Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles [2 ed.] 2022012407, 2022012408, 9781624106415, 9781624106422

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Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
CONTENTS
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
FOREWORD
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
TESTIMONIALS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1 Launch Vehicles: Introduction, Operation, and the Design Process
1.1 Introduction to Launch Vehicles
1.2 Anatomy of a Launch Vehicle
1.2.1 Surface-Launched Vehicle
1.2.2 Air-Launched Vehicle
1.3 The Phases of Launch and Ascent
1.3.1 Vertical Climb
1.3.2 Roll Program
1.3.3 Pitch Program and Vehicle Turning
1.3.4 Strap-on Separation
1.3.5 Max-Air / Max- q / Buffet
1.3.6 First-Step Shutdown
1.3.7 Staging and Separation
1.3.8 Upper-Step Ignition
1.3.9 Payload Fairing Jettison
1.3.10 Upper-Step Shutdown
1.4 Typical Launch Vehicle Mission and Mission Elements
1.5 The Typical Launch Vehicle Design Process
1.6 Launch Sites
1.7 Launch Site Selection Criteria
1.7.1 Continental U.S. Launch Sites
1.7.2 Other U.S. Launch Sites
1.7.3 European Launch Sites
1.7.4 Other Launch Sites
1.8 The Space Industry
1.9 Summary
References
Further Reading
1.10 Assignment: Launch Vehicle System Report
2 A Technical History of Space Launch Vehicles
2.1 Rockets in the Early 20th Century
2.2 World War II and the Development of the V-2
2.3 The Cold War, ICBMs, and the First Space Launch Vehicles
2.3.1 Soviet and Russian Developments
R-7 Semyorka Soyuz Evolution
Proton
Zenit
Angara
2.3.2 U.S. Developments
2.3.2.1 The Vanguard
2.3.2.2 The U. S. Ballistic Missiles
2.3.3 The Red stone IRBM and Jupiter Launch Vehicle
2.3.4 The Jupiter A and Juno SLV
2.3.5 Thor IRBM
2.3.6 Atlas ICBM
Centaur Upper Step
2.3.7 Titan ICBM
2.3.8 Minuteman ICBM Family
2.3.9 Pea cekeeper
2.3.10 Minotaur and Taurus
2.3.11 Polaris, Poseidon, and Trident
2.3.12 Scout
2.3.13 Pegasus
2.4 The Moon Race
2.5 The Space Shuttle
NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS)
2.6 Launch Vehicle Oddities and Dead-Ends
2.6.1 German A-9 / A-10 Amerika
2.6.2 North American X-15
2.6.3 McDonnell Douglas DC-X
2.6.4 Lockheed Martin X-33 VentureStar
2.7 Other Launch Vehicles from Around the World
2.7.1 Chinese Launch Vehicles
2.7.2 European Efforts
2.7.3 India
2.7.4 Japan
2.8 Commercial Launch Vehicles: The Future?
2.8.1 SpaceX Launch Vehicles
Falcon 1
Falcon 9
Starship / Super Heavy
2.8.2 Vulcan Centaur: A Competitor to Falcon 9?
2.8.3 Another Competitor to Falcon 9?
2.9 Small Launch Vehicles
2.9.1 The Rocket Lab Electron
2.9.2 The Virgin Orbit LauncherOne
2.9.3 The Astra Rocket 3?
2.9.4 Firefly Alpha
References
Further Reading
3 Missions, Orbits, and Energy Requirements
3.1 Launch Vehicle Requirements Derive from Payload and Mission
3.1.1 LV Ascent Losses
3.1.2 LV Maneuvering Requirements
3.1.3 LV Performance Gains
3.2 Orbits, Orbital Parameters, and Trajectories
3.2.1 Introduction to Orbits
3.2.2 Classic Orbital Elements
3.3 Spacecraft Mission Orbits and Trajectories
3.3.1 Required Orbital Injection Speed
3.3.1.1 Circular Orbit Speed
3.3.1.2 Elliptical Orbit Speed
3.3.1.3 Escape Orbit Speed
3.4 Required Energy to Be Delivered for Orbit
3.4.1 Benefits from the Rotation of the Earth
3.4.2 Estimating Gravity Loss
3.4.2.1 Estimating Gravity Loss: Conservation of Energy
3.4.2.2 Estimating Gravity Loss: Statistical Estimation
3.4.2.3 Estimating Gravity Loss: Exact Methods
3.4.3 Estimating Aerodynamic Drag Loss
3.4.4 Drag Loss: Exact Method
3.4.4.1 Thoughts on Minimizing Drag Losses
3.4.5 Propulsion Losses
3.4.6 Application to Multiple Steps
3.4.7 Steering Losses
3.4.8 Summing Up the Losses
3.4.9 Combined Launch Vehicle Performance Estimation
3.5 Determining the Launch Vehicle Velocity Vector
3.5.1 Determining the Required Launch Vector
3.5.2 Air-Launch Systems
3.6 Direct Orbit
3.6.1 Launch Directly East
3.6.2 Launch in Other Directions
3.6.3 Calculation of Burnout Azimuth Angles
3.6.4 Polar and Retrograde Orbits
3.7 Desired Inclination Less than Launch Latitude
3.7.1 Launch Vehicle Lateral Maneuver
3.7.2 Orbital Inclination Change
3.8 Launch Vehicle Performance Curves
3.9 Launch Windows
3.9.1 Launch Window Duration I: Orbital Mi ssions
3.9.2 Launch Window Duration II: Pork Chop Plots
3.9.3 Launch Window Example: Galileo
References
3.10 Example Problems
Required Vehicle Performance
4 Propulsion
4.1 Combustion
4.2 The Thrust Equation and Rocket Equation
4.2.1 Exhaust Velocity
4.2.2 Rocket Performance: Total and Specific Impulse
4.3 The Rocket Equation
4.3.1 Propellant Mass Fraction and Total Impulse
4.3.2 Thrust-to-weight ratio and burn time
4.3.3 Summary of Rocket Engine Parameters
4.4 Solid-Propellant Motors
4.4.1 Basic Configuration
4.4.2 SRM Types and Burn Rates
4.4.3 Thrust Profile and Grain Shape
4.4.4 SRM Propellant Additives
4.4.5 SRM Exhaust Toxicity
4.5 Liquid-Propellant Engines
4.6 Examples of Rocket Engine Performance
4.6.1 SRM Performance
4.6.2 Liquid Engine Performance
4.7 Rocket Engine Power Cycles
4.7.1 Gas Generator Cycle
4.7.2 Staged Combustion Cycle
4.7.3 Expander Cycle
4.7.4 Electric Pump-Fed Cycle
4.7.5 Pressure-Fed Cycle
4.8 Aerospike Engines
4.9 Hybrid Rockets
References
4.10 Example Problems
5 Launch Vehicle Performance and Staging
5.1 The Three Categories of Launch Vehicle Mass
5.2 Finding a Rocket’s Speed Change in Free Space
5.3 Burnout Speed
5.4 Single-Stage-to-Orbit
5.5 Staging
5.5.1 Types of Launch Vehicle Staging
5.6 Calculation of Speed Supplied by a Multistage Rocket
5.7 Payload Ratio
5.8 Unrestricted Staging
Pitfalls of the Lagrangian “Optimization” Procedure
5.9 Gross Mass vs. Staging Speed for Families of TSTO LVs with Differing Propellants
5.10 All-Hydrogen Saturn V?
5.11 Parallel Burns and Staging
5.11.1 Parallel Staging Performance
5.11.2 Parallel Staging Procedures
5.11.3 Parallel Stage Enhanced Performance
5.12 Launch Vehicle Design Sensitivities
5.12.1 Tradeoff Ratio Calculation
5.12.2 How Tradeoffs / Sensitivity Derivatives Are Used
5.12.3 Inert Mass Tradeoff Ratio
5.12.4 Propellant Mass Tradeoff Ratio
5.12.5 Rocket Engine Specific Impulse Tradeoff
5.12.6 Improved Saturn IB Performance by Adding Propellant
5.12.7 Space Shuttle Tradeoff Ratios
5.12.7.1 A Practical Application of Tradeoff Ratios: Space Shuttle Application 1
5.12.7.2 Shuttle Application 2: Carrying Out Missions to ISS
5.12.7.3 Shuttle Application 3: High-Performance SRBs
5.12.7.4 Falcon 9 Application: Add Propellant Without Adding Structure Mass!
5.12.8 Another Method to Calculate Tradeoff Ratios
