering repertoire or developing business skills. They had to create a narrative and learn how to establish connections between several different aspects of their daily lives in order to make such a narrative appealing for audiences. Moreover, they had thought of different means to disseminate their artistic output, created on the basis of the invented narrative. These experiences empowered the students’ development, making them more connected to their plans and expectations and opening a perspective of performance that was not only oriented to ‘playing in front an audience’, but also to developing and integrating several aspects (such as advertisements, dress code, text, recordings, scenarios, and audio-visual resources), each by taking into account their DAO. Critically reflecting on all these aspects is an essential pillar of material thinking and this was achieved by these students through artistic research. More than solely exploring material thinking within the confines of the programme, they extrapolated the initial plan and used their projects as a basis for their final academic assessment. All performances promoted by these groups were examples of pedagogical performances, where material thinkers communicated narratives embedded in artistic outputs that were supported by discursive knowledge in the descriptions offered to the audiences, such as in advertising materials, films and lyrics. These projects brought to light views about the current psychological challenges faced by higher education music students (project 1), possible means to perform progressive rock with small groups (project 2) and a political critique based on a dystopic perspective (project 3). In order to achieve these, all the students had to rethink stratified perspectives concerning performance, arts and career (epistemological foundation), identify their values and the music-making connected to it (intrapersonal foundation), and finally, find the means to disseminate their work, taking into account contextual demands and respect for their values and ideas. Because of this, the experiences through these projects empowered their self-authorship capacities and brought them closer to their DAO.

Summary This chapter presented a pedagogical project designated as the Artistic Mentoring Programme, an alternative model of artistic supervision based on an articulation between career planning and artistic development from an educational perspective oriented by versatility rather than specialism. The focus was on assisting students to develop self-authorship, a required capacity to achieve the DAO, through artistic research projects oriented to produce material thinking. The chapter presented the structural aspects behind the programme as well as an online implementation conducted with students at a Brazilian university. At the end of this implementation, three examples of artistic research projects developed within the programme were presented. The evidence suggests that students who participated in the AMP

Promoting desired artistic outcomes 195 increased their epistemological, intrapersonal and interpersonal capacities of self-authorship and, at the same time, expanded their artistic and professional competences.

Notes 1 See Figure 3.1. 2 This same procedure was developed in the action research project described in Chapter 4, which aimed to investigate musicians’ DAO.

Final thoughts

In 2016, the Brazilian philosopher Luiz Felipe Pondé asserted, via his YouTube channel, that some of the political and social transformations that ‘caught the world out’ in that year were a ‘slap in the face’ to an academic community that insisted on discussing an ideal world that did not exist. Thanks to the facilities provided by YouTube, several people were able to respond and challenge this view. Nevertheless, Pondé stood his ground, saying that people who live in the ‘real world’ are not concerned about gender, ethnicity, social and cultural issues. These people are essentially concerned about meeting their immediate necessities and realizing their dreams in a world that grows more competitive every day. Far from trying to classify these ideas as right or wrong, we acknowledge that the perspective asserted by Pondé (2016) somehow reverberates in the arguments discussed throughout this book. In the twenty-first century, it is worthwhile to ask if there is still room for pedagogical practices in music performance which are alienated from the demands of the music industries and from the dreams of young musicians who each year look to higher education music institutions to assist them in finding the means of achieving their artistic aspirations. At a first glance, the answer to this question could be ‘Yes’. In fact, the historical paradigm institutionalized by the Paris Conservatoire seems not to be a problem for a considerable number of musicians who appear to be interested in a model of education that values the formalist and moral code in music performance practices. There is a well-established network of concert halls, orchestras and competitions, particularly in Europe and the United States, which seek performers able to demonstrate a great capacity to translate musical ideas notated in a score into sound events. Thus, any paradigm shift could be seen as an unnecessary and utopic action, which would face a ‘great wall’: students’ expectations of being recognized interpreters of canonical musical works. Although this could be a reasonable assumption, there are other reasons for insisting on this ‘utopia’ or, in other words, answering ‘No’ to the question posed earlier. These reasons are based in our belief of an urgent need to encourage creative approaches to music performance teaching, as highlighted by the participants and authors described in this book. Regardless of being ‘traditionally oriented interpreters’, professional musicians are constantly required to be inventive in their music-making, including in the current music market. Although the search

