Curriculum Development: Perspectives, Principles and Issues, 1e 9788131773017, 9788131799703, 8131773019

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Curriculum Development Perspectives, Principles and Issues

Mrunalini Talla

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Copyright © 2012 Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s prior written consent. This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the right to remove any material present in this eBook at any time. ISBN 9788131773017 eISBN 9788131799703 This edition is manufactured in India and is authorized for sale only in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Maldives. Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62, Knowledge Boulevard, 7th Floor, NOIDA 201 309, India Registered Office: 11 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India .

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Contents

Preface About the Author 1. Meaning and Nature of Curriculum

vii ix 1

2. Historical Development of Curriculum

18

3. Bases/Sources of Curriculum Development

42

4. Curriculum Theory

80

5. Curriculum Process

90

6. Models of Curriculum Development

125

7. Curriculum Evaluation

168

8. Issues and Trends in Curriculum Development

195

9. Curriculum Change and Future

243

10. Curriculum and Research Index

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Preface Curriculum is one of the important and recent branches of knowledge. Curriculum development requires a creative and innovative vision to foresee and plan to meet the existing needs. It should provide a comprehensive view of the social and political context of the society and system of education. The present book has made an attempt to share the thoughts with the intellectual forum and extend help to the student community. It will be helpful for students and teachers at undergraduate and post graduate levels. This book is organised into ten units. The first part talks about meaning, concepts, stages of curriculum development and the historical developments in the field of curriculum in India. It also deals with the bases of curriculum development - philosophical basis, psychological basis and sociological basis and focuses on curriculum theory with emphasis on meaning and sources, theory building and types of curriculum theories. In the later part of the book, a detailed explanation of the various models of curriculum, patterns of curricular designs, evaluation and modern trends in curriculum framework is provided. I want to regard and acknowledge all the teachers without whose blessings it would have been difficult to complete this book. Also, I want to thank Dr. Roda David who was supposed to be the co-author of this book but could not make it due to health reasons but she duly extended moral support. I wish to thank my family members and my students for their profound cooperation and support in completing the task. I want to specially thank all those authors whose books have given me direction.

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About the Author Mrunalini Talla is Principal, Institute of Advanced Studies in Education, Department of Education, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. Her areas of interest are early childhood education, mass media, curriculum, evaluation, yoga education, technology and philosophy. She has presented many papers at state, regional, national and international seminars and conferences. She has conducted workshops and training programmes. She has published books on education and electronic media, curriculum development, yoga education, philosophical foundations of education, educational evaluation and co-authored textbooks on computer education, educational technology and education in emerging Indian society.

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1 Meaning and Nature of Curriculum CHAPTER OUTLINE  Meaning, Definitions and Elements of Curriculum  Stages of Curriculum Development

 Changing Conceptions of Curriculum  Hidden Curriculum

MEANING, DEFINITIONS AND ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM Meaning of Curriculum The meaning of curriculum changes with the philosophies and trends of that time. There is as such no consensus for a uniform meaning of curriculum or definition of curriculum. In order to develop a comprehensive view and understanding, it is apt to explore various viewpoints of the meaning of curriculum. Let us try to understand:  What is curriculum?  What is the purpose of curriculum? The literal meaning of curriculum is derived from the Latin word currer, meaning chariot race, runway or path, laid way to reach the goal. In other words, it is sum of all the good learning experiences that pupils have in order to achieve the goals of education which determine the direction of these experiences. Curriculum can be defined as a plan of action or a written document that includes strategies for achieving desired goals or ends. The above view is popularized by Hilda Taba and Ralph Tyler, which means the steps are planned in advance. The word ‘curriculum’ from its early Latin origin literally means ‘to run a course’. Oliver (1997) has analysed curriculum as:       

Something which is taught in schools A set of subjects Content A programme of studies A set of materials A sequence of courses A set of performance objectives

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It is everything that goes on within the school, including extra-class activities, guidance and interpersonal relationships:  Everything that is planned by school personnel  A series of experiences undergone by learners in a school  Anything that an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling (Oliva:1997:04) Generally, any plan notes with a beginning, completes with an end and the process in between. This view is also approved and accepted by J. Galen Saylor which is reflected in the definition of curriculum: ‘a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be educated’. Similarly, David Pratt defines curriculum as an ‘organized set of formal education and/or training intension’. In a similar fashion, Jon Miles and Joseph Bondi also viewed ‘curriculum as a plan for learning where objectives determine what learning is important’. The above definitions from different perspectives are defined in limited or narrow sense. From a broader connotation rooted from Dewey’s view, curriculum can be defined as ‘dealing with the experiences of learners’. It considers almost everything in the school, even outside the school as a part of curriculum; it is expressed similarly from Carewell and Campbell’s perspective as ‘all the experiences that children have under the guidance of teachers’. Even Shepherd and Ragen defined that ‘curriculum consists of the ongoing experiences of children under the guidance of the school. It also represents a special environment for helping children achieve self-realization through active participation within the school’. For Eisner, curriculum ‘is a program the school offers to its students’. It consists of a preplanned series of educational hurdles and an entire range of experiences of a child has within the school. Hass in a comprehensive way defines, ‘Curriculum is all of the experiences that individuals have in a program of education which is planned in terms of theory and research or past and present professional practice’. According to McNeil, Schubert and Tanner, curriculum can also be viewed as a field of study consisting its own foundations and domains of knowledge as well as its own research, theory, principles and its own specialists to interpret this knowledge. Fundamentally, many considered curriculum to be subject matter (math, science, history, English and so on) or the content (the way we organize and assimilate information). Finally, Beauchamp asserts that only definitions involving a plan, system and field of study representative key or legitimate uses of the word ‘curriculum’.

Definitions of Curriculum  It is the totality of experiences a child experiences in the school. It consists of that series of things which children and youth must do, aid experience by way of developing ability to do things well that make up the affairs of adult life. —Bobbit  It is the total effort of the school to bring about desired outcomes in and out of school situation. —Alexander and Saylor  It is a sequence of potential experiences set up in school for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting. —Smith, Stanley and Shores  Whatever the mode of expression, the subject matter is the substantive hard core of the curriculum. —Beauchamp

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 Curriculum is concerned not with what students will do in the learning situation, but what they will learn as a consequence of what they do. —Johnson  Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artist (teacher) to mould his material (student) in his studio (school). —Cunnigham  Curriculum includes all the learning experiences offered to all the learners under the direction of the school. —C. Ronald  All the learning experiences which are planned and guided by the school are called curriculum. —Brown Fraser  The sum of all educational experiences that children have in school for the purpose of modifying learner’s behaviour. —Kerth Lowell  Curriculum is a body of prescribed educative experiences under school supervision designed to provide the individual with the best possible training and experiences to fit him for the society of which he is a part; and to qualify him for a trade or profession. —Carter V. Good  Curriculum usually consists of a statement of aims and objectives indicating the selection and organization of content; it either implies or manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching. Because the objective demands or because the content organization requires, it includes a programme of evaluation of the outcomes. —Hilda Taba  Curriculum is a runway which one has to run to reach a goal or a course of study. —Brubacher  Curriculum is a strategy by which schools attempt to fulfil the goals of education. —Spalding  Curriculum is defined as totality of experiences the pupil receives through manifold activities that go in the school, in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshops, playground and in the numerous informal contacts between the teacher and the pupil. —Secondary Education Commission  It is a plan for action or a written document that includes strategies for achieving desired goals or ends. —Ralph Taylor and Hilda Taba  As a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be educated. —J. Galen Saylor  Curriculum is an organized set of formal education and/or training intentions. —David Prett  The discussion of curriculum is usually scholarly and theoretical, not practical and concerned with broad historical, philosophical or social issues. —M.C. Neil, Schubert and Tanner  A plan, system and field of study represent key or legitimate uses of the word curriculum. —Beauchamp

Elements of Curriculum Once we understood the basic meaning of curriculum through varied definitions proposed by educationists, it is apt to understand the design of curriculum. It is essential to know the basic elements and their relationships. In any given curriculum, it is important to identify basic elements which are necessary. There is no consensus on these elements. However, Tyler identified the following three elements:

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1. Learning experiences 2. Skills 3. Values and ideas For taking an appropriate decision, the necessary and major elements need to be considered in the process of curriculum development. The decisions are related to the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Aims and objectives Content Learning experiences Evaluation

Different designs of curriculum consider these elements but are not in balance, for example, subject-centric curriculum, experience curriculum and child-centric curriculum. The scope of the elements varies. An effective design makes clear what the basis of selection of the various elements are, as well as the sources from which these criteria are derived. It should further distinguish which criteria apply to which element. For instance, the design should make it clear whether the objectives are derived from social needs, individual needs or adequate knowledge related to school subjects, based on which the choice is made about the content and its organization. Whenever the rationale behind the design is defective, problems such as having a gap between the theory and practice occur. With the changing needs, demands and cultural needs, the nature of student population is not easy to translate into curriculum design. So, the task should be taken up on war-footing basis in terms of curriculum revision and a periodic reshuffling of the entire scheme, then regular adoption. Now, let us try to understand the relationship between the elements mentioned earlier. Relationships among the Elements For any curriculum design, the relationship between different elements and the criteria or consideration related to them should be clear. There is a possibility of one element having an impact and influence on the other element. Based on the objective, the subject matter is selected. For example, if the objective is to develop citizenship, then it is important to develop the ability to think critically. This demands certain specific learning experiences which in turn also expect methods and evaluation procedures suitable to the other elements. Considering nature and background of the students and establishing sequence of learning experiences suitable to the subject and the discipline, all the elements of curriculum design need to be taken care of. The essence of every subject needs to be reflected. The diagrammatic representation is as follows: Objectives

Method and organization

Subject matter

Evaluation

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In the above diagram (from the eight-year study by Gilers, McCutcheon and Zectiel, 1942), the curriculum design is shown with four elements, i.e. objectives, subject matter, method and organization, and evaluation. In a way, the design prompts the curriculum designer to raise four questions while designing the curriculum: 1. 2. 3. 4.

What is the purpose to be done? What is the subject matter to be selected? What methods and organization to be employed? How to appraise/assess the results?

Since these four elements are interdependent and get influenced by the other, any decision about any element will be dependent on the other. The design always depends on the pattern of curriculum that is planned. All the principles criteria have equal significance in designing a curriculum. Generally, the criteria of efficiency and economy are considered while designing.

STAGES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT In developing either a teaching/learning unit or an integrated curriculum, varied decisions are made to work out a realistic curriculum by incorporating all the principles of good curriculum. The methodology to plan either a unit or total curriculum is to break down the systematic steps to ensure orderly thinking, to make possible a systematic study of the elements that compare such a plan, and to provide for a precise and careful study and application of the relevant principles and facts. According to Hilda Taba, the steps followed in developing a unit or curriculum are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Diagnosing needs Formulating specific objectives Selecting content Organizing content Selecting learning experiences Organizing learning experiences Evaluating Checking for balance and sequence

Step 1: Diagnosing Needs Before planning the curriculum, diagnosis helps in general analysis of problems, conditions and difficulties. The purpose is to generate a new emphasis and new ideas about the curriculum, by knowing thoroughly from various sources such as students’ cumulative records, teachers’ recordings, parents’ interviews, children’s cases and their IQ achievement. This kind of analysis of various aspects would lead to come out with a new conception of curriculum. Diagnosis leads to understand the prime needs at different stages of curriculum.

Step 2: Formulating Specific Objectives The above diagnosis will provide some clues to formulate necessary objectives and lead to generate richer learning.

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The objectives will be very comprehensive on the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Concepts or ideas to be learnt Attitudes, sensitivities and feelings to be developed Ways of thinking to be reinforced, strengthened or initiated Habits and skills to be mastered

Based on the diagnosis, the specific objectives are related to the concepts, ideas necessary to learn at a stage, particular aspect of thinking, attitudes, skills and so on.

Step 3: Selecting the Content Based on the diagnosis of needs and tentative projection of objectives, it is much easy to go for the content selection. The objectives and needs provide a basic idea and guidance to select the relevant content. While selecting the content, the following to be planned meticulously:  Selecting the topics  Selecting the basic ideas  Selecting the specific content The first task is to select the relevant topics through which the objectives formulated can be achieved unit by unit; the topics have to be finalized. What are different topics which can be covered under each subject, class and level. Then the idea needs to pay attention to incorporate into the broad content. To suit the idea and topics, the specific content is planned to finalize the broad areas under the curriculum.

Step 4: Organizing the Content Once the content is finalized, the content has to be organized systematically by keeping in view the following:      

Sequential order Concrete to abstract Simple to complex Known to unknown Immediate to remote Easy to difficult

In other words, it should follow inductive logical arrangement of the content and a psychological sequence. There should be connection between ideas, facts and relationships.

Steps 5 and 6: Selecting and Organizing Learning Experiences With the content in hand, it is easy to plan for learning experiences or activities. The criteria with which the content is drawn should provide/plan/visualize what students need to experience in order to acquire certain behavioural competencies and sequence of the experiences.

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Care must be taken to include a variety of learning – reading, writing, observing, doing research, analysing, discussing, tabulating, painting and absorption. The learning experiences are expected to be: 1. Introduction, Opener, Orientation Generally, viewing at learning experiences, at least three main stages should be involved. The learning strategies/activities introduced are essentially (1) introductory, (2) for opening up and (3) for orientation. These include the following activities: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Provide diagnostic evidence for the teacher Help the students make a connection with their own experience Arouse interest Provide concrete descriptive data Create involvement and motivation

By following the above approach, learning experiences can be selected and organized to facilitate learning. While teaching any unit, students can be involved actively and help them to make a connection to their personal experiences, connect to the community or share the experiences of their parents. Thus, the teacher plans learning experiences by allocating tasks which are useful for the students and discusses the methods by which to do. 2. Development, Analysis, Study Here, the teacher plans learning experiences by developing various dimensions of the subject, for instance, reading, researching, then analysing the data, studying various kinds and finding the answers to their questions planned for their study. 3. Generalization After developing the skills of analysis and study, students will be able to generalize by putting together all the ideas and reformulate them in their own way. For instance, by studying the tribal culture and the migration of that population, they come out with certain generalizations about the ethnic groups. 4. Applications, Summary, Culmination Finally, the activities are designed to apply what has been learnt, to asses and evaluate and set into a larger framework. 5. Rhythm of Learning Activities In some of the curriculum patterns, some or the other mental activity is defectively developed that creates problems in intake period, assimilation without integration, inhibits new learning and burdens memory. A balanced curriculum is one where learning is balanced, which offers opportunities for mastery of knowledge and helps in internalization. It requires disciplined knowledge, analysis and reflection. Thus, the rhythm of building feelings and meanings is also important. For instance, while climbing the staircase, there is a need to balance the foot while going upwards; similarly, while teaching a new skill, it is wise to use known material, and when teaching new ideas, it is wise to use familiar skills. Thus, the curriculum decisions based on good diagnostic evidence meet students’ interests and needs more adequately than do students’ own unenlightened insights.

Step 7: Evaluating As we know evaluation is determining the objectives, diagnosis or establishment of baseline for learning and appraising progress and changes, there are varied approaches and methods of

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evaluation to know the progress of the child. Mostly, evaluation is in a way continuous diagnosis along with the comparison of results. Even several informal devices can also be used to evaluate the outcomes of the unit and curriculum on the whole. Finally, whether the objectives of curriculum are achieved needs to be evaluated.

Step 8: Checking for Balance and Sequence After completing unit by unit and the whole curriculum, it is necessary to check the overall consistency among its parts or individual aspects. Every aspect needs to be checked—whether the core ideas are reflected in the content, whether the suitable learning experiences are planned for the content and whether the overall achievement of objectives is planned for the overall progress of the topic. On the whole, a proper sequence is maintained logically and there is balance in the overall design of the curriculum. Thus, these are the basic steps necessary while designing a unit and on the whole curriculum is related to a subject or discipline, etc.

CHANGING CONCEPTIONS OF CURRICULUM There are no consensuses about the conception of curriculum from the traditional to that of modern educationists. However, there are varied conceptions and understanding of the concept of curriculum. Nobody knows what is right and what is wrong, with changing demands and aspirations of the larger social framework, and predicts the kind of curriculum. At the same time, varied perspectives will emerge and are appreciated by different sectors of the society. For instance, even today in the so-called modern technologically advanced society, some of them are in favour of idealistic, conventional disciplinarian practices. Others believe in progressive, ideological, child-centric and radical, approaches to curriculum. The following discussion, according to Tanner and Tanner (1975), opens up a plethora of viewpoints or conceptions on curriculum: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Curriculum as the cumulative tradition of organized knowledge Curriculum as modes of thought Curriculum as race experience Curriculum as experience Curriculum as guided learning experience Curriculum as guided living Curriculum as an instructional plan Curriculum as a technological system of production Curriculum as ends Perennialist conceptions of curriculum Essentialist conceptions of curriculum

Curriculum as the Cumulative Tradition of Organized Knowledge During the early twentieth century, modern educationists considered traditional curriculum as a body of subjects or subject matter which a teacher has to teach to the learner. Whereas traditionalists viewed curriculum as a fixed body of subjects where it is not possible to either add or delete any subjects. They focused on permanent or essential studies suggested by perennialist and essentialist conceptions (See Chapter 3 for more details).

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Curriculum as Modes of Thought Disciplinary Inquiry In terms of disciplinary issues of concern, qualitatively there is no distinction between the child’s intellectual activity and the scholarly specialists. It is defined by Phenix that ‘education should be conceived as a guided recapitulation of the process of inquiry which gave rise to the fruitful bodies of organized knowledge comprising the established disciplines’. However, in Belth’s words ‘curriculum is considered to be the increasingly wide range of possible modes of thinking about men’s experiences – not the conclusions, but the models from which conclusions derive, and in the context of which these conclusions, these so-called truths, are grounded and validated’. In a way modes of thinking from broader view of curriculum, as extending beyond the confines of the established disciplines, thereby extending curriculum significantly beyond Phenix’s conception, Belth feels curriculum as ‘a matter of developing the power to use the models of a variety of disciplines’, and the condition is the ability to sort out many conceptions about the methods of inquiry indigenous to each of the separate disciplines. There were a set of misconceptions among the leading educators, and they could not distinguish between Dewey’s conception of reflective thinking and disciplinary inquiry–discovery embraced in the discipline-centred curriculum, which gave a death blow to the traditional notion of separation of content and process, whereas Dewey felt it is necessary to have a unity between content and process, subject matter and method. He also cautioned that disciplinary studies may lead to the danger of isolation of intellectual activity from the regular life. Reflective Thinking Dewey did not confine curriculum to modes of thought, but he could see the reflective thinking as a means to bring curricular elements together. He feels reflection is not restricted to specialized knowledge, but it is also related to social problem solving. According to Dewey, the following are essentials of reflection: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Pupils have a genuine situation of experience. Students will go on with continuous activity. Within the situation, a genuine problem develops as a stimulus to a thought. They possess information and collect the observation to deal with it. Solutions occur to them and will take the responsibility to put in an order. They get the opportunity and occasion to test their ideas by application.

However, the above suggestion of Dewey was misunderstood and misinterpreted as mandatory. Dewey never said that one can direct somebody’s thought. He said that it is not possible to separate thought and action and thinking and doing. The whole idea of reflection is to act in one’s own life situation. He felt curriculum as more than the transmission of established modes of thought and the validity of so-called truths within the disciplinary boundaries.

Curriculum as Race Experience Perennialist and essentialist educators feel curriculum as a cumulative tradition of knowledge, but curriculum also includes the total culture of a society. Dewey’s view of reconstruction of experience can be seen in Smith, Stanley and Shores’ definition of curriculum: a sequence of potential experiences is set up in the school for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.

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In Dewey’s view, race experience is not an end itself but a turning point in the continuous reconstruction of knowledge and society. He also expressed progressive view that curriculum is an ‘endeavor to shape the experiences of the young so that instead of reproducing current habits, better habits shall be formed, i.e., the future adult society could be a better and improved one’. Lawton, a British educator, views curriculum as ‘a selection from the culture of society’, i.e. certain aspects of our way of life, certain kinds of knowledge, certain attitudes and values are regarded as so important that their transmission to the next generation cannot be left to chance. No doubt this was entrusted to educators to select and place in the schools. Although Lawton is comprehensive in defining, the question here is, is it mere selection or reconstruction of the culture? Is it mere transmission or cultural improvement? With the explosion of knowledge, there is regular revision of curriculum and inclusion of subjects and displacement of some subjects and so on. Gradually, there is an increasing specialization of knowledge which is creating a wide gap between personal and social needs and problems.

Curriculum as Experience Traditional conception of curriculum dominated subject/knowledge. This view was under the protest by progressivists. They claimed the subject-centric curriculum should consider the needs of existing community life. It should improve the life by making future better than the past (Dewey). Child-Centred-versus-Subject-Centred Rationale With an agony to see that curriculum is made more relevant to life experience of the learner, romantic progressivists have gone to the extent to make virtually all the school activities. In between these two extreme misconceptions – on one head subject is fixed where the child is docile and on the other hand the child is the beginning, end, and centre of attractions – Dewey says that the human race experience also supports and the child is not docile; it has to be visualized as ‘fluent embryonic, vital’ where the curriculum develops the child’s present experience to a richer maturity, where we need to abandon the idea of the two extremes and where subject matter is fixed and ready-made in itself outside the child’s experience. He feels that the child and the curriculum are two limits, and this is a single process like two points which make a straight line. During 1960s and 1970s, it was a demand for learner-centred curriculum. Abandoning planned curriculum and learning everything to the child’s natural development lead to a set crisis. Dewey clarified through his philosophy, ‘When personal fulfillment is served from intellectual activity, “freedom of self-expression” turns into something that might better be called “self-exposure”’.

Curriculum as Guided Learning Experience According to Foshay’s observations, during late 1930s the term ‘curriculum’ was defined as ‘all the experiences a learner has under the guidance of the school’. Many curricularists have agreed and continued with similar definitions. Even during 1920s Borner defined curriculum as the ‘experiences in which pupils are expected to engage in school, and the general order of sequence in which these experiences are to come’.

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Casewell and Campbell, in 1935, stated that the curriculum is composed of all the experiences children have under the guidance of teachers. The 1942 eight-year study report has concluded that the curriculum is seen as the ‘total experience which the school deals in educating young people’. Gradually, there was a breakthrough from the traditional definition in a broader connotation that what pupils learn is not limited to the formal course of study but is affected, directly and indirectly, by the total school environment, i.e., guided school experience. The implication can be drawn from the definition that ‘everything that influences the learner must be considered during the process of curriculum making’. Although the above definitions reflect that learning takes place under the guidance of school and teachers, the learner may encounter with desirable as well as undesirable experiences sometimes and fail in making clear distinction of achievable objectives. Further in 1946, Spears observed that ‘the concept of curriculum had broken loose from its academic moorings and moved on out into the total program of activities that was to serve the individual learner while under the guidance of the school’. Tylerian definition encompasses educational objectives and all planned learning experiences; in his view curriculum is ‘all of the learning of students which is planned by and directed by the school to attain its educational goals’. In 1962, Alberty and Alberty described curriculum as ‘all of the activities that are provided for students, by the school’. They also pointed out that ‘it is by means of these activities that the school hopes to bring about changes in the behavior of students in terms of its philosophy and goals’. Most significantly, the concept of curriculum as guided learning experience conceives of the teaching-learning process is integral to curriculum. There is not much mention made of knowledge in most of the definitions. Earlier definitions of curriculum have viewed the courses of study as a part of curriculum, but the later have reduced it to mere courses of study.

Curriculum as Guided Living In the words of Rugg in 1947, curriculum is ‘the life and program of the school an enterprise in guided living’, and the curriculum becomes the very stream of dynamic activities that constitute the life of young people and their elders. However, Rugg’s definition could not bring a continuity between the school and the life. It failed in making a clear distinction between school functions and those of the other social institutions. For instance, family can be considered as one of the enterprises in guided living. Extra-class Activities From the traditional conception of curriculum, the rigid division between course work and other sponsored learning activities has been rejected in view of the broader conception of curriculum. The terms such as ‘extracurricular’ and ‘co-curricular’ have been dropped. Gradually, many schools offered such activities as band, chorus, etc., as formal courses carrying academic credits. There was also a negation that these activities are not in the purview of intellectual training. Many debates lead to the understanding that the extent to which extra-class activities can exert significant influences on cognitive as well as affective learning supports the contention that the school curriculum can be conceived of as more than the formal course of study.

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The conception of curriculum as ‘guided learning’, or all experiences that learners have under the auspices of the school, or the planned learning experiences provided in the school setting is a radical departure from traditional conception of curriculum.

Curriculum as an Instructional Plan Jerrold Zacharias (1964) proposed the curriculum which encompassed four distinct components: 1. Determining the precise boundaries of the educational unit 2. Identifying the subject matter within the unit 3. Embodying the subject matter in material form (textbook, laboratory and classroom materials and other learning aids) 4. Preparing teachers in the subject matter and use of materials Paul Goodman noted that disciplinary movement was a return to the notion of curriculum as a course of study. Taba (1962) rejected progressive concept of curriculum as non-functional and proposed that ‘a curriculum is a plan for learning’, whereas Beauchamp preferred a similar approach and said curriculum as a written document; however, he failed to distinguish it from other documents. He suggested that curriculum includes at least one of the four elements: 1. An outline of the culture content to be taught 2. A statement of goals and/or specific objectives 3. A statement of the purposes for the creation of curriculum and ways in which the curriculum is to be used 4. An appraisal scheme Problem of Dualism The definitions of Taba and Beauchamp do not distinguish between a curriculum, a syllabus and a lesson plan, mere instruments of a curriculum. The problem of dualism between curriculum and instruction arises in all definitions, where it is regarded as a plan. Hirst also defines curriculum as ‘a plan of activities deliberately organized so that pupils will attain, by learning, certain educational ends or objectives’. On similar count, Alexander and Saylor defined curriculum as ‘a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a simple school center’.

Curriculum as a Technological System of Production During the early twentieth century, the curriculum is considered as a production system. ‘Scientific management’ is applied to education. This can be seen in job analysis or activity analysis. Activity Analysis It was popular during the twentieth century. This is a progressive idea of incorporating curriculum to life experience, job analysis or activity analysis designed to achieve educational objectives. Franklin Bobbit and W. W. Charter developed this method of activity analysis. According to Bobbit, life consists of the performance of specific activities. If education is for life then it must prepare for such specific activities.

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Curriculum as Ends Popham and Baker define curriculum as ‘all planned learning outcomes for which the school is responsible’. ‘Curriculum refers to the desired consequences of instruction’. Curriculum is reduced to ends and instruction is reduced to means. Johnson also goes with idealistic who defines ‘curriculum as planned learning experiences’. This could not distinguish between curriculum and instruction. Also, he defines curriculum as ‘a structured series of intended learning outcomes’. Popham says that curriculum and instruction should be sharply contrasted. The distinction is ends and means; in a production process the curriculum and the instruction are seen as two components. There are various groups who debate on curriculum as ends, means, instruction or measurable product as behaviour. Skinner and other behaviourists view curriculum as a component of technological production process and the learner as a mechanical unit in the production process. Bush and Allen in their technological proposal for redesigning the high school offered that the ‘entire curriculum can be thought of as an area to be scheduled’. The entire technological orientation reduces curriculum to a rectangular box in which the variables included are the following: 1. The number of pupils to be processed 2. The time available for their processing The entire discussion on curriculum and instruction under the doctrine of dualism as means and ends is that ends and means are continuous, as content and process. Likewise many conceptions of curriculum were depicted. It could be considered as subject matter or content, a programme of planned activities, as intended learning outcomes, cultural reproduction, as discrete tasks and concepts, as an agenda for social reconstruction. Thus, the varied conceptions from ancient to modern created a space to understand the meaning of curriculum.

Perennialist Conceptions of Curriculum Perennialist conceptions are discussed in detail in Chapter 3.

Essentialists Concepts of Curriculum Essentialist conceptions are discussed in detail in Chapter 3.

HIDDEN CURRICULUM The concept of hidden curriculum, first treated as such by Overly (1970), has not been greatly refined in its brief lifespan, though it has been widely accepted; the term has been applied to specific classroom practices and used as a generic term referring to nearly everything that goes on in school. It is one of the few concepts in education which by its very name acknowledges the limits of understanding. It has been called various things, including the ‘latent’ or ‘covert’ curriculum, the ‘non-academic outcomes of schooling’, the ‘by-product’ or ‘residue’ of schooling

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or the ‘unstudied curriculum’ (Overly, 1970), though it has been progressively more ‘studied’ in recent years. The term ‘hidden curriculum’ was invented by Philip Jackson. Jackson was influenced by the educational psychology of the French philosopher Emile Durkheim who had ‘the most philosophically and scientifically comprehensive, clear, and workable approach to moral education...’ (Phillip Jackson Life in Classrooms 1968). Jackson invented the term ‘hidden’ or ‘unstudied curriculum’ refers to ninety percent of what goes on in classrooms – the curriculum of obligatory instruction. The hidden curriculum of the educational system reproduces the basic structure of the culture. The school’s function of socialization is represented by three central characteristics of school life which teach the student to fit into a society of the same three characteristics – the crowds, the praise and the power. In school the student learns to be treated as a member of a crowd of same-age, same-status others and thus to fit into a world of impersonal authority in which a relative stranger gives orders and wields power. The hidden curriculum refers to those practices and outcomes of schooling which, while not explicit in curriculum guides or school policy, nevertheless seem to be a regular and effective part of the school experience. The hidden curriculum may be viewed as covert, unintended, implicit or simply unacknowledged; the intentionality and the depth of the ‘hiddenness’ vary according to each writer’s conception of the phenomenon, but generally the term describes those forces shaping the non-academic and unmeasured learnings of students. The term remains imprecise. Traditional education is based on the premise that education depends on obligatory attendance in school. Children belong to school, they learn in school and they can only be taught in school and this type of schooling and teaching, as skill instruction confuses. The basic structure of the culture is reproduced in the ‘hidden curriculum’ of the educational system. Decisions about process as well as content are derived from value premises which underlie the political and social philosophies, ‘schooling’ with education and learning. The function of the hidden curriculum is to foster conformity to the cultural values. Students are taught how to be consumers of the services of ‘teaching’. They are taught how to accept its inherent cultural values and expectations. They are taught how to blend in with the cultural belief systems. Educational practices treated as a part of the hidden curriculum include ability grouping, teacher/pupil relationships, classroom rules and procedures, implicit textbook content, sex-role differentiation of pupils and classroom reward structures. Outcomes typically considered to be products of a hidden curriculum include political socialization, obedience, docility, the learning of values and cultural mores, the development of attitudes towards authority and the reinforcement of class distinctions. The hidden curriculum by definition defies easy experimental treatment and clear cause–effect relationships, and is a kind of anomaly within the research tradition. It is even more curious that the hidden curriculum concept emerged at approximately the same time that behavioural objectives, ‘measurable’ outcomes and accountability were gaining currency in the United States, in the early 1970s, when evaluations of publicly funded education programmes demanded data that were replicable and valid. It is noteworthy that a single era should breed both scholars hopeful that educational change could be quantified and scholars eager to acknowledge that schools operate in mysterious ways. Both attitudes survive today; the appeal of the hidden curriculum seems undiminished.

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Hidden curriculum requires a broader view and acknowledges that researchers are not quite certain what the variables are, much less, which are independent and dependent. The concept gives some clues depending on whether this hidden ‘curriculum’ is conceived to be a cause or effect, as to where to begin the search as new. The investigation seems typically to focus on one of these two meanings of the term. Educators describing the hidden curriculum of schools in terms of its outcome include Henry’s (1950) identification of ‘docility’ as a covert outcome of schooling, Illich (1971), and Bowles and Gintis (1976), who criticize the schools for maintaining social/class distinctions of capitalistic society, Apple and King (1977) and Anyon (1980) who argue that the different concepts of ‘work’ held by different social classes are partly a function of the school environment, and Vallance (1973/74) who argues that the hidden curriculum became ‘hidden’ when its goals of creating a relatively homogeneous American culture had been reached.

Discovering Hidden Curricula In the classroom, different teachers may use the same text, yet each teacher provides a different outcome because of the emphasis given. Some may dwell upon the labour management conflicts in the history course. Another may stress the treatment of minorities. Some look at heroes, such as Washington, Jefferson and Lincoln as people to be honoured without question; others take a debunking attitude and point to their feet of clay. Closely allied is the enthusiasm (or lack of it) on the part of individual teachers. A teacher can arouse interest in a subject through facial expression, tone of voice or an aura of sincerity. Another teacher can kill the same subject with a deadpan presentation or an attitude of ‘here it is’, take it or leave it. Little attention has been paid by teachers to the impact of their non-verbal behaviour – eye contact, position of arms, hand gestures and nodding. Students acquire these hidden ideas while attending school. In many schools they still consist of social norms and values that ‘schools promote’ such as being punctual, competitive, waiting one’s turn, learning to accept hierarchy of authority, patience and other ‘goals and functions of the wider society’ (Jackson, 1968). School-promoted socializing codes of behaviour may adversely affect students and their learning. Teachers convey many messages to learners from the outset of their schooling. Michael Apple describes a situation in a kindergarten where the teacher controlled the children’s behaviour and perception of the world in a negative way. According to Apple, the youngsters had to ‘adjust their emotional responses to conform to those considered appropriate by the teacher’ (Noel, 2000). Youngsters do not always feel at ease with being quiet and not being able to express their feelings. The hidden curriculum sometimes determines limitations to student’s behaviour in the classroom and in the school which may be a hindrance to learning. Education is concerned with the transmission and production of knowledge. The production of knowledge involves two aspects of educational practice or ‘curricula’. One involves the knowledge itself or ‘content’. The other involves the way in which the content is transmitted and produced, i.e. ‘process’. The process is concerned with the methodology of teaching and learning or ‘pedagogy’. Pedagogy is concerned with how one learns the content, how one makes decisions about who learns the content and to what extent they learn it. The curriculum of content is the ‘overt curriculum’. The curriculum of ‘process’ is the ‘unstudied curriculum’ or ‘hidden curriculum’.

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According to Terry Anderson (2001), there are three historical ways of viewing an unwritten curriculum: 1. To mean a kind of indoctrination that attempts to maintain social privilege – or esoteric knowledge and practices – and that is imposed together with the formal, taught curriculum 2. To refer to the subtle effects of the setting in which formal education occurs 3. To refer to the unstated rules necessary for successful completion of formal education studies

Implications of Education Both the overt curriculum and the hidden curriculum in any discussion should be considered in educational reform. Educational reform requires a fundamental change in the way children are educated, i.e., in the process of education. Teachers and schools, no matter how good, cannot do it alone. Parents can make the critical difference by taking an active role in children’s education. Any reform in schooling has to deal with the absurdities of the system and expose the hidden curriculum. It is the hidden curriculum which combines consumer expectations with producers’ beliefs in its claims and ritual. If people remain hypnotized by the power of ritual, it is only by breaking the spell that one can create changes which lead to reform. Hence, educational reform is possible if it is based not only on changes in the overt curriculum, but also on the changes in the hidden curriculum. The hidden curriculum is an educational process which lacks authenticity and depends on expectations for success. Reform depends on an educational process which is meaningful and depends for success on self-reliance and hope. What is needed is an educational philosophy that works. One philosophy which has been at the core of the education of the European ruling classes for years is based on the belief that the only basis of true knowledge is self-knowledge. In this system the family is the main arena for education. At every age children find themselves alone with a problem to solve. Children are trusted with independent study from a very early age. Their privacy and solitude is respected. Curricula are developed which enable children to cultivate self-knowledge and self-reliance. Their sense of responsibility is enhanced by making community service a part of their schooling, the understanding that the teacher is respected and children are not deprived of the time which they need to develop self-knowledge. Children who develop self-knowledge are capable of rational thought. They are able to apply the natural principles of social life to their own lives and they are able to mature and develop their own humanity (conscience) and the humanity of others. The educational use of the ‘hidden curriculum’ is to bring the dialogue of justice into the classroom. The hidden curriculum of obligatory instruction is justified by the constitutional principle of ‘equal educational opportunity’. The function of the hidden curriculum is to foster conformity to the cultural values. The hidden curriculum as obligatory instruction or ‘education’ becomes obligatory attendance of obligatory schooling. Obligatory schooling revolves around teacher authority and student passivity. Life as obligatory schooling is based on student’s classification according to age and performance on standardized tests. In the sorting process, students are expected to be obedient and passive, to work at meaningless tasks without complaint, to value competition and to respect their teachers as authority figures even though they are forced to remain weak and demoralized. In this way, the schools can pursue their objectives in the successful reproduction of cultural values which form the basis for the hidden curriculum. The hidden

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curriculum serves to initiate the student into the culture of capitalism and consumerism by reproducing those cultural values which are compatible with it. The hidden curriculum transforms the non-material needs into demands for commodities. Students are taught how to be consumers of the services of ‘teaching’. They are taught how to accept its inherent cultural values and expectations. They are taught how to blend in with the cultural belief systems. Once they have learnt this lesson, they lose their incentive to grow in independence, to recognize relatedness and connection, and they disconnect themselves from opportunities which life has to offer. In this way the hidden curriculum prepares the student for a future of alienation and the institutionalization of life in a capitalist consumer culture. This is done through the three main characteristics of school life – the people, the praise and the power. In the life of ‘school’, the student learns to adapt to being treated as a same-age same-status member of a group, to obey the impersonal authority of strangers who give orders and wield power, to respond to the praise which is part of the rituals of schooling, i.e. school credentials and ceremonies such as diplomas, certificates, licenses, grades, honour’s lists and graduations and to subscribe to the philosophy of ‘accumulation’. As the philosophy of accumulation, the hidden curriculum of school and schooling is for the promotion of consumerism. As a promoter of consumerism, the schooling system performs the same three functions as powerful churches throughout human history. Like the church, the school is the repository of social myth; it serves to institutionalize the contradictions of that myth and it is the site of the ritual which hides and reproduces the discrepancies, disparities and conflicts existing between social principles and practical applications of those principles. At the same time, they are responsible for children’s learning and growth. Schools create dependent personalities who are unable to draw on their own resources in order to give substance and pleasure to their existence. Unable to create meaningfulness for their own lives, children grow up absurd. In this education ‘game’, uncritical students focus on the content of the overt curriculum and become unaware of the other curriculum which is hidden in the process of teaching and learning that content. It is for this reason that the schooling system can be considered as a form of political manipulation (banking education). As obligatory instruction for institutionalized living, education of the hidden curriculum becomes an industry for the production of knowledge. The knowledge industry is a fast-growing labour market which directly or indirectly employs a growing proportion of the population. In the labour market, education is defined in terms of ‘services’ and institutions which are created for the services required for educating people. Many people are kept in school for life, or they are guaranteed to fit into some other forms of institution.

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2 Historical Development of Curriculum CHAPTER OUTLINE CHAPTER OUTLINE  West – Curriculum Before the  Curriculum in the Twentieth Century Twentieth Century  East – History of Curriculum  Curriculm for the Enlightenment of the Twentieth Century

Human history becomes more and more a race between education and catastrophe – H. C. Wells (1920) It is understandable to anybody how important the role of history is in any field. It lays foundation, creates insights, gives reflection, avoids errors, and builds a better future. Same is the situation with the discipline of curriculum which is very young and recent in origin. It is also well known from history how people have concern and have always focused on a better development of their future generation, either informal building of values or personalities through nurturing initially. Gradually, once the formal system of educating the young ones has begun, various ways and means are tried out in order to provide more and effective instruction to their wards. Parents, teachers, community and ultimately the educationists are always enthusiastic and curious to introduce innovation to make the system more functional as per the needs and demands and aspirations of the society. It has also tried to address the social issues and concerns contextually through teaching. Gradually, during the twentieth century this has emerged as a theory of curriculum. Many perspectives can be seen in the following presentations: To make it more comprehensive and simple to understand, the following classification of historical epochs is considered in presentation: I. Western – history of curriculum before the twentieth century II. Curriculum from the enlightenment of the twentieth century III. Western – history of curriculum during the twenty-first century IV. Eastern – history of curriculum I. Before the twentieth century What are the milestones in understanding history? 1. Ancient world 2. Ancient Greece and Rome The milestones are 3. Christian world 4. Renaissance, reform and enlightenment 5. Modern times

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WEST – CURRICULUM BEFORE THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Ancient World  In 6000 years’ history of Egypt, emphasis was seen on practical aspects than on abstract thought.  Religious institutions and family had dealt with the conception of good, evil and justice in curriculum.  During this period, mostly parent/elder generation used to educate the son/younger generation.  Mostly the curriculum was vocational and emphasized an apprenticeship followed by training at home.  Traditionally, the emphasis was laid on practical mathematics, astronomy, medicine, engineering and geography. In the ancient China, two dominant educational orientations emerged: 1. Leo-Tse (the sixth century BC) – He saw education as the fruit of contemplation. 2. Confucius (the fifth century BC) – He was more oriented to society than to the individual and favoured for preserving society and its institutions. In ancient India, curriculum was based on sacred texts, i.e. Vedas, Upanishads and Gita. Religious life and education were inseparable with the goal of life itself.

Ancient Greece and Rome The origin of curriculum can be traced back to ancient Greece. Athenians felt that leisure time is very essential. The goal was to bring all-round development of mind and body based on principles of moderation and balance. Olympic games involved contest in music, poetry, art and drama as well as athletics. Many philosophers in ancient Greece made contributions to curriculum. Pre-Socratic period Aristoppus (435–355 BC)

He suggested hedonism or pleasure as the goal of life and education.

Epicurus (341–270 BC)

He advocated simplicity, abstinence and moderation.

Zeno of Citium (340–265 BC)

He emphasized the life of self-denial of material possessions.

Great contributors of the period of antiquity Socratice

Much written documentary evidence is not seen except in Plato’s strong revolution about him in his writings. He was very strong in terms of quest for virtue. He negated sophists’ emphasis on vocational education, institutionalized education and charging education. He was keen on characterization and he contributed the popular method of questions and answers – Socratic method and discussion method.

Plato

He set forth in his curricular prescription from ideal state.

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Education is essential for the development of a republic. Citizens must be enlightened to contribute maximum to their state. Education process should lead to virtue and wisdom passed from one generation to the succeeding generation. A lengthy curriculum was prescribed, beginning at 6–18 years of age for both boys and girls. Music, mathematics and gymnastics were introduced as the areas of study. Following the first 12 years, 2 years of military training and then with the examination, students’ future was decided. Those who failed became labourers and soldiers and passed were trained in abstract subjects and put into bureaucratic jobs. Utmost elite became philosophers/kings who governed the republic. By and large, his education was conservative in nature. Aristotle

Aristotle reflected the idea of liberal education (in VII and VIII books as the politics). He feels that liberal education leads to personal improvement, which creates dedication to the state. The end of philosophy, politics and education is happiness and brings out human good. He suggested gymnastics, i.e. education of the body, health which leads to growth of the mind. He also suggested aesthetics, ethics, music, the education of reason through philosophy and science. His education is to discover truth about what is and should be (similar to Plato).

Romans

Excellent engineers, system of Law and Latin language had great influence on education.

Major periods of Roman civilization I period (700–275 BC)

Initial education was given at home by parents.

II period (275–150 BC)

Curriculum was based on Greek philosophy – literature and rhetoric – then assimilated into Roman life style. It became more Latin oriented, resulted in Latin grammar schools. In private Latin grammar schools, emphasis was given to train orators for the success.

AD 300–500

Due to revolutions, public supported arts and sciences, which led to public schools and control of government on teaching. This curriculum has been such that it is separated from life. Emphasis was on memory of literary matters and strict control on students. Only technical education was relevant to life and real world.

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Major educators in Roman’s history Cicero (106–43 BC)

Paragon of orators deemed rhetoric. Rhetoric included – liberal arts and humanities based on life experiences.

Plutrachs (AD 46–120)

A Greek among Romans – has eclectic perspectives which prompted to create broadly educated gentlemen, emerged in the Renaissance.

Quintillion (A.D 35–95)

Set principles in his institution of oratory, which became a progressive education during the twentieth century when he called for flexibility in curriculum name could give encouragement.

By and large the above four have showed liberal ideas.

Curriculum in the Christian World During the Middle Ages

It was Christianity dominated – both inside and outside the school in the western world.

The Middle Ages (AD 27–476)

The Roman empire expanded by conquering and assimilating small states and then teachings of Jesus were widespread and satisfied people. The teachings have been considered as the curriculum at that time which include human soul is immortal, immutable and more important than the material world. These teachings reached to all categories of people and satisfied their emotional, moral and spiritual needs, which led them all to go into the principle of love and fellow human beings brought by a common love of God. Jesus used conservational methods and illustrative parables to communicate the message.

New Testament

Memories of the teachings of Jesus were preserved in both oral and written traditions.

Opposition (AD 300)

For nearly three centuries, oppositions continued and gradually Christian’s beliefs were assimilated into Roman culture.

The transformation in curriculum was influenced by various interpretations of Christianity throughout the Middle Ages: Second century AD

Titan observed the perpetuation of corruption and denounced in favour of Christianity – the Roman and Greek intellectual heritage.

Augustine (AD 354–434)

Reconciled the teachings of Plato with those of church. Knowledge became valuable which was useful in propagation of Christianity. Insisted on strict moral code in view of then corruption.

St. Basil (330–379)

Developed a communal form of monasticism in Geek-speaking areas. Church should practice brotherhood – Curriculum was mostly to educate young in the principles of Christianity.

St. Benedict (480–546)

Emphasized the arts, scholarship, agriculture; focus was on humility and obedience in the light of church authority.

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330–1453

Western idea of universities emerged.

Al-Ghazali (1058–1111)

Realized in capacity of human reason confronted with the great mysteries of God, immortality and eternity and tried to overcome the menace of scepticism by mysticism and an ascetic life. His way entitled ‘My Child’.

Ibn-Khaldoun (1332–1406)

300 years of Al-Ghazali – interpreted in his historical protegomena, the evaluation of civilization in the light of intellectual, elite and social conditions.

Turned to scholarly achievement where palace Charlemagne leader of the Frank End of the Dark Schools established and attempted to provide higher level of education to monks and clergy. Ages Alcuin (735–804)

A noted poet taught through riddles, puzzles and games.

Thirteenth century St. Thomas Acquinas (1225–1274)

Italian Dominicus Frair known as excellent teacher, administrator, scholar and writer built a philosophical basis for Catholicism by unifying Aristotelian philosophy with only doctrine.

Peter Abelard (1078– 1142) – France

The strategy of teaching was lecture, repetition, disputation or debate.

John Gersen (1363–1429) – End of the Middle Ages

Chancellor of the university of Paris applied the Christian principles of love and goodness to children and youth. ‘In a pamphlet’ on leading towards Christianity where it said without love what is good instruction.

Curriculum in the Renaissance, Reformation and Enlightenment Middle and Late 1400s

Schools in Western Europe, England, turned back to humanistic literature of ancient Greece and Rome. Also revived the spirit of inquiry.

Vittorino da Feltre of Italy (1378–1446) Arenea Sylvio of Italy (1405–1464) Desiderium Erasum of Holland (1466–1536) Thomas Elyot of England (1490–1546) Michel de Montaigue of France (1533–1592) Prepared children of the wealthy people to be cultured gentleman through a curriculum of seven liberal arts (dialectic, rhetoric, grammar, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry and music), Greek and Latin languages, history and fine arts. Emphasis was laid on learners’ psychology and teaching methodology and most progressive curriculum. Reformation – Invention of printing press by Gutenberg. Then the church was viewed as corrupt, where the great wealth was in the hands of a few, attempt to control the lives of private individuals.

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The rise of cities, the beginning of secular government Martin Luther of Germany Major contributor for curricular changes (1483–1546) Luther’s – If church were to be reformed, girls, boys, rich and poor John Calvin of France should be given compulsory education. Religious education should (1509–1546) be in vernacular languages. Calvin added music and physical education to the curriculum and favoured classical languages in academic subjects. He favoured parents to be taught to monitor the children. Focused on teaching methods, school administration, teacher superRoman Catholics – vision and curriculum. All courses related to theology at secondary Ignative Loyale of Spain and higher education – classical languages and seven liberal arts. (1491–1556) Uniform instructional methods. Age of Reason Sixteenth century Promoted student-oriented curriculum for both sexes in students’ Juan Luis Vives language, humanistic in character. (1492–1540) Scientific discoveries. The seventeenth to eighteenth centuries Copernicus (1473–1543) Philosophers, social theorists and educators turned with scientific inquiry. Galileo (1564–1642) Newton (1642–1727) Francis Bacon of England Father of scientific method. Questioned 1000 years of Aristotelianguided intellectual work. The knowledge, except in the province (1565–1626) of church, should be subjected to critical analysis and empirical verification. Continued to develop reason and empiricism which have major Philosopher Thomas implication for curriculum. Hobbes of England (1588–1679) Rene Descartes of France Descartes distinguished differences among religion, science and philosophy. (1596–1650) Dealt with the problems in dualistic thought. Froebel and Dewey Spinoza argued that God is manifested in all material and nonSpinoza (1632–1677) material aspects of the universe. He advocated a state that sponsors freedom of thought, schools as the right of educators, to raise fundamental questions. He says that educators should stimulate both senses and mind, so he suggested experience and reason should be integrated into the curriculum. Equal education for all people. Teachings of church with scientific Seventeenth century, methods. He opposed social class, national distinctions. The child Commenius of Moravin should discover through sensory experience. Such methodology (1592–1670) should be introduced, didactic method. During 7–13 years of age, both the mother and the local school teacher should relate curriculum to the learner’s needs. Comenius school book based on sensory experience is reflected in ‘Orbi Pictus’. He has imparted many educationists and is popularly called as father of modern education.

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William Poetry of England He called for universal education and stressed 3R’s in curriculum – reading, writing and arithmetic. He felt everybody even wealthy (1623–1687) should know the trades and preferred scientific and technical content to languages and the liberal arts. He visualized schools with museums and galleries. John Locke (1632–1704) English Philosopher

Experience as the source of learning child’s mind is like empty slate ‘Tabula rasa’, where the sensory impressions are created. His education was not primarily intellectual growth but moral habit and self- control, the basis for intellectual as well as other development. He suggested a curriculum which is practical, liberal arts, education, in short, the education of a gentleman. It also included a continental language for communicative utility. Physical education is for a healthy body conducive to a sound mind, mathematics for its transferability to reason and travel to develop cosmopolitan attitudes.

CURRICULUM FOR THE ENLIGHTENMENT OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)

Influenced by Locke, he opposed classical education in America, and emphasized education directly to professional affairs of life. From 1830 to 1870 his institute with English rather than classical languages dominated the system. This education system helped to solve the contemporary problems of common men and the business-oriented citizens.

Jean Jaques Rousseau (1712–1778)

He laid a foundational groundwork for progressive French philosophies of education. He followed Franklin academy in US enlightened pedagogy of Basedow, Pestalozzi and Froebel in Europe. He created his ideal brain child and suggested education for different levels. A special curriculum for girls called ‘sophy’. According to him curriculum should be as follows:  1–5 years: Free play in natural settings.  6–12 years: Students should be engaged in sensory experience with concrete rather than abstract learning.  12–15 years: Concepts, ideas and reason are developed. During this time the youth enters into the society to know about good and just ways of living. Finally it is the child-centred curriculum with an emphasis on the child’s needs and interests.

John Basedow of Germany (1723–1790)

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With Locke and Rousseau’s influence, he took curricular reforms and added practical subjects such as nature study, natural history, anatomy and physical education as well as field trips.

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Pestalozzi

His doctrines were tried out for 20 years in an experimental school at Yverdum, Switzerland. Here, active experience of sense perception was given which he suggested and practised while teaching from known to unknown. Based on his study of child development, he developed principles of teaching.

Johann Gottlied Fichte (1807)

He convinced Prussian people to build a modern Germany on the shoulders of a Pestalozzians’ curricular orientation following their losses to Nepolean. It gave a way to free public education in Germany. It is a realization of Pestolozzi to see the social improvement emerge from education as an instrument of the state than the church.

William T. Harris and other educators of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Horace Munn, Henry Bernard Shaw)

The ideology rooted from the philosophy of Immanuel Kant (1724– 1804 ) and George Wilhelm Hegel (1770–1831) from Germany. Kant saw education as critical to improvement of human life. Hegel saw education as a process that continued throughout the life, which leads to sophistication in reason that dialectically synthesized apparent opposites, which comes through liberal arts education of Greek.

John Fredrick Herbert (1776–1841)

He was influenced by Kant, Hegel and Pestalozzi. He was known as the father of both science of education and of modern psychology. Herbert disciples developed five steps of method and propagated throughout the continent of the United States. Step 1: Preparing or developing connections between what is known and what is about to be learned. Step 2: Presenting or setting forth material to be learnt in a manner that is psychologically sound for the learner. Step 3: Associating or developing analogies with prior learning. Step 4: Generalizing or moving from concrete to abstract principles. Step 5: Applying or using the newly acquired knowledge as a basis from which to pursue more knowledge.

Herbert’s main focus in education is to develop the cultured human being who strives to find and be guided by the highest ethical values, i.e. education is a moral enterprise. This is possible through a curriculum that ranges from mythology and ancient history through modern literature and history. ‘The worth of a man is measured by his will not by his intellect’. ‘Instruction will form the circle of thought and education, the character. The last is nothing without the first. Here contained the whole sum of my pedagogy’. Herbert pedagogy went beyond Locke and Roussseau. Joseph Lancaster (1778–1838)

He experimented with monitorial system.

Andrew Bell (1753–1832)

He developed a utopian school to improve the morals and religious toleration of children of workers at his textiles mill in Scotland.

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Friedrich Froebel of Germany (1782–1852)

Built on the ideas of Pestalozzi, he developed the first kindergarten in 1837, and paved the way to the progressive education. He created a doctrine of unity and curriculum was fully child-centred taking care of individual differences. Activities in art, manual training, natural science, language, music and maths should be provided through play. Plays for Froebel were educative. He assumed like Rousseau that basically the child is innocent.

Middle of the nineteenth century

Call was given to universal schooling is the United States, rise of nationalism to sustain patriotism.

Thomas Jefferson (1779)

Bill for the more general diffusion of knowledge.

Horace Mann (1796–1859)

He steadfastly worked for a school for all children from all races, religious beliefs and social-economic classes, common school for a democratic dissemination of culture which was earlier for elites. Mann contributed for Jefferson’s ideal of excellence and equality.

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882)

He captured the essence of American individualism in his idealistic philosophy from moral and spiritual reliance derived from Plato, Kant, Pestalozzi and Froebel. Great books can help if presented at appropriate times.

Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) of England

He felt scientific studies as more important than cultural and humanistic studies. They contributed more to self-preservation. Spencer had high regard for Charles Darwin. His renowned question is, what knowledge is of most worth? They are health, vocation, citizenship, home and leisure reflected in next 100 years.

Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910)

He used methods of followers of Pestalozzi, Herbert and Froebel. He disliked the object lessons. He felt curriculum is primarily embodied in the teacher.

Edward Austin Shelden (1823–1897)

Established a centre for Pestalozzian methods in America.

William Torrey Harris (1835–1909)

A major force in past-civil war for educational history in the United States, he established public kindergarten.

Colonel Francis Wayland Parker (1837–1902)

Emphasized on child-centred interest and his experiences and his criticism laid foundation for progressive education and had a considerable influence on John Dewey.

Herbert

He emphasized the method which is comparable to curriculum American studied with Herbertian such as Charles Degarmo, Frank Mc Murray and Charles McMurray.

G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924)

He was a psychologist who drew deeply upon Herbert’s theory of cultural epochs and emphasized the study of children and adolescents as a prerequisite for teaching them. He suggested child study for teachers to determine developmentally appropriate methods.

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CURRICULUM IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY The twentieth century curriculum can be considered from 1890s. 1890s

Many forces were acting at this stage.

Kliebard (1982)

Calls ‘a crucible for curriculum change’. Here, three orientations are represented. A period of great revolutions occurring in science. Darwin theories of evolution Einstein theory of relativity Max Plank’s quantum theory And many applications of science in technology and medicine Hall influenced the thought of a young doctoral student, John Dewey

Dewey (1859–1952)

His interest being philosophy and has impressed William Terrey Harris which helped to get his writing published in Journal of Speculative Philosophy. Then he was a teacher. Dewey was influenced by Charles Sanders Peirce and William James of Harvard, laid foundation for pragmatism which is carried forward by Dewey. Dewey was born in 1859, the year Darwin’s ‘origin of the species’ was published and Horace Mann died. Dewey, by viewing education as experimentalist philosophy, established a laboratory school in the University of Chicago. Dewey produced two small books which are the foundation stones for progressive education movement. They are The school and Society (1900) and The child and the curriculum (1920). These books emphasized that experience of the child must be the basis for education. The connection between school and society should be inseparable. He finds no distinction between Mind and body Individual and society Work and play Nature and culture Each one gets benefit with the other. Dewey viewed education as life itself.

E. L. Thorndike (1874–1949)

Contemporary of Dewey – differed with him; he was much influenced by experimental psychology through his mentor James Mckean Cattell who studied with Wundt.

1890s

Debates were as worthwhile knowledge.

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William James (1890)

He demonstrated that classical subjects did not train faculties of the mind better than other subjects.

Committee of 10 (1893)

Influential report was produced by Charles W. Elliot, the president of Harvard. He chaired to study the college entrance requirements, a humanists and advocate of liberal education. Any subject well taught trains the mind. A door was opened to a plethora of subjects to overcome the overcrowdedness. Then Francis Parker called for another committee to study curriculum correlation. The term was used differently from ‘15’ committee.

Committee of 15 (1895)

Chaired by William T. Harris to defend inviolability of his five windows as the soul or basic division of knowledge: (1) Mathematics, (2) Biology, (3) Art and literature, (4) Grammar which included psychology and logic and (5) History (socio-political history).

G. Stanley Hall

He led an attack on the committee of ‘10’, asserting in defensibly in their assumptions that all the students should be taught in the same way. All subjects were of equal value. Hall described tenancy of the committee where the connection between curricular content and human development denied. Dewey wanted others to see the child as an experimentalist. Pediatrician studies along with Herbertian in Europe and surveyed American schools in 36 US cities. His critique in his articles published on schools was that the schools are incompetent, inadequate pedagogic knowledge and lack of quality in teaching in spite of schools’ opposition and criticism. He continued with his studies to understand why some schools are better when compared to others. He called for social efficiency in education. Educational practitioners need scientific management, strict supervision, carefully defined goals and standards.

Joseph Mayer Rice (1890s)

From the social Darwinism of Herbert Spencer, Galton, Binet, Thorndike, Judd, Wundt’s favouritism for experimentation, social efficiency of Rice, it is reflective in terms of behaviouristic tendencies in curriculum suggested by Franklin Bobbitt and W. W. Charters. Charles Elliot

Emphasized intellectual traditionalist curricula advocated by Robert Maynard, Hutchins, Alexander Meikejohn and so on.

First two decades of the twentieth century (Dewey 1900)

Dewey’s work was predominant. Progressive education was founded to promote the theory and practice of Dewey, reflected in his ‘My Pedagogic Creed’.

Maria Montessori (1870–1952) Italy Kerschensteiner (1854–1932) Germany Ovide Decroly (1871–1932) Belgium

Three progressive educators made exceptional contributions in their countries. Montessori’s individualized instruction methods to adopt to the individual needs and interests of retarded, poor children and some techniques were transferred to variety of ability levels and socio-economic backgrounds. Sensorial method through scientific approaches called didactum.

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Kerschensteiner was a modest, unassuming man, who could enter emphatically into the concerns of children, their needs and interest. He was a school administrator and reformer and supported activity schools and supported progressive schools. Decroly established most widely noted activity school in Europe. He arranged curriculum around the centres of childhood interest. He was committed to humanizing enlivening the education of children. William Heard Kilpatrick

Published an article entitled ‘The Project Method’ in Teacher college record, which encapsulates Dewey’s philosophy. The project/situation is associated around life social situation. Here, both the student and the teacher arrive at a common purpose and resolve the problem.

Second event in 1918 Franklin Bobbit

He was the father of social efficiency movement in curriculum. He published ‘The Curriculum’. He advocated scientifically analyzing activities of adult life and translating them into behavioural objectives. ‘It is called as activity analysis’. Bobbit and Kilpatrick’s secondary education report entitled ‘Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education’, which was also sponsored by 10 & 15 committees.

Charles W. Eliot

Advocated four alternative curricula – classical, modern languages, English and scientific.

Spencer (1861)

Claimed that knowledge was worthwhile in proportion to its preservation of life. Seven cardinal principles or aims of secondary education are: (1) health, (2) command of fundamental processes, (3) worthy home membership, (4) vocational preparation, (5) citizenship, (6) worthy use of leisure time, (7) development of ethical character responsive to realities of life.

Bobbit (1920)

‘Scientific curriculum making’ work has began. The trend of his work (also Judd and Thorndike) was twofold: 1. Towards increased specifications and precision 2. Towards responsiveness to current social needs Then carrying on traditional, classic subjects for the sake of custom.

Fredrick Bonser (1920)

Principles of job analysis to determine common knowledge, skills, attitudes and appreciations to all walks of life in America.

W. W. Charter 1923

Provided theoretical base for Bobbit’s activity analysis.

Bobbit (1924)

Concretely explained how to develop curricula in a concise manner that served as precedent for other writers who wanted to provide a kind of recipe for curriculum developers.

Henry Harap’s (1928)

The techniques of curriculum making.

Dewey (1902)

Three attributes – learner, society, subject matter – were emphasized in curriculum making and he said these three factors are interdependent. The committee (Rugg 1927) produced a set of 18 fundamental questions.

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The Twenty-Sixth Yearbook (NSSE 1930)

Published by National Society for the Study of Education (NSSE) honour society – headquarters at Chicago. The yearbook is in two parts: 1. Curriculum making: past and present 2. The foundations of curriculum making The committee included 12 persons. The committee recognized need for reforms in school curriculum.

Tyler principles

Statement of objectives, sequence of experience, subject matter, statement of outcomes of achievements.

Rugg

Curriculum was to adopt scientific methods. The child-centred school stressed the need for curriculum controversial text (1925) specialist in curriculum construction.

During 20s and 30s

Integration of civics, economics, history into social studies.

Tyler model

Depicts rational, logical and systematic approach to curriculum making.

EAST – HISTORY OF CURRICULUM SYSTEMS OF PHILOSOPHY

Heterodox/Atheism (Do not believe in Vedas as authority)

Orthodox/Theism (Believe in Vedas)

Caruvakas

Nyaya

Jainism

Vaiseshika

Buddhism

Sankya Purva Mimamsa Uttara Mimamsa/Vedanta

Ancient Period Curriculum according to Eastern Philosophies Sl. No

School

Founder

Philosophy

Source of knowledge

Curriculum

Carvak

Materialism – eat, drink and enjoy, make merry

Perception

Physical training and activities related to the worldly enjoyment

Heterodox 1.

Charuvaka

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Buddhism

Gowthama Buddha

Four noble truths

Perception

3.

Jainism

Mahaveera Liberation of soul/realPerception Vardhamana ism, ahimsa, Sathyam, Asthayam, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya

To train monk in ahimsa, sathyam, asathyam, aparigraha and brahmacharya

31

Secular subjects: grammar, logic, linguistics, medicine, yoga and sankya system

Orthodox 4.

Nyaya

Gowthama

Realism on logical grounds, self-body, senses, cognition, buddhi, pleasure, pain, activities, etc.

Perception, inference, comparison and testimony

Vedas, Upanishads, logic and theology

5.

Vaisesika

Kannada/ Ulka

Pluralistic realism; nine substances on reality: panchabhutas and time, space, soul and mind, cosmology

Perception, inference and testimony

Vedas, Upanishads, atomic cosmology, logic and ethics

6.

Sankya

Kapila

Dualistic realism – Prakrith and Purusha

Perception inference and testimony

Vedas, Upanishads and religious studies

7.

Yoga

Patanjali

Ashtanga yoga, yama, niyama, asana, pranayam, prathyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi

Perception, inference and testimony

Vedas, Upanishads, yoga, psychology; religious, physical and spiritual practices

8.

Mimamsa

Jaimini

Established Vedas as authority and dharma

Perception, inference and testimony

Vedas, Upanishads, realism, ethics, mythology, scriptures; religion or dharma

9.

Vedantha

Badarayana Great scholars’ interpretations of Brahmasutras: Shankara-Advaitha Madhava-Dvaitha Ramanuja-Visista Advaita

Perception, inference, comparison, testimony, Anupalabdhi Arthapatti

Vedas, Upanishads and theology

Vedic System of Education The Vedas: The term ‘Veda’ comes from Sanskrit root word vid ‘to know’. Etymologically it means knowledge of the ways and means of achieving spiritual progress in life. Vedas deal with dharma and brahman. Rigveda (2000–1500 BC): It is the earliest work of the Indo-Aryans. The hymns are in praise of the supreme being, the origin of everything who maintains the order of the universe. The hymns are also addressed to the natural, domestic and abstract gods. They are addressed to domestic gods – dyauathana; aerial gods – antharikshasthana. Rigveda emphasizes that there is one God and one reality, i.e. ekam sat. It also has the verses in praise of different deities – Agni, Mitra, Varuna, Indra and so on. Other Vedas: Yajurveda means black which contains prose and verse and white with only verse. Samaveda is called as vedic treya. Atharvaveda which is later addition is considered a part of first three.

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The first three Vedas are considered as a bird with one wing, whereas the Atharvaveda is a bird with two wings. Over a period of time, many hymns were added and the most worthy of the hymns were contributions of six seers. They are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Gowthama Visvamitra Vamadeva Atri Bharadvaja Vasistha

It is said that the other three Vedas are the outcomes of Rigveda. Each Veda has developed theological treatises called Brahmanas and Aranyakas. Vyasa is known as the arranger of four Vedas which were written by the seers in their superconscious states, so they are called apouruseyas. Vyasa is called as Krishna dvaipayana also known as Bhadarayana. Many sages attributed to Vyasa the treatises such as Mahabharata, Uttara Mimamsa, Brahma Sutras and eighteen Puranas. Vedangas: To pronounce, use and interpret Vedas, the ‘six’ limbs were formed called as vedangas. They are the following: 1

Siksha – science of speaking and pronunciation

2

Chhanda – meter

3

Vyankarna – grammar

4

Niruktha – etymological explanation of difficult words

5

Kalpa – rules for sacrificial acts

6

Jyothisya – Astrology There are four upavedas associated with Vedas. They are: Vedas

Upavedas Ayurveda – science of life

Atharvaveda/Rigveda Samaveda Yajurveda

Dhanurveda – science of war Gandarvaveda – science of music, dance and drama Sthapatyaveda – science of mechanics and architecture

Upanishads: From the reliable sources, the number of Upanishads is considered as ‘108’ of which ‘11’ had special importance. Upanishads are the Jnanakanda of Vedas, which deals with Jnana and Vijnana.