5.13 Some Useful Results: Determining Component Mass Values
5.14 Summary
References
5.15 Exercises
Assignment: Launch Vehicle Performance Problems
6 Ascent Trajectory Analysis and Optimization
6.1 Vertical Flight in Gravity, No Atmosphere
6.1.1 Gravity Loss
6.1.2 Burnout Altitude
6.1.3 Coast After Burnout
6.1.4 Summary
6.2 Inclined Flight in Gravity, No Atmosphere
6.2.1 Equations for In clined Flight in Gravity, No Atmosphere
6.2.2 Vertical Flight in Atmosphere, with Gravity
6.2.3 Thrusting Equations
6.2.4 Coasting Equations
6.3 General Flight with Gravity, Atmosphere Effects
6.3.1 Launch Vehicle Boost Trajectory Coordinate System
6.3.2 Launch Vehicle Equations of Motion
6.3.3 Forces on a Launch Vehicle due to Aerodynami c, Thrust, and Steering Forces
6.3.4 Torques on a Launch Vehicle Due to Aerodynamic, Thrust, and Steering Forces
6.4 Aerodynamics of Launch Vehicles
6.4.1 Assessment of Launch Vehicle Drag
6.4.2 Assessment of Launch Vehicle Lift
6.4.3 Ascent Aerodynamic Forces, Propulsion Models, and Gravity
6.4.4 Speed or Energy Losses During Launch
6.4.5 Changing the Flight Path Angle \gamma
6.4.6 Events During Liftoff and Ascent
6.4.7 The Gravity-Turn Trajectory
6.4.8 Other Methods of Guidance
6.4.9 The General Ascent Problem
6.5 Getting to Orbit
6.6 Launch Vehicle Trajectory Simulation
6.6.1 Notes on Numerical Integration
6.7 Trajectory Optimization
6.7.1 Definition and Purpose of Trajectory Optimization
6.7.2 The First Optimization Problem: The Brachistochrone or Shortest Time Problem
6.7.3 Optimization Software
6.8 Some Examples of Launch Profiles and Trajectories
6.8.1 LV Example: Delta III Launch to Geostationary Transfer Orbit
6.8.2 What Is Lofting, and Why Does It Occur?
6.8.3 The Space Shuttle Ascent: Complex, Many Constraints, Nonoptimal Trajectories
6.9 Some Typical Launch Trajectories
6.9.1 Shuttle STS-122 Ascent Trajectory
6.9.2 Saturn V Ascent Trajectory
6.9.3 Saturn V Second Step (S-II) Variable Mixture-Ratio Scheme
6.9.4 Mu-3-S-2 (Japan)
6.9.5 Air-Launched Pegasus
6.10 Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Online Simulation Software
Trajectory Data
6.11 Exercises
1. Apollo Lunar Module Ascent Simulation
2. Large Hydrolox Single-Stage-to-Orbit Simulation
3. Launch Vehicle Trajectory Optimization Using GPOPS-II Software
7 Space Launch Vehicle Structures and Layout
7.1 The Thor IRBM
7.2 The Delta II: Evolved from Thor
7.3 Atlas Takes Tank Structure Principle to Extremes
7.4 The Mighty Saturns
7.5 The Saturn V
7.6 Another Way to Save Mass: Tank Dome Shapes
7.7 Spherical vs Cylindrical Tanks: Which Have Less Mass?
7.8 The Space Shuttle
7.9 Delta IV
7.10 Engine Configurations and Other Design Layout Considerations
7.10.1 Engine Configurations
7.10.2 Launch Vehicle Symmetry
7.10.3 Attachment of Strap-Ons and External Items
7.11 Payload Accommodations
7.11.1 Payload Attach Fitting
7.11.2 Ridesharing
7.11.3 Payload Fairings
7.11.4 Asymmetric Payload Fairings
7.12 Launch Vehicle Structure Types
7.12.1 Skin and Stringer Construction
7.12.2 Sandwich Construction
7.12.3 Integrally Machined Stiffeners
7.13 Structural Materials
7.13.1 Metallic Materials
7.13.2 Composite Materials
7.13.3 Miracle Materials
References
Further Reading
8 Sizing, Inboard Profile, Mass Properties
8.1 Inboard Profile
8.1.1 Vehicle Sizing and Layout Process
8.2 Vehicle or Step Mass Calculations
8.3 Liquid Propulsion System Real-Life Additions to Mass and Volume
8.3.1 Liquid Propulsion System “Real- Life” Additions
Liquid Propellant Mass Buildup
Startup Liquid Propellant Mass
Residual Liquid Propellant Mass
Total Liquid Propellant Mass
Individual Liquid Propellant Masses
8.3.2 Needed Liquid Propellant Tank Volumes
“Ideal” Liquid Propellant Tank Volumes
Needed Liquid Propellant Tank Volumes
8.3.3 Other Liquid Propellant Volume Changes to Consider
Propellant Densification
Volume Changes Due to Pressurization
Liquid Propellant Boil-off
Cryogenic Upper-Stage Engine Startup
Non-Aluminum, Nonlinear CTE-Material Tanks
8.3.4 Tank Sizing
Volume of “Ideal” Tanks
Some Comments on Tank Shape and Sizing
Other Propulsion System Factors Influencing Vehicle Layout
8.4 Other Launch Vehicle Components
8.5 Solid Propulsion System Sizing
8.5.1 Solid Propulsion System Initial Sizing
8.5.2 Solid Propulsion System With \delta v Specified
8.5.3 Solid Propulsion System With Specified Total Impulse
8.5.4 Solid Propellant Volume Calculation
Solid Propulsion System Real-Life Additions to Volume
Solid Propulsion System Volume
8.6 Comments about Upper Steps and Payload Fairings
8.6.1 Upper Step Layouts
8.6.2 Payload Fairings
8.7 Mass Estimation Process
8.7.1 Estimation of Liquid Propellant Tank Masses
8.7.2 Cryogenic Tank Insulation Mass
8.7.3 Masses of Thin-Shelled Structures
8.7.3.1 Use of Composite Materials
8.7.4 Masses of Other Structures and Components
8.7.5 Rocket Engine and Thrust Structure Mass Estimation
Engine Mass
Thrust Structure
Gimbal Mass
8.7.6 Mass of Other Items
Payload Attach Fitting / Launch Vehicle Adapter
Avionics Mass
Electrical Wiring
Summary
8.7.7 Engine Dimensioning Calculations
8.7.7.1 Solid Propulsion Motor Mass Estimation
8.7.7.2 Mass Estimation for More Complex Shapes
8.7.7.3 Mass Properties
8.7.7.4 Coordinate Systems
8.7.7.5 Mass Properties Calculations
8.7.7.6 Some Comments About Engine Selection
8.7.7.7 Moment of Inertia Calculations
8.8 Calculation of Tank or Shell Thicknesses
8.8.1 A Vehicle Loaded with Propellants
References
Additional references
8.9 Exercises: Sizing, Inboard Profile, and Mass Properties of TSTO LV
9 Ground and Flight Loads and Analysis
9.1 Launch Vehicle Load Cases
9.1.1 Transportation Loads
9.1.2 Calculation of Loads
9.1.3 Distributed Loads
9.1.4 Axial Forces and Horizontal Drag Loads
9.1.5 Ground Wind Load Calculation
9.1.5.1 Ground Winds
9.1.5.2 Simplified Ground Winds Load Calculation Procedure
9.1.5.3 Calculation of Ground Axial Loads
9.1.5.4 Ground Wind Loads Analysis on Saturn V
9.1.5.5 Calculation of Shear Forces
9.1.5.6 Calculation of Internal Moments
9.1.5.7 Calculation of Axial Loads
9.1.5.8 Summary of Ground Loads Calculation
9.1.5.9 Notes on Ground Load Calculations
9.1.6 Calculation of Flight Loads
9.1.6.1 Do Launch Vehicles Really Fly at an Angle of Attack?
9.1.6.2 Calculation of Angle of Attack
9.1.6.3 Shear, Bending, and Axial Loads in Flight Due to Wind Shear
9.1.6.4 Obtaining Aerodynamic Force Data
Comments on Nose Cone Shapes and Conical Flares (Tapering Skirts)
9.1.6.5 Launch Vehicle Pressure Coefficients
9.1.6.6 Calculation of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments on Vehicle
9.2 Example: Max-q Air Load Calculation for Saturn V / Apollo 11 (SA-506)