Final thoughts 197 for innovation and invention in musical practices is a core element for many musicians, the examples presented throughout this book have suggested that this is not always encouraged by their institutions. The following example somewhat illustrates this deficit. Recently, a workshop on art therapy, i.e., a creative method of expression used for therapeutic purposes, was offered to candidates from a doctoral programme in music performance at a Portuguese university. The workshop leader asked the participants to take a sheet of paper, affix it to the wall and draw a set of forms according to her instructions; she would say a given shape (e.g., a circle) and the participants should draw it on the sheet paper affixed to the wall. By the end of the exercise, the participants had drawn a set of different shapes. The sheets of paper revealed a multiplicity of drawings, each one very different from the others. The guest speaker asked the participants to leave the room for a while. When they came back, she asked them to imagine they were art critics in an art gallery. Each one should present a colleague’s sheet of paper as though it were a valuable painting. Most of the descriptions were essentially focused on formal aspects of the drawing. There was a tendency to say that ‘This is a painting with a circle, and this circle is small and located in the top of the painting’. However, two participants started to invent a narrative as though they knew exactly what the painter wanted to express through that piece of art. They created relationships between the forms and emotions expressed by the artists. Immediately, the other participants were confronted with questions as how they knew whether that information was true. They simply answered that they were inventing ways to attract the audience’s attraction and to make the painting more interesting. At the end of the workshop, the guest speaker asked all the participants to reflect on and describe their feelings regarding this experience. One participant said that it was difficult for him, because he did not see anything worth mentioning on the sheet. Another participant said that the first part of the exercise was easy, because it was about being creative, while the second part was hard because it was only about analysis. At this point, the guest speaker made an important revelation: the first part of the exercise was not about being creative, as the participants were just following rules and indications given by her in a short period of time; they did not have time to reflect and most of the drawings were made on the bases of reaction rather than critical action. The moment of the exercise when creativity should flourish was during the analytical descriptions of paintings. The participants should invent new relationships between the forms and other elements in order to attract the audience’s attention and make the painting more interesting. They should be more oriented to a sense of possibility than to a sense of reality (Musil, 1943). When participants realized this, some of them were shocked. They had never thought that their creativity could also be restricted by poor analytical skills. This example illustrates a teaching and learning paradigm where there is a lack of a key artistic capacity previously referred in the present book: ingegno, i.e., connecting diverse and disparate things (Carter, 2004). The artist, through their capacity ‘to perceive analogies between matters far apart and, apparently, most dissimilar, mythopoetically creates poetic wisdom’ (Carter, 2004, p. 7, emphasis

198 Final thoughts original). The dominant paradigm, which emphasizes a commitment to the formalist code, somehow restricts the emergence of this capacity. Although some alternative voices have asserted the importance of experimenting and inventing new artistic approaches to music performance (Correia & Dalagna, 2019; Assis, 2018; Correia et al., 2018), the students whose experiences were reported in the above activity, just as many others in higher education, were taught to ‘play the notes’ and follow ‘what is written in the score’. Most of them were neither taught to expand possibilities, nor to develop ingeno. At the same time, these same students know that they should develop a distinctive artistic view in order to build a successful career as performers in a very competitive market; they also know that replicating models may not be enough. As highlighted in Chapter 1, contemporary audiences are likely to want to see ‘something special’ on the stage. As indicated in Chapter 2, there is a search for empathetic communication, alterability and strangeness, intelligibility and coherence. In other words, something that justifies the audience spending their time and money. For them, it is not enough to know that a composer is very well-known in the musical world. Contemporary audiences want to see artists that meet their cultural, spiritual and aesthetic needs. However, the arguments provided in this book have illustrated how difficult is for emergent, and even established professional musicians, to achieve this aim. The psychophysiological demands in the current paradigm of music performance teaching, which arguably overvalue the demonstration of complex technical and interpretative skill, are considerably high (Rink, Gaunt & Williamon, 2017; Clark, Lisboa & Williamon, 2014; Williamon, 2004). Thus, inventing new narratives that articulate one’s artistic voice and new forms of making music is not always a priority for musicians. In recent years, there was an increased number of publications dedicated to investigating the nature of maladaptive performance anxiety in music (for more details, see Kenny, 2011). These studies brought to light several perspectives concerning this phenomenon. At the same time, it revealed a community of musicians under pressure, dependent on medication, depressed and frustrated due to their incapacity to achieve their communication ideals. Some cases discussed in Chapter 4 confirmed this trend and associated it with a very competitive environment. Taking these aspects into account, one could ask how creativity can be explored in such a demanding environment. For some of the authors listed in this book, this requires a teaching paradigm oriented to preparing the individual to articulate their DAO and their capacities, instead of fulfilling external expectations and demands. However, this process needs guidance. The arguments presented in this book emphasize that DAO need to be further explored and understood by musicians and researchers. In this sense, providing opportunities to experiment with different artistic approaches for a given repertoire in higher education, as suggested by other authors (Ford & Sloboda, 2013; Perkins, 2013; Gaunt et al., 2012; Bennett, 2007), is not enough; students need to be challenged to reflect on the applicability and reliability of their DAOs. Engaging in this process can empower students to justify their future decisions and points of view. In this process, mentoring can play a special role because it can stimulate students to develop self-authorship. A