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Eleven Upanishads are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Isha Kena Katha Taittiriya Aitareya Prasna Mundaka Mandukya Svetavatara Chandogya Brihadaranyaka

After Upanayana ceremony, a child enters Gurukula (teachers’ home in a natural environment) where the teacher (acharya) takes care of complete development of the child. After 3 days of ceremony, the child becomes a dvija, i.e. twice born (thread ceremony is done where it takes the second birth at guru’s place). Teachers inculcate in students’ mind high ideas of morality and spirituality. To become ego-less, students are encouraged to go for begging alms for the teacher and gurukula. These were strict rules and regulations at gurukula right from rising early from bed, bathing, prayer, dress, food, sleep, celibacy and uniform. Curriculum Curriculum is focused on the religion to bring a harmony between man’s personality and totality of the universe. The curriculum included the various aspects such as:       

Shabda vidya (learning of words, i.e. phonology and grammar) Study of grammar to develop the idea of scientific method, order, principle and system of rule Language and literature Hetu vidya (logic) for developing reasoning Shilpa vidya – science of arts and crafts – to develop aesthetic sense Physical education Riding, archery, wrestling, hunting, swimming, jumping, digging, dancing, hunting of animals, medicine, etc.

On the whole the branches of knowledge included in curriculum are ‘14’ (i.e. 4 + 6 + 4): Four Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Athurvaveda) Six Vedangas (sikula, kalpa, nirukta, chandas, jyothisya and vyakarana) Dharma – rules of conduct Mimansa – theology Tarka/nyaya – logic Puranas – history and mythology The monitorial system: When the teacher cannot manage huge number of children, he appoints an assistant teacher who monitors and assists the teacher. To realize one’s self, samyoga and yoga are practised. Education in the epic age: Famous epics Mahabharata and Ramayana were taught to understand the life and living. Here, the sravana, manasa, nidhi and dyasana were the methods adopted in curriculum transaction in almost all ancient education.

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Heterodox Systems/Atheism I. Buddhist Period Gautam Buddha propagated his philosophy through teachings by conversation. His teachings were recorded by his disciples who were very intimate to him which were popularly recorded as Tripitikas, considered as his philosophy written in Pali. Tripitikas are as follows:  Vinaya pitaka – It includes the rules of conduct for the sangha, i.e. congregation.  Sutta pitaka – It includes his sermons and dialogues.  Abhidhamma pitaka – It is expositions of philosophical theories. Basically when the disciples increased in number, they were divided into two groups: 1. Mahayana 2. Hinayana Gautama Buddha and his followers went around and preached. First, they resolve themselves by taking an oath that ‘I resolve in Buddha, Dharma, Sanga’, i.e they take refuge. Buddha – Buddham Saranam Gachami Dharma – Dharmam Saranam Gachami Sangam – Sangamam Saranam Gachami Pabbhaja: The act of admission was called pabbhaja at the age of 8 years, the period when they join in Buddhism for 12 years. Upasampada: This is the act of full status of manhood of a bhikshu, where a monk completes 12 years of education. They learn in monestries; bhikshu lives in viharas. Teachings of Buddha: Four noble truths are as follows: 1. Life is full of suffering 2. Cause of suffering a. Suffering b. Birth c. The will d. Clinging e Thirst f. Sense-experience g. Sense-object contact h. Six organs of cognition i. Embryonic organism j. Initial consciousness k. Impressions l. Ignorance of truths 3. Cessation of suffering 4. Path to liberation (eightfold path) a. Right views (samyogdristi) b. Right resolve (samyaksankalpa) c. Right speech (samyagvak) d. Right conduct (samyakkarmantra) e. Right livelihood (samyoga jiva) f. Right effort (samyagvyayama) g. Right mindfulness (samyaksmriti) h. Right concentration (samyaksamadhi)

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Curriculum: Subject matter present in triptikas is the following: Vinaya pitika – monastic code Sutta pitika – religious doctrines of Buddha Abhidhamma pitika – philosophical interpretations II. Jainism Basically Jains train the individuals/disciples with respect to their code of conduct and character to adopt triratnas:  Right faith (samyog-darsana)  Right knowledge (samjog-Jnana)  Right conduct (samjog-caritra) The Upanishadic thinkers and the Buddhas who teach Panchashila or the commandments of the Bible are reflective of these five vows, essentially followed by all Jains: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Ahimsa – abstinence from injury to life (non-violence) Sathyam – truth/abstinence from falsehood Asteyam – non-stealing Brahmacharya – bachelor/spinster Aparigraha – non-attachment/non-receipt of unwanted wealth

1. Ahimsa – abstinence from all sorts of injury to life: Life exists in both moving and nonmoving bodies (e.g. plants). Jains view that moving and non-moving bodies should not be hurt. The Jain saints feel that the air they breathe in through the cloth which they tie to their nose may also take the life of a small organism. But this appears to laymen as too high an ideal. It is based on the belief that ‘all souls are equal’, i.e. ‘we should do to others as we would be done by others’. According to their philosophy, ahimsa must be practiced in every thought, speech and action. 2. Satyam – abstinence from falsehood/truth: Speaking truth alone is not enough; it should also be good and pleasant. These aspects usually make truth more progressive. For the perfect practice of truth, one needs to conquer greed, fear and anger. 3. Astayam – non-stealing/abstinence from stealing: This concept is based on the sanctity of property of others as others live. They feel deprivation wealth is like deprivation of the livelihood. 4. Brahmacharya – abstinence from self-indulgence (bachelorship/celibacy): Brahmacharyam is interpreted by Jains beyond the general meaning as celibacy. They attach a deeper meaning, i.e. from above sexual self-continence. They say mere outward indulgence of abstinence does not guarantee internal/inward thought control. Thus, the individual who practises brahmacharya needs to have control on both internal and external forms of self-indulgence. 5. Aparigraha – non-attachment/abstinence from all attachments: It is a kind of non-attachment to sense objects such as pleasant sound, touch, colour, taste and smell. In a way it helps in relieving oneself from all sorts of bondages with the worldly objects. The attachment causes rebirth and non-attachment liberates the soul from rebirth. When an individual attains all the threefold – right faith, right knowledge and right conduct – he gets help from three together in attaining fourfold perfection (i.e. ananata caturtaya), namely, infinite knowledge, infinite faith, infinite power and infinite bliss.

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Medieval Period Then existing patasalas of Hindu and Maktabs and Madrassas of Islam are important in this period. During this period in India, patasalas run by then indigenous schools were there. Since Muslims invaded Indian territory, they started constructing mosques widely where religious education was extended. There were different types of institutions that offered education: 1. Maktabs: It is a primary school attached to a mosque. Certain parts of Quran which needs memorization were taught. 3R’s – reading, writing and simple arithmetics – were included in the curriculum. Primary education was also carried out in some private tutor houses. 2. Madrasas: They are the centres for higher learning. They were also generally attached to mosques. Some of them were also raised to the university level. The curriculum at this level was grammar, rhetoric, logic, theology, metaphysics, literature, jurisprudence and science. Also, there was ethics, divinity, astronomy, algebra, geometry, physics, medicine, natural philosophy, law, rituals, accounts, agriculture, economics and history. Admission to Maktabs will be initiated with a colourful ceremony called ‘Bismillah’ at the age of 4 years 4 months and 4 days. Khanjarhs: They are similar to monasteries. Here, moral and religious education based on the teachings of the Quran is offered. Durgahs: These are tombs of celebrity saints. The philosophy is propagated through them. Khamkhanas: It provides technical training in handicrafts based on the system of apprentices. Here, craft work is given by a teacher. There will be no regular fee. Just a token of acknowledgement, a small present, is given to the concerned proprietor/foremen of the workshop and religious ceremony at the beginning of the vocational education. Education of women was almost neglected during Muslim period. Informal system of evaluation was followed. Mostly urban areas had educational centres. Total control of education was under the state and Mughal emperors were patrons of education.

Modern Education It started with British rule while English education was introduced and attracted all the people in India – western philosophy, sciences, literature, history, economics, sociology, etc., and some great works of champions of liberty like Mazzini, Rousseau and Voltaire. The sensational stories of the American war of Independence, the French revolutions and the Italian struggle for unity impacted Indians. British education in a way was a great help to Indians to get literate and also work for the liberation of India. Indian literature and literary works showed a great impact of English education. Beginning of the nineteenth century – indigenous education: When the British introduced English education in India, fairly wide networks of indigenous schools were existing which were created over generations from many long centuries. At that time two types of indigenous schools existed: 1. Schools of higher learning – to preserve ancient culture, guided by religious concerns 2. Primary schools – centres of democratic education These schools were not having any own building, so they used to conduct classes in temples or mosques or some public places or under trees at teachers’ residence. The curriculum in these

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schools was mostly religious education and 3R’s. Due to British’s influence, the national system of education came into existence. Modern Period Modern system of education (1600–1947) (East India Company, 1600– 1813) accepted the responsibility for education of Indians. Charter Act (1793): It decided to give moral and religion instruction to Indians. It was also decided by the House of Commons to include the sufficient number of skilled, suitable missionaries, school masters to extend useful secular knowledge and true religion in India. But the East India Company ignored education in India for about two long centuries. A meagre sum of 1 lakh rupees was allocated per year for the spread of education in India. Then came the policy of ‘Downward Filtration Theory’, evolved between 1780 and 1833. The education was provided only to higher classes, i.e. filtering down from higher classes to masses. Due to less allocation of funds, such policies were adopted. Some educated young unemployed higher classes started teaching masses for their livelihood. Some of them also educated out of their patriotism. There was a neglect of primary education as the British Government emphasized higher education through English. These schools proposed three aspects in curriculum: 1. Schools emphasized the Sanskrit and Arabic and suggested that western science and knowledge should be spread through the medium of three languages. 2. They advocated the English medium of instruction. 3. They focused on modern Indian languages. Macaulay advocated English as a medium of instruction in India. William Bentinck spent all the money allocated for education for English education. 1854 Wood’s Despatch: After making a thorough observation of the downward filtration theory, it gave a directive for promotion of mass education. This document is the ‘corner stone’ in the modern education system of India. Initially it suggested English as the medium of instruction then both English and vernacular as the medium of instruction in schools. Hunter Commission (1882): Recommended. Primary education: It suggested at the primary level the education should be imparted in vernaculars. Indigenous schools should be encouraged. There should be simplified examination and practices; subjects such as agriculture, industrial arts, mensuration and accounts are taught. Secondary education: Wherever adequate local support is there for the secondary education, government should support. They recommended two streams for the upper classes – one leading to mainstream university education through entrance examination and the other commercial and non-literacy pursuits, training for secondary school teachers. Movement of compulsory education (1902–1918): Sayaji Rao Gackward of Baroda state contributed to this movement. Then after successful experiments, British India took initiative in Bombay. Lord Curzon: During the rapid expansion of secondary and collegiate education through private initiative, there was deterioration in the standard of education. Also, it recommended that aided schools and colleges not to charge any fee if necessary. In 1901 after holding a conference on education with many experts, it passed 150 resolutions touching all aspects of education right from the primary to the university stage. However, Indians were suspicions about them.

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University Commission 1902: For reforming the university education, this commission was appointed. On the basis of it, Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904.    

Higher education was pursued with an exclusive view to enter government service. Excessive importance was given to examination. In the pursuit of English language, Indian languages were ignored. Primary education was neglected.

Primary education:     

Municipal and district boards should spend money for primary education. Curriculum in the village schools should be different from urban schools. Books should be written in simple language and should be related to rural life. There should be provision for training of primary teachers and enhancement of salaries. Payment by result system should be abolished.

Secondary education:  There should be control on inefficient institutions to improve standards.  Students should be prepared for university examination. University Act of 1904: Universities should make provision for instruction of students, appointment of professors and lectures, hold and manage educational endowments, maintain libraries, laboratories and museums and promotion of research. Calcutta University Commission (1917): It studied the problem of secondary education and gave recommendation for improvement.  College teachers should be entrusted with more power over academic affairs of the university.  Various faculties and boards of studies should be framed.  Fulltime and salaried VCs should be appointed.  Duration of degree course should be 3 years after intermediate.  Varied courses of instruction.  Tutorial work and superior research work should be provided.  Radical changes in examination.  Modern Indian languages should be encouraged.  Applied science and technology should be included in the courses.  Efficient training of personnel for the industries. The Hartog Committee (1929): It suggested measures for improving primary education:    

Instead of growing quantity, there should be qualitative improvement of schools. Primary course should be 4 years of duration. Quality training for teachers. Curricula and methods of teaching should be related to the conditions of villages.

1937–1947 (provincial autonomy decade): All India Conference at Wardha (1937) based on Gandhian ideology paved the following resolutions:  Free and compulsory education should be provided for 7 years as a nationwide scale.  There should be manual, productive work and training for handicrafts as an integral part of curriculum.  Medium of instruction should be mother tongue.

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CABE 1938 (Central Advisory Board of Education):    

Kher Committee – National Science of Education Universal Free compulsory education for all up to the age of 6–14 years. Standards of training, recruitment and service conditions of teachers should be raised. A large number of women teachers should be trained.

Contemporary Education Radhakrishnan Commission (1948–1949):           

Standards should be raised in universities. Vocational education should be given importance. Duration of degree courses should be 3 years and 180 days in a year. Instruction can be in regional languages. Libraries and laboratories should be improved. Fellowships for research scholars. Agricultural education should find a place in professional education. Rural universities should be started. Reforms in examinations. UGC for providing financial grants to universities. All the streams – science, arts and humanities – should be introduced.

Secondary education commission/Mudaliar Commission (1952–1953):  Primary education for 5 years (1–5 classes) – science, mathematic, social studies and one language.  Secondary education for 3 years (6–8 classes) – science, mathematics, social studies and two languages.  Higher secondary for 4 years (9–12 classes) – science, mathematics, social studies and three languages.  Degree courses (3 years).  Mother tongue as a medium of instruction can continue up to higher secondary.  12th standard should be the eligibility for professional courses such as medicine and engineering.  At the secondary level, technical education can be initiated.  Multipurpose courses can be introduced.  Texts/curriculum should be designed by the high-level committee.  2 years of the intermediate course should be introduced. Kothari Education Commission/Indian Education Commission (1964–1966):         

Curriculum should be relevant to life and need-based education. Work experience. Common school system (10 + 2 + 3). Science education. Higher values. National goals should be achieved through curriculum. 10-year/12-year courses. After 10 years and 12 years board examination. At 7th and 10th classes, vocational courses should be introduced.

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All educational institutions should have similar academic year. Schools should work at least 234 days in a year. Co-curricular activities, residential schools. Guidance and counselling should be there in school programme. Three-language formula: First language – mother tongue/regional language Second language – Hindi Third language – English/modern Indian/European language

Eswarbhai Patel Committee (1977): It insisted on socially useful productive work as a part of curriculum:         

Textbooks for language, mathematics and environmental sciences are sufficient. Teacher’s handbooks. Reduce homework for children. Self-study should be encouraged. Laboratory should be provided. English language instruction should commence from the 8th standard. Creativity should be improved in children. Special coaching for backward/slow learners. Vocational education related to the local areas should be introduced.

Adiseshaiah (1979):       

Specially focused on vocational education. Education should be relevant to the needs of the villages/rural areas. Diversification of courses at +2 levels – mainstream and vocational. Vocational education should be provided in mother tongue. Semester system should be introduced Training to craft teachers. Apprenticeship for students after the courses should be provided.

1986 National Policy on Education:  10 + 2 + 3 system of education.  Three languages at the secondary level (if mother tongue and one Indian regional language and national language for the modern language should be given).  (1) Mother tongue, (2) Hindi and (3) English.  Mathematics, environmental science and SUPW, fine arts, health and physical education, etc., should be a part of curriculum.  Delinking of degree for jobs.  Open universities, distance education.  Rural universities.  Education should reflect democratic values – secular, moral and human values.  Vocational and professional courses at the respective stages.  CCE (continuous comprehensive evaluation).  Human resource.  Equal opportunities in education.

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Special provision for SC, ST and disabled. ECE – day-care centre. Child-centric curriculum. No corporeal punishment. OBB (operation black board). Minimum levels of learning (MLLs). Pace-setting schools. Access to Secondary schools. Programme of action by POA (1992).

Further, various review committees (1992 POA) have recommended certain changes. By and large, all the committees and commissions have recommended science, mathematics and languages as curriculum at schooling. Then Yashpal Committee made 12 detailed recommendations and Chaturvedi Committee has expressed its views on the same.

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3 Bases/Sources of Curriculum Development CHAPTER OUTLINE  Philosophical Bases of Curriculum Development  Sociological Bases of Curriculum Development

 Psychological Bases of Curriculum Development  Knowledge as a Base of Curriculum Development

PHILOSOPHICAL BASES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT The process of emergence of paradigm for the curriculum field leads to many conflicting ideas among educationists and curricularists through the formative years. The question is not to look into it to bring a unity or conformity but to make it comprehensive. Kuhn describes paradigms as the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques shared by a given scientific community and employed by that community as a model or exemplars for denoting concrete puzzle solutions that are the basis for the solution to other puzzles or problems. ‘The study of paradigms’, notes Kuhn, is what mainly prepares the students for membership in the particular scientific community with which they will later practise. Kuhn goes to same lengths to discuss the importance of the textbook as a pedagogical tool in fields that are paradigm based such as the natural sciences. He means to say that it is the initiation to a systematic organization of knowledge and paradigms in mature fields of scholarship. Paradigms do not emerge from vacuum but from the world of practice. Dewey formulated three fundamental factors in the educative process from the work in his laboratory school at the University of Chicago. These in turn became the basis for the development of a paradigm for curriculum development in the eight-year study (Taylor 1933–1944), perhaps the large-scale longitudinal study ever conducted in education. The purpose of the study is to free the secondary schools curriculum from college-preparatory dominance. In connection with the eight-year study, three approaches or sources were identified in the process of curricular organization and analysis: 1. Social-demands approach 2. The adolescent-needs approach 3. Specialized subject matter approach

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These approaches correspond to Dewey’s three sources: 1. The learner 2. The society 3. Organized subject matter Taba elaborated on the significance of these three sources of data in curriculum planning: 1. Studies of society 2. Studies of learners 3. Studies of subject matter content The philosophy should be regarded as a regulative function of the process of curriculum development, and it has an interrelation with other determinants. The diagrammatic representation of the determinants shows the curriculum development with philosophy as a regulator in the context of the educative process. Schematic representation given by Tanner and Tanner clearly shows the organic relationship between the determinants and it is not reflecting a linear conception, where it is considered that objectives are always the starting point. In fact, objectives arise from a situation, context. They need to be tested in the process, similarly, the selection and organization of subject matter, the methods of instruction and evaluation. Objectives

Subject matter

Philosophy

Methods of organization

Evaluation

On similar grounds, the sources of curriculum – learner, society and organized subject matter – identified by Dewey, utilized in the eight-year study and further explicated the Tyler rationale, are considered as curricular influences. For instance, changes in the society lead to demands on the school; this needs to be interpreted by the educationists in the educative process. So, the changes in the wider world of knowledge serve the influence of the curriculum. These changes need to be interpreted in terms of subject matter in view of the nature of learners. This whole process needs to be regulated by philosophy and tested by the educative process. Curriculum is developed through various sources and forces in interaction. Decisions need to be made in selecting subject matter and also determining the context for the subject matter and so on. Generally, any perspective/philosophy gives direction and meaning to action. Without philosophy there is no meaning for curricular decisions. Any person with an open mind and sensitive to change can bring in a particular philosophic disposition.

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Curricular Sources and Influences Society ces and prob r o f l lem cia s) (So Knowledge A d n pplica tion arch a (Se ) Subject Matter t and Con tex ten on t) C ( Learner

C U R R I C U L U M

Philosophy

Now, let us go into the detailed discussion on each of the sources/bases in curriculum development.

Knowledge Base

Psychological Base

Curriculum Development

Philosophical Base

Sociological Base

Bases of curriculum development

Curricular Sources – Philosophy/Educational Theories ‘If we are willing to conceive education as the process of forming fundamental dispositions, intellectual and emotional toward nature and fellow men, philosophy may even be defined as with general theory of education’ (Dewey).

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‘The business of schooling tends to become a routine empirical affair unless its aims and methods are animated by such a broad and synthetic survey of its place in contemporary life as it is the business of philosophy to provide’. One cannot penetrate into any significant curricular problem or issue without encountering philosophical considerations. Philosophy helps in formulation of theoretical ideas derived from systematic consideration of the educational condition. And education is the laboratory in which philosophic distinctions became concrete and are tested. Let us focus on various philosophical perspectives which are the influencing sources, educational objectives and curricular decisions. In this process of understanding, the following educational philosophies are discussed: Educational Philosophies: Educational philosophies are rooted from basic philosophical perspectives Perennialism Idealism

Conservative vision Essentialism Progressive vision

Experimentalism

Reconstructionism

Reconstructionism

Romantic vision

Romantic Naturalism

Naturalism

The Inner vision

Existentialism

Existentialism

Pragmatism

I. Conservative Vision The major emphasis is laid on the past traditions and cultures which need to be inherited. So, the main task of education is to conserve the best from the past. It is possible through traditional studies. These traditional studies will lead to development of mental faculties and intellect. Here, no way the learner interests or the contemporary problems are taken into consideration. The curricular prescriptions made by the educationists with conservative perspective are as follows: (a) Perennialism (b) Essentialism (a) Perennialism Perennialists believe that a human is endowed with rational faculty. This uniqueness can be preserved through the cultivation of the intellectual virtues. They feel that it is important that education must pursue the perennial truths and should not be carried away by the contemporary needs which are only temporal. Education must ‘draw out the elements of our common human nature’ which are the same in any time or place is ‘foreign to a true concept of education’. – Robert M. Hutchinson The propositions made by perennialists are as follows:    

Permanent studies Traditional dualism Defence of American public education Declining influence

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1. Permanent Studies They believe the cultivation of the intellectual virtues is accomplished only through the ‘permanent studies’, which constitute intellectual inheritance preserved in the great books and cover every department of knowledge. Hutchinson who knows about great books writes that these great books consist of grammar, rules of reading, rhetoric and logic, which help in logical faculty, and mathematics correctness in thinking. ‘The ideal education is not an ad hoc education, not an education directed to immediate needs, it is not a specialized education, or a pre-professional education, it is not a utilitarian education. It is an education calculated to develop the mind’. ‘I have old fashioned prejudices in favour of 3R’s and liberal arts in favour of trying to understand the greatest works that the human race has produced. I believed that there are permanent necessities, the intellectual tools that are needed to understand the ideas and the ideals of our world’. – Hutchinson Adler also sees education as the cultivation of the rational powers through the liberal arts, which are considered as great books of ancient, medieval and modern times. In fact, they are the repository of knowledge and wisdom, tradition of culture which creates new generations after a generation. In other words, great books are timeless as they deal with permanent ideas and problems of humanity. Some of the perennialists also feel that languages should also be included into the curriculum. Perennialists especially at primary levels or lower levels consider mind as a kind of vessel which should be filled with facts and truths and should be strengthened by memory exercise. 2. Traditional Dualisms This movement predominates on the debate related to the dualism based on the metaphysical notion developed by Aristotle and Plato. Always perennialists have an edge to their debate about the following: Mind versus body Cultural studies versus vocational studies Permanent studies versus contemporary studies Intellect versus emotion Knowledge versus experience This debate is never ending. 3. Defence of American Public Education There was a great amount of criticism on the value of universal free compulsory primary education and was no mention as public education. Hutchinson expressed his agony in this context and pointed out the radical criticism of public education – eliminating the formal curriculum and catering to the evanescent whims of children, using public funds to establish alternative school systems, and even for abolishing the public schools altogether. 4. Declining Influence Gradually, the perennialistic dominance declined and there was student activism, demand for relevant curriculum; ethic of one’s own thing shifted to immutable values. A lot of hedonistic tendencies spread; preference was to sensation expectations for a dynamic not a static curriculum. There was a shift from timeless knowledge to changing knowledge. There is all the witness for the declining influence on perennialism. (b) Essentialism Essentialists agree with the perennialist’s great books. They feel their heritage is getting directed to modern needs through the fundamental academic disciplines of English (grammar, literature and composition), mathematics, science, history and modern

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foreign languages. They feel these subjects need to be logically organized which are essential to develop mental capacities. The major concepts proposed by essentialists are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Training of intellect Educational meritocracy Back to basics Eclecticism

1. Training of Intellect Intellectual development of students is the main focus of essentialists. Like perennialists, essentialists share views with regard to school’s focus on mental discipline through rigorous exposure to clerical disciplines without paying any attention to the interest of the pupils. Essentialists also believe that children do not know what they really want, so young people should be forced to study at least to some degrees. They say like perennialists, Aristotle’s notion is that ‘youth are not to be instructed with a view to their amusement, for learning is no amusement, but is accompanied with pain’. They also believe that mind is like a vessel which has to be filled according to their capacity based on individual differences. 2. Educational Meritocracy Essentialists advocate high academic standards through a system of uniform and rigorous examinations. Bestor thinks that examinations are used to select pupils for a standard programme to give disciplined intellectual training. The opportunities should be extended to those who are meritorious and energetic. Gardner sees that schools act as stringent sorting out process, whereby the less-able youngsters discover their limitations. But education becomes increasingly effective in pulling the bright youngsters to the top. The schools are the golden avenue of opportunity for able youngsters. They do not reflect on who lacks ability. On the contrary, Dewey views that education must focus on the development of potentialities and not setting limitations. Essentialists emphasized academic excellence through science, mathematics and modern foreign languages and to develop intellective resources through ability grouping and scholarship standards. A great impetus is given to standardize testing in elementary and secondary school curriculum. There was a demand by 1960s for relevance. 3. Back to Basics During 1970s once again a cry for ‘back to basics’ was observed. They emphasized competency-based education with the fundamental skills. The essential curriculum emphasized reading, writing, mathematics, solid subjects such as English, history, science and mathematics at all grades. 4. Eclecticism As such it is not an independent systematic/organized philosophical system, its accurate portray of what the school is to really function. In a way Brameld calls it an eclectic approach. He sees eclecticism in the curriculum as ‘smatterings of many things without purpose or design’. The eclecticism borrows from various philosophies in the belief that each philosophy has something of value, and that no philosophy is sufficiently complete or suited to varying conditions. For instance, the most thoughtfully formulated eclectic statement on the curriculum is the Harvard report, ‘general education in a free society’. This system is neither traditional nor modern or experimental. It is combination of both at a time. It is a wholistic system.

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The limitation of this approach is that whenever contradictory ideas are brought together. II. Progressive Vision Progressivism has emerged from the political thoughts of progressive thinkers such as Robert La Follette, Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson and also from the reform writings of Horace Mann and Henry Bernard Shaw of the nineteenth century and John Dewey of the early twentieth century. Also, it is emerged from liberal philosophy, pragmatism. In a way it is a refutation of conservative perennialistic thinking. Dewey work is a reflection of progressive ideology. The emphasis of this movement is on the skills and tools of language including problem-solving methods, scientific inquiry and cooperative learning experiences. The emphasis of progressivists is on the interdisciplinary approach which includes child-centred, activity-centred curriculum. At the same time, Dewey do not agree with neo-Darwin extreme liberalism, i.e laissez faire. The progressivists see that humanity is an evolving universe. They say that knowledge is not static or timeless but dynamic. Education is to be viewed as a process of growth, and not merely a process of cultural transmission. The nature and intensity of the learner and social conditions, as well as the race experience, must be considered in developing a balanced and coherent curriculum. This curriculum has served to free humanity from dogmatic authority, superstition, blind fear and prejudice, thereby serving as the key tool of democracy. The most systematic and consistent progressive educational theory is experimentalism. Experimentalists believe that the function of a school is to reconstruct the school for the social order. Experimentalism Experimentalists are in contrast to other educational philosophies such as perennialists, essentialists and reconstructionists. Here, ‘ism’ implies a certain closed-minded belief. The experimentalists’ commitment is to test the ideas. Dewey while addressing progressivists states, ‘Those who are looking ahead to a new movement in education adapted to the existing need for a new social order’. While understanding progressive perspective, it is necessary to get insights into the following theoretical systems. Search for Unity Dewey while addressing to solve the social problems rejected the traditional philosophies with dualistic tenets such as the following: Mind versus body Intellectual versus character development Knowing versus doing Intellect versus emotion Theoretical versus practical knowledge Logical versus psychological knowledge Scientific versus humanistic studies Mind versus matter Nature versus nurture Ends versus means He suggested to view the human as a whole being. He also opposed traditional educational theories which emphasize the following:  External imposition  Authoritarian methods

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He opposed progressivists’ view of children or a naturally unfolding being. He also believes that curriculum should not be a mere conglomeration of divided and specialized subject matters, but should be reflectively formulated, coherently designed and meaningfully attuned to the improvement of existing community life. A curriculum which acknowledges the social responsibilities of education must present situations where problems are relevant to the problems of living together, and where observation and information are calculated to develop social insight and interest. – Dewey Reflective Thinking Dewey suggests that instruction should be based on the process of reflection. He says that the traditional system just lays more focus like a memory machine where the recorded memory is reproduced by pushing a specific button. He expresses his agony that these methods are inimical for creating an enlightened citizenry. Also, knowledge per say knowledge has no meaning; it should serve the interest of mankind. In this context, Nobel Prize winning physicist Max Born (1964) put the matter in these words: In the operations of science and its ethics a change has taken place that makes it impossible to maintain the old ideal of the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake which my generation believed in. He pointed out that there is a need for science and rationality to be directed at the human conditions. Dewey warned scientists and said, ‘Even where science has received its most attentive recognition, it has remained as servant of ends imposed from alien traditions’. Quantification in Education Generally it was considered quantifiable measures in education. But for Dewey the function of education is to unleash human potentials, not to set limitations, so the present order can be transformed into a better one. For Dewey the outcome of scientific methods is not uniformity and standardization of procedure but the liberation of individuals by enabling them to see new problems, devise new procedures and in turn leading to diversification not uniformity. Dewey was criticized by both essentialists and humanists, who are two extremes of the continuum. Democratic Ideal There are many misinterpretations about Dewey’s democratic educational theory. In Dewey’s view, what is a democratic ideal? Dewey emphasizes repeatedly that if democracy is to come into its aim, it will require a kind of knowledge and insight that does not yet exist. One of the necessary conditions relevant to our time is that the scientific attitude should be adopted in human affairs so that science and technology are used as servants of human life and for an enlightened social order rather than being used for private power and profit and public intimidation. Then, what is the relevant curriculum? Demand for Relevance During 1960s, there was a lot of protest against the discipline-centred curriculum at the secondary level. Students felt it was no demand for experimentalist thinking to go with radical alternatives. In a call to humanize education at the secondary level, electives were introduced and academic credit for work experience. At the elementary level, open education came into vogue, where fundamental skills were taught under ‘individualized’ instruction or an administrative rearrangement for teaching. Hook accused the radical romanticists as being irresponsible intellectual in disregarding and distorting Dewey’s writings.

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Radical romanticists advocated ‘incidental’ education and elimination of public school. To Dewey, freedom is not lack of control and direction not doing what they want. Rather the basic freedom is that of mind and of whatever degree of freedom of action and experience necessary to produce freedom of intelligence. III. Reconstructionism Those progressivists sought a more direct ideology for correcting social ills and building a better society embraced with reconstructionism. It has taken from the roots of pragmatism. The emphasis of progressivism was on child-centred approaches, play and so on. But they have not considered the society. The reconstructionism laid stress on society-centred education. At the 1932 progressivists’ annual meeting, George Counts urged educators to consider social and economic problems of the era and to use the schools as the agents of social reforms. According to George Counts the social issue during 1930s was racial and class discrimination, poverty and unemployment. Basically, the term ‘reconstructionism’ was coined by John Dewey, but Theodre Brameld is often considered as the Founder. Brameld asserted this as a crisis philosophy. Teachers and students should become change agents to improve the society. It stressed on realistic reform strategies, commitment by teachers and students, curriculum based on social issues and social services. The popular proponents of reconstructionism include Mario Fantini, Harold Shane, Alvin Toffler. They have considered a curriculum, which emphasizes cultural pluralism, equality and futurism. The programme proposed by them for education has following features: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

It critically examines the cultural heritage and entire civilization of the society. It examines critical issues of the society without any hesitation. It is very much intended to bring social and constructive changes. It cultivates future planning attitudes, which consider world’s social realities. A definite programme designed for teachers and students should enhance cultural renewal, interculturalism and internationalism. The three major groups, which lead these movements, are as follows: 1. Internationalists 2. Reconceptualists 3. Equality of educational opportunity 1. Internationalists Emphasis is on internationally competent national curriculum by promoting national culture, values, political and economic systems. A world curriculum and universal core should be emphasized. The common core of knowledge is essential for global peace and cooperation. Some of them also emphasize international languages. They believe the most compulsory spoken languages in the world in an order are (1) Mandarin, (2) English, (3) Hindi, (4) Spanish, (5) Russian, (6) Arabic, (7) Bengali, (8) Portuguese, (9) Malay-Indo region and (10) Japanese. 2. Reconceptialists They are critical about the existing bureaucratic and technocratic school models. They also think that they are unable to quantify or verify the components of curriculum, and are not clear about the philosophical and methodological tools. They have expanded the field by the way of including mystical, intuitive, personal linguistic, political and social systems of theorizing. Further, they have stressed on broader problems and issues and have made attempts to refine, reflect, rethink, interpret and reconceptualize anything. They are very sensitive to social, political,

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philosophical, psychological and economic implications. They have considered the progressive philosophies like learner-centred, relevant, humanistic, radical reform. They also believe that the present technocratic and bureaucratic systems dominate individuals and reduce them to powerless manipulated component. Some of the reconceptualists such as Maxine Green, Paulo Frierie, William Pinter and Ivan Illich advocated such curriculum. According to Maxine Green, the curriculum should include personal expression, intellectual consciousness and reflective self-consciousness. According to William Pinter, subject matter should deal with personal becoming autonomy, the soul and heart, affective needs, matured personality, and self-directions (i.e. philosophical, psychological and spiritual). Rugg, Counts and Dewey have suggested dealing with inequality, conflicts in socio-economic issues. Ivan Illich, a radical critic, has insisted a curriculum, which is less institutionalized, less formal and less discriminatory for the purpose of emancipation. Paulo Frierie refers to a curriculum which includes human phenomena, problematic situation and background awareness, with potential to transform the world. His ‘pedagogy for the oppressed’, for the student and the poor, describes how people can move through different stages to ultimately be able to take action and overcome oppression. This brings in major change, which Paulo Frierie calls the critical transforming stage. He thinks that people should become active participants in changing their status through social action, which in turn changes the social order. He invites a dialogue between adults and students who are sensitive to change the curriculum advocated by this group that focuses on community, national and world problems and is based on the interdisciplinary approach. In general, the curriculum advocated by them includes social sciences, history, political science, economics, sociology, psychology and philosophy and not the hard sciences. The main thrust is on developing individual self-realization and freedom through cognitive and intellectual activities and then to liberate people from restrictions, limitations and controls of society. The idea is to shift from knowledge dominance to activity orientation and from action to reflection. 3. Equality of Educational Opportunity More than 150 years prior to the emergence of reconstructionism as a philosophy, the idea of equality has rooted in political ideology where free, universal education – ‘rise of common school’ – was advocated by Horace Mann. He thinks beyond anything, education is the basic equalizer. It does not say classless society. Many questions were raised about the role of school in equality in view of the existing differences in the society. The modern view of educational equality that emerged in the 1950s through 1970s goes much further. James Coleman has outlined five views of inequality of educational opportunity of which later four are parallel to reconstructionists’ philosophy. They are the following: 1. Inequality defined by the same curriculum for all children, in view of equal school facilities 2. Inequality defined in terms of racial composition of schools 3. Teacher’s morale and teacher’s expectations of students 4. Inequality based on school consequences or outcomes for students with equal backgrounds and abilities 5. Inequalities based on school consequences for students with unequal backgrounds and abilities

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Equality is a kind of egalitarianism and utopian ideal. In his classic context, Gardner points out that in a democracy the differences among groups cannot be dwelt, and we cannot ignore them, which is described by him as a dilemma. So, it is important that curriculum framers use their rationale as a basis of their philosophy in constructing/framing a suitable curriculum. Education for Social Reconstruction They view school as an important means for building a new social order. In a series of lectures delivered to various educational associations, George S. Counts called progressive educators to address great crises. Counts says schools as one of the many social agencies. He also says that this should not deter progressive educators from channelizing school for social reconstruction. According to Brameld, a large body of knowledge – achievement resources – is waiting to be used, which should be used to remove obstacles and solve the pervading problems. Thus, the curriculum must be geared to the transformation of the rising generation so that they embrace the goals and develop the needed means for collective social reconstruction. Utopian Vision Although the reconstructionism embraces democracy as the appropriate goal of education, democratic ends cannot be attained by indoctrination. History is replaced with utopian schemes for education and society. ‘Almost all utopians emphasize regularity, uniformity, authoritarianism, isolation and autarchy’. The prescriptions of reconstructionism are concerned with promoting the welfare of the matter in a democratically regulated utopian society. IV. Romantic Vision Romantic Naturalism These reforms rejected traditional conception of a child as a miniature adult; they protested the practice of coercive authoritarian methods. They embraced the notion of the child as a flower to unfold naturally. They emphasize that the school must be an environment in which the child’s spontaneity, felt needs and activity are effective in learning. Science and Sentiment Child study movement in education began as an effort to induce educational reform through the scientific study of the child, but it was dominated by sentiment. Their belief in centrality of child life in the curriculum led them to regard child interests and spontaneous activity indulgently as achievement rather than as means towards intellective and social growth. But Dewey admonished Romantic progressivists for their failure. Humanistic Curriculum During 1960s as a reaction against subject-dominated cognitive learning, humanistic thinking was promoted. This can be seen from Charles Silberman’s best-selling book ‘Crisis in the Classroom’ where emphasis was laid on humanizing American schools. It has complained that schools are training children with docility and conformity. He suggested the British infant school system at the elementary level and independent study, peer tutoring and community and work experiences at the secondary level. He believes the schools should be reformed. This movement basically stemmed from the potential movements in psychology. It was rooted in the works of Artur Jersild, Arthur Comb and Donald Syng, who have emphasized selfconcept and motivation on achievement. They also think that self-concept is the most important determinant of behaviour.

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They have mostly emphasized affective rather than cognitive outcomes. The curriculum was mostly drawn from the works of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, whose goal is to produce humanizing people and total human beings. The works of both the psychologists were highlighted by certain words, indicating affective aspects such as striving, enhancing, experiencing, self-determination, independence, integration and self-actualization. Humanists were critical about the failure of schools in maintaining humanistic standards of schools; they have also advocated higher levels of consciousness. They say that schools are unconcerned about the higher planes of understanding and enhancement of mind or self-knowledge. Thus, they believe that students should be sent to out-of-school activities such as yoga, transcendental meditation, group encounters and psychotherapy. They have advocated students’ independence, self-direction, and meaningful student–teacher relationship. But during that time many raised lots of criticism against such practices as bizarre procedures. Humanists also failed in presenting empirical evidences. Mostly they showed paintings and other such material, but they could not provide proper evidences to modify behavioural aspects. Radical School Reform During late 1960s and 1970s, many radical thinkers have published extensively on reforms of schools. The most prominent among them are Edgar Friedenberg, John Holt, Paul Goodman, A.S. Neil and Ivan Illich. All the above radical reformists emphasized to bring reforms on the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Established methods of schooling Compulsory schooling Adult authority School rules

They referred to students as prisoners, teachers as prison guards and schools as prisons. The schools keep the students locked up and restrict them from free expression. Schools are the places of discrimination. Friedenberg believes that teachers ‘dislike and distrust’ students. Students are always fearful about teachers. Teachers show repressed hostility, resentment, suppressed anger and jealousy towards students as they have youthful energy. In John Holt’s book on ‘How Children Fail’, there is nothing positive about teachers or schools. Further, it highlights how students drop out schools. They force children to come out with only right answers and learning becomes stupid. In a way it is ‘learning not to learn’. Students adopt fear and failure to please teachers. Some children also mislead teachers with fake answers. Paul Goodmans’s thesis is that ‘our society is with full of spurious and false values that have produced sick schools’. He says that schools do little to education. They provide jobs to millions of people, a market for textbook companies, babysitting service for the parents and keep the kids off the streets. He says the youths are taught in schools to adjust to sick schools. The only solution is to do away with compulsory education. A. S. Neil’s extreme liberalism was negated by J. Dewey. Neil operated his Summer Hill School at England and wrote about innate goodness of the child. He believes that the child is innately wise and realistic if left without adults’ control. ‘Those who want to become intellectuals will become intellectuals. And those who are only fit to sweep streets will sweep streets.’ He is not in favour of formal teaching or instructions. He does not believe in examinations or homework. Following these rules students at Summer Hill proved to be successful in their life. Another radical critic Ivan Illich is totally against the formal schooling itself. He stresses on a society without schools, i.e. ‘de-schooling society’. He is critical about the schools as coercive,

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discriminatory and destructive towards their wards. He says with de-schooling all those can be eliminated. In lieu of schools, he has suggested small learning networks such as the following:  Educational objects: shops, libraries, museums, art galleries, which are open to learners.  Skill exchanges: exchanging between those who are efficient.  Peer matching: identifying and engaging students who are intended in a particular area. Educators at large act as advisors. V. Inner Vision – Existentialism During the second half of the twentieth century, the search for individual awareness in an age of mechanical mass has led to the resurrection of existentialist thought. Basically, this thought rooted in the Danish philosopher-theologitian Soren Kierkegeard, which was extended greatly in the writing of Neitzsche, Heidegger, Jasperse, Cambus, Byber and J. Paul Sartre. Kierkegeard contends that humans cannot find their reality through rational thought, but can find it through the passion of faith. Our highest interest is our own existence. He also feels that our existence constitutes our reality. Greene contends that science is inadequate for the existentialists because ‘scientific thinking is concerned with objectifications and excludes the intuitive awareness and self-encounters required of philosophy’. She further says, ‘When the existentialist speaks of knowing, he speaks of passionately engaging his ideas with his life’. Existentialists go beyond reason, as it is not possible to find answer to the ultimate question of the meaning of human’s existence through reason. Existentialists believe that route to knowledge is personal. So, they feel education should help the individual to find meaning to his/her own existence. As such life is not arranged, it is meaningless to look at, so the school should provide such an environment in which ‘the full exercise of the spontaneous human self is the avenue to authenticity as a person’:  Educators must save the child from pressure of overload of social controls.  School must direct attention to release human self. At the same time, they have not totally negated the organized subject matter. They say that social studies can be taught to make the child to realize individual freedom rather than citizenship. Likewise, literature, poetry, art, music and social studies can be significant sources to bring out self-development and self-fulfilment. Here, knowledge is not transmitted, but offered to the pupil, and teachers engage them to think for oneself and make knowledge personal. Some of the existentialists (Knellar) gave to the extent of abolishing the school altogether. However, there was criticism on the existentialist system of evolving his own self philosophy at such a young age of 4–6 years old. They raised many questions, like how is it possible for a child to evolve the meaning of his/her own existence?

SOCIOLOGICAL BASES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Curriculum development always looks at the social conditions, social needs, demands of the society and the aspirations of people. The most important functions of curriculum especially in modern technocratic societies need to bring out appropriate personalities who think about the multicultural aspects. Basically, it depends on the type of society for which the curriculum is derived.

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To develop an appropriate understanding about sociological basis for curriculum development, it is essential to look into cultural implications of the respective societies on the individual, school and the overall personality development of an individual.

Culture Cultural analysis helps in understanding the relation between culture and personality of an individual. Culture is a complex whole. It includes everything related to material and non-material aspects of a society and life of the people. Material culture can be known through the practices related to food, clothing and all other material things used by the people; similarly, the nonmaterial includes all the culture and tradition related to values, attitudes, human behaviour, etc. When the child is reared in a particular society, it acquires those cultural practices, values and habits observed in that society. Individual’s personality genesis takes place right from the childhood through the enculturation process. It acts according to the society, all the social norms, values, etc. For instance, a child born in India acquires all the cultural practices and can be easily identified as an Indian in many respects. He is like many other people in the society, similarly an American, African, etc. It is also obvious that culture is transmitted from the elder/earlier generation to the younger/later generation. According to anthropological interpretation, an individual acquires various qualities and other aspects in life:  Every human being in certain respects is like all other men – biologically.  Every human being in certain respects is like some other men – sociologically.  Every human being in certain respects is like no other men – psychologically. It can be observed diagrammatically. Qualities in humans

Biologically

All other Men

like

Sociologically

Some other Men

=

like

Psychologically like

+

No other Men

Anthropological perspective – qualities in humans Then, how does a personality emerge in a society through culture? Every culture has its own patterns of socialization and particular standards of personality like an ideal adult image. In Linton’s words: 1. Personality emerges from individual’s early experience. 2. Certain similar experiences produce certain similar personality traits.

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3. A particular culturally patterned rearing leads to certain similarities. 4. Cultural patterns of rearing vary from society to society; for example, Indians are different from Americans in many respects. Whereas in ‘Parsons’ view personalities emerge partially due to family and partially through peer societies: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Child gets liberated from the emotional attachment to the society. Socialization patterns get universally accepted. Child internalizes values and norms from the society than from the family. Child is able to initiate and adapts to adult roles of the society.

The changing cultural practices affect individual personalities. Margaret Mead points out that the American children are exposed to the rapid-changing culture. From generation to generation, the changes occur, but in fast-changing cultures changes occur within the same generation and the children grow without any models. ‘We people, citizens, parents and teachers are rearing unknown children for unknown world’. – Mead Today, mass media which has become a powerful agent of socialization, and a new cultural transformation is taking place; it is very difficult to plan learning. Anthropologists agree that one needs to conform to social norms to maintain a particular social order. Group interaction leads to acquire some necessary skills, values and techniques. Each generation gets a direction from the earlier, otherwise each generation has to discover the same things again and again, and then improvement and progress will become almost impossible. It is very much obvious in American culture that children are much influenced by peer culture and they adjust to peer demand. It is also observed that there is a crowed mind and market personality. In view of the present conditions, we need to devise new methods and new techniques, which help in dealing with social and individual conflicts and a new order of thinking.

Implications of Culture to Education 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

School as a countervailing socializing agent Education for values and feelings Autonomy, individuality and creativity The dangers of ethnocentricity The need for translators

1. School as a Countervailing Socializing Agent Today, the highly influential socializing agent is school. Gradually, the responsibility of family is also shifted to school. In view of this, schools have to take the responsibility of teaching simple social skills and developing an orientation to self and other world. In this context, it is apt to quote Kluckhon’s phrase: ‘Schools are custodians of moral values, democratic ideas, certain aspects of personality’. In modern times, mostly teachers are the models of predominantly middle class code of our societies. Schools will focus on values, unique personalities or greater self. Culture and Personality The task of curriculum makers and teachers is similar. They have to tune the curriculum and teaching to be a social reality; i.e. curriculum should include the

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processes of interpreting, questioning and contemplating change, constantly focusing on changing knowledge about society and the role of individual in that society. In this context, Linton says that in addition to training people, it should train them to think, be willing to think and provide reference points from which they should think. 2. Education for Values and Feelings Linton also believes that the shape of the future depends mostly on selection of values we pursue and on the further development of technology. The very function of culture is to foster values. The task of education is to make this process more conscious and rationally defensible, and the role of curriculum is to make it more effective. 3. Autonomy, Individuality and Creativity Present curriculum lacks independent thinking and judgement. Teachers lack sufficient skills to foster creativity. The curriculum and instruction should provide opportunities for inquiry, discovery, experiments to develop autonomy, individuality and creativity. Genesis of self-concept can also be given importance. 4. Dangers of Ethnocentricity There is ethnic crisis globally. This can be solved only through appropriate curricular patterns, which include the contents with cultural sensitivity, innovative methods of teaching and developing empathetic attitude. For instance, today most of the Indians and other third world countries are encountering too much racial discrimination and violence. 5. Need for Translators There is a regular practice of revision of curriculum. It is a bad practice to always increase contents in the name of new ideas and issues. We need to take into consideration the translation of the ideas and facts with the help of behavioural psychology while developing curriculum and instruction. Now, it is important to understand the curricular implications on the school functions. It is quite obvious that the functions of school are very predominant and its implications to curriculum. In Goodson’s words, educational and cultural isomorphism refers to education as culturally ‘capsuled’ social institution. 1. Education as a preserver and transmitter of the cultural heritage 2. Education as an instrument for transforming culture 3. Education as a means for individual’s and nation’s development 1. Education as a Preserver and Transmitter of Cultural Heritage There are debates about preserving and transmitting functions of school as to which is most important. A group of curricularists argue that curriculum has to preserve the heritage and race’s wisdom through education. The accumulated wisdom’s basic truths and values have to be passed from generation to generation. The other group, rational humanists and classicists emphasize developing rationality, which would make individuals to grow the faculty of rationality and help to rationalize. Subjects of greatest rational content should be included and given higher priority, subjects like liberal arts, i.e. humanities. Griswold felt the need for only technical and vocational education and skill training but not education. Bestor also emphasized basic aspects of education, which include the following: 1. Intellectual development as a distinctive function of school. 2. Intellectual training through basic skill and disciplines.

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3. Schools are burdened with enormous extension of functions, which will cut down the time for the purpose for which school functions (Bestor). 2. Education as an Instrument for Transforming Culture Education deals with problems of culture. Horace Maun regarded education that acts as arms of public policy, and an instrument for dealing with the problems facing the nation. Dewey has brought in greater creative functions of education. He says that school is not merely to play residential functions. It has to shape the individuals through shaping culture. He believes that education has to play both sociological and psychological functions. School is primarily a social institution (Dewey). According to him essentials should be placed first and refinements second in curriculum. He also insists on scientific inquiry-based curriculum. The fundamental ideas which education/curriculum should emphasize are the following: 1. Culture of a society at a given time and place should enable the child to participate. 2. Social context-related curriculum, i.e. with the social framework curriculum, should be designed. 3. It requires values, which indicate the existing means and also the men. 4. Fundamental training for values and loyalties is required for that culture. 5. Instilling the qualities is required to appreciate the change. 6. Reconstructionists also believe that education is social engineering. According to Counts, the task of education is ‘to prepare individuals to take part in the management of conditions under which they live’. According to O. B. Smith, ‘it is clear that the time for building a comprehensive social perspective is here’. He also believes that we need to have continuous critical examination and reconstruction of curriculum. He believes that educators must undertake the following into consideration and accordingly frame the curriculum:    

Analysing the social trends Considering the problems of society Speculating on social consequences Maintaining a democratic way of life and projecting such values through education

Thus, school functions are enormous and it needs a lot of serious thought and action. 3. Education for Individual Development According to Deweys’ philosophy, individual development is the chief function of education, developing all powers of individual, such as creative imagination, freedom, independence, right to self-discovery, physical and emotional powers. This focuses on whole child concept and child-centred school, and also child’s creative self-expression, individuality, activity, freedom from impositions and growth from within. The emotional aspects give direction to guidance and counselling in schools. Finally, the school must not only introduce the students to the skills and powers necessary for survival or for self-realization, but also act as an integrating force in shaping beliefs and attitudes to make them coherent with the requirements of the democratic way of life. It needs to act as an integrator of the pluralistic and contradictory values and expectations found in stratified society. Holistically, the curriculum should consider the following: 1. With a view critically curricularists should decide either for classics or modern literature as curriculum

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2. Guidance as a part of curriculum 3. Individualization of curriculum, content, methods of training 4. Fostering creative thinking through essentials Thus, curriculum framers need to analyse different dimensions of society and sociological issues related to education and finally should confirm and devise suitable curriculum.

PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Nature of the Learner as Curricular Source and Influence Obviously, then, educators’ conceptions of the nature of the learner, and their idealizations of the good person leading the good life in the good society, have a direct bearing on how they formulate educational objectives and the curriculum. According to Tyler, ‘education is a process of changing the behaviour patterns of people’, a behaviourist’s conception. According to Skinner, ‘a student is “taught” in the sense that he is induced to engage in new forms of behavior and in specific forms upon specific occasions’, and ‘teaching is simply the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement’. In sharp opposition to this view is Dewey’s definition of education as ‘that reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience and which increases ability to direct the course of subsequent experience’. Thus, Dewey sees the learner as having control of his or her destiny and not an object to be manipulated and shaped by contingencies of reinforcement. Dewey’s ideal of the learner as an autonomously thinking, socially responsible being is contiguous with the ideal of democratic citizenship. There are conflicting conceptions of the learner:  The learner as an autonomously thinking, socially responsible individual who is capable of controlling his or her destiny  The learner as an organism to be conditioned so as to respond in an externally controlled and predictable way  The learner as a mind to be disciplined The first conception is based on organismic, gestalt and field theories of learning, coupled with democratic social theory, whereas the second is derived from behaviourist theory. The third conception derives from the theory of mental discipline or faculty psychology, which has been virtually displaced as a psychological theory largely as a result of Thorndike’s research early in 20th century. Nevertheless, it continues to have its adherents, particularly among perennialists and essentialist, who see the mental faculties being strengthened through rigorous exercise. Traditionally, it was held that certain studies – Latin, Mathematics and other classical liberal studies – are most suitable for training the mind and that such training is transferable to whatever mental tasks the learner may confront. In attacking progressive education as ‘anti-intellectualist’, Hofstadter argues that the experimental evidence has not refuted the notion of mental discipline and learning transfer, and he sees validity in Bruner’s thesis that massive general transfer can be achieved under circumstances in which the learner learns how to learn. However, Bruner’s thesis is based on a model of the learner who is capable of thinking by means of a process of inquiry/discovery, although parallels have been drawn between this process of inquiry/discovery and Dewey’s reflective

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thinking. Bruner confined such learning to the style of the mature scholar-specialist on the forefront of his or her academic discipline, whereas Dewey viewed reflective thinking as a process of individual-social problem solving that transcends subject matter boundaries. Moreover, where Bruner’s thesis that ‘intellectual activity anywhere is the same’ presupposes that the learner is to be regarded as a miniature adult scholar, Dewey holds that the child is a child, qualitatively different from the adult in cognitive style, interests and needs. Bruner’s thesis, which serves as a basis for the rationale that guided the discipline-centred curriculum reforms of the 1960s, allowed the curriculum developers to ignore the nature of the learner as a source of educational objectives and as an influence on the curriculum, since the immature learner was to be created in the image of the university scholar-specialist.

Relevance of Ideas about Learning to the Curriculum Knowledge about the learner and learning is relevant to making a host of curriculum decisions. A curriculum is essentially a plan for learning consisting of goals for learning and ways for attaining these goals. A curriculum plan is a result of decisions regarding three different matters: 1. Selection and arrangements of content 2. Choice of the learning experiences by which this content is to be manipulated and by which the objectives not achievable through content alone can be attained 3. Plans for the optimum conditions for learning These decisions cannot be made adequately without knowing a good deal about learners and learning. To know what to teach at any given age level requires a reference to what is known about the development of children. Knowledge about characteristic thought from various age levels should determine the following: What is the most propitious time to teach any particular subject? What is the sequence of these experiences? How to translate that is to be taught into learnable experiences? If we know how intelligence functions and how capacities develop, we can tailor curriculum content to the needs and capacities of children. Knowledge about transfer of learning can help in making decisions about the efficiency of learning: how to make whatever can be learnt in school is most useful for the rest of life and how to apply it to things other than those in which the school experience centres. Knowledge about the total development of the individual can help discover what the total range of objectives can be and how the curriculum can accommodate or develop this range. The cruciality of ideas about learning and learners to curriculum making is widely recognized. Most curriculum guides point out the importance of understanding students. Some sketch the developmental stages and processes which will aid this understanding. Many a programme justified on the basis of meeting ‘the needs of students’ even though these needs may be interpreted in many different ways. Various categories of learners are recognized: the exceptional children and emotionally disturbed ones as well as those with different degrees of academic potential and intellectual capacity. This ‘psychological’ basis of the curriculum is so commonly accepted that some writers even suggest that, in comparison to the emphasis on understanding culture and society, there is an overemphasis on the psychological foundations of education, that there is too much psychology, and that both social orientation and the role of content are neglected. The clarity and precision, however, of the psychological knowledge applied in shaping the curriculum leave much to be desired. Theories of learning seem to have a great capacity for

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survival. Current curriculum patterns and current methods of teaching reflect trances of all historic learning theories from faculty psychology to the field theory. One can find the fossilized remains of almost any learning theory that ever existed, no matter how outdated or how discredited it may be. Both the teaching and the curriculum today reflect composites of many different theories of learning, sometimes unrecognized by those who practise them. Certainly, some of our ‘classical’ subjects are often still taught by the principles of mental discipline. The exclusive emphasis on the development of intellectual powers advocated by many today reflects a disregard of the organic wholeness of the learner and of the learning act established by current psychological research. Many practices, such as teaching skills out of context and by rote drill, way back to the S-R theory of learning. Conditioning is often used as a method of controlling and changing conduct and values. A passive mind is still assumed in too large a part of teaching, and the application of the concept of active learning is shallow and confined to ‘activities’, such as construction, manual work and artistic experiences. Learning is complex and there are many different kinds: mastering motor skills, memorizing information, learning, feelings, concepts and intellectual skills such as generalizing scientific inquiry and problem solving. Learning theorists may be deceiving themselves by looking for common laws to explain processes which may have little in common. Such empirical laws of learning which exist are limited to the lowest levels of learning. Little as yet is known precisely about the higher levels of learning, such as thinking, attitudes and interests (Spence, 1959, pp. 92–93). Theoretical explanations seem to concentrate on certain types of learning or conditions of learning, omitting others. Behaviourist associationist theories, which still dominate the field, overlook ideational learning. Field theories stress the learning of ideas and insights, while the dynamics of learning such as motivational patterns are the chief concern of psychoanalytic theories. Although classroom learning occurs in a social setting, relatively little is available about the social factors in learning. Consequently, although learning is central to the educative process, it is difficult to determine just what it is – under what conditions it occurs or how to maximize it under school conditions (Haggard, 1955, p. 150). In order to understand the contribution of psychology as a base for curriculum development, it is apt to broadly discuss learning theories which are classified as follows:  Behaviourist or associationist theories  Cognitive or information-processing theories  Phenomenological or humanistic theories To develop an insight and understand the curricular implications of various theories under each group, a brief description of each theory and its implications to curriculum is presented below.

Behaviourist or Associationist Theories Different theories considered under this group are the following:     

Connectionism – Thorndike Classical conditioning – Pavlov, Watson Operant conditioning – B. F. Skinner Observational learning and modelling – Bandura Hierarchical learning – Gagne

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1. Connectionism Edward Thorndike in America conducted the behaviourist experiments on animals. Many behaviourists in due course of time have imitated him. He considered learning a habit formation. This simple habit formation would lead to complex structures of individual behaviour over a period. He described habits as connections and bonds. He said that these connections or bonds in the classroom could be translated into desirable connections. Three laws of Thorndike’s Theory 1. The law of readiness: Emphasis is on the nervous readiness. It makes an individual to conduct oneself to get satisfaction, which is misinterpreted by many as a readiness to read. 2. The law of exercise: Emphasis is on habit formation or strengthening of these bonds based on the exposure. 3. The law of effect: Emphasis is on those responses which lead to satisfaction and strengthen the connection, and those with discomfort weaken the connection. Law of exercise is very much useful in modern times in bringing about desirable modifications in the behaviour. Curricular Implications 1. An individual’s behaviour has an influence of prevailing learning conditions. 2. Appropriate stimuli can bring change in attitudes and abilities of an individual over a period. 3. Instructional experiences can be designed and controlled as per the requirement. 4. It is important to select appropriate stimuli. Although this impact may not be seen directly in school curriculum today, this has influenced Tyler, Taba and Bruner in their theories related to curriculum. Tyler and Taba gave much credit to Thorndike in their writings, but they disagree with Thorndike’s concept of specific stimuli with specific response. Instead, they have proposed more generalized view of learning. Taba and Bruner have popularized the inquiry/discovery method, but in reality they were rooted in Thorndike. They also believe that rote learning and transfer in learning is more effective. 2. Classical Conditioning This theory of learning emphasized eliciting a response by means of a previously neutral or inadequate stimulus. For instance, Pavlov’s experiment shows that the dog salivates to bell; i.e. a biologically neutral stimulus produces the response. The implications of animal research were widely used by novelists and moviemakers and also the popular human experiment done by Watson on children. For instance, in his experiment on an 11-month old child with the fur doll, a loud sound emanated whenever the child touched the doll to elicit fear. The child was conditioned not to touch the fur doll; i.e. the children should be conditioned in early years of life. He also claimed, ‘Give me dozen infants I will guarantee, taken any one at random and train that child like any one I want, i.e. a doctor, lawyer or a beggar’. 3. Operant Conditioning Skinner is the most popular behaviourist in the recent times, who applied his theories to classroom instruction. According to him there are two kinds of responses, the first ‘elicited’, i.e. a definite stimulus, a definite response, and the second an ‘emitted’

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response, which is not identified with a definite stimulus. If the response is emitted, it is called operant. If it is elicited, it is called respondent. These reinforces can also be classified as primary, secondary and generalized and also as positive and negative reinforces. 1. Primary reinforces are related to any stimulus that satisfies a basic drive, food, water or sex, which is similar to conditioning theories. 2. Secondary reinforces are related to the approval of people around them such as elders, teachers and friends receiving gifts, praise or money, awards, etc. Secondary reinforces do not satisfy basic drives but can be translated. Skinner called them generalized reinforces. The operant behaviour needs reinforcement to continue, otherwise the behaviour will discontinue. For instance, a bright child in the classroom may not continue to perform better unless his/her performance is approved by the teacher. For instance, the child gets ‘A’ grade for its performance will get reinforcement, i.e. a positive reinforcement. Unless the child completes its homework, it will not be allowed to watch cartoon and TV. It is a negative reinforcement; i.e. withdrawal of the positive reinforcement for sometime acts as a negative reinforcer in learning. It is not a punishment. Skinner does not believe in punishment for behaviour modification. The selective operants will help in bringing out desired responses; i.e. in the learning process, behaviour can be shaped or modified. Through repeated reinforces, the behaviour can be shaped or learning can take place. 4. Observational Learning and Modelling Albert Bandura conducted studies extensively on television’s impact on child’s behaviour. How a child or adults observe and receive models from the environment. Especially by observing aggressive models from movies/films and cartoons, they imitate the behaviour. By observing subdued temperaments, children also acquire non-aggressive behaviour. Observation and imitation are excellent techniques in learning to acquire a new technique of coaching and tips to use in learning. 5. Hierarchical Learning Robert Gagne in his hierarchical learning theory explained the hierarchical arrangement of eight types of learning and four types of learning outcomes. The first five types were considered as behavioural operations; the sixth and seventh types as both behavioural and cognitive; and the eighth as cognitive in nature, which is a highest form of thinking: 1. Signal learning (classical conditioning) – a response to a given signal, e.g. fear to a rat 2. Stimulus response (S-R) (operant conditioning) – response to a stimulus, e.g. responding to a command ‘sit down’ 3. Motor chains – connecting 21 more S-R connections for a complex skill, e.g. writing a word 4. Verbal association – linking two or more ideas/words, e.g. translating a word from foreign language 5. Multiple discrimination – responding in different ways to different items of a particular set, e.g. discrimination between grass, herbs, shrubs and trees 6. Concepts – reacting to a stimulus in an abstract way, e.g. animals, grammar and stars

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7. Rules – changing two/more stimulus situations or concepts, e.g. animals have offspring, all yellow fruits contain vitamin A 8. Problem solving – applying known rules to an unknown situation to find the solutions or solve a problem, e.g. finding the area of a rectangle given the length and breadth. Problem solving 8

Cognitive

Rules 7 Both behavior and cognitive

Concepts 6 Animal, plants etc

Multiple discrimination 5 Grass, herbs, shrubs, tree

Verbal association 4 English -Telugu

Behavioral operations

Motor chains S-R, S-R, S-R

3

Stimulus response 2 S-R

Signal learning

1

According to him there are five learning outcomes, which cover all the domains of learning. These learning outcomes can be observed and ensured. Learning Outcomes Cognitive domain

1. Intellectual skills

To categorize, use symbols, concept formation, rules, problem solving

2. Information

Knowledge about facts, names, dates, etc.

3. Cognitive strategies / learning strategies

Skills required in organizing the information

Psychomotor domain

4. Motor skills

Ability to coordinate movements, e.g. muscular movements and complex movements

Affective domain

5. Attitudes, feelings and emotions

Both positive and negative experiences lead to acquisition and expression

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Gagne has introduced a different design of instructional event. In this instructional process, he gave the idea of task analysis, which is a common procedure used in industry and business. Behaviourism and Its Implications to Curriculum It is very popular than most of the earlier systems of education that believed in behaviourist curricula, where emphasis is laid on prescriptive curriculum, rote learning techniques, drilling, and conditioning (right from ancient philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle). Even in the modern times and the technocratic education, this behaviourist curriculum is used, for instance, the interactive CDs programmed with various aspects of learning, simulations used in pilot training and games CDs. Most of the behaviouristic theories, principles and trends are related to behavioural objectives in teaching, learning, writing, assessing and evaluation:    

 





Basic skills training programmes, e.g. DISTAR (direct instructional training) Programmes in language, SQ3Rs (survey, question, read, recite and review) Self-directed study (through small steps programmes) Individualized instruction such as the following:  IPI (individually prescribed instruction)  IGE (individually guided education)  TAI (team-assisted individualization) Instructional design or system design models Teacher training programmes  Simulated teaching  Microteaching  Competency-based teacher education  Performance-based teacher education Education technology  Programmed instruction  Instructional TV  Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) Planning and evaluation programmes, such as management by objectives (MBO), planning programming, budgeting system (PPBS)

Similarly, many modes of training, planning levels and instructional designs are using these theories. The emphasis laid today is on the following:  Remediation, skill acquisition, basic or advanced learning (e.g., learning to read and flying an aeroplane)  Well-defined short-term and long-term objectives  Learners’ abilities-based instructional material preparation  Shaping behaviour through programmed instruction  Eliciting correct response through repetition, drilling, practice, probing, etc.  Reinforcement, review and homework  Diagnosing, assessing, reassessing learners’ needs, objectives and tasks

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The implications of behaviourist theories are very wide from ancient to modern times in many fields. However, there is criticism against them, such as the following:  The learning is described as too simple and mechanical.  Over-reliance on animal experiments.  Human learning involves complex thinking process beyond respondent conditioning.