9.2.1 Saturn V’s Mass at max-q
9.2.2 Acceleration Magnitude During max-q
9.2.3 Saturn V Side Air Loads
9.2.4 Saturn V Supersonic Fin Lift Anal ysis
9.2.5 Lateral Acceleration Due to Air Loads and Engine Gimbaling
9.2.6 Inertia Relief
9.2.7 Did the Saturn V Need Fins?
9.2.8 Saturn V Max-q Axial Loads
9.3 Load Curves Rules of Thumb
9.4 Global vs. Local Loads
9.5 Real Calculation of Vehicle Loads
9.6 Dealing with High-Altitude Winds
9.7 Design Issues for Ascent Phase
9.8 Load Relief During Launch
9.9 Endnote
References
Further Reading
9.10 Exercises
Problem 1: Ground Wind Load s, Shear, Moment, and Axial Load Calculation
Problem 2: Launch Vehicle Max-q Flight Loads Calculations
10 Launch Vehicle Stress Analysis
10.1 Strength and Stress Analysis
10.1.1 Stress (and Loads) Vocabulary
10.1.1.1 Types of Stress
10.1.1.2 Stress Subscripts and Material Properties
10.1.2 Forces, Geometr y, and Moments
10.2 Stress Deter mination Using External Loads
10.2.1 Cylinder Analysis Approach
10.2.1.1 Calculation of a Cylinder’s Cross- Sectional Area
10.2.1.2 Calculation of a Cylinder Cross-Section’s Area Moment of Inertia I
10.2.1.3 Stress Calculation
10.2.1.4 Minimum Gauge Issues
10.2.2 A Design Consideration: Relative Tank Position
10.3 Allowable Stresses Based on Stability (Buckling) Criteria
10.3.1 Critical Stresses and Buckling
10.3.1.1 Stability of Flared Skirt or Frustum
10.3.2 Ways to Increase Allowable Critical Axial Stress
10.3.3 Structural Methods to Increase Critical Axial Stress
10.4 Effect of Internal Pressure on Stresses
10.4.1 Internal Pressure Adds Load Capability
10.4.1.1 Pressure-Stabilized Structures
10.4.1.2 Bulkhead Reversal
10.4.1.3 Hydrostatic Pressure
10.4.2 Other Factors to Consider Concerning Internal Pressure
10.4.2.1 Geysering
10.4.2.2 Other Layout Considerations
10.5 Determining the Overall Stress State
10.5.1 Stress Analysis Summary
10.6 Real World Detailed Stress Analysis
10.6.1 This Is Just the Start of Stress Anal ysis
10.6.2 The Three Ingredients Needed for Stress Analysis
10.6.3 Finite-Element Modeling
10.6.4 FEM Updates
10.7 Summary: Simple Rules for LV Structures
Further Reading
10.8 Exercises
Homework Problem 1: Aluminum Beverage Container Buckling Stress Calculations
Homework Problem 2: LV Stress Calculations
11 Launch Vehicle and Payload Environments: Vibration, Shock, Acoustic, and Thermal Issues
11.1 Mechanical Loads
11.1.1 Engine Startups and Cutoffs
11.1.2 Separation Events
11.1.3 Pyrotechnic Shocks
11.2 Acoustic Environment
11.2.1 Ignition Overpressure
11.2.2 High Acoustic Environments 1: Liftoff
11.2.3 High Acoustic Environments 2: Flight
11.2.4 Buffet Loads
11.2.4.1 Launch Vehicle Buffet Pressure Spectra
11.3 Launch Vehicle Thermal Environment
11.3.1 Base Heating
11.3.2 Convective Thermal Environment During Boost
11.3.3 Saturn V Flow Separation
11.3.4 Thermal Protection Systems
11.4 Payload Environment: The Spacecraft’s Point of View
11.5 Spacecraft Structure Design Verification Process
11.5.1 Coupled-Loads Analysis
11.5.2 After Coupled Loads Analysis: What Happens?
11.5.3 Payload Natural Frequencies != LV Natural Frequencies
11.5.4 Payload Isolation: Helps with Much of the Shock and Vibration
11.5.5 Free-Free Natural Frequency Calculations
11.5.6 LV Frequency Considerations
11.5.6.1 Example Stiffness Design Factors: Atlas V
11.5.7 Payload Acoustic Environments
Acoustic Suppression
11.5.8 Payload Pressure Environment
11.5.9 Payload Thermal Loads
11.5.10 When Should the PLF Be Jettisoned?
11.5.11 On-Orbit Thermal Environment
11.6 Summary
References
Further Reading
11.7 Exercise
12 Launch Vehicle Stability and Control; LV Vibration and Instabilities
12.1 Guidance and Navigation vs Attitude Control
12.1.1 Vehicle Coordinate System
12.1.2 Rotations
12.1.2.1 Euler Angles
12.1.2.2 Quaternions
12.1.2.3 Measuring Rotation Angles and Calculating Attitude and Position
12.1.2.3.1 Method 1: Inertial/Stabilized Platform
12.1.2.3.2 Method 2: Inertial Measurement Unit
12.1.2.3.3 Method 3: Global Positioning System (GPS)
12.2 Stability and Control
12.2.1 Locating Center of Pressure
12.2.2 LV Flight Control System Elements
12.2.2.1 Thrust Vector Control
12.2.2.1.1 Types of Control Effectors (Actuators)
12.2.2.1.2 Using Engine Exhaust for Steering
12.2.2.1.3 Aerodynamic Controls for Steering
12.2.2.1.4 Typical Thrust Vector Control System Requirements
12.2.2.1.4.1 Thrust Vector Control System Time Response
12.2.2.1.4.2 Thrust Vector Control System Angular Motion
12.2.2.2 Engine and Propellant Tank Positioning
Engine Positioning
Propellant Tank Positioning
12.2.2.3 Reducing Actuation Loads
12.2.3 Three Axis Control
12.3 Controlled Vehicle Equations of Motion
12.3.1 Vehicle Coordinate Systems
12.3.2 Trajectory Variable Definitions
12.3.3 Vehicle Force and Torque Definitions
12.3.4 Vehicle Steering
12.3.5 Vehicle Equations of Motion: Translation
12.3.5.1 Dealing with Equations of Motion and Block Diagrams
12.3.5.2 Pitch-Plane Motion Simplifications
12.3.5.3 Understanding Poles and Zeros
12.3.6 Control System Performance Rules of Thumb
12.3.7 Varying Parameters, Including Aerodynamic Coefficients and Structural Dynamics
12.3.8 Engine Angle Response to Wind Shear
12.4 Launch Vehicle Structural Vibrations and Instabilities
12.4.1 Flexible Structure, Body Bending
12.4.2 Tail Wags Dog Motion
12.4.3 Propellant Slosh
12.4.3.1 Modeling Slosh Effects
12.4.3.2 Alleviating Slosh
12.5 Propulsion Instabilities
12.5.1 Pogo
12.5.1.1 Pogo Instability Explained
12.5.1.2 Pogo Suppression
12.5.2 Resonant Burn Oscillations
12.6 Summary
References
Further Reading
12.7 Exercises: Vibration and TVC Analysis
13 Launch Vehicle Manufacturing
13.1 Launch Vehicle Fabrication
13.2 Saturn I Second Step (S-IV) Manufacturing Process
13.3 Composite Structure Fabrication
13.4 Manufacturing: The Future
13.5 Vehicle Stacking and Assembly
13.6 Postassembly Activities
13.7 Summary
References
Further Reading
Recommended Videos
14 Launch Vehicle Systems and Launch Pad Facilities
Internal Systems of Launch Vehicle
14.1 Saturn V S-IC Fuel Systems
14.1.1 Types of Valves
14.1.2 Saturn S-IC Fuel Feed and Control
14.1.3 Saturn S-IC Fuel Conditioning (Bubbling) System
14.1.4 Saturn S-IC Fuel Level Sensing
14.2 Launch Vehicle Pressurization
14.2.1 Saturn S-IC Fuel Pressurization
14.2.2 Saturn V S-IC LOx Pressurization
14.3 Saturn V S-IC Oxidizer Systems
14.3.1 Saturn V S-IC LOx Delivery System
14.3.2 Saturn V S-IC LOx Conditioning
14.4 Saturn V Mechanical Services
14.4.1 Saturn V S-IC Pressurized Gas Control System
14.4.2 Saturn V S-IC Fluid Power System