Final thoughts 199 future challenge may be in providing academic training in mentoring for students and also future mentors in order to extend its potential beneficial effects in different higher education music institutions. The results presented here also suggest that innovating the way that the DAO is materialized could be a key element for its achievement. This perspective seemed to be welcomed by the students who attended the online implementation of the AMP. They sought and found a means to promote their DAO, which transcended their current conditions as instrumentalists and singers. They incorporated the notion of emancipated performers, who seek to produce material thinking through artistic research. These results suggest that the recognition of innovative approaches, based on versatility, can be important for a healthy dialogue concerning artistic proposals in the music industries. In summary, innovation does not necessarily mean negative criticisms of tradition; rather, there is an argument that such creativity should expand artistic possibilities, instead of constraining them. Even when creativity has been strongly emphasized by other authors (Clarke & Doffman, 2017; Burnard, 2012), our book has sought to draw attention to the importance of a respectful negotiation between ‘conservative’ and ‘innovative’ points of view, respecting both sides. From our perspective, the capacity for achieving this balance is self-authorship. The importance of this skill for the achievement of DAOs, as highlighted throughout this book, reinforces the need for critical pedagogies that assist students to realize that following their ideas and opinions does not necessarily imply an attack on, or a refutation of, existing conventions. This respectful negotiation is designated as active tolerance (Karnal, 2008), and seems to be urgent in higher education. According to this perspective, the encouragement of students to prioritize and achieve their own preferences adopting a multi-genre approach, including other genres instead of solely focusing on music from the Western art music canon, would be of paramount importance (Gaunt et al., 2012; Welch et al., 2008). More than innovating or following existing tradition, the capacity to be persistently engaged in an artistic research proposal might be highly important for the achievement of DAO. Throughout the pedagogical project described in Chapter 4, successful examples seemed to be those where continuity was an ever-present feature. Axel sought to present different repertoire in each concert, but, in the end, he was not able to perform in most of the performances. On the other hand, Hector only consolidated his proposals in the Final Performances, after experimenting in the previous concerts. The difference between these cases seems to be the commitment to the DAO. Hector was seeking to understand what he wanted to achieve artistically, while Axel seemed to be interested in using the concerts to present new repertoire. Although this idea is supported by students’ reports, discussions on this topic are relatively scarce in the literature of music performance teaching, so further exploration is needed. Furthermore, the outcomes presented here suggest that, even when students recognize that collaborating and networking with professionals from different areas is of paramount importance, most of them emphasized that young performers should be able to conceptualize and promote their own proposals. This does not mean that artistic and executive producers are not needed;