Cognitive Theories – Curriculum Mostly curriculum development is based on cognitive theories, which is very convenient to develop, evaluate, organize and establish. Most of the psychologists consider human growth as cognitive, social, psychological and physical. There is a long-time debate about the impact of heredity or environment on the growth and development of individuals. However, there is a progressive change in physical, developmental aspects, and it also depends on both. Some of the prominent theorists’ implications to curriculum can give an insight from the discussion presented below: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Jean Piaget Bruner Guilford Howard Gardner

1. Jean Piaget The most popular cognitive psychologist Jean Piaget’s contributions are widely recognized right from 1950 to 1960s the world over. At the same time environmentalist’s theories and compensatory education were also popularized. Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory According to Piaget’s theory, four stages of development were considered from birth to maturity. A brief note on each stage may help in understanding its implications to curriculum development. 1. Sensori Motor stage (birth to 2 years): The child’s progress starts with reflex operations. It cannot distinguish between inanimate and animate objects and thinks that objects have permanence. It tries to relate similar objects. 2. Pre-operational stage (2–7 years): The child tries to relate things and events symbolically; for instance, food is to eat and gradually the child develops ability to learn more and more complex concepts such as fruits, vegetable and animals. 3. Concrete operational stage (7–11 years): The child develops the ability to think logically and logical sequence and logical relationship while manipulating the problem-solving situation. By getting exposed to concrete objects or relating to the past experiences, the above learning takes place. The conservation concept develops, spatial relations as left and right develops. 4. Formal operational stage (age 11 onwards): The child will be able to make formal and abstract operations. The child analyses ideas, and comprehends spatial and temporal relationships. Young persons are able to think logically abstract data and evaluate, formulate hypotheses and deduce possible consequences from them. Learning depends on the individual abilities, intellectual potentials and environmental experiences.

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According to Piaget’s theory, the development is a sequential, progressive, successive sophisticated and integrated hierarchical process. There is a relation between the Piaget’s environmental experiences and Dewey’s learning through experiential principles. The three basic principles of learning according to Piaget are assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. The previous experiences are incorporated into new experiences, i.e. assimilation. Developing new cognitive structures is accommodation, the process between the previously understood and yet to be understood concepts in equilibration; thus, these can be related to Dewey’s experiential principles. Accommodation

Assimilation Filling new data into already existing schemes

Equilibrium

Changing already existing model, reality to fit new ideas

In this context, the debate about who influenced whom is difficult to understand. Dewey influenced Tyler, Taba and Bruner. We can find the correlation between all the five theories. Piaget also influenced Tyler, Taba and Bruner. Tyler’s three methods of organizing learning experiences are continuity, sequence and integration. Taba spent time extensively on Piaget’s stages of development in conducting research and was in favour of such curriculum 2. Bruner According to Bruner, there are three processes of learning: 1. Acquisition 2. Transformation 3. Evaluation Acquisition is grasping of new information, translating the existing ideas into new, i.e. extrapolation, interpolation or translation, and verifying the relevance of the process or appropriation. The close relationship between the theories of Tyler, Taba, Piaget and Bruner can be seen from the following:

1.

Piaget’s

Bruner’s

Tyler’s

Dewey’s

Principles

Process

Methods

Conceptions

Assimilation

2. Accommodation

3.

Equilibrium

1.

Acquisition

1.

Continuity

1.

Situation

2.

Transformation

2.

Sequence

2.

Interaction

3.

Evaluation

3.

Integration

3.

Continuity

Relationship between Piaget, Bruner, Tyler and Dewey’s

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3. Guilford The process of thinking is very complex and difficult to understand. Guilford came out with a factorial analysis and presented a three-dimensional model of mental abilities called structure of intellect (SOI model). According to Guilford, the three dimensions seen in the figure are operations, products and contents.

I. Operations (5)

Evaluation Convergent thinking Divergent thinking Memory Cognition Units

II. Products (6)

III. Contents (4)

Classes Relations Systems Transformations Implications Figural Symbolic Semantic Behavioral

The three-dimensional graphical model gives out (5 × 6 × 4) 120 cells or different mental abilities. In the recent past still the research is ongoing to find out some more empty cells left uncovered mental abilities. His theory has raised many questions about assessment techniques for all the abilities. It lacks information-processing concepts. It needs special attention from the curriculum framers, i.e. multiple intelligence or thinking processes; several categories of learning are also required.

Operations

Evaluation Convergent thinking Divergent thinking Memory Cognition Units Classes Relations

Products

Systems Transformations Implications

Contents

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Figural Symbolic Semantic Behavioral

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4. Howard Gardner Howard Gardner brought the multiple intelligence to light. He says that there are many types of intelligence. In the modern technological context, we put much emphasis on linguistic aspects. He gave six types of intelligence:      

Linguistic Musical Logical – mathematical Spatial Bodily kinesthetic Personal/social

Gardner believes that in today’s curriculum cognitive abilities are dominating the education system. There is still scope in curriculum for the non-cognitive aspects such as music, art, the skills like maintaining proper social relations, interpersonal relations, etc. As the cognitive scores are dominant, we label them as weak learners and ultimately they drop out. Instead, Gardner thinks that if these skills are properly recognized, opportunities may help people excel in their areas and not allow them to drop out of the institutions. These skills and abilities are called multiple intelligence. From the above insights, there are many innovations in curriculum since the Sputnik era. Various names are given to the same in modern times: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Problem solving Reflective thinking Critical thinking Creative thinking Intuitive thinking Discovery learning

i. Problem Solving This method helps in processing information in a highly sophisticated manner of thinking. This method is like other scholarly methods of inquiry which scientists and scholars adopt. Many curricularists say that this method is a contemporary method to the disciplines. This method was also called reflective thinking, and now it is called critical thinking. Sometimes those who are good at problem solving may not be creative and vice versa. The most important aspect to understand is that these are very complex cognitive tasks that need training through relevant subjects. To develop problem solving, we need to develop critical, reflective, intuitive and discovery thinking. ii. Reflective Thinking Dewey’s concept of education is mostly led by the problem-solving approach. Dewey thinks that this method helps to develop intelligence and social growth among school children. This has become the scientific method and has become a classic model: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Becoming aware of a difficulty Identifying the problem Assembling and classifying data and formulating hypothesis Accepting and rejecting the tentative hypothesis Formulating the conclusions and evaluating the same

He believes this approach helps the child in solving day-to-day problems also.

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James Conant gave the problem-solving approach in six steps, which can be utilized by scientists and laymen to solve everyday problems: 1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Recognizing a problem and formulating the hypothesis Collecting relevant information Formulating the hypothesis Deducing from the hypothesis Using tests by actual trial Depending on outcomes, accepting, modifying or discarding the hypothesis

iii. Critical Thinking In today’s context, the problem-solving method is considered as critical thinking. It can be taught and used in teachers’ training programmes. Ennis identified 13 attributes of critical thinking: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Being open minded Taking a position (at the time of evidence) Entire situation to be taken into account Seek information Seek precision in information Dealing orderly in parts of a whole Look for options Search for reasons Seek for a clear statement of the issue Keep the original problem in mind Remain relevant to the problem Use considerable sources Be sensitive to the feelings and knowledge of others

Lipman has distinguished ordinary thinking from critical thinking with 10 attributes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

From guessing to estimating From preferring to evaluating From grouping to classifying From believing to assuming From inferring to inferring logically From associating concepts to grasping principles From noting relationship to noting relationship among relationships From supposing to hypothesizing From offering opinions without reasoning to with reasoning From making judgements without criteria to with criteria

Lipman wrote a series of books in which he described an approach to teaching through stories. Generally, children think about thinking; so he made children to read and discuss the stories in the classroom. This makes the children to think about themselves and about the values such as truth and fairness. They should explore alternatives and draw conclusions through the evidence. Sternberg tried to come out with three mental processes, which enhance critical thinking skills: 1. Metacomponents (higher order mental processes) 2. Performance components – actual steps we take (action) 3. Knowledge-acquisition components – processes used to relate old to new material

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iv. Creative Thinking Although there are many standardized tests of intelligence, we cannot accurately measure them. Creative children are always threatening and puzzling to teachers. Teachers label intelligent as highly creative or vice versa, but they are not related. A cross-cultural study, conducted by Torrance, used 62 statements to investigate elementary and secondary school teachers, rating of creative personalities, 95–375 teachers from each of the countries such as the United States, Germany, India, Greece and Philippines. There was no one answer to it or uniform definition, but everybody felt it as a quality of mind. Karl Rogers says it as novelty. According to Eric Fromm, creative attitudes are the following:    

Willingness to be puzzled Ability to concentrate Ability to experience oneself as a true originator of one’s act Willingness to accept conflicts and tensions

However, Robert Stenberg identified six attributes associated with creativity from the list of 131 stated by American professors from arts, science and business: 1. Lack of conventionality 2. Integration of ideas or things 3. Aesthetic taste and imagination 4. Decision-making skills and flexibility 5. Perspicacity (questioning social norms) 6. Drive for accomplishment and recognition v. Intuitive Thinking Although creative thinking is a very old strategy, it was not much in prevalence in cognitive dominant curriculum. Emphasizing on facts and rote learning, Bruner in his book on the process of education has popularized the ideas of intuitive thinking which is necessary for the grasp of subject apart from the knowledge. It is a revelation of discovery. vi. Discovery Learning During the Sputnik era, this was much popularized. Taba, Phenix, Bruner and Inlow are the products of this era. Phenix and Bruner influenced Taba and Inlow as influenced by three of them. All those curricula were much concerned about how to think rather on what to think about the process of knowledge. Bruner tried to convince that inquiry and discovery methods could be fused. However, Inlow, Phenix and Taba believe that they are separate. They go beyond all subjects. According to Taba, intuitive thinking means abstracting, deducing, comparing, contrasting, inferring and contemplating. These are all rational and logical. This strategy needs less teacher’s input in later stages. These approaches make the learner to learn and become more capable of discovering new experiences. Cognitive Information-Processing Theories and Curricular Implications It is generally observed that most of the teachers prefer cognitive aspects, as they are easy to plan, teach and test. The teacher’s resourcefulness and other affective components need a lot of thinking on the teacher’s part. So, teachers prefer to be free without any risk or challenge. Similarly, it is easy for curriculum specialists to prescribe, suggest and plan the cognitive-oriented curriculum. The following reasons substantiate the cognitive-oriented curriculum:  It is logical, for organization, interpretation and learning.  Subject matter is more emphasized.  Teachers are generally trained to teach cognitive aspects.  School teaching and learning is mostly dominated by cognitive curriculum.

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Mostly, schools prefer and teachers encourage children not to go with problem-solving methods. One of the studies conducted on 1000 schools by Goodlands shows that none of the children are involved in problem-solving tasks. Now, here do teachers ask the children to be creative or innovative in their works? All the learning theories and other creative activities would take a break at the classroom doors. John Holts, a humanist, says that schools are preparing students as producers, i.e. who seek to please adults and find right answers. Teachers discourage thinkers and creative people. They do not know how to handle such children. So, curriculum specialists think that curriculum should be such that students should not hesitate to ask questions, should not be afraid of going wrong, and not afraid of not being pleasing their teacher and also taking cognitive risks. Probably, this leads children how not to learn than how to learn. So, they feel the curriculum should emphasize humane aspects. The third area of classification deals with phenomenology/humanistic psychological theories.

Phenomenology/Humanistic Psychology Most of the traditional psychologists do not give any recognition to phenomenology as a separate school of psychology. They say they cannot generalize on the basis-less and soft research available. In other words, they believe that phenomenology emphasizes total individual/organism, which can be considered as a cognitive school of psychology. But it can be considered as a third force in learning theory. The study of immediate experiences as one’s reality is called phenomenology. Many educators have realized the importance of phenomenology to classroom setting. They also think that however you feel about yourself, as something, the same self-concept will influence you. If you feel your ideas are like Mahatma Gandhi or if you feel like Subash Chandra Bose, your cognitive performance is influenced by that self-concept. Some of the important theories under this area considered for discussion are the following:    

Gestalt theory Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and self-actualizing person Rogers’ non-directive and therapeutic learning Lewis Ruth’s value clarification

1. Gestalt Theory This theory deals with the total organism in relation to the environment. Learning is in terms of whole problem. Here, individuals do not respond in isolation to each stimulus. They respond to the whole and to a pattern of stimuli. Thus, on the basis of it learning is complex and abstract. Whenever a learner gets in touch with a problem, he/she tries to look into the problem, analyses and discriminates between the essential and non-essential data and tries to develop the relationship. As the environment changes, the learner also continuously reorganizes his/her perceptions. 2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Self-Actualizing Person Maslow is a wellknown phenomenologist. He has devised a classical theory of needs. Its arrangement is based on needs and hierarchy:  Survival needs/physiological needs – which are essential for life, e.g. food, water and rest  Safety needs – which rescue from danger or help in avoiding danger, e.g. insurance policy, bonds and assets

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 Belonging or love needs – affectionate relationship with people, e.g. family, children and friends  Esteem needs – making oneself a worthwhile individual, e.g. recognition as somebody and social workers  Self-actualization needs – knowing and understanding one’s real self, e.g. what he/she really is, i.e not physical self/material self. Survival needs

Safety needs

Love needs

Esteem needs

Self-actualizing needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Self-actualizing Needs This is to realize one’s own potentials and one’s own capacities and ultimately self–actualization. Maslow’s theory has very good implications to the learner. In the learning process, basically the child’s emotional needs such as love and affection should be fulfilled before the real learning takes place. To a certain extent, Maslow’s implications are similar to the implications of Froebel and Pestalozzi. Maslow’s theory stresses on three basic principles: 1. Primary concern is the experiences of the individual in his/her environment. 2. Laying emphasis on human qualities such as choice, creativity and values. 3. Showing concern for worth and dignity of people. The goal of education according to Maslow is to produce healthy, happy learners who can actualize their self, ultimately self-actualization. Maslow gave the characteristics of persons who are self-actualized:     

Able to perceive reality Social in their interaction and comfortable with others Balanced and do not get overwhelmed in extreme situations/feel sad or anxious. Spontaneous and natural Problem-centred, not ego-centred

Maslow’s conclusion is to deal with the whole person. 3. Rogers’ Non-directive and Therapeutic Learning Rogers is most popular for his contribution to counselling. He says that every individual has his own perception, called ‘perceptual map’, which may not be the reality.

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Teachers’ role is very important. According to Rogers, teachers should use non-directive methods and therapy methods, by training children to maintain appropriate interpersonal relations. Here, learners are as important as their cognitive scores. Teachers should make the children to realize that they are responsible for their own learning and behaviour. Thus, they are trained to be honest in communicating with the teachers. Carl Rogers suggested such curriculum, which is concerned with the following:    

Process, not product Personal needs, not just subject matter Psychological meaning, not cognitive scores Changing environment, not predetermined environment according to space and time

4. Lewis Ruth’s Value Clarification Individuals have different kinds of values depending on their beliefs, preferences, and choices. Many people have a problem of value conflict or confusion. The basic symptoms of value confusion are apathy, uncertainty and inconsistency, overconforming and overdisseminating. In one of the popular texts, Lewis Ruth and his colleagues have designed a value clarification process, which makes an individual more positive, more creative and more productive and maintains better interpersonal relations. The process of value clarification is the following:       

Choosing freely Choosing from alternatives Choosing thoughtfully Prizing and cherishing Affirming Acting upon choices Repeating as a pattern of life

They have also devised many other dialogue strategies, writing strategies and activity strategies for teaching and valuing on how to do basis. There are also other approaches to develop values:     

Inculcation: teaching accepted values with established law Moral development: emphasizing ethical and moral principles of applications Analysis of issues and situations involving values Clarification: Ruth’s method Trying and testing values in real-life situations

Cooperative Learning This method is also one of the humanistic methods; it helps in reducing competition and enhances cooperation among the students. It is observed in our regular classroom that most of the teachers appreciate and encourage meritorious children and discourage the low achievers. Roger, Johnson, David and Robert Slavin say that they are not against competition, but they believe that they should be motivated to have competition among the equals who are matched through some fun games, drill activities, speed tasks and low-anxiety games.

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The cooperative approaches according to research reports show that cooperative teaching helps them to build the following: 1. Positive and coherent personality 2. Self-actualization and mental health 3. Knowledge and trust of others 4. Communication 5. Acceptance, support of others 6. Wholesome relationships 7. Reduction of conflicts Phenomenology and Curriculum Phenomenologists’ concern is to rescue learning from narrow, rigid behaviourist and cognitive approaches. They stress much on the informal approaches and raw data, which have a meaning for them. They suggest all those, which have maximum possibility for self-actualization, self-fulfilment and self-realization. The most important thing is that they emphasize freedom. Thus, phenomenology stresses much on humanistic ideologies and approaches in the curriculum and teaching learning process.

KNOWLEDGE AS A BASE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT During the nineteenth century, the German philosopher Hans Vaihinger described how human beings have developed knowledge systems or thought edifices in order to keep from drowning in an everexpanding sea of knowledge and information. Manifest in what has come to be called curriculum, these knowledge systems or thought edifices were developed to meet the practical need for making the world more comprehensible while also serving to facilitate the development of new knowledge. If the entire realm of knowledge were limited only to the classics, there would be little disagreement and change in our conception of curriculum. Society, too, would be static and the task of the school would be the mere transference of a maximum quantity of past knowledge to each future generation. To regard the school as such an instrument is to treat knowledge as dead matter, whereas the school serves the living, noted Einstein. The incessant emergence of problems in our society requires new ways of dealing with knowledge and a constant quest for new knowledge for purposes of social problem solving. Knowledge is not a mere end product of inquiry, but a by-product and resource for solving problems and producing intelligent action. Similarly, the curriculum of the school cannot be conceived of a mere catalogue of fixed subject matters if the rising generation is to develop the capacity for building a better life for itself. The survival of society is predicted on its capacity to resolve practical, wide-ranging problems encompassing varied concerns such as water, food, energy, health, population growth and migration, ethnic relations, international relations, transportation, communication, housing, recreation, poverty, crime and employment. Thus, society, of necessity, is mission-oriented. Its survival and prosperity derive from its capability of applying its knowledge to the resolution of practical problems. A host of institutions are created to accomplish this mission. The most global of these institutions, other than government itself , is the educational institution, for it not only is concerned with the development of knowledge but also with making each rising generation more knowledgeable than its predecessor to make possible a better future society.

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‘It can be affirmed unequivocally that the amount of scientific knowledge available at the end of one’s life will be about one hundred times what it was when he was born.’ – Bentley Glass (1970) In advancing this thesis, noted educators such as Glass and Schwab have contended that the curriculum becomes totally obsolete and must be replaced every several years. The age of synthesis has been accompanied by an age of knowledge specialization that created new problems of knowledge fragmentation. ‘It is well recognized that many, if not most, scientific breakthroughs come about when the techniques and concepts of quite different scientific fields are brought together in an original synthesis of insight and imagination. Yet it seems unavoidable that the increasing narrowness of specialization tends to reduce the possibility that this will happen’. – Glass Only a year after Glass had advanced his ideas regarding the knowledge explosion, he embraced a radically different perspective in the face of the problems explosion on the planet earth. ‘Indeed, so awesome is already the accelerating rate of our scientific and technological advance that simple extrapolation of the exponential curves shows unmistakably that we have at most a generation or two before progress must cease, whether because the world’s population becomes insufferably dense, or because we exhaust the possible sources of physical energy or deplete some irreplaceable resource, or because, most likely of all, we pollute our environment to toxic, irremediable limits’. – Glass The early decades of the twentieth century witnessed a growing awareness of problems created by course proliferation, knowledge fragmentation, and the isolation and remoteness of studies from life. Coupled with the development of new knowledge concerning the nature of the child and adolescent, the need for a reconstruction of the curriculum became apparent to progressive educators. They proceeded to develop new curricular frameworks and designs leading to correlation, fusion, broad fields, and integrated core approaches.

Nature of Knowledge Knowledge has two distinctive features: 1. Information accumulated 2. Specific means of acquiring information From the history it is obvious that in the process of curriculum making (preparation) either of the two is emphasized more at the cost of the other. So, schools have also failed to discharge these two functions/processes. It is obvious from the experience that most schools in the modern era are providing knowledge per se. The knowledge related to general science, mathematics, social studies and languages taught at school is treated as a storehouse and is transferred from textbook to students in the classroom by the teacher. In this process of transfer of knowledge, the processes which can be acquired in learning knowledge are neglected totally. There are many queries with regard to the content that has to be incorporated, the worthiness of the content that is too inherent in each subject. There are other views that the content induces mental discipline.

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There are varied debates about the importance of subjects in developing cognitive processes. Some curricularists believe that each subject inherently has a mental discipline. It can be acquired through that subject alone and does not get affected either by its way of teaching or learning. The discipline of a subject equates with that of disciplined intelligence. These groups of educators advocate for inclusion of ‘hard’ academic subjects in the school curriculum and reject applied disciplines. In order to develop mental faculties, however, the other groups of curricularists believe that subjects have nothing to do with the cognitive processes and it is the mental activity that the teacher and learner involved in is important. Also, they believe that the school subjects do not have any such unique function. Their goal is to preserve ‘cultural heritage’. They also state that any subject is equally effective or ineffective. It depends on the method adopted in learning. Any subject can be taught to develop those required skills to develop the cognitive processes. Thus, from the two viewpoints, one emphasizes the content, the other the process. It is valued by the curriculum framers, especially in selecting the content. However, either of them is not absolutely correct. In fact, it depends mostly on the nature, quality and type of interaction and kind of transaction between the teacher and the learner. It is not the hard memory, which is important, as it is insisted in modern days. It is difficult to produce the inquiry or disciplined mind through rote memory. Similarly, a specific subject producing a particular cognitive/mental process is equally unacceptable to many. However, there is a relationship between cognitive processes and content. There are differences in the thought systems of various subjects. Each has its own way of contributing to the intellectual development. There are various discussions about factual learning and conceptual learning. It is understood by many, that the subjects have content at one level to understand the difference in the content at different levels. Let us look at different levels in subject knowledge. Knowledge has to be considered at four levels: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Specific facts and processes Basic ideas Concepts Thought systems

Level I – Specific Facts and Processes This is the first level of knowledge. These are at the low level of abstraction and specific processes and skills. For instance, dates and events, parts of a system, specific rules of usage, simple calculative skill in arithmetic and Algebra belong to this level of knowledge. Sometimes, it is essential to master the facts and we cannot decide from the subject which fact has more validity and is more important. There are different feelings mostly of knowledge. Some think that especially with regard to science subjects some facts have very limited values. Sometimes in science the facts may be disproved. What is true today may not be the same tomorrow. Today’s facts may become tomorrow’s fiction. However, specific facts will become food for thought. These facts should be selected very carefully, can be interrelated and may even lead to generalizations, but mastery of facts should not become focus of the interaction and evaluation. Level II – Basic Ideas This is the next level of knowledge and tries to relate isolated facts. These are scientific laws and mathematical principles. For instance, the ideas like climate and soil and crop may be related to each other. Thus, these ideas and principles constitute the struc-

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ture of subject. These ideas provide a control over a wider range of concepts in subject matter. It organizes the relationship between facts and provides insight into the understanding. These ideas are the fundamentals. Further, it may be understood that these ideas can help in comprehending a subject or a field and can lead to know about the core curriculum. Level III – Concepts The third level of knowledge is concepts such as animals, democracy and equality. Concepts are the complex systems of highly abstract ideas. These concepts are formed in varied experiences in various contexts. They cannot be studied in isolation; instead, they are interwoven into the whole fabric of curriculum. Each concept from lower to higher level should be included to develop a better understanding. The depth and breadth of the concepts can be progressively introduced at different classes. It should develop clarity and insight into the concepts. In other words, the themes should be recurrent. Level IV – Thought Systems Thought systems can be represented by academic disciplines and methods of inquiry. This thought system is composed of propositions and concepts, which will direct inquiry and thought. These disciplines are represented in school subjects. These subjects are organized around the thought system. It is interrelated by principles, concepts and definitions. Presently, the mode of learning used is not appropriate, i.e. the direct questions that we ask, the responses acquired and the methods used to acquire them. We need to establish more disciplined thinking; i.e. the methods like activity, creative thinking and discovery methods can be adopted to develop the thought systems. However, methods like discovery are not observed among all children. Although it is seen mostly in gifted children, a teacher can develop it. Finally, it is necessary to understand the type of content, knowledge that has to be given to students through schooling. The response to these queries is to develop integrated knowledge. Integrated Knowledge (I.K)

Disciplinary knowledge/subjects

Thought System L-I Concepts

Facts

L-II Basic Ideas L-III Concepts

Basic ideas

L-IV Thought System

Facts

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Integrated Knowledge There is a long-standing debate on the type of knowledge that should be provided through schooling – whether it should be individual subjects leading to specialization or it should be provided as an integrated knowledge. This debate is still ongoing. It is obvious from the experiences in the modern times that the knowledge acquired or the concepts, principles and ideas of one subject can be applied to the other field or subject/discipline. For instance, biomedical engineering, industrial chemistry and biotechnology are some of the interdisciplinary subjects, which have come into existence just on the basis of integration of knowledge. At the school level, instead of studying civics, history, geography, etc., separately, they can club it into one subject as social studies. Similarly, general science is combining botany, zoology, chemistry and physics. In today’s context, it is more important to think and implement this kind of integrated knowledge. For instance, with the specialization, the child may get in-depth knowledge or specialized expertise. But some curricularists believe that this way of integration of knowledge may have limitations; for example, each discipline with its own thought system would become difficult to integrate and have a kind of harmony in the process of integration. Moreover, the precision will have a threat and they may not be able to develop better clarity of any of the disciplines and may lack depth of the areas. Sometimes, the focus of the subject may also get affected. Thus, by taking an insight from different levels of knowledge, they may be considered while selecting the content and knowledge required for any subject, including appropriately the basic ideas required.

Implications of Integrated Knowledge to Curriculum 1. It can be understood from the above discussion on knowledge that both content and processes are important in curriculum, whereas in modern times the content is gaining more importance and getting more weightage, when compared to processes. 2. It can be realized from the different levels of knowledge that each school subject contributes to a distinctive knowledge. 3. They also lead to some specific mode of thinking. However, the mode of thinking in languages like imagination may lead to false conclusions in science. Similar is the case with other subjects. Likewise in different disciplines, the thought system varies and will have its own limitation in the process of integration of knowledge. 4. Generally, teachers keep themselves busy in covering the syllabus and are not much bothered about new ways of teaching or relevant methods in teaching different subjects. Apart from this, teachers are overambitious in providing all possible information concerned with that subject. 6. Curriculum makers should not raise the question merely pertaining to inclusion or deletion of topics in the curriculum; instead, they can think about the better ideas, which can extend the understanding of the world of knowledge. Thus, curricularists have to take implications from the different levels of knowledge, i.e. at what stage facts have to be included, ideas have to be included and concepts have to be incorporated and kind of disciplinary thought system that should be included through different subjects at school. This knowledge also makes an important basis for curriculum development at any stage.

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4 Curriculum Theory

CHAPTER OUTLINE  Theory – Meaning and Sources  Theory Building

 Types of Curriculum Theories

THEORY – MEANING AND SOURCES The thirst for knowledge is the basic quality of human race. The human is always eager to know, to explore and to find new things. The process of searching a system approach to organize the assorted facts into a realm of knowledge prompted to create generalizations, which in turn formed into new theories. Similar attempt is made in educating a child and as a result a new discipline/domain of knowledge comes to evolve theories of curriculum. As such curriculum do not have strong approach of its aim in formulating theories. However by following existing theories, curriculum theories are built. What is a theory? And then what is a theory of curriculum? The Greek word theoria also connotes ‘wakefulness of mind’. It is a type of ‘pure viewing’ of truth. Some curricularists like Beauchamp argue that the curriculum theory is relatively a new domain, which is younger than the general field of curriculum studies. It has started at the beginning of the twentieth century. After long discussions and deliberations on theoretical aspects as per the 26th Yearbook of the National Society for Study of Education (Rugg 1972, Chapter iv), a conference on curriculum theory, held at the University of Chicago in 1947, was the birthplace of curriculum theory. The conference proceedings were edited in 1950 by Virgil Herrick and Ralph Tyler, who presented papers, and other curricularists addressed the question of what curriculum theory should entail. Beauchamp and others felt it as a milestone and made a call for scientific theory building in a positivistic way. But those, who do not stick to the tradition of positive science, say that ‘all serious, philosophical writing about the aims and nature of education is curriculum theory’ (i.e. from Pre-Socratic to present). If anyone confines to the twentieth century, it is John Dewey who is finest among curriculum theorists. Kliebard (1972) stated that general purpose of curriculum theory and its relation to curriculum studies, the field of curriculum is devoted to the study and examination of the decisions that go

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into the selection of what is thought and implied in such a study is the notion that a curriculum may be planned with basic principles in mind. When these principles are reasonably consistent and coherent, they constitute the essence of curriculum theory.

Theory Theory helps a person working with a realm of knowledge to develop an approach for how to view the world and helps to understand how it works. Theory also helps in developing a framework about the field in which they work and provides them the basis for analysing and synthesizing data, organizing concepts and principles, suggesting new ideas and relations and speculating about the future. Theory gives a foundation for action, on the basis of which some curriculum theorists treated curriculum theory as a subset of philosophy. Many curriculum theorists are in an exploratory era in theory building. In this context, it is apt to refer to George Maccia, who said, ‘To claim that talking about theory is itself theorizing’. Curriculum theorists themselves could not agree about what a good curriculum theory is. They could not come out of a generalized definition for a curriculum theory. Although curriculum is a complex phenomenon, it needs to develop an understanding about theoretical perspective and make it valuable and have its utilitarian value to the students. It is obvious that from history, origin of knowledge and disciplines came into existence. For convenience, intellectuals classified their experiences into various categories and compiled the data together associated with a particular category, which have emerged as areas, disciplines or realms of knowledge. According to George Beauchamp, all the theories have emerged from three broad categories of knowledge: 1. Natural sciences 2. Humanities 3. Social sciences Under each category various realms of knowledge are placed: disciplines such as chemistry, physics, botany and geology as natural sciences; philosophy, art, music and literature as humanities; and history, sociology, psychology and anthropology as social sciences. Further, Beauchamp says that from these three basic knowledge structures many more areas of applied knowledge such as architecture, medicine, engineering, education and law come out, which draw their basic theory from the basic disciplines and progresses, and frame and formulate the rules and other aspects from the basic knowledge. In spite of many works on theory of curriculum, there is no universal definition given by curriculum specialists. How do we understand the meaning of a curriculum theory, the functions of a theory, the stages in theory building and so on? Etymologically speaking, the word ‘theory’ is derived from a Greek word theoria, which means speculation. Literally, theory means an idea or a set of ideas that are intended to explain something or a set of principles on which an activity is based, e.g., theory of education. A distinguished philosopher of science, Karl Popper, says, ‘Theories are the nets cast to catch what we call the world: rationalize, to explain and to master it. The endeavor is to make the mesh ever finer and finer’.

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In this view a theory is to know the world, to learn about it and to understand the way it is. The net is the means developed to account for the facts of the world, to bring them together. The three basic realms of knowledge view theory with a different view, which reflects their interests. Abraham Kaplan says, ‘A theory is a way of making sense of a disturbing situation so as to allow us most effectively to bring to bear our repertoire of habits and even more important, to modify habits or discard them altogether, replacing new ones as the situation demands... Theory will appear as the device for interpreting, criticizing, unifying established laws, modifying them to fit data unanticipated in their formation, and guiding the enterprise of discovering new and more powerful generalizations’. Theory building process requires to verify whether the theory is possessing the functions which are essential.

Functions of a Theory According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1993), there are four basic functions of a theory: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Description Prediction Explanation Guidance

(a) Description It provides a narrative classification of knowledge in a particular theoretical field. A theory tells us that there are certain variables and they interact in a particular way. But it cannot give the reasons why a particular way of interactions occur. It gives a picture of the events and organizes into a systematic way. It provides a structure which helps in verifying the complex phenomena or events. (b) Prediction On the basis of explanatory principles present in it, it predicts the occurrence of unobserved events. A theory can explain more diverse observations. It also depends mostly on the people’s confidence in using it. It will not predict for all situations. It can explain diverse situations. Theory building primarily expects to collect facts as a first step and these facts are related to unobserved events relevant to them. (c) Explanation It explains not only about the relationships between phenomena but also the reasons for the relationships. An appropriate way of explanation related to a theory is with the help of what people know rather than misbelieve, for instance, students’ failure due to their fate, than lack of preparation. (d) Guidance It guides researchers in choosing the data for analysis, for further study in that area. It acts as a coordinator in between, as a guiding force, as they guide a leading element on the basis of their own values, knowledge and directive function of a theory. Theorization needs appropriate guidance, direction with respect to collecting the facts, and addressing in relevant issues, keeping in view the basic function of a theory. Theories serve as a connecting link in a holistic manner.

THEORY BUILDING Essentially, the process of theory building is either inductive, deductive or both approaches.

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Inductive Approach Bacon has contributed to build a theory through scientific approach, building a theory on the basis of specific experiences and formulating tentative hypothesis on the basis of empirical data that are in turn tested and validated; i.e. they proceed from specific to general. All the theories in basic sciences are mostly built following induction. For example, by observing specific phenomena repeatedly and verifying it under similar conditions, a generalization is made on the basis of which a theory is built, e.g. Dalton’s theory, atomic theory and evolution theory.

Deductive Approach On the contrary to induction approach, inference is drawn on the basis of premises or truth which is already accepted and a theory is deduced; i.e. they proceed from general to specific. Through deductive a logical sequence is constructed in developing a theory. A syllogism constructed by Aristotle is as follows:  All men are mortal – major premise  Ram is a man – minor premise  Therefore, Ram is mortal – conclusion As we have already defined theory as an idea or a set of ideas, theory building involves dealing with facts, which are categorized into concepts and generalizations. Steps in theory building are as follows: 1. Defining terms 2. Classifying 3. Interpreting Defining Terms The terms are the building blocks of a theory. Beauchamp says that terms are the essential ingredients in the works of a theorist. Hence, any theory building or theorization needs to observe two important rules: 1. The words used in a theory should be clear 2. The terms once used must be used consistently Terms help in making appropriate observation and also define what to observe, to know and seek the empirical relationships. The terms, which are used in a theory, refer to concepts. These concepts could basically be defined as follows: 1. Nominal definitions: They present the attributes or characteristics of a term. 2. Operational definition: They indicate the context in which they are used. Some terms can be defined in either of the above ways. They are called primitive terms. For instance, terms such as point and straight line used in mathematics cannot be defined. A point is a point. It is essential to note that a theorist should use such terms as infrequently as possible. Yet another category of terms, which are used in a theory, is theoretical terms or operational constructs. Mostly a theory with sophistication contains such types of terms. Here, a construct refers to a concept, which represents a relationship in different contexts, incidents or events and their characteristic properties. Most educationists use such terminology.

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Classifying Terms The second aspect in theory building is classification. In the theorization process, they can organize the discovered facts and concepts with respect to their uniformities of relationship between various concepts or variables. This helps the theorists to understand and discover the gaps in their knowledge. Further, while classifying information, theorists try to group the generalizations to the facts and establish the relationship between them. The third and final stage in theory building is interpretation. Interpreting Terms While making interpretation about a theory, theorists should go beyond the recorded data, facts and observations and should try to deduce conclusions from some more additional information through observations and generalizations. New theories need to be used with more ways of testing to determine the soundness. Thus, they make some general statements and generate meaningful theories by following either induction or deduction. In understanding this process of theorization, the people actively working with theory building also put forth some models in the place of a theory. At times models and theories are used as synonyms. They help sometimes in organizing economically and explain huge data and at times they are working models. However, they have their own limitations; there is a possibility for overgeneralization. Relationship between logical fallacies showed may be incorrect and faulty assumptions may stress invalid data and may lead the productive energies into unproductive activity. The models could be physical, linguistic and mathematical.

TYPES OF CURRICULUM THEORIES There are various theories of curriculum based on various perspectives.

Classification I According to William H. Schubert (1986), curriculum theories could be the following: 1. Descriptive 2. Prescriptive 3. Critical 4. Personal 1. Descriptive Curriculum Theory The aim of descriptive theory is set forth by Kerlinger (in Beauchamp 1968): ‘A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena’. This theory is basically used in natural sciences. It is free of ideological values. The descriptive theorists gather empirical data and construct explanatory propositions that provide insights into definitions, axioms, relationships and the like. The function of such theory is to define, describe, predict and direct (Beauchamp, 1982, pp. 23–27). It is based on natural sciences; a wide range of theoretical perspectives such as pragmatism, existentialism, phenomenology, critical theory and also scientific theories are value laden. They are not value free. 2. Prescriptive Curriculum Theory The purpose of prescriptive theory is to establish norms for action which is coined by Hirst (in Tibble, 1966). This theory does not go beyond its

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scope; it does not advocate that the theorist should have the job of discovering new knowledge and only policy makers go for advocacy. This theory is based on the assumption that curriculum theory is a form of recommendation. All those prescriptions are made by teachers and implemented in their unique classroom settings. The purpose of this theory is to establish norms for action that is given by Hirst (Tibbie 1966). It is a theory in which principles, stating what ought to be done in a range of activities, are formulated and justified. 3. Critical Curriculum Theory These are basically derived from post-Marxian theorists, which are denoted by Frankfurt school. Prominent ones included in this are Adorno, Marcuse, Horkheimer and Habermas. This theory deals with careful reflection of the so-called suppressed socio-economically backward people and how curriculum can be framed to bring them out. Another example is Paulo Freires (1976) demonstration of a problem posing pedagogy needed to emancipate the oppressed peasants in Brazil, i.e. ‘pedagogy of the oppressed’. Any subjugated class needs a pedagogy to liberate. The purpose of this theory is to assess the newly emerging forms of capitalism along with the changing forms of domination that accompanied them, to rethink and radically reconstruct the meaning of human emancipation, and (to engage in) self-conscious critique and to develop a discourse of transformation and emancipation that does not cling dogmatically to its own doctrinal assumptions. It means taking into account the historical contexts and understanding the relationships between ‘domination’ and ‘subordination’. Thus, it becomes possible to recognize the conditions of suffering and to articulate the same (Girowx 1983). 4. Personal Curriculum Theory The work of Pinar and Grumet (1976) is based on reconceptualists and also a critique on traditionalists. It is a regressive-progressive-analytic-synthetic mode of theorizing. I Step: Excavate the present by focusing on the past – it goes beyond the everyday interpretation of what I experience and enters more deeply. II Step: Ponder over meditatively the future to uncover my aspiration, in order to ascertain where I am I moving. III Step: Analyse what I uncover in Step I and Step II – analysis devoted to intuitive comprehension and cognitive codification:  Determine my social commitments  I devise my strategies  Whom to work with, for what, how, etc.

Classification II This is another classification to understand the curriculum theory that has relevance to the earlier theories discussed above. Most of these theories of knowledge, learning and teaching – some rooted in psychology, others in philosophy, sociology or history – are mainly concerned with understanding the nature of learning and teaching and the conditions that facilitate these processes and also to understand the relationship between past and present. These curriculum theories are as follows: 1. Scientific theory 2. Naturalistic theory

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3. Other theories Radical theories Hermeneutic theories Aesthetic theories 1. Scientific Theory Herrick and Taylor proposed this theory. These theories are rational in nature. According to this theory, it is possible to prescribe a curriculum for each given level of schooling. The theory of the University of Chicago School is of this category, and it can be seen in the works of Herrick and Taylor in 1940’s, 1950’s and 1960’s. This theory is based on ‘rational’ curriculum theory, a simple paradigm developed with three propositions: 1. Define objectives: In view of the desired outcomes, the objectives are formulated and the criteria are laid, while selecting the subject and the curriculum to be exposed. These are good sources of information curriculum/educational objectives that Bloom and Krathwohl in cognitive domain and affective domains have attempted. How far are these objectives genuine? This question has got its own scientific scholarship of the term ‘taxonomy’, and many handbooks in different disciplines are also published. 2. Create necessary learning situations: Once the objectives are defined, it will be followed by selection of the learning situations. It becomes necessary to select subject matter, conditions suitable for teaching and situations through which the objectives are to be achieved. 3. Evaluate the achievement of the objectives: Most popular among the evaluation works were of Scriven and Popham who paid attention to evaluation and practical application. Here, once the objectives are framed to achieve certain behavioural outcomes by facilitating some situations, they need appraisal/evaluation to know the achievement of objectives. Taba, Wheeler, Goodland and Richter and Johnson adopted these three propositions that belong to scientific theory of curriculum in their curriculum theorization. In a way this theory is like prescriptive theory. 2. Naturalistic Theory Schwab is an exponent of naturalistic theorization. This theory is not much interested in determining what subjects to be taught, referring to a theory of knowledge, what objectives are to be achieved or the principles on the basis of which to be taught. It treats both ends and means together. This theory speaks about the decisions to be made not only on the basis of what to teach, but also on the availability of resources, teachers’ abilities, the characteristics of learners as individuals and as a group. Schwab is doubtful about the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

The existence of reliable theories of knowledge The existence of reliable theories of psychology of an individual The existence of reliable theories of an individual and social behaviour The pedagogy on which to draw

He gave importance to the deliberation process, treating both ends and means. He did not believe in deterministic decision in curriculum theorization.

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There are also other theories such as the following: 1. Radical 2. Hermeneutic 3. Aesthetic 1. Radical Theory It does not believe in normal routine features of curriculum. It is in a way called a sceptic theory. It suggests personal autonomy to a child. To say some of the radical theorists are Ivan Illich, Paulo Frierie, Neo Marxists and Marx. The radical curriculum theorists would like to liberate the child from the fetters of the unstated realities of the curriculum. In this direction, it is essential to reform both education and society. The questions relating to what to teach, how to teach and with what ends in view should be answered by the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Social context Analysing the problems Having a sense of history of a social context In particular, the theory of action

It is well known from Marxian revolutionary action plans, similarly, Ivan Illich’s deschooling and alternate objects of learning and Frierie’s pedagogy for the oppressed, a critical curriculum. 2. Hermeneutic Theory In contrast to radical theories, hermeneutic theory does not follow the action, doing and change, but is more interested in seeing things anew. It is not bothered about finding solutions to curriculum problems but to reach a better understanding of them. The major focus is on reconceptualization. The process of theorization should be humanistic than scientific, holistic and not fragmentary; it rejects prescription but invites possibilities of new images. This theory further emphasizes the individual’s experience, i.e. more concerned about the quality of life it spends in the school rather than the intentions behind them. To achieve it, there are many limitations such as governmental interventions and certain other influences and constraints in public life; special interests will not begin at once. It is more qualitative in nature; for example, it looks at a particular time – what happens/how a child learns in a particular context is more important than the overall outcomes. 3. Aesthetic Theory Here, utmost importance is given to curricular transactions. How a drama is realized in a theatre. Oram gave a clear interpretation with the help of a drama as a metaphor. He tried to give these important forms of curriculum: Curriculum

Drama

Curriculum scripted

– script prepared by the author.

Curriculum envisioned

– created by the producer and actors’ rehearsal

Curriculum produced

– supreme discourse...

Curriculum enacted

– what actors and audience achieve

This is a beautiful aesthetic analogy. Literature, art and even others could be taught.

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Thus, the purpose of any theory of curriculum is to effectively show in the educational enterprise, specific curricular situations and contexts. Every theorist’s concern is shown in varying degrees of difference. Varying perspectives are brought in theorization of curriculum. A review of the history of curriculum also gives the theorization of curriculum and the different theories evolved over the course of time. A brief discussion on different theories is as follows. Franklin Bobbin’s book on the curriculum can be considered a beginning of the process of theorizing in curriculum. Then it is Dewey who can be considered the prominent theorist during the twentieth century; he popularized experiences as prominent in curriculum through various activities. His experiments at the elementary school at the University of Chicago are exemplary in this direction. During the mid 19th century, i.e. 1940s, writings in curriculum have begun, which can be seen further in Taylor’s book on basic principles of curriculum and instruction. It is Beauchamp whose book on curriculum theory came into light during 1950s, which is followed by some of the major theories such as Maccias’ theory and Johnson’s theory and Macdonald’s theory. In the beginning various diversified views on curriculum were evolved. Elizabeth and Maccia have presented four kinds of curriculum theories: 1. Formal theory: This theory works on what is and what exists. It basically depends on philosophers and members of a particular discipline; i.e. it deals with speculation about the structure of various disciplines. 2. Event theory: This theory shows scientific theory orientation. It predicts on the basis of given circumstances. 3. Valuation theory: Contrary to event theory, it involves values and norms, i.e. what ought to be. It includes the content that is judged the best. 4. Para-axiological theory: Such theory considers speculation about the appropriate means to attain the valuable; i.e. emphasis is laid on particular objectives and specific practices in schools. Maccia asserts that curricularists should use theory to build their definition of curriculum and also in planning and developing curriculum. Johnson’s Theory He is critical about the earlier theories of curriculum wherein he says that those theories have mostly focused on curriculum development rather than on theory building. He has tried to distinguish between curriculum plan and curriculum development and also curriculum plan and process in curriculum development, which can be observed from the following graphical representation. However, there are certain contradictions between the theories. Structuring criteria Selection criteria

Curriculum development system

Curriculum (structured series of intended learning outcomes)

Instructional system

Learning outcomes

Instrumental content Source available teachable cultural content

Teaching behavior repertoire

Curriculum as an output and an input of one system

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Macdonald’s Theory It is like a model of the major systems in schooling, which include curriculum, instruction, teaching and learning. This theory presents a map indicating the key features of the educational landscape. This model shows it as one of four interesting systems. Macdonald defines curriculum as a social system, which produces a plan for instruction. He distinguishes between teaching and instruction. He has defined teaching as a personality system in which the teacher – acting in a particular manner – facilitates learning. Learning is defined as a personality system. All these four systems come together. At this juncture the curriculum goals become operative in instruction, which includes the efforts of the teacher and the behaviour of students. The interrelationship between the elements is depicted in the following graphic: Curriculum I

Teaching III

Learning IV

Instruction II

Interaction of the four elements Source: James B. Macdonald, ‘Educational Models for Instruction’ As shown in the diagram, four elements – teaching, learning, curriculum and instruction – are interacting with each other and the shadowed space is the intersection juncture where curriculum goals become materialized. Further, there are theories that can be understood from traditionalists, conceptual empiricists and reconstructionists and so on (See Chapter 3 for more details, ‘Philosophical Basis of Curriculum Development’).

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5 Curriculum Process

CHAPTER OUTLINE  Objectives – Definition, Classification, Sources and Selection  Selection of Curriculum Experiences and Learning Experiences

 Organization of Curricular Content and Learning Experience  Patterns of Curriculum Organization

OBJECTIVES – DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION, SOURCES AND SELECTION The process of curriculum starts with broad goals, aims and objectives. The goals, aims and objectives visualize certain terminal behavioural changes in the learner. Basically, the aims depend on the socio-political ideology, culture, type of society, needs, problems, demands, aspirations, etc. Ultimately, it is the individuals who have to adjust to the society where they live. Their needs, demands, self-development and self-fulfilment should be developed through education. In order to fulfil the national, individual level, the objectives, aims and goals should be thought of while designing the courses, programmes, materials and so on. For instance, right from Vedic times to that of contemporary times, the commissions, committees based on which the national policies are made, clearly shows these societal needs, demands, etc., reflected in the system of education at the national level, specifically connoting to the 1968 policy based on 1964–66 Indian education commission recommendations. What are objectives?

Ideal/ Philosophy Aims Goals Objectives

The relationship between ideals, aims, goals and objectives

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The society looks towards educational institutions especially schools to prepare the learner as per the needs and bring desirable changes in them. So, education is always concerned to bring out several outcomes at different levels. Varied philosophies or ideologies which exist at different times or at the same time would pave way for making interpretations about the reality in the form of general statements, i.e. aims. The specific statements are objectives. For instance, the aim of education is to develop character in children. However, the objective of education is that children will speak truth, respect elders, etc. So, a curriculum framer needs to conceptualize the philosophical dimensions; the process of developing curriculum for schooling is a philosophical endeavour. Then what are these aims? What are the sources from which they emerge?

Aims of Education Aims are general statements which provide direction to the future action in a more specific way of bringing out behavioural change. They are the initiatives which suggest an ideal or inspirational vision of the good. They reflect on value judgements, value-loaded statements. They even equip the educationists with required guidelines for educational process. These aims are always a challenge to different times to make appropriate interpretations of global quality. Ronald Doll notes that educational aims should address the intellectual or cognitive dimension, the social/personal or affective and the productive, which can be elaborated as follows: 1. Intellectual dimensions: Aims dealing with the intellectual dimension focus on the acquisition and comprehension of knowledge, problem-solving skills, and various levels and methods of thinking. 2. Social/personal dimensions: They are concerned with person-to-society, person-toperson and person-to-self interactions. They also cover emotional and psychological aspects of individuals and their adaptive behaviour with respect to home, church and local community. 3. Productive dimensions: These aspects allow the individual to function at home, on the job and as a citizen of the larger society. Further, there are the other dimensions such as the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Physical development of the body and maintenance. Aesthetic aspect deals with values and appreciation of arts. Moral aspect deals with values and appropriate behavioural dispositions. Spiritual aspect deals with belief in the divine and transcendence.

Sources of Aims They depend on the changing society and the committees and commissions which denote problems and issues related to that social context. In Indian context, right from preindependence and especially during post-independent India, University Education Commission (1948–1949), Indian Education Commission (1964–1966), Eswarbhai Patel (1977), Adeseshaiah Committee (1978) and National Policy of Education (1986) and 1992 POA, and many more committees were appointed, and they have recommended on what is necessary according to the issues, problems there. Generally aims of education according to each commission were related to their social context, needs and demands, and political ideologies.

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Aims of Ancient Education 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Education was a means of emancipation, a source of illumination and a way of salvation. Education aimed at the preservation and transmission of cultural and social heritage. Education also aimed at character building. Physical development was aimed at through yoga practices. Mind was disciplined to attain purity of thought, word and action. Social efficiency and ethical and spiritual values were emphasized.

Aims of Secondary Education 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Democratic citizenship Vocational efficiency Personality development Leadership training Character formation

Aims of Kothari Education Commission 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Education for productivity Education for social and national integration Education for social, moral and spiritual values Education for modernization Education for international understanding

Goals of Education These are the statements of purpose with some outcome in mind. Curriculum goals are different from instructional goals. Curriculum goals do not focus on achievement. These are not open statements, but they are specific statements written for the consumption of those who make programme. They help as guidelines to achieve particular purposes. It tries to say what has to be achieved by subjects, programmes or the curriculum. Goals give the idea about the scope of the programme. Basically, goals are derived from various aims. They help the curriculum decision makers and the teachers what they need to achieve through the programme. Goals could be an either of the extreme levels. On one hand they are very broad and almost look like aims, and on the other hand a very simple specific concern for achievement. Aims deal with general process of education, whereas aims become goals which become specific by referring to a particular subject area or curriculum. There are differences of opinion about the statement of goals. Some prefer a sentence, some prefer a phrase and some others prefer a word. Some of the educators are even comfortable with infinitive verbs. They should be worded contextually or at times they could be referred to future. Ornstein identifies objectives as to the level for which they are written: 1. Programme objectives – addressing subjects (Science and Mathematics) at a particular grade level 2. Course objectives – (Biology or Algebra) rating to a particular course within grade levels. 3. Classroom objectives – further divided into unit objectives and lesson plan objectives.

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Programme and course objectives are developed by the curriculum specialists at different levels, and classroom objectives are designed by the teacher. George Posner and Alan Rudnitsky have called objectives as the intended learning outcomes (ILOs) and defined them as precisely what the student is to learn. These are the specific facts, concepts, principles, processes, techniques, generalizations, etc., to be learnt. These are the purposes with which the objectives are designed. Objectives could be: 1. Behavioural objectives 2. Non-behavioural objectives 1. Behavioural Objectives Behavioural objective is a statement of outcomes in terms of observable behaviour expected of students after instruction. According to Mager, educational objectives should describe the following: 1. Behaviour of the learner 2. Condition imposed on the learner 3. The minimum proficiency level For example, after studying a topic in a subject, if the student is given an objective-type test with multiple-choice items, 100, he/she is expected to write 75 items correctly within 60 minutes. According to behaviourists’ view on formulation of behavioural objectives which are expected to use, verbs for observable behaviours to identify, describe, solve, write and build. Educators should avoid verbs such as appreciate, understand, to know, as they cannot be observed as the educational outcomes. 2. Non-behavioural Objectives These are not observable and indicate students what to do. The verbs which are used for these objectives are to know, to comprehend, to be able to, encounter, etc. For example, after learning a particular course the child will be able to do the following:  Understand the functions of a state  Perform exercises in addition  Enjoy the dance Now, let us focus on the functions of educational objectives and the guidelines for formulating educational objectives. Functions of Educational objectives 1. Chief function of objectives is to create a specific platform to guide to make decisions of curriculum which is the heart of the objectives – what to cover, what to emphasize, what content to select, which learning experiences to stress, etc. 2. Objectives should be consistent with the general coverage and on the whole express the vision of the general aims. 3. A criterion for decisions. 4. It helps to select vast areas of knowledge in various disciplines with an expected outcome. 5. A platform for multifarious activities, i.e. curriculum 6. It should give clarification to school – wide objectives which defend the common concerns to meet the purposes. 7. The criteria should help in avoiding confusion.

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Principles in Formulating Objectives 1. Statement of the objectives should describe both, the kind of behaviour expected and the content or the context to which that behaviour applies.  Specification of the behaviour should be clearly stated.  It should specifically indicate the kind of behaviour expected and ability to interpret accurately.  It should specify the attitude.  It should clearly state the scope which indicates the content and the range of behaviours to be cultivated. 2. Complex objectives need to be stated analytically and specifically enough wherein it does not lead to any ambiguity in terms of the kind of behaviour expected and what it applies to. There should be clarity and specificity. 3. They should also have clear distinctions among learning experiences required to attain different behaviours. 4. Objectives are developmental, representing roads to travel rather than terminal points. 5. Objectives should be realistic and can be translated into curriculum and classroom practices. 6. Objectives should be broad enough to encompass all types of outcomes for which the school is responsible. Guidelines

The following guidelines are necessary while formulating the objectives:

1. Matching: Objectives should be related to the goals and aims. For instance, curriculum is good and well organized, but it is not directly going in line with objectives. 2. Worth: While formulating the objectives, it is very essential to probe and see whether the objective that is formulated is really important to mention or it is just a trivial one which can be avoided. Some times some absolute knowledge is included, as it keeps changing such objectives are most worthy. 3. Wording: The wording used in the statement should be very brief, and excessive words can be trimmed. It also needs to know the level of objectives while writing, i.e. whether they are subject level, grade level or unit plan level. 4. Appropriateness: They should be appropriate in terms of suitability to the student’s group, and their interest and suitability to the subject area should be borne in mind to make them more appropriate. 5. Logical grouping: There should be coherence in organization of objectives. Logical grouping should be made while determining the units of instruction and evaluation. 6. Whenever the objectives are framed, they should be linked in a sequential manner with a continuity of common idea or thread. 7. Periodic revision: There is no objective which will stand good for all the times. They need to be reconsidered for revision from time to time. With the explosion of knowledge, advancement in science and development, changing social needs, demands, aspirations, etc., one expects change in the objectives accordingly. Without revision the objectives will become obsolete, irrelevant.

Curriculum Objectives Taba’s (1962) aims are usually seen as very general statements of goals and purposes, such as to develop critical awareness or to promote understanding. Aims by themselves, however, have

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often been regarded as too general and lacking in specificity to provide clear guidelines for planners or teachers, so that curriculum planning has been seen as a process of developing more precise statements of goals from these general aims. It is the more precise statements that are normally termed objectives. Indeed, some writers have even suggested that we should recognize three or more levels of specificity (Kratwohl 1965): general statements of goals that will guide the planning of the curriculum as a whole, behavioural objectives derived from these which will guide the planning of individual units or courses, and a third level of objectives appropriate in some cases to guide the planning of specific lessons to use Wheeler’s terms, ‘ultimate’ , ‘mediate’ and ‘proximate’ goals, the latter providing specific classroom objectives (Wheeler 1967). ‘A satisfactory instructional objective must describe an observable behavior of the learner or a product which is a consequence of learner behavior’ (Popham 1969, p. 35). The main focus is the pre-specification of behavioural objectives, ‘intended learning outcomes’ defined in terms of the kind of behaviour the pupils are intended or expected to display through their thoughts, actions or feelings if we are able to claim that our objective has been achieved. The classic statement of this kind of hierarchy of goals can be found in Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom et al. 1956; Kratwohl et al. 1964). The notion of the hierarchical nature of the interrelationship of these objectives is fundamental to the taxonomy itself. Bloom also offers us another important distinction within this range of objectives since he divides them into three clear domains: the cognitive, the affective and the psychomotor.

Some Criticism of Bloom’s Taxonomy The two main criticisms that have been raised in Bloom’s taxonomy are as follows: 1. It sets out to be far too precise and specific. 2. It lacks a clear concept of education and, as a result, offers us no criteria for the evaluation of objectives, no basis on which we might make a choice of what are the most appropriate objectives in a given context. The main point of the criticism that this approach is too precise and specific derives from the fact that in practice, and perhaps at a theoretical level too, it is not possible to distinguish objectives in such a detailed way. Every activity in which a pupil engages will have a range of objectives, both within and between the three domains. ‘A teacher will have many objectives for her children in mind at any one time, and in general there is potential for working towards several objectives through any one activity’ (Schools Council 1972, p. 32). At one level this may seem to amount to no more than saying that in practice every activity will embody a range of objectives, involving ‘intellective task’, ‘a degree of acceptance or rejection’ and probably ‘some manipulations of materials and objects’ too. At a deeper level, however, it might be claimed that what this implies is rather more than a gap between theory and practice, since it draws attention to a fundamental feature of education, namely that it does violence to the notion of education to suggest that even at a theoretical level the development of knowledge and skills of any kind can be divorced from the simultaneous promotion of a feeling for standards of truth and beauty which are the part of what it means to have knowledge and to be educated (Pring 1971). It has been argued, therefore, that not only in practice but also at the conceptual level objectives are much too closely interrelated to be capable of being developed into this particular kind of detailed hierarchical taxonomy that Bloom is offering.

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Taxonomy of Educational Objectives While making decision by the curriculum framers and formulating objectives, it may not be possible to work in isolation in different domains. Rather they go together. One of the most popular taxonomies of objectives is provided by Bloom and his associates. What is the context of Bloom’s taxonomy? In 1948, a group of psychologists were interested in achievement testing. They met in Boston at the American Psychological Association. After a thorough discussion, they realized that there is no common frame of reference in educational evaluation. Then, they came out with an idea of preparing a detailed set of specifications in the process of test construction along with a blueprint. They thought of the dimension for specification, the types of human reaction or response to the content, subject matter, problems or areas of human experience, which seemed most significant for their purpose. They have prepared educational objectives, defined in terms of thoughts, feelings and actions.  For convenience, they described and ordered test items, examination techniques and evaluation instruments such that the test items prepared at one place could be utilized by the others with the test items based on content and objectives.  Classification of objectives has another very important value of comparing and studying educational programmes. It can be verified by finding out if the programme is same and if the learning experiences are same or different. Classification could be used as tools in classifying and organizing educational research results.  It also helps to know which types of educational experiences produce the types of educational development.  What types of educational development are retained and which are not?  What is the transfer value of different kinds of educational outcomes?  The results of one educational situation can be compared to the results found in the other.  These research findings can also lead to generalizations.  The order is confirmed by various observations and research findings on the principles of arrangement of human learning in simple and complex situations. Basically, the beginning was made to address the issues related to evaluation and instruction and to communicate to everybody in common language. Further, the idea is to compare the programmes, whether they are same or have similar learning outcomes. Various types of learning have been organized into taxonomies. Graphically, the relationship between three domains can be understood as follows: Cognitive domain Head (thinking)

Affective domain Heart (feelings)

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Psychomotor domain Hand (doing)

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Cognitive

Psychomotor

Learning

Affective

Basically, the taxonomy of objectives is an attempt to classify the specific objectives in order to use by the teacher in the teaching tasks, to evaluate and also to know the success of the learner. The purpose of a taxonomy is the following:      

To establish the accuracy of communication with respect to educational objectives To understand the relationship between the terms defined To go with the precise communication system in the field of education To come out with a uniform understanding of classification of objectives To provide a meaningful, standard evaluation to maintain the education standard of a school To bring uniformity in evaluation, standards and procedures

The taxonomy of objectives can be broadly divided into three domains: 1. Cognitive domain 2. Affective domain 3. Psychomotor domain I. Cognitive Domain This domain developed by Bloom and his associates deals with thinking, knowing and problem solving. Mostly, it deals with recall and recognition of knowledge and development of intellectual abilities and skills. This domain is broadly divided into six categories: 1. Knowledge (a) Knowledge of specifics Knowledge of terminology Knowledge of specific facts (b) Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics Knowledge of conventions Knowledge of trends and sequences Knowledge of classification and categories Knowledge of criteria Knowledge of methodology (c) Knowledge of universals and abstractions in a field Knowledge of principles and generalizations Knowledge of theories and structures 2. Comprehension Translation Interpretation Extrapolation

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3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Synthesis 6. Evaluation

Using abstractions in particular situations Predicting the effect of a phenomenon Analysis of elements Analysis of relationships Analysis of organizational principles Production of a unique communication Production of a plan or a proposed set of operations Derivation of a set of abstract relations Judgement in terms of internal evidence Judgement in terms of external evidence

For the convenience of interpretation, the hierarchy is organized; however, it is not scientific in nature. The process depends on the processes of learning. It is essential for the curriculum makers to keep in mind different levels of objectives. While framing the objectives, at which level they have to frame should be clear. This domain deals with the skills of thinking, reasoning, right from simple recall to assimilation of information and evaluation. A comprehensive list of objectives in the hierarchy along with the expected behavioural outcomes and actions is presented in the following table: S. No.

Cognitive domain Levels of objectives

Behaviours /actions

1

Knowledge

Identify, define, list, match, state name, label, describe, select

2

Comprehension

Translate, convert, generalize, rewrite, summarize, distinguish, infer, alter and paraphrase

3

Application

Use, operate, produce, change, solve, show, compute, prepare, determine

4

Analysis

Discriminate, select, distinguish, separate, subdivide, identify, breakdown, analyze, compare

5

Synthesis

Design, plan, compile, compute, organize, conclude, arrange, construct, devise

6

Evaluation

Appraise, compare, purify, criticize, evaluation, interpret, conclude, summarize, evaluate

Tanner and Tanner are very critical about the Bloom’s taxonomy of hierarchy of cognitive domain wherein they believe that there is no space provided for problem solving and creativity which delivery regarded as the complete act of thought. The critique on cognitive domain came out with a suggestion to refine the cognitive domain by bringing a distinction between information and knowledge and adding the process of problem solving. The suggestive categorization was (1) information, (2) comprehension, (3) application, (4) analysis, (5) synthesis, (6) evaluation, (7) problem solving and (8) creation. 1. Knowledge Level At this level, there is a simple recall or recognition from the earlier acquired material. It could be any terminology, technical or otherwise, basic principles, generalizations and specific facts such as events, persons and places.

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At this level the focus is on mere storage of information and retrieval of the same from the memory. For example, after learning a lesson on human systems, if the child is asked what are the different parts of an ear, he/she will be able to identify the different parts of an ear. 2. Comprehension This level goes little higher than the knowledge. It goes beyond memory where the child will comprehend the material learnt and makes an interpretation in his/her own words; i.e. it is not verbatim repetition of the stored knowledge. For instance, if the child is asked to describe the picture or from verbal instruction, he/she can translate it into a picture, i.e. will be able to translate, interpret a diagram, map, or graph and add more explanation with an example. 3. Application At this level, children will be able to apply the theoretical principles, laws, grammar rules, formulas, etc., in solving or finding solutions to problems, tasks, writing a sentence, etc. For example, they can predict the effect of some reactions or principles on the request. 4. Analysis At this stage, children can distinguish the facts and opinions after reading a document. Here, they have the ability to break down the complex material into simple components. For example, they can write the elements of a compound. 5. Synthesis At this level, the child will be able to bring together or continue the elements into a whole or putting together into a new form. In a way it is a unique approach to communicate, a plan for execution, making a set of abstract relations. For example, when the child is exposed to political concerns, he/she will be able to suggest various solutions to overcome the problems. 6. Evaluation It is the highest level in the cognitive domain in terms of complexity. At this stage, the child has the ability to make judgements with the external evidence or consistency, with facts of internal evidence or logical consistency. For example, when the child is asked about the school performance, he/she will be able to rate the functioning of the school in terms of facilities. Academic programmes, teachers and so on are able to judge as good, bad, etc. Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Where are the changes? Changes were at three-levels 1. Language / Terminology (Noun vs. Verb) 2. Structure (Two- dimensional table) 3. Emphasis (is placed upon its use as a more authentic tool for curriculum planning, instructional delivery and assessment) Blooms Taxonomy guided educators for over 40 years. It is considered one of the most significant and important educational writings of the 20th Century (Anderson & Sosniak 1994). In 2001 a group of educational researchers published the first major revision of the taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl 200l). The new version retained six basic levels with a slight variation in the order; the three levels have been changed in their nomenclature to indicate cognitive processes.

