Deafness and Child Development [Reprint 2020 ed.] 9780520311510

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Deafness and Child Development

Deafness and Child Development Kathryn R Meadow

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley I Los Angeles

University of California Press Berkeley a n d Los Angeles, California © 1 9 8 0 by The Regents of the University of California Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Meadow, Kathryn P Deafness and child development. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. 1. Children, Deaf. 2. Child development. I. Title. [DNLM: 1. Deafness—In infancy and childhood. 2. Child development. 3. Deafness—Complications. 4. Child development deviations—Etiology. WV271 M482d] HV2380.M4 155.4'514 74-81435 ISBN 0-520-02819-8

For my parents Wilma Karnes Pendleton Orien A. Pendleton (1899-1975) and my children Lynn Elizabeth Meadow Robert Keith Meadow

Contents

Preface

ix

1. 2. 3. 4.

1 17 44

Introduction Language Development in Deaf Children Cognitive Development in Deaf Children Social and Psychological Development in Deaf Children 5. Behavioral Problems of Deaf Children 6. The Developmental Environment 7. Policy Implications of the Research Findings

74 98 129 172

References Index of Subjects Index of Authors

199 229 233

vii

Preface

This book has been "in process" for more than five years. During that time many people have contributed, both directly and indirectly, to the ideas and information to be found in it. I would like to express my thanks to some of the people who helped me at various stages of the preparation. The support of Grant Barnes, Executive Editor at the University of California Press, was a major factor in the completion of the manuscript. He continued his goodhumored encouragement long past the time when it could have been expected. The idea for the book began with an invitation from the Society for Research in Child Development to contribute a chapter entitled "The Development of Deaf Children" to their Review of Child Development Research, Volume Five (1975). The editorial assistance and substantive suggestions of John W. Hagen were numerous throughout the writing of that chapter. Lynn Liben, Mavis Hetherington, and two anonymous reviewers contributed many helpful suggestions. Later, Roger Freeman read the book manuscript with great care and offered myriad comments that provided the basis for many changes and additions. Charlotte Baker, Anthony Bass, Evelyn Cherow Skalka, Iris Daigre, Carol Erting, Carolyn Ewoldt, Jean Moore, Jane Nunes, Harry Olsen, and Jan-Marie Sweeney helped with literature searches; Paula Mathieson provided skillful editorial assistance, as did Gene Tanke, Marjorie Hughes, and Susan ix

X

Preface

Peters. Mary Alliatta, Karen Dean, Gerri Frank, and Sylvia McAlester typed portions of the manuscript. I owe a major debt of gratitude to Hilde Schlesinger, my long-time friend and colleague. Many of the ideas expressed here, and much of the work reported, was formulated and carried out in a collaboration that began more than ten years ago, and has been a source of gratification from the beginning. Other colleagues at the University of California, San Francisco, who have shared thoughts and ideas over the years are: Paul Brinich, Winifred DeVos, Holly Elliott, Roberta Farwell, Alice Nemon, Michael Stinson, Roger Van Craeynest, Charles and Connie Yannacone. John Clausen has been most supportive of my work, especially at the time when my interest in deafness was just beginning. I am grateful to all my friends at the Kendall Demonstration Elementary School, Gallaudet College, who have helped me to learn about deaf education, and most especially to Robert R. Davila, who has been an unfailing source of support. Kathryn P. Meadow

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

T

HE consequences of early childhood deafness are so far-reaching and varied that some rudimentary knowledge of the linguistic, cognitive, social, and psychological aspects of human development is necessary if an understanding of any one specialized area is to be possible. Demographic, medical, and audiological dimensions of deafness provide a necessary context for understanding the educational treatment of deafness. A developmental approach to the study of behavior in deaf children can provide a needed perspective for practitioners working with those children, because historically those professionals trained to work with deaf children have known little about deaf adults, and vice versa. An understanding of developmental stages throughout the life cycle may also help resolve the conflict that currently surrounds the formulation of educational policy for deaf children. In addition to providing an overview of key research results reported throughout the book, this chapter will provide basic information designed to help the non-specialist to evaluate published research in a more critical way. The paucity of developmental research with deaf children is in part a reflection of the relatively low incidence of profound auditory loss. In the United States in 1976, approximately 45,000 children were enrolled in 671 special schools and classes for the deaf, with an additional 6,000 deaf children receiving education in regular classrooms (Craig and Craig, 1977, p. 138). The Bureau of Education for the Handicapped estimates that there are 52,000 deaf children and 350,000 hard-of-hearing children, of whom I

Introduction

2

80,000 are served in special education programs (Hobbs, 1975, p. 68). This compares with an estimated 875,000 children receiving special education for the mentally retarded (Hobbs, 1975, p. 51). Deaf children comprise less than 1 percent of the total school-age population, but the theoretical importance of this group is greater for an understanding of human development than numbers would indicate. Even though the deaf population is numerically small, the diversity of its subgroups is great. Therefore, in conducting research into any aspect of the development of the deaf child it is necessary to consider a large number of variables in the selection of research subjects and in the treatment of data. Confounding influences contribute to misleading conclusions about results. The combination of the small number of available research subjects and the greater need for selectivity means that behavioral scientists must often compromise if they are to carry out research at all. One reason for the many areas of contradictory results from various studies is that researchers include different kinds of subgroups in their studies. The experimental group is labeled "deaf" when in actuality there may be as many differences within the deaf group as between the deaf group and the hearing control group. The sophisticated reader must be aware of the important differentiating variables if he is to have a basis for evaluating research findings. Background Variables Loss. Hearing, or sensitivity to sound, is assessed by means of an audiological evaluation that combines elements of pitch or frequency (measured in Hertz or cycles per second) and loudness or intensity (measured in decibels).* The results of an auDEGREE

OF

HEARING

*Some of the material in this section was extracted from the Kendall Guide to Assessment, portion on "Audiological Assessment," prepared by Kathleen Weiss. Jean Moore and Evelyn Skalka reviewed the content and made suggestions that were incorporated in successive revisions.

Introduction

3

diological evaluation are recorded on a graph called an audiogram (see Figure l).The numbers across the top of the audiogram represent pitch or frequency. The frequency range measured is from 125 Hertz, which would reflect a low-pitched sound such as a truck motor, through 8000 Hertz, which represents a high-pitched sound such as a whistle. The numbers down the side of the audiogram (0 to 120) represent the loudness or intensity of the sound. Zero decibel/hearing level represents the softest sound that can be heard by most young adults with normal hearing; whispered speech is about 20 to 30 decibels/hearing level; conversational speech is at the level of 60 to 70 decibels, and 120 decibels is extremely loud and may be painful to people with normal hearing. The most important frequencies for the understanding of speech are in the mid-frequency range of 500, 1000, and 2000 Hertz. An understanding and appreciation of the functional range of performance for children with differing kinds of audiograms can be important to an interpretation of their communication skills, especially of their ability to comprehend and then to produce understandable speech. A method often used to summarize the information presented in an audiogram is to average decibel/hearing level over the three frequencies that represent the speech range. This summary, however, can cloud some significant differences between individuals with the same average. Figure 1 shows three audiograms, all of which reflect an average hearing level of approximately 95 decibels in the speech range. However, the functional hearing of three individuals with these audiograms would be quite different, as would be their amplification needs. Audiogram A represents the sound response of a person who has some usable hearing in the high frequencies. Because there is some measurable response to sound at each level, it is easier to fit such an individual with a hearing aid that would help him or her to function. Audiogram B, on the other hand,

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