200 Final thoughts rather, self-management seems to involve the capacity to make decisions and put such decisions into practice. This idea correlates with the professional music skills presented in Chapter 1, which emphasize the interpersonal dimension of selfauthorship. However, self-management is still scarcely discussed, although debate on the music industries have blossomed in recent decades. The crux of the arguments presented in this book would suggest that music performance could be taught as an event during which mastering repertoire, or even a specific instrument, is not the final goal. The conceptualization and promotion of students’ DAO is the ultimate goal, even when such a conceptualization includes experimentations with different instruments, musical styles and other forms of art. This principle of an extensive grounding and versatility should prepare students for a smoother transition, as performers, into the demands of widely diverse music industries. Given the changes that have occurred in the music industries and the likely demands of their career, music institutions must re-assess students’ needs (Carey & Lebler, 2012; Eraut, 1994). Universities must prepare graduates who are able to approach the expectations of contemporary audiences in a versatile, employable market (Carey & Lebler, 2012). Such needs might be achieved by offering a programme such as the AMP, where the ultimate goal is to nurture DAO under an umbrella of endless possibilities.

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Index

Note: Page numbers in italics indicate a figure and page numbers in bold indicate a table on the corresponding page. Page numbers followed by “n” indicate a note. 2 Estudos Op. 6 (Sor) 142 A Alma Imoral (Bonder) 59 academic environments 185 academic hierarchies 57 academic paradigm 160 achievement motives 34 active learning environments 61 adult education, interactions in 179 advising 69 affordances 51n8 Alter, J. 13 alterability and strangeness 41, 48, 50, 174 Althusser, L. 8n2 AMP see Artistic Mentoring Programme (AMP) AMPMP see Artistic Music Performance Mentoring Programme (AMPMP) Animal Moral, The (Wright) 59 apprenticeship 69 artistic career 56–57, 181 artistic development 178, 186 artistic ideals 1 artistic integrity 57, 58, 100, 106, 145; importance of 44–45; integration of 50; naturalness 112; in performance 45 artistic manifestations 33 Artistic Mentoring Programme (AMP) 178, 188, 190, 193; construction of 179; covered topics 181; dimensions 182–185; dissemination 182; features of 179–180; foundations 179–180; implementation 185–186; online version of 185–186; structure of 179, 184 Artistic Music Performance Mentoring Programme (AMPMP) 79, 81, 125,

127, 129–130, 132; implementation of 82–83; participants in 127; role of 134; sessions of 81 artistic production 26 artistic proposal 182 artistic research 17, 65–68, 160, 182 artistic research proposal: material thinking 167–174; Prelude 163–167 artistic training, proposal for 178 artistic values 182 artistic voices 178 arts 162, 181 Assis, Paulo de 160 Astral Traveler (Viajante astral) 170 Atma Kirtana 167, 175 audience 26, 133, 164 Aunque Que las Ideas Nos Separem (Lucius) 133 Austin, J. L. 14 authors, conversations in 182–183 Awake in a Dream (case study) 188–190 ‘Awakening the Serpent’ (O Despertar da Serpente) 169 Axel (case study) 107, 150–156; achievements 111–113; AMPMP 108; artistic influences 107; challenges 113–116; DAO 109–110; higher education 107–108; perspectives on music performance 108–109 Baden (case study) 100–101, 147–150; achievements 104–105; AMPMP 102; artistic influences 101; career 102–103; challenges 105–106; DAO 103–104; higher education 101–102; before higher

Index education 101; perspectives on music performance 103 banking education 70, 72 Barr, R. B. 61 Bartleet, B. L. 23 Battaile, George 167 Baudelaire, C. 56 Beatles, the 165–166 Beeching, A. 22, 72 Benjamin, W. 9n4 Bennett D. 22, 34 Bézenac, C. de. 15, 25 Bhagavatar 171 Bhagvada Gita 168, 169, 172 bhajans 164, 167, 171, 175, 177n5 Bhakti movement 177n5 bodily sensations 36 body and soul 59–60 Böhler, A. 53 Bologna Declaration 66–67, 78n3 Bonder, N. 59, 60 Britto, Reinaldo Barriga 30, 31 Brown, S. B. 167 Canticum (Brouwer) 142 career issues 22–24 career planning 178 Carlson, M. A. 13, 14 Carter, P. 31, 41, 160 Caspurro, Helena 30–31 Castillos de España (Torroba) 132–133 Cavarero, Adriana, Vozes Plurais: filosofia da expressão vocal 142 central learning process 64, 77 chakras 169–174 Chomsky, N. 14 Choros n° 1 (Villa-Lobos) 142 cinema 187 ‘classical Brazilian music’ 102, 148 classical music audience 10 coaching 69 cognitive maturity 24 cognitive neuroscience 36 coherence 38, 48, 50, 98 collaborative learning 64, 73, 80, 136, 140 collective activities 180 communication in music performance 16 communicative intention 104, 144 competitive musical market 26 composers 19, 55–56 composition 188; soundtrack 189 communication 16 conceptual artists 162