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Cognitive Process The six cognitive processes indentified are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Remembering (knowledge) Understanding (comprehension) Applying ( application) Analyzing ( analysis ) Evaluating ( Synthesizing) Creating (Evaluation)

These six cognitive process act on four kinds of the knowledge i.e – Factual – Conceptual – Procedural – Meta cognitive The following table may help to understand and develop more clarity on Taxonomy related to cognitive domain. A revised Taxonomy in the cognitive domain THE COGNITIVE PROCESS DIMENSIONS The knowledge dimension

1. Remember

2. Understand

3. Apply

4. Analyze

5. Evaluate

6. Create

Factual Knowledge Conceptual Knowledge Procedural Knowledge Meta Cognitive Knowledge

 Change in names of six major categories were from noun to verb forms  As the taxonomy reflects different forms of thinking and thinking is an active process, verbs were more accurate.  The subcategories of the six major categories were also replaced by verbs.  Some subcategories were reorganized.  The knowledge category was renamed. Knowledge is a product of thinking and was inappropriate to describe a category of thinking and was replaced with the work remembering instead.  Comprehension became understanding and synthesis was renamed creating in order to better reflect the nature of the thinking described by each category 1. Creating Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.

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2. Evaluating Justifying a decision or course of action Checking, hypothesizing, critiquing, experimenting, judging 3. Analyzing Breaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships Comparing, organizing, deconstructing, interrogating, finding 4. Applying Using information in another familiar situation Implementing carrying, out, using, executing 5. Understanding Explaining ideas or concepts Interpreting, summarizing, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining 6. Remembering Recalling information Recognizing, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding, II. Affective Domain The affective and cognitive processes in life are inseparable in reality. They are the organic interaction of both processes. The affective processes such as interests, attitudes, emotions, feelings, values, appreciations, concern, attachment and detachment are difficult to translate into overt behavioural outcome and distinguish from cognitive processes. Although efforts were made in educational circles by the intelligentsia and the academic accepted the same from long time, it is very difficult to separate the faculties for the purpose of instruction into two domains. However, David Krathwohl and his associates Bloom and Masia (1964) developed this affective classification system or taxonomy and categorized into five levels according to the degree of internalization. Although they have recognized that the learner does not engage in thinking without feeling and that every person responds as a ‘total organism or whole being’, mostly the educational goals include both, educationists rarely focus on affective evaluation on scale when compared to cognitive aspects. They were very clear while making this classification – both are counterparts and have a complex relationship. For the analytical purposes, they made split which is arbitrary. For example, nowhere the teacher will be able to focus on mere learning without the child’s involvement, interests, etc. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives The following hierarchy of affective categories related to affective domain would throw light (according to David R. Krathwohl, Benjamin S. Bloom and Bertram B. Masia): 1. Receiving

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Awareness Willingness to receive Controlled or selected attention

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2. Responding 3. Valuing 4. Organization 5. Characterization by a value or value complex

Acquiescence in responding Willingness to respond Satisfaction in response Acceptance of a value Preference for a value Commitment to a value Conceptualization of a value Organization of a value system Generalized set Characterization

1. Receiving: Attending – sensitivity to the existence of a given condition phenomenon, situation or problem. 1.1 Awareness: Conscious recognition of the existence of a given condition, phenomenon, situation or problem. For example, awareness of beauty of an artefact/sculpture. 1.2 Willingness to receive: Willingness or ready to take notice of a given phenomenon than avoid it. For example, listening to the teacher carefully what she says. 1.3 Controlled or selected attention: Differentiation, selection or discrimination among various aspects of a phenomenon and its implication. For example, listening to music with a discrimination as the mood and effect. 2. Responding: It is an active participation. It is voluntary or intentional response to the stimuli, i.e. reaction to a phenomenon through overt response, or doing something with, or as a result of a given phenomenon. For example, willingly helping a poor student in learning. 2.1 Acquiescence is responding: Compliance with a given condition. For example, obeying rules and regulations prescribed by the school authorities. 2.2 Willingness to response: Voluntary actions in relation to a given phenomenon. For example, voluntarily reading different books and presenting the information during assembly session. 2.3 Satisfaction in response: Enjoyment in acting on a given phenomenon. For example, enjoying reciting poetry or drawing paintings. 3. Valuing: Attachment of worth or belief in a phenomenon with the same degree of consistency. 3.1 Acceptance of a value: Belief in a proposition, condition, doctrine, etc., with reasonable but tentative certainty. For example, children should be treated equally irrespective of their background and they should be given equal opportunity to take part in competition. 3.2 Preference for a value: Belief in the desirability or necessity of a proposition, condition, etc., over corresponding alternatives. For example, deliberately seeking the views of others on controversial issues with a view towards forming one’s own opinion. 3.3 Commitment to a value: Conviction and full involvement in a course, principle, or doctrine. For example, writing to the authorities about the exploitation of resources without permission.

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4. Organization: Development of values as an organized system, including the determination of their interrelationships and the establishment of value priorities, i.e. building an internally consistent value system. A set of criteria is established in making a choice. An individual takes position on a value and is willing to defend them. A particular value is internalized. 4.1 Conceptualization of value: Comprehension of the relationship of abstract elements of a value to those already held or to new values that are gaining one’s acceptance. For example, preference to a classical music over a pop music as the person likes classical than pop because he/she knows all the characteristics of a classical music. 4.2 Organization of a value system: Development of a complex of values, including disparate values, in terms of an ordered relationship, which ideally is harmonious and internally consistent. For example, becoming proactive for the social concerns and fighting for the welfare of the people. 5. Characterization by a value or value complex: At this level, a value gets synthesized and then internalizes a value system. Able to live a harmonious and pervasive way with the values, beliefs or ideals that make its philosophy or worldview. 5.1 Generalized set: Creating a mindset to organize the environment to act consistently and effectively in it. For example, on the basis of the requirement, the behaviour is transformed with valid environment. 5.2 Characterization: Able to completely internalize a value system. For example, on the basis of the code and ethical principles, regulating one’s personal and civil life. The following table gives a comprehensive view on how to represent verbs at different levels. S. No.

Levels

Student actions

1

Receiving

Follow, select, choose, point to, ask, hold, give, locate and attend

2

Responding

Read, confirm, help, answer, practice, present, report, greet, tell, perform, assist, and recite

3

Valuing

Initiate, ask, invite, share, join, follow, purpose, read, study, work, accept and argue

4

Organizing

Defend, alter, integrate, synthesize, listen, influence, adhere, modify, relate and combine

5

Characterizing by a value or value complex

Adhere, relate, act, serve, use, verify, question, confirm, propose, solve and influence

III. Psychomotor Domain Psychomotor processes are also an integral part of the cognitive and affective domains. Not much research was carried out to develop psychomotor dimensions through education. However, in this direction, physical educationists did some achievements through the branch of human movement study known as kinesiology. The classification of psychomotor tasks is listed below in a comprehensive way. The lowest level starts with the reflex movements and continues with the fundamental movements and so on.

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The higher psychomotor processes do not go without the cognitive and affective processes. For instance, at a higher level, perceptual abilities involving visual, auditory, tactile discrimination and coordinated action, physical abilities, skilled movements and expressive interpretive movements are responsible for all kinds of life tasks. This domain is very much used in the physical education and also relevant to music, drama, art and vocational courses (Anita J. Harrow, 1972). Classification of psychomotor categories (Anita J. Harrow 1972) 1. Reflex movements Spiral reflexes Inter-segmental reflexes

Students will be able to contract muscles

2. Basic fundamental movements Locomotor movements Non-locomotor movements Manipulative movements 3. Perceptual abilities Kinaesthetic discrimination Visual discrimination Auditory discrimination

Students will categorize by size

Tactile discrimination Coordinated perceptual abilities 4. Physical abilities Endurance Strength Flexibility Agility 5. Skilled movements Simple adaptive skill Compound adaptive skill

They are related to games and sports. Students perform exercises correctly

Complex adaptive skill 6. Non-discursive communication Expressive movements Interpretive movements

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Harrow (1972) and Jewett and Mullan (1977) have presented the psychomotor domain with four levels of taxonomy: 1. Fundamental movement: These are the basic building blocks for the higher level movement – the ability to track objects, walk and crawl. For example, the child will be able to hold the racket from the forehand. 2. Generic movement: These are the abilities which are basic rudiments of a skill learnt under supervision. At this level the child develops efficient motor patterns, timing and coordination, and they are refined further. 3. Ordinate movement: It is the ability to perform a skill ably and independently. This skill gets organized and can be performed in sequence. It does not require any conscious effort. It is mastered with precision in the performance. For example, the child performs a task step by step. 4. Creative movement: It provides the ability to compare and serves personal purpose of the individual who performs an act. It is the individual who does in a unique way of its own and creates new patterns. For example, if the child is given instruction to draw a painting, he or she adds own imagination and creates a unique painting. A summary of the psychomotor levels of taxonomy and the related action verbs is listed in the following table. Psychomotor domain Levels

Action verbs

Fundamental movement

Track, crawl, hear, react, move, grasp, walk, climb, jump, grip, stand and run

Generic movement

Drill, construct, dismantle, change, clean, manipulate, follow, use, march and hop

Ordinate movement

Play, connect, fasten, make a sketch, weigh, wrap, manipulate, play, swim, repair and write

Creative movement

Create, invent, construct, manipulate, play, build, pantomime, perform and make

SELECTION OF CURRICULUM EXPERIENCES AND LEARNING EXPERIENCES Principles of Curriculum Organization The principles suggested for use in selecting educational content are useful in considering organization and may be modified slightly to become more applicable for such a purpose. The pattern of the curriculum, with its subdivisions, should be planned and structured with due regard for the bases which have been suggested as underlying the operation of the secondary school, the purposes of education, the learner and the educative process. In terms of these, a few general principles outline the job that should be done with respect to curricular organization, which should do the following: 1. Provide the scope and sequence with flexibility as regards each. 2. Provide a common body of educative experiences, as well as those which are essential in meeting special interests and needs. 3. Be consonant with the manner in which learning takes place.

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4. Implement the attainment of stated objectives, and encourage evaluation of pupil growth and development in terms of these objectives. 5. Give consideration to the individual learners, and involve them in cooperative curriculum planning and active learning ventures. 6. Relate the total education picture in such a way to favourably affect the learning climate in the school and in the community. The basic aspects should be borne in mind while selecting curriculum and learning experiences. There are various problems we encounter in the process of curriculum experiences and learning experiences: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Rational selection Establishing criteria Validity and significance of content Consistency with social realities Balance of breadth and depth Provision for a wide range of objectives

1. Rational Selection While selecting any course content, one of the important principles of rational selection arises: whether the content is suitable. Many changes are taking place in various fields – development of new technologies, scientific innovations, new disciplines, etc. Which content is rational? What to add? What to delete? What is the rationale? What are the new ways of learning? Is it still formal learning or distance learning or online learning experiences that need to be provided for, i.e. while selecting the content/curriculum experiences or learning experiences? The content has also to look for appropriateness, unity, depth and sequence for learning. What are the needs of the society or demands of the society, for instance, selecting the courses that are at present on demand like computer knowledge? So, it is necessary to go for a rational selection of curriculum and learning experiences. What are various courses of study, within the course what are the broad areas that should be included, to what extent the content has to be dealt, etc., should be borne in mind while drawing the content/learning experiences. 2. Establishing Criteria Keeping in view the needs, requirements of the society, studies of the learners and learning process the analysis of knowledge and subject matter criteria can be established.  Both content and learning experiences should be fruitful and a clear distinction should be made between them.  Problem of misconception about the role of subjects’ indisciplined thought as the direct function of the mental operations has been employed while learning.  Desired objectives can be reflected in selection of content, i.e. the concepts, ideas, and facts, whereas the thinking skills and attitudes cannot be implemented by selection and organization of content alone.  Which subject to be included is also one of the criteria.  While selecting and organizing the concepts, social change or interdependence depends on the type of society. These criteria can be materialized on the basis of prior diagnosis of a particular situation. Exclusively any one criterion or a set of criteria are not valid as they create the dangers of imbalanced curriculum.

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Criteria Related to Scope, Sequence and Grade Placement Some excellent criteria were provided by Thorndike and Gates which relate especially to sequence and grade placement, but which also bear on scope: 1. Other things being equal, introduce a fact or skill at the time or just before the time when it can be used in some serviceable ways. This is the criterion of need. 2. Other things being equal, introduce a fact or a skill at the time when the learner is conscious of the need for it as a means of satisfying some useful purpose. This may be called the criterion of felt need. 3. Other things being equal, introduce a fact or skill when it is most suited in difficulty to the ability of the learner. The optimum degree of difficulty is one which challenges the learner to enlist his/her best efforts, but it is not as hard as to lead to failure or serious errors. A person’s ability will depend both on the level of maturity reached through inner growth and on facts and skills acquired by means of previous experience. This is the criterion of difficulty. 4. Other things being equal, introduce a fact or a skill when it will harmonize fully with the level and type of emotions, tastes, instinctive and volitional dispositions most active at the time. This may be called the criterion of temperamental compatibility. 5. Other things being equal, introduce a fact or a skill when it is most fully facilitated by immediately preceding learnings and when it will most fully facilitate learnings which are to follow shortly. This is the criterion of facilitation. 3. Validity and Significance of Content Content should be valid and significant to the contemporary trends in knowledge explosion and scientific and technological developments. Obsolescence of facts, the approach or mode of thought used and the kinds of questions asked and answered cannot be considered valid and significant. The trends in curriculum improvement and change and also introduction of new disciplines and interdisciplinary areas, etc., show the appropriateness in curriculum development and provide right direction to think and develop new trends in the curriculum. For instance, the present/contemporary trends observed in curriculum reflect overambitious and irrational introduction and voluminous growth of content and information. No emphasis is laid on other skills, required feelings and emotions and attitudes of the future citizen. It is also necessary to understand the courses of study which are significant at that time and in future. Whatever content is included, it should be justified from the point of utility and relevance to the learner and the society at large. 4. Consistency with Social Realities Primarily, an appropriate analysis of society and the knowledge are necessary while prescribing curriculum. In the Indian context, we should know our culture and how to preserve it. It is necessary to consider not only social realities but also global concerns. It should include the values required for a democratic society. How far our children are oriented to enrich or understand our cultural heritage? How far they understand the global trends and will be ready to maintain appropriate social and human relations? How far mental processes, thinking and manipulative skills are incorporated to suit the machine age? It needs to focus and think about while selecting the criteria to make it more socially relevant. It is necessary to consider not only social realities but also global concerns. 5. Balance of Breadth and Depth There should be a balance between breadth and depth of ideas that are presented in the curriculum. It is not just introducing varied ideas without any proper

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understanding of the concepts. It should provide the way of thinking sufficiently to acquire the disciplinary knowledge; i.e. both vertical and horizontal dimensions of the concepts should be focused. For instance, if a concept animal is included at the primary level to that of the PG level, how much of details to be included at each level and the detailed description of each one of them.

BREADTH Characteristics Incidence rate

Products

Classification

ANIMAL

Geography

Uses Conditions/dwellings

DEPTH

Chordate Classification Non-Chordate

ANIMAL

6. Provision for a Wide Range of Objectives The purpose of objectives is not merely acquisition of content/knowledge but addition of a wide range of details. Curriculum can be more effective if it includes the most general to minute level of a wide range of objectives. Objectives should help in acquisition of effective ways of thinking, developing desirable attitudes and interests, appropriate habits and skills. It is imperative to plan for appropriate learning experiences for the same content to achieve all the wide range of objectives desired for. Taylor suggests the following: 1. To provide an enriched environment, which stimulates an assimilation of desired attitudes. 2. To provide experiences, which evoke feeling of a desired type. 3. To provide opportunities for the intellectual analysis to develop insights into the consequences of events, idea or possibilities for desired behaviour.

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Apart from the above criteria, it should include other important criteria such as ability to learn, adaptability to experiences of students and appropriateness to the needs and interests of the students. It shows how the transaction of the curriculum takes place with the target group by understanding abilities as well as interests and needs of the learner. By following the above dimensions, the curriculum and learning experiences are selected. Once the selection process is completed, the above objectives need to be organized.

ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULAR CONTENT AND LEARNING EXPERIENCE In the process of curriculum development, once we are through the framing of objectives, it is the time to go for selecting the content and learning experiences. In order to achieve the desired objectives, appropriate content with suitable learning experiences should be made available for the learner through the system of education. Learning experiences are provided in the school formally in a systematized manner to achieve the objectives and to attain desirable behavioural outcomes in children. Learning varies from school to life. Teachers are provided with an unorganized list of learning activities. At the most some general sequence is suggested like initially with simple, concrete to complex and abstract learning experiences. Generally, teachers are left with making judgements on their own in relevance to their context of teaching in making decision about learning experiences. The selection of learning experiences along with the content is the two important decisions in curriculum making. The following are the basic concerns or reasons involved while selecting the content: 1. There is a tussle in the educational circles/intellectuals/academicians with regard to what is important content to be included and excluded. 2. There is tremendous explosion of knowledge which is very difficult to keep and which results in increasing difficulty for children. With emerging objectives to achieve through curriculum which does not come under classical curriculum. 3. The technological explosion can create space for self-learning through technological aids. Some educational objectives are served by the content, whereas others are best implemented by certain experiences. The objectives of knowledge – the concepts, ideas, and facts to be learnt – can be implemented by the selection of content. On the other hand, the attainment of objectives such as thinking, skills and attitudes can only be attained by certain experiences. This is due to the traditional separation of planning of content from learning experiences, and partly because of the assumptions that good content will bring about the development of thinking and other mental skills. Tyler pointed out that learning experience must provide opportunity to practise the following: 1. Appropriate behaviour 2. Inductive thinking 3. Generalization from series of specific facts

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4. To develop attitudes, it is necessary (a) To provide an environment which stimulates with the simulation of desired attitudes. (b) Experiences should evoke necessary feelings. (c) Experiences to develop sensitivity, understanding others’ feelings, ability to generalize, to solve problems and also should be prepared to pose the problems, develop generalization to solve the problems. Generally, curriculum planners design learning experiences to achieve varied objectives. Similarly, some learning experiences are provided to achieve varied objectives. While designing learning experiences, there are different viewpoints; one feels that learning experiences lead to acquisition of knowledge (i.e. it is assumed to be a passive process). It is assumed that learning and thinking are two different phenomena. Thus, the learning experiences should stimulate students to generalize instead to absorb generalizations. So, the following may be considered while planning learning experiences: 1. Learn ability and adaptability to experiences of students. 2. Appropriateness to the needs and interests of the students. (i) Curriculum content should be learnable and adaptable to students’ experiences. (ii) The factor in learner ability is the adjustment of the curriculum content and focus of learning experiences to the abilities of the students. (iii) It should plan concrete experiences to develop the power to discover general ideas and concepts (iv) The purpose of curriculum is to develop many skills, ideas and insights in students to master themselves. (v) They should introduce thought forms which are appropriate to learn, i.e. in essence, learning experiences are stepping stones towards an end or outcome. (vi) It should translate social heritage into experiences which help each student to make it his/her own. (vii) It is applicable to the beginning of the unit or topic. (viii) Learning experiences suitable to the knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes necessary to meet the adolescent needs should be provided. (ix) According to Prescott, there are three types of needs: psychological, social and the ego and integrative. First deals with biological nature of human being, e.g. food, activity and rest. Social needs have to do with the relationship which individuals must establish with other human beings, institutions, organizations, which lead to security and status. Ego and integrative needs involve certain qualities and conditions of life experience which facilitate the growth of the individual and the finding of the self, self-direction, balance between success and failure and harmony and integration of personality. From academic consideration, the imperative needs of the youth are the following:  Developing suitable skills  Ability to use leisure time  Learning how to purchase goods and services 3. Educational definition of need in for sensitive awareness of other people and their values for critical thinking, competencies in social skills, adequate achievement in arithmetic, democratic attitudes and for skills in group life.

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 In terms of curriculum fulfilling needs of children and youth is to provide adequate learning conditions where the school provides the environment to foster self-identity and reality about one’s self.  Neither is it necessary to assume that the interests of students are static or that expressed interests are the true ones. The job of the curriculum making is to get below the surface and to discover things that many engage the students to enlarge these and to connect them with what ‘has to be learnt’.

Curriculum Content Curriculum content is the most important and without which it is very difficult to go for its organization. Content includes facts, concepts, generalization, principles, processes and so on. Generally, content is acquired by the learners through mental operations, such as rote learning, discussions, drill and written expression; i.e. content is knowledge.  Content directs/determines the nature and type of learning experiences.  Content suggests all sorts of indoor and outdoor activities that the teacher suggests.  Knowledge is essential for rational action, and without it the individual may still act in a routine manner.  Without knowledge, rational action is impossible.  Knowledge begets knowledge in order to discover new facts, concepts, principles, etc.  Knowledge expands experience.  The awareness of the individuals that they possess knowledge motivates them to explore the natural, physical and social environment.  Knowledge satisfies the persistent need for cognitive orientations to life and motivates for further knowledge. Content and Educational Objectives twofold, the individual and social.

The content of curriculum related to objectives is

Individual Objectives and Content The content of the curriculum should include items which would consolidate the faiths and values of the individual for which it perpetuates traditional faith and values but also give the lead for the development of those relevant to the emerging social order.  The content should include items that would contribute to the development as well as good health.  Mental ability includes knowledge, thinking and reasoning attitudes and skills, good personality traits and good social behaviour in peer groups as well as in the community. All the above helps to understand that the following should be included as content: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Content that improves or develops intellectual, physical growth and development Languages – mother tongue, regional language, national language Religion and moral science Biological needs – food, water, etc. Economic needs – economic growth and development factors Aspirations of people – democracy, equality, cultural renaissance, demands, individual, social and economic aspiration

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Problems and Concerns of Society     

Ethnic Environmental Economic Social Knowledge explosion, etc.

Once the selection of content is decided or made clear, it is the process of organization which is important.

Curriculum Organization Curriculum organization is a technical process. It involves a number of steps such as selecting facts, ideas and concepts which are important from individual and social point of view. They are related to the maturity of students. The various elements of the content are integrated whole. The curriculum is organized and placed in the teacher’s hand to transact. Sciences pertaining to world of nature and world of materials – natural regions and natural phenomena – mountains and oceans, climatic conditions, winds and cyclones, tsunami, hurricanes, soils, rocks and volcanoes, natural and physical resources, vegetation, water, wind, mines, etc., world of materials, qualities and characteristics. Sciences pertaining to the world of humans are the history of the growth and development of human society, human civilization and human culture, classification of society, civilization and culture, geographical, cultural, racial bases, worldly human concerns and solutions.  Activities for the world of work  Activities for leisure, recreation and entertainment

Social Objectives of Content Social objectives of content include needs, aspirations of people and social problems. Curriculum should create awareness among students to establish a social order. Content of curriculum should be drawn from the following: 1. Basis of social order – cultural heritage 2. Needs and aspirations of people Curriculum organization is a difficult and complex process. Many problems are involved in the process. The problem of curriculum organization includes two major dimensions: the content and the learning experiences. Mostly, the confusion prevails as these two are not brought into focus. The different problems involved in the organization of curriculum are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Establishing sequence Determining the focus Integration of content and skills Logical and psychological requirements Varieties in modes of learning Continuity

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Balance Utility Cumulative learning Unity

1. Establishing Sequence According to Taba , those involved in curriculum organization have paid attention mostly to the sequence of content but not the sequence of processes. Some viewed sequence based on the psychological developmental aspects. According to Smith, Stanley and Shore, four basic principles are involved in sequencing the curriculum: 1. From simple to complex: The content is organized from the simple components to the complex components by creating an interrelationship between each other. 2. Expository order: It starts with simple specific concepts to the whole material organization. For example, while organizing the content on principles, laws in physics, grammar, geometry, etc., they are organized with a particular logical sequence to learn that better. 3. From whole to part: It starts with whole and goes to individual parts. For instance, while teaching about a particular state/country in geography, first it start with the whole globe and then take up a particular part. Similarly, in science, first a flower is introduced as a whole and then individual parts are shown. 4. Chronological: Here, the content/subject matter is organized in a time sequence either from earlier to later or from later to earlier. For instance, in history and literature, they are arranged in a chronological fashion. Each subject is introduced in a particular way; i.e. the sequence varies from subject to subject. 2. Determining Focus The problem of lack of focus in curriculum organization is the major drawback. It is also important to understand whether it should be organized by subjects, topics or units. The criteria to focus on the topic are important. For instance, while organizing the content on Ashoka the great king, the focus could be on what are the major contributions he made for the welfare of the people. This will really bring in the focus of the topic; i.e. the core ideas for the topic should be identified and organized. Certain basic questions related to the focal point can be raised and the content can be organized around it. It has to focus on the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

The units, topics of the subject. The core ideas of the topic as focusing centres. Core ideas can be used as coverage. Focusing centres as the threads for either a vertical or a horizontal integration.

3. Integration of Content and Skills The problem of integration and specialization of knowledge is presumed as dilemma in education. Learning becomes more effective when the facts and principles from the field are related to one another. For instance, while teaching literature or history, the learning in one field can be related to the other though it may not be shown in the content organization; i.e. the integration happens in an individual. This means seeing relationships between experiences and knowledge. The integration could be horizontal or vertical. 4. Logical and Psychological Requirements In the process of organization of curriculum, it should preserve both logic of the subject matter and psychological sequence of learning

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experiences. Each subject/discipline is organized with a particular logical sequence as discussed already. The contrast is seen between logical and psychological organizations of curricular relationships, as a basis for organization in the place of another set. We need to decide its logical sequence depending on the curricular content. If it is psychological, it depends on the child’s reaction, interests and ways of looking at the subject. For more effective organization, both of them need to be considered. 5. Variety in Modes of Learning All learn effectively by some methods. Some learn more effectively by some methods. Some may acquire some concept effectively through reading a book, some through media, some through experimentation, some from observation, some by doing, some need individual exposition and some need group discussion. So, the wider range of or variety in the modes of learning helps for better learning of the content. The content organization should provide wider scope for it. 6. Continuity In organizing content there should be continuity. For instance, in Bruner’s spiral curriculum, it is observed that the contents are recurrent; i.e. there is a continuity of the topics. The concept of plant and plant life continues from basic stage, the first standard to the research level. There is a link in contents from class to class and grade to grade like vertical continuity. It should also have a continuity horizontally, i.e. continuity between different units. 7. Balance There is a need for an appropriate balance while designing the curriculum. Appropriate weightage should be given to each and every aspect of the curriculum, i.e. according to Goodlands the balance in terms of subject matter and the learner. According to Olive, the balance can be attained through the following set of points:        

Child-centred and subject-centred curriculum Needs of the individual and the society Needs of common education and specialized education Breadth and depth of curriculum content Traditional content and innovative content Different teaching methods and educational experiences Work and play Unique range of pupils and their learning styles

8. Utility The curriculum takes into account while organizing the utilitarian knowledge provided to utilize in day-to-day life. Several topics which are useful are taken into account. 9. Cumulating Learning Cumulative learning is to provide a progressively more demanding performance: more complex materials to deal with more exacting analysis, a greater depth and breadth of ideas to understand, to relate and to apply, and a greater sophistication and subtract of attitudes and sensitivities. When any concept is taught from the lower grade to the higher grade, the complexity of the concept increases and the learning occurs by cumulating the earlier details with the later. In this process, the conceptual progression in terms of depth and breadth will be there. Thus, learning is cumulative. For instance, examining the geographic conditions of a country in detail in order to understand a relationship between geographic conditions and resources requires organizing a succession of questions and learning activities to provide movement of the cognitive and emotional

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reactions to higher levels as well as reinforcing and enlarging the concepts built in the previous activity. 10. Unity There should be relationship established between specialized subjects.

Principle to Unify the Curriculum One typical method of reducing the unmanageable bulk of specialized subjects to manageable proportion and bringing some unity into atomized specialization is combining closely related areas into one broad filed, such as replacing grammar, composition and literature with language and arts or combing geography and history into social studies. Correlating two subjects such as English and social studies or mathematics and science is another attempt at integration. Each subject follows a different scheme of organization, such as a chronological sequence in history and that of literary forms in literature, putting subjects together without developing a new basis for organization which is appropriate for both subjects, usually resulted in one subject becoming a ‘handmaiden’ of the other. When correlated with history, literature is taught in historical sequence, and the language skills are taught according to the requirements of themes drawn from the content of history. Core programmes of the type which centre on some broad problems or concepts and draw together from any field whatever knowledge or ideas that seems pertinent represent perhaps the more successful experiments with integration. For example, literature and history have been used as combined sources for understanding life; mathematical skills are being taught in connection with concepts relevant to consumer education; often the problems of children and youth have served as focusing centres. The main advantage of this pattern of integration is that it uses, if ever so vaguely, an integrating thread represented by an area of concern as a basis for organizing information and ideas. This organization permits a more natural relationship of ideas, facts and concepts drawn from different areas of knowledge. If the topics of the core units are chosen adroitly, these relationships can approximate that prevail in life situations, thus permitting at the same time a maximum of life application. As suggested above, combining subjects is not the only way of integrating learning. A good deal can be accomplished towards integrating leaning by developing more consistent patterns of thinking in the various subjects by stressing the board concepts which the more specialized subjects share in common, and by seeing to it that the students develop a consistent framework for understanding the ways in which these concepts are used in these disciplines.

PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION Any curriculum designer has to have a clear view of the following: How to design the curriculum? What is the purpose of it? On what basis or the psychological and philosophical perspective it is being designed? How is it relevant and valid to the context for which it is designed. For instance, if the curriculum is designed for early childhood stage or primary stage, the orientation towards the selection of content and learning experiences need to suit that age. Probably at this age, more suitable option to organize the curriculum would be child-centred or activitycentred curriculum. Similarly, at higher education where disciplinary specialization, knowledge base, is required and rigour in terms of mental training becomes important, it prefers to organize the curriculum with subject-centric pattern. Likewise, the curriculum designer depending on the necessity and context would prefer the pattern.

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Different patterns of curriculum are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Subject curriculum Broad fields curriculum Activity curriculum Core curriculum

Subject Curriculum The subject or disciplines are the focus of curriculum designing. How do we go in supporting the subject curriculum and what are the indictments of subject curriculum? Let us know first what are the aspects which support subject curriculum. It is decided by the advocates of subject curriculum that it would improve thinking. It is the individual civilization which promotes in becoming a better thinker. By acquiring knowledge related to different subjects, the individual’s skills or ways of thinking will be developed. For instance, if the individual studies physics, he/she thinks like physicist; similarly, if he/she reads history, he/she thinks like historian. If the individual cannot acquire such thinking, the fault is not with the learner, but the pattern of curriculum. It is believed that the knowledge is shaped in the learner’s mind through the subject pattern. However, there is no evidence to establish that powers such as speaking, writing and dealing with figures efficiently, to think critically and constructively, to judge discriminately and observe carefully, to appreciate and respect personal and cultural differences, to develop aesthetics like enjoy art and music, enrich imagination and deeper insight in drama and poetry. The pattern takes care of the new and growing knowledge and sophistication and specialization in each area. The hierarchy of the subjects is done as per the value and mental discipline is concerned. For instance, from the ancient times the focus is laid on the rigorous knowledge base and in the modern times the explosion of knowledge also demands to go into the disciplinary knowledge coming up with different specialization, studied through subject pattern alone which is whereas others are not. The very purpose of subject curriculum through various subjects introduced to the child could give knowledge about it. It not only helps to know but also helps to clarify the queries that come to their mind and even may go to the extent of raising advanced questions. It is the way the instruction is organized. It helps the children to expand their ideas and helps to come up with the new ideas and possibilities. Here, the child continues to grow further in the respective areas of knowledge. This pattern surely helps in preserving the race’s experience. In a way this is one of the most popular, conventional and convenient patterns. It is believed that this pattern is rooted from Greek’s seven liberal arts, according to Sidney Hooks. These are some of the important realms of knowledge. Today, most of the curricularists prefer to go for this pattern. Even today it is observed in India; any course is preferred to retain the disciplinary knowledge base. For example, today almost all levels of curriculum focus mostly on subjects, at primary basic skills related to language and arithmetic, i.e. 3Rs similarly at secondary, mathematics, language, science, social studies, etc. The following are modifications seen in subject curriculum:  Modification of the subject curriculum: This is in response to criticisms and the dissatisfaction in schools, in the teaching profession, community and parents. Also keeping in

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view the psychological and educational conceptions, to improve the subject curriculum, the modifications are made; they are ‘correlated’, broad fields curriculum then how they are correlated.  Correlated curriculum: This is basically a subject curriculum where two or more subjects are articulated. The relationship between or among them is made a part of instruction without destroying the subject boundaries. The result of Herbart’s psychological and educational conception is this, where reinforcing the ideas is emphasized. These emphasize interest, meaning and relation which lead and interpret concentration and correlation of subjects. Concentration is viewed as the grouping of a subject around a central study. Correlation means the support of topics of this central subject by related subjects. For instance, history and geography can be taught to reinforce each other. Similarly, maths and science or literature and history can be taught. There are three kinds of correlation depending on the subject matter involved: 1. Factual: The historical facts are used while writing a piece of literature or the past events to enrich the enjoyment of the reader. There can be geographical facts of a city etc. 2. Descriptive: It is related to one or more subjects illustrated through generalization. For instance, psychology can be correlated with history or other social sciences, i.e. the identity of the subjects based on certain fundamental, basic principles. 3. Normative: This is based on the inherent relationship between different subjects. Here, the correlation depends on the inherent relation of the subjects, convenience and the knowledge and children of the teachers. For instance, if a teacher is teaching the values related to a culture through literature, he cannot relate it to culture and history and values at that time. This kind of correlation leads to more scope of integrated knowledge and capacity to transfer the insights from one to the other. It also solves the problem of narrow specialization and fragmentation, compartmentalization of knowledge/disciplines. This does not deviate from the basic nature of disciplinary character and establish greater logical analogies. Although they do not deviate from subject curriculum, there are many new patterns originated with the names.

Broad Fields Curriculum Basically, this has originated from England and American secondary schools and colleges. One or two broad courses drew their subject matter and instruction. Thomas Huxley at Royal Institute in 1869 gave a series of lectures to London children which later published as physiography. Later in 1909 president Lowell of Harvard University called attention to the comprehensive course in every considerable field. In 1914 a general course at Amherent College called ‘social and economic institutions’, which is considered broad fields course offered at American colleges. In the Indian context, subjects such as social studies and general science include all the related fields. For instance, social studies include geography, history, civics, economics, politics, etc. Similarly, general science includes physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, etc. This enables to overcome the subject boundaries and complexity of multiple subjects.

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Indictments of the Subject Curriculum Compartmentalized and Fragmentary With the growth and explosion of knowledge, there is an aim at increasing fields of narrow specialization. Each teacher’s instruction goes into the narrow specialization where the teacher may not have a comprehensive knowledge about other related areas. In this context to quite ‘white head’, there is only one subject matter for education, and that is life in all its manifestation; instead of this single unity, we offer children algebra, from which nothing follows; geometry, from which nothing follows; science, from which nothing follows, history, from which nothing follows. A couple of languages never follow, and lastly most dreary of all, literature, represented by plays of Shakespeare, with philological notes and short analysis of plot and character to be instance committed to memory. Further, subject curriculum does not consist of a body of knowledge unified by a dynamic purpose, but a collection of fragments of information. For instance in physics, different aspects of physics and related concept are not related to one another. Due to this fragmentary nature of knowledge, the intellectual aspects of personality cannot be developed. Even the teachers who teach do not have the complete integrated knowledge. Neglect of the Learner’s Interests and Activities It ignores interests and activities of the learner. The purpose of instruction is to give mastery of subject matter or some kind of social approval through scores. There is nothing taught related to the concerns of the learner; instead, it just follows inefficient methods of teaching and learning and mostly depends on repetition, memory and drilling. The texts and manuals are written for adults and there is nothing interesting for learners. Moreover, the learner has no meaning in learning the content which is put for social approval. He or she learns many other things which he/she may like or not, which may have certain undesirable impact on his/her character/personality. Inefficient Arrangement of Content for Learning and Use Although the subjects are organized logically in an order, there is no good reason to believe that it is conducive to learning. It neglects the process and considers only outcome. It gives a summarized view. It is organized knowledge; no functional knowledge is related to the personal experience. Neglect of Social Problem It is divorced from current and persistent social problems. It gives mastery of knowledge but never considers current issues and conflicts. The social isolation is inherent in subject curriculum, and subject is taught as a self-contained system. Content of subject curriculum can be used for social reconstruction. Failure to Develop Habits of Effective Thinking It fails to develop effective thinking. The focus is on the mastery of conclusion of thought than the mastery of the process. It is largely responsible for uncritical tendencies. Individuals learn by repetition and memory, and there is no space for reflection and critical examination of conclusions. Thus subject curriculum, in spite of the above said indictments, is still popular and in practice due to its nature of easy to organize, simple to teach and assess.

Activity Curriculum Activity curriculum is also alternately known as project or experience curriculum. The history of activity curriculum dates back from Rousseau and Platonian times to that of recent past development. It did not come into existence till 1920s though John Dewey used the expression as activity programme as early as 1897 in his laboratory school.

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History behind Activity Curriculum The first American school was established in the University of Chicago, the laboratory school in 1896, as a comparative venture by parents, teachers, education under the guidance and direction of John and Mary Dewey. Dewey’s Laboratory School The curriculum of this school is designed based on four human impulses: 1. Social impulse – child’s desire to share his/her experience with others around him/her. 2. Constructive impulse – it is manifested first in play, in rhythmic movement, in make believe and more advanced forms in shaping of raw materials into useful objects. 3. Impulse to investigate and experiment – to find out things as revealed in the tendency of the child to do things just to see what will happen. 4. Expressive or artistic impulse – which means a refinement and further expression of the communicative and constructive interests. The core of school activity was to be found occupations, rather than what is conventionally termed in studies. The occupations included in the curriculum were cooking, sewing and carpentry. These occupations gave opportunity for shaping materials, for working with the hands; on the other hand they required planning, contriving and experimenting. Moreover, these occupations were the means by which the isolation of the traditional school, reserving largely from the subject curriculum, was to be overcome. Incentives to learn the fundamental processes – reading, writing and arithmetical computation –arose out of the activities involved in the occupations. Meriam’s Laboratory School In 1904, J. L. Meriam began to develop a new curriculum at the University of Missouri. There were no conventional subjects in the curriculum. In lieu of these subjects, there are four categories of activities: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Observation Play Stories Handwork

The curriculum is based on five principles: 1. The curriculum should provide for meeting the immediate needs of the pupils primary and secondary, it should provide for the preparation of pupils for later and needs. 2. The curriculum should be expressed in term of concrete everyday activities of pupils and adults, rather than in terms of generalization found in traditional subjects. 3. The curriculum should provide for great individual differences in order to meet varying tastes and abilities of the pupils. 4. The curriculum should be organized in such a manner that the various topics may easily be interchanged, not only within any grade during the year, but also from grade to grade. 5. The curriculum should provide an acquaintance with both work and leisure. The general guidelines based on the above five principles are as follows (I–V graded activities under each area): 1. Observation 2. Play 3. Stories 4. Handwork

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Further, the activity curriculum was also carried forward by Collins’ experimental school where in he used project method suggested by Kilpatrick. Collins’ curriculum also followed the general guidelines of Meriam School. They had play projects, excursion projects, story projects and hand projects. Distinctive Features of Curriculum Compared to other patterns, the following are the distinctive features: 1. Children’s interests determine content and structure 2. Common interests and common learning 3. Preparation but not strict planning in advance 1. Children’s Interest Determines Content and Structure The interests and purposes of children determine the educational programme. What is taught, when it is taught and the order in which it is learnt depend on realization of children’s purposes. This principle refers to the fact, interests and needs of children. Curriculum determined is primarily based on the child’s interest. In this curriculum children are actively engaged in doing something. Interests do not have to be created. Some interests are always needed to be presented. Teachers have to build/create educative activities based on their earlier activities. Activity curriculum considers interests, not the whims and fancies of the child. In this, subject matter is useful in shaping and directing the activities in response to impulses and purposes of the individual. Although activity curriculum recognizes the importance of group life and cooperative activities, there is no covering of an individual for group interests; here, the teacher plays a vital role, wherein the teacher has to identify the major interests of the students and organize the activities which should lead to further interests and should be rewarding. 2. Common Interests and Common Learning ‘Common learning’ results from the pursuance of interests. It is the child’s interest which determines what to teach; general education or common education is possible only if children have such interests. Since the interests of children vary, the possibility of common learning programme in difficult. In order to understand the common interest and create mutual learning, teachers need to make certain standard of judgement in this group; activities and common learning will be mostly sacrificed. Finally, the common learning of activity curriculum depends on mutual standards of value as well as shared interests. 3. Preparation but Not Strict Planning in Advance It is not pre-planned since it is the child’s interests which make the beginning. The children coming from different socio-economic backgrounds will have different interests, privileges, etc. The teacher should work with the children to understand their interests and direct them to learn through that. Also, the teacher should guide them how to assess to know that they have accomplished. For this teacher needs to play for himself as to how to plan the classroom with the possible interest of children along with the growth and development of the child, also insights into the group structure and dynamics. The following characteristics are essential for activity curriculum but not restricted to it: Cooperative planning by students and teachers: Activities are planned cooperatively by students and teachers. In this, group teacher cooperates in planning the activities, carrying out the work and evaluating the experiences. Children take part in planning the curriculum projects;

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they take part not only for gaining knowledge but also in planning process. Neither of the teachers nor children plan any objectives; objectives are realized within the domain of the children’s interests. 1. Ambiguity with respect to social direction: It may or may not have deliberate social direction, and educational programme is neutral. The first basis for selection of curriculum content is the interests of children. These interests are conditioned by the radio, television, motion pictures, comic books, newspapers, horror, the church, the school and countless other agencies. The contemporary society is not characterized by a single environment and conflicting values, and the interests of children reflect these differences. Curriculum would set forth a value framework for use by teachers in helping children to select worthwhile interests. They are also characterized by a consistent social orientation. 2. Problem solving, the dominant method: In the activity curriculum, the teaching–learning process consists largely of problem solving. This is true because in the pursuit of interests and purposes various difficulties will arise, and pupils and teachers will be challenged to find ways for overcoming these obstacles. Problem solving is the heart of the teaching–learning process; it follows that subject matter is studied as a means of solving problems and not as an end in itself. Thus, it is clear that activity does not happen without the content/subject matter. All the fields of knowledge are used in activity curriculum since children’s interests are diversified. As per the need, the skills are also taught to children; with the need and interest all the required skills are equipped in children. 3. Little need for extracurricular features: As the subjects taught may not meet the interests of children, special classes and out-of-class activities become very important. But in activity curriculum, this necessity does not arise. Keeping in view the interests, strengths and weaknesses of children, suitable opportunities are created and arrangements are made to sustain their interests and learning. 4. Special subjects for special needs: In activity curriculum, by the time the child reaches 7th year, specialized needs of subject matter should be provided. Children suspend their time mostly in building up specialized courses or individualized areas, especially at the end of schooling, paying attention to their creative talents. In order to make an activity curriculum effective and utilitarian, the following personnel, physical features and administrative arrangements are necessary: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Training of teachers Physical features of the school Equipment and materials in the classroom Activity room Transportation facilities Planning without rigid scheduling No sequence of grades Flexibility in administrative arrangements

By keeping in view the entire above activity, curriculum can be made effective, possible and fruitful.

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In activity curriculum, certain limitations are observed: 1. The interest categories sacrifice the subject organization of knowledge and do not replace it with any organization which may lead to huge gaps in experiences. 2. There is a lack of continuity in the experiences provided. 3. The interest categories may not take care for preparing to the future. 4. There is a problem of sequence in organizing activities over grades. 5. The basic ideas related to grade placement such as maturation, experiential background, prerequisite learning, interest, usefulness and difficulty need to be determined even in activity curriculum. 6. Organized subject matter becomes inevitable while solving any problem. It needs to go for extensive reading of material.

Core Curriculum The development of core curriculum is based on the verification of subjects as the core of the educational programme. From Herbertian’s viewpoint of ‘concentration’ where one or more subjects are made as the centre or core, curriculum may be defined as: ‘Complete unification is the building of all subjects and branches of study into one whole, and the teaching of the same in successive groups or lessons or sections. When this union is affected by making one group or branch of study in the course of the centre or core, and subordinating all other subjects to it; the process may be considered as concentration of studies’. Two well-known orientations towards core curriculum are the following: 1. Zillar plan: Zillar is the founder of the radical school of Herbertian at the University of Leipzig. In his scheme, cultural studies – Biblical and profane history and literature –made the centre, the core around which all other subjects are organized. The central studies were developed in a sequence determined by culture-epoch theory. All the subordinate subjects do not have any principle and they depend on the central subjects by making connection. 2. Colonel Francis W. Parker: His scheme of concentration employed natural sciences as the core of the programme. The subjects comprising the core were mineralogy, geology, geography, astronomy, meteorology, biology, anthropology and history. The unification of these subjects was accomplished through logical and philosophical relation. In late 1920s, it emerged on the basis of diagnoses of society. The following are distinctive characteristics: 1. Core curriculum emphasizes on social values: The core curriculum is deliberately and consistently normative in its orientation. All aspects of common core of education experience are oriented to the realization of a healthy society, democratically conceived. 2. Structure fixed by social problems: The core curriculum in its pure form is a refinement and simplification of the basic elements of the culture that all members of the society share. These elements consist of normative rules, descriptive principles, facts, and in addition, methods of thinking, points of view and so on. These elements are organized into social categories based on major social activities which are sometimes conceived as social processes such as protection and conservation of property, and actual sources, wherein all members of the society are involved.

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Essential Characteristics of Core Curriculum There are four essential features: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Common learning Cooperative planning of activities Provision for special needs Skills taught when needed

1. Common Learning The core areas are required to all students. It consists of common learnings; these learnings are believed to be essential for all members of the society, irrespective of the ability, social status and vocational plans. 2. Cooperative Planning of Activities Here, activities are planned cooperatively by both teachers and students. In this individuals enter to learn core areas and share a common regard for matters of social welfare. Core curriculum creates space for both teachers and students in taking active participation in terms of planning, selection of problems and solving the problem. They become proficient in all processes relating to problem solving. The teacher acts as a leader and assists in all aspects. 3. Provision for Special Needs It is a very flexible organization related to subject curriculum. It is responsive to the interests of the learner. It helps in creating possibilities for specialized interests, but provision for further development of these specialties which are outside the core programme. Some specialties or electives are planned outside the core programme. Guidance can become a central part of core curriculum; core curriculum being flexible in many schools both the individuals and group guidance is carried. 4. Skills Taught When Needed According to this theory of core curriculum, learning to read, write, spell, use arithmetic, work with others, think effectively, or perform adequately. Other skills should be motivated by the feeling of need on the part of the individual. This programme creates the need for various skills. The following ideal conditions are expected to implement this core curriculum: 1. Training teachers: Teachers should have a broad general education and specialized training in the social foundations of education, child and adolescent psychology, the structure and dynamics of social groups, guidance and problem methods of teaching. Also, the teacher needs training in specialized areas. 2. Physical features of the school: This requires creating optimum operation; buildings, grounds and classrooms should be large, flexible enough to permit pursuance of attitude group activities. 3. Equipment and material: It should be adequate and sufficient for the group projects. 4. General purpose or activity room: It should have several general purpose or activity rooms; certain creative and extracurricular activities or materials related to that would be placed suitable to different stages of curriculum. 5. Transportation facilities: There should be ample transportation facilities. The solution to certain problem may need several visits to the field, requiring ample transportation facilities. As it is difficult to visualize before hand, it would be apt to create such facilities to go around on trips.

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6. Large and flexible time blocks: Time blocks must be large and flexible. 7. Flexible groupings of children: Grouping children either by grade or age needs to be flexible. All students should opt for the core programme. Each child would progress through this programme in the group and would work best. 8. Flexibility in administrative arrangements 9. Public relation programme: The public relation programme of the school must be continuous and effective. 10. School as a community centre: Community should become an integral part of school programmes. Limitation of Core Curriculum  Primarily, it is very difficult to replace the conventional courses and create new core subjects which would become the core of the curriculum.  It is difficult to develop linkages with the core element and the other related areas.  Sometimes, broad fields considered, yet times unified courses as the core curriculum.  Considering individual needs and interests as core curriculum has got its own problems.  For instance, if they consider adolescent needs as core, all the characteristics related to different aspects such as physical, social and emotional will be difficult.  If social functions are considered as core, social functions vary enormously from society to society, so the difficulty in planning.  Social problem to consider as core is also difficult.  Problem of sequence is the core curriculum. Thus, there are various problems even in core curriculum.

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6 Models of Curriculum Development CHAPTER OUTLINE  Procedures for Selecting and Organizing Curricular Content  Models of Curriculum Development

 Curriculum Patterns of School Education

PROCEDURES FOR SELECTING AND ORGANIZING CURRICULAR CONTENT Before discussing these more definitive procedures found in educational literature, it is well to mention two less technical means of selecting and organizing educational content. These are widely utilized, even in cases where other procedures are employed: 1. Selection and organization based on what is familiar to the individual teacher or the group of teachers 2. Selection and organization based on what teachers, individually or collectively, believe is sound and good for students Although largely subjective, these two approaches may include elements from the other procedures, and their utilization varies a great deal from one learning situation to another. Particularly, in dealing with courses of study and units therein, teachers are governed by them.

The Textbook Procedure The most commonly employed of all procedures for selecting and organizing curricular experiences, this one is self-explanatory. The content of a course or a curriculum based on this approach is determined in a large part, if not entirely, by the selected textbook (or textbooks). Essentially, it assumes that the writers of texts are sufficiently expert to know what is appropriate for the youths who are to pursue the given curricular experiences and use the textual materials in so doing. While such persons generally have access to much basic data and do a real service in bringing together and organizing materials, it is to be doubted if they are capable accurately of diagnosing pupil background and needs as they are found in the thousands of classrooms over the nation. Yet, in the hands of many teachers, the text serves as the prescription for all, regardless of differences. In using this method of determining course content and activity, the teacher’s role is chiefly that of selecting the textbooks to serve as a basis for the course. Supplementation, although definitely

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desirable, is not an essential part of the procedure. If the textbook has already been chosen previously, the teacher does not have to face the problem of selection. In situations where teachers select a series of books as a curricular basis, such as in mathematics or science, this process becomes the determining factor for a larger aspect of the total curriculum. Conceivably, the choice of books by individuals and groups may be the major effort aimed at determining curricular content. Very often the subjects for which texts are to be selected are offered year after year simply because they have been offered in the past. Sometimes the same textbook enjoys a long period of use for the same reason and because a teacher becomes accustomed to it or the school is unable to replace it with a newer one. New teachers may feel so insecure that the textbook becomes a ready crutch to give them security when it is badly needed. Even when new courses are introduced into the curriculum, the actual content is frequently determined by a textbook which is selected by those who are to offer the course.

The Survey of Opinions Procedure This procedure has several variations and is generally more fruitful. Sometimes, it is spoken of as the consensual or expert-opinion procedure. Subject-matter committees, for example, make pronouncements based on the study and opinions of the members. These decisions are frequently based on considerable study and deliberation and are worth careful consideration. On other occasions, the recommended ideas or practices may be nothing more than unstudied opinion. The value of the procedure is likely greatest in restricted areas of the curriculum, as in some special subject field, or in dealing with special problems. Five groups of persons may be involved individually or collectively: (1) experts in a given field, including teachers, (2) specialists in professional education, (3) lay leaders, (4) the general public and (5) pupils. Opinions may be solicited through the activity of committees established to study given problems or to assist with educational matters in general. These may involve membership from each of the five groups, or may be restricted to one or several. Questionnaires may be utilized to poll opinion on given points, and the interview technique is also helpful in some instances. Combinations of these may be necessary in dealing with problems of broad scope, concerning which opinions of a large segment of the population are desired. The sharing of ideas which this procedure may encourage, if properly conducted to promote discussion and arbitration, makes it useful in discovering underlying issues and problems. It is also applicable in connection with other procedures of selecting and organizing curricular content. Groups studying social functions or adolescent needs may well seek the counsel of experts and laymen, or they may survey the opinions of pupils to gain additional insight regarding tentative decisions. The procedure may thus be one of information sharing as well as decision making. Student–teacher planning also involves the consensual approach on a less inclusive level, and opinion polls are increasingly popular in dealing with various aspects of the school and its programme. As an illustration of this procedure, consider a situation in which a secondary school is contemplating the introduction of a course in technology. In determining its desirability and what it might best include, a committee involving teachers, pupils and laymen is formed to study possibilities and to gain impressions from the community. This group checks the literature for ideas and works with the community to determine what is felt about such a course, topics worthy of inclusion, and related points. In each instance, the attempt is made to gain some consensus, on the basis of which more advanced planning might be made should it appear desirable to continue with the proposed course. A school may also utilize as a jury of experts in studying curricular problems and in arriving at decisions of magnitude.

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The Study of Errors Procedure The idea behind this procedure is that of identifying errors and shortcomings as a basis for incorporating in the curriculum such content as will aid in strengthening these weaknesses. This is a form of analysis which concentrates on the incorrect or improper behaviour judged in terms of given criteria, steps or values. In the field of social studies, for example, a study might be directed at determining the reasons why different racial groups in a community were not getting along well. On the basis of the findings, a series of curricular experiences could be outlined and materials selected to help promote better understanding and more cooperative relationships. Time and motion studies directed towards the elimination of errors in mechanical skills. Probably, the most useful application of this procedure lies in diagnosing weaknesses, rather than in using it as a basis for major determination of the course or the curriculum. In mathematics a teacher may study pupil performance, determining weaknesses in several respects. Remedial work may then be brought into the picture. For purposes of diagnosis at the beginning of courses, a more extensive analysis may be made of both strengths and weaknesses. This may serve as a partial basis for structuring the course, particularly with regard to an introductory unit aimed at developing needed understandings and basic skills.

The Study of Other Curricular Procedure The procedure of scissors-and-paste method entails the study of curriculum guides, courses of study and similar materials prepared by other schools and agencies. The general idea is to determine from such study what others are doing which appears likely to be useful in one’s own school situation. In this way one teacher, or a school, may lean heavily on another for the substance of curricular content. A teacher may, for example, simply look over a course of study in science which is used in another school and adopt it exactly as it is for use in his own class. This danger must be avoided if the procedure is to serve any good purpose. There is nothing improper in ascertaining what others are doing with the view of making improvements in one’s own programme. If there are commendable practices in the curriculum of one school which may be adapted to conditions on another school to promote the development of a better curriculum, then this procedure has worth. Too often, however, one school body adopts what another has developed. This is usually not very successful, for it is only because of the developmental process that the first school profited from its programme. The direct, uncritical, and unadapted translation of curricular content from one school to another suffers greatly in loss of meaning, and this application of the procedure has little or no merit. There is small chance for such a foster curriculum; if one is to succeed in the educational family, it must be born there through the labours of those who are to raise it.

The Analysis of Audit Activities Procedure Broadly conceived, it involves the study of life activities – citizenship, vocation and so forth – to discover significant activities concerning which youth should be taught to be proficient. It is more commonly recognized and utilized, however, in relation to vocational education, when analysis is directed towards the identification of specific skills. Once such identification has been accomplished, curricular experiences are set up to teach the skills. One of the major champions of activity analysis, Bobbitt, proposed that the procedure is useful in laying out educational goals in a general way – goals which are founded on first-hand

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thought. Believing that education is primarily for adult life, he suggested the following classification of major fields of human experiences: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Language activities; social intercommunication Health activities Citizenship activities General social activities – meeting and mingling with others Spare-time activities, amusements, recreations Keeping oneself mentally fit – analogous to the health activities of keeping oneself physically fit Religious activities Parental activities, the upbringing of children, the maintenance of a proper home life Unspecialized or non-vocational practical activities The labours of one’s calling

These are not unlike some statements of areas of life problems, and they may be utilized in the social functions procedure also. Following this delineation of major fields of human experience, Bobbitt made a detailed analysis resulting in over 800 specific objectives which serve only to illustrate the kind of goals on the given level of generality. Major objectives of education (social intercommunication): 1. Ability to use language in all ways required for proper and effective participation in the community life 2. Ability to effectively organize and present orally one’s thought to others: (a) in conversation, (b) in recounting one’s experiences, (c) in more serious or formal discussion, (d) in oral report, (e) in giving directions and (f) to an audience 3. Ability to pronounce one’s words properly 4. Ability in speech to use the voice in ways both agreeable and effective 5. Command over an adequate reading, speaking and writing vocabulary 6. Ability to use language which is grammatically correct 7. Ability to effectively organize and express one’s thought in the written form: (a) memoranda, (b) letters, (c) reports, new items or articles, systematic discussion of questions, (d) giving directions and (e) written addresses 8. Ability to write with proper legibility, ease and speed

The Social Functions Procedure Related to the activity-analysis approach, but broader in point of view, is what may be called the social functions procedure. This has its basis in the concept of education as a social process, and, as primary step, involves an analysis of the social functions which adult citizens should be capable of performing. Because it requires a broad grasp of the total environment and deals with larger areas of living, this approach is more applicable to larger areas of the curriculum such as the whole social studies programme. It may, however, lead into more detailed selection and organization as an outgrowth of the larger planning which is done initially. This procedure entails comprehensive study of social, political, economic and related conditions, influences and trends as these may be approached through surveys, literature, research and other avenues. The writings of frontier thinkers, as well as the study of the present as it actually is, should be included. A general appraisal of the total situation, the forces and factors influencing it,

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and what it all means in terms of the social functions and the secondary school is very important and essential. Reference to the roles and functions outlined earlier may be helpful at this point.

MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Any system of education to become successful needs an effective planning and should be clear on its means and ends. On one hand curriculum should be developed with perspective which is a very systematic endeavour such as starting with goals, content, methods, learning experience, material and evaluation. On the other hand, the other’s point of view should be derived from various sources such as students, society, disciplines or subject matter. It also depends on for whom, in what context, what purpose, the process to be adopted, etc. The curriculum is designed and developed based on the approach, style, source, etc. Broadly, there are two approaches to curriculum development: 1. Scientific/technical 2. Non-technical/humanistic

Scientific/Technical This is a very scientific, rational and systematic approach which demands an effective and rigorous planning as a means to attain expected results. It would be convenient to know the achievement of goals through systematic evaluation processes. Bobbit and Charter are the prominent personalities in this approach. Bobbit calls curriculum construction the railroad. When the direction is laid, it becomes very easy to follow it from infancy to the higher level. Activity analysis The following sequence is followed by Bobbit: ‘Discover the activities which ought to make up the lives of students and along with these the abilities and personal qualities necessary for proper performance’. Desire educational objectives : Actual activities of human beings by considering their experiences Wret Charter, a contemporary of Bobbit, also believes in activity analysis. He says, ‘Changes in the curriculum are always preceded by modifications in our conception of the aim of education’. He considers the selection of school content and experiences are influenced by aims, ideals that we wish to address. According to Charter, curriculum construction should follow four steps: Selecting objectives

Dividing objectives into ideals and activities

Analysing them into limits, working units

Collecting the methods of achievement

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Due to Charter and Bobbit’s efforts/concern for curriculum as a field of study, in 1932, curriculum emerged as an independent field. In 1938, Teachers College at Columbia University established a department of curriculum and teaching. Now, let us look at the scientific models of curriculum according to Ornstein and Hunkins. 1. The Tyler Model Tyler model is one of the best models. He published Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction in 1949 in which he discussed the rationale for examining the problems of curriculum and instruction. He suggested for curriculum inquiry the following needs to be defined: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Purposes of school Educational experiences related to these purposes Organization of these experiences Evaluation of the purposes

Here, this model purpose is connoted to objectives. Curriculum planners should identify the general objectives from three broad sources: 1. Subject matter 2. Learners 3. Society These identified objectives need to be filtered/refined through two screens, i.e. philosophy of the school and psychology of learning, which help in going for specific instructional objectives. The attainment of objectives depends on the learning experiences and the perception that the learner brings to the situation. Experiences can be selected from the educator’s know how about learning and human development. Then, the basic elements such as ideas, concepts, values and skills should be interwoven within the subjects. Finally, he says that evaluation is an important principle which deals with effectiveness of planning and action. As such Tyler did not visualize any diagrammatic representation of the model. However, Ornstein and Hunkins could visualize the diagrammatic representation of the model. Society

Philosophy

Tentative objectives

Sources

Subject matter

Learner

Screens

Specific objectives

Psychology

Evaluation

Selected experiences

2. Taba Model: Grass-roots Rationale Hilda Taba believes that the persons who transact curriculum should be involved in developing it. Taba does not appreciate the top to down or administrative approach where the curriculum is designed by the people at the top and implemented at the grass roots. Also, she feels it is a wrong approach and suggests the grass-roots model.

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However, the stages/steps involved even in this model are similar to the Tyler model. She says that the curriculum should be designed by using inductive approach. Teachers should begin the process by preparing the teaching/learning units for their students, i.e. from the specific lessons it should go to general design. The following are seven major steps: 1. Diagnosis of needs: The process of designing curriculum starts with the identification of the student’s/learner’s needs for whom it is designed. 2. Formulation of objectives: Based on the needs of learners, the teacher will be able to understand what the specific objectives the learner needs to achieve. 3. Selection of content: The objectives will provide clear direction while selecting the content/subject matter or the curriculum as a whole. The selected content should be validated against objectives. 4. Organization of the content: Once selection of content is done, the content needs a systematic organization by following the basic principles involved in content organization. It also depends on the required sequence, learners’ maturity/interests and academic achievement levels. 5. Selection of learning experience: Teachers should plan the appropriate learning experiences suitable to the content. The methods and other learning environment should be planned to acquire the content. 6. Organization of learning experiences/activities: The learning experiences should be systematically organized in a sequential manner. Also, the organization of experiences depends on the sequence of the content. The teacher should also plan or organize keeping in view the learners. 7. Evaluation and means of evaluation: In order to assess or appraise the achievement of objectives, it is necessary to plan the suitable evaluation procedures for the students and teachers. Limitations However, there are limitations to this model in spite of being a good model designed with a grass-roots consideration. It is good for the individual context to design, but if it has to be generalized, it would be difficult to take care of such a wide variety of learners’ needs, contexts, subjects, society, etc. In spite of such limitations, this is a great attempt made to recognize the importance of grass-roots or field workers to be involved in the task and then some top-level administrators suggesting it. 3. Saylor and Alexander Model This is another systematic and scientific approach to curriculum development. The major steps followed in this model are the following: 1. Goals, objectives and domains: Curriculum designers start with the major objectives and the domain identification that needs attention. Then, the objectives which are framed are organized within the curriculum domains. In this model, four major domains are taken into consideration: (1) personal development, (2) human relations, (3) continued learning skills and (4) specialization. Selecting the above goals, objectives and domains needs careful observation and consideration of the views, demands of the community, legal requirements of the state and research outcomes and philosophy of specialists. 2. Curriculum design: In the first stage, the designer makes a clear visualization of the framework for curriculum and goes to the next step of selecting a suitable content, then organization,

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learning opportunities, curriculum transaction mode and tries them in a particular domain. Curriculum also takes into account the academic disciplines, the learner and the needs of the society. 3. Curriculum implementation: The designed curriculum is implemented by the teachers through the instructional plans, suitable materials and methods to enable the learners to acquire the content. 4. Curriculum evaluation: At this final stage, the curriculum is evaluated by taking all the measures and using appropriate tools – whether the curriculum is foolproof and good to implement, needs any modification or drastically needs changes in it. It can be depicted in a graphical way: Saylor and Alexander model

Determine goals and objectives

Select and create curriculum design

Develop implementation plans

Select evaluation procedure

4. Hunkins Decision-Making Model This model also has seven major stages: 1. Curriculum conceptualization and legitimization: This first stage of conceptualization and legitimization is somewhat unique compared to other models. Various questions with regard to curriculum such as concepts, nature, elements/key components and their relationship, keeping in view of the needs of the students, are legitimized. 2. Diagnosis: The second stage involves two important tasks: (a) translating needs into causes and (b) generating goals and objectives from the needs. The designed curriculum will be more effective if teachers are trained to implement it with commitment. Then the programme comfortability is seen. 3. Content selection: Content selection is the next stage where what to be taught and what the learners have to learn are decided. Since content is the base or the foundation for curriculum and which requires to take care of cognitive processes to be improved. The required knowledge and skills and the procedures involved are considered. 4. Experience selection: The next step is the experience selection; i.e. it mainly focuses on instructional mechanisms. It raises questions – How to teach or transact the curriculum? What methods and strategies are effective? How do we achieve the objectives? Here, the teacher has to decide suitable learning materials. After selecting the experiences, they need to be organized before implementation. 5. Implementation: Then, the designed curriculum is implemented to pilot the programme in order to identify the major problems if any. 6. Evaluation: After the implementation it needs to be evaluated. At this stage, sufficient data should be furnished in order to take a decision whether to modify, continue or discontinue. 7. Maintenance: Finally, the seventh stage is the maintenance, where the programme implementation is monitored – the programme is effective, adequate training is provided to the staff, budget provisions are economic, and the parents take the ownership with the ongoing programme. Thus, the programme is maintained.

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Non-scientific/Non-technical/Humanistic Models Now, let us discuss non-scientific/non-technical/humanistic models: 1. Glathorn naturalistic model 2. Weinstein and Fantini model 3. Post-positivistic model 1. Glathorn Naturalistic Model Glathorn feels it is not possible to go with systematic and insensitive to the politics of curriculum where to meet ends and to means is possible. This model goes with the eight steps: 1. Assess the alternatives: Before planning the curriculum, there is a need to go into systematic examination of the alternatives to suit the curriculum. They have to reflect critically on the existing practices. 2. Stake out the territory: At this stage, the designer has to define the scope in terms of its course parameters, learners and learning activities. The tentative course progress depends on the audience for whom it is designed – whether it is required or how it can be related to the existing courses in the school. 3. Develop a consistency: The designer should not go with any personal convictions and should know their own beliefs. Even if some of them oppose, they should be convinced about the soundness of the programme being created; thus, they need to create a group which promotes the programme. 4. Build the knowledge base: As discussed in the earlier stage, after developing, a team support rather than the required knowledge base has to be created, which includes content, student data, faculty data, skill and receptivity to the programme, community willingness to support the innovation. Also, collect the research evidence for the programme. 5. Block in the unit: Generally, curriculum designers decide the number of units and topics and organize them in the sequence and would be bothered about the learner’s achievement of the objectives. Here, no one particular sequence is suggested; instead, they go with several avenues which are sensitive to the learner’s interests, styles of learning and other differences. 6. Plan quality-learning experiences: Here, after blocking the units, learning experiences are framed which will address general objectives. Do not emphasize subject/content. Here, certain problems are encountered where the learning experiences suggest; it is rather going with technical approach. However, they plan with various objectives with numerous triggered out divergent outcomes. 7. Develop the course examination: This is a naturalistic approach and it has all divergent approaches of testing. Both teachers and students are involved in recording whether the quality of learning happened or not. Here, student portfolios, biographies and other alternate forms of assessment are accepted. 8. Developing in learning scenarios: Here, it is not going to make any standard guides; instead, it creates learning scenarios – a detailed account of the unit, unit objective, suggested lessons and a list of learning experiences, which need to be applied to their own field. Although to some extent it goes in a sequential way like technical model, it focuses on qualitative dimension.