14.4.3 Saturn V S-IC Environmental Control System
14.5 Staging and Separation Systems
14.5.1 Pyrotechnic (Explosive) Devices
14.5.2 Saturn V Staging and Separation Systems
14.5.3 Saturn V S-IC Retrorockets and S-II Step Ullage
14.5.4 Payload Fairing (Shroud) Separation
14.5.5 Alternatives to Explosive Separation Systems
14.5.6 Non-Pyrotechnic Fairing Separation
14.5.7 Payload Fairing Separation Dynamics
14.5.8 More Separation Mechanisms
Explosive Bolts
Explosive Nuts
14.5.9 Clamp Bands
14.6 Launch Vehicle Avionics
14.6.1 Data System
14.6.2 RF and Communications System
14.6.3 Guidance, Navigation, and Control
14.6.4 Range Safety System /Flight Termination System
14.6.5 Electrical Power System
14.6.5.1 S-IC Electrical System
14.6.5.2 S-IC Visual Instrumentation
14.6.6 Instrumentation and Telemetry
14.6.6.1 Operation of Telemetry Systems
14.6.6.2 The Telemetry Process: Getting Information to the Ground
14.6.6.3 Multiplexing of Data: Commutation
14.6.6.4 Decommutation of Telemetered Data
14.6.6.5 Data Errors Introduced by Aliasing
14.6.6.6 Quantization Error
14.6.6.7 Effective TM System Operations
14.7 Launch Pad Facilities and Ground Accommodations
14.7.1 Vehicle Access
14.7.2 Logistics at Base of Saturn V
14.7.2.1 Tail Service Connections
14.7.2.2 Swing Arm Umbilicals
14.7.2.3 More on Umbilicals
14.7.2.4 Pad Support Subsystems
14.7.2.5 Propellant Loading Operations
14.7.2.6 Lightning Protection
14.8 Launch and Liftoff Considerations
14.8.1 Staggered Engine Ignition Reduces Loads
14.8.2 Vehicle Hold-Downs and Release Mechanisms
14.8.2.1 Saturn V Hold-Down and Release Mechanism
14.8.2.2 How Was the Space Shuttle Held Down?
14.8.3 Liftoff Mechanical Loads
14.8.4 Taking Care of Loose Propellants
14.8.5 Water at Launch to Reduce Overpressure
14.8.6 Exhaust and Flame Bucket
14.8.6.1 Unintended Suborbital Flight
14.8.7 Liftoff Service Tower Clearance
14.8.8 Tracking and Radar
14.9 Vehicle Recovery and Reuse
14.9.1 Recovery Considerations
14.9.2 Payload Fairing Recovery
14.9.3 First Step Recovery
14.9.4 Upper Step Recovery
14.9.5 Summary of Recovery Options
14.10 Summary
References
Further Reading
15 Testing, Reliability, and Redundancy
15.1 Testing
15.1.1 Levels of Testing
15.1.2 Classical Approach to Testing
15.1.3 Protoflight Testing Approach
15.1.4 Testing vs Failure Mechanisms
15.1.5 Types of Testing
15.1.6 Typical Test Sequence
15.1.7 Component Testing
15.1.8 Wind Tunnel Testing for Ground Wind Response
15.1.9 Wind Tunnel Testing for Flight
15.1.10 Mass Properties
15.1.11 Structural Testing
15.1.12 Modal / Vibration Testing
15.1.13 Shock Testing
15.1.14 Slosh Testing
15.1.15 Radio Frequen cy Testing
15.1.16 Acoustic Testing
15.1.16.1 Acoustic Pressure Test Levels
15.1.16.2 Acoustic Test Criteria
15.1.16.3 Example Acoustic Test
15.1.17 Software Is Becoming More and More Important
15.1.17.1 Software Complexity
15.1.17.2 Software Testing
15.1.17.3 Software Reviews Pay Off
15.1.18 External Acoustic Testing
15.1.19 Hot Gas and Exhaust Plume Testing
15.1.20 Acoustic Suppression Testing
15.1.21 Full-Scale Engine Testing
15.1.22 Result of Successful Testing Sequence
15.1.23 After Hardware Delivery
15.1.24 Hot-Fire Test
15.1.25 Flight Test
15.1.26 Summary of Testing Practices for LVs
15.2 Redundancy
15.2.1 Various Types of Redundancy
15.2.2 Redundancy: Fluids and Hydraulics
15.2.3 Redundancy: Electronics
15.2.4 Reliability
15.2.5 Redundancy Example: Heater Strip
15.2.6 Reliability for k-Out-of-n Systems
15.2.6.1 Example 1: 3-of-5 Engine Rocket Reliability
15.2.6.2 Example 2: 7-of-9 Engine Rocket Reliability
15.2.6.3 Actual Engine Reliability
15.2.6.4 Payload Fairing Separation System Reliability
15.3 Summary
References
Recommended Reading
15.4 Exercise
16 Failures, Lessons Learned, Flight Termination Systems, and Aborts
16.1 Causes of Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV) Failures
16.1.1 Summary of Launch Failure Findings: Trends
16.2 Failure Rates of Launch Vehicles
16.2.1 Design Implications of Multiple Engines
16.3 Some Examples of Launch Vehicle Failures
16.3.1 The Challenger Incident: A Propulsion System Failure
16.3.2 Common Mistakes to Look For
The Five Questions
16.3.2.1 Question 1: Could the Sign Be Wrong?
Titan IV B32 /Centaur (M ILSTA R II-1) Failure
16.3.2.2 Question 2: How Will Last-Minute Configuration Changes Be Veri fied?
What Is Configuration Management?
Titan IVB/IUS Failure, April 1999
16.3.2.3 Question 3: Can the Vehicle Survive a Computer Crash?
Computer Crash Example 1: Ariane 5 First Flight Failure
Delta III: Missing? What Happened?
16.3.2.4 Question 4: Is the Circuit Overcurrent Protection Adequate?
16.3.2.5 Question 5: Can Pyros Cause Unexpected Damage?
16.3.3 The Newest Failure Category: Incorrect Mass Properties
16.4 Additional Ways to Learn from Others’ Mistakes
16.4.1 Researching History
16.4.2 Reluctance to Share Failure Information
16.5 Range Safety and Flight Termination Systems
16.5.1 Why We Have Flight Termination Systems
16.5.2 Typical Flight Termination System Make-Up
16.5.3 Method of Termination
16.5.4 Range Safety Network Using GPS
16.5.5 FTS System Details
16.5.6 Abort Modes
16.5.7 Ascent Shaping for Abort of Crewed Launch Vehicles
16.5.8 Ascent Shaping for Atlas-Centaur and Starliner Capsule
16.6 Best Practices to Avoid Failure
16.7 Summary
References
Recommended Reading
17 Launch Vehicle Financial Analysis and Project Management
17.1 Stages of Mission Development
17.2 The Design Cycle
17.3 Design Decision Making
17.4 Cost Engineering
17.4.1 Cost-Estimating Relationships
17.4.2 Cost-Estimating Software
17.5 Cost Considerations
17.5.1 Examples of Launch Vehicle Costs
17.5.2 Inflation Factors
17.5.3 Recommendations for Initial Cost Estimation
17.6 Cost Modeling Examples
17.6.1 Atlas V 401 Cost Breakdown
17.6.2 TRANSCOST Cost-Estimating Relationships
17.6.3 TRANSCOST Cost Shares and CER Verification
17.6.4 Specific Transportation Cost
17.6.5 Software Cost
17.6.6 Propulsion Cost
17.7 Reusability Effects on Costs
17.8 The Effects of New Technology on Cost
17.9 Concluding Remarks
References
17.10 Exercises: LV Cost Estimation
Problem 4: LV Cost Estimation
GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Subscripts / Numbers
Greek Symbols
Other Symbols
Index
A
B C
D E
F
G
H
I
J K L
M
N O P
Q R
S
T
U
V W X Y Z
Supporting Materials
ABOUT THE BOOK
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
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Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles [2 ed.]
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Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles Second Edition