213

conceptualization: development 36–37; dimensions 37–41; of performance 13, 14, 34, 98, 109; preliminary issues 32–36 conceptual learning 35 Concerto de Aranjuez/Adagio (Rodrigo) 142 contemporary audiences 10, 25, 26, 175, 198, 200 contemporary music industries 20 ‘contemporary perspective’ 66 contemporary yogis 174 contextualized learning 179 Cook, N. 15 copyright 19 Coração Analógico 155 Correia, J. S. 174, 177n1 Correnteza (Jobim) 137 counselling 69 Creative and Cultural Industries (CCI) of the European Union 3–4 Crispin, D. 66–68 critical self-awareness 44 critical thinking 57, 61, 65, 70, 88, 100, 115, 116, 136 cross-disciplinary popularity 12 Csíkszentmihályi, M. 38 cultural bias 17 cultural hegemony 18 Dance of Duality (Dança da Dualidade) 170 DAO see desired artistic outcomes (DAO) Dasgupta, Subrata 160 Deleuze, G. 177n2 ‘demonstration of interpretative abilities’ 3 desired artistic outcomes (DAO) 2, 11, 30–32, 38, 52–54, 79–80, 126, 129–130, 159–163, 166, 178, 181–182, 183, 185, 188, 193; achievements of 32; artistic research proposal 163–174; case studies 82–125, 130–156; challenges of 54–58, 75, 79; clarification of 160; concepts and images in 168–173; conceptualization of 32, 43, 126; development 36–37; dimensions 37–41; preliminary issues 32–36; development of 49; dimensions of 80; discussion 125–127, 156–158, 174–176; disseminating 173–174; epistemological foundation 42–43; ethical traitor 64–68; exploring 80–81; explanatory model for 49, 75; formalism to artistic research 58–60; implementing strategy 81–82; implications of 3; instructional

214 Index environment 61; interpersonal foundation 46–48; intrapersonal foundation 43–46; lack of research 34–35; learning environment 61–63; materialization of 159; materializing and communicating 31; mental representations 35; musicians’ narratives of 41; mythopoetic narratives as 174–175; narrative of 132; nurturing of 54, 80; pedagogical approaches 135–136; perspective for music performance 26; perspectives concerning 80–81; possibilities of promoting 176; in professional capacity 183; promotion of 61, 76, 135, 159; and research 159; rethinking pedagogical principles 63–64; role of mentoring 68–72; role of self-authorship 41–42; social aspect of 80; structural dimension of 126; students perceptions of 129; through material thinking 163 dialogic relationship 68–69 Divertimento (Vicente) 148 disciplinary agility 23, 86 discursive knowledge 194 dissemination 182 Dobson, M. C. 25 Duas Peças (Villa-Lobos) 149 Duchamp, Marcel 162 dystopic environment 190 Eastern philosophy 164 Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (Gibson) 51n8 education: music institutions 178; problematizing 182 effective career self-management 23 e-learning platform 82 Elegia (Vicente) 148 Elliott, D. J. 15 emanation 62, 182 emancipated performers 26–27, 176, 182–183, 199; explanatory model of 175; nurturing 185 embodied practice 16 emotional beliefs 16 emotional communication 25, 51n6 engaged learning environments 7, 61–63, 63, 69, 76, 77, 80, 81, 179, 182, 185; rethinking pedagogical principles 63–64; role of mentoring 68–72; stimulating ‘ethical traitor’ 64 enterprise 23