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2. Weinstein and Fantini Model This is a curriculum of affect. Weinstein and Fantini believe that education should have a human focus and the objectives should address student’s concerns, both personal and interpersonal. Humanitarian curriculum provides space to develop student’s self-concepts and mature images of themselves as a citizen and a member of a human family. In this model, the basic focus is on the individual or individuals in curriculum. Basic ideas in this curriculum content organization are student’s concerns. It is not in response to child-centric approach. This model follows the different stages such as the following: 1. First stage: It determines who are the learners.  At this stage the model addresses student’s concerns. Here, demographic and cultural data of the learners/audience are taken  It also attends to the developmental and psychological levels  Teaching is done in groups 2. Second stage: It deals with particular concerns common to the group. Here, three major concerns are identified: i. Self-image ii. Disconnectedness iii. Control over one’s life Students can have even other concerns. 3. Third stage: It deals with diagnosis. After identifying the concerns, the reasons for them are diagnosed. Teachers develop suitable instructional approaches to address these concerns. 4. Fourth stage: It deals with organizing ideas. Decision makers select the organizing ideas; such ideas are selected with particular content (ideas, concepts, generalizations). The ideas are selected in such a way that it will cut across the disciplines. 5. Fifth stage: Actual selection of content vehicles takes place, and content vehicles are organized around three personal and social themes. 1. Content gained from experiences Content related to learner identified, power, belonging and connection. 2. Affective domain in relation to learner’s feelings and interests On friends, sports etc. 3. Social context Experimental content 6. Sixth stage: It deals with learning skills. Skills necessary to deal with content could be (1) reading, writing and arithmetic and (2) social awareness. Here, learners are in touch with peers, themselves and adults. The emphasis is to say social skills are equally important as cognitive skills. 7. Seventh stage: It deals with teaching procedures. What are the important and appropriate skills and content for power over one’s lives? This depends on the styles of their learning. Here, by interaction with peers and adults, teachers will realize their self-worth. Teachers have to consider learners with different needs.

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8. Eighth stage: It deals with intended outcomes. Here, the interest and likes are asked:  Are the content vehicles achieved?  Are the learner’s skills and teaching procedure effective?  How can the curriculum be improved? The above model can be seen from the following diagrammatic representation:

L E A R N E R

C O N C E R N S

D I A G N O S I S

O R G A N I Z I N G I D E A S

Content Vehicle

Content Vehicle

Content Vehicle

L E A R N I N G S K I L L

T E A C H I N G P R O C E D U R E S

O U T C O M E S

3. Post-positivist Model Right from Issac Newton’s time, scholars perceived their world as a running mechanical machine. They made three assumptions: 1. The world is governed by certain fundamental laws 2. Individuals can understand the phenomena (with causal relation) 3. It is possible to generate means of obtaining data which test the certainty of data However, the above assumptions are in line with technical models. Newton’s thinking may be positivistic which the beginning of modern thought. Irrespective of their thought, all these curricularists are interested in creating multitude. The curriculum as well as its making is finitary; i.e. curriculum as well as its making is an uncertain system and an uncertain set of procedures for dealing with these systems. In this context, McDonald’s view is apt where his argument says that need for an aesthetic rationality to complement technology. Elliot Eisner suggests that curriculum is the process of transforming images and aspirations about education. In the post-modern view, curriculum makers assume openness to process, an eye for the unexpected, and the individuals should interact with the system as it evolves. Finally, post-modernists and positivists believe in the curriculum which is an emerging phenomenon, which humans interact, and it is a dynamic and uncertain system. The components that are required in developing any curriculum are discussed in different contexts.

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Saliently saying: Selection of curriculum content Various conceptions Organization of content Criteria in selecting the content Self sufficiency Significance Validity Interests Utility Curriculum experiences and criteria to select Educational Environments         

Various elements are involved:

Political Teacher Students Specialist Boards/authority Community Citizens Other state agencies Organization at various levels

Thus, curriculum development is a complex and a creative activity which is a continuous process. Let us know the major distinctions between technical and non-technical models. S. No.

Technical/scientific models

Non-technical/non-scientific models

1

Systematic/rational

Non-systematic/non-rational

2

The high degree of objectivity, universality and logic

Subjective, personal, aesthetic, heuristic and transactional

3

The assumption is that reality can be defined and represented in a symbolic form

No stress on outputs of production

4

Aims of education can be made known

Not known

5

Can be stated precisely in a linear fashion

Curriculum evolved cannot be stated precisely

6

Experts will plan demands of the society; students needs are considered

The persons who are affected are only involved in planning, and suitable curriculum will be developed for cognitive and social development

7

Top-to-down approach

Grass-roots approach, where humans are considered

8

Discrete

Holistic

9

Domain-based curricula are designed before the student comes

It is a joint venture of both pupils and teachers

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10

It is based on rationalism (thinking) and empiricism (sensing)

It is based on (intuitionism) feeling and aesthetic rationality

11

Mostly problem-centred

Support child-centric methods

12

Logical and positivistic

They question the very knowing of aims and goals of education

13

Means and ends are considered

They do not have means–ends logic

CURRICULUM PATTERNS OF SCHOOL EDUCATION Indian Certificate of Secondary Education Examination: The Council Origin The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations was established in 1958 by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate with the assistance of the InterState Board for Anglo-Indian Education. It is registered under the Societies Registration Act No. XXI of 1860. Recognition The Delhi Education Act, 1973, passed by Parliament, in Chapter 1 under Definitions Section 2 (s), recognizes the Council as a body conducting public examinations. Administration The Council is administered by an executive committee consisting of the chairman and four members. The Chief Executive and Secretary of the Council is ex-officio Secretary of the Committee. Examinations The Council conducts the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education, the Indian School Certificate and the Certificate of Vocational Education Examinations. There is a Committee on Examinations and Subject Committee for drawing up and revising syllabuses and receiving criticisms and suggestions. The Council has its own teams of trained examiners, specialists and advisers. Chapter I A. Introduction 1. The Indian Certificate of Secondary Education Examination has been designed to provide examination in a course of general education, in accordance with the recommendations of the Education Policy 1986, through the medium of English. 2. The Indian Certificate of Secondary Education Examination will ensure a general education, and all candidates are required to enter and sit for seven subjects (as detailed in Chapter II). 3. The Indian Certificate of Secondary Education Examination is a school examination, and the standard of the examination presupposes a school course of 10-year duration (Classes I–X). 4. Private candidates are not permitted to appear for the examination. B. Conditions of Entry 1. Entry to the examination, if candidates are entering for the first time, is restricted to candidates with a minimum of 75% attendance of the working days during each year of the 2-year course at schools affiliated to the Council and registered for the Indian Certificate

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of Secondary Education Examination. Candidates can be entered only by the school they are attending. 2. Candidates who were entered as school candidates, in accordance with above, and who were not awarded Pass Certificates may be admitted to Class X by 31 July, under intimation to the Council, at an affiliated and registered school, prior to the year of the examination, provided such a candidate fulfils all other conditions as per the Regulations. 3. Candidates who have been awarded Pass Certificates will be permitted to enter for a Supplementary Pass Certificate in any/all of the subjects offered earlier to the candidates, without further attendance at an affiliated and registered school OR after studying an additional subject(s) for 2 years. 4. There is no age limit for candidates taking the examination. C. Minimum Attendance Requirement Candidates whose attendance is below 75% of the working days are usually not eligible to sit for the examination. The last date for computing attendance at school is 15 February, of each of the 2 years. D. Withdrawal of Candidates Candidates may be withdrawn at any time prior to the commencement of the examination. (a) on account of illness of the candidates, duly certified by a registered medical practitioner OR (b) at the express written request of the parents/legal guardians of the candidates E. Syllabus The Regulations and Syllabuses of the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education Examination. F. Scope of Selected Syllabuses The scope of selected syllabuses of the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education Examination is included in the booklet ‘Regulations and Syllabuses’. G. Disqualification If any of the Regulations made for the conduct of the examination is not adhered to, the candidate or candidates concerned may be disqualified. Chapter II A. Subjects of Examination Part I: Compulsory Internal examinations or internal assessment Candidates for the examination are required to have completed satisfactory courses in: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

A third language from at least Class V to Class VIII (internal examination) Art (internal assessment) Socially useful productive work and community service (internal assessment) Physical education Education in moral and spiritual values Environmental education (as per syllabus prescribed)

Note: The third language to be studied should be determined as under: Candidates of Indian nationality (i) Offering Hindi as a compulsory subject for the external examination, will be required to study one of the following languages: Naga, Assamese, Bengali, Dzongkha, Garo, Gujarati, Kannada, Khasi, Kashmiri, Lushai, Lepcha, Malayalam, Marathi, Manipuri, Nepali, Oriya,

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Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Tenydie, Urdu or any other language of an Indian community, approved by the Council. (ii) Offering one of the languages in (i) above other than Hindi, will be required to offer Hindi or any other Indian language approved by the Council. Candidates of other nationalities may be exempted from the study of a third language from the list given. Part II: Subject for the examination at the end of Class X Group I: (Compulsory)

Percentage (external examination)

Marks % (internal assessment)

80% 80% 80% 80%

20% 20% 20% 20%

80% 80%

20% 20%

80% 80% 80% 80% 80% 80% 80% 80%

20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20%

50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50%

50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50%

1. English 2. A second language 3. History, civics and geography 4. Environmental education Group II: (Any two of the following subjects) 5.Mathematics 6. Science (Physics, Chemistry, Biology) 7. Economics 8. Commercial studies 9. Technical drawing 10. A modern foreign language 11. A classical language 12. Computer science 13. Environmental science 14. Agriculture science Group III: Any one of the following subjects) 15. Computer applications 16. Economic applications 17. Commercial applications 18. Art 19. Performing arts 20. Home science 21. Cookery 22. Fashion designing 23. Physical education 24. Yoga 25. Technical drawing application 26. Environmental application 27. A modern foreign language

Internal examination (i) The examination at the end of Class IX will be conducted by the school, and the promotion of candidates from Class IX to Class X will be the responsibility of the Head of the

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School in accordance with the attendance and pass criteria as laid down by the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations. (ii) Socially useful productive work and community service (compulsory) The assessment in ‘socially useful productive work and community service’ will be made by the school and the result will count towards the award of the Certificate. Note on the second language (a) Candidates of Indian nationality must offer one of the languages listed below: Ao Nage Assames , Bengali, Dzongkha, Garo, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Khasi, Kashmiri, Lushai, Lepcha, Malayalam, Marathi, Manipuri, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Tenydie, Urdu or any other language of an Indian community approved by the Council. (b) Exemption from the requirement of the study of a second language: The Council may grant exemption from the study of a second language to a candidate with special difficulty, provided the case warrants such an exemption, because of the severe nature of the learning disability of the candidate. Such an exemption will be granted only on a recommendation sent by the Head of the School and on provision of the necessary documents certified by a competent authority approved by the State/Central Government and acceptable to the Council. B. Choice of Subjects All candidates for the examination must enter and sit for seven subjects, Group I (compulsory): English, a second language, history, civics, and geography, environmental education, the three subjects of their choice and in socially useful productive works and community service. C. Awards and Conditions for Awards 1. ‘Pass Certificates’ will be awarded to candidates who at one and the same examination have entered for seven subjects as detailed in Chapter II, B(I) above, and have attained the pass standard in at least five subjects which must include the subject English. 2. ‘Supplementary Pass Certificates’ will be awarded to candidates who have obtained ‘Pass Certificates’ and who appear in a subsequent examination and attain the pass standard in one or more subjects. 3. ‘Statement of Marks’ will only be issued to candidates who have appeared for all the entered subjects of the examination. The pass mark for each subjects is 35%. D. Issue of Results All results will be issued through the Heads of Schools to whom the results will be sent as soon as possible after the award has been completed. The results sheets show the result in the examination as a whole and also indicate the standard reached in each subject taken (except socially useful productive work and community service) by grades ranging from 1 to 9, 1 being the highest and 9 the lowest. Very good is indicated by grades 1 and 2. Grades 3, 4 and 5 indicate a pass with credit; 6 and 7 indicate a pass and 8 and above a failure. The standard reached in socially useful productive work and community service (internally assessed) is shown on the result sheets by grades A, B, C, D or E: A being the highest and E the lowest; A, B, C or D indicates a pass and E a failure.

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E. Certificate etc. 1. Pass Certificates/Supplementary Pass Certificates are issued through the Heads of Schools as soon as possible after the issue of results. 2. Duplicates of Pass Certificates/Supplementary Pass Certificates are not issued. Instead, a statement of examination result may be requested for. 3. Duplicates of Statements of Marks are issued on receipt of the prescribed form forwarded by the Head of the School and on payment of the prescribed fee. 4. Migration Certificates are issued on request by Heads of Schools concerned to candidates who have been awarded Pass Certificates and on payment of special charges. F. Ownership of Answer Scripts and Other Material All written replies (answer scripts), question papers and any other work done by candidates, during the examination therein, are the property of the Council and will not be returned and every application has to enter for the examination. G. Evaluation of Answer Scripts 1. The evaluation of answer scripts and of the other work done by candidates during the examination is within the domestic jurisdiction of the Council, and therefore no candidate, outside person or authority, has jurisdiction to check/scrutinize the answer scripts or other work done by any candidate. 2. The marking of answer scripts and of the other work done by candidates during the examination by the Council or its examiners and the results of such marking shall be final and legally binding on all candidates. The Council does not undertake to re-evaluate the answer booklets after the issue of results. H. Enquiries Concerning Examination Results 1. All enquires concerning examination results on behalf of the school candidates must be made of the Chief Executive and Secretary of the Council by the Head of the School concerned only and must reach the Council’s office, not later than the specified date. 2. The accuracy of subject grade awarded will be checked on request, in one or more subjects, provided that the Head of the School forwards the application. The recheck will be restricted to checking the following  All the answers have been marked.  There has been a mistake in the totalling of marks of each question in the subject and transferring the marks correctly onto the first cover page of the answer booklet.  The continuation sheets attached to the answer booklet, as mentioned by the candidate, are intact. No other re-evaluation of the answer script or other work done by the candidate as a part of the examination will be carried out. (i) No candidate, person or organization shall be entitled to claim re-evaluation or disclosure or inspection of the answer scripts or copies of it and other documents as these are treated as most confidential by the Council. (ii) The recheck will be carried out by a competent person appointed by the Chief Executive and Secretary of the Council. (iii) On rechecking the scripts, if an error is found, the marks will be revised accordingly.

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(iv) The communication regarding the revision of marks, if any, shall be sent to the Head of the School. (v) The Council will not be responsible for any loss or damage or ay inconvenience caused to the candidate; consequent to the revision of marks, no claims in this regard shall be entertained. (vi) The Council shall revise the Statement of Marks and Pass Certificate in respect of such candidates whose results have changed and after the previous Statement of Marks and Pass Certificates have been returned by the Head of the School. I. Re-examination The Chief Executive and Secretary of the Council shall have the power to hold a re- examination or an additional examination if he is satisfied that such a re-examination or additional examination is necessary. J. Last Date for Retaining Answer Scripts The Council does not undertake to retain answer scripts of candidates later than 60 days after the date on which the results are declared. For enquiries concerning examining results attention is invited to paragraph H above. Chapter III A. Awarding Committee There will be an Awarding Committee comprising five members of whom the Chief Executive and Secretary of the Council will act as a convener. The functions and powers of the Awarding Committee are as follows: (i) To consider all cases of unfair means reported to the Chief Executive and Secretary of the Council by the supervising examiners of the examination centres or by examiners during the marking of scripts or by any other source (ii) To take decisions on such cases in accordance with the provisions of the Regulations of the examination and following the procedures approved by the Council. B. Use of Unfair Means 1. If the Awarding Committee is satisfied that a candidate has made arrangements to obtain unfair help in connection with the question papers from any person connected with the examination centre or any agency within or outside the examination centre, the candidate is liable to have his/her results in the examination as a whole cancelled. 2. (i) Candidates who are detected in giving or obtaining, or attempting to give or obtain, unfair assistance, or who are otherwise detected in any dishonesty whatsoever, relating to the examination, will be reported to the Chief Executive and Secretary of the Council and may be expelled from the examination room forthwith and refused admission to subsequent examination papers. (ii) The Supervising Examiner or any member of the supervisory staff shall seize the answer scripts in which the use of unfair assistance is detected /suspected. (iii) The Supervising Examiner shall send the seized answer scripts with a report giving the details of the evidence and the explanation of the candidates concerned to the Chief Executive and Secretary of the Council without delay and, if possible, on the day of the occurrence. (iv) If candidates concerned refuse to give explanatory statements, they should not be forced to do so, only the fact of refusal shall be recorded by the Supervising Examiner

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and attested by one/two members(s) of the supervisory staff on duty at the time of the occurrence, as the case may be. (v) The Supervising Examiner has the discretion to permit such candidates to answer the remaining part of the question paper but on answer sheets that are separate from those in which the use of unfair means was detected/suspected. 3. Candidates found guilty of: (i) bringing in answer sheets; (ii) taking out or attempting to take out answer sheets; (iii) substituting answer scripts or getting answer scripts replaced during or after the examination with or without the help of any person connected with the examination centre Chapter IV A. General Arrangements 1. Date of examination: The printed timetable will be made available to all schools well before the examination. 2. Centres of examination: Centres for each town or area will be arranged by Heads of Schools concerned in consultation with the office of the Council. 3. Registration forms: Registration forms will be sent to schools in July on application for registration to Class IX. The forms and charges must be sent to the Council, New Delhi, by the specified date. Late entries will not be accepted. 4. Correction and confirmation of entries for Class X: Correction of entries shall be sent to schools in August and confirmation of entries in November. 5. Transfer of examination centre: The transfer of a candidate from a centre in one town to a centre in another town will be allowed only within the same examination and for reasons accepted as adequate and on payment of a special charge. 6. Names and date of birth: Special attention must be paid to entering correctly the names of candidates and their mother’s, father’s and/or guardian’s names. Attention also needs to be paid to entering the correct date of birth of candidate. The Certificate will show the name and ‘date of birth’ as certified by the Head of the school at the time of entry. No subsequent change in the name or date of birth will be permitted, except if: (i) the Council’s office makes a mistake in copying the name/date of birth from the registration form on to the Certificate (ii) (a) the Head of the candidate’s school certifies with due justification that he/she made a mistake in entering the name/date of birth in the registration form or at after satisfying himself/herself of the need to do so he/she has changed the school records. (b) (i) Correction of the name/date of birth will be examined by the Council, provided the application is made within a period of one year of passing the ICSE Examination. (ii) If applications are made for correction of names/date of birth after a lapse of one year, they will be considered where such changes have been permitted by a Court of Law. In the event of the Court of Law allowing the change of the name of a candidate, the same shall be carried out by the Board after obtaining relevant documents concerning change of the name published in an official gazette. 7. Entries for a Supplementary Pass Certificate: Candidates who have obtained pass Certificate of the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education may subsequently enter for one or

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8.

9. 10. 11. 12.

13.

14. 15. 16. 17.

Curriculum Development: Perspectives, Principles and Issues

more subjects. A candidate who attains the pass standard in one or more of the subjects offered will receive a Supplementary Pass Certificate. Examination charges: The scale of charges will be notified separately. Bank draft should be made payable to the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations, New Delhi. Payment should be sent at the time of submitting the correction of entries. Candidates will be required to pay for Migration Certificates. Refunds: Examination changes are not refundable. Infectious diseases: Candidates who have been exposed to any infectious disease cannot be examined at a centre unless they are out of quarantine. Time allowance for question papers: Any time specially allocated for reading through questions paper will be stated on the question papers. Materials to be provided for by candidates: Candidates must provide themselves with pencils, erasers, mathematical instruments and art materials. They are required to write their answer with black ink pens. The use of any electronic device/s during any examination of the Council is prohibited. Special consideration: Heads of Schools may submit school estimates on a special form available from the Council’s office for any candidate for whom special consideration is asked because of illness or other difficulty experienced during the course of the examination. Statement of results: Special charges are payable to the Council for the issue of a certifying statement of an examination result; this amount should be forwarded with the application. The statement will normally be sent to the authority to whom it has to be submitted. Textbooks: No books are prescribed except those that are mentioned specifically; the Council does not undertake to recommend textbooks. Standards in subjects: In every subject, unless otherwise stated, standards will be assessed on the performance in the different papers of the subjects. Clarity and neatness: Ability of candidates to express themselves clearly and to present their answers neatly and accurately is taken into account in assessing their work in all subjects.

B. Special Papers and Alternative Syllabuses The Council is prepared to consider request for special papers: (i) in a subject for which no provision is made in these Regulations. (ii) on a syllabus different from that prescribed in one of the subjects of the examination. Such papers and syllabuses must be of an equal standard with those to which they are proposed as alternatives. Special charges to cover the extra cost involved will normally be payable for each paper especially made for a small number of candidates. Applications should be made to the Council at least 2 years before the examination is to take place. C. Equivalence and Recognition Schools are notified. D. Internal Assessment All subjects have components of internal assessment, as detailed in Chapter II, that are carried out by schools, on the basis of assignments/project work, practicals and course work. These marks are added to the component of the external examination set and marked by the Council.

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Formative assessment is required in the following suggested areas: (a) Home assignments/class assignments Due weightage to be given to:  Regularity  Neatness  Presentation  Correctness (b) Class response may include  Oral questioning  Quiz  Worksheets S. No

Assessment method

Areas of assessment

1.

Oral questioning Oral questions to assess the understanding of the topic

Listening skills Clarity of expression Clarity of concepts Communication skills

2.

Quiz The class is divided into groups and questions pertaining to the topic are asked to assess the students of a group

Thinking skills Alertness Time management Application of knowledge Art of quizzing

3.

Worksheet Use of worksheet to assess the students in the class

Comprehension Regularity Application of knowledge Attentiveness

(c) Seminar A topic may be divided among eight to ten students, who, in turn, need to research/study and ‘present’ it to all students. Areas of assessment  Ability to research on the topic  Acquisition of content knowledge  Public speaking  Verbal expression  ICT skills (d) Symposium Students can be asked to ‘present’ papers on the topic of their choice.  Depth of the content  Presentation of the content  Use of audio-visual aids  Expression  Comprehension of the topic (e) Group discussion A group of ten students can be given a topic to discuss.  Students to choose their group leader, a moderator and a recorder

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 Their roles to be clarified  The topic to be thrown open for discussion Group leader to ensure all students participate in the group discussion Moderator to ensure that there is no cross-talk and no two students speak together and all listen to one speaker patiently Recorder to record the observation made by all students in the group including his/her own Area of assessment  Courage to put forth views  Teamwork  Respect to peer  Knowledge of content  Appropriate body language  Communication skills  Listening skills (f) Group activity 1. Projects The students may be asked to do the investigatory/experimental projects:  Investigatory projects  Observation  Conclusion and inference Areas of assessment  Inquisitiveness  Observation skills  Thinking skills (logical, rationale)  Analytical  Application of knowledge  Comprehension and understanding (viva-voce)  Computing skills  Drawing conclusion Experimental projects include:       

Identifying problem Making hypothesis Testing Observation Analysis and interpretation Conclusion and inference Making a theory

Action plan included for identifying a problem and making a plan to find a solution. The students have to  Identify a problem  Study the causes of the problem  Interact with people (stake holder) associated with the problem

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Categorize the problem in terms of  Magnitude  Effect on people  Impact on community Make a plan to find the solution to the problem. The plan has to include:    

Meeting people Counselling people Listing people/authorities who can help find solutions Seeking appointments with the authorities to discuss the problem and seek their help

A follow-up action is needed on the solution to the problem. The work has to be divided among the students or all work in a group as a unit. Assessment may be done group-wise or student-wise. Areas of assessment  Identification of a problem  Concern for the community  Teamwork  Analysis of the problem  Strategy planned by the students  Self-confidence  Speaking skills  Follow-up action to see concern for people/environment Assessment of co-scholastic areas A teacher needs to rate each student’s behaviour on a 5-point scale (as shown below) once at the end of the academic session: Grade

Grade point

A

4.1–5.0

B

3.1–4.0

C

2.1–3.0

D

1.1–2.0

E

0–1.0

Method to calculate grades in co-scholastic areas: 1. Each student will be graded on each of the 10 life skills, work education, visual and performing Arts, 03 attitudes, values, 02 co-curricular activities and 02 health and physical education (HPE) activities. 2. Maximum score for each life skill is 25, for work education, visual and performing arts and attitudes is 50, for values 200 and for co-curricular activities and HPE 50. 3. Before assigning the grades on each component using the conversion table, it needs to calculate the average or grade points by dividing the total score obtained by a student by the number of items in that component. For example, if the student has a score of 15 in self-awareness, divide it by the number of descriptors, i.e. 5; the average or grade point is 3.0, hence grade is C.

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2 (A) Life skills (10 areas) (i) Self-awareness (5 descriptors) S. No.

Descriptors

1

Aware of his/her physical/social and emotional self

2

Self-respect

3

Aware of his/her strengths and weaknesses

4

Adopts optimistic approach

5

Has the confidence to face challenges

Score out of 5

Total Average/grade (ii) Problem solving (5 descriptors) 1

Finds a workable solution to the problem

2

Handles various problems effectively

3

Identifies and states the problem

4

Views problems as a steeping stone to success

5

Finds ways to solve different kinds of conflicts Total Average/grade

(iii) Decision making (5 descriptors) 1

Decisive and convincing

2

Able to find different alternatives to solve problems

3

Able to analyse the alternatives critically

4

Takes decisions logically

5

Shows readiness to face challenges Total Average/grade

(iv) Critical thinking (5 descriptors) 1

Assesses the statements and arguments

2

Examines the problems closely

3

Listens carefully and gives feedback

4

Tries to find out alternatives and solutions

5

Questions relevantly Total Average/grade

(v) Imagination skills (5 descriptors) 1

Ability to find relative and constrictive solution to problems and issues

2

Independent in thinking

3

Has fluency in expression

4

Has rich imagination and is able to think out of the box

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5

149

Can make independent judgement in crucial matters Total Average/grade

(vi) Interpersonal relationships (5 descriptors) 1

Able to interact effectively with peers and teachers

2

Very cheerful and friendly

3

Exhibits fine etiquettes and other social skills

4

Finds it natural and easy to share and discuss the feelings with others

5

Responsive to others’ interests and concerns Total Average/grade

(vii) Effective communication (5 descriptors) 1

Contributes frequently to group conversations

2

Knows the difference between assertive, aggressive and submissive manners of communication

3

Able to make use of speech, action and expression while communicating

4

Exhibits good listening skills

5

Uses gestures, facial expressions and voice intonation to emphasize points Total Average/grade

(viii) Empathy (5 descriptors) 1

Demonstrates ability to respect others

2

Concerned about the problems in the society/community

3

Able to reach out to the friends who are in need of extra help

4

Tolerant with diversity

5

Sensitive towards the environment Total Average/grade

(ix) Managing emotions (5 descriptors) 1

Able to identify his/her emotions

2

Manages his/her emotions

3

Shares his/her feelings with peer group, teachers and parents

4

Can express his/her feelings in a healthy manner

5

Remains cool and calm under adverse conditions Total Average/grade

(x) Dealing with stress (5 descriptors) 1

Able to identify the different stress-related situations

2

Copes with stress in an effective manner

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3

Optimistic in handling different stress-inducing situations

4

Able to react positively under critical situations

5

Remains composed and collected in stressful situations Total Average/grade

2 (B) Work education (10 descriptors) S. No.

Descriptors

1

Has a collaborative approach towards the process of learning

2

Innovative in ideas

3

Plans and adheres to timelines

4

Involved and motivated

5

Demonstrates a positive attitude

6

Helpful, guides and facilitates others

7

Demonstrates an understanding of correlation with real-life situations

8

Has a step-by-step approach to solving a problem

9

Has clear understanding of output to be generated

10

Score out of 5

Able to apply the theoretical knowledge into practical usage Total Average/grade

2 (C) Visual and performing arts (10 descriptors each) (i) Visual arts S. No.

Descriptors

1

Takes an innovative and creative approach

2

Shows aesthetic sensibilities

3

Displays observation skills

4

Demonstrates interpretation and originality

5

Correlates with real life

6

Shows willingness to experiment with different art modes and mediums

7

Sketches or paints

8.

Generates computer animation

9

Demonstrates proportion in size and clarity

10

Score out of 5

Understands the importance of colour, balance and brightness Total Average/grade

(ii) Performing arts 1

Shows decency and courtesy to teachers inside and outside the class

2

Demonstrates positive attitudes towards learning

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3

Takes suggestions and criticism in the right spirit

4

Respects teachers’ instructions

5

Accepts norms and rules of the school

6

Communicates his/her thoughts with teachers

7

Confides his/her problems with teachers

8

Shows honesty and sincerity towards teachers

9

Feels free to ask questions

10

151

Helpful to teachers Total Average/grade

2 (D) Attitudes (i) Attitudes towards teachers (10 descriptors) S. No.

Descriptors

1

Sings and plays instrumental music

2

Dances and acts in drama

3

Awareness and appreciation of works of artists

4

Demonstrates appreciation skills

5

Participates actively in aesthetic activities at various levels

6

Takes initiative to plan, create and direct various creative events

7

Reads and shows a degree of awareness of particular domain of art

8

Experiments with art forms

9

Shows a high degree of imagination and innovation

10

Score out of 5

Displays artistic temperament in all of his/her actions in school and outside Total Average/grade

(ii) Attitude towards schoolmates (10 descriptors) 1

Friendly with most of the classmates

2

Expresses ideas and opinions freely in a group

3

Receptive to ideas and opinion of others

4

Treats classmates as equals (without any sense of superiority or inferiority)

5

Sensitive and supportive towards peers and differently able schoolmates

6

Treats peers from different social, religious and economic backgrounds without any discrimination

7

Respects opposite gender and is comfortable in their company

8

Does not bully others

9 10

Deals with aggressive behaviour (bullying) by peers tactfully Shares credit and praise with team members and peers Total Average/grade

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(iii) Attitude towards school programmes and environment (10 descriptors) 1

Attaches a lot of importance to school activities and programmes

2

Participates in school activities relating to improvement of environment

3

Enthusiastically participates in school programmes

4

Shoulders responsibility happily

5

Confronts any one who criticizes school and school programmes

6

Insists on parents to participate/witness school programmes

7

Participates in community activities relating to environment

8

Takes care of school property

9

Sensitive and concerned about environmental degradation

10

Takes initiative in planning activities for the betterment of the environment Total Average/grade

2 (E) Value systems (40 descriptors) (i) To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the national flag and the national anthem (4 descriptors) S. No.

Descriptors

a.

Aware of the directive principle and fundamental rights enshrined in the constitution

b.

Sings national anthem and patriotic songs with decorum

c.

Attends hoisting of national flag with respect and decorum

d.

Understands the meaning of tricolour and the Ashok Chakra

Score out of 5

(ii) To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired freedom struggle (4 descriptors) a.

Takes interest in the national freedom struggle

b.

Displays pride in being an Indian citizen

c.

Participates in celebration of Republic Day and Independence Day with enthusiasm

d.

Reads biographies of freedom fighters

(iii) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India (4 descriptors) a.

Stays alert and raises voice against divisive forces

b.

Respects armed forces and paramilitary forces

c.

Respects Indian diversity

d.

Maintains peace and love

(iv) To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so (4 descriptors) a.

Shows a proactive and responsible behaviour during crises

b.

Helpful towards disadvantaged section of the society

c.

Renders social work enthusiastically

d.

Actively participates in community development programmes of the school

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(v) To promote harmony and spirit of unity and brotherhood among all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to remove the practices derogatory to the dignity of women (4 descriptors) a.

Respects opposite gender

b.

Respects teachers from different religious and linguistic communities

c.

Takes up issues in case of indignity to women

d.

Kind and helpful towards classmates and people of community

(iv) To value and preserve the rich heritage of our culture (4 descriptors) a.

Reads and discusses about the Indian culture and heritage

b.

Appreciates diversity of cultures, social practices and mores

c.

Treasures the belongings of the school, community and the country with a sense of pride

d.

Protects and prevents defacing of national monuments

(vii) To protect and improve natural environment (4 descriptors) a.

Shows compassion for living creatures

b.

Takes active interest in maintaining flora, fauna, plants and gardens

c.

Participates in movements for protecting endangered animals and green cover

d.

Takes care to clean classroom, school and neighbourhood

(viii) To develop scientific temper and the spirit of enquiry (4 descriptors) a.

Experiments to find new solutions

b.

Analyses and critically evaluates events on the basis of data and information

c.

Questions and verifies knowledge

d.

Explains processes and products logically

(ix) To safeguard public property and to abjure violence (4 descriptors) a.

Takes care of school furniture and property

b.

Resists defacing and decimation of public property

c.

Does not fight and harm others

d.

Does not affiliate to groups and communities who believe and promote violence

(x) To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity which leads to higher level of performance (4 descriptors) a.

Makes an effort to improve academic performance in school

b.

Makes special efforts to improve on co-scholastic areas

c.

Strives to identify potential and actualize with effort

d.

Aspires and strives for excellence in education and life

Total score _____________________________ Average score/grade _______________________________

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3 ( A ) Co-curricular activities (i) Literary and creative skills (10 descriptors) S. No.

Descriptors

1

Composes poems or lyrics

2

Writes short stories

3

Writes literary criticism

4

Participates actively in literary and creative activities at school, interschool, state, national and international levels

5

Plans and organizes literary events such as debates, recitation and book clubs

6

Reads books and shows a high degree of awareness in the field of literature

7

Appreciates well-written or spoken pieces representing various genres (prose, poetry, plays)

8

Expresses ideas and opinions creatively in different forms

9

Displays originality of ideas and opinions

10

Score out of 5

Able to inspire others and involve a large part of the school and community in different Total Average/grade

(ii) Scientific skills (10 Descriptors) 1

Verifies existing knowledge before accepting

2

Does not get carried away by rumours and media reports

3

Tries to find new and more effective solutions to problems

4

Conducts experiments with efficiency and effectiveness

5

Takes keen interest in scientific activities in laboratory and field-based experiment at school, interschool, state, national and international levels.

6

Takes the initiative to plan, organize and evaluate various science-related events such as quizzes, seminars and model making

7

Shows a high degree of curiosity and reads science-related literature

8

A keen observer and is able to take decisions

9

Displays good experimental skills and a practical knowledge of everyday phenomena

10

Making use of technology in making projects and models Total Average/grade

(iii) Information and communication technology (ICT) (10 descriptors) 1

Efficient in handling IT equipments

2

Has a step-by-step approach to solving a problem

3

Able to apply theoretical knowledge into practical usage

4

Plans and adheres to activity and project timelines

5

Takes initiative in organizing and participating in technology-related events, e.g. IT fairs and competitions

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6

Takes keen interest in computer-related activities

7

Helpful, guides and facilitates others

8

A keen observer and is able to make decisions

9 10

155

Innovative in ideas Adheres to ethical norms of using technology Total Average/grade

(iv) Organizational and leadership skills (10 descriptors) 1

Helps and organizes events in that capacity

2

Demonstrates ability to work in teams

3

Can organize workgroups in short time

4

Actively participates in school clubs, e.g. science, eco-clubs, health and wellness clubs, heritage clubs and other clubs

5

Represents class, school, inter-school and at various other levels

6

Takes initiative to plan and manage different kinds of events such as festivals, environment week, fund raisers, seminars, quizzes, arranging morning assembly

7

Exhibits collaboration and coordination skills while executing the tasks

8

Displays originality of ideas and the ability to see them through

9 10

Delivers assigned jobs with responsibility A keen observer and is able to take decisions Total Average/grade

It needs to record the Club in which the student is participating. 3 (B) Health and physical education (i) Health and physical education (HPE) related behaviours (10 descriptors) S. No.

Descriptors

1

Demonstrates physical fitness and agility

2

Displays courage and determination

3

Demonstrates flexibility of the body

4

Demonstrates sportsmanship

5

Follows all safety norms of games and sports

6

Follows rules of the games

7

Has undergone training and coaching in the chosen sports and games items

8

Makes strategic decisions within the games

9

Organizes and provides leadership in this area

10

Score out of 5

Takes initiative and interest in physical education and wellness Total Average/grade

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(ii) Participation and Performance: Instead of rating, the following information should be entered into student portfolio as descriptive statements. A teacher needs to choose any two of the following activities. Participation/achievement record S. No.

Activities

Activity done

1

Sports/indigenous sports (mention item/s)

2

NCC

3

NSS

4

Scouting and guiding

5

Swimming

6

Gymnastics

7

Yoga

8

First aid

9

Gardening

10

Shramdaan

Inter-class

Interschool

Interdistrict

Inter-state and beyond

Annual assessment: To reinforce day-to-day observation and quarterly behaviour, rating standardized tests and inventories needs to be administered either half-yearly or annually depending on the attribute under assessment. Sample sheet to calculate grades in co-scholastic area S. No.

Areas (a)

No. of Maximum Maximum Example Average Grade Remarks behaviour score per score (d) Obtained grade point (g) if any (h) descriptors descriptors total score (f = e/b) (b) (c) (e)

2(A) Life skills (grade point = total score divided by 5) 1

Self

5

5

25

10

3

C

2

Problem

5

5

25

06

1.2

D

3

Direction

5

5

25

08

1.6

D

4

Critical

5

5

25

16

3.2

B

5

Creative

5

5

25

11

2.2

C

6

Interpersonal

5

5

25

20

4.0

B

7

Effective

5

5

25

17

3.4

B

8

Empathy

5

5

25

13

2.6

C

9

Managing

5

5

25

16

3.2

B

Dealing with stress

5

5

25

11

2.2

C

10

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2(B) Work education/2(C) Visual and performing arts/2(D) Attitudes (grade point = total score divided by 10) 11

Work education

10

5

50

45

4.5

A

12

Visual

10

5

50

38

3.8

B

13

Attitudes

10

5

50

36

3.6

B

14

Attitudes towards

10

5

50

12

1.2

D

15

Attitudes towards school

10

5

50

10

1.0

E

2(D) Value system (grade point = total score divided by 10*4) 16

Values

3(A) Co-scholastic activities (any two) (grade point = total score divided by 10) 17

Activity I

10

5

50

24

2.4

C

18

Activity 2

10

5

50

30

3.0

C

3(B) Health and physical education (any two) (HPE 2: grade point = total score divided by 10) 19

HPE 1

10

5

50

30

3.0

C

20

HPE 2

10

5

50

24

2.4

C

ICSE

Chapter I

A. Introduction

Chapter II

A. Subject of Examination

B. Conditions of entry C. Minimum attendance requirement D. Withdrawal of candidates E. Syllabuses F. Scope of selected syllabus

Part I: Compulsory (internal examination/assessment)

Part II: Subjects for the examination at the end of Class X

Chapter III

Chapter IV

A. Awarding committee

A. General arrangements

B. Use of unfairness

B. Special papers/alternative syllabuses

C. Power to alter, cancel results, certificates, etc.

C. Equivalence and recognition D. Internal assessment

Group I Group II

G. Disqualification Group III

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CBSE Central Board of Secondary Examination

Part – I Scholastic Areas

Part – II Co Scholastic Areas

Part – III Co Scholastic Areas

IA – Academic Performance

2A – Life Skills

3A – Activity

1. English Communication 2. Communication Sanskrit/Hindi 3. Mathematics 4. Science 5. Social Science

1. Thinking Skills 2. Social Skills 3. Emotional Skills

IB – Descriptive Indicators

1. Teachers 2. School Masters 3. School Programs 4. Environment 5. Value Systems

1. Literacy and Creative Skills 2. Visual and Performing arts

3B Physical and Health 2B – Attitudes and Values

1. Work Experience 2. Art Education 3. Physical and Health Education/Games

1. Sportsand Indegenous sports (Kho Kho etc.) 2. Gardening/Shramadanam

Board of Secondary Education Subject

Maximum marks

First language

100

Second language

100

Third language (English)

100

Mathematics

100

General science

100

Social studies

100

Grand total

100

Grade

I and III language

II language

Overall

A1

92–100

90–100

550–600

A2

83–91

80–89

499–549

B1

75–82

72–79

448–498

B2

67–74

60–69

397–447

C1

59–66

50–59

346–396

C2

51–58

40–49

295–345

D1

43–50

30–39

245–294

D2

35–42

20–29

195–244

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Class-wise and subject-wise pedagogy of CBSE, ICSE, IBO S. No. 1

2

Boards

Subject areas

CBSE

Languages

ICSE

Pedagogy (Class-wise) I–V

VI–VIII

IX–XII

Learner-centred, activity-based approach (book reading, storytelling, recitation of poems, drama, picture presentation of stories)

Integrated approach (group discussion, role-play, effective use of newspapers and literary magazines)

Multi-skill, activitybased, learner-centred approach (silent reading, language games, debate and discussions, use of media inputs)

Social sciences

Child-centred approach (loud reading, project, game activities, etc.)

Activity-based approach, project work, quiz, group discussion, trip to relevant places

Lecture method as well as integrates approach (project work, quiz, group discussion, trip to relevant places)

Science

Child-centred approach (loud reading, project, game activities, etc.)

Activity-based approach, project work, quiz, group discussion, trip to relevant places

Lecture method as well as integrated approach (group discussion, exhibition of project work, quiz, class presentation, trip to relevant places)

Mathematics

Activity-based approach (use of pictures, workbook, simple projects, etc.)

Learner-centred approach (problemsolving methods, generalization of concepts, puzzles, games and project work)

Learner-centred approach (problemsolving methods, generalization of concepts, puzzles, games and project work)

Environmental studies

Activity-based approach (use of pictures, workbook, simple projects, etc.)

Learner-centred and activity-based approach, preparation of files, project work, games, songs, poems on related topics

Learner-centred and activity-based approach, preparation of files, project work, games, songs, poems on related topics

Arts and craft

Practical work, workbook, project file, exhibitions, etc.

Practical work, workbook, project file, exhibitions, etc.

Practical work, workbook, project file, exhibitions, etc.

Languages

Learner–centred, activity-based approach (newspaper clippings, language games, etc.)

Reading aloud, language games, interpretation of pictures

Multi-skill, activitybased, learner-centred approach (silent reading, language games, debate and discussions, use of media inputs)

Social sciences

Games, stories, use of pictures, art and craft project

Enquiry method (observation, interviews, surveys, visits, etc.)

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IBO

Science

Activity-based approach (question /answer method, project work, etc.)

Activity-based approach, enquiry method

Lecture method as well as observation method

Mathematics

Learner-centred approach (problemsolving method, games, simple projects,etc.)

Learner-centred approach (problemsolving method, games, projects, etc.)

Learner-centred approach (problem-solving method, simple projects, etc.)

Environmental studies

Activity-based approach (oral work, practical scenario activities, sorting, classification activities, etc.)

Activity-based approach (oral work, practical scenario activities, sorting, classification activities, etc.)

Activity-based approach (oral work, practical scenario activities, sorting, classification activities, etc.)

Arts and craft

Practical work, workbook, project file, exhibitions, etc.

Practical work, workbook, project exhibitions, etc.

Practical work, workbook, project file, exhibitions, etc.

Languages

Learner-centred, activity-based approach

Learner-centred, activity-based approach

Learner-centred, activity-based approach

Social sciences

Learner-centred, activity-based approach

Learner-centred, activity-based approach

Learner–centred, activity-based approach

Science

Enquiry method, practical work, use of multimedia

Enquiry method, practical work, use of multimedia

Enquiry method, practical work, use of multi media

Mathematics

Problem-solving method, project work

Enquiry method, practical work, use of multimedia

Enquiry method, practical work, use of multi media

Arts and craft

Practical work, workbook, project file, exhibitions and effective use of media inputs

Practical work, workbook, project file, exhibitions and effective use of media inputs

Practical work, workbook, project file, exhibitions and effective use of media inputs

Class-wise distribution of subjects, tests and examination (CBSE) S. No.

Classes

Subjects

Type of tests

Scheme of examination

1

I–II

English, Hindi, Maths, E.V.S.

Oral, written

No examination

2

III–V

English, Hindi, Maths, E.V.S., Computer

Oral, written, performance, group activities, experiments, role-play, map study

Three unit tests, (July, September and January), cumulative examination, session ending examination (SEE)

3

VI–VIII

English, Sanskrit, Mathematics, Hindi drawing, Computer, Social Science, Science, Physical Education, General Studies, Music, Work Experience, Physical General Social

Oral, written, performance, group activities, experiments, role-play, map study practical, project work, project file

Three unit tests, (July, September and January), cumulative examination, session ending examination (SEE)

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Classes X and XII: Examination and marks division (CBSE) Scheme of examination

Marks

Unit tests (3)

40 (each unit test, each subject)

Cumulative examination

100 (each subject)

Session ending examination

100 (each subject)

Monthly tests, selection tests, pre-board tests

Depends on the subject teacher

Type of questions and value points (CBSE) Types of questions

Value points

VSA

0–1

SA

1–2

LA

1–5

Value points obtained out of 100 are converted into grades. Value Points and grades (CBSE) Value points

Grades

90+

A+

75+

A

56+

B

35+

C

Below 35

D

Grade point range and grades (CBSE) Grade point range

Grades

18–20

A+

14–17

A

10–13

B

6–9

C

5 and below

D

Classes VI–VIII: Examination and marks division (CBSE) Scheme of examination

Marks

Unit tests (3)

40 (each unit test, each subject)

Cumulative examination

100 (each subject)

Session ending examination

100 (each subject)

Other tests

Depends on the subject teacher

Types of subjects (CBSE) Scholastic subjects

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Non-scholastic subjects

English

Drawing

Sanskrit

Physical Education

Hindi

General Studies

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Mathematics

Music

Social science

Work experience

Science

—

Computer

—

Stream-wise subjects for Classes XI–XII (CBSE) Science

Commerce

Humanities

English

English

English

Hindi

Hindi

Hindi (elective)

Physics

Accountancy

Geography

Chemistry

Business studies

History

Mathematics/biology

Economics

Maths/Political science/IP

Biotechnology

Mathematics/Hindi (elective)

Informatics practice (IP) Computer science Note: Students are allowed to take any five subjects from a particular stream. Common and Compulsory subjects are work experience, physical education and health education. Cut-off percentage is decided by the Head Quarter CBSE on the basis of the total number of students appeared in the examination at Class X.

Examination schedule (ICSE) Examination

Time

1st unit test

First week of July

1st terminal

Second week of September

2nd unit test

First week of November

Half-yearly

Second week of December

3rd unit test

First week of February

Annual examination

Second week of March

Evaluation pattern from Classes I to VIII (ICSE) S. Class No.

Marks allotted for 1st unit test

Marks allotted for 1st terminal

Marks allotted for 2nd unit test

Marks allotted for half-yearly exam

Marks allotted for 3rd unit test

Marks allotted for annual exam 80

1

I

20

80

20

80

20

2

II

20

80

20

80

20

80

3

III

20

80

20

80

20

80

4

IV

20

80

20

80

20

80

5

V

20

80

20

80

20

80

6

VI

20

80

20

80

20

80

7

VII

20

80

20

80

20

80

8

VIII

20

80

20

80

20

80

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Grading scale and weighting system (IBO) Grade

Percentage

Normal point scale

Additional 1 pt. weighted scale

A+

98–100

4.33

5.33

A

93–97

4.00

5.00

A−

90–92

3.67

4.67

B+

87–89

3.33

4.33

B

83–86

3.00

4.00

B−

80–82

2.67

3.67

C+

70–79

2.33

3.33

D+

67–69

1.33

1.33

D

63–66

1.00

1.00

D−

60–62

0.67

0.67

Below 60

0.00

0.00

F

Source: High School Curriculum Guide, 2008-09, American Embassy School, New Delhi.

Assessment weight of coursework (IBO) Group coursework

Group coursework

Group 1: Language A1

30%

Group 2: Second language, languages

30%

Group 3: Individuals and societies

20–30%

Group 4: Experimental sciences

24–36%

Group 5: Mathematics and computer science

20%

Group 6: The arts

30–100%

TOK

100%

Extended essay

100%

Similarities in examination and evaluation patterns in different boards (CBSE, ICSE, IBO) S. No.

Items

CBSE

ICSE

IBO

1

Minimum attendance

Minimum 75% attendance is must

2

External examination

It conducts external It conducts external examination at Classes examination at Classes X X and XII and XII

It conducts external examination at diploma programme

3

Internal examination

Internal examination is conducted by the school authority

Internal examination is conducted by the school authority

For all the three (PYP, MYP and diploma) programmes, internal examination is conducted by the school authority

4

Assessments There is only internal assessment for students of Classes I to IX and XI, whereas students of Classes X and XII are assessed internally as well as externally

There is only internal assessment for students of Classes I to IX and XI, whereas students of Classes X and XII are assessed internally as well as externally

It conducts internal assessment at all the three (PYP**, MYP*** and diploma) programmes

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5

Types of test Oral, written, project work, practical work, case study, etc.

Oral, written, project work, Oral, written, project work, practical work, case study, practical work, group etc. assignments, demonstrations and reports, case study, etc.

6

Scheme of evaluation

In scholastic subjects, more weightage is given to theory paper than to the practical, whereas in co-curricular subjects such as music, arts, and dance , more value is assigned to the practical work in comparison to theory work

In scholastic subjects, more weightage is given to theory paper than to the practical, whereas in co-curricular subjects such as music, arts and dance, more value is assigned to the practical work in comparison to theory work

For each course, there is a clear set of performance objectives; the degree to which students have achieved these objectives is measured both by internal, marked by the teachers and monitored by the IBO examiners, and examinations at the end of the course, which are designed and marked by the IBO

7

Types of question

There are three types of questions for each paper that are very short answer, short answer and long answer

There are three types of questions for each paper that are very short answer, short answer and long answer

There are short-response questions, data-response questions, text-response questions, case-study questions, multiple-choice questions

8

Difficulty level

There are three types of questions on the basis of the difficulty level – average, easy and difficult question; it gives an opportunity to all the students to attempt the question according to their ability

There are three types of questions on the basis of the difficulty level – average, easy and difficult question; it gives an opportunity to all the students to attempt the question according to their ability

Examinations form the basis of the assessment for most courses because of their high levels of objectivity and reliability; they include essays, structured problems, short-response questions, data-response questions, text-response questions, casestudy questions, multiplechoice questions (limited use of these)

9

Pass criteria

Students are required to score the required minimum marks in each subject

Students are required to score the required minimum marks in each subject

Students are required to obtain the required minimum grade points in each subject

Note: *Diploma students are required to devote minimum 50 hours per each subject contents in six prescribed subjects. Students must also complete three extra requirements – the theory of knowledge, a 4000-word extended essay (EE) and at least 150 hours in CAS (creativity, action, service) areas. **Formative and summative assessment. ***MYP Assessment is continuous and there is involvement of parents and teachers in the process of the assessment. This has the following parts: • Open-ended, problem-solving activities • Investigations • Organized debates • Hands-on experimentation • Analysis and reflection Final assessment in the MYP requires teachers to make judgements based on the rigorous application of the prescribed assessment criteria defined in each subject guide.

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Differences in examination and evaluation patterns in different boards (CBSE, ICSE, IBO) S. No.

Items

CBSE

ICSE

IBO

1

Syllabus for Classes I–VIII

NCERT syllabus is Recommended

Council provides syllabus

IBO provides syllabus

2

Medium of instruction

English or Hindi

English

English, French, Spanish or any other language

3

Age limit

As per the rule of State Government

No age limit

As per the rule of IBO, Jeneva

4

Regular/ private candidate

Private candidates are permitted to appear for the examination

Private candidates are not Private candidates are not permitted to appear for the permitted to appear for the examination examination

5

Choice of subjects for examination

Class X students offer for two languages, there main subjects and one additional subject; Class XII students appear for two languages, three electives and an additional elective subject

Class X students offer for three compulsory subjects of Group I, two electives from Group II and one elective from Group III. They can also offer for an additional subject from Groups II and III. For Class XII students, English and Environmental education are compulsory; further, they can offer for three electives, and two, three or four additional subjects

Successfully complete six externally examined courses. At least three and not more than four courses must be at the higher level (HL) with the remaining at the standard level (SL). One course must be chosen from each of Groups I–V. All IB diploma candidates must complete a course in Mathematics. A sixth course may be selected from Groups I–IV and V or Computer science (See box 5.2).

6

Internal assessment/ external assessment

In Classes X and XII, there are certain subjects such as work experience, art, education and physical and health education which are assessed internally . In rest of the subjects, students are assessed by the external examiners in case theory as well as practical

In Class X, all subjects of Group II have 80% external assessment and 20% internal assessment. For subjects in Group III, there is 50% external assessment and 50% internal assessment. In SUPW there is internal assessment only For class XII. There is internal assessment in practical subjects and in SUPW.

In IBO diploma programme, internal assessment varies from 20 to 35% for different subjects. The external assessment also varies from 65 to 80% for different subjects. For details see Annexure 20

7

Papers

In Class X, science and social science have one theory paper; in Class XII, papers are divided according to the stream of study

In Class X, science Papers in subjects vary: subject has three separate minimum 1 and maximum 3 theory papers – Physics, (depends on the subject) Chemistry and Biology. In Social science, there are two papers; one includes history and civics and second is of geography

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8

Marking scheme

The Board provides a detailed marking scheme such as unitwise mark allocation and weightage assigned to each unit for each subject of Classes X and XII

The Council does not provide any detailed information about unitwise mark distribution, weightage assigned to each unit, etc.

IB provides a detailed marking scheme such as subject-wise grade boundaries and weightage assigned to each unit for each subject of diploma programme . For details about a sample of marking scheme,

9

Pass criteria

Students are required to get minimum 33% in each subject, in theory as well as in practical; there is no scope for over all grading

There is overall grading but the students of Class X are required to score at least 35% marks in each subject, in theory as well as in practical; Class XII students need to score 40% marks in each subject

*IBO diploma will be awarded to a candidate whose total score is 24, 25, 26 or 27 points, provided all the following requirements have been met

*Provided all the following requirements have been meet: i. All CAS requirements have been meet. ii. The grade for both TOK and the extended essay is not elementary. iii. There is no grade 1 in any subject. iv. There is no grade 2 in a higher level subject. v. There is no more than one grade 2 at the standard level. vi. Overall, there are no more than three grades of 3 or below. vii. At least 12 points have been gained on higher level subjects (candidates who register for four higher level subjects must gain at least 16 points at higher level). viii. At least 9 points have been gained on standard level subjects (candidates who register for two standard level subjects must gain at least 6 points at the standard level). ix. The final award committee has not judged the candidate to be guilty of malpractice.

Compliance status of schools* affiliated with different boards S. No. Items

Boards CBSE School 1 School 2 ICSE School 1

School 2

IB School 1 School 2

1

Guidelines for primary class1

Compliant

Compliant Non-compliant Noncompliant

Compliant

Compliant

2

Age limit/ relaxation

Compliant

Compliant Non-compliant Noncompliant

Compliant

Compliant

3

Minimum Compliant attendance/ instruction time

Compliant Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

4

Regular/private Compliant candidates

Compliant Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

5

Medium of instruction as per the norms

Compliant

Compliant Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

6

Combination of subjects in Classes X and XII

Compliant

Compliant Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

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7

Selection of subjects in Classes X and XII

Compliant

Compliant Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

8

Internal assessment in prescribed subjects

Compliant

Compliant Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

9

CCE2

Non-compliant Compliant Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

10

External assessment in prescribed subjects

Compliant

Compliant Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

11

Marking scheme

Compliant

Compliant Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

12

Pass criteria

Compliant

Compliant Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

Compliant

1

ICSE: No examination for students of Classes I–V; CBSE: No bag up to Class II alternative to homework up to Class V. 2 CCE: Continuous and comprehensive evaluation.

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7 Curriculum Evaluation

CHAPTER OUTLINE  Approaches to Curriculum Evaluation  Models of Curriculum Evaluation  Evaluation Practices in India

 Strategies for Evaluation of Curriculum

Introduction: There are various views which support and also oppose the very idea of evaluation of curriculum. However, it is very essential to understand the need/purpose of curriculum evaluation and criteria for evaluation. Like other units, this unit focuses on three important questions – What? Why? How? In our system of education from east to west, there is a well-established system of evaluation and interpretation of results. Most of the time the focus of the system is on student evaluation. It is equally important to verify whether the curriculum/any other programme or a textual material is suitable, appropriate to the target population. Is it necessary to bring some changes into the existing programme/ curriculum to improve further or change the programme since it is not fulfilling the needs or requirements, or is it suitable and can be continued? Thus, the curriculum evaluation helps the policy makers and educationists to take a decision whether to continue, improve on or change the programme, depending on the strengths and weaknesses of the programme. Curriculum evaluation could be carried out holistically or it can be done even stage-wise, i.e. right from objectives to that of implementation. It can also be rectified or improved from time to time. Thus, any curriculum/programme designed cannot go for the implementation at a large scale directly to the field. It needs to be tried out or piloted at a small scale and only then it should go to the entire field. What is curriculum evaluation? Why is it necessary? How is it done? Curriculum evaluation: Meaning of curriculum evaluation can be interpreted in various ways:  It covers almost every aspect of schooling, right from objectives, curriculum, personnel working, practices, performance of learners, infrastructure, material, equipment and so on.

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 It can be simply a judgement given on various processes. For example, varied opinions are sought from different circles of people belonging to various sectors right from laymen to that of experts, and based on the opinions a judgement is made.  It can even be done very systematically gathering pertinent data with regard to various processes to find out ultimately whether the objectives have been achieved.  Evaluation can be carried out even at different levels; i.e. central or apex bodies conduct evaluation with regard either to any specific subject/dimension/process to know the effectiveness of the programme or to know the efficacy of the programme towards learner’s progress. Further, when we understand the term at a narrow/broader level, the meaning keeps changing. Narrow meaning: Narrowly speaking, evaluation is culminated into either scores or grades on the whole performance. For example, conventional systemic practices are concerned only to display in the progress report, the final learning outcomes on various subjects in terms of grades or scores and ranks. At the most, it may also go further in predicting the results with respect to the following: 1. Level of performance of the child in relation to his/her ability. 2. What is his/her relative performance in his peer group in classroom? 3. Where does the child stand with regard to national norms? Broader meaning: In a broader connotation, evaluation goes beyond the level of individual performance and looks forward in absolute terms. It compares against the absolute standards. From broader perspective, curriculum evaluation can be defined as follows: 1. Achievement of objectives representing through behaviours in respective areas 2. Various approaches and methods to collect the evidence about the student’s behavioural changes 3. Summarizing and interpreting in appropriate ways 4. Utilizing the information obtained on progress of students Thus, it may be understood that evaluation as an integral part of curriculum development begins with objectives and ends with assessment of the achievement of objectives. Curriculum evaluation can be defined from different curricularists’ perspectives:  ‘Evaluation as the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of a programme, product, project, process, objective or curriculum’. – Worthern and Sanders  ‘Evaluation as the means of determining whether the programme is meeting its goals that is whether a given set of instructional inputs match the intended or prescribed outcomes’ – Bruce Tuckman  ‘Evaluation as a broad and continuous effort to inquire into the effects of utilizing content and process to meet clearly defined goals’. – Ronald Doll  ‘Evaluation as the process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives’. – Stufflebeam Purpose of curriculum evaluation: The whole process of curriculum goes with many assumptions and half-tested hypotheses. So, there is a need to find out the efficacy of the programme. In fact, many curricular innovations are based on the feedback from the field implementation. The efforts are always made to improve the overall quality and standards. This is not possible through

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philosophical debates; however, the evaluation questions suggested by ‘Harriet Talmage’ can be considered to understand the purpose. He has suggested five important evaluation questions: 1. Intrinsic value: This is related to the goodness or appropriateness of the curriculum planning and implementation. For instance, the curriculum at the primary school looks at the worthiness of the type of the content that is incorporated in language or science or any other subject, and it tests whether it is appropriate to that age and background of the target group for which it is designed. 2. Instrumental value: It looks at the programme for its relevance to the audience group for which it is intended. After designing the curriculum, it is sent to the field for implementation; this question can be verified. For example, if Telugu/English language is taught to a tribal child who does not know Telugu/English at all, what are the methods followed in teaching the language? How do they plan to attain the objective of learning basic skill of language? 3. Comparative value: Whenever a revision happens or a new programme is introduced, generally the question we look at is to know whether this programme is better than the earlier one. Is it feasible to replace with the earlier one? For example, recently NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) in India proposed a National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education (NCFTE 2009). Naturally any university or state would look at the new inclusions/exclusions or innovation suggested by them. Educationists or framers of curriculum would probe into the details of the new programme and compare with the earlier one, and if they find good, they will take a decision on the strength of the programme to replace to earlier programme with the new one. 4. Ideational value: It is more focused on the ideals of the programme; it raises the questions related to the information which helps in knowing the best ways of implementing the programme. The whole idea is to acquire best possible programme on the basis of the available conditions. Moreover, the urge is to go for fine tuning of the programme. For example, when computer education at the state level (in the state of Andhra Pradesh) was introduced into Teacher Education Program in collaboration with the Microsoft assistance, the effort was how best to equip the pre-service and in-service teachers with integration of technology into teaching. This programme leads to empowerment of teachers with technology usage. 5. Decision value: On the strength of the earlier four questions, the educators or policy makers will be able to take the appropriate decision whether to continue, modify or discard the new programme. For example, Andhra Pradesh government made a decision to introduce English medium for 6th standard for Telugu medium children after implementing the same. After a year the feedback from the parents, teachers and community made the government of Andhra Pradesh to discontinue English as the medium of instruction at 6th standard after studying in Telugu medium for 5 years. Both teachers and students could not cope a sudden change in the medium of instruction. Hilda Taba suggested certain criteria for the evaluation of a programme. Criteria for the evaluation of a programme: The following criteria are necessary characteristics of any programme that has to be evaluated: 1. Consistency with the objectives: It is very important that the evaluation must be consistent with the objectives. Evaluator should look at the whole processes such as methods,

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2.

3.

4.

5.

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teaching, learning strategies and types of tests, whether they would really result to know the achievement of the intended objectives of the programme. If a programme intends to give communicative English skills to students and suggests lecture methods and tests with structural grammar, it is very clear that the objectives are not going with the methods of teaching and evaluation strategies; i.e. objectives are not consistent with the programme. So, it is very necessary that all the processes should have coherence with each other and should be an integral part of the whole programme. Similarly, for example, a programme on computing skills is designed with an intention to equip the students with computing skills and the programme is planned with information related to computer operations theoretically and the same is tested through descriptive testing of retrieval of information about computers; i.e. there is no space provided for hands-on experience in the programme. It shows that the process of implementation is not consistent with the objectives. Comprehensiveness: The programme objectives should be precise and comprehensive in its scope. Today, in curriculum revision or designing due to the advancement and explosion of knowledge, technology, global trends, liberal policies and privatization leads to tremendous expansion of programme objectives. The pace at which the objectives are expanding and changing, the suitable and relevant tools and instruments for assessment are not equipped to the system. Moreover, it is not adequate. These inadequacies in the programme are leading to problems where the programme is not comprehensive in nature. For example, today in view of modern psychological theories, liberal ideologies and progressive movements and radical thinking in education system, the focus is shifted from teacher-centric to child-centric methods. However, in the programme the objective for child-centric approach would be multidimensional and extensive, which is very difficult to capture in a comprehensive way due to lack of adequate mechanism to test the achievement of the programme objectives by the learner. Sufficient diagnostic value: Evaluation should take into account the strengths and weaknesses of the programme on the basis of its achievements in terms of processes and product of the programme. The results should be very clear in order to visualize implementation of any programme with effectiveness. For instance, the programme should be planned well to reflect the specifications clearly in terms of student’s achievement to reveal the effectiveness of the programme; i.e. if the programme intends to make the learner to apply a principle in a situation, it can be clearly understood whether the child has the ability to apply in a new situation. If not, what should be done with the programme? Validity: It should serve the purpose for which it is designed. We can understand whether the content is suitable to achieve the intended objectives of the programme while evaluating the content. Mostly, the difficulty occurs when the objectives are not clearly stated, vague, diffused and abstract. For example, if the objective says that the child understands ‘citizenship’, this is not very clear as to what is expected from behavioural outcome. This has nothing to do with the instruments of evaluation. So, it is essential that the behavioural outcomes should be expressed clearly to get more validity to the programme. Unity of evaluative judgement: The evaluative judgements have to be made about the groups or individuals on the basis of available evidence which leads to many threats to the programme evaluation. While making evaluation, every minute behaviour has to

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be measured accurately and precisely and the complex behaviour can be grouped into smaller units and each one of them should be measured separately. By breaking down the objectives into its components and units, specific instruments should be used to measure it. As the human behaviour is an organic unit, putting all these together the judgement has to be made in unity. For instance, on the basis of final performance, we cannot make the judgement. We can observe the performance ability of the child on different dimensions, and based on the same judgement has to be made in a unity. 6. Continuity: Evaluation should be continuously and an integral part of curriculum development and instruction. There is a need to take continuingly feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of the programme or a part of the programme. Thus, there should be continuity in the evaluation of curriculum.