Don Edberg and Willie Costa With a Foreword by Homer Hickam

Joseph A. Schetz Editor-In-Chief

Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles Second Edition

Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles

Second Edition

Don Edberg Consultant & Professor of Aerospace Engineering California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

Willie Costa Engineering & Management Consultant

AIAA EDUCATION SERIES Joseph A. Schetz, Editor-in-Chief Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, Virginia

Cover image: Starship Super Heavy, courtesy of SpaceX. (CC BY-NC 2.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., Reston, Virginia 1 2 3 4 5 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Edberg, Donald L., author. | Costa, Guillermo, author. Title: Design of rockets and space launch vehicles / Don Edberg, Consultant & Professor of Aerospace Engineering, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, Willie Costa, Engineering & Management Consultant. Description: Second edition. | Reston, Virginia : The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., [2022] | Series: AIAA education series | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2022012407 (print) | LCCN 2022012408 (ebook) | ISBN 9781624106415 (print) | ISBN 9781624106422 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Rockets (Aeronautics)–Design and construction. | Launch vehicles (Astronautics)–Design and construction. Classification: LCC TL782 .E33 2022 (print) | LCC TL782 (ebook) | DDC 621.43/56–dc23/eng/20220408 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022012407 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022012408 Cataloging in Publication data on file. Print ISBN: 978-1-62410-641-5 Ebook ISBN: 978-1-62410-642-2

Copyright # 2022 by the Authors. Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., with permission. Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only. AIAA is not responsible for any injury or damage resulting from use or reliance, nor does AIAA warrant that use or reliance will be free from privately owned rights.

AIAA EDUCATION SERIES Editor-in-Chief

Joseph A. Schetz Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Editorial Board Joa ˜o Luiz F. Azevedo Comando-Geral De Tecnologia Aeroespacial Marty Bradley University of Southern California James R. DeBonis NASA Glenn Research Center Kajal K. Gupta NASA Dryden Flight Research Center Rakesh K. Kapania Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Michael Mohaghegh The Boeing Company Brett Newman Old Dominion University Hanspeter Schaub University of Colorado Humberto Silva III Sandia National Laboratories David M. Van Wie Johns Hopkins University

CONTENTS Preface to the First Edition

xiii

Preface to the Second Edition

xxi

Foreword

xxv

About the Authors

xxvii

Testimonials

xxviii

Acknowledgements

Chapter 1

Launch Vehicles: Introduction, Operation, and the Design Process

xxxi

1

1.1 Introduction to Launch Vehicles 1.2 Anatomy of a Launch Vehicle 1.3 The Phases of Launch and Ascent 1.4 Typical Launch Vehicle Mission and Mission Elements 1.5 The Typical Launch Vehicle Design Process 1.6 Launch Sites 1.7 Launch Site Selection Criteria 1.8 The Space Industry 1.9 Summary References 1.10 Assignment: Launch Vehicle System Report

1 3 9 17 19 21 23 31 34 34 35

Chapter 2

37

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

A Technical History of Space Launch Vehicles

Rockets in the Early 20th Century World War II and the Development of the V-2 The Cold War, ICBMs, and the First Space Launch Vehicles The Moon Race

37 42 45 97 vii

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Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles

2.5 The Space Shuttle 2.6 Launch Vehicle Oddities and Dead-Ends 2.7 Other Launch Vehicles from Around the World 2.8 Commercial Launch Vehicles: The Future? 2.9 Small Launch Vehicles References

103 109 119 132 139 143

Chapter 3

147

Missions, Orbits, and Energy Requirements

3.1 Launch Vehicle Requirements Derive from Payload and Mission 3.2 Orbits, Orbital Parameters, and Trajectories 3.3 Spacecraft Mission Orbits and Trajectories 3.4 Required Energy to Be Delivered for Orbit 3.5 Determining the Launch Vehicle Velocity Vector 3.6 Direct Orbit 3.7 Desired Inclination Less than Launch Latitude 3.8 Launch Vehicle Performance Curves 3.9 Launch Windows References 3.10 Example Problems

148 150 155 161 182 187 192 195 197 202 203

Chapter 4

211

Propulsion

4.1 Combustion 4.2 The Thrust Equation and Rocket Equation 4.3 The Rocket Equation 4.4 Solid-Propellant Motors 4.5 Liquid-Propellant Engines 4.6 Examples of Rocket Engine Performance 4.7 Rocket Engine Power Cycles 4.8 Aerospike Engines 4.9 Hybrid Rockets References 4.10 Example Problems

212 215 225 229 235 238 242 256 261 267 267

Chapter 5

271

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8

Launch Vehicle Performance and Staging

The Three Categories of Launch Vehicle Mass Finding a Rocket’s Speed Change in Free Space Burnout Speed Single-Stage-to-Orbit Staging Calculation of Speed Supplied by a Multistage Rocket Payload Ratio Unrestricted Staging

272 274 277 277 279 282 285 286

Contents

5.9

Gross Mass vs. Staging Speed for Families of TSTO LVs with Differing Propellants 5.10 All-Hydrogen Saturn V? 5.11 Parallel Burns and Staging 5.12 Launch Vehicle Design Sensitivities 5.13 Some Useful Results: Determining Component Mass Values 5.14 Summary References 5.15 Exercises

291 301 305 310 320 322 323 323

Chapter 6

337

Ascent Trajectory Analysis and Optimization

6.1 Vertical Flight in Gravity, No Atmosphere 6.2 Inclined Flight in Gravity, No Atmosphere 6.3 General Flight with Gravity, Atmosphere Effects 6.4 Aerodynamics of Launch Vehicles 6.5 Getting to Orbit 6.6 Launch Vehicle Trajectory Simulation 6.7 Trajectory Optimization 6.8 Some Examples of Launch Profiles and Trajectories 6.9 Some Typical Launch Trajectories 6.10 Conclusion References 6.11 Exercises

338 342 346 357 372 373 380 384 392 398 399 400

Chapter 7

407

Space Launch Vehicle Structures and Layout

7.1 The Thor IRBM 7.2 The Delta II: Evolved from Thor 7.3 Atlas Takes Tank Structure Principle to Extremes 7.4 The Mighty Saturns 7.5 The Saturn V 7.6 Another Way to Save Mass: Tank Dome Shapes 7.7 Spherical vs Cylindrical Tanks: Which Have Less Mass? 7.8 The Space Shuttle 7.9 Delta IV 7.10 Engine Configurations and Other Design Layout Considerations 7.11 Payload Accommodations 7.12 Launch Vehicle Structure Types 7.13 Structural Materials References

407 408 412 415 420 429 429 436 440 441 445 452 457 461

ix

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Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles

Chapter 8

Sizing, Inboard Profile, Mass Properties

463

8.1 Inboard Profile 464 8.2 Vehicle or Step Mass Calculations 466 8.3 Liquid Propulsion System Real-Life Additions to Mass and Volume 467 8.4 Other Launch Vehicle Components 477 8.5 Solid Propulsion System Sizing 486 8.6 Comments about Upper Steps and Payload Fairings 490 8.7 Mass Estimation Process 493 8.8 Calculation of Tank or Shell Thicknesses 529 References 537 8.9 Exercises: Sizing, Inboard Profile, and Mass Properties of TSTO LV 539

Chapter 9

Ground and Flight Loads and Analysis

9.1 9.2

545

Launch Vehicle Load Cases Example: Max-q Air Load Calculation for Saturn V/Apollo 11 (SA-506) 9.3 Load Curves Rules of Thumb 9.4 Global vs. Local Loads 9.5 Real Calculation of Vehicle Loads 9.6 Dealing with High-Altitude Winds 9.7 Design Issues for Ascent Phase 9.8 Load Relief During Launch 9.9 Endnote References 9.10 Exercises