entrepreneurial skills, development of 63 epistemological capacities 181 epistemological foundation 42–43, 49, 86, 139, 194 epistemological support 76, 89, 100, 106, 115 Estudos nº8 (Villa-Lobos) 130–133 ethical traitor 61, 64–68 ethics 59 Eu quero é sossego (K-Chimbinho e Hianto de Almeida) 149 European Higher Education Area (EHEA) 67 ‘European phenomenon’ 66 experimentation 18, 111, 200 expressive authenticity 44 extreme occasions 56 fellow traveller model 68–69, 179 filmmaking 188 Fischer-Lichte, E. 9n4 ‘flamenco style’ 35 flow of musical discourse 38, 48, 50 Ford, B. 10 Forest Scenes (Schumann) 137 formalism/formalists 55; to artistic research 58–60; moral code 56; perspective of 55; values of 56 formalist code 60, 61, 65, 73, 77, 79, 85, 89, 90, 92, 95, 106, 115, 116, 125–127, 130, 136, 157, 159, 161, 174, 176, 178; commitment to 85, 92, 125, 147, 198; DAO in music performance 55–58; postulates of 54, 159 Freedom and the Arts: Essays on Music and Literature (Rosen) 60 Freire, P. 70, 72 gatekeeper model 179 Gaunt, H. 23 Gayford, C. 60 generation 62 generative learning 182 Gerbase, Carlos 30, 31 Gibson, James, Ecological Approach to Visual Perception 51n8 Guattari, F. 177n2 Gurvitch, G. 13 Gutiérrez, A. G. 72 Hallam, S. 16, 58 Hanslick, E., On the Beautiful in Music 55 Harrison, George 165, 166

Index Haynes, C. A. 62, 80, 185 Hector (case study) 96, 140–147; achievements 99; AMPMP 97; artistic influences 96; career 97–98; challenges 99–100; DAO 98–99; higher education 96–97; perspectives on music performance 98 hedonic motives 34 heterology 167 higher education music institutions 11, 53–54, 56, 64, 135–136, 178–179 Hinduism 177n8 Hinduist tradition 168 Hindustani music 166 historical context 55 Hodge, D. C. 62, 80, 185 Holmes, P. 35 Holtz, P. 33 Homéro: o Contador Épico 142 Hopkins, M. F. 12 Human Interest (Ram) 33 human morality 59 human performance, conceptual analysis of 13 Iberian-American Music for Guitar 132 ideal musicians 56 Indian classical music 173 Indian culture 165 Indian music 163–166 initial mentoring strategy 182 innovation, possibilities of 161 ‘in-progress’ nature 129 instructing 69 instrumental teacher 2 intelligibility 38, 48, 50, 98, 141, 173–174, 189, 198 intentions in music performance 16 internal belief systems 24, 75, 94 interpersonal capacities 62, 100, 136, 138, 181, 195 interpersonal foundation 42, 46–50, 126 interpretative skills 178 intrapersonal capacities 181 intrapersonal foundation 42–46, 49, 50, 86, 89, 99, 104, 112, 126, 145 intrapersonal support 76 investigation, reflexive process of 66 Invocación e Danza (Rodrigo) 131–132 Janis (case study) 137–140; achievement 93; AMPMP 91; artistic influences 90; career 91–92; challenges 93–96;