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM EVALUATION Curriculum evaluators adopt different approaches depending on their philosophy/ideology/ perspective. Depending on whether they are a behaviourist or humanist or cognitivistic, the approach is adopted. There are different ways in which evaluation can be carried out. It all depends on how the data are collected and analysed and which perspective is used as a basis of evaluation. If they believe in behaviourist, they look for prescriptive or a specific sequence, and according to the procedures they look for the achievement of intended outcomes. Similarly, if they are humanists, they go with their perspective where much attention is not paid to the student’s achievement and focus is on development of self-concept through different situation/ contexts. The perspective will determine the nature and criteria of data that is required and used for making judgements about the programme. Let us understand the following approaches (Ornstein and Hunkins 1993): 1. Scientific and humanistic approaches to evaluation 2. Intrinsic and pay-off evaluation 3. Formative and summative approaches to evaluation

Scientific and Humanistic Approaches to Evaluation It was identified by Lee Cronbach. He found that these two approaches are on two extremes of the continuum. Continuum

Scientific approach

Humanistic approach

Scientific Approach Those who advocate scientific approach go very objectively with experimental/empirical evidences and proofs. Similar or same instruments are used for all categories of learners to measure their achievement. They assign the variable or the method and

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observe the impact or the consequences on them. Here, concrete data in quantitative terms are collected and can be analysed statistically. Then, on the basis of the obtained results, judgement is made on the programme and the decisions are taken about the implementation of the programme. For example, if a child/programme fails, they just declare on the criteria which they have used to measure and declare the results. Humanistic Approach It is almost contrary to scientific approach. Here, they are not interested in such quantitative methods and empirical evidences. Mostly, they prefer individual case studies and qualitative analysis, where the information is collected from various sources in depth. Mostly, naturalistic observations are carried out in obtaining the data. The real processes happening are perceived directly in the respective contexts. For example, if a programme/child is assessed in qualitative terms the level of their efficiency in different aspects and do not believe in declaring pass/fail. In other words, we can say humanistic approach goes by actual facts or ‘thick descriptions’. Scientific tools and instruments cannot capture the humanistic feelings and subtle responses and reactions, reflections, etc. For example, based on scientific approach, they just judge finally the performance of the child as passed/failed. However, in humanistic approach, reasons, context, situations, influencing personal, social, school, home factors or any other process of learning problems are located to really reach out to the crux of the problem. Here, the final result is not so important.

Intrinsic and Pay-off Evaluation (Michael Scriven) Curriculum can be studied separately or after its implementation in the field to the learners. Intrinsic Evaluation According to Scriven, this curriculum approach does not raise the question – how good is the curriculum? Instead, it looks at the curriculum itself. Evaluators look at the particular content, its sequence, types of materials used and organization of the content. They believe a particular content stimulates a specific learning in a student. They can even go to the value or worthiness of the curriculum; however, some evaluators do not consider it necessary. Instead of asking the question – how good the programme is – they ask how well the curriculum achieves its goals. Only if the evaluators have clarity about the worth of the goals and objectives, the content only would know the goodness of a curriculum. Pay-off Evaluation In this approach, once the worthiness of the curriculum is evaluated, the impact of it can be known after implementation of the curriculum. This influence or what kind of benefits or otherwise result out of it is called pay-off by Scriven. The impact or effect of the curriculum could be observed not only on students but also on a teacher, parents, administrators and other related personnel. It tries to empirically examine the specific impact, whether going for pre or post-test. The post-test results would establish the real impact or effect of the curriculum on the learner. Both favourable and unfavourable arguments are raised on intrinsic as well as pay-off kinds of approaches.

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Pay-off advocates feel that intrinsic evaluators are like ‘armchair’ category where they just consider the results or learner’s achievement, but it is very difficult to really find the worthiness of the programme. On the other hand, pay-off is criticized by intrinsic advocates that it is difficult to have accurate and adequate tools to assess the real impact. Moreover, they believe that these results are based on same short-term based evaluations. They believe it is good to evaluate the content worthiness and the programme by the evaluators on their own personally than taking the achievement of the learners as the indicators (the scores obtained by them). However, either of them is not perfect and has their own strengths and weaknesses.

Formative and Summative Evaluation Formative Evaluation During the process of development of the programme at different stages, different aspects can be done to improve the programme. For instance, if a curriculum is being designed for teacher education, right from objectives at every stage the formative evaluation is done and the feedback can be taken to rectify the problems or to fine tune the programme. Likewise any programme while in the process of development before going to the real field implementation can be modified and fine tuned, and it can avoid certain irreparable damages. Summative Evaluation After designing a programme, it will be implemented in the field to the target group. At the end of the programme implementation, the curriculum is evaluated to know the impact of the programme – whether the objectives have been achieved or not on the whole in summative approach. Here, the evaluation cannot help to improve in between the process of development.

MODELS OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION Based on the nature of the models, basically they are two categories of models of curriculum evaluation: 1. Quantitative/scientific/positivistic models 2. Qualitative/humanistic/naturalistic models Graphical representation of models of evaluation is as follows: Models of curriculum evaluation

Quantitative/scientific/positivistic models Metfessel-Michael evaluation model Provu’s discrepancy evaluation model Stake’s congruence– contingency Evaluation model Shuffle beam’s input, process, product evaluation model

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Qualitative/humanistic/naturalistic models Eisner’s connoisseurship evaluation model Stake’s responsive evaluation model Illuminative evaluation model Portraiture evaluation model

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Quantitative/Scientific/Positivistic Models 1. Metfessel–Michael Evaluation Model Eight steps are found in Metfessel–Michael model, which is graphically represented as follows:

1. Involve participants

2. Formulate goals

3. Translate goals and objectives into curriculum content and experience

6. Analyze data

5. Carry out observations

4. Devise necessary instruments for evaluation (tests, inventories, check lists, interviews etc.)

7. Interpret data

8. Make recommendations

Repeat cycle

2. Provu’s Discrepancy Evaluation Model Malcolm Provu’s model is basically based on system management theory. It consists of four components and five stages of evaluation. The four components are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Standards Performance Comparing performance with standards Whether a discrepancy exists between performance and standards

If any discrepancy is observed, it is reported and decision makers make decisions at each stage. Once the discrepancy is observed, it is recycled before going to the next stage. The role of the evaluator is to identify the discrepancy and also suggest the corrective possible actions. Finally, it is the decision maker who makes decisions. The following are the five stages in the model: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Designing Installation Processes Products Cost

1. Designing Once the programme is designed, it is compared with a standard design or the criteria. Evaluators need to examine whether the programme is sound internally (i.e. adequacy of space, personnel, resources, materials and so on) and externally (other similar programmes whose works can be considered to compare). This helps to identify the problems initially, and the discrepancy is located by comparing it with a standard and the same is reported to the decision maker. The decision maker based on the report makes a decision, whether the programme should be rejected, modified or accepted.

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2. Installation At this stage, the actual implementation or the operation is compared with the standard or fidelity criteria – the characteristics of the programme along with facilities, media, methods, student abilities and staff qualifications. Like earlier stage, here also the discrepancy is reported. 3. Processes All the regular and required processes such as staff and student activities, functions and communication are needed. Based on the evaluation, the inadequacies should be reported for making necessary changes or modifications for better or effective functioning. 4. Products At this level, the outcomes or performance of students, staff, school and community can be measured against the programme’s original goals. This information would enable the decision makers to know the worthiness of the programme. Based on this output, they decide to continue, modify or terminate. 5. Cost This stage is also very important component where the output is compared with the similar standard. Moreover, it is important in terms of cost–benefit analysis. For instance, a coaching centre designs a programme for IIT or any other standard entrance. Ultimately, they have incurred some amount and they have collected the fee and the number of students, staff, salaries other facilities are provided ultimately to know the worthiness of the programme and its success rate (i.e. the number of students appeared and the number of students came out successful); based on this, it is decided whether the programme is worthwhile to be continued, needs to be modified or totally rejected. So, according to Provu, this model can be used for any programme at any stage and decisions can be made finally whether the programme is:  to be accepted/continued  needs improvement  to be terminated The whole programme of evaluation suggested by Provu can be represented graphically where all the four components at five stages are shown. Provu’s discrepancy evaluation model S M Stage 1

C M

S M

T Stage 2

D

C M

R

P

Stage 3

D

C – Comparison D – Discrepancy

C

S M

T Stage 4

D

M

R

P

S – Standard P – Performance

S M

T

C M

R

P

T Stage 5

D R

P

T – Terminate program R – Recycle program

M – Modify or change

The process of evaluation carried out can be shown in the table as follows: Stage

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Performance

Standard

1

Design

Design criteria

2

Installation

Installation fidelity

3

Processes

Process adjustment

4

Products

Product assessment

5

Cost

Comparisons and costs–benefits

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3. Stake’s Congruence–Contingency Evaluation model Robert stake’s recognized that evaluation depends on casual observation, implicit goals, intuitive norms and subjective judgement. He suggested formal evaluation methods, which are objective. It aims at obtaining data to make descriptions and judgements. Evaluation specialists emphasize more objective descriptions by collecting and reporting hard data. Evaluators should collect data extensively from various sources and also all the dynamics of persons involved in curriculum process. Evaluators should involve not only in collecting data but also in making judgement about the programme. In this model, the data is organized into three bodies: 1. Antecedents 2. Transactions 3. Outcomes Antecedent: This is a condition that exists prior to teaching and learning and may influence the outcomes. For example, it is like a student’s level of achievement, aptitude, psychological status, grades, discipline, attendance, etc., possessed before they are exposed to teaching. Antecedent would also include all the teacher profile (age, qualification, experience, education, behaviour). In other words, simply the ‘entry behaviour’ or it may be denoted as an input. Transactions: It is an interaction between various aspects, i.e. process of teaching and instruction. Transactions are between and among: Teachers and students Students and students Students and resource people Students and materials Students and classroom environments Time allocation, special arrangements Sequence of communication Outcomes: These are in other words known as products. For example, it could be achievement, attitudinal change and acquisition of motor skills. It shows that the outcomes are the influence of the programme. The programme outcomes are due to other influences which are evident at the end of the programme. The result could be due to long-range effects related to cognitive, affective, personal and community-wise consequences. The three types of data are antecedents, transactions and outcomes. In the three categories of data, the relationship is established between variables ‘contingencies’. The evaluation is carried out by arranging three types of data into a matrix as shown below. The outcomes are the resultant of antecedents and transactions. Transactions are related to earlier antecedents. Then transactions are logically contingent on the antecedents. In a similar way, outcomes should be logically contingent from the transactions. In other words, one category is measurable variable on the other category. According to this evaluation model, there should be congruence between the intended and observed outcomes.

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Diagrammatically the model can be represented as follows: Descriptive data Intended antecedents

Congruence

Logical contingency

Intended transactions

Empirical contingency

Congruence

Logical contingency

Intended outcomes

Observed antecedents

Observed transactions

Empirical contingency

Congruence

Observed outcomes

Stake’s congruence – contingency model 4. Stufflebeam Context, Input, Process, Product Evaluation Model Daniel Stufflebeam applied management approach to evaluation. This model is represented as CIPP (context, input, processes and product) model. This is a comprehensive and continuous model. Here, the information is considered to make decision. This model includes three steps: 1. Delineating the information necessary for collection 2. Obtaining the information 3. Providing the information to interested parties For any evaluation, these three steps need to be considered. In correspondence to these three steps, there are four types of evaluation: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Context evaluation Input evaluation Process evaluation Product evaluation

1. Context Evaluation This is like analysis of a ‘situation’ wherein the environment of the programme is thoroughly studied. The purpose here is to define the relevant environment. It portrays the desired and actual conditions of the environment. Here, the focus is laid on those needs unmet. The reality is needed by the individuals by keeping themselves in the situation. They assess the reality in the light of their wants. This is not a one time activity. It always provides the required baseline data for operations and accomplishments of the total system. 2. Input Evaluation This stage of evaluation model provides information and determines how to utilize resources to meet the goals of the programme. This evaluation assesses the capabilities of the school for conducting evaluation. It considers the strategies which are suggested to achieve the goals. Also, they identify the means through which strategies are implemented. Here, other alternative sources, time and budget are also considered to the attainment of objectives. Focus is laid on what is feasible or practised. Input evaluates specific aspects or components of curriculum plan. Input evaluation deals with the following questions: 1. Are the objectives stated appropriately? 2. Are the objectives congruent with the school goals?

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3. 4. 5. 6.

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Is the content congruent with the objectives and goals of the programme? Are the instructional strategies appropriate? Are there any other strategies which meet objectives? On what basis educators believe that content and instructional strategies enable to attain objectives?

3. Process Evaluation This stage focuses on implementation decision which controls and manages the programme. It is useful to know the congruence between the planned and actual activities. This includes the following three strategies: 1. To detect or predict defects in procedural or implementation designs: Evaluators will be able to identify and monitor defects which are located in the project’s failure. They should pay attention to the whole programme logistics and build the communication networks among the affected groups. 2. To provide information for decisions: The second strategy involves project managers in making decisions during the implementation of the project. 3. To maintain a record of procedures in the order they occur: The third strategy takes into account the main feature of the project design. For instance, it could be content, instructional strategies or innovative sessions planned for teachers and students. This stage is a piloting one, where the programme/project is implemented at a small scale, i.e. a district, and on the basis of feedback, the gaps are rectified and will be implemented at a large scale. This enables to avoid procedure errors by making pre-planned programme decisions. 4. Product Evaluation It collects such data based on which they will be able to know whether the intended objectives have been attained. This information helps the evaluator to make decisions whether to:  Continue  Terminate  Modify new curriculum For example, if we plan teacher education curriculum and try it out in a few districts and then with the necessary gap filling, the programme will be implemented. Thus, any programme that is designed has to be planned on the basis of context, input, process and product which have been discussed earlier. Finally, after conducting the evaluation, the decision on programme has to be taken. There are four types of decisions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Planning decisions Structuring decisions Implementation decisions Recycling decisions

Graphically we can represent it as follows: 1. Planning decisions – to determine the objectives

4. Recycling decisions – to judge and react to attainments

2. Structuring decisions – to design procedures

3. Implementation decisions – to utilize, control and run procedures

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Thus, evaluation is carried out with four types of evaluation, followed by four types of decisions, which is followed in three stages: (1) delineating, (2) obtaining and (3) providing information. Although this model is a comprehensive model, Stufflebeam has gone a step further to his earlier discussed CIPP model and gave a macro evaluation model. 5. Stufflebeam’s Macro (Total) Evaluation Model Stufflebeam has taken into consideration all the aspects discussed in CIPP, and in addition to that, he has proposed four different settings that lead to various changes: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Neomobilistic change Incremental change Homeostatic change Metamorphic change

The change in the curriculum is brought on the basis of the research or tryout made in the field. Based on the empirical evidence, and size of the sample/study, the change is brought. Based on the type of research and generalizations, they make smaller to larger changes. The following discussion helps in understanding the way changes can be brought. 1. Neomobilistic Change When a large change is brought on the basis of small or low information, such kind of change is called neomobilistic change. For example, a study on a method is conducted in a small district with a small sample of 100 teachers and the findings of the study are generalized to implement the same to all over India in schools. 2. Incremental Change When a series of small changes are brought based on small information, such change is called incremental change. For instance, we want to bring any change step by step at a small level in the respective institution and based on the feedback relevant small changes are brought. 3. Homeostatic Change Based on large information, a small change is brought. For example, collecting the opinions of a large group of teachers working all over India about the curriculum or any reforms in the system of education and applying at a state level can be considered homeostatic change. 4. Metamorphic Change Based on large information, a great change is brought. For example, lots of changes are brought in technology based on the information taken from the global level; i.e. major policy issues GATT were brought all over the world. Such a change is called as metamorphic change. It is a huge change at a large scale. For quick comprehension, it may be denoted as follows: Stufflebeam’s macro evaluation model Quantum of information

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Type of change

Neomobilistic

Small

(S)

Large

(L)

Incremental

Small

(S)

Small

(S)

Homeostatic

Large

(L)

Small

(S)

Metamorphic

Large

(L)

Large

(L)

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Humanistic and Naturalistic Evaluation Models The qualitative model of evaluation focus is to measure the success of the programme using scientific procedures. To look for achievement of objectives, mostly the outside agencies or externally evaluation is conducted and it expects concrete evidence in almost all aspects of the programme. On contrary qualitative model evaluators occupy the focus or centre of things. They go personally or yet times they may be the members within the system. The approach is a holistic one. These models are mostly humanistic in nature and use naturalistic, informal approaches to understand the programme functioning. The evaluators go by their personal values and try to appreciate the system. In this way, they try to come out of the system as a whole in the form on processes like human interactions than on outcomes especially in quantitative dimensions; moreover, they go beyond the observed facts and quantitative data. For instance, a programme is implemented in a particular school instead of looking at the quantum of time, number of activities, acquisition of concept or skill. In qualitative models, they look for the amount of qualitative time they spent in school with involvement and real transformation etc. Some of the important qualitative models are presented as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Eisner’s connoisseurship evaluation model Stake’s responsive evaluation model Illuminative evaluation model Portraiture evaluation model

1. Eisner’s Connoisseurship Evaluation Model This model in some respects is similar to Stake’s responsive model. Elliot Eisner model expects that the evaluator should have thorough knowledge about the issue which he/she is going to evaluate. There should be a critique to appreciate and also have good awareness on the programme to assess and describe the programme and make interpretation on the programme or situation. The focus is laid on the richness of the process, quality of life as a consequence of a new programme; i.e. the evaluator is like a connoisseur (who has awareness and expertise in the area and capable of being critique to appreciate the programme). Elliot Eisner has suggested certain questions to know about the process of the programme, to know what has occurred during the school at a particular school as a consequence of a new programme:      

What were the key events? How did such events arise? How did students and teachers participate in these events? What were the reactions of the participants to these events? How can the events become more effective? What was learnt by students with the new programme?

This model is basically drawn from the area of arts. He says in order to understand the effectiveness of the programme or impact of the programme on children, it is good to collect the portfolios of children which reveal many aspects related to quality of the programme and merits of

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the children. It should involve the views of the people such as parents, school board, public, local or state agencies. It is understandable that this model is more subjective, has aesthetic approach to evaluation and reflects humanism. 2. Stake’s Responsive Evaluation Model Robert Stake suggested both quantitative (which is discussed earlier in this chapter) and qualitative models. In this model he used the word ‘responsive’, i.e. the focus on the programme activities and processes than on intentions and outcomes. The emphasis is laid mostly on informal and natural communication than on formal and quantitative measures and standardized procedures in collecting or analysing the data. Here, the evaluator is interested in telling about the story of the programme. He/she presents its features and describes the clients and personnel. Also, he/she identifies what the major issues and concerns of the programme are. It reports the accomplishments of the programme. It is like a critique reviewing a play or a painter depicting a landscape scene. He says for this kind of evaluation it requires good planning and preparation. The evaluator needs to identify the personnel and people and arrange them for collecting the feelings, reflections and expressions by making them to present portrayals, stories, narratives, observations and so on all possible intricate data. Finally, the data should be treated in such a way that it should take care of the audience bias. In-depth probing can also be taken to collect the qualitative data without any conflict or controversy with respondents. He has suggested a 10-step process to undertake this evaluation: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Negotiate a framework for evaluation with the sponsors. Elicit topics, issues and questions of concern from sponsors. Formulate questions for guiding the evaluation. Identify the scope and activities of the curriculum. Identify the needs of clients and personnel. Observe, interview, prepare logs and case studies and so on. Pour down the information. Identify the major issues or questions. Present initial findings in a tentative report. Analyse reactions and investigate predominant concerns carefully. Look for conflicting evidence that would invalidate findings, as well as collaborative evidence that would support findings. Report the results.

3. Illuminative Evaluation Model This was originally developed by Parlett and Hamilton. This is also called explication. It is a naturalistic approach. On the whole the programme is evaluated where all the data are gathered to get a complete picture of an educational programme. In this programme, there are three important steps: 1. Observation 2. Further inquiry 3. Explanation 1. Observation This stage gives a general outlook of the programme to get acquaintance with the details of the programme. It helps to get the context in which the curriculum is

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transacted – all the data related to subjects, teaching, material used, learning styles, evaluation methods etc. 2. Further Inquiry After collecting the whole global data, the important dimensions are segregated from the trivial. Evaluator’s inquires are into the success stories from the concerned and also problem or critical comments from problematic people. Evaluators not only collect data but spend much time in the field and collect all the data from the schools such as documents and portfolios of student’s work and interview with parents and staff. 3. Explanation Here, the evaluator is not interested in passing or making any judgement on the programme. The whole idea is to furnish the data on the following – What is happening? Why is it happening? The explanations are presented where they get affected by the programme. On the basis of this, the persons can take certain decision. The evaluator in this model does not take any sides and goes very naturally and with humanistic approaches and tries to compile strengths and weakness of the programme. 4. Portraiture Evaluation Model Lawrence Lightfood developed this model from the field of anthropology by taking insights from the earlier models. This is basically a narrative where the evaluator goes to the field and observes the entire programme in the school and takes all the data from teachers and students and uses different tools such as questionnaires. On the basis of the data, the evaluator creates a thin description and then he/she gets into a thick description; i.e. initially it is presented and then the description is supported to it. The whole spirit of the school programme is captured through it like ethnography. It not only says as to what happened but also goes to the extent of saying reasons behind actions. Apart from his/her scientific abilities, certain aesthetic ways of presentation go into it. Thus, it goes into five elements to make thick descriptions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Description of the setting and activities Recording and commentary about people in the system Inclusion of dialogue Interpretation of the situation Impressionistic records

Finally, when the evaluator writes a portrait, his/her feeling will enter into the document. The document gives a clear understanding to the reader about whom the programme is written. It gives certain patterns to occur. Thus, both quantitative and qualitative models are good at their own place with both strengths and weaknesses. It depends on the evaluator as how to use, when to use, in what context to use and which is suitable or eclectic which needs to be brought out from the insights of all models. However, they are very useful in the field of education in order to understand the programme functioning and enable to make certain decisions.

EVALUATION PRACTICES IN INDIA India is well known for its unique system of education right from ancient times. There was no compromise in terms of quality of education and mastery of knowledge, with rigorous training where evaluation was informal and intricate.

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The glory of oldest universities such as Nalanda and Taxila created a great order of scholars and attracted learners from world over. Even the gurukula system at the early stage of education was the best in India. There was a great part of commitment on the part of the teacher, learner, society and system as a whole. The scholarship, abilities and potentials of learners were seen, explicitly in their behaviour and their approach to life. It is well known with the invasion/advent of Britishers, Moughals got influenced by the British Colonial Models. Even today the system of education is predominant with British colonial models. Most of the evaluation practices in the examination are predominant with British models. However, there were great educationists and intelligentsia who brought out many recommendations through various committees, commissions, policies and the whole system of education during pre-independent and post-independent India. It is apt to cite a few important practices through recommendations. The evaluation practices were in vogue with a series of defects and inadequacies which could not serve the system. A lot of subjectivity involved in evaluating and scoring processes led to redundant practices in the system. Due to huge population and the great numbers, writing the board, university examinations and subjectivity in evaluation created a lot of problems and pressure on the system. In this context University Education Commission (1948) observed that the examinations are with ‘no clearly defined purpose, thus invalid, its scoring is subjective and unreliable’. Similarly, Secondary Education Commission (1953) remarked, ‘The examination today, dictate the curriculum instead of following it, prevent any experimentation, hamper the proper treatment of subject and sound methods of teaching, foster a dull uniformity rather than originality, encourage the average pupil to concentrate too rigidly upon too narrow a field and thus, help him to develop wrong values in education’. S. R. Dongerkery Committee appointed by UGC in 1961 remarked, ‘Examination is an aspect of the educational process which is intimately linked with its other important aspects of teaching-learning, examinations actually constitutes a unity of functions. Teaching as well as learning is bound to be affected by a defective examination system, since both are dominated by the objectives that govern examinations’. It was followed by UGC’s invitation to Bloom in 1958–1959 to suggest reforms in the examination system in a phased manner; the programme came to an end after a decade. Again in 1965, UGC appointed a committee to review the standards of university education and to suggest more reliable and free from errors. Then after a year, Kothari Commission (1964–1966) suggested, ‘In the present system, when the fortune of the students is totally decided by one external examination at the end of the year, they pay minimum attention to the teachers, do little independent study through most of the academic year and cram accurately for the final examination .The crippling effect of examinations and the quality of work in higher education is so great that examination reform has become crucial to all progress’. What are the reforms or new horizons of thinking which are very necessary to bring an order into the system of education and more specifically in the evaluation and examination system? Prof. Narul Hasan (union minister) in his address on the occasion of the golden jubilee of the Association of Indian Universities observed that the existing system of examination began

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giving negative returns some years ago and has now become highly counterproductive. He went on to say that unless we make a major effort to overhaul the existing system of examinations, it will not be possible to carry out any major reform or qualitative improvement, such as revision of curricula, improvement of teaching–learning materials or adoption of important and dynamic methods of learning (Dr. R. P. Singhal).

Critique on Present Examination Practices Gunnar Myrdal in his book, The Challenge of World Poverty, described that in the colonial period importance was given to passing examinations and acquiring status, while practical training for life and work was ignored. This spirit was dominated, above all, the teaching and learning in tertiary institutions. It was transmitted to secondary schools where the main objective was to make certain that the students would be equipped to pass their entrance examinations to colleges. The primary schools were involved with the necessity of preparing pupils for entrance to secondary schools. The total personality of the child was nowhere focused in the system. At present the system of education at all the levels is per say degree oriented, cut-throat competition with focus on scores – only memorization and then become successful with high ranks, cracking entrance tests and breaking records of scores. The system has no concern for real education and appropriate evaluation mechanisms. There are rampant malpractices, cheating and corruption and unethical practices in examinations and evaluation practices. In view of the existing rampant violation of the ideal processes of education, evaluation process, teaching–learning methods, appropriate and balanced study habits are almost nil. The whole education system and pedagogical practices are ruled by corporate coaching centres. Most of the government and ideal practitioners are behind and hidden. Nowhere any ideal practitioner voice is heard. Parents are creating havoc and anarchy in the child’s life. The real talents of the children and potentials of the students have no space to nurture or to show to the world. Education and examination are becoming death traps to many children and parents, and many are minting machines for culprits and corporate institutions. For instance, in the state of Andhra Pradesh the whole intermediate education is in the hold of corporate coaching centres – task-oriented, score-targeted and continuous pressurized preparation for competitive examination and humiliated emotional levels. This stage of education is crucial in a child’s life to create preparedness towards the journey to select right career-related courses as per the aptitude, creating an intellectual order for the future and making balanced individual to adjust to the ground realities of life. In view of the above scenarios in the past and even the present, there is a need to look at the suggested innovative practices and reforms in the examination and evaluation system at large. To give more weightage to this existing pathetic condition, it would be realistic to quote Charles Colton: ‘Today examinations are formidable even to the best prepared, for the greatest fool may ask more than the wisest man can answer’. Examiners sometimes forget that they have to evaluate the pupil’s ability; instead, they try to show their skill and knowledge in the question paper they set. This context came to light even during 1960s where The National Policy on education, issued by the Government of India in

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1968, mentioned that the major goal of examination reforms should be to improve the reliability and validity of examinations and to make evaluation a continuous process, aimed at helping the students to improve their level of achievement rather than ‘certifying’ the equality of their performance at a given moment of time. What are the existing practices that have focused at schooling, higher education and teacher education? It is common knowledge that examinations have dominated education. The curriculum framers keep the examination as the ultimate aim while drawing up courses. The time-table of the school is prepared in such a way that the students can be best prepared for the examination. The quality of the school is judged on the basis of the Board’s results. Not only that, even teachers’ assessment is based on the performance of their students in the Board’s examinations. We used to say that examination acts as motivation for pupils and teachers. When the Oxford University held the first external examination for schools in 1958, it said that the examination would give a definite aim to the school masters and a great stimulus to scholars; and would afford evidence to the public how far the exertions of both had been successful. It is a pity that in the name of motivation and stimulation the examinations became indispensable; instead of becoming a means to provide the right type of education, they have become an end in themselves. Bearing in mind the 1968 National Policy statement where they have emphasized ‘radical’ reconstruction of education on broad guidelines, 1986 policy, 1992 Program of Action and then many governmental interventions by DPEP, Rajiv Madyamica Vidya Mission was to go with children’s methods at schooling, National Curriculum Framework for the school and teacher education. Keeping with the objectives set by the National Policy on Education, The Central Board drafted syllabi and courses for classes IX and X, the first stage of the new structure, on modern lines incorporating latest pedagogical techniques. A large number of seminars for teachers and educationists were held in which the draft syllabi and courses with particular reference to their coverage and feasibility were discussed. The new courses aim at the promotion of higher intellectual capacities and the harmonious development of the physical, emotional and other aspects of the pupil’s personality. They seek to provide a wide range of knowledge to develop students into well-informed citizens and train them for democratic living and community service, at the same time to imbibe a scientific outlook for modern living. A few of the salient features of the new courses are the following: 1. They provide a comprehensive general education with work experience as an integral component. 2. Science and mathematics, formerly denied to almost 50% of the students, are now available to every student, which are essential for the day-to-day life in the existing context. 3. They envisage compulsory health and physical education. 4. They aim at optimum relevance to the current life situation. 5. Through community service, a sense of involvement in national reconstruction is planned to be generated in the student.

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6. Work experience makes learning possible by the use of hand and paves the way for vocational education at the subsequent stage. 7. They aim at the development of the student up to the stage when he/she can successfully branch off into the academic stream or the vocational channel in accordance with his/her aptitude. Educationists all over the world are unanimous on the inherent drawbacks in the prevailing system of assessment through examination. In actual practice, the entire system of education tends to focus on the score in the examination. The new scheme of assessment, therefore, aims at rationalization and imbibes the following features: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Internal assessment along with external examination System of grading instead of marks Standardization of raw scores Question banks Improving quality of question papers Improving evaluation procedures

At plus two stage, under Classes XI and XII, the new pattern will provide diversified courses, both academic and vocational. The first batch of students will joined Class XI, under the new pattern in July 1977, and the first batch of students would took the Board’s Higher Secondary Examination at the end of Class XII in March 1979. While drawing up curricula, it is being ensured that these are relevant to the current needs of the society. The syllabi are being prepared in units with provision for bridge courses to enable the students to change over from academic to vocational courses and vice versa. Provision is also being made for non-formal education. NCF2006 has taken care of new reforms which will be discussed later. Examination reform is a must undoubtedly, and a new look to the existing examination system. Examiners sometimes forget that they have to evaluate the pupil’s ability; instead, they try to show their skill and knowledge in the question paper they set. The National Policy on Education, issued by the Government of India in 1968, mentioned that the major goal of examination reform should be to improve the reliability and validity of examinations and to make evaluation a continuous process, aimed at helping the students to improve their level of achievement rather than ‘certifying’ the quality of their performance at a given moment of time. Earlier, the Education Commission too had stated that the crippling effect of external examination on quality of work was so great that examination reform had become crucial to all progress and should go hand in hand with the improvements in teaching. Two main things have, therefore, to be done if the existing examination system has to be reformed. Firstly, its domination over the educational system has to be minimized. Secondly, the quality of examination has to be improved so as to make it more valid and reliable. In both these directions, the Central Board of Secondary Education has taken appropriate steps while introducing the new pattern of education from the current academic session in its member schools.

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An effective programme of evaluation should always be sensitive to and appropriate for the nature of educational programme components and its purposes. In teacher education, evaluation has to help ‘assess’ its programme components as well as its ‘products’ as representing its purposes. The main focus of any teacher education programme is on preparing teachers who can, in turn, play their different roles in schools. Evaluation has to assess the extent to which each student teacher is ‘getting prepared’ for teacher’s roles. The various components of a teacher education programme which provide the context for an ‘evaluation’ scheme include the following:  Theoretical knowledge which forms the basis of professional development of prospective teachers  Practical experiences and fieldwork to develop necessary skills  Insights for combining theoretical knowledge with skills to deal with teaching situation effectively  Attitudinal make-up and value orientation to enable student teachers to exhibit behaviour and play appropriate roles The entire programme has to strive to provide these in effective ways. The evaluation scheme adopted must be tailored appropriately towards assessment. The various curricular inputs are provided to student teachers and other experiences to which they are exposed, aim at causing some anticipated learning and consequent behavioural changes. These outcomes can be visualized in terms of qualitative changes. Some of the changes can be expressed more conveniently in numbers, namely, marks/scores in various types of achievement tests, scores on observable behaviours, ratings of performance in a given situation/task. Even among these, some are less amenable to quantitative expression. Other behavioural dimensions are such that expressing them in numbers may be difficult; it may be an artefact of logic involved in measurement procedures. For example, while a secular outlook, national integration, dignity, a scientific temper, cooperation, responsibility, punctuality, conscientiousness, professional ethics, integrity, impartiality and many others can be easily perceived to be relevant and sought to be developed, it may be difficult to express them quantitatively. And yet, one may like to have some kinds of a measure for them and use it for evaluation purposes. It is for such considerations that both quantitative and qualitative measures of evaluation came into use. Quantitative measures rely heavily on psychometric techniques based on mathematical models. On the other hand, qualitative methods of evaluation seek to bring ‘quality’ into focus, estimate its quantum or degree, take the help of quantity in that estimation, and arrive at an estimated description of the quality through collation of related estimates and their interpretation. At the operational level, evaluation in teacher education poses several issues. The evaluation procedures have to a great extent been generated and diversified as outflows from teacher education; yet, programmes do not show a great deal of willingness and enthusiasm for adoption in teacher education, namely, some form of certification making them organizationally similar to other educational programmes. That is, the curricular structure of a teacher education programme, be it a certificate course such as for elementary school teachers or a degree course for secondary and higher secondary school teachers, is visualized to be comparable to other certificate and degree programmes. This comparability seems to guide decisions about evaluation programmes in teacher education rather than the programme requirements themselves. The number of courses to be

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offered, the total weightage to each course in terms of time, effort and marks (or grades), the form of evaluation and ‘standards of passing’ the B.Ed. examination are all similar to those in any other degree programme of universities. There is insistence on similarity in the details of question papers to be drawn up, allocation of marks, number of questions, total duration of the examination and also ‘when’ and ‘how’ it can be organized. Although these make the easy organization of an examination, the purposes of the teacher education programme are served insufficiently. With so many details ‘prescribed’, teacher educators and student teachers naturally get restricted and work mainly to fulfil the requirements. This relegates the objectives of the teacher education programme to a secondary position. This is evident from the manner in which curricular components are indicated as ‘papers’, connoting thereby that the ‘content’ is presented in chapters or units in such a way that it lends itself to the specifications of questions to be asked in the final examination. For instance, in universities which specify that ‘ten questions will be asked out of which any five are to be answered’, the content outlines are presented in ten units; if the specification is ‘ask at least two questions in each unit of which one has to be answered’, then the ‘syllabus’, as the content outlines are more commonly known, will list only five units. Such practices show that the basic consideration for even curriculum framing seems to be the ‘examination pattern’ rather than the course requirements as per the objectives. The evaluation mechanism has to ‘satisfy’ such regulations. This, in turn, makes obvious ‘the probable question’ and thereby tempts teacher educators and student teachers alike to tailor the teaching/learning accordingly. The spirit of evaluation as a mechanism to assess instructional components and learning outcomes is thereby defeated. As a result, whatever is assessed is taken as an indicator of what ‘ought to have been’ assessed. In teacher education, such features have a far-reaching impact. What is presented to a student teacher as the role of evaluation, its techniques, characteristics and so on have no similarity with the situation that actually obtains. Thus, both technically and academically, sound evaluation procedures fail to percolate down to the field. Ironically, even the study of educational evaluation is made to look ‘informational’ and does not lead to the expected understanding, insight and appreciation. The objectives of the teacher education, the curriculum programme and the nature of curricular inputs call for a more meaningful and flexible scheme of evaluation. This has to be evolved with clarity, focusing on intended learning outcomes, the nature of learning experiences undergone, and also suitable assessment mechanisms for them. Care has to be taken to see that assessment tools are not rendered less meaningful while trying to make them effective in terms of their psychometric properties. At the same time, in the eagerness to evolve appropriate mechanisms, technical rigor should not be undermined. This suggests that each component of teacher education may require more than one tool to assess learning outcomes; each of these could be different in respect not only of form and administration procedure, but also of conceptual basis and underlying premises. The evidence generated through such varied assessment tools may have to be cautiously handled as they do not automatically fall into a recognizable gestalt. Technical skill of a very high order is required for developing such varied evidence, derived on the basis of different assumptions, into meaningful collations and arriving at some index which would determine the relative place of each candidate for certification purposes. Teacher educators must possess considerable technical expertise if evaluation in teacher education has to become truly relevant and effective.

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A glance at the evaluation practices At the school level:        

Informal evaluation methods Continuous, comprehensive evaluation Term-wise internal evaluation and external evaluation Grading system State-wise uniform question paper No board examination till 10th standard Competency-based evaluation Evaluation of non-scholastic and scholastic components by grading

At the higher education level:       

Continuous comprehensive evaluation Semester end examination Credit system Grading and grade points Internal assessments Internal assignments Objective test papers

Although various systematic changes are brought into the system of evaluation practices at different levels, the attitudinal changes at different levels need to be achieved. For instance, in 2011, MHRD Minister Kapil Sibal banned board examinations for 10th standard in CBSE stream. Reactions are in a mixed way, and the option is given to the child and the parent. More than half of the parents are still in favour of Board examinations. Evaluation practices in India still need more rigorous thinking and enacting in the field with all the preparation and creation of mindset in the parents and on the whole system.

STRATEGIES FOR EVALUATION OF CURRICULUM We have already acquainted with the various models of curriculum evaluation and evaluation practices in the preceding topics. Present topic deals with a few specific strategies which can be borne in mind while evaluating the curriculum. Organismically viewing at the purpose of evaluation of curriculum is to really know how far the programme is effective for the target group. So, while conducting evaluation of any programme or course designed, it is imperative to know ultimately the performance of the learners or the students who are involved in the programme. Also, it focuses holistically on various aspects of the programme right from objectives to that of implementation and finally probes into the worthiness of the programme. While evaluating any programme, the evaluation should be clear about the objectives of the programme and the purpose of evaluation. Broadly the strategies that can be adopted are as follows: 1. Intended outcomes versus goal-free evaluation 2. Norm-referenced and criterion-referenced measurement

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Intended Outcomes (Mauritz Johnson) Any curriculum or programme when designed goes with specific objectives and intended learning outcomes related to them. In this case, evaluators should be very clear as to what they want their programme to accomplish which would enable them to decide how to evaluate. For instance, the curriculum is designed in such a way that contents are related to preparation of oxygen. The intention of the curriculum framer is to enable the child to operate and manipulate in the laboratory and acquire all the skills in preparing oxygen and would learn the procedure to prepare oxygen. Unless there is a provision for the child in the school laboratory, the intended outcomes of the programme cannot be verified or known to the evaluator. Likewise, for any aspect of the programme before the evaluation is carried out, it should be clear in terms of context in which the student needs to be observed and to ascertain whether the intended outcomes are fulfilled through the programme. Thus, the programme can be evaluated with purposeful behavioural outcomes to determine the worth of the programme or curriculum. Similarly, we can quote many examples like at primary the child will be able to develop the skills of language through the topics included in the text and are verified with the exercise book and other terminal test, oral/written; i.e. there is a coordination and concomitance between the objectives, content, transaction and evaluation of the programme. When this programme is evaluated, either stage-wise or holistically, the intended outcomes are seen. For such programmes, it is possible to use the intended outcomes of the programme. In a way, this is what was suggested by Tyler in his model of evaluation. Goal-Free Evaluation (Scriven) Without having any fixed goal in mind and not specifically looking at the intended outcomes, if the evaluator wants to know what the real outcomes or effects of the programme are, this makes the evaluator more objective and needs to procure varied data from different dimensions and through various tools to understand both qualitative and quantitative aspects of the programme. Here, the evaluator is not going to focus on objectives alone. To acquire the total and holistic picture about the programme, the evaluator considers all possible qualitative and quantitative data and gets to know the view of students on the programme. This kind of evaluation strategy is not approved by many educators since it has got its own weaknesses. Moreover, it needs the evaluator who is very much matured to understand the programme intricately and is committed to discover the innovations and newness and other hidden aspects of the programme because of which the programme is successful or not successful. For instance, if an evaluator wants to know the effectiveness of revised curriculum on children performance, the evaluator can try to probe into the things which were new in that curriculum and would look at the ultimate performance of the students. Probably on the basis of the results, evaluators may say that the programme is effective if the performance is high and vice versa. In fact, the real intricate issues and the clear establishment of the relation between the new aspects of the programme and its relation to the improved performance are difficult unless it is probed and authenticated on the basis of other evidences.

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However, the evaluator should be able to decide which strategy is suitable for the evaluation. Both are on the two sides of the continuum. Scientific

Humanistic

Intended

Goal-free

Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Measurement Norm-Referenced Measurement The students as a group establish a norm. Here, the performance of the student is compared with other students on the same text. The norms could be based on age or grade level, ethnicity, sex, geographical location or any other such factor. Generally, standardized achievement tests are considered norm-referenced tests. These tests can test the varying abilities of students. However, these tests may not be directly going with the evaluation of goals and content of a particular curriculum. These tests help in knowing the student’s level of achievement in a subject or content. However, these tests determine the effectiveness of teaching and the success of curriculum. Criterion-Referenced Measurement It measures the performance of the student or acquisition of a skill or task with respect to some fixed criterion. These tests will indicate whether a student can do a particular task or skill or a specific content at a specific time, whether he/she has learnt to do something, and whether he/she has understood as a result of experiencing the curriculum. These tests lay focus on specific tasks intended in a curriculum. These tests are helpful for curriculum evaluators to know the effectiveness of the curriculum. It helps in getting to know the mastery of content by the student. Thus, both the student and the programme evaluation are possible. It also has a mandate of how much a child should score. Such kinds of the norm-referenced tests, say 10–15 aspects related to a programme, can be used to get a holistic picture of a curriculum. They may not be able to give absolute standards but can provide a cut-off and say look for 3 out of 4 and so on. Thus, it addresses specific objectives. These two types of tests are useful in different contexts where they need a specific type of feedback on the programme. However, all these tests would focus very well on technicalities, but they will not be able to do justification to human concerns which is difficult to represent in the report of evaluation. Further, a comprehensive strategy is required that we can follow to evaluate a programme and provide a feedback for the decision maker. The following graphical representation reveals that each element involved in collecting data from varied sources that are directly and indirectly involved with the curriculum or any other programme is important. While evaluating the programme, the following questions need to be borne in mind:    

What does education intend to do? What knowledge will it transmit? What skills will it develop? What attitudes and values will it inculcate? What are the results of education? What are the values assigned to these results?

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Curriculum/programme designed (intended goals)

Implementation of the programme (target group)

Data gathered from various sources

Parents

Students

Sources

Community member

Teachers

Consultants

Analysis of data and outcome of the evaluation

Judgement – decision on the effectiveness of the programme – whether to accept, reject or improve the programme.

While looking at the technicalities of the programme/curriculum, it can be checked against the following questions:          

Is the content related to the objectives? Is the content valid and reliable? Is the content relevant to the students? Is there logical organization of the content? Do the learning tasks reflect a hierarchical structure and sequence? Will the programme develop understanding and critical thinking? Is a multisensory approach used? Does the programme have transfer value? How does the course relate to the preceding course? Is the organization or design of the curriculum or any segment of curriculum suitable?

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By taking the insights from the above discussion on the evaluation models, curriculum or any other programme can be evaluated against its intensions and a decision can be taken by the policy makers based on the value judgement made by the evaluators. As we have discussed different models of evaluations and approaches to evaluation in the earlier chapter, no one model or approach is complete and foolproof. So, it is the evaluator who has to take an appropriate decision to select the model according to the purpose of evaluation or a combination of different models.

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8 Issues and Trends in Curriculum Development CHAPTER OUTLINE  National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education – 2009  National Curriculum Framework for School Education – 2005

 Models of Existing School and Teacher Education Curriculum  A Practical Model to Design a Curriculum

NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHER EDUCATION – 2009 (DRAWN FROM NCF – 2009) The Education Commission (1964–1966) professed that ‘the destiny of India is now being shaped in her classrooms’. National Policy on Education, 1986 emphasizes that ‘The status of the teacher reflects the socio-cultural ethos of the society; it is said that no people can rise above the level of its teachers’. Such exhortations are indeed an expression of the important role played by the teachers as transmitters, inspirers and promoters of man’s eternal quest for knowledge. Two significant developments, particularly, the National Curriculum Framework, 2005 and the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 as well as the fundamental tenets enshrined in the Constitution of India have guided the development of this framework. The National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education (NCFTE, 2009) elaborates the context, concerns and vision underscoring that teacher education and school education have a symbiotic relationship, and developments in both these sectors mutually reinforce the concerns necessary for qualitative improvements of the entire spectrum of education including teacher education as well. The new concerns of school curriculum and the expected transactional modalities have been emphasized in designing this framework for all stages of school education. Issues related to inclusive education, perspectives for equitable and sustainable development, gender perspectives, role of community knowledge in education and information and communication technology in schooling as well as e-learning have become centre stage in the framework. This framework is visualized to act as a catalyst to change the profile of teacher education so that the teacher education institutions become active centres not only for research but also for practical experiments directed to the improvement of educational methods and curricula. This NCFTE 2009 is broadly discussed under six chapters: Chapter 1: Context, Concerns and Vision of Teacher Education Chapter 2: Curricular Areas of Initial Teacher Preparation

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Chapter 3: Transacting the Curriculum and Evaluating the Developing Teacher Chapter 4: Continuing Professional Development and Support for In-Service Teachers Chapter 5: Preparing Teacher Educators Chapter 6: Implementation Strategies

Chapter 1: Context, Concerns and Vision of Teacher Education India has made considerable progress in school education since independence with reference to overall literacy, infrastructure and universal access and enrolment in schools. Two major developments in the recent years form the background to the present reform in teacher education – the political recognition of universalization of elementary education (UEE) as a legitimate demand and the state commitment towards UEE in the form of Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005 places different demands and expectations on the teacher, which need to be addressed both by initial and continuing teacher education. Teacher quality is a function of several factors: teachers’ status, remuneration, conditions of work and their academic and professional education. Present Teacher Education Scenario The unprecedented expansion of teacher education institutions and programmes during the past few years characterize the teacher education scenario of today. With increasing school enrolments and the launch of pan-Indian primary education development programmes such as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, (2002) to achieve UEE, the Operation Blackboard (OB), 1986 and the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP), 1995, there was an increase in the demand for teachers. Till December 2009, as many as 31 Institutes of Advanced Studies in Education (IASEs) and 104 Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs) were sanctioned and all of these are functional. Of the 599 districts in the country, District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) were set up in 571 districts, of which only 529 are functional. Teacher Education Reform Perspectives: Past and Present The reform of teacher education has been one of the abiding concerns in the reports of major education commissions and committees on education. The Education Commission (1964–1966) discussed at length various issues related to teacher education. It recommended professionalization of teacher education, development of integrated programmes, comprehensive colleges of education and internship. The National Commission on Teachers (1983–1985) recommended five-year integrated courses and internship. The National Policy on Education (NPE) (1986) recommended the overhaul of teacher education to impart it a professional orientation and referred to the same concerns voiced by the earlier committees. Its recommendations led to the launch of the centrally sponsored scheme of teacher education, incorporating the establishment of DIETs, CTEs and IASEs. The NPE Review Committee (1990) and the National Advisory Committee on Learning without Burden (1993) have also drawn attention to the need for qualitative reform of teacher education and suggested various measures. Urgency of Reforming Teacher Education Teacher education as a whole needs urgent and comprehensive reform. There is a need to bring greater convergence between professional preparation and continuing professional development of teachers at all stages of schooling in terms of level, duration and structure. Considering the complexity and significance of teaching as a professional practice, it is imperative that the entire enterprise of teacher education should be raised to university level and that the duration and rigour of programmes should be appropriately enhanced.

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Elementary Teacher Education The initial training of elementary teachers continues to suffer from isolation, low profile and poor visibility in view of it being a non-degree programme. There is a grave need to upgrade initial teacher education by enhancing the entry qualification and duration of training, making it equivalent to a degree programme and locating the management and control of elementary teacher education within universities. Another instance of neglect of elementary teacher education is the non-recognition of the need for specially qualified teacher educators in elementary education. Systemic Concerns of Teacher Education The proliferation of sub-standard private teacher education institutions and the current state of teacher education programmes are both serious impediments to fulfilling the objectives of the NCF and the Right to Free and Compulsory Education. The NCF has described the current concerns of teacher education as follows:  Experiences in the practice of teacher education indicate that knowledge is treated as ‘given’, embedded in the curriculum and accepted without question; there is no engagement with the curriculum. Curriculum, syllabi and textbooks are never critically examined by the student teacher or the regular teacher.  Language proficiency of the teacher needs to be enhanced, but existing programmes do not recognize the centrality of language in the curriculum.  Teacher education programmes provide little scope for student teachers to reflect on their experiences.  Disciplinary knowledge is viewed as independent of professional training in pedagogy.  Repeated ‘practice’ in the teaching of a specified number of isolated lessons is considered a sufficient condition for professional development.  It is assumed that links between learning theories and models and teaching methods are automatically formed in the understanding developed by student teachers.  There is no opportunity for teachers to examine their own biases and beliefs and reflect on their own experiences as part of classroom discourse and enquiry.  Theory courses have no clear link with practical work and ground realities.  The evaluation system followed in the teacher education programmes is too informationoriented, excessively quantitative and lacks comprehensiveness.  Apart from conceptual and pedagogical aspects, existing programmes need to develop certain attitudes, dispositions, habits and interests in a teacher. The present evaluation protocol has no place for evaluating these aspects. The following set of concluding statements can be made relating to a teacher’s role, and the philosophy, purpose and practice of teacher education:  Teachers need to be prepared to care for children, enjoy to be with them, seek knowledge, understand own responsibility towards society and work to build a better world, develop sensitivity to the problems of the learners, commitment to justice and zeal for social reconstruction.  Teachers need to view learners as active participants in their own learning and not as mere recipients of knowledge, need to encourage their capacity to construct knowledge and ensure that learning shifts away by the use of rote methods. Learning is to be viewed as a search for meaning out of personal experiences, and knowledge generation as a continuously evolving process of reflective learning.

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 Teacher education must engage with theory along with field experiences to help trainees to view knowledge not as external to the learner, but as something that is actively constructed during learning. Teacher education should integrate academic knowledge and professional learning into a meaningful whole.  Teachers need to be trained in organizing learner-centred, activity-based, participatory learning experiences – plays, projects, discussion, dialogue, observation, visits, integrating academic learning with productive work, etc.  Teacher education should engage teachers with the curriculum, syllabi and textbooks to critically examine them rather than taking them as ‘given’ and accepted without question.  Teacher education should provide opportunity to student-teachers for reflection and independent study without packing the training schedule with teacher-directed activities alone.  The programme should engage teachers with children in real contexts rather than teach them through theories alone. It should help them understand the psycho-social attributes and needs of learners, their special abilities and characteristics, their preferred mode of cognition, motivation and learning resulting from home and community socialization.  The programme should help teachers or potential teachers to develop social sensitivity and consciousness and finer human sensibilities.  Teacher education programmes need to broaden the curriculum (both school and teacher education) to include different traditions of knowledge; educate teachers to connect school knowledge with community knowledge and life outside the school.  Teacher education programmes need to help teachers appreciate the potential of hands-on experience as a pedagogic medium both inside and outside the classroom; and work as integral to the process of education.  Teachers need to re-conceptualize citizenship education in terms of human rights and approaches of critical pedagogy; emphasize environment and its protection, living in harmony within oneself and with natural and social environment; promote peace, democratic way of life, constitutional values of equality, justice, liberty, fraternity and secularism, and caring values.  In view of many-sided objectives of teacher education the evaluation protocol needs to be comprehensive and provide due place for the evaluation of attitudes, values, dispositions, habits and hobbies, in addition to the conceptual and pedagogical aspects through appropriate quantitative as well as qualitative parameters.

Chapter 2: Curricular Areas of Initial Teacher Preparation The kind of teacher and teacher education we have envisioned calls upon us to look at teacher education as a holistic enterprise involving actions of different kinds and from multiple fronts aimed at the development of the total teacher – knowledge and understanding, repertoire of skills, positive attitudes, habits, values and the capacity to reflect. To recall, we need teachers who:  Care for children and love to be with them, understand children within social, cultural and political contexts, develop sensitivity to their needs and problems, treat all children equally.  Perceive children not as passive receivers of knowledge, augment their natural propensity to construct meaning, discourage rote learning, make learning a joyful, participatory and meaningful activity.  Critically examine curriculum and textbooks, contextualize curriculum to suit local needs.

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 Do not treat knowledge as ‘given’, embedded in the curriculum and accepted without question.  Organize learner-centred, activity-based, participatory learning experiences – play, projects, discussion, dialogue, observation, visits and learn to reflect on their own practice.  Integrate academic learning with social and personal realities of learners, responding to diversities in the classroom.  Promote values of peace, democratic way of life, equality, justice, liberty, fraternity, secularism and zeal for social reconstruction. The layout of a curriculum for teacher education can be conceived as comprising three broad curricular areas: 1. Foundations of Education which includes courses under three broad rubrics, namely, Learner Studies, Contemporary Studies and Educational Studies. 2. Curriculum and Pedagogy which includes courses under two broad rubrics, namely, Curriculum Studies and Pedagogic Studies. 3. School Internship leading to the development of a broad repertoire of perspective, professional capacities, teacher sensibilities and skills. Flow chart I represents the main curricular areas along with potential courses. Flow Chart I Teacher Education Programmes: Curricular Areas

Area B Curriculum and Pedagogy

Curriculum Studies

Pedagogic Studies

Knowledge and Curriculum

Sciences

Area A Foundations of Education

Assessment and Evaluation Studies

Social Sciences

Language Proficiency and Communication

Mathematics

Four days a week for a minimum period of 12–20 weeks including one week of classroom observation of a regular teacher Visit to Innovative Centres of Pedagogy and Learning

Classroom-based Research Projects

Languages

Learner Studies

Childhood, Child and Adolescent Development and Learning

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Area C School Internship

Contemporary Studies

Educational Studies

Teacher and Learner in Society

Aims of Education, Knowledge and Values

Gender, School and Society

Developing the Self and Aspirations as a Teacher

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Curricular Provision: Theory and Practicum Theory Course Work: Two to three theory courses designed around key concepts and research from psychology, philosophy and sociology to engage student teachers with theoretical concepts and frameworks. Practicum Course Work: The aim is to provide hands-on experience with children of diverse needs to enable a back-and-forth movement between the theory and the field. Teacher Education Curricular Areas – A Schema Curricular Areas

Major Components

Area-A: Foundations of Education

Learner Studies Childhood, Child and Adolescent Development Contemporary Studies Teacher and Learner in Society Gender, School and Society Educational Studies Aims of Education, Knowledge and Values Developing the Self and Aspirations as a Teacher

Curricular Aspects Drawing upon psychology, sociology, linguistics and education. Constructs of childhood, adolescence; socialization; language; cognition, thinking and learning; school and physical health; self, identity; inclusive education Drawing upon sociology, history, philosophy, psychology, political science and economics. Issues and concerns of contemporary Indian society; human and child rights; classroom as social context; Identity development; understanding curriculum; texts from a gender lens; debates about professionalism and feminization of the teaching profession Drawing upon educational theory, philosophy, history and sociology Basics of teaching-learning; theoretical constructs, educational thinkers; vision education in India, issues concerns; school culture; school as a learning organization; peace education Self and identity; interpersonal relations, adult-child gaps; personal and social constructs; schools as sites of contestation and social change.

Area-B: Curriculum and Pedagogy

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Curriculum Studies Knowledge and Curriculum Language; Proficiency and Communication

Curricular Provision Three theory courses with in-built fieldbased units of study; practicum courses, workshops, seminars, group and individual assignments Two theory courses with in-built field-based units of study; projects, seminars, group and individual assignments Theory course with in-built field-based units of study; group and individual assignments, seminar presentation Two theory courses with in-built fieldbased units of study; assignments, group presentations, term papers course workshop-based with a brief on theory; workshops on issues of gender, identity, social and personal conflict, childhood, relationships

Focus on key concepts of the basic disciplines of language, mathematics, social sciences and sciences; sociology of knowledge and curriculum

Six theory courses inbuilt field-based study; investigative projects, recording analysis of observations

Engagement with subject; content and school curriculum, textbooks; philosophical and ideological basis

course designed workshops with hands-on activity in the use of language for communication

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(Continued) Curricular Areas

Major Components Pedagogic Studies Language Mathematics Social Sciences Sciences Assessment and Evaluation Studies Perspective and Practice of Learner Assessment

Curricular Aspects of curriculum; design and selection of knowledge; Knowledge as construction; disciplinary knowledge. Language proficiency and communication skills; metalinguistic awareness; skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing in varying contexts; content area literacy Drawing upon pedagogical theory, constructivist and socioconstructivist perspectives Nature of discipline and knowledge; understanding school curriculum; critical engagement with principles of teaching; epistemological issues

Curricular Provision Six optional theory courses offering areas; specialization; practicum courses comprising curriculum and text analysis and creation; alternative learning materials. Theory course with Complementary practicum; analysis question types and assessment formats; group and individual assignments.

Drawing upon critical reading, psychometric approaches; sociological frames of analysis and constructive approaches Critical reading of evaluation; perspective and practice; place of assessment for l earning; qualitative and quantitative measures; hands-on experience; clinical interviews, observation; formats and interpretation of qualitative data. Area-C: School Internship

School Internship

Sustained engagement with schools; internship as a partnership model; teaching and participating in school activities; recording observation of learners, analysis and reflection on teaching; developing and maintaining teaching-learning resources; developing unit plans and maintaining reflective journals

Four days of teaching for a period of 12-20 weeks, including an initial oneweek of classroom observations; case studies, classroom research, development learning resources

Redesigning Current Teacher Education Programmes NCF has proposed the need for: (a) D.Ed.: Two-year diploma after +2 (b) B.Ed.: One-year degree after graduation. Area-A: Foundations of Education Learner Studies Theory: Childhood, Child and Adolescent Development and Learning Practicum: School Initiation Programme, Observing Learners, Story Telling and Children’s Literature

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Contemporary Studies Theory: Teacher and Learner in Society; Gender, School and Society Educational Studies Theory: Aims of Education, Knowledge and Values; Developing Self and Aspirations as a Teacher Practicum: Self-Development Workshops; Creative Drama, Craft and Music Area-B: Curriculum and Pedagogy Curriculum Studies Theory: Knowledge and Curriculum; Language Proficiency and Communication Pedagogic Studies Theory: Language Education; Mathematics Education; Science Education; Social Science Education Practicum: Material Development and Evaluation; Classroom Management and Block Teaching Assessment and Evaluation Studies Theory: Perspective and Practice of Learner Assessment Practicum: Designing Assessment Frameworks; Formulating Questions; Recording and Analysing Qualitative Aspects Each of the theory courses to have units of study from various disciplines. For instance, Courses on Child and Adolescent Development to have units of study on constructs of childhood drawn from sociological studies, units on cognitive and language development from psychological and socio-linguistic perspectives. Each of the theory courses to include field-based units of study. For instance, a course on Contemporary Studies can include a project on reservation, or the understanding of a consumer product such as ‘glass bangles’ from its raw form to its reach in the market. The Curriculum Studies Courses would necessarily include units of study that provide a critical study of school curriculum materials, syllabi, textbooks in the light of theoretical frameworks and empirical research. The Pedagogic Studies Courses would necessarily include units of study that provide for a critical study of content, an examination of learners’ thinking and learning and pedagogic processes in the light of theoretical frameworks and empirical research. Each of the above theory courses to be complemented with practicum courses. For instance, a course on Child and Adolescent Development and Learning could have a practicum on observing learners, in natural settings to study play patterns; to study diverse economic and societal cultural contexts; understand learners’ thinking and learning processes and text-learner dynamics. Each of these practicums should be positioned strategically to enable a back-and-forth movement between theory and the field. Area-C: School Internship  Visits to Innovative Centres of Pedagogy and Learning, wherever feasible.  Classroom-based research project.  School internship of 4 days a week for a minimum period of 6–10 weeks, including an initial phase of observing a regular classroom.  Developing and maintaining resources in the internship schools.  Developing unit plans and maintaining reflective journals.

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The practice of teaching during school internship would include not more than four unit plans per subject. Planning of the units would include a critical engagement with content from multiple sources including the school textbook, organization and presentation of subject matter, formulating questions, specifically to (a) assess knowledge base and understanding of students, (b) further the process of knowledge construction and meaning-making in the classroom and (c) assess students’ learning to improve pedagogic practice and further enhance learning. Exemplar of a Four-year Integrated Programme Outlined below is a short synopsis of the vision and features of a four-year integrated programme of Elementary Teacher Education designed to integrate general education with professional training. These features are drawn from the Bachelor of Elementary Education Programme approved by the National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE).  Foundations of Education located in the sociological, historical, economic, ecological, philosophical, cultural and political context and thought in education.  Core courses to engage with subject content with the aim to revisit and reconstruct concepts and perspectives.  Engagement with theory of pedagogy and hands-on experience in understanding the learner, his/her context and process of thinking and learning as a base to evolve relevant and appropriate pedagogic strategies.  Pedagogic courses designed in the frame of broad disciplinary areas such as, sciences, social sciences, languages and mathematics rather than individual school subjects.  Theory courses designed to enable interdisciplinary engagement as well as to engage with theory in the light of personal experiences and social realities.  Theory courses to include in-built field-based units of study to enable porous boundaries between theory and practice.  Rigorous study of a chosen liberal course out of a pool of courses in languages, mathematics, sciences and social sciences.  Opportunities for developing the self through drama, craft, music, self-development workshops along with a critical engagement with theoretical constructs of identity development and the individual–social interface.  Extensive and intensive practicum courses to equip teachers with a grip over existing systemic issues in education, a developing capacity to rise to the uncertainties of a learning environment and changing learner needs and a capacity to feel empowered to make a difference.  Practicum courses to develop other professional capacities and sensibilities: the ability to understand learners in context, evolve developmentally and contextually relevant pedagogies, rearrange subject matter to communicate effectively with learners, design and choose appropriate learning experiences activities, learn to observe and document, analyse, synthesize, interpret and reflect.  Sustained engagement with schools to appreciate the given constraints of a system and to learn to strategize to think out of the box. Understand and learn to negotiate formal learning spaces as sites of struggle, contestation and social transformation.

Chapter 3: Transacting the Curriculum and Evaluating the Developing Teacher This is the most critical aspect of the proposed teacher education curriculum.

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Transacting the Teacher Education Curriculum The following table presents a set of processes that unfold in teacher education programmes, firmly rooted in the perspective briefly outlined above. These have been juxtaposed against ‘activities’ that dominate most current teacher education programmes. Table Showing Comparison between the Dominant Current Practice and Proposed Process-based Teacher Education Curriculum Framework Dominant Practice of Teacher Education

Proposed Process-based Teacher Education

Focus on psychological aspects of learners without adequate engagement with contexts. Engagement with generalized theories of children and learning.

Understanding the social, cultural and political contexts in which learners grow and develop. Engagement with learners in real-life situations along with theoretical enquiry.

Theory as a ‘given’ to be applied in the classroom.

Conceptual knowledge generated, based on experience, observations and theoretical engagement.

Knowledge treated as external to the learner and something to be acquired.

Knowledge generated in the shared context of teaching, learning, personal and social experiences through critical enquiry.

Teacher educators instruct and give structured assignments to be submitted by individual students. Training schedule packed by teacherdirected activities.

Teacher educators evoke responses from the students to engage them with deeper discussions and reflection. Students encouraged to identify and articulate issues for self-study and critical enquiry.

Little opportunity for reflection and self-study.

Students maintain reflective journals on their observations, reflections, including conflicts.

Short training schedule after general education.

Sustained engagement of long-duration professional education integrated with education in liberal sciences, arts and humanities.

Students work individually on assignments, in-house tests, field work and practice teaching.

Students encouraged to work in teams undertaking classroom and learners’ observations, interaction and projects across diverse courses. Group presentations encouraged.

No ‘space’ to address students’ assumptions about social realities, the learner and the process of learning.

Learning ‘spaces’ provided to examine students’ own position in society and their assumptions as part of classroom discourse.

No ‘space’ to examine students’ conceptions of subject knowledge.

Structured ‘space’ provided to revisit, examine and challenge (mis)conceptions of knowledge.

Practice teaching of isolated lessons, planned in standardized formats with little or no reflection on the practice of teaching.

School Internship – students teach within flexible formats, larger frames of units of study, concept webcharts and maintain a reflective journal.

Some of the key aspects of transacting a process-based curriculum to develop reflective teachers are as follows: 1. Teaching the Adult Learner Teacher education programmes are concerned with adult learners. They need to be based on an adequate understanding of how adults learn. Adult learners are autonomous and self-directed, have a vast amount of life experiences and knowledge, are pragmatic and goal-directed and respond better to problem solving and taskoriented learning. The emphasis, therefore, has to be on developing professional knowledge

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2.

3.

4.

5. 6.

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and capacities through a variety of self-directed tasks including case studies, projects, seminars and research activities. Bringing the Learners’ Own Experiences Centre Stage An important feature distinguishing the proposed process-based teacher education from the conventional teacher education is that an engagement with theoretical concepts and frameworks takes place within the learner’s experiential and larger social realities. The structural provision for such opportunity is to be made in the design of the teacher education programme structure and within each area of study in a manner that allows an easy flow of movement from experience to theory and theory to field experiences. Engagement with Theoretical Concepts and Frameworks As regards teaching of theory, we may note that the knowledge component in teacher education is derived from the broader area of the discipline of education as well as foundation disciplines of philosophy, sociology, history, political science and psychology. It needs to be represented so. It is thus multidisciplinary in nature within the context of education. The point of significance here is that while formulating knowledge components for teacher education, conscious efforts need to be made to represent explanations from the perspective of education as well as other social science disciplines. Training to be Reflective Practitioners Professional opportunities need to include reflection of their own experiences and assumptions as part of the course and classroom enquiry; critical observation and reflective analysis of the practice of teaching. Availability, quality, appropriateness and sufficiency of feedback are necessary for learning to be reflective practitioners. Theory-practice Dialectic Meaningful Internship and School Experience Pre-service teacher education programmes should provide sustained engagement with learners in school situations, experiences of teaching learners and observing them and regular teachers in classrooms. Internship experiences need to be organized in a way that is useful in evaluating teacher’s ability, supports socialization within the profession, stimulates development of teaching– learning concepts, provides a protected field of experimentation, allows insight into new perspectives and enhances motivation to continue learning and reflecting.

Need for Complementary Structures and Mechanisms It must be noted that in order to translate this vision of transacting the teacher education programme, it is essential that complementary structures and mechanisms are in place to allow such a transaction. Establishing Teacher Learning Centres (TLCs) TLC: A Structural Space for Hands-on Experience TLC: A Resource for Teacher Trainees, Teacher Practitioners and Teacher Educators TLC: A Forum for Interaction and Sharing TLC: A Platform for Classroom-based Research TLC: A Structural Space for Self-directed Activities TLC: A Platform for Developing a Repertoire of Skills TLC: A Structural Space for the Personal and Psychological Development of Teachers TLC: A Structural Space for Forging Links between Pre-service and In-service Teacher Education Evaluating the Developing Teacher A glaring weakness of existing teacher education practices is the restricted scope of evaluation of student teachers and its excessively quantitative

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nature. It is confined to measurement of mainly cognitive learning through annual/terminal tests; skill measurement is limited to a specified number of lessons. 1. The Comprehensive Nature of Evaluation Assessment should cover an understanding of the process of child and adolescent development, societal context of education, nature of children’s thinking – mathematics, language, natural and social phenomena, philosophical and sociological frameworks. 2. The Evaluation Protocol Qualitative indicators specific to each area of assessment need to be drawn up and initial allotment of marks should lead eventually to grades. The bases and criteria for evaluation may include the following:  Observing learners for a specified duration in specific situations  Observational records maintained by the student teacher on a set of criteria relevant to the task and report writing  School contact practicum to relate and communicate with the learner  Planning for the school contact  Post-contact discussions, report writing and group presentations  Psychological and professional development of the teacher  Assessing a repertoire of skills  Understanding the learner, curricular and pedagogic issues  Teacher as researcher  Internship activities on which students may be assessed  Reflective journal 3. Designing Instruments of Evaluation and Assessment 4. Preparation of a Scheme for Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation

Chapter 4: Continuing Professional Development and Support for In-Service Teachers Aims of Continuing Professional Development Programmes for Teachers The broad aims of continuing professional development programmes for teachers are to:  Explore, reflect on and develop one’s own practice  Deepen one’s knowledge of and update oneself about one’s academic discipline or other areas of school curriculum  Research and reflect on learners and their education  Understand and update oneself on educational and social issues  Prepare for other roles professionally linked to education/teaching, such as teacher education, curriculum development or counseling  Break out of intellectual isolation and share experiences and insights with others in the field, both teachers and academics working in the area of specific disciplines as well as intellectuals in the immediate and wider society Educational and curriculum planners also seek to provide avenues for the professional development of teachers as a part of implementing curricular reforms to:  Enable teachers to work towards prioritized goals in education such as universalization and inclusion.

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 Influence social attitudes and generate greater commitment to constitutional values and overcoming discrimination in the classroom.  Transform existing practices towards more learner-friendly methods and methods suited to strengthening conceptual learning and understanding rather than rote learning.  Enable teachers to implement and achieve specific targeted aspects in the curriculum, such as the use of a type of technology, or the addition of topics such as AIDS and adolescent education.  Prepare teachers to play enhanced roles in the education system as resource persons, or head teachers, etc. Designing In-service Programmes: Some Principles Content and Pedagogic Approach  Programmes must build on the principle of creating ‘spaces’ for sharing of experiences of communities of teachers among themselves, to build stronger shared professional basis of individual experiences and ideas. Giving teachers a space to develop and hear their own voices is of utmost importance.  Programmes must be designed with a clear sense of their aims and how the strategies of the programme are going to achieve these aims. This alone can ensure that programmes remain on track and ‘alive’ rather than routine when they are implemented. This may also require then, that every group of trainers either directly participate in the design of the programme, keeping in mind a specific group of teachers, or adapts a given programme to a specific group of teachers. Programmes also need to include a plan for post-programme support and include training/orientation of support faculty in the same.  All programmes must find acceptance of their aims with the teachers’ group concerned, regarding whether they need such a programme and why they are to attend it. The principle of choice of programmes to attend, based on teacher’s own assessment of what he/she needs or on some valid assessment of professional requirement, would provide a sound basis for in-service programmes, especially those that are of a long duration and which seek to impact practice. One size cannot fit all.  Interactivity must not be compromised on any account. Large numbers and the use of electronic media in the place of human interaction compromise on the non-negotiable.  The content of programmes must be such that teachers can relate to it from their own experiences and also find opportunities to reflect on these experiences.  The approach of motivating for change must not only put the burden on individual development alone but must also recognize and respond to the structural issues that affect teacher’s dayto-day practice. Structures and people in supervisory positions must be educated to support and provide space to encourage teachers to plan and practise autonomously.  Programmes that seek to develop or alter basic practice need to be planned towards extensive interactions over time with the same resource group. Addressing Teachers as Learners  Teachers, as adults, have already formed a working professional identity and have experiences of teaching and associated beliefs about learners, themselves as teachers and of the teaching-learning process. Any in-service programme, whether it attempts to seed new ideas, challenge existing notions and assumptions or simply provide content knowledge, needs to acknowledge and respect this professional identity and knowledge of the teacher and work with and from it.

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 Any effort to strengthen teachers’ professional practices must equally respect them as professionals. This includes matters of training in content and approach, how trainings are announced and how they are implemented. Programmes must build on and strengthen the teacher’s own identity as a professional teacher, and in many cases also establish and nurture the linkage with the academic disciplines of their interest. Programmes that compromise on the professional identity of the teacher and his/her autonomy will be unsustainable in the long run, providing very little psychological motivation for teacher to internalize what they have been ‘told’ in their practice.  As adults and professionals, teachers are critical observers of the contents of in-service activities. The extent to which they learn from the training is a function of their assessment of its quality and the extent to which it relates to their needs.  The practice of a teacher cannot be developed through quick-fix strategies and activities, without the development of an accompanying framework/theory on the process of learning and the aims of education.  Over-training, routinized and superficial training leads to cynicism and training fatigue. Routes Towards Teachers’ Continuing Professional Development      

Short- and long-term courses Use of distance media Sabbatical for study and research Professional conferences and meetings Professional fora, resource rooms and materials Faculty exchange visits and fellowships

Chapter 5: Preparing Teacher Educators The quality of pedagogical inputs in teacher education programmes and the manner in which they are transacted to realize their intended objectives depend largely on the professional competence of teacher educators. Education of Teacher Educators – Basic Issues Stage Specificity in the Preparation of Teacher Educators The worst sufferer of this situation is elementary education. First, the large-scale expansion of the elementary education sector and the plethora of new support structures that have come up at the district and sub-district levels have created the need for suitably trained human resources to carry out such field functions as training of teachers, field supervision of educational activities, research and development of curriculum and teaching-learning materials, advocacy and developmental work with teachers and communities. Second, despite its critical importance to the individual and the nation, elementary education remains sadly neglected as a knowledge field. As a knowledge field, elementary education has its distinct concerns, a domain of interdisciplinary knowledge, concepts and methodological perspectives. Third, the M.Ed. programme in most universities neither widens nor deepens the discourse of education at the secondary stage that students bring with them after their B.Ed. degree. M.Ed. as a Programme for the Preparation of Teacher Educators Imparting professionalism to a post-graduate programme in education.

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Needed Thrusts for Developing Teacher Educators Early Childhood Education Early childhood education (ECE) aims at total child development in a learning environment that is joyful, child-centred, play and activity-based. Teacher education programmes in ECE should develop in the trainee concepts, competencies, attitudes and skills related to implementation of developmentally appropriate curriculum based on child-centred and play and activity-based approach: cognitive and language development, health and nutrition, social, emotional development, physical and psychomotor development, aesthetic development, creativity and play, programme planning and school organization, community mobilization and participation. These requirements call for a teacher educator who has a sound educational philosophy of ECE, besides specialized content and methodology skills pertaining to the above areas. Primary/Elementary Education With the establishment of DIETs, two categories of teacher educators at the elementary level have emerged – those who teach in DIETs and others who teach in other training institutes, government or private. Secondary Education The B.Ed. programme is offered in colleges of education and university departments of education. The programme is also offered through centres of distance education/open universities. There has been a proliferation of private colleges offering the B.Ed. programme over the past number of years. Triggered by market factors, their total number, as on March 2009, is 14,428 in 11,861 institutions with an approved intake of 10, 96,673 candidates. Encouraging Innovation for Preparation of Teacher Educators Teacher Education of the XI Plan has addressed the issue in all its aspects and has come out with a range of recommendations covering institutions, structures, programmes, activities and incentives. The recommendations include the following:  Setting up Schools of Education in selected (30) university departments including the RIEs for breaking the isolation of elementary and secondary teacher education from the mainstream and integrating it with higher education. The schools will have Centres for preservice teacher education, curriculum research policy and educational development, learning and pedagogic studies, assessment and evaluation, professional development of teacher educators and teacher education curricula and teacher resource and academic support.  Setting up one Inter-University Centre at the national level functioning under the UGC to co-ordinate with the schools in terms of academic content: redesigning teacher education curricula, developing curriculum materials, commissioning of materials in regional languages, setting up of web portals on curriculum and pedagogic materials for teacher education. The mandate for Centre would be to provide an integrated focus on the elementary and secondary levels of school education.  Instituting Specialized Centres of Education in lead national level institutions such as IISc, Homi Bhabha Centre and TIFR to offer sandwiched postgraduate courses of 3 years duration (B.Ed. for 2 years or M.Ed. for 3 years towards developing a specialized cadre of senior secondary school teachers and teacher educators.  Establishing four Regional Centres of Educational Management in the IIMs and NUEPA to provide a post-graduate degree in educational management for Heads of DIETs, SCERTs.  The Centre for Professional Development of Teacher Educators will offer Master’s programme in elementary education/secondary education with specialization in curriculum and pedagogic studies in mathematics/science/social science education and assessment.

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 Reorientation of select secondary school teachers for elementary school teaching through advance diploma in elementary education; focused programmes of professional development for DIET/SCERT faculty, including curriculum and pedagogic studies and disciplinary knowledge base.  Special emphasis for professional renewal of existing teacher educators through refresher courses for all teacher educators including elementary school teachers in the proposed University Schools of Education and special subject refresher courses by the university departments.  Institute teacher educator fellowships to undertake research with provision for mentoring. About 200 or more fellowships for teacher educators working in government and aided institutions of teacher education. The fellowships will offer opportunities for attachment to institutions of higher learning to pursue teaching and research for a period of 2 years.  Periodic academic enrichment activities – public lectures, film and book discussion sessions, need-based issues, short-term orientation courses on teaching-learning skills, meta-learning strategies related to different curricular areas and child development, pedagogical aspects related to reading, writing, thinking and instructional design theories for curriculum developers.  The Centre for Teacher Resource and Academic Support: provision of teacher resources, children’s literature, variety of school curricula, textbooks, multimedia materials, internet access; platform for teacher interaction, faculty exchange, seminars, study sessions, academic support, face-to-face as well as through ICT; development of learning and teaching materials for use in schools and sharing across schools. Preparation of Teacher Educators – Future Directions and Possibilities These concerns demand that we think out of the box in addressing the issue of new programme designs for the education and training of teacher educators. The following recommendations deserve serious consideration in addressing these concerns:  Mechanisms need to be evolved to promote the entry of talent in teacher education programmes.  Vertical linkages for post-graduate studies in education, including research programmes for students from a variety of science and social science disciplines need to be provided.  Integrated models of teacher education of four or five years’ duration can comprise core components that will be common to all teacher education programmes (pre-primary, elementary, secondary and senior secondary) followed by specialization of professional development, specific to the stage of education. Specialization at the post-graduation level in science education, language education, social sciences education and mathematics education need to be developed.  The distinction between education as a liberal study and education as a professional preparation needs to be appreciated and post-graduate programme design should take this into consideration.

Chapter 6: Implementation Strategies The document is available on the website of the NCTE (www.ncte-india.org) for the benefit of the system at large. This framework is being offered by the NCTE, however, verbatim no university has designed curriculum. Probably, the framework will be kept in mind for future rectification of teacher education curriculum

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NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION – 2005 (DRAWN FROM NCF 2005 DOCUMENT) The document on NCF 2005 has been discussed elaborately under five chapters. Chapter 1: Perspective Chapter 2: Learning and Knowledge Chapter 3: Curricular Areas, School Stages and Assessment Chapter 4: School and Classroom Environment Chapter 5: Systems Reforms ‘We achieve our greatest happiness when we realize ourselves through others. Equally, we need to reaffirm our commitment to the concept of equality, within the landscape of cultural and socio-economic diversity’ —Tagore After reviewing various committee and NCF 2005 is proposed.

Chapter 1: Perspective The review of the National Curriculum Framework, 2000 was initiated specifically to address the problem of curriculum load on children. Learning without burden, the committee pointed out that learning at school cannot become a joyful experience unless we change our perception of the child as a receiver of knowledge and move beyond the convention of using textbooks as the basis for examination. In spite of the recommendations of the NPE, 1986 to identify competencies and values to be nurtured at different stages, school education came to be driven more and more by high-stake examinations based on information-loaded textbooks. Despite the review of the Curriculum Framework in 2000, the vexed issues of curriculum load and the tyranny of examinations remained unresolved. The current review exercise takes into cognizance both positive and negative developments in the field and attempts to address the future requirements of school education at the turn of the century. In this endeavour, several interrelated dimensions have been kept in mind, namely, the aims of education, the social milieu of children, the nature of knowledge in its broader sense, the nature of human development and the process of human learning. NPE proposed a national framework for curriculum as a means of evolving a national system of education capable of responding to India’s diversity of geographical and cultural milieus while ensuring a common core of values along with the academic components. PoA envisaged a child-centred approach to promote universal enrolment and universal retention of children up to 14 years of age and substantial improvement in the quality of education in the school. Guiding Principles Attention is paid to the systemic matters that will enable us to implement many of the good ideas that have already been articulated in the past. The paramount among those are:  connecting knowledge to life outside the school,  ensuring that learning is shifted away from rote methods,  enriching the curriculum to provide for overall development of children rather than remain textbook centric,  making examinations more flexible and integrated with classroom life and,

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 nurturing an over-riding identity informed by caring concerns within the democratic polity of the country. Decentralization and emphasis on the role of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are the major aspects to be viewed as major steps towards systemic reforms. Making children sensitive to the environment and the need for its protection is another important curricular concern. Living in harmony within oneself and with one’s natural and social environment is a basic human need. Sound development of an individual’s personality can take place only in an ethos marked by peace.

Chapter 2: Learning and Knowledge The current concern in curriculum development and reform is to make it an inclusive and meaningful experience for children, along with the effort to move away from a textbook culture. This requires a fundamental change in how to think of learners and the process of learning. The term ‘child-centred’ pedagogy means giving primacy to children’s experiences, their voices and their active participation. This kind of pedagogy requires us to plan learning in keeping with children’s psychological development and interests. Learners in Context Children’s voices and experiences do not find expression in the classroom. The curriculum must enable children to find their voices, nurture their curiosity – to do things, to ask questions and to pursue investigations, sharing and integrating their experiences with school knowledge – rather than their ability to reproduce textual knowledge. Reorienting the curriculum to this end must be among the highest priorities, informing the preparation of teachers. Children will learn only in an atmosphere where they feel they are valued. Schools still do not convey this to all the children. The association of learning with fear, discipline and stress, rather than enjoyment and satisfaction, is detrimental to learning. The midday meal and the provisioning of infrastructural support and pedagogic concern for inclusive education are among the most significant developments in recent times. A strong stand must be taken against all forms of corporal punishment. Development and Learning The period from infancy to adolescence is one of rapid growth and change. The curriculum must have a holistic approach to learning and development that is able to see the interconnections and transcend divisions between physical and mental development, and between individual development and interaction with others. Children can achieve high levels of excellence in sports, athletics, gymnastics, yoga and performing arts such as dance. Physical development supports mental and cognitive development, especially in young children. The capacity to think, reason and make sense of the self and the world, and to use language, is intimately connected with acting and interacting – doing things by oneself and with others. As children’s metacognitive capabilities develop, they become more aware of their own beliefs and capable of regulating their own learning.  All children are naturally motivated to learn and are capable of learning.  Making meaning and developing the capacity for abstract thinking, reflection and work are the most important aspects of learning.  Children learn in a variety of ways – through experience, making and doing things, experimentation, reading, discussion, asking, listening, thinking and reflecting and expressing

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oneself in speech, movement or writing – both individually and with others. They require opportunities of all these kinds in the course of their development. Teaching something before the child is cognitively ready takes away from learning it at a later stage. Children may ‘remember’ many facts, but they may not understand them or be able to relate them to the world around them. Learning takes place both within the school and outside the school. Learning is enriched if the two arenas interact with each other. Art and work provide opportunities for holistic learning that is rich in tacit and aesthetic components. Such experiences are essential for linguistically known things, especially in moral and ethical matters, to be learnt through direct experience and integrated into life. Learning must be paced so that it allows learners to engage with concepts and deepen understanding, rather than remembering only to forget after examinations. At the same time learning must provide variety and challenge, and be interesting and engaging. Boredom is a sign that the task may have become mechanically repetitive for the child and of little cognitive value. Learning can take place with or without mediation. In the case of the latter, the social context and interactions, especially with those who are capable, provide avenues for learners to work at cognitive levels above their own.

Adolescence is a critical period for the development of self-identity. The process of acquiring a sense of self is linked to physiological changes, and also learning to negotiate the social and psychological demands of being young adults. Implications for Curriculum and Practice Teaching for Construction of Knowledge In the constructivist perspective, learning is a process of the construction of knowledge. Learners actively construct their own knowledge by connecting new ideas to existing ideas on the basis of materials/activities presented to them (experience). Constructivist Learning Situation Process

Science

Language

Situation

Learners read a text on mammals and view a video on the life of mammals in different locales. Such events or activities consist of mammals moving in groups on land or in water, grazing, attacking a prey giving birth, flocking together at the time of danger and related events.

Learners read the story ‘Kabuliwallah’. Later, they are given background material with illustrations of certain scenes of the story and brief descriptions. A few learners enact one or two scenes depicted in the illustrations.

Observation

Learners make note of the key events or behaviour or activities of mammals.

Learners watch the scenes enacted.

Contextualization

They relate their analysis to the text.

They relate the story of the text with the illustrations of the background material.

Cognitive apprenticeship

Teacher illustrates how he/she would analyse and interpret such information using the example of mammals.

Using a scene enacted, the teacher models how to integrate reading the story and the illustrations of the background material.

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Process

Science

Language

Collaboration

Learners form groups to work on the task while the teacher suggests/guides them as they proceed.

Learners work in groups to generate interpretations while the teacher suggests/ guides them as they proceed.

Interpretation construction

Learners analyse and generate evidence to verify their hypothesis related to mammals living on land or water, etc.

They analyse and generate their own interpretations of the story.

Multiple interpretations

They provide explanations and defend their ideas or hypotheses using their analyses and text both within and between groups Evidence and arguments along with the text expose them to various ways of finding answers or interpreting data.

Comparing the interpretations within and between groups gives the learners the idea that people can have different reactions to the story, ‘Kabuliwallah’.

Multiple manifestations

By going back and forth through the process and relating each contextual background on various events and the behaviour of mammals, the learners notice that the general principles embedded in what they are doing become manifested.

Using the text, background illustrations and their own reflections, the learners see how the same characters and themes can be manifested in several ways.

The Value of Interactions Learning takes place through interactions with the environment around, nature, things and people, both through actions and through language. The physical activity of moving, exploring and doing things, on one’s own, with one’s peers or in the company of adults, and using language – to read, to express or ask, to listen and to interact – are the key processes through which learning occurs. The context in which learning takes place is, thus, of direct cognitive significance. Children’s Knowledge and Local Knowledge The child’s community and local environment form the primary context in which learning takes place, and in which knowledge acquires its significance. It is in interaction with the environment that the child constructs knowledge and derives meaning. This area has generally been neglected both in the conceptualization of textbooks and in pedagogic practices. School Knowledge and the Community The experiences of the socio-cultural world also need to become a part of the curriculum. Children need to find examples of the plurality of peoples and ways of life represented in the textbooks. These portrayals need to ensure that no community is oversimplified, labelled or judged. It may even be better for children to study and generate portrayals of the local social groups as a part of their social science studies.

Chapter 3: Curricular Areas, School Stages and Assessment Language teaching needs to be multilingual not only in terms of the number of languages offered to children but also in terms of evolving strategies that would use the multilingual classroom as a resource. It is clear that through their innate language faculty and interaction with the family and other people around them, children come to school with full-blown communicative competence in their language, or, in many cases, languages.

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At the primary stage, child’s languages must be accepted as they are, with no attempt to correct them. By Class IV, if rich and interesting exposure is made available, the child will himself/herself acquire the standard variety and the rules of correct orthography, but care must be taken to honour and respect the child’s home language(s)/mother tongue(s). It is indeed hard to exaggerate the importance of teaching home languages at school. Second Language Acquisition English in India is a global language in a multilingual country. A variety and range of English-teaching situations prevail here owing to the twin factors of teacher proficiency in English and pupils’ exposure to English outside school. Learning to Read and Write Though we strongly advocate an integrated approach to the teaching of different skills of language, the school does need to pay special attention to reading and writing in many cases, particularly in the case of home languages. In the case of second and third, or classical or foreign languages, all the skills, including communicative competence, become important. Mathematics Developing children’s abilities for mathematization is the main goal of mathematics education. The narrow aim of school mathematics is to develop ‘useful’ capabilities, particularly those relating to numeracy – numbers, number operations, measurements, decimals and percentages. The higher aim is to develop the child’s resources to think and reason mathematically, to pursue assumptions to their logical conclusion and to handle abstraction. It includes a way of doing things, and the ability and the attitude to formulate and solve problems. As mathematics is a compulsory subject at the secondary stage, access to quality mathematics education is the right of every child. Vision for School Mathematics  Children learn to enjoy mathematics rather than fear it.  Children learn important mathematics: Mathematics is more than formulas and mechanical procedures.  Children see mathematics as something to talk about, to communicate through, to discuss among themselves, to work together on.  Children pose and solve meaningful problems. Children use abstractions to perceive relationships, to see structures, to reason out things, to argue the truth or falsity of statements.  Children understand the basic structure of mathematics: arithmetic, algebra, geometry and trigonometry, the basic content areas of school mathematics, all offer a methodology for abstraction, structuration and generalization.  Teachers engage every child in the class with the conviction that everyone can learn mathematics. The Curriculum At the pre-primary stage, all learning occurs through play rather than through didactic communication. Primary stage is as important, if not more, as the cognitive skills and concepts that they acquire. At the upper primary stage, students get the first taste of the power of mathematics through the application of powerful abstract concepts that compress previous learning and experience. At the secondary stage, students begin to perceive the structure of mathematics as a discipline. Good science education is true to the child, true to life and true to science. This simple observation leads to the following basic criteria of validity of a science curriculum: 1. Cognitive validity 2. Content validity 3. Process validity

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4. Historical validity 5. Environmental validity 6. Ethical validity The social sciences encompass diverse concerns of society, and include a wide range of content drawn from the disciplines of history, geography, political science, economics, sociology and anthropology. Social science perspectives and knowledge are indispensable to building the knowledge base for a just and peaceful society. Planning the Curriculum For the primary grades, the natural and the social environment will be explained as integral parts of languages and mathematics. Children should be engaged in activities to understand the environment through illustrations from the physical, biological, social and cultural spheres. The language used should be gender sensitive. Teaching methods should be in a participative and discussion-oriented mode. For Classes III to V, the subject of environment studies will be introduced. In the study of the natural environment, emphasis will be on its preservation and the urgency of saving it from degradation. Children will also begin to be sensitized to social issues such as poverty, child labour, illiteracy, caste and class inequalities in rural and urban areas. The content should reflect the day-to-day experiences of children and their life worlds. At the upper primary stage, social studies will draw its content from history, geography, political science and economics. History will take into account developments in different parts of India, with sections on events or developments in other parts of the world. Geography can help develop a balanced perspective related to issues concerning the environment, resources and development at different levels, from local to global. In political science, students will be introduced to the formation and functioning of governments at local, state, and central levels and the democratic processes of participation. The economics component will enable students to observe economic institutions such as the family, the market and the state. There will also be a section that will indicate a multidisciplinary approach to these themes. At the secondary stage, social sciences will comprise history, geography, sociology, political science and economics. The focus will be on contemporary India, and the learner will be initiated into a deeper understanding of the social and economic challenges facing the nation. In keeping with the epistemic shift proposed, these will be discussed from multiple perspectives, including those of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and disenfranchised populations. Efforts should be made to relate the content as much as possible to the children’s everyday lives. In history, India’s freedom movement and other aspects of its modern history can be studied, as well as significant developments in other parts of the world. History should be taught with the intent of enabling students better understand how their own world and their own identities came into being as shaped by a rich and varied past. History should now help them discover processes of change and continuity in their world, and to compare ways in which power and control were and are exercised. Geography should be taught keeping in mind the need to inculcate in the child a critical appreciation for conservation and environmental concerns along with developmental issues. In political science, the focus should be on discussing the philosophical foundations that underlie the value framework of the Indian Constitution, i.e. in-depth discussion of equality, liberty, justice, fraternity, secularism, dignity, plurality and freedom from exploitation. As the discipline of economics is being introduced to the child at this level, it is important that the topics should be discussed from the perspective of the people. The higher secondary stage is important, as it offers a choice of subjects to the students. For some students, this stage may be the end of their formal education, leading to the world of work and employment; for others, the foundation for higher education.

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Competencies are an attempt to shift the focus of teaching and related assessment away from superficial textbook-based factual content. However, in the multi-level learning approach, competencies are broken up into detailed sub-competencies and sub-skills. Grading and correction carried out in the presence of students and providing feedback on the answers they get right and wrong.

Chapter 4: School and Classroom Environment Teacher’s Autonomy and Professional Independence Teacher autonomy is essential for ensuring a learning environment that addresses children’s diverse needs. As much as the learner requires space, freedom, flexibility and respect, the teacher also requires the same. Currently, the system of administrative hierarchies and control, examinations and centralized planning for curriculum reform, all constrain the autonomy of the headmaster and the teacher.

Chapter 5: Suggests Systemic Reforms for School Education Based on the NCF 2005 NCERT (CBSE) has introduced the curriculum into the school system and trained the teachers through rigorous testing and in service training. Even the recent part 2011 the state curriculum (Andhra Pradesh) has initiated revision in this direction as state frame work for curriculum.

MODELS OF EXISTING SCHOOL AND TEACHER EDUCATION CURRICULUM Nationwide, the curriculum models of states differ from one another. Since its inception, NCTE has issued curriculum frameworks for teacher education from time to time. We made a detailed discussion on NCFTE, 2009 and NCF, 2005 school education in Sections 8.1 and 8.2. Various models were designed by different universities in Andhra Pradesh. To develop an insight into the model of curriculum designed by the state of Andhra Pradesh, a common core curriculum for teacher education was presented for all the universities of Andhra Pradesh. Osmania University took lead in organizing various workshops at different levels with the teacher educators involved in teaching. Based on certain criteria, an innovative model was designed keeping in view the modern trends in the field of education in general. Apart from innovative courses, many best practices were introduced at postgraduate level.           

Seminar presentation Internal assessments Project work Large group and small group teaching School experience Community work Institutional visits Grading system Teaching classes for prospective teacher. Semester system Mentoring and so on

This curriculum gives 50 per cent weightage for both practical and theory.

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This module was introduced during the academic schedule 2003–2004 throughout the state of Andhra Pradesh and in all the teacher education institutions at OU (B.Ed.) level. Subsequently, based on the feedback, certain modifications were made in terms of the number of theory papers being reduced from seven to six. Similarly, the number of projects reduced from seven to three. The practicals were given grades. However, the overall perspective and the framework were same as the earlier course. This revision was made during 2008–2009 at the university level. Similarly, other universities took initiatives in revising teacher education curriculum at UG (B.Ed.) level. Also, many reforms in curriculum for PG (M.Ed.) level were also brought into the curriculum. At the interval of almost 3–4years, revision was undertaken at post-graduate level. Right from 2001 onwards, semester system was introduced. Gradually, grading and credit systems were introduced. Many innovative courses and project approaches were introduced. Apart from mentoring and dissertation, research procedures were also introduced. Some of the innovative/significant courses introduced were as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Economics of education Human rights education Environmental education Disaster management education Value education Curriculum development Inclusive education Lifelong education Emerging trends in educational technology Projects

Likewise, the records related to the two methods of teaching, i.e. scholastic achievement record, microteaching and macroteaching records were introduced to understand the procedures involved in teaching learning process. A record (teaching practice-cum-internship) is introduced to note the proceedings during the teaching practice session. The scheme of evaluation takes care of the student performance throughout the course of the study by continuous comprehensive evaluation. Almost every month, there is a practical slot (one project) where the students’ behaviour and all other skills are observed by the mentors. On the last day of the project, the students have to showcase and exhibit their performance, which is adjudicated by two jury members. Evaluation includes both internal and external evaluation. All the practicals except the final lesson teaching are evaluated internally and the theory terminal examination is valued by the external examiner.

Transaction in the Classroom Apart from the theoretical courses of study, there is a provision for hands-on exposure to the field experiences through special projects. Major objectives of the projects are as follows:  To create one-to-one interaction and direct experiences in handling a child through case study project.  Understanding importance of community involvement and participation through direct exposure to the community work project.

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 Cultural significance and tradition related to all dimensions such as food delicacies, arts, crafts and fine arts through cultural studies project.  In order to sensitize the students towards healthy and hygienic practices, problems, concerns, etc. health and physical education project is introduced.  Training is provided to the students to prepare technology-integrated lesson through computer education project.  They are also exposed to the school procedures through school studies project.  Finally, communication and personality development projects and communicative English are introduced to empower the students. Theory papers included will cater to the preparation of teachers with necessary foundations, pedagogical skills and competencies. The foundations will provide insights into the basic philosophical perspectives available to transact the curriculum and develop insights into the prescriptions made by various philosophical traditions. Also, student teachers are exposed to psychological theories and principles related to teaching and learning, personality growth and development and so on, in order to understand the psychology of the learner and to manage the classroom. Similarly, student teachers are exposed to the skills related to use and integrate technology in teaching. They are also given understanding about the principles and procedures related to school.

Administration and Management Apart from foundations, student teachers are trained in pedagogical skills and competencies necessary for effective curriculum. The curriculum is designed with the following courses of study and scheme of evaluation. The course structure includes seven theory papers, seven special projects and seven records related to methods of teaching (upto 2007–08). At present from 2008–09 to till date (2011–12) the following course exists.

Course Structure Theory Courses 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Foundations of Education Understanding the Learner and Classroom Management School Management and Systems of Education Educational Evaluation Methods of Teaching – Non-languages Methods of Teaching – Languages

Special Projects 1. Computer Education Project 2. Life Skills Project 3. Co-curricular Project Records 1. SAT (Scholastic Achievement Test) 2. Teaching Practice-cum-Internship – Respective Methodologies 3. Micro-Teaching.

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Curriculum Development: Perspectives, Principles and Issues

Education in Particulars – A Suggestive Model The basic perspective behind this model was to bring teachers with full of field exposure and hands on experience. The philosophy is to empower the student-teacher with all the required competencies and skills to become effective teachers and also to develop the inner potentials in various fronts. In fact this model in a way has adopted grass root approach where, all the teachers views were collected in different forms and the emerging trends were kept in mind before finalization of the framework. The basic objectives of the models are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

To empower the future teacher to face the challenges in the system of education. To provide hands on experience and develop technology enabled teachers. To develop abilities for effective communication. To give a direct exposure to the community To provide various skills of handling an individual child

A PRACTICAL MODEL TO DESIGN A CURRICULUM From the earlier discussion on existing models of curriculum, it is clear that by and large all the models focus on certain important quality measures, skills and competencies required for preparing an effective teacher. Keeping in view certain essentials required for preparing effective teacher, some more innovative ideas are reflected in this model, which is viable and more effective. Major objectives of this module are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

To empower the teachers with communicative skills, teaching competencies and skills. To develop commitment and accountability towards teaching profession. To develop creativity and make resourceful teachers. To sensitize teachers towards community needs. To create knowledge in the basic subject specialization.

This model is suggested for a 2 year duration. Part I Courses 6 months 1. Personality Development (yoga/other modules) 2. Communicative Skills 3. Life Skills 4. Documentation Skills Part II Theory courses 1 year 1. Perspectives in Education 2. Psychology of the Learner and Classroom Management 3. Planning, Management and Organization of School 4. Educational Technology and Computer 5. Economics of Education 6. Methodology of Teaching  Social sciences/social studies  Biological sciences

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221

 Physical sciences  Mathematics  Languages Part III Practicum Internship 6 months 1. Field exposure 10 days  Visiting different types of schools (corporate/private/govt-aided/residential) and writing a report on the functioning of the school and experiences.  Visiting different institutions – orphanage, home for the aged, juvenile homes, child care centres, etc.  Visiting community/households interacting with the parents and community leader. 2. Workshop 10 days  Preparing teaching aids and using teaching aids  Conducting exhibition with teaching aids and working models demonstration  Conducting intercollege/interuniversity competitions in games/sports/literary activities and organization of cultural programme/ organizing programmes in schools. 3. Microteaching skills – 10 days – Training in micro skills in two methods. Macro Teaching Internship details: One month Student teachers stay on school campus and make observation. Active participation in the school activities. Two months Supervised teaching classes 30 lessons in each method. Teaching and recoding same innovative methods during teaching sessions. One month Observation of lessons Regular teachers and student trainees Two months Organizing programmes and conducting activities in the school. Right from assembly to the examinations. Conducting parent teacher meetings Awareness programmes and other documentary films, etc for the community.

Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) (2011–2012) Structure of the Course A. Theory Examinations ED-01 Paper I Foundations of Education ED-02 Paper II Understanding the Learner and Classroom Management ED-03 Paper III School Management and Systems of Education ED-04 Paper IV Educational Evaluation ED-05 Paper V Methods of Teaching Non-languages (Method I) ED-06 Paper VI Methods of Teaching Languages (Method II) B. Practical Examinations ED-07 Paper VII Practical examination in Methods of Teaching Non-languages ED-08 Paper VIII Practical examination in Methods of Teaching Languages

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Curriculum Development: Perspectives, Principles and Issues

C. Records ED-09 Paper IX ED-10 Paper X D. Projects ED-11 Paper XI ED-12 Paper XII ED-13 Paper XIII

Methods of Teaching Non-languages Records (Microteaching, Teaching Practice-cum-Internship and Scholastic Achievement) Methods of Teaching Languages Records (Microteaching, Teaching Practice-cum-Internship and Scholastic Achievement) Computer Education Project Life Skills Project Co-curricular Project

Scheme of Instructions Syllabus Ref. No.

Subject

Instructional Days

Scheme of Instruction Duration (hours)

Total hours

Grand Total Hours

A. Theory Paper ED-01

Paper I

16.66

6

99.9

ED-02

Paper II

16.66

6

99.9

ED-03

Paper III

16.66

6

99.9

ED-04

Paper IV

16.66

6

99.9

ED-05

Paper V

16.66

6

99.9

ED-06

Paper VI

16.66

6

99.9

2

10

6

252

600 hr.

B. Practical Paper ED-07

Paper VII

ED-08

Paper VIII

}05days

C. Records ED-09

Paper IX

ED-10

Paper X

} 42days

262 hr.

D. Projects ED-11

Paper XI

15

6

90

ED-12

Paper XII

10

6

60

ED-13

Paper XIII

8

6

48

Demonstration lessons in macroteaching and visits to schools by student teachers

02

6

12

Feedback session

01

Orientation on scholastic achievement

02

6

12

Workshop-teaching aids

04

6

24

Field trip and annual day

02

6

12

Microteaching

14

6

84

198 hr.

E. Other Important Schedules

Grand Total Hours (A + B + C + D + E)

M08_XXXXXXX_XX_XX_C08.indd 222

6

150 hr. 1200

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Issues and Trends in Curriculum Development

Scheme of Examination Ref. No

Subject

Title of Papers

Scheme of Examination Duration of Examination (hours)

Maximum Marks

Grand Total Marks

A. Theory Papers ED-01

Paper I

Foundations of Education

3

100

ED-02

Paper II

Understanding the Learner and Classroom Management

3

100

ED-03

Paper III

School Management and Systems of Education

3

100

ED-04

Paper IV

Educational Evaluation

3

100

ED-05

Paper V

Methods of Teaching Non-languages

3

100

ED-06

Paper VI

Methods of Teaching Languages

3

100 600

Total Marks in Theory Examination Papers B. Practical Papers ED-07

Paper VII

Methods of Teaching Non-languages

5

50

ED-08

Paper VIII

Methods of Teaching Languages

5

50

Total Marks in Practical Examination Papers

100

C. Records ED-09

ED-10

Paper IX

Paper X

Methods of Teaching Non-languages Records

90

Microteaching Record

15

Teaching Practice-cum-Internship Record

60

Scholastic Achievement Record

15

Methods of Teaching Language Records

90

Microteaching Record

15

Teaching Practice-cum-Internship Record

60

Scholastic Achievement Record

15 180

Total Marks in Records

180

D. Projects ED-11

Paper XI

Computer Education Project

40

ED-12

Paper XII

Life Skills Project

40

ED-13

Paper XIII

Co-curricular Project

40

Total Marks in Records Overall Total Number of Marks (A+ B + C + D)

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Curriculum Development: Perspectives, Principles and Issues

Master of Education (M.Ed.) (2011–2012) Structure of the Course Semester I S. No.

Subject Code

Paper Title

Credits

1

EDN-101

Foundations of Education

5

2

EDN-102

Emerging Issues in Education

5

3

EDN-103

Research in Education

5

4

EDN-104

Instructional Technology

5

5

EDN-105

Life-long Learning

5

Total

25

Semester II S. No.

Subject Code

Paper Title

Credits

1

EDN-201

Curriculum Development

5

2

EDN-202

Emerging Technologies in Education

5

3

EDN-203

Educational Administration, Planning and Finance

5

4

EDN-204 (P)

Dissertation Work

5

5

EDN-205 Electives

Electives: Any one

6

 Economics of Education

4

 Human Rights and Value Education

4

 Teacher Education

4

 Tribal Education

4

 Special Education

4

 Yoga Education

4

Seminar

1

Total

25 Semester

Credits

I

25

II

25

Total

50

Scheme of Instruction and Examination Semester I S. No.

Subject Code

Paper Title

Scheme of Scheme of Examination – Instruction Credits Internal and Semester(Hours per week) end Examination

1

EDN-101

Foundations of Education

4

5

20 + 80 = 100

2

EDN-102

Emerging Issues in Education

4

5

20 + 80 = 100

3

EDN-103

Research in Education

4

5

20 + 80 = 100

4

EDN-104

Instructional Technology

4

5

20 + 80 = 100

5

EDN-105

Life-long Learning

4

5

20 + 80 = 100

20

25

500

Total

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Semester II S. No. 1

Subject Code

Paper Title

Scheme of Scheme of Examination – Instruction Credits Internal and Semester(Hours per week) end Examination

EDN-201

Curriculum Development

4

5

20 + 80 = 100

2

EDN-202

Emerging Technologies in Education

4

5

20 + 80 = 100

3

EDN-203

Educational Administration, Planning and Finance

4

5

20 + 80 = 100

4

EDN-204 (P) Dissertation Work

4

5

40 + 60 = 100

Economics of Education

4

4

15 + 60 = 75

Human Rights and Value Education

4

4

15 + 60 = 75

Teacher Education

4

4

15 + 60 = 75

Tribal Education

4

4

15 + 60 = 75

Special Education

4

4

15 + 60 = 75

Yoga Education

4

4

15 + 60 = 75

Seminar

1

1

15 + 10 = 25

21

25

500

Electives: Any one

5

EDN-205 Electives

6 Total

Semester

Scheme of Instruction (Hours per week)

Credits

Scheme of Examination – Internal and Semester-end Examination 500

I

20

25

II

21

25

500

Total

41

50

1000

B.Ed. (2010–2011) Structure of the Course A. Theory Examinations ED-01 Paper I Foundations of Education ED-02 Paper II Understanding the Learner and Classroom Management ED-03 Paper III School Management and Systems of Education ED-04 Paper IV Educational Evaluation ED-05 Paper V Methods of Teaching Non-languages (Method I) ED-06 Paper VI Methods of Teaching Languages (Method II) B. Practical Examinations ED-07 Paper VII Practical examination in methods of Teaching Non-languages ED-08 Paper VIII Practical examination in methods of Teaching Languages C. Records ED-09 Paper IX Methods of Teaching Non-languages Records (Microteaching, Teaching Practice-cum-Internship and Scholastic Achievement) ED-10 Paper X Methods of Teaching Languages Records (Microteaching, Teaching Practice-cum-Internship and Scholastic Achievement)

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226

Curriculum Development: Perspectives, Principles and Issues

D. Projects ED-11 Paper XI ED-12 Paper XII ED-13 Paper XIII

Computer Education Project Life Skills Project Co-curricular Project

Scheme of Instruction Syllabus Ref. No.

Subject

Instructional Days

Scheme of Instruction Duration (hours)

Total hours

Grand Total Hours

A. Theory Paper ED-01

Paper 1

16.66

6

99.9

ED-02

Paper II

16.66

6

99.9

ED-03

Paper III

16.66

6

99.9

ED-04

Paper IV

16.66

6

99.9

ED-05

Paper V

16.66

6

99.9

ED-06

Paper VI

16.66

6

99.9

ED-07

Paper VII

}05days

ED-08

Paper VIII

600 hr.

B. Practical Paper 2

C. Records ED-09

Paper IX

ED-10

Paper X

} 42 days

6

252 252 hr.

D. Projects ED-11

Paper XI

10

6

60

ED-12

Paper XII

10

6

60

ED-13

Paper XIII

8

6

48

Demonstration lessons in macroteaching and visits to schools by student teachers

02

6

12

Feedback session

01

Orientation on scholastic achievement

01

6

6

Workshop-teaching aids

04

6

24

Fieldtrip and Annual day

02

6

12

168 hr.

E. Other Important Schedules

Grand Total Hours (A + B + C + D + E)

M08_XXXXXXX_XX_XX_C08.indd 226

6

60 hr. 1080

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Issues and Trends in Curriculum Development

227

Scheme of Examination Ref. No

Subject

Title of Papers

Duration of Examination (hours) Duration of Examination (hours)

Maximum Marks

Grand Total Marks

A. Theory Papers ED-01

Paper I

Foundations of Education

3

100

ED-02

Paper II

Understanding the Learner and Classroom Management

3

100

ED-03

Paper III

School Management and Systems of Education

3

100

ED-04

Paper IV

Educational Evaluation

3

100

ED-05

Paper V

Methods of Teaching Non-languages

3

100

ED-06

Paper VI

Methods of Teaching Languages

3

100

Total Marks in Theory Examination Papers

600

B. Practical Papers ED-07

Paper VII

Methods of Teaching Non-languages

5

50

ED-08

Paper VIII

Methods of Teaching Languages

5

50

Total Marks in Practical Examination Papers

100

C. Records ED-09

ED-10

Paper IX

Paper X

Methods of Teaching Non-languages Records

90

Microteaching Record

15

Teaching Practice-cum-Internship Record

60

Scholastic Achievement Record

15

Methods of Teaching Languages Records

90

Microteaching Record

15

Teaching Practice-cum-Internship Record

60

Scholastic Achievement Record

15

Total Marks in Records

180

180

D. Projects ED-11

Paper XI

Computer Education Project

40

ED-12

Paper XII

Life Skills Project

40

ED-13

Paper XIII

Co-curricular Project

40

Total Marks in Records Overall Total Number of Marks (A+ B + C + D)

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120 1000

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228

Curriculum Development: Perspectives, Principles and Issues

M.Ed. (2010–2011) Structure of the Course A. Theory Examinations ED-01 Paper I Foundations of Education ED-02 Paper II Understanding the Learner and Classroom Management ED-03 Paper III School Management and Systems of Education ED-04 Paper IV Educational Evaluation ED-05 Paper V Methods of Teaching Non-languages (Method I) ED-06 Paper VI Methods of Teaching Languages (Method II) B. Practical Examinations ED-07 Paper VII Practical examination in methods of Teaching Non-languages ED-08 Paper VIII Practical examination in methods of Teaching Languages C. Records ED-09 Paper IX Methods of Teaching Non-languages Records (Microteaching, Teaching Practice-cum-Internship and Scholastic Achievement) ED-10 Paper X Methods of Teaching Languages Records (Microteaching, Teaching Practice-cum-Internship and Scholastic Achievement) D. Projects ED-11 Paper XI Computer Education Project ED-12 Paper XII Life Skills Project ED-13 Paper XIII Co-curricular Project

B.Ed. (2009–2010) Scheme of Instruction Syllabus Ref. No.

Subject

Instructional Days

Scheme of Instruction Duration of hours

Total hours

Grand Total Hours

A. Theory Paper ED-01

Paper 1

16.6

6

99.9

ED-02

Paper II

16.6

6

99.9

ED-03

Paper III

16.6

6

99.9

ED-04

Paper IV

16.6

6

99.9

ED-05

Paper V

16.6

6

99.9

ED-06

Paper VI

16.6

6

99.9

ED-07

Paper VII

}05days

2

ED-08

Paper VIII

} 42 days

6

600 hr.

B. Practical Paper

C. Records ED-09

Paper IX

ED-10

Paper X

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252 252 hr.

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229

Issues and Trends in Curriculum Development D. Projects ED-11

Paper XI

10

6

60

ED-12

Paper XII

10

6

60

ED-13

Paper XIII

8

6

48

Demonstration lessons in Macro Teaching and visits to schools by student teachers

02

6

12

Feedback session

01

Orientation on scholastic achievement

01

6

6

Workshop-teaching aids

04

6

24

Field trip and annual day

02

6

12

168 hr.

E. Other Important Schedules

6

Grand Total Hours (A + B + C + D + E)

60 hr. 1080

Scheme of Examination Ref. No

Subject

Title of Papers

Scheme of Examination Duration of Examination in hours

Maximum Marks

Grand Total Marks

A. Theory Papers ED-01

Paper I

Foundations of Education

3

100

ED-02

Paper II

Understanding the Learner and Classroom Management

3

100

ED-03

Paper III

School Management and Systems of Education

3

100

ED-04

Paper IV

Educational Evaluation

3

100

ED-05

Paper V

Methods of Teaching Non-languages

3

100

ED-06

Paper VI

Methods of Teaching Languages

3

Total Marks in Theory Examination Papers

100 600

B. Practical Papers ED-07

Paper VII

Methods of Teaching Non-languages

5

ED-08

Paper VIII

Methods of Teaching Languages

5

Total Marks in Practical Examination Papers

50 50 100

C. Records ED-09

ED-10

Paper IX

Paper X

Methods of Teaching Non-languages Records 15

Teaching Practice-cum-Internship Record

60

Scholastic Achievement Record

15

Methods of Teaching Languages Records

90

Microteaching Record

15

Teaching Practice-cum-Internship Record

60

Scholastic Achievement Record

15

Total Marks in Records

M08_XXXXXXX_XX_XX_C08.indd 229

90

Microteaching Record

180

180

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230

Curriculum Development: Perspectives, Principles and Issues

D. Projects ED-11

Paper XI

Computer Education Project

40

ED-12

Paper XII

Life Skills Project

40

ED-13

Paper XIII

Co-curricular Project

40

Total Marks in Records

120

Overall Total Number of Marks (A+ B + C + D)

1000

M.Ed. (2009–2010) Paper code

Title of the paper

Credits

Minimum credits to be acquired

Semester I Core Papers ED-101

Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

5

5

ED-102

Advanced Educational Psychology

5

5

ED-103

Research Methods in Education

5

5

ED-104

Emerging technologies of Education

5

5

Special Papers/Electives ED-105

Alternative Education

5

ED-106

Environmental Education

5

ED-107

Human Rights and Value Education

5

ED-108

Tribal Education

5

ED-109

School Experience Programme

4

ED-110

Community Participation Project I

4

ED-111

Institutional Study Project

4

5

Practicum

Total

12 37

Semester II Core Papers ED-201

Economics of Education

5

5

ED-202

Special Education

5

5

ED-203

Educational Management and Administration

5

5

ED-204

Curriculum Development

5

5

Special Papers/Electives ED-205

Guidance and Counseling

5

ED-206

Population Education

5

ED-207

Disaster Management Education

5

ED-208

Yoga Education

5

5

Practicum ED-209

Seminar Presentation

2

ED-210

Community Participation Project II

4

ED-211

Dissertation

6

Total

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12 37

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231

Issues and Trends in Curriculum Development

M.Ed. Syllabus (Two-Semester Course) Structure of the Course Semester I Paper No.

Semester II Title

Paper No.

Title

Core papers

Core papers

I: ED-101

Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

I: ED-201

II: ED-102

Advanced Educational Psychology

II: ED-202

Special Education

III: ED-103

Research Methods in Education

III: ED-203

Educational Management and Administration

IV: ED-104

Emerging Technologies of Education

IV: ED-204

Curriculum Development

Special paper/Electives: V

Economics of Education

Special paper/Electives: V

ED-105

Alternative Education

ED-205

Guidance and Counseling

ED-106

Environmental Education

ED-206

Population Education

ED-107

Human Rights and Value Education

ED-207

Disaster Management Education

ED-108

Tribal Education

ED-208

Yoga Education

Practicum

Practicum

VI: ED-109

School Experience Programme

VI: ED-209

Seminar Presentation

VII: ED-110

Community Participation Project – I

VII: ED-210

Community Participation Project - II

VIII: ED-111

Institutional Study Project

VIII: ED-211

Dissertation

With Effect from the Academic Year 2006–2007 Semester I: Scheme of Instruction and Examination Syllabus Ref. No.

Subject

Scheme of Instruction

Scheme of Examination Maximum Marks

Periods per week

Duration in hours

Internal Assessment

Semester-end exam

Total

ED-101

Paper I (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-102

Paper II (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-103

Paper III (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED104

Paper IV (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED105–108

Paper V (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-109

Paper VI (Practicum)

3

3

50

-

50

ED-110

Paper VII (Practicum)

3

3

50

-

50

ED-111

Paper VIII (Practicum)

3

3

50

-

50

275

375

650

Total

Number of instructional days in First Semester = 96 (Theory = 65 days; Practicum = 31 days)

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Curriculum Development: Perspectives, Principles and Issues

Semester II: Scheme of Instruction and Examination Syllabus Ref. No.

Subject

Scheme of Instruction

Scheme of Examination Maximum Marks

Periods per week

Duration in hours

Internal Assessment

Semester-end exam

Total

ED-201

Paper I (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-202

Paper II (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-203

Paper III (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-204

Paper IV (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-205–208

Paper V (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-209

Paper VI (Practicum)

2

2

50

-

50

ED-210

Paper VII (Practicum)

3

3

50

-

50

ED-211

Paper VIII (Dissertation)

4

4

-

100

100

Total

225

475

700

GRAND TOTAL

500

850

1350

B.Ed. (2008–2009) Structure of the Course A. Theory Examinations ED-01 Paper I Foundations of Education ED-02 Paper II Understanding the Learner and Classroom Management ED-03 Paper III School Management and Systems of Education ED-04 Paper IV Educational Evaluation ED-05 Paper V Methods of Teaching Non-languages (Method I) ED-06 Paper VI Methods of Teaching Languages (Method II) B. Practical Examinations ED-07 Paper VII Practical examination in methods of Teaching Non-languages ED-08 Paper VIII Practical examination in methods of Teaching Languages C. Records ED-09 Paper lX Methods of Teaching Non-languages Records (Microteaching, Teaching Practice-cum-Internship and Scholastic Achievement) ED-10 Paper X Methods of Teaching Languages Records (Microteaching, Teaching Practice-cum-Internship and Scholastic Achievement) D. Projects ED-11 Paper XI Computer Education Project ED-12 Paper XII Life Skills Project ED-13 Paper XIII Co-curricular Project

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Issues and Trends in Curriculum Development

233

Scheme of Instruction Syllabus Ref. No.

Subject

Instructional Days

Scheme of Instruction Duration (hours)

Total hours

Grand Total Hours

A. Theory Paper ED-01

Paper I

16.6

6

99.9

ED-02

Paper II

16.6

6

99.9

ED-03

Paper III

16.6

6

99.9

ED-04

Paper IV

16.6

6

99.9

ED-05

Paper V

16.6

6

99.9

ED-06

Paper VI

16.6

6

99.9

ED-07

Paper VII

}05days

ED-08

Paper VIII

600 hr.

B. Practical Paper

2 C. Records ED-09

Paper IX

ED-10

Paper X

} 42 days

6

252 252 hr.

D. Projects ED-11

Paper XI

10

6

60

ED-12

Paper XII

10

6

60

ED-13

Paper XIII

8

6

48

Demonstration lessons in macroteaching and visits to schools by student teachers

02

6

12

Feedback session

01

Orientation on scholastic achievement

01

6

6

Workshop-teaching aids

04

6

24

Field trip and annual day

02

6

12

168 hrs.

E. Other Important Schedules

Grand Total Hours (A + B + C + D + E)

M08_XXXXXXX_XX_XX_C08.indd 233

6

60 hr. 1080

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234

Curriculum Development: Perspectives, Principles and Issues

Scheme of Examination Ref. No

Subject

Title of Papers

Scheme of Examination Duration of Examination (hours)

Maximum Marks

Grand Total

A. Theory Papers ED-01

Paper I

Foundations of Education

3

100

ED-02

Paper II

Understanding the Learner and Classroom Management

3

100

ED-03

Paper III

School Management and Systems of Education

3

100

ED-04

Paper IV

Educational Evaluation

3

100

ED-05

Paper V

Methods of Teaching Non-languages

3

100

ED-06

Paper VI

Methods of Teaching Languages

3

100

Total Marks in Theory Examination Papers

600

B. Practical Papers ED-07

Paper VII

Methods of Teaching Non-languages

5

50

ED-08

Paper VIII

Methods of Teaching Languages

5

50

Total Marks in Practical Examination Papers

100

C. Records ED-09

ED-10

Paper IX

Paper X

Methods of Teaching Non-languages Records

90

Microteaching Record

15

Teaching Practice-cum-Internship Record

60

Scholastic Achievement Record

15

Methods of Teaching Languages Records

90

Microteaching Record

15

Teaching Practice-cum-Internship Record

60

Scholastic Achievement Record

15

Total Marks in Records

180

180

D. Projects ED-11

Paper XI

Computer Education Project

40

ED-12

Paper XII

Life Skills Project

40

ED-13

Paper XIII

Co-curricular Project

40

Total Marks in Records Overall Total Number of Marks (A + B + C + D)

M08_XXXXXXX_XX_XX_C08.indd 234

120 1000

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Issues and Trends in Curriculum Development

235

M.Ed. (2008–2009) Paper Code

Title of the Paper

Credits

Minimum Credits to be Acquired

ED-101

Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

5

5

ED-102

Advanced Educational Psychology

5

5

ED-103

Research Methods in Education

5

5

ED-104

Emerging Technologies of Education

5

5

Semester I Core Papers

Special Papers/Electives ED-105

Alternative Education

5

ED-106

Environmental Education

5

ED-107

Human Rights and Value Education

5

ED-108

Tribal Education

5

ED-109

School Experience Programme

4

ED-110

Community Participation Project I

4

ED-111

Institutional Study Project

4

5

Practicum

Total

12

37

Semester II Core Papers ED-201

Economics of Education

5

5

ED-202

Special Education

5

5

ED-203

Educational Management and Administration

5

5

ED-204

Curriculum Development

5

5

Special Papers/Electives ED-205

Guidance and Counseling

5

ED-206

Population Education

5

ED-207

Disaster Management Education

5

ED-208

Yoga Education

5

ED-209

Seminar Presentation

2

ED-210

Community Participation Project II

4

ED-211

Dissertation

6

5

Practicum

Total

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12

37

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Curriculum Development: Perspectives, Principles and Issues

Structure of the Course Semester I Paper No.

Title

I: ED-101

Semester II Paper No.

Title

Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education

I: ED-201

Economics of Education

II: ED-102

Advanced Educational Psychology

II: ED-202

Special Education

III: ED-103

Research Methods in Education

III: ED-203

Educational Management and Administration

IV: ED-104

Emerging Technologies of Education

IV: ED-204

Curriculum Development

Core Papers

Core Papers

Special paper/Electives: V

Special paper/Electives: V

ED-105

Alternative Education

ED-205

Guidance and Counseling

ED-106

Environmental Education

ED-206

Population Education

ED-107

Human Rights and Value Education

ED-207

Disaster Management Education

ED-108

Tribal Education

ED-208

Yoga Education

Practicum

Practicum

VI: ED-109

School Experience Programme

VI: ED-209

Seminar Presentation

VII: ED-110

Community Participation Project-I

VII: ED-210

Community Participation Project-II

VIII: ED-111

Institutional Study Project

VIII: ED-211

Dissertation

With effect from the academic year 2006–2007 Semester I: Scheme of Instruction and Examination Syllabus Ref. No.

Subject

Scheme of Instruction

Scheme of Examination Maximum Marks

Periods per week

Duration in hours

Internal Assessment

Semester-end exam

Total

ED-101

Paper I (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-102

Paper II (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-103

Paper III (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-104

Paper IV (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-105–108

Paper V (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-109

Paper VI (Practicum)

3

3

50

-

50

ED-110

Paper VII (Practicum)

3

3

50

-

50

ED-111

Paper VIII (Practicum)

3

3

50

-

50

275

375

650

Total

Number of instructional days in First Semester = 96 (Theory = 65 days; Practicum = 31 days)

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Semester II: Scheme of Instruction and Examination Syllabus Ref. No.

Subject

Scheme of Instruction

Scheme of Examination Maximum Marks

Periods per week

Duration in hours

Internal Assessment

Semester-end exam

Total

ED-201

Paper I (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-202

Paper II (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-203

Paper III (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-204

Paper IV (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-205–208 Paper V (Theory)

4

4

25

75

100

ED-209

Paper VI (Practicum)

2

2

50

-

50

ED-210

Paper VII (Practicum)

3

3

50

-

50

ED-211

Paper VIII (Dissertation)

4

4

-

100

100

Total

225

475

700

GRAND TOTAL

500

850

1350

IGNOU Programme Objectives The programme aims to enable practising teachers to achieve the following objectives: 1. To systematize experiences and strengthen the professional competencies of in-service teachers. 2. To imbibe knowledge and develop an understanding of the various methods and approaches of organizing learning experiences of secondary school students. 3. To develop skills required in selecting and organizing learning experiences. 4. To understand the nature of the learning process. 5. To develop skills involved in dealing with the academic and personal problems of the learners. 6. To acquire knowledge and develop an understanding of the various procedures and techniques of evaluation and their classroom applications. 7. To develop skills involved in selecting, developing and using evaluation tools. 8. To acquire knowledge and develop an understanding of various aspects of school management. 9. To develop competencies for organizing various instructional and student support activities. 10. To develop an appreciation of the role of the teacher in the prevailing socio-cultural and political system in general and the educational system in particular. Programme Structure The programme is essentially a judicious mix of theory and practical courses to develop knowledge, skills and attitude in practising teachers. Illustrations and cases of relevant situations and activities comprise the core of each course. These are suitably supported by theoretical aspects

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to the extent needed. Keeping this in view, the programme consists of the following four groups of courses: Group A: Core Courses Group B: Content-based Methodology Courses Group C: Special Courses Group D: Practical Courses The programme comprises 56 credits. Course Description Group A: Core Courses (20 Credits) Considering the job requirements of the school teachers and the broad programme objectives, the following five core courses of 4 credits each are identified: Course No. 1 2 3 4 5

Course Code ES-331 ES-332 ES-333 ES-334 ES-335

Course Title Curriculum and Instruction Psychology of Learning and Development Educational Evaluation Education and Society Teacher and School

Credits 4 4 4 4 4

*Group B: Content-based Methodology Course (8 Credits) Considering qualification and teaching experience gained in school subjects, out of the following list of school subjects, any two courses (each of 4 Credits) have to be opted for. Course No. 1 2 3 4 5 *6

Course Code ES-341 ES-342 ES-343 ES-344 ES-345 BESE-046

Group C: Special Course (4 Credits) Course No. 1 2 3 4 5

Course Code ES-361 ES-362 ES-363 ES-364 ES-365

Course Title Teaching of Science Teaching of Mathematics Teaching of Social Studies Teaching of English Teaching of Hindi Teaching of Tamil

Credits 4 4 4 4 4 4

Of the following list, one course has to be opted for: Course Title Educational Technology Computer in Education Guidance and Counseling Distance Education Integral Education

Credits 4 4 4 4 4

Compulsory Courses (8 Credits) The following two courses on HIV/AIDS education are made compulsory and offered in B.Ed. II year, i.e Jan, 2011 in addition to one optional course from S. No. 1 to 4 above. 6 BESE-065 HIV and AIDS Education 4 7 BESE-066 Adolescence and Family Education 4 Group D: Practical Courses (16 Credits) In this set of courses, emphasis is laid on skill development. The practical work is based on the subject content presented in the various theory courses.

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The practical experiences are suitably categorized and organized under the following three practical courses: Course No. 1 2 3

Course Code ES-381 ES-382 ES-383

Course Title School-based Practicals Workshop-based Practicals Practice Teaching

Credits 4 4 8

In addition to the above-mentioned three practical courses, the programme includes 8 credits of practical assignments of Group A, B and C courses. *Teaching of Tamil is an offer for the students from the State of Tamilnadu and may continue till further orders. Instructional System The B.Ed. programme, delivery system includes the multimedia approach, i.e. self-instructional print material, audio/video components, assignments, counseling sessions and practical work in school and workshops. Printed Material The print materials are the self-instructional materials for both theory and practical components of the programme. It is supplied to the students in the form of blocks. Each block contains 3–5 units. The university sends study material and assignments to the students by registered post, and if a student does not receive the same for any reason whatsoever, the university shall not be held responsible for that. Audio and Video Programmes The audio and video programmes are supplementary; meant for clarification and enhancement of understanding. These are used during counseling and workshop sessions at the programme centre. Besides, the video programmes are telecast on the national network of Gyan Darshan. Assignments Assignments are an integral and compulsory component of the instructional system. There are only one tutor-marked assignments for each theory course. These assignments are to be submitted to the programme centre in accordance with the submission schedule provided separately in the programme guide. From June 2011 term-end examination, the university had made the submission of assignments mandatory for issue of hall ticket. Counseling Sessions Generally, the counseling sessions will be held at the programme centres during weekends (Saturdays and Sundays) and long holidays. Within the general schedule of the programme, the co-ordinators at the programme centres will decide on the conduct of these sessions. The programme centre co-ordinators will also provide the counseling schedule. The counseling sessions will include clarifications required in the print material and audio/video programmes through active interaction with students. Teleconferencing To provide more clarity and understanding, two-way audio and one-way video facility will be used during teleconferencing at regional centres. Interactive radio counseling and interactive programmes through Gyan Vani and Gyan Darshan will also be made available. Conduct of Practicals Practicals will be held in the schools and teacher training colleges/ institutions indentified as Programme Centres. As mentioned earlier, the practical courses consist of school-based, workshop-based practicals, practical oriented assignments and practice teaching. These activities will be conducted in the schools. Besides, two practical workshops of

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24 days duration, i.e., 12 days each spreading over 2 years, with intensive face-to-face interaction to develop skills and competencies will also be organised at the Programme Centre or at any other suitable place. The student teachers will have to do practical work and various activities required for the development of teaching skills and competencies in the school under the guidance of the supervisor and principal/headmaster after taking due permission from the school concerned. Overall a student is expected to go through approximately 300 hours of contact time. Evaluation The system of evaluation, both for theory and practical work, is as follows: Theory: For theory courses, evaluation comprises three aspects. (a) Self-evaluation exercises within each unit of study (non-credit). (b) Continuous evaluation in the form of periodic compulsory assignments. This carries a weightage of 30per cent for each course. One assignment in each theory course is compulsory. (c) The term-end examination has a weightage of 70 per cent of the total for each course. Practical: For practical courses, evaluation comprises three aspects: (a) Continuous evaluation of school-based activities and practice teaching. (b) Evaluation of performance in practical workshops. (c) Evaluation of practice teaching. The student will have to obtain at least D grade in each course in both continuous and terminal evaluation separately. However, the overall average should be at least C grade for the successful completion of a course. If a student has missed any term-end examination of a course for any reason, he/she may appear in the subsequent term-end examination. This facility will be available until a student secures the minimum pass grade, but only up to a period of four years from the date of registration. The letter grade system is used for grading continuous and terminal examination components. Letter Grade A B C D E

Qualitative Level Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Unsatisfactory

Point Grade 5 4 3 2 1

Per cent (%) 80 and above 60–79.9 50–59.9 40–49.9 Below 40

The rounding off decimal in grade card/mark sheet to the next mark in case decimal point is between 0.5 and 0.9, and no change in case it is between 0.1 and 0.4. (The student will be declared successful if he/she scores at least C grade in theory courses and practical courses separately.) Master of Education (M.Ed.) Programme The M.Ed. programme designed and developed jointly by the Distance Education Council (DEC), Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and NCTE is a two-year programme offered through open and distance learning (ODL) system. It is an innovative programme, utilizing self-learning materials (SLMs) and information and communication technologies (ICTs) along with an interactive personal contact programme component. To effectively impart instruction, the programme follows the multimedia approach, viz., print materials, audio-video components, teleconferencing, interactive radio counseling (IRC), assignments, counseling sessions, personal guidance for research, workshops, individual and group activities, etc.

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The main purpose of this programme is to prepare teacher educators and educational administrators/managers to develop a global as well as a national vision for education in the modern concept of the twenty-first century, acquainting them with the state-of-the-art technology applicable in the practice of education. Furthermore, it seeks to prepare educational experts capable of generating knowledge by the application of scientific method of enquiry or investigation, and to develop a critical mind that can sense gaps in knowledge and find solutions to problems relating to the theory and practice of education. It further seeks to widen the horizon of teachers/educational administrators and to enable them to obtain an international perspective in education. M.Ed. is a professional programme and, therefore, it focuses on comprehensive and integrated professional development of teachers and other personnel engaged in educational management and administration. The programme is aimed at developing competency and skills so that one can share the responsibility of preparing teachers for diverse situations by using a variety of instrumentalities including ICTs. The programme is, therefore, intended to address professional areas of concern, knowledge, skills and attitudes relating to how to teach and how to facilitate learning. The other focused areas include the role of teachers in changing global socio-economic concerns, organization of teacher education in the country, understanding teaching in a comparative perspective, meeting the requirements of ‘education for all’ and ‘training for all’, and preparing teachers to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century. Objectives of the Programme To achieve this comprehensive goal/objective, the programme seeks to:  Develop specialized knowledge and understanding about the philosophical and sociological bases of education.  Develop ability to understand human behaviour and personality, and capability to apply this knowledge and understanding to guide the learners to learn efficiently and effectively.  Develop national and international perspective about educational theory and practice to enable the learners to visualize the inter-linkages and dependency among different educational systems.  Develop a working knowledge of ICTs and their application in formal and non-formal systems of education and for teacher empowerment.  Develop knowledge and understanding of management, planning and financing of education.  Develop managerial and administrative capabilities and skills to effectively manage educational institutions.  Develop knowledge and understanding of the process of educational research and aptitude for and skill in conducting research in specialized areas of education, and thus generate knowledge or critically evaluate existing knowledge. Furthermore, generate awareness and understanding of some specialized areas of education and human development such as special needs of education, curriculum development, environmental education, vocational education, teacher education, elementary education, measurement and evaluation, value education and human responsibility, so as to widen the horizon of understanding of modern educational practices and to develop critical thinking pertaining to issues related to education. 1st Year Credits Compulsory courses: MES-051: Education: Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives 6 Credits MES-052: Psychology of Learning and Teaching 6 Credits

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MES-053: Educational Management, Planning and Finance 6 Credits MES-054: Methodology of Educational Research 6 Credits Optional: Any one course out of the following: MESE-057: Measurement and Evaluation in Education 6 Credits MESE-058: Educational and Vocational Guidance and Counseling 6 Credits MESE-059: Teacher Education in India: Growth and Development 6 Credits 2nd Year Credits Compulsory courses: MES-055: Comparative Education: National and International 6 Credits Perspectives MES-056: Educational Technology 6 Credits Optional: Any one of the following courses: MESE-060: Curriculum Development and Transaction 6 Credits MESE-061: Open and Distance Learning Systems 6 Credits MESE-062: Vocational Education 6 Credits MESE-064: Special Needs Education 6 Credits MESE-066: Information Technology and Education 6 Credits MESE-067: Elementary Education. 6 Credits MESP-068: Dissertation (Compulsory) 12 Credits Evaluation    

The university follows the following evaluation system:

Self-assessment exercises (non-credit) Continuous evaluation through assignments, workshops, etc. Term-end examination Evaluation of dissertation

Grading System IGNOU uses the grading system for evaluating the learner’s achievement on a five-point scale using letters. Students are awarded grades A, B, C, D and E as the final assessment marks. The notional correlates of the letter grades are as follows: Letter grade A B C D E

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Description Excellent Very Good Good Average Unsatisfactory

Point grade 5 4 3 2 1

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9 Curriculum Change and Future CHAPTER OUTLINE  Meaning of Curriculum Change  Factors Affecting Curriculum Change

 Futuristic Techniques In Designing Curriculum

MEANING OF CURRICULUM CHANGE Change is the law of nature. Change always makes things better. It is desired in a progressive rather than retrogressive style, and can be applied to any aspect; so is the case with the curriculum. The pace of change is varying from ancient to modernity because of the technological advancement and modernization and also the explosion of knowledge and aspirations and social needs and demands. Generally, curriculum change and curriculum improvement are used interchangeably and no distinction is made between the two. Changing curriculum also involves changing individuals. According to Coffey and Goldner, changing individuals includes two types of changes: 1. Cognitive aspect – the way the child is habituated to his world around and how he perceives it. 2. Affective aspect – his emotional orientation. In other words, curriculum change bears both the aspects in mind, i.e. changing ideas and human dynamics simultaneously, whereas curriculum improvement means changing certain aspects of the curriculum without changing the fundamental conception of its organization. Changing curriculum is a regular phenomenon in any system of education. Generally, the members involved in the process of curriculum are either highly ambitious in bringing changes, which may be difficult to implement, or they may be beyond the level of the target group. It is very important to keep in mind the target group for whom it is designed. It is also important to keep on par with the changing times, needs, interests and aspirations of the society and the learner. Once it is decided to bring certain changes in the curriculum, there is a need to be very clear about the changes that are thought of. It is very necessary to know the viability of the implementation within the available circumstances and how to go about the strategies.

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Only after getting clear understanding and clarity about the changes one should go for appropriate implementation, planning and execution for the success. It is also obvious that whenever there is a proposal for curriculum change, there will be resistance from different quarters, parents, teachers, community and other agencies. Yet time changes are just installed, but in the implementation nothing is observed. For instance, Human Resource Development Minister Kapil Sibal’s new reforms: even after many training programmes teachers keep using similar method as they are in vogue. Then what is the systematic way to bring change in the curriculum? What are the approaches that we use in bringing changes in the curriculum? All those involved in educational work, political and economic leaders either good or bad ‘social engineers’, apply their knowledge of valid principles and techniques of social change to the problem of inducing, controlling and maintaining changes in educational systems, i.e. the process is called educational engineering. Change could be: 1. Slow, i.e. minor changes or adjustments in the course. 2. Rapid, i.e. new knowledge or trends impacting schools. For the implementation of the above two changes, the following five guidelines should be borne in mind to avoid earlier errors (Ornstein 1993): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Innovations designed to improve student achievement must be technically sound. Successful innovation requires change in the structure of a traditional school. Innovation must be manageable and feasible for the average teacher. Implementation of successful change efforts must be organic rather than bureaucratic. Avoid ‘do something, do anything’ syndrome.

Lowell and Wiles present include five processes in their theory of change: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Leadership Communication Release of human potential Problem solving Evaluation

Types of Curriculum Change There are varied types of changes observed in curriculum. According to different curricularists, the following types of changes can be seen: According to Warder Bennis, the curriculum change could be: 1. Planned change: People identify specific changes and follow them on their own. Idea of change is planned. 2. Coercion: One group dominates in bringing changes and determines the goals by intentionally excluding others from participation. 3. Interaction change: Here, goals are set mutually and power is distributed equally among the groups. 4. Natural or random change: It is not planned without setting any goal. It just happens naturally at the school level.

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Robert Chin considered three types of changes in curriculum: 1. Empirical–rational: Stress is laid on the need for change and the competence to implement. These changes do not occur at school level as they are not capable of bringing such change. 2. Normative–re-educative strategies: It is based on the rationality and intelligence of humans. This kind of change can occur by approaching humans convincing them that there is a need to change their values, attitudes, understanding and skills. 3. Power strategies: Changes should meet the expectations of the superiors who are in a higher power. Such coerce strategies are used often in schools. According to John Mcneil the different types of changes are: 1. Substitution: In this type of change one element is substituted by the other, i.e. one course paper/one unit is replaced with another. Mostly, this kind of change is easily implemented. 2. Alternation: If some material, content, item or procedure is introduced into the existing material and is adopted, it is considered alteration. 3. Perturbation: Some changes when introduced disturb the programme for sometime, and then later on they get adjusted or adopted into the programme. 4. Restructuring: These changes lead to modification of the system itself. For instance, team teaching, project method or competency-based teaching and evaluation. This change is like restructuring. 5. Value-oriented change: This change basically brings a shift from one’s philosophy or basic ideology towards a particular curricular prescription or orientation. Most of them who resist should adjust with the changes and accept the same. The teachers who cannot adjust their values to such changes may not be retained for long. According to William H. Schubert (1986), methods of Curriculum change are: 1 In-service teacher education  Conducting study groups  Workshops  Work conferences  In-service courses  Visits to the field  Idea exchanges  Competency training  Individualized consulting  Invention strategies  Learning contracts 2 Supervising the work undertaken by the teachers when curriculum is changed and implemented. I In-service teacher education: Workshops One of the most commonly used ways of in-service teacher education is a workshop. They may be of large scale with large groups, involving discussion and guest lectures or expertise exposition on various contemporary issues, research developments and practices and innovation related to schooling. Yet, they are conducted at small level for a particular purpose by a group of

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people meeting together and discussing an issue either for improvement of curriculum or sharing the expertise. Idea Exchange Generally, in the school system the teachers will be provided with opportunities to meet the same level/grade teachers to exchange their ideas, share problems, strategies, etc. Visitations Some institutions give some time to the teachers to visit other institutions. They observe the new projects under implementation, new programmes and specific instructional modes. In-service lectures and study groups are involved in disseminating information with regard to new techniques in the curriculum to be implemented in schools. Developing Competencies Many school systems and states have devised series of skills or performance criteria, which are considered and offered as competencies. The selected competencies are oriented and implemented later on. Individualized Consulting In some popularized approaches implemented in a few school districts, where a university teacher is involved in this process. The university teacher is asked to observe every aspect of the school and help in solving their problems and implementing new practices. Invention Strategies Many times teachers show dissatisfaction and feel that the practices, which are shown at the higher level, are irrelevant. They also feel that the innovations and strategies, which they are exposed to in the workshops, etc., are redundant. Learning Contracts Learning contracts are professional agreements that teachers make with administrators who are in charge of in-service education. They spell out the in-service training criteria of teachers and plan of action. Thus, there are various ways a teacher will get the updated information, training and competencies required for the improvement of the school programmes and their functioning. Supervision Whenever there is improvement/change of curriculum it also needs the supervision for the professional development. Supervision could be used in two ways; on the one hand, it helps in implementation and maintaining the discipline in all aspects, and on the other hand, it is the empowerment of teachers in all aspects related to academics. According to William H. Schubert, supervision can be divided into five types. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Directive supervision Evaluative supervision Consultative supervision Permissive supervision Collaborative supervision

1. Directive supervision: It is nothing but a traditional approach where the teachers are made to abide by the policies of central administration and school board.

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2. Evaluative supervision: It is simply to appraise or assess teacher competencies. 3. Consultative supervision: Supervisors act as the expert consultants with high exposure to research, theory, history, designs and teaching methods. Here the supervisors act as consultants for the teachers. 4. Permissive supervision: It is different from directive supervision. It believes in providing freedom to the teacher where a supervisor is considered as the facilitator. Like Karl Rogers’s therapy concept and A.S. Neil’s concept, this emphasizes as self-satisfaction. 5. Collaborative supervision: This is collective use of all varieties. In other words, it is an eclectic approach where all approaches should be used by the supervisors as a repertoire. Apart from smaller changes or strategies of curriculum change, there are some broad approaches which are well-known to curriculum change.

Approaches to Curriculum Change From the history, it can be observed that the following three approaches are popularly used for changing the curriculum. 1. Administrative approach 2. Grass-root approach 3. Demonstration approach 1. Administrative Approach This approach adopts top to down policy, i.e. the decisions are made at the top to bring changes. The process is not democratic in nature. This approach gets initiated with the recognition of the need for revision. Once the superintendent identifies the need, they arrange for faculty meetings to present the need for revision. Then a steering committee is appointed that consists of administrative officers and teachers. The committee in co-ordination with the superintendent performs the following functions:     

Formulates general plans Develops guiding principles Prepares a statement of general objectives covering entire programme/system Works out plans to train teachers in curriculum work Determines the consultants to be employed and activities to familiarize teachers with theory and practice  Sets up advisory committee to formulate plans, principles and objectives With the functions formulated above, they are treated as a manual for faculty to develop curriculum. Finally, the steering committee plans for a number of other committees called ‘production committees’ largely with teachers who prepare a new course of study under the direction of the steering committee. For each grade/subject a production committee is appointed at different levels (primary/ secondary). Each of them work out objectives and methods of teaching and material for instruction and prepares courses of study. Once the course is completed/prepared, it is reviewed either by the steering committee/a committee specially created for that purpose. The committees, after reviewing, bring necessary changes in the material for publication. Then finally the courses are tried out in the fields and installed, this is the responsibility of

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the installation committee. The teachers and principals are acquainted with techniques and purposes of revised curriculum through discussions, by class visitations and so on. Once the curriculum is revised and ready as trying out the revised curriculum it may be modified based on the classroom experience. This approach was mostly popular during 1920s, and is not so much popular at present. Revision initiated

Recognition of need for revision

Superintendent identifies the need

Faculty presents the need for revision

Steering committee appointed (With administrative officers and teachers as members)

Steering committee in co-ordination with superintendent (all the functions desired are discharged plan, principles and objectives)

Steering committee appoints committees (Subject/gradewise for making objectives and curricular)

Revised and reviewed by the steering committee with required changes

Courses tried out in the field and installed

Principals and teachers acquainted with the technique

Curriculum is made ready for implementation

2. The Grass-root Approach Rationale for this approach to surface was that the administrative model was not in favour of teacher’s interests and they were not personally involved in bringing out constructive changes from their work. The grass-root approach made a provision to involve the staff to become active members in curriculum building, from the beginning to the end of the process. It involves not only the teachers but also students, parents and the members of the community. The grass-root approach is based on the following propositions: 1. Curriculum improvement is possible only if the professional competence of teachers improves.

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2. Teacher’s competence will improve only when teachers are actively involved in the problems of curriculum improvement. 3. If teachers share in shaping the goals, selecting, solving the problems encountered, judging and evaluating the results which ensure their complete involvement. 4. Since the people meet face-to-face, they will be able to understand each other and arrive at common consensus on the basic principles, goals and plans. Basically, the grass-root approach is initiated locally in the schools in each neighbourhood. In this approach, the teachers, students, parents and the community can work face-to-face on their problems. Here, teachers are very much interested in solving their own problems related to their school and neighbourhood. They have the freedom to work out their programmes of instruction. They have no need to implement a programme planned by other. Here, the role of the administration is to provide good stimulating leadership, free time, material and whatsoever necessary. They can use various techniques to encourage schools to improve the programmes. Workshops are held to prepare the teachers for planning, and these programmes help in bringing relevant changes. Before the commencement of the academic schedule, the pre-academic conference is arranged for the teachers, then at the end of the academic schedule a feedback session is organized to evaluate the work and plan for the next year. They are also provided with certain resources such as consultants, bulletins, guides by the central administration to take support Benefits of the grass-root approach: 1. This approach eliminates remote and impersonal problems in the curriculum designing procedures. 2. Here teachers need not follow others thoughts. 3. There is no need to get training, which is not of their need or interest. 4. Teachers are personally involved in identifying problems and requirements of revision and find solutions. 5. It does not require more time or labour in procedures. 3. Demonstration Approach Sometimes the changes of curriculum are not possible to implement schoolwide due to resistance from the faculty. Here, the changes are planned at a small scale on an experimental basis. Sometimes in schools, a separate team is brought to carryout the experiment at a small scale to avoid disturbances from faculty and community. On the basis of results, the changes are applied schoolwide. There are two forms of this approach: 1. Experimental unit is within the school with a separate faculty set-up to operate the project. 2. No separate experimental set-up is created or separated from the school, and experimental faculty is also not created. Here, those teachers who are not satisfied with the regular programme are involved, so that they are enthusiastic to bring changes and innovation. The number of teachers can be one/ two from each school/grade. Thus, new programmes are developed on a small scale. Teachers

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are given enough freedom, time and leadership to try out new ideas and improve the existing programme. Although there are limitations even in the demonstration approach, the teachers who are outside the experiment show negative attitude to it. In order to avoid such problems, the programme can be shaped/communicated to the teachers, parents and students to ensure their co-operation in wide participation. All the above-mentioned approaches have an instructional structure by the rule of thumb method.

Ingredients in Curriculum Improvement Curriculum improvement focuses on two approaches. 1. Grass-root approach 2. Top-down approach In the grass-root approach, personnel, i.e. teacher and students, are included in the process and with their experience and the feedback improvement is made to the curriculum. In the top-down approach, the curriculum is developed at the top. The personnel involved in implementation may not be involved in curriculum making. The major ingredients in curriculum improvement are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Personality Materials Physical environment and facilities Defensible ideas Support and resistance

1. Personality Mostly, curriculum improvement depends on the teachers’ personality. In other words, curriculum improvement and professional development of the teachers are interdependent. If the curriculum improvement has to be brought, the teachers have to accept the aspect and change their personalities. They have to be educated and trained, they should have the ability or potential. There are also arguments that it is basically their inborn personality (eugenics) and some feel it is basically due to the environment (euthenics). To improve the quality of education, there is a need for attracting teachers who are good and not to struggle with the same teachers who are in the system. 2. Materials The curriculum improvement also depends on the quality of instructional materials. Material is a means for curriculum improvement. When improvement adopts the grass-root approach, the teacher would get a chance to form study groups, contact the resource groups and different resources and then plan curriculum and get involved in the process of improvement, whereas in the top-down approach the curriculum is mostly teacher-proof, i.e. in the post-Sputnik reform movement, teachers were not trusted to develop curriculum. Thus, the elaborate packages of curriculum along with instructional manuals were prepared and sent to the teachers to implement the same. But such experiments, in spite of monitoring, were not very successful.

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3. Physical Environment and Facilities It is very important to think about the facilities to improve the physical environment to have an impact on curriculum improvement. Here also, there are two methods: grass-roots and top-down methods. In the case of grass-root method, the teachers are consulted and made a part of decisionmaking. On the other hand, in the top-down method, things are changed without informing the teachers. As the members of the committee, they only sign the decisions already taken. 4. Defensible Ideas Basically, curriculum improvement is dependent on the various changes or ideas that are supplemented with the existing curriculum to improve it further. Here, the concept of defence indicates the amount of better justification available for a particular idea in curriculum. Thus, whichever idea has a better justification can be considered for improvement of the curriculum. Apart from the justification, it is also important to debate on the issue related to top-down/grass-roots level approach, i.e. whatever the ideas from inside the system or outside the system should be considered. 5. Support and Resistance When we take up the issues of improvement, it is very essential that those ideas get support from various levels – right from the authority, who is called ‘gatekeeper’ by Kurt Lewin, and whose decisions are important and for the proposal to come to the implementation level. After the approval and support from the gatekeeper, the personnel involved in the system at various levels will also support the implementation of the proposal. It is also necessary to check for the other aspects related to time, facilities, money and resources to make the proposal a reality. All the issues should be taken care of by resolving the conflicts and setting a balance between the resistance and support forces to make the programme a success. The personnel involved at the helm of affairs have a broad outlook and high ideals. Their concern for the existing strategies and feeling for the change promote the proposal for change in the curriculum. Certain committees are appointed to look into the curriculum and provide the strategies required to bring reform in their existing curriculum wholly or in specific subjects. There are even debates about the success behind the top-down strategy and possibility of success in the event of its implementation. For example, in Indian context, the committees such as Eshwarbhai Patel Committee, during the Janata Government regime, set up to review CBSE curriculum and after that Adiseshaiah Committee, during the Congress Government regime, to review and suggest the place of practical experiences in the curriculum. Other examples of commissions and committees from pre-independence and post-independence periods are the Radha Krishnan Commission for University Curriculum, the 1964–1966 Indian Education Commission, the Secondary Education Commission, the National Policy on Education during the regime of Rajiv Gandhi as prime minister and then the programme of action of the same during 1992. These committees were followed by many other committees such as the Ram Murthy Committee, the Janardhan Reddy Committee to review the National Policy on Education and the Yashpal Committee to review early childhood education. Many recommendations were made by the committees and commissions and the implementation in the field was more important. So, any change that has to be brought in needs the field support, especially the teachers who need total awareness, skills, knowledge and also concern and commitment to put into action. Yet, sometimes curriculum gets overloaded due to certain social, political and other pressures. Probably, this leads to the grass-roots approach to curriculum change. In this event, teachers have

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to be equipped with a lot of training, involvement, processing skills, etc. In other words, curriculum change is dependent directly on the teacher component whose support and involvement in the process may bring success in bringing the change into the system, i.e. the basic change has to be brought into their attitude and ‘thinking’, which leads to further changes in the content, approaches and methods. This process of bringing change in the mindset of the future teacher can be initiated right at the pre-service teacher education level and in the in-service teacher education.

Pre-service Teacher Education It is obvious from the pre-service teacher education curriculum framework in various universities from east to west and within India in various states and statewide universities that it reflects the foundation and skills required for the budding teachers. W. James (1899) and L. Thorndike (1910) stress the need for psychological foundation and different interpretation for the pre-service teachers. Similarly, Albion and W. Small (1896) argued for the worth of sociological knowledge, Josich Boyce (1891) stressed on the philosophical base asking ‘whether there is any science of education’. J. Dewey (1904), in this context, warned that early exposure to practice without sufficient background is dangerous. In the process of conventional approach, George S. Count (1935) felt the need to break down such a lockstep approach to teacher education. In the view of Herald Rugg (1952), teachers are to be leaders. He also expressed the need for biopsychological science of behaviour. The Indian system of teacher education is also in line with the West, following certain similar guidelines with respect to bases and skills and practice teaching programmes. Many bodies such as National Council of Teacher Education came out with their concern about the qualitative dimensions of the teacher education through National Curriculum Framework and also the Central Accreditation body NAAC for maintaining standards. Crisis in the Classroom by Silberman (1970), A Place Called School by Goodland (1984), High School by Boyer (1983) and Horace’s Compromise by Sizer (1984) are major evidences of reforms in teacher education in the West. The major components in the pre-service teacher education programme are as follows: 1. A basic academic degree with specific subject orientation and authority on content 2. Professional base to equip the pedagogy and base for teaching 3. Practice teaching/internship to equip practical skills and school procedures Whenever a change is thought of in the curriculum, it should initiate the change in the teacher education programme also. For instance, in the present context, computer education has become inevitable keeping in view the technocratic changes. Probably this is the reason why the teacher education in the state of Andhra Pradesh has introduced computer education as one of the core papers; hither-to-fore it was an optional paper. They were also given competency in integrating technology in their teaching. Now, let us look at the systematic approach that is needed for the curriculum change.

Systematic Approach to Curriculum Change 1. The social nature of curriculum change: It is thought that curriculum change is developing and installing new course of study. But it is important to understand that the persons

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involved from the society, i.e. parents, students and community and the personal relations in developing curriculum show its social nature. 2. The social equilibrium: Generally, teachers are conservative, timid souls who make changes only when they have to do so; it is estimated that any new idea to be incorporated into education practice in the system takes 75 years. For the forces that act for the change, there are forces equal in strength and opposite in direction with the result that there is no change. Social equilibrium is a very useful in curriculum. A change in the curriculum can be made by upsetting the old equilibrium and by establishing a new equilibrium at another level of the educational practice. Basically, there are two ways to bring in change through equilibrium: 1. By removing or reducing the strength of restraining forces 2. By adding or strengthening the driving forces

Phases of Systematic Curriculum Change Systemic curriculum change occurs in four phases: 1. A diagnostic study of the school–community situation to ascertain the constellation of forces that maintains the present curriculum. 2. The induction of change in the existing equilibrium so as to loosen up the established constellation of forces. 3. The control of various forces in order to move the level of curriculum practice in the desired direction and to the desired amount. 4. The establishment of the constellation of forces to sustain the new curriculum. These phases are very simply presented; however, there are not watertight, the beginning and end of each phase are not fixed, they can be made flexible to meet the desired goals.

Curriculum Change as Action Research Action research is carried out for problems that need immediate solutions. It investigates the situations in which social action is required and affects changes in action. Step 1. To examine the idea carefully in the light of the means available (fact finding about the situation) Step 2. A decision in regard to the first step of action Step 3. Executing the overall plan Step 4. Fact finding (solution to the problem suitability)

Sequence of Curriculum Development Whenever it is planned to develop the curriculum, the curriculum framers or the personnel involved in the process take the stock of the situation. They examine the existing curriculum and the core elements in it. But not much attention is paid to the renovation of the more basic elements and the classroom-teaching units. Roughly speaking, there should be a procedure and a sequence for the development of curriculum. The different steps involved are as follows:

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Producing pilot units Testing experimental units Revising and consolidating Developing a framework Installing and disseminating new units

1. Producing Pilot Units Groups of teachers are involved in creating pilot units on experimental basis. Pilot units are produced on the basis of the needs and requirements; grade level; level of education (e.g. primary level); a particular subject such as, mathematics and science or any language. There is a need to determine what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it. A model unit is prepared on the basis of available research and local research. These units include theoretical principles and practical objectives, following which pilot units are produced. 2. Testing Experimental Units As these are prepared by the teachers with their own experiences and in their own local classroom contexts, they need to be tried out in a new classroom situation before the finalization. 3. Revising and Consolidating After trying out in the field and collecting the feedback from the field, the necessary criteria such as its appropriation, consistency and relevance will be checked and all the aspects required will be consolidated by the curricularists. 4. Developing a Framework Once the revision and consolidation takes place, the principles related to curriculum, such as its scope, are taken care of. The core subject’s content, scope etc. Will be taken into consideration and a framework is developed. 5. Installing and Disseminating New Units Once the final approved curriculum is prepared it needs to be implemented into the larger field, while installation of the programme gets initiated. The implementation needs the field workers. The teachers, who are involved in the process, need training. So, as a part of implementation, the information is disseminated to the teachers. After several years the curriculum may become outdated and needs revision. Thus, curriculum change includes many procedures in coming out with an excellent suitable curriculum. But in spite of all the changes differences exist in the programmes. In view of the changing needs and expectations and various pressures from all wings, curriculum change becomes inevitable. There are several factors that influence the curriculum change.

FACTORS AFFECTING CURRICULUM CHANGE School Factors as Symptoms of the Need for Change The school factors are difficult to separate from the pupil factors. The discussion here, however, is focused more on the non-pupil personnel and on aspects of the learning environment. Some questions about school factors which have curriculum implications are: 1. Does the school have a well-defined philosophy? Is it accepted by the teachers? What contradictions are there between philosophy and practice? 2. When was the school last evaluated by an outside group? Were there any key recommendations that were not acted upon? 3. Has the school participated in educational innovations or experiments? 4. Does the school staff participates in professional activities?

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5. What provision is made for suitable equipment, facilities and instructional aids? 6. What evidence is there of poor ‘articulation’? 7. To what extent are administrative and supervisory practices democratic in nature?

Knowledge Explosion as a Factor in Curriculum Change Sometimes, schools and boards of education become so involved with the ‘population explosion’ that they overlook the concurrent ‘knowledge explosion’. Humanity’s stored of knowledge has shown an additive increase in the past, but in recent years the growth in knowledge has been exponential. Not only has knowledge accumulated, but also there have been new ways of organizing it and looking at it. For example, in the field of history, there are people and countries and events that did not exist when our fathers attended school. At the same time the social studies experts are urging that history teachers replace data and event memorizing with an attempt to look at civilization as an historian attempts to do. There is such a rapid progress in the field of science that the facts of today will be supplanted by new facts tomorrow. Science teachers are stressing more on the methods of science and are advocating that students learn how to discover rather than be told. When the method changes from telling to aiding in discovering, then course content must be organized and selected differently. Thus, new instruction calls for a new curriculum. Organized groups seeking to understand new knowledge and to formulate it into suitable learning formats have set up a veritable maze of groups and programmes. The following sample of projects and groups gives some idea of their enormous challenge to change in curriculum: BSCS: Biological Science Curriculum Study CASE: Council for the Advancement of Secondary Education (emphasizing CASE – council literacy) CBA: Chemical Bond Approach Project HSGP: High School Geography Project NCSS–ACLS: A joint project of the National Council for the Social Studies and the American Council of Learned Studies. PSSC: Physical Science Study committee SMSC: School Mathematics Study Committee SCIS: School Curriculum Improvement Study IGE: Individually Guided Education CAI: Computer Assisted Instruction Many of these ‘frontiers’ have become well known and are now busy ‘streets’ over which the curriculum flows. Whether one wants to pioneer or wait for civilization to settle down in curriculum, making new knowledge in content and in methods, is causing even the complacent educator to hear the rumblings of impending curriculum improvement.

The Community as a Factor in the Need for Change The curriculum reflects interplay between the classroom and the community; the school’s being looked to for an expression of the desires of its patrons. The community is usually ‘schoolminded’, especially when critical situations arise – a call for tax increases to take care of new

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buildings, additions to the staff, salary increases; debate over whether or not the schools have wandered away from training in the ‘fundamentals’. Some schools seem to be living in a steady succession of crises; others have been able to build up the public’s confidence that teachers are experts in education and are doing their best to aid each child. In the long run, however, there are certain key questions that should be asked about school–community relationships in seeking evidence of the need for programme modifications. 1. How does the community feel about the school? What is being done to improve school– community relations? 2. Has the population of the community changed? If so, in what ways? 3. Does the school have an active parent–teacher association or similar organization? 4. What economic changes have taken place in the community? 5. For how much time and to whom is the school building open? How is it used? 6. What studies do teachers make of their students’ environmental backgrounds? 7. What community resources are available?

Changes in Society as a Factor in the Need for Curriculum Change Most of the situations presented so far have dealt with the local scene, the environment that fosters the curriculum and that, in turn, should be enriched by that curriculum. However, local conditions are generally a reflection of the larger national and world community. Some declare that our curriculum is at least fifty years behind the times. It is a fact that critical laymen and, sometimes, even educators – hold fast to a programme that prevailed in the early part of the century. If one assumes that our culture and our curriculum should be interwoven, and if one assumes that our society is dynamic, then one must conclude that a curriculum that may have made sense in 1910 will not make sense 60 or 70 years later. A more complex society with rapid communication and transportation finds itself increasing the alternatives to action. Thus, the former handy universals no longer guarantee satisfactory action and reaction. Curriculum-building more and more is becoming a synthesis of the old and the new cultural elements to bring forth some values to which we can hold. Perhaps educators could see the curriculum issues more clearly if they studied sociology and anthropology.

Developing Strategies to Sensitize Others of the Need for Change So far, problem 1 has emphasized a variety of areas and specific situations wherein the curriculum workers can find evidence of the necessity for change. At least one of these symptoms can be found in any school situation. The realistic difficulty that a curriculum worker may encounter is that others may not or will not recognize these symptoms as a call for curriculum study and action. As was stressed earlier, changing a curriculum is essentially changing people. The reluctant, the uniformed, the busy and the disbelieving must be made to see that the compelling conditions are here and now. Having considered the embracing scope of ‘curriculum’ and having become alerted to the signs of a need for change, what is next in preparing to undertake curriculum improvement? Change does not happen by itself.

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1. People conceive of the need 2. People will draw up plans to deal with the situation 3. People will carry out these plans ‘Curriculum improvement’ was shown to be a comprehensive concept involving many individuals and groups in a number of activates. It includes the following:        

Changing people. Making decisions. Co-operative action on abroad base. Developing a functional educational philosophy. Studying pupils and their environment. Keeping up to date with knowledge. Studying ways to improve instruction. Carrying on evaluation.

Finding the relationships among these phases There is no particular answer to the basic question that ‘How shall curriculum be conceived’?, but analysis of the possibilities and their implications for better learning strongly suggest an interpretation far broader that the traditional ‘course’ The school must consider all the ways by which an educational programme can influence each student. To bring about the curriculum improvement, people have to be made aware of the reasons for change in a given curriculum. These reasons may lie in pupils, in society, in the specific environment and in pedagogy or the programme or both. In line with the goal of curriculum theory to use careful thought and study as a basis for decisions, this whole situation establishes a case for curriculum diagnosis. Curriculum leadership follows when someone sets out carefully to convince others of the necessity for change. A guiding principle must be that curriculum improvement is a continuous process. Once their interest is aroused, all curriculum workers must be organized so that they can work most effectively for change.

9.2.6 Other Factors Affecting Curriculum Change The various factors that influence curriculum change are as follows: 1. Socio-political factors 2. Economic factors 3. Knowledge explosion 4. Explosion of aspirations 5. Technological factors Socio-Political Factors As the state’s policies change, they have an influence on the educational policies and schemes that they undertake. Some changes are brought about by taking the availability of human and material resources into consideration. It also takes into consideration the social needs and demands and changing trends in the society with respect to various other issues and contemporary developments. Economic Factors Economic status of the people and the state play a role in the curriculum change. The aspirations of people, their demands and expectations from particular courses or curricular inclusion at various stages of education, all depend on the economic status.

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It also depends on the best use of human resources/potential available in terms of economic condition of the area concerned. Various types of courses are designed as per the consumption requirements, and human resources are generated based on demand and avenues. For example, today a lot of demand in technologically skilled personnel made the states to design the courses as per the requirements. Computer education–related courses, software industries, management courses and industries, etc. are the result of the economic growth. Basically, in Indian context, curriculum planning is not as per the futuristic vision. Curriculum framers should not only design the course from the cognitive (content) point of view, but also bring attitudinal changes among the people in the event of industrialization and social mobility, urbanization, etc. Explosion of Knowledge Knowledge is multiplying very rapidly. Knowledge becomes obsolete within a short span of time, especially in software industries. The languages that are used are changing at a rapid pace. With the knowledge explosion, it has become essential for the children to get acquainted with a lot of information right from the schooling stage. So, in order to keep pace with the rapidly changing world, there is a need of introducing relevant changes in the curriculum from time to time. Explosion of Aspirations In the modern society, people have very high aspirations. They do not get satisfied easily and want to have the best education to compete with the rapidly changing society and to keep pace with the technological and the scientific advancements. So, to meet people’s aspirations the curriculum has to accommodate new changes into it.

FUTURISTIC TECHNIQUES IN DESIGNING CURRICULUM Curriculum Planning and the Future How should curriculum framers plan for the future? What curriculum would be suitable for the future? How should the curriculum be planned in view of the present societal changes? What is the future? What are the characters of the future? Future: Future is a stage in the flow of time. Future is a stage where things shall happen. Future can be glimpsed through two kinds of events, i.e. the events which we would like to see happen (opportunity) and the events which we would not like to see happen (crisis/threat). Past is gone. We can do nothing about it. Only future is in our hands, which we can plan today in the present. We can act in the present. Take decisions. Make judgments on or about things that may take place over a time in future. We can, perhaps influence future; even shape it; at least, we can prefer a future. 1. Future for our society (social future) 2. Future for ourselves (private future) In a sense, ‘Future is today’. Whatever we do today has an impact on the future.

Futurism Futurism is a systematic attempt to make creative forecasting, planning and action. It is the science of forecasting and the art of imagining. Futuristic curricularists draw significant variables likely to influence events and behaviours, and then deduce the kind of educational programmes that have a high probability of meeting the projected conditions.

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Naisbitt says that current age is built on information. In the information age, the focus of people is on the ‘knowledge work’, the employment of ideas and symbols to produce meaning and some purposeful results. According to Schlechty, ‘In our information-based society, knowledge is the primary mode of work’. Now, it is the age of information revolution and information industry. We have to raise certain questions in this context of information age. How are our schools orienting children to this period? Are they adopting time-to-time revisions in the curriculum? These children have to go a long way into the future. In this context, one has to ask what curriculum needs to be designed. At present, people are interested in producing knowledge work than producing material goods. Mega Trends 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Naisbitt reported 10 megatrends beyond 2000.

Informational society High technological/high-touch world. World economy Strategic planning (short-term to long-term planning) Centralization to decentralization From institutional help to self-help Participatory democracy Move to networking Multiple options Shifts from north to south

Naisbitt also identified additional trends that affect education:    

Global economy – global education New lifestyles and cultural nationalism Expanding role of women – which will influence college education and job sector. Age of biology – will extend lifespan

Generally, through futuristic education individuals start changing themselves before changing the society.

Some Major Approaches to Forecasting 1. Simulation Forecasting A simulated programme can be devised and it can be used to predict future probabilities by introducing all the variables and projecting the results of the alternative model. Through a computer programme it can give a picture to foresee the future. On the basis of the results and consequences assumed, it can be decided whether to continue with that new programme or not. 2. Trend Forecasting It can be mathematically plotted as is used in population or an economic trend, i.e. stretch graphically into the future and it gives a clear picture into the trend of the future. Context coverage can also be dealt with. For example, in science, the discoveries/inventions that occurred from the past to the future. If we forecast through trend forecasting, curricularists will be able to decide whether to increase the information in science/coverage or area of inventions/discoveries.

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3. Intuitive Forecasting It includes the way people forecast the future according to their feeling or images about the future. Any one can adopt it. For example, looking into the present technological trends may become imperative in future to adopt more of science and mathematics subjects. 4. Delphi Forecasting This is one of the most popular futuristic techniques used. Here, the expert’s opinions are sought at the preliminary levels. For example, the experts are asked to give a list of ten major content areas that can be used for the future curriculum. After that, they analyse the first questionnaire, i.e. by taking the contents mostly preferred. In the second round, the questionnaires are sent to the experts. From the second responses they are also asked to give rationale if they have changed the responses from the first to the second. Then on the basis of the second round a third questionnaire is prepared and on the basis of the experts’ consensus, it is finalized. 5. Scenario Forecasting It is also a popular futuristic approach. In this technique a well thought out story or a narrative/description about the possible future state of affairs might occur. A teacher can prepare checklists on the future of education and they can write about the future of education/curriculum a particular narrate on the possible future. 6. Force Analysis This technique can be used to plot those events that will affect each other and the school. Educators will note and analyse different sets of events, problems, pressures, etc. and note the possible future by selecting a topic from the curriculum. After selecting the forces/events, each is described and the forecasting team draws upon the data gathered. It also makes inferential summaries on each of them and also forecasts the nature of each of the forces and its effect on the curriculum in the timeframe.

Future Direction for Curriculum Harold Shane feels that a rapid change occurred in this century of human existence. Toffler states that ‘the rate at which knowledge is growing, by the time the child is born and graduates from college the amount of knowledge in the world will be four times as great. By the time the child is 50 years old it will be 32 times as great as 97 per cent of everything known in this world. This forecasting is a kind of linear extrapolation of current events’. Daniel Bell feels that the world is becoming increasingly empirical, worldly, secular, humanistic, pragmatic, utilitarian, contractual, epicurean and hedonistic. More and more decisions are being made by fewer and the so-called highly qualified individuals. The scientific and technological knowledge is reviving accumulated. Michael Mc Daniel has listed seven factors that have contributed to the rapidity of change. 1. Demographic change – the present scenario of decreasing female to male population, change in death rate, family size, etc. 2. Technological innovation. 3. Social innovation – in social, political, educational, economic, military, etc. 4. Cultural value shifts – change in values, axiom and ideas. 5. Ecological shifts – pollution, catastrophic events and change in natural ecology. 6. Information idea shifts – new conceptions of how things work. Expansion in scope, quality and knowledge. 7. Cultural diffusion – transfer of values and ideas from one culture to the other through different means.

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In viewing a curriculum for the future, some questions arise with respect to futuristic orientation think of certainty vs. uncertainty. When we think of time frame it shows the future as very uncertain. According to Hebner, ‘time is not a dimension in which we live – a series of “now’s” some past and some future. Man does not have so many “now’s” allotted. He does not simply wait for future and looks back upon a past. Human life is not fixed, it is ever emergent. Generally, future is not like past. Human life being emergent, makes individuals as characters playing different role in their life. Toffler, one of the popular futurologists, spoke much about the anticipated future happenings in his books Future Shock, Third Wave and Tomorrow’s Classroom. In his recent book, Power Shift he has discussed about the future intelligence, where he speaks about networking. He is of the opinion that in schools such networks will help the students while learning, processing information and experience school. Probably in future, students will think differently from their teachers and process the information in different ways. Toffler thought of the world with optical fibres, lasers and electronics, which is very easy when compared to the earlier generation. Then how should be the future curriculum? Future Curricula Future education should have the following objectives in mind: 1. It should meet society’s needs for socialization and citizen’s needs for personal development. 2. Provide quality education. 3. Lifelong learning should be made available. 4. Optimum utilization of available resources for education. 5. Curriculum should be planned well by involving right personnel. Need for Future Forecasting in Curriculum Development The change was not very rapid in earlier times. For instance, if Socrates had come back from 400 B.C. to 1918 during Bobbitt’s time, he would not have found much transformation in any area. But if Bobbitt visited today’s world, he would be totally astonished with the kind of changes that have occurred. In view of such rapidly changing world, it is essential to have forecasting in education so as not to become obsolete in future. Burdin urged the educators to use futurism – an intellectual and imaginative projection of emerging phenomena and conditions to keep schools in the mainstream of life. Orwell’s book, 1984 was analysed by Goodman and found that out of the 137 predictions made in the book most of them have come true and some more may soon come true. Mead also laid emphasis to keep an eye on and pay attention to the generation gap. they feel students in schools today will reach to twenty-first century and needs futurism as content. According to Schlechty, ‘In this age it is not mere facts that people need. Citizens need ideas, concepts and refined sensibilities to make sense out of facts that bombard them daily and overwhelm their instincts as well as their understanding’. 1. Environment and Energy All the new fuels or fossil fuels, which we are using, have an impact on environment. A reduction in fossil fuel may reduce industrial production and lower the standard of living.

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Probably the most desirable energy could be solar energy and nuclear fusion. However, its use is not so much encouraging or advanced. 2. Knowledge and Technology We know knowledge is doubling every two years. However, Davis feels that in technology, the rapidity is less or the expenditure on it is reduced. The ‘futuristic magazine’ throw some light as a source of information to forecast the future education. Some may also feel that informatics and future as a content may be more relevant as curriculum. What are the implications of the future forecasts for the curriculum? Education should try to achieve the following to prepare a futuristic curriculum. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Strengthen family units Feel responsible for social, ethical and moral development of children and adolescents Increase contact between different age groups Better use of television as a learning tool Learners should be prepared with flexibility Use computer as a tool Preparing learner to adjust to alternatives Oppressive atmosphere in education should be avoided Provide space for learners to come out of their personal pressures Prepare for independent living and productivity Develop the habit of effective use of leisure Prepare for lifelong learning Create awareness in environment and energy Should prepare for new lifestyles Make learners to deal with computers and communication technology Create awareness about ethics and moral issues related to computers Develop a human society with participatory democracy Encourage and help learners to develop and clarify their own beliefs and values

The education should also think about the forecast threats. For example: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Shortage of energy/depletion of natural resources such as petroleum, fossils, etc. Worldwide pollution and ecological imbalance Ethnic decay Urban overload Social rift and tension Heterogeneous lifestyles Sophisticated technological growth without a technological culture Food shortage High cost of energy Terrorism Value crisis Nuclear war

Some have also emphasized teaching about the future. In this context, Alvin Toffler pointed out that a focus on the future was relevant to learners of all ages. He feels that future should be treated not merely as a subject but as a perspective.

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Burdin believed that, ‘the ultimate purpose of futurism in education is not to create elegantly complex, well ordered, accurate images of the future, but help learners to cope with real-life situations’. Draper Kaufman has presented six areas of competence suitable for future curriculum: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Having access to information Thinking clearly Communicating effectively Understanding humanity vs environment Understanding individual and society Enhancing personal competence

Some new courses are as follows:  Courses in aging  Lifelong education  Health education Curriculum can be such that it focuses on: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Compensation and transformation Intellectual form and process Social skills Historical sense Critical occurrence and competence Imagination and visioning

It should also not totally give up the traditional school subjects. What are the Future Curricula? There are many proposals for a better future. A better future can be achieved with education based on the following: 1. Society’s needs of education, where people govern themselves through community’s effort and are committed to work for the community good.  Many institutions are involved in supporting education.  Education will also provide recreation and leisure. There are also alternative proposals such as deschooling society, family choice in education and restricted responsibilities of schools. The Future Curricula are as follows:        

Use of community-wide curriculum planning Helping learners to assume responsibility Making educational resources available to learners Better use of educational technology Better use of human resources Making education responsive to learners Creating new curricular designs based on future demands and needs Selecting new curricular areas such as informatics and future as curriculum content

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Empowerment and transformation Intellectual process and forms Coping with stress and personal adjustment Courses in biostatistics and molecular biology Social skills needed for maintaining interpersonal communication Providing critical awareness and competence towards questioning and to process information  Also giving them power of imagination and visioning  Preparedness towards new challenges of dealing with the future The challenges for curricularists is to generate images of the future, and then to fit schools and their programmes into those images so that the curricula that is actualized serves the needs and desires of all those within the school and society. It is not a small task, but curricularists have to face this challenge with all their wisdom about the future.

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10 Curriculum and Research

CHAPTER OUTLINE  Scope of Curriculum Research  Types of Research in Curriculum

 Modes of Curriculum Research

SCOPE OF CURRICULUM RESEARCH Curriculum Research Curriculum research is a comprehensive term for the application of research techniques to the problems of understanding posed by curriculum proposals, activities or consequences; both quantitative and qualitative methods offer strong contributions. Research in curriculum conceptualizes curriculum as a statement about changes in behaviour that a course of study intends to bring about towards a particular research focus (student achievement under described conditions) and a particular methodology (comparative studies on a behaviourist base). Historical Background A systematic enquiry into the curriculum matters resulted from the impetus given to these activities by the ‘curriculum reform movement’, particularly in North America, Australia and Western Europe. The movement itself has been characterized by a number of dominant themes, each of which has posed problems of conceptual understanding and of what is to count as justified practice as well as suggesting possible research agendas. These themes have included attempts to update the knowledge component in teaching, to reappraise the ‘knowledge maps’ against which organizing categories of the curriculum might be selected, and to understand the processes of planned change by which innovations might be encouraged to take root in schools. The general tension in the curriculum theory between positivistic and naturalistic paradigms is echoed in curriculum research by the tensions between a truth-oriented empiricism and a judgment-oriented ethnography. Although no particular formulation can be pressed into service as defining the agreed ‘topics of curriculum research’, the following clusters are offered in the interests of convenient analysis: quasi-fundamental research; policy-related descriptive data; the analysis of curriculum proposals; studies in curriculum design, implementation or action research and finally curriculum evaluation, whether descriptive or judgmental. The scope and methodologies of curriculum research can be viewed with the topic areas.

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Areas of Research 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Quasi-fundamental research Policy-related curriculum research Curriculum analysis Curriculum design, implementation and action research Curriculum evaluation Trends

1. Quasi-fundamental Research  Instructional research and curriculum research: the relationship between general goals and the specific objectives that guide teaching, the educational potential of different fields of study at each level of instruction; and questions of subject matter sequencing  Observational study of classrooms  Eclectic Category-based schemes looking to quantified description with high interobserver reliability and ethnographic techniques interpreting events and disclosing meanings. Attempts to categorize and mirror classroom behaviour are necessarily filtered through perceptions of what is problematic, and historically most category-based interaction studies have sought to establish a descriptive rubric for charting styles of teaching, particularly within instructional modes, with half-an-eye to an eventually contribution towards teacher effectiveness studies. Contrary-wise, ethnographic or microethnographic studies of classrooms will become indistinguishable from curriculum evaluation or naturalistic curriculum research under the pressure of certain kinds of questions. 2. Policy-related Curriculum Research It is characterized by the needs of its particular audiences, and the meta-theoretical assumptions of its sponsors and practitioners. Policy-related curriculum research might be employed to increase the capacity for local adaptiveness. In his book Beyond the Stable State, Donald Schon argued for institutions relying on the experiences, judgments, and tacit knowledge of the local policy maker. Case studies of individual schools, approached naturalistically and often light on formal generalization, have been offered to policy makers as authentic curriculum research. Such research does not perceive the policy maker as a ‘rational actor’, neither does it simply respond to an agenda of questions capable of quantified presentation. Rather it attempts to widen the experiential base on which the ‘reasonable guesses’ that underlie deliberative action might be checked against experience. 3. Curriculum Analysis One important focus of curriculum research concerns the analysis of existing curricular or of curriculum proposals. Analytical curriculum research deals with logical or empirical studies of curriculum proposals. Fraser (1977) has reviewed a number of styles of enquiry addressing fundamental problems of the intrinsic worth of curriculum goals. He sees a place for empirical analysis in determining whether a programme might responsibly claim validation by expert opinion. Anderson methodologies of textual analysis, seeks to arm the reader with a basis for appraising written proposals in the curriculum domain. 4. Curriculum Design, Implementation and Action Research Matters of curriculum design or development most clearly press research agendas towards a practitioner’s perspective. Examples of this kind of research into planning process include Taylor’s (1970) work, ‘How

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Teachers Plan their Courses’ and Walker’s (1975) account of the particular incarnation of ‘deliberative theory’. The techniques of regression analysis used by Tisher and Power (1978) to chart the effect of learning environment on an Australian curriculum innovation. At its quaintest, such positivist preconceptions led Tebbutt and Atherton (1979), possibly beguiled by the metaphorical reverberation of the term ‘catalyst’, to propose a ‘reaction kinetics’ model for the growth of curriculum projects, and based on the behaviour of catalyst molecules in chemistry. Studies of curriculum implementation have tend to cluster according to the perspectives brought to bear, say from management theory, the sociology of innovation, or even a Tavistock-based social psychology. Increasingly, implementation studies have been case studies of individual schools, with a quite recent trend towards ethnographic research in multisite settings, with some interest in crosssite generalizations (Stake and Easley 1978). At times, research in these conditions appears less like traditional ethnography and more like ‘the bureaucratization of fieldwork’. Alongside, this trend can be found survey-based ‘impact and take up’ studies, and more broadly based policy studies. 5. Curriculum Evaluation Lewy (1973) pointed out that it would be reasonable to characterize the current state of curriculum evaluation as burdened with an overproliferation of theoretical models and an overdichotomized stance on research methodology. 6. Trends In spite of the wide range of methodological styles employed in curriculum research, the general tendency recently has been towards qualitative, ethnographic studies. As Walker (1976) has pointed out, this is in part because the complexities of curriculum do not readily generate ‘a rich store of plausible and interesting hypotheses to test’. The verification-and-proof research model, as applied to the curriculum problems, has also come under indirect attack from Glass (1972) who deemed that ‘ the laws of the social and behavioural sciences as of extremely limited generality’, and Cronbach (1975) who depicted generalizations as unstable and subject to ‘decay’.

TYPES OF RESEARCH IN CURRICULUM Basic Assumptions Curriculum enquiry or research is a realm that enables us to think about curriculum problems. Although research procedures are established and understood well in natural sciences and basic sciences, there are some basic assumptions in curriculum research. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Teacher Learner Subject Matter Milieu (the physical, social, cultural psychological aspects of learning situation or the environment)

1. Teacher In general, when we observe anything related to schooling, the first striking element is the teacher component. What strategies does a teacher use in transacting the curriculum? Do the teachers do anything consciously and share the same and make generalization out of their experiences? How does a teacher plan everything right from the day’s schedule to any thing that takes place involving them?

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How do they take decisions about different aspects related to teaching and other issues related to classroom? All these issues are essential to undertake research and establish some unique contribution to teacher training, empowering teachers, promoting their skills, and enriching the most important classroom interaction as a teacher. It helps to enrich the classroom life, which is directly in the hands of the teacher. Similarly, curriculum research needs to look into learners’ component. 2. Learner Learners can play a vital role in curriculum transaction and development and they are clear about what they need, and how to get it. But instead, students are mostly involved in passive reception of curriculum overtly. The practical approach to curriculum development provides a wider space to learners. The curriculum is created and transacted, and the reaction and responses of the learners are observed. All the processes can be undertaken in research/inquiry. 3. Subject Matter Subject matter is static from its basic nature. The subject matter and its effectiveness is dependent mostly on how it is transacted and also in what situation and what environment the context is transacted. So, the surrounding environment, human elements and physical environment creates a difference in its effect. Thus, the needs and requirements, the nature of the learner, the teacher and his abilities are considered while researching/enquiring about subject matter. The subject matter has a value when it enacts moral action, i.e. a constant process, which continues and raises question about moral action in every situation, enriching curriculum transaction and development of subject matter through research. 4. Milieu It is nothing but the physical, social, cultural and psychological aspects of the learning situation. It refers to the type of administration in the school, whether it is autocratic, democratic or laissez-fair. It affects the learning and the learner. It has a very high potential for research. This defines the state of affairs of the situation – the balance, environment, which is present in the learning situation. Basically, the practical inquiry in curriculum includes three dimensions: 1. How theoretical/disciplinary knowledge can be matched to the situational needs and interests? 2. How they can be tailored to the requirement and to the situation? 3. The capacity to create alternate course of action. The interdependence of one element over the other can be traced through research in the curriculum. The following matrix helps in understanding the interdependence of different elements of schemes with different possible influences of one over the other. Teachers

Learners

Subject Matter

Milieu

Teacher

1 TT

5 TL

9 TS

13 TM

Learner

2 LT

6 LL

10 LS

14 LM

Subject Matter

3 ST

7 SL

11 SS

15 SM

Milieu

4 MT

8 ML

12 MS

16 MM

The different cells show the impact of one over the other.

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Cell

Interrelation between

Teacher

1

TT - Teacher to teacher

Related

2

LT - Learner to teacher

3

ST - Subject matter to teacher

4

MT - Milieu to teacher

Learner

5

LT - Learner to teacher

Related

6

LL - Learner to learner

7

LS - Learner to subject matter

8

LM - Learner and Milieu

9

ST - Subject-teacher

Subject Related

Milieu Related

269

10

SL - Subject-learner

11

SS - Subject-subject

12

SM - Subject-milieu

13

MT - Milieu-teacher

14

ML - Milieu-learner

15

MS - Milieu-subject matter

16

MM - Milieu-milieu

Paradigms to Enquiry In each area, research can be carried out within the specific situations and can be probed into curriculum issues. Many relevant questions can be raised in each of the 16 cells mentioned above. How each element whether teacher, learner, subject matter and milieu has an impact on the other, status, approaches, etc. The research in the curriculum or carrying out enquiry in research on each perspective/paradigm has its own viewpoint and limitations. The three paradigms to enquiry are as follows: 1. Social behaviourist paradigm 2. Intellectual traditionalistic paradigm 3. Experientialistic paradigm 1. Social Behaviourist Paradigm Social behaviourists feel that they cannot practically verify every action. The reaction to a particular situation may vary at each time. So it is difficult to depend on such evidences all the time. Then where is the limit to curriculum? Life itself may become curriculum though they agree that the four elements – teacher, learner, subject matter and milieu – are important aspects, but everything cannot become curriculum. There is enough research evidence available on all the four elements. Instead of teacher pondering over the problem they can utilize such knowledge available to us. 2. Intellectual Traditionalistic Paradigm They believe in theoretical and practical aspects of research. Aristotle could find the distinction between theoretical and practical enquiry. There are various theoretical works done by Merton on self-fulfilling prophecy (1948). His main focus was on unintended outcomes (1936). This is mostly stressed on insight, imagination and humanistic understanding to conduct research. Reid calls for uniting practical with humanities to develop a humanistic discipline of curriculum (1978).

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The function of a humane study is to explain, interpret and evaluate a specific type of humane activity and achievement in terms of the principles by which it is given meaning, significance and value (Ried, 1978). He calls for a critical tradition in curriculum studies that is embedded in the long tradition of the humanities and looks through it for an ideal universal education. The liberal teachers should help students to appreciate the art, sciences and humanities as the students cannot create or determine their own curriculum; it is the teacher who should help in determining the curriculum. Mostly, the great classics are authored by teachers. 3. Experientialistic Paradigm It is neither social behaviourists nor intellectual traditionalists who prepare individuals in a democracy. Its major focus is on those enquiries, which can develop in liberal arts. The enquirers should strive to enquire as how to develop and improve the human race. As the whole process of curriculum is going beyond it, they need to go into this kind of research, which should enter into the culture and human psyche and existing inequalities in a society and culture. However, few researchers in progressive and cotemporary times have addressed these questions. This area can take many insights from John Dewey. This approach/paradigm speaks about the role of teacher and student in emancipatory pedagogy. The students and the teacher should come out with their own curriculum through questioning and through their learning experiences. Thus, a curriculum can be developed for their own life and the world around in which they live. Once we understand the various elements involved in the school, which need to be researched, the following questions may be kept in view to understand how curriculum researcher tries to seek answers. 1. How are curricula designed, by whom, with what end in view and with what result? 2. How are curricula evaluated, by whom, with what ends in view and with what consequences? 3. What is the relationship between the operational curricula and the achieved curricula; the results of curricular experiences? From the general paradigm, which was discussed broadly, let us enter into a systematic discussion related to curriculum inquiry and the types of researches/some paradigms available. Are they relevant in this context? In general, for anybody, research means a systematic inquiry into a natural phenomenon. The researches that are carried out in natural sciences would add/contribute to the existing knowledge and is also quantifiable and reliable and would lead to generalization as laws, principles and theories. In various kinds of research, the quantification of data provides a great strength to the experiment. Research is carried out by controlling the variables and sometimes without that. For instance, in horticulture and agricultural studies the climatic condition cannot be controlled, whereas the fertilizer and genetics of seeds can be quantified and controlled. Then which style is relevant to curriculum? Let us look into the different curricular modes available.

MODES OF CURRICULUM RESEARCH The different modes of curriculum research have been discussed below.

Scientific Mode A systematic research using some data that is quantifiable and comes out with a generalization of principles, law or contribution to the existing knowledge.

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Bennetts study of classroom teaching styles can be considered scientific. Basically, he was prompted to take up this study by Playden’s report, which stated that schools are adopting progressive primary teaching, which emphasized students’ freedom of movement, choice of work, etc. The main aim of Bennett’s research was to identify and find out the prevalence of practice of progressive teaching. Initially, he started with a baseline study where he collected the styles from a selected sample of schools. The styles of teaching in practice and also practice of progressive teaching along with the traditional styles of teaching. On the basis of teaching in practice and also practice of progressive teaching styles, he prepared a questionnaire and administered it to teachers in more than 750 schools. On the basis of the analysis of all the questionnaires received from teachers, he came out with some generalizations.  There is no difference in the teaching style of a teacher with children of different age groups.  About one-third of the teachers make their children sit in their seats, separately and in pairs and most of them remaining in their sets for most of their activities. However, one-third of the teachers gave freedom to move from their seats.  About two-thirds of the teachers expect pupils to be quiet and expect their pupils to take permission to leave the room.  About 77 per cent of pupils work with teacher’s directions, whereas 33% work on their own.  Mostly, subject-centred curriculum was used than integrated curriculum. Apart from the results, he further carried out cluster analysis and identified 12 styles and only one (type-I) was evident with progressive style of teaching. Some more studies conducted by Adam, Wallberg and Thomas having similar features of inferences can be categorized into scientific mode of research.

Historical Mode The research studies in curriculum with the historical mode are scanty. One of the examples chosen could be of Hodson and Prophet’s study on science teaching. Their main concern was to know why the curriculum in science is changed in a particular way. The study has focused on the changes brought in science curriculum. They have examined the changes and have rejected the Darwinian survival of the fittest explanation that was advanced by Layton later. Hodson and Prophet’s work also focused on Spencer’s work on ‘worth of science to make an individual a nobler person’. In Spencer’s essay on what knowledge is of most worth the idea of science as the most worthwhile of all forms of knowledge was discussed, which was traced from the history of science. However, there were certain gaps in Hodson and Prophet’s work that have provided space to understand the origin and development of contemporary science curriculum. From the mode of research it can be well categorized into the historical mode of research.

Mathematical Mode Mathematics basically deals with symbols and numbers. One of the most popular systems in mathematics is decimal system in which 10 is used as base and there are many mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. There are many more systems such as trigonometry, geometry, etc. Mathematics is used as means for using and testing models. However, the use of mathematics in curriculum is very rare. But there are many quasi-models found in curriculum literature, i.e., mostly during 1960s and 1970s. They are just like diagrams showing relationship.

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A best suitable example of mathematical modelling approach is Tebbutt and Atherton. The essence of their work/model is production of one chemical from the other. The sophisticated mathematical equations can be used to represent the change. They can be used in major science and mathematics projects.

Inspirational Mode It is a kind of research, which is reflective – a kind of intuitive feeling and experience of a person with a deep thought in that area. One of the very popular examples could be Kekule’s dream of snake seizing its own tail, which prompted him to think of the benzene ring, and which is the foundation block for organic chemistry. From basic science to curriculum is one of the examples of Tylers illuminating idea of art education. He tried out the kind of illuminating experiences of children when they are exposed to art and how they experienced it. He revealed that children get switched on to what Hargreaves called conversive trauma when they were exposed to art. Elbaz studied teacher’s thinking focused on operational curriculum. The work is precisely a teacher’s personal teaching experience and a kind of open interaction between the researcher and Sarah (his subject). The researcher tried to come out with an observation (finding out Sarah’s style of teaching). But her actions reflected a practical, personal and artistic approach/style of her teaching. Thus, inspirational researchers are mostly interested in the intrinsic aspects rather than observable physical aspects. For example, we observe that some teachers are always very enthusiastic and creative and have a special approach to teaching. It is very personal with a kind of their own passion for achieving something to satisfy inner aspects. The modes of research discussed above are some of the popular modes. However, the research in curriculum is still in the growing stage. It is difficult to carry it out and make any kind of generalizations, or establish a particular methodology to make it foolproof. The available areas of research are mentioned below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Curriculum planning/development and designing Curriculum development process Operational transactions Operational curriculum Curricular experiences Curriculum evaluation Curriculum and its relation to socio-political and economic and technological aspects of a society.

In the present day technological society, there is a lot of scope and need to undertake expansive research into new changes that are taking place in curriculum content, methods, varied styles of transaction and so on.

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Index

A

C

Abelard, Peter, 22 Acquians, St. Thomas, 22 activity curriculum, 116–120 aesthetic theory, 87 Alcuin, 22 ancient education, 92 aims of, 92 Aristoppus, 9 Aristotle, 20 associationist theories, 61–66 classical conditioning, 62 connectionism, 62 hierarchical learning, 63–66 observational learning and modeling, 63 operant conditioning, 62–63 Atharvaveda, 31 atheism, 34–35 Augustine, 21

CABE. See Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) Calcutta University Commission, (1917), 38 Calvin, John, 23 CBSE. See Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) CCE. See continuous comprehensive evaluation (CCE) Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), 39 Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), 156–165 classes X and XII: examination and marks division, 159 class-wise and subject-wise pedagogy of, 157–158 class-wise distribution of subjects, tests, and examination, 158 grade point range and grades, 159 similarities and differences in examinations and evaluation patterns when compared with different boards, 161–165 stream-wise subjects for, 160 types of questions and value points, 159 value points and grades, 159 Charter Act (1793), 37 Charter, W. W., 29 Charuvaka, 30 Chhanda, 32 child-centred rationale, 10 classical conditioning, 62 cognitive theories, 66–72 Committee of 10, 28 Committee of 15, 28 Confucius, 19 connectionism, 62 continuous comprehensive evaluation (CCE), 40 cooperative learning, 74–75

B B.Ed. See Bachelor of Education (B. Ed.) Bachelor of Education (B. Ed.) (2011–2012), 219–221 Bacon, Francis, 23 Basedown, John, 24–25 behavioural objectives, 93 behaviourist theorist. See associationist theories Bell, Andrew, 25 Bloom’s taxonomy, 95 criticism of, 95 Bobbit, Franklin, 29 Bonser, Fredrick, 29 broad fields curriculum, 115–116 Buddha, 34 teachings of, 34 Buddhism, 31

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Copernicus, 23 curriculum activity curriculum, 116–120 before twentieth century in West, 19–24 ancient Greece and Rome, 19–21 ancient world, 19 during the Christian World, 21–22 in Renaissance, Reformation and Enlightment, 22–24 behaviourism and its implications to, 65 as cumulative tradition of organized knowledge, 8 in East, 30–41 ancient period, 30–35 during medieval period, 36 modern education and, 36–41 as ends, 13 as experience, 10 as guided learning experience, 10–11 as guided living, 11–12 content of, 108 core curriculum, 120–122 definitions of, 2–3 elements of, 3–5 for Enlightment of twentieth century, 24–26 essentialists concepts of, 13 implications of integrated knowledge to, 79 meaning of, 1–2 as modes of thought, 9 organization of, 103–107 content and learning experience, 107–113 patterns of, 113–122 principles of, 103–107 perennialist conceptions of, 13 and phenomenology, 75 principles to unify, 113 as race experience, 9–10 and research, 263–270 strategies for evaluation, 188–192 subject curriculum, 114–115 as technological system of production, 12–13 in twentieth century, 27–30 core curriculum, 120–122 characteristics of, 120–121 limitations of, 122 orientations related to, 120 criterion-referenced measurement, 190–191 critical curriculum theory, 85 culture, 55–56 implications to education, 56–59 and personality, 56–57

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curriculum change, 241–262 approaches to, 245–247 as action research, 251 factors affecting, 252–256 futuristic techniques in designing of, 256–262 ingredients for, 248–249 meaning of, 241–242 phases of, 250–251 sequence of, 251 systematic approach to curriculum change, 250 types of, 242–245 curriculum content, organization of, 123–126 analysis of audit activities procedure, 125–126 social functions procedure, 126 study of errors procedure, 125 study of other curricula procedure, 125 survey of opinions procedure, 124 textbook procedure, 123–124 curriculum development, 123–165 issues and trends in, 193–240 knowledge as a base of, 75–79 non-scientific/non-technical/humanistic model, 131–135 philosophical basis of, 42–54 psychological basis of , 59–74 scientific/technical model, 127–130 sequence of, 251–252 sociological basis of, 54–59 stages of, 5–8 curriculum evaluation, 166–192 criteria for evaluation of, 168–170 formative and summative evaluation, 172 humanistic and naturalistic models, 179–181 intrinsic and pay-off evaluation approach, 171–172 meaning of, 166–167 practices prevalent in India, 181–188 purpose of, 167–168 quantitative/scientific/positivistic models, 173–178 scientific and humanistic approach to, 170–171 strategies for, 188–192 curriculum process, 90–122 definition, classification, sources, and selection of, 90–103 curriculum research, 263–270 areas of, 264–265 historical background of, 263 modes of, 268–270 types of, 265–268

2/29/12 12:15 PM

Index curriculum theory, 80–89 critical curriculum theory, 85 descriptive curriculum theory, 84 Johnson’s theory, 88 Macdonald’s theory, 89 meaning and sources, 80–82 naturalistic theory, 86–88 personal curriculum theory, 85 prescriptive curriculum theory, 84–85 scientific theory, 86

ethnocentricity, 57 dangers of, 57 event theory, 88 examination practices, 183–188 critique of, 183–188 existentialism, 54 experimentalism, 48 extra-class activities, 11–12

D

Fichte, Johann Gottlied, 25 formal theory, 88 formative evaluation, 172 Franklin, Benjamin, 24 Froebel, 23 Froebel, Friedrich, 26

F

Decroly, Ovide, 28 Descartes, Rene, 23 descriptive curriculum theory, 84 Dewey’s Laboratory School, 117 disciplinary inquiry, 9 dualism, 12 problem of, 12 durghas, 36

G Galileo, 23 Gersen, John, 22 Gestalt theory, 72 