584 605 606 606 607 608 609 610 611 612

Chapter 10

623

Launch Vehicle Stress Analysis

10.1 Strength and Stress Analysis 10.2 Stress Determination Using External Loads 10.3 Allowable Stresses Based on Stability (Buckling) Criteria 10.4 Effect of Internal Pressure on Stresses 10.5 Determining the Overall Stress State 10.6 Real World Detailed Stress Analysis 10.7 Summary: Simple Rules for LV Structures References 10.8 Exercises

546

624 628 635 641 648 658 662 662 663

Contents

Chapter 11

Launch Vehicle and Payload Environments: Vibration, Shock, Acoustic, and Thermal Issues

11.1 Mechanical Loads 11.2 Acoustic Environment 11.3 Launch Vehicle Thermal Environment 11.4 Payload Environment: The Spacecraft’s Point of View 11.5 Spacecraft Structure Design Verification Process 11.6 Summary References 11.7 Exercise

Chapter 12

Launch Vehicle Stability and Control; LV Vibration and Instabilities

669 669 675 683 690 692 709 709 710

713

12.1 Guidance and Navigation vs Attitude Control 12.2 Stability and Control 12.3 Controlled Vehicle Equations of Motion 12.4 Launch Vehicle Structural Vibrations and Instabilities 12.5 Propulsion Instabilities 12.6 Summary References 12.7 Exercises: Vibration and TVC Analysis

714 725 749 768 782 789 789 790

Chapter 13

795

Launch Vehicle Manufacturing

13.1 Launch Vehicle Fabrication 13.2 Saturn I Second Step (S-IV) Manufacturing Process 13.3 Composite Structure Fabrication 13.4 Manufacturing: The Future 13.5 Vehicle Stacking and Assembly 13.6 Postassembly Activities 13.7 Summary References

Chapter 14 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7

795 796 808 817 818 822 822 823

Launch Vehicle Systems and Launch Pad Facilities

825

Saturn V S-IC Fuel Systems Launch Vehicle Pressurization Saturn V S-IC Oxidizer Systems Saturn V Mechanical Services Staging and Separation Systems Launch Vehicle Avionics Launch Pad Facilities and Ground Accommodations

826 829 834 836 838 860 872

xi

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Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles

14.8 Launch and Liftoff Considerations 14.9 Vehicle Recovery and Reuse 14.10 Summary References 14.11 Exercise

879 892 904 904 906

Chapter 15

907

Testing, Reliability, and Redundancy

15.1 Testing 15.2 Redundancy 15.3 Summary References 15.4 Exercise

Chapter 16

Failures, Lessons Learned, Flight Termination Systems, and Aborts

16.1 Causes of Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV) Failures 16.2 Failure Rates of Launch Vehicles 16.3 Some Examples of Launch Vehicle Failures 16.4 Additional Ways to Learn from Others’ Mistakes 16.5 Range Safety and Flight Termination Systems 16.6 Best Practices to Avoid Failure 16.7 Summary References

Chapter 17

Launch Vehicle Financial Analysis and Project Management

907 930 939 939 940

941 941 944 948 960 960 971 972 972

975

17.1 Stages of Mission Development 17.2 The Design Cycle 17.3 Design Decision Making 17.4 Cost Engineering 17.5 Cost Considerations 17.6 Cost Modeling Examples 17.7 Reusability Effects on Costs 17.8 The Effects of New Technology on Cost 17.9 Concluding Remarks References 17.10 Exercises: LV Cost Estimation

976 977 979 983 988 996 1014 1016 1017 1018 1019

Glossary and Abbreviations

1023

Index

1053

Supporting Materials

1071

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION This book is based on a course on space launch vehicle design that has been presented as an undergraduate class at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona (Cal Poly Pomona or CPP) in the Aerospace Engineering department, and as a graduate class for the Astronautics Department at the University of Southern California. The material has also been presented as a short course. The authors created this textbook, Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles (“DoRSLaVe”) as a new text to fill the gap between aircraft and spacecraft design textbooks. Until its introduction, there was no comprehensive work covering the breadth of launch vehicle design. When the authors sought a means to teach the subject of launch vehicle (LV) design, they quickly found that there was nothing comprehensive enough—other books covered part of the subject, but none of them was satisfactory for an introductory course. Some of the possibilities had chapters on rocket engines, others on vehicle performance, others had chapters on trajectories & aerodynamics, a few had stability and control. There was little history included, and most were silent about important but “non-engineering” topics such as manufacturing, launch pad and range facilities, testing and reliability, and cost estimation. This text, which we shall refer to as DoRSLaVe, is our attempt to “put it all together” in one comprehensive volume. DoRSLaVe is intended for seniorlevel capstone engineering design classes at colleges and universities, but will work equally well for graduate classes. In particular, it may be used by readers that do not have a degree in aerospace engineering. However, based on the content—which not only includes the theoretical bases for many design principles but also includes many illustrated examples of these bases—it is also recommended for practicing engineers as well as engineering management who are interested in how things work in either the “big picture” sense, or in areas other than one’s specialty. This book will serve to answer many questions people have as far as “why things are done this way” or “what do I need to know about the subject of ___?” A lot of background information is presented in the book’s extensive technical

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Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles

history chapter (Ch. 2), as well as the chapters on testing and reliability (Ch. 15) and on failures and lessons learned (Ch. 16). There are many worked numerical examples of all the aspects of the process of engineering and producing LVs, which clearly serve to introduce principles of these aspects and provide a “feel” for what the answer should look like. The authors believe that part of engineering and design is to have a feel for “approximately what” answer should be expected for a given problem. Materials in this book are a combination of original materials generated by the authors, along with material extracted from publicly-available sources: books, papers, symposium presentations, corporate sources, and the Internet. All non-original material is credited to its owner and is printed with permission. No classified or controlled materials have been incorporated. The copy of DoRSLaVe that you hold in your hands has a wide scope, all the way from requirements to performance to analysis, production, testing, and cost estimation. That being said, to save space, this book does not include many comprehensive derivations of theoretical formulae and related material. Such material is available in dedicated texts—and, as Oliver Heaviside (the developer of the Heaviside Step Function) said, “Am I to refuse to eat because I do not fully understand the mechanism of digestion?” Instead of derivations, we provide the pertinent results along with external references at chapter ends providing more in-depth information. This book concentrates on the application of well-known engineering knowledge to the design and simulation of these fascinating vehicles. Therefore, we provide the caveat that this is an introductory text and as the experts will tell you, “the devil is in the details.” This text will introduce the reader to the basic concepts associated with almost all aspects of the design and engineering processes of a launch vehicle, but it will only provide a snapshot of the details or knowledge that would be available to an experienced practitioner in some aspect of the art. There is no substitute for experience; however, this book will guide the reader in the necessary direction to find further information if it is needed. Launch vehicle and rocket design is a continuously-evolving field, and topics that seemed far-fetched at the time we began collecting information for the text have become common-place, such as the recovery and reuse of first steps of rockets to reduce costs and production rates, a now commonplace event by SpaceX. So, this book should be considered a “snapshot” of the current state of LV affairs at the time of its publishing, and will hopefully remain pertinent as time goes on. If it gets horribly out of date – unlikely because the physics of rocketry will remain constant—well, there’s always the possibility of a Second Edition! The materials inside this book not attributed to others are the authors’ own work. The authors would appreciate readers’ inputs including potential

Preface to the First Edition

topics or subjects; corrections or typographical errors, or other pertinent information. So now: “Launch is served!” Catherine Edberg, September 8, 2013. About the book: DoRSLaVe is laid out in a sequence that mimics the particular sequence of events that might be used to develop the initial or conceptual design of a LV from scratch; exceptions are pointed in the summary of contents of each chapter immediately below. The majority of chapters have exercises or problems that are intended to highlight the major parts of the chapters’ contents. Chapter 1 provides a broad overview of the “world” of launch vehicles. It provides basic information on what they are used for and the space industry in general, basic launch vehicle layouts, and typical launch trajectories. We then describe the design process with a flowchart which indicates the sequence of events beginning with a set of mission requirements, then carrying out initial vehicle sizing, aerodynamics, performance analysis, ground and launch environment, structure, stability, and control analyses, design iterations, and ending with a cost analysis. Finally, we present a list of the world’s launch sites. Chapter 2 is a background chapter providing the technical history of launch vehicles. Knowing this history provides background for current design practices and also gives knowledge of the vast design space possible for LVs. The chapter spans early history to the pre-WWII period, where the Nazis developed the first ballistic missile, to the development of the ICBM, its evolution into launch vehicles, the moon race, and the development of more modern LVs. It ends with a survey of current LVs and some future developments, including small LVs. Chapter 3 begins the LV design process by considering how the LV’s payload mass and orbital requirements will flow down to specify the performance of the LV. We include a brief explanation of common orbits and their required orbital mechanics. With a specified orbit, we show how to calculate the required LV shutdown performance in terms of shutdown speed and direction. Then, the gravity, drag, and steering losses associated with the trajectory must be vectorially added to the shutdown conditions to determine the LV’s design speed. Finally, we discuss launch azimuth directions, orbit injection strategies, and launch windows for both direct and indirect orbits. Chapter 4 discusses rocket propulsion: how thrust is generated, how the rocket’s performance is calculated, and different types and propellants used. We provide details, advantages, and disadvantages of solid and liquid propulsive methods, and some insights on the liquid propulsion ‘cycles’. We also discuss hybrid rockets and aerospikes. This information is useful 

By “background chapter,” we mean a chapter that is provided for background and historical purposes. Typically these background chapters do not provide assignments at the end and are strictly for educational purposes.

xv

xvi

Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles

for understanding available propulsion options, and for selecting the propulsion system for a particular mission or requirement. Chapter 5 is an important chapter on LV performance. We show that there are just three parts of a rocket for performance calculations: payload, propellant, and inert mass. The rocket equation is introduced, and we discuss the need for multi-stage vehicles to achieve needed speeds. We discuss theoretical optimization processes (where optimization here means minimum mass to fly a specified payload) and “brute force” methods to optimize. We consider the effect of different propellants to accomplish a specific mission, and consider what an all-hydrolox Saturn V would have looked like (compared to the existing version which used kerolox in its first stage). We discuss and show how to analyze both serial and parallel staging methods, and look at design sensitivities, which indicate the best places to add propellant, reduce mass, and improve rocket performance. Finally, we provide a set of useful formulas that will be used to calculate useful rocket parameters such as propellant mass, structure mass, etc. for sizing purposes. Once we have some idea of performance and staging requirements, we look at trajectory analysis in Chapter 6. This chapter looks at vertical and inclined flight near bodies with and without an atmosphere. We introduce LV aerodynamics and their effect on ascent. We show a simple way to do trajectory simulations using a simple spreadsheet or numerical integration approach. The elegant mathematics of trajectory optimization are introduced, and various methods and techniques of optimization are demonstrated by providing a number of examples of actual launch vehicle trajectories. Chapter 7 is a background chapter intended to provide a comprehensive introduction to the structures and possible layouts that might be used on various LVs with different propulsion systems. We present a number of ICBMs that evolved into space launchers, as well as dedicated launchers such as the Saturn family, the Space Shuttle and SLS, Atlas V, and Delta IV. We discuss the geometry of tanks, domes, feedlines, and layouts and their ramifications on layout. Finally, we present a survey of structure types and commonly-used structural materials. With structure and layout knowledge available, Chapter 8 begins the physical layout process of the inboard profile of a LV and finishes with an estimate of the LV’s mass, center of mass location, and mass moments of inertia. First, the required speeds along with the rocket equation are used to determine the ideal amounts of solid or liquid propellants needed to accomplish the mission. Then, “real life” additions are made for factors such as engine startup, unusable propellant, tank shrinkage, and so on. The tanks or casings are sized to incorporate these factors, and guidelines are given for interconnecting structure such as intertanks, interstages, payload fairings, and thrust structures. Then, we illustrate the process of mass estimation, and show how to calculate the LV’s center of mass (CM).

Preface to the First Edition

This is used to find the LV’s mass moments of inertia, which are critical to the maneuvering and stability of a LV. Chapter 9 introduces the calculation of aerodynamic loads on the LV’s structure caused by ground winds on the pad, as well as crosswind “wind shears” that strike the LV during ascent. We show how to estimate the magnitude of the wind loads, their point of application, and how to “march” from top to bottom of the launch vehicle to assess the shear and bending moment distribution along the LV’s length, and the axial load distribution. As an example, these processes are used to calculate the wind loads on a Saturn V in flight during the max-q condition. We finish by discussing some “load relief” techniques. Chapter 10 continues with the calculation of stresses that are induced by the aerodynamic loads from Ch. 9. After providing the terminology and definitions, we show how to calculate axial, shear, and bending stresses using the simple cylinder analysis. We then consider structural stability or “buckling” and show seven ways to improve stability. Pressurization has a strong stabilizing and unloading quality that makes it ideal for LVs in flight. We then show how to size the walls of the propellant containers and their interconnecting structures. Chapter 11 deals with the transient environments on board a LV which include vibration and shock, acoustic, and thermal loading. We discuss each of these environments and show where and when they are most critical. Finally, we discuss the process of “coupled-loads analysis” and the environment that the payload, the LV’s paying customer, will be exposed to. Chapter 12 is fairly involved exposition of LV stability and control, and also a discussion of many interesting dynamical and stability problems that can occur. We show how the LV knows at any given time where it is, what direction it’s pointing, and how fast its direction is changing. With this knowledge and the LV’s aerodynamic loading, we can predict the motion of the LV. By gimbaling the engine(s) or using other control effectors, we can “close the loop” and write the equations of motion to assess the LV’s stability and controllability. After this controls assessment, we consider several instabilities that can occur, such as structure flexibility, “tail wags dog” instability, propellant sloshing, and propulsion instabilities such as pogo and resonant burn phenomena. Chapter 13 is a background chapter providing information on the process of LV manufacturing. We show examples of basic machining needed to assemble LVs, and provide a detailed description of the fabrication of the Saturn I’s S-IV second step, whose structure is primarily aluminum alloys. We then consider composite materials such as fiberglass-epoxy and graphite-epoxy structures and the techniques used to manufacture them. Next, we consider advanced techniques such as filament winding, fiber placement, and additive manufacturing (AKA “3D printing”). Once the parts

xvii

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Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles

are manufactured, we discuss how the LV is assembled, also known as vehicle “stacking”. Launch vehicle systems and launch pad facilities are discussed in Chapter 14, another background chapter. Here the Saturn V first step is used to demonstrate many of the systems needed for a successful LV; as the expression goes, “the devil is in the details.” Propellant management, power, environmental controls, data management, telemetry, and many other aspects of LVs are presented. We also provide ground accommodation information, including pad services (holddowns, technician access, umbilicals, propellant storage, acoustic suppression, lightning protection, engine startup sequence, and more). Chapter 15 is a collection of information related to LV testing. We show many of the types of testing that is done to best try to verify that the vehicle will operate successfully, including mechanical, shock, vibration, and acoustics; thermal; RF and electrical; wind tunnel testing on the ground and in flight; and software testing procedures. We look at scale model testing for launch pad acoustics and exhaust noise assessment. Then we move on to discuss design procedures to improve reliability. Redundancy is one method used; we show how to calculate reliability with series and parallel connections, and we show reliability for ‘k-out-of-n’ systems, applicable to multiple-engine LVs. Finally, we show the reliability of a LV range-safety system with multiple failure probabilities. Chapter 16 is background chapter which provides a number of examples of LV failures in many disciplines, such as structures, separation systems, propulsion systems, GN&C, and software. The text provides some lessons learned and a number of suggestions on questions evaluators can ask to try to prevent failures in future vehicles. We show how range safety is enhanced by flight termination systems, and how those systems operate. We close with a list of best practices to avoid failure. Chapter 17 is the least “engineering” of the chapters in the book, and also the last, but it’s certainly NOT the least! Economics of engineering and systems is critically important in today’s world, and this chapter introduces the principal aspects of launch vehicle economics. We begin by describing the design cycle and how decision-making early in the cycle can be a “makeor-break” contribution to the system’s overall costs. We discuss cost engineering and considerations that can affect it, and discuss cost estimation methods through statistical fits and modelling. Finally, we provide some actual cost modeling examples. Several exercises challenge the reader to estimate costs on developing their own launch systems, and we provide access to an older graphical but still useful cost estimating model. A comprehensive Glossary provides a list of abbreviations and definitions, followed by an Index which completes the book. Corrections and supplemental materials such as syllabi and curricula will be available from AIAA’s electronic library, Aerospace Research Central

Preface to the First Edition

(ARC), at arc.aiaa.org: use the menu bar at the top to navigate to Books. AIAA Education Series; then, navigate alphanumerically to this book title’s “landing page.” Suggested curricula for courses of different student level and duration: The material in this book has been presented for two different types of classes: a one-year long undergraduate senior capstone design class, and a one-quarter-long or one-semester-long survey class. It has worked well for both, but the scope of the class may be limited for the survey classes. For the year-long course, we recommend going through the chapters in numerical order, however the presenter may wish to cover Chapter 17 (cost analysis) before presenting Chapters 13–16 (which are primarily “background” chapters) so as to allow time for any Ch. 17 homework assignment to be completed before the course ends. The assignments in Chapters 6, 9, and 10 are significantly time-consuming, so allotting extra completion time is recommended. For a survey course, the presenter should follow a similar schedule, except the following chapters or sections may be omitted without too much loss of content: 3.8, 4.8, 4.9, 5.8, 5.12, 10.6 (or its homework), 12.4, 12.5, Ch. 13, Ch. 14, 15.2, 16.5. Much of the omitted material is interesting in its own right, and it should be suggested that the reader examine it on their own time. Suggested curricula for one- and two-semester versions of this course, as well as class syllabi, may be found at the AIAA’s electronic library, listed above. Disclaimer: The material presented in this book has been carefully selected to describe ideas and principles of rocket design and operation. However, please note that none of the materials provided—engineering formulae, data, material, results, or conclusions—can be absolutely guaranteed, even though every effort has been made to insure accuracy and reliability. This book may include technical inaccuracies as well as typographical errors. The authors assume no responsibility for errors or omissions in this book, or other documents which are referenced by or linked to this book. In no event shall the authors be liable for any special, incidental, indirect, or consequential damages whatsoever, including but not limited to, those resulting from loss of use, data, or profits, and on any theory of liability, arising out of or in connection with the use or reliance on this information. THE FINAL RESPONSIBILITY OF VERIFYING ACCURACY AND CORRECTNESS OF ANY AND ALL RESULTS REMAINS WITH THE USER OF THE BOOK, and not with the authors. Changes made to the information contained herein will be incorporated in new editions of this book. The authors reserve the right to make improvements and/or changes in the book at any time without notice.

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PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION Why publish a second edition of Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles? The first edition of “DoRSLaVe,” (in aerospace, we have to use acronyms; this one comes from an abbreviation of the first letters of the book’s title) has received acclaim from many readers from many locations all over the world. Some have mentioned that it is their “bible” and have adopted it for themselves or for use of employees in their institutions, while others have commented on its breadth and depth. The publishing of the book has certainly filled a need for a comprehensive “manual” for the design of rockets and has been adopted for capstone design classes at several universities. As an added bonus, in 2021 the book was chosen to receive AIAA’s Summerfield Award for the best book recently published by AIAA. In our 1st edition preface, we wrote that “this book should be considered a “snapshot” of the current state of LV affairs at the time of its publishing, and will hopefully remain pertinent as time goes on. If it gets horribly out of date—unlikely because the physics of rocketry will remain constant—well, there’s always the possibility of a Second Edition!” Well, the physics haven’t changed, but due to the fact that there were some radical changes in launch vehicle design and operation occurring as the 1st edition was being published, that the authors have noticed that some important content had been omitted, and that there were typographical errors that needed correction, the decision was made to release of the 2nd edition that you are now holding in your hands. We have added a wealth of new material as listed below (numbers in parenthesis refer to chapter numbers):

• New material on current launch vehicle developments including SLS, Starship-Superheavy, Electron, Neutron, LauncherOne, Astra, Alpha, Vulcan, Ariane 6 (Ch. 2) • Historical information on Proton, Zenit, Angara, Centaur, Vega, Falcon 1, Falcon 9 (Ch. 2) • Detailed listing and discussion launch vehicle requirements, along with the losses and gains associated with design of the performance of a launch vehicle (Ch. 3).

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Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles

• Discussion of hybrid and quasi-hybrid rockets, including new combustion cycles (Ch. 4)

• Comprehensive table of loaded and inert masses for multiple launch vehicles (Ch. 5)

• English translation of Russian Angara propellant crosslinking system (Ch. 5) • Determination of minimum mass designs for three-stage launch vehicles • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

(Ch. 5) Complete set of equations to allow the calculation of payload mass, propellant mass, structure mass, inert mass, liftoff mass knowing specific impulse and structural ratio (Ch. 5) Attachment methods for strap-ons such as SRMs, external tanks (Ch. 7) Information on carrying multiple payloads: ridesharing, piggybacking (Ch. 7) Discussion of sandwich panel mass and stiffness (Ch. 7) Tables of advantages, disadvantages, and applications of metals and composite materials (Ch. 7) Potential mass reductions possible via use of composite materials (Ch. 7) Information on propellant densification used by SpaceX on its Falcon 9 to increase payload (Ch. 8) Comprehensive discussion of tank arrangements, including tandem, parallel, concentric, toroidal, and common bulkheads (Ch. 8) Discussion of different bulkhead geometries: hemispherical, elliptical hemispheroidal, non-tangent hemispherical segment (Ch. 8) Updated mass estimating relationship equations for composites, solid rocket motors, avionics, and wiring based on 21st-century rocket designs (Ch. 8) Current payload fairing dimensions informational diagram (Ch. 8) Improved discussion of calculation of normal forces on nose cones and reverse tapers (Ch. 9) Table of actual wall thicknesses for selected LVs (Ch. 9) Minimum gauge suggestions for skins, face sheets, stringers, corrugations (Ch. 10) Structural stability guidelines for tapered skirts—do you use larger or smaller radius? (Ch. 10) Material properties at room temperature; 2014 Aluminum down to cryogenic temperatures (Ch. 10) Information on vehicle recovery and reuse, including energy requirements, design issues, and a table of advantages and disadvantages of different ways of recovering rocket steps and payload fairings (Ch. 14) Discussion of Titan IVB failure in 1999 and failure of Astra0007 in 2021 (Ch. 16) Discussion of trajectory shaping for abort of crewed vehicles, including Atlas/Starliner (Ch. 16) New sections on recovery and reuse, including the physics, energy, and mass required to recover payload fairings, 1st steps, and upper steps. We’ve

Preface to the Second Edition

added a table of recovery options including advantages and disadvantages and a simple cost analysis of vehicle reuse (Ch. 17). • An updated index, much more comprehensive and detailed than the one provided in the first edition of the book. With all of these changes, we hope that you, the reader and user, enjoy this new edition and as we stated before, the authors would apprecwiate inputs from readers as to content or other materials. Don Edberg & Willie Costa, Authors

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FOREWORD Homer Hickam, Author of Rocket Boys: A Memoir (aka October Sky) A surprising and positive result of the 1957 launch of Sputnik, the world’s first artificial earth satellite, was the leagues of students who were suddenly energized to learn as much as possible about rockets. For some teenagers of that era, which included me and some friends of mine, that meant enthusiastically slapping together explosives and tubes and aiming the results skyward in hopeful anticipation of seeing them fly. For the most part, however, what we saw besides oily smoke and flying shrapnel was a demonstration that enthusiasm cannot make up for a lack of knowledge After blowing up a few things and generally stinking up our home town of Coalwood, West Virginia, it gradually dawned on the members of our little group that maybe we didn’t know enough. Accordingly, we recruited a rather unpopular fellow student with the reputation of being a boy genius named Quentin Wilson who assured us he knew very well how to build a rocket. As it turned out, he knew enough for us to manage a few successful lift-offs that thrilled me and the other boys but left Quentin wanting to increase the depth of our knowledge. There had to be a book somewhere, he maintained, that would teach us not only how to build a rocket but allow us, through careful design, to predict its capabilities and behavior. Unfortunately, our subsequent search through the school and county libraries turned up no such book. We named our club after our high school and so we became the Big Creek Missile Agency. Before long, we were noticed by Miss Frieda Riley, a young science teacher, who believed that the school’s trophy cases should hold more than sports trophies but also awards for students engaged in intellectual pursuits. After hearing about our need for a book on rockets, she used her meager bank account to purchase for us