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DAO 92–93; higher education 89–91; perspectives on music performance 92 Jiao Dai (case study) 190–192 Jones, G. 179 Kahlo, Frida 31, 160 King, P. M. 24 Kirtana, Atma 167, 175 kirtans 167 ‘Knot’ (Nós) (case study) 186–188 Kováè, Ladislav 160 kriya yogis 169 kundalini 169 lack of creativity 18 Latour, B. 72 Lavezzoli, P. 167 learning 36; contextualized 179; cultures 9n3; environment 61, 62–63, 63, 64, 65, 77, 80, 127, 179; paradigm 61; process of 35 Leedham, M. 69 Lehmann, A. C. 35 Liquid Memories 150 live performance 20–22, 21, 187 Long, B. W. 12 Love Simply for Loving (Amar Simplesmente por Amar) 171 Lucius (case study) 83, 130–137; achievement of DAO 87; AMPMP 84; artistic influences 83; career 84–85; challenges 87–89; DAO 86–87; higher education 83–84; performers’ behaviour 86–87; perspectives on music performance 85 Madroños (Torroba) 142 Magolda, M. B. 24, 62, 80, 185 maladaptive performance anxiety 45, 87, 96, 112, 198 Malagueña, Op. 165 (Albéniz) 133 Man Without Qualities, The (Musil) 176 material thinker 6, 11, 27, 74, 136, 147, 162, 188, 194 material thinking 2, 7, 27–28, 31, 76, 77, 79, 116, 147, 160–163, 167–168, 175–176, 178, 181, 185, 194, 199; articulating concepts and images in desired artistic outcomes 168–173; disseminating desired artistic outcomes 173–174 McCartney, Paul 165 McGuire, Richard 27 meaningful learning 35

216 Index mentoring 7, 54, 73, 198; academic training in 199; engaged learning environments 77; framework 179; framework in music 70, 71; function of 74; interactions 80; models of pedagogical supervision 76; programs 79, 127, 157, 178; role of 68–72 Minassian, C. 60 Mitchell, R. L. 62, 182 Mode 2, knowledge 161 morality 59 multidimensional artistic narratives 5, 12 multi-genre approach 17, 64, 77, 199 musical communication 82, 187 musical convictions 58 Musical Elaborations (Said) 17, 56 musical performers 19 music education system 18 MusicExperiment21 project 17 musicians 1; discourse 38; primary responsibility 33; ‘professional standard’ as 1–2 music industries 1, 25; and career issues 22–24; framework of 19–20, 20; general perspectives 18–20; live performance 20–22, 21 music performance 10–12, 19, 40, 133, 193; and career issues 22–24; career path in 136; challenges and promotion of 79; conceptualization of 15; experiences in 129; general perspectives 18–20; in higher music education 16–18; judgments in 57; Pires, Maria João 52, 53; practices 159; teaching 179; traditions in 57 music, understanding and appreciation of 164–165 Musil, Robert, The Man Without Qualities 176 musotopia 22 mythopoetic inventions 34, 51n5, 176 mythopoetic narratives 2, 3, 36, 37, 48, 50, 53, 56, 74, 79, 160, 174, 193 Nachmanovitch, S. 38 Northern Indian music 168 Noturnos (Burgmüller) 149 Novak, J. D. 35 Nowotny, Scott, and Gibbons 161 ‘one-model-fits-all’ approach 193 On the Beautiful in Music (Hanslick) 55 Östersjö, S. 45, 161

Paris Conservatoire 17 Parsloe, E. 69 participatory performance 15, 164 Patanjali 168 Patrick, Nick 30, 31, 160 Pauer, Gyula 51n5 pedagogical environment 82 pedagogical oriented performance 175 pedagogical principles 63–64 performance: anxiety, maladaptive 45, 87, 96, 112, 198; conceptualization of 12–13, 14, 34, 98, 109, 181; engaging in 38; importance of understanding 11; institutionalized perspectives on 3; music 15–16; participatory 15, 164; pedagogical oriented 175; perspectives of 12–14, 24; presentational 15, 173; postmodern theory of 72; skills, levels of 164; as social behaviour 13; technical elements of 132; views of 193 performers, artistic training of 192–193 Pergolesi, Stabat Mater 162 Perkins, R. 28n6, 29n6, 64, 127 personal authenticity 44–45 Persson, R. S. 34 Pires, Maria Joao 52–53 Pirsig, Robert 159, 161 Polifonia working group 68 Pondé, Luiz Felipe 196 popular music 164, 166 post-hoc reflections 49 postmodern societies 65 postmodern theory of performance 72 pranayama 169 Prelude 163–167 Prelúdio (Prado) 148 Prelúdio Americano n° 3 (Carlevaro) 142 presentational performance 15, 173 principles of ownership 82 problematizing education 70, 72, 182 professionalism 188 professional markets 185 promoting desired artistic outcomes 178–179; Artistic Mentoring Programme (AMP) 179–186; case studies 186–192; discussion 192–194 psychophysiological skills 2, 24–25 public concerts 16 public performances 82 qualitative research methods 8

Index raga 177n10 Ram, Nilakhanta Sri 33, 168, 175 Ramnarine, T. K. 16 rapport 28n2, 48, 50 Raul (case study) 116; achievements 119–123; AMPMP 118; artistic influences 117–118; career 118; challenges 123–125; DAO 119; higher education 117; perspectives on music performance 118–119 regionalism 123, 155 remix culture 78n6 Renshaw, P. 69, 70, 76–77, 179 repertoire interpretation 43, 48, 50, 54, 147 representational learning 35 research orientation 159, 177n1 ‘right or wrong’ model 127 romantic artistic practices 56 Rosen, Charles 33, 47, 60, 74 Said, Edward 17, 56, 58, 164 Sama Veda 166 Sangita Yoga 177n7 Sanskrit music 166 Sarabanda (Bach) 131 Schreiner, Naren K. 166 Schumann, Robert, Forest Scenes 137 Scruton, Roger 162, 163 self-authored persons 24 self-authorship 65, 49, 50, 54, 65, 77, 79, 86, 104, 128, 178–181, 199; capacities of 194; definition of 23–24; developmental journey towards 42; development of 61; epistemological dimension of 42; epistemological foundation 42–43; importance of 126; interpersonal dimension of 135; interpersonal foundation 46–48; intrapersonal foundation 43–46; epistemological foundation of 42–43; interpersonal foundation of 46–48; intrapersonal foundation of 43–46; role of 41–42, 180; stimulation of 179 self-management 200 self-reflection 57, 61, 65, 106, 116, 118 ‘sense of novelty’ 15 Seven Stars: The Song of the Chakras 168, 173–174, 177 Sevilhana 35–36 Shankar, Ravi 164–166 Singer, M. 13 Sloboda, J. 10–11, 17, 21, 25–26, 41, 60, 126

217

Small, C. 15 ‘small business’ 22, 50, 189 social context 2, 55 social cultural expectations 182 social network 82 social network capability 23 social performance 15 social transformation 11 Sonata (Bach) 131 Sonata/Allegretto (Ravel) 137 songwriters 19 songwriting 189 ‘sophisticated misunderstanding’ 12 Sound Remains Almost the Same, The 150 soundtracks 189; composition 189 spiritual beliefs 16 Stabat Mater (Pergolesi) 162 stakeholders 19 Steiner, George 31, 41, 47, 159–160 storytelling 189 Strine, M. S. 12 students 178, 180; conceptualizations 182; creative initiatives in 56; individual history 183; perceptions of DAO 129 studio-based learning 57 study design 5 Suíte n°2 BWV 997 (Bach) 142 symphonic rock 189 tacit knowledge 161 Tagg, J. 61 teacher, role of facilitator 179 technical skills 178 technical standards 131 theatre 187 Togay, Can 51n5 Torija (Torroba) 131 Toscanini, Arturo 17 traditional musical forms 55 Três Peças (Villa-Lobos) 148 true rituals 173 Turino, T. 15, 175 Under the Blue Sky of the Astral World (Sob o céu azul do mundo astral) 171–172 Un Dia de Noviembre (Brouwer) 131–133 US National Endowment for the Arts 10, 11 Valsa de Esquina nº 8 (Mignone) 149 Van Dijk, T. 14, 35 Vedic perspectives 167

218 Index virtual instruments 189 Vozes Plurais: filosofia da expressão vocal (Cavarero) 142

Williams, R. 28n3 Windsor, L. W. 15, 25 Wright, Robert, The Animal Moral 59

Wabash National Study of Liberal Arts Education Interview, The 80, 182 We are one (Somos um) 172 Welch, G. F. 5 Weller, J. 23, 25, 64 Western art music 16, 24, 189 Western art music performers 66 Why Beauty Matters (Scruton) 162 Williams, John 35

XôXô Passarinho (Villa-Lobos) 137 yoga 168–169 Yoga Sutras 168 yogi: gradual self-realization of 169; traditions 173–174 Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance (Pirsig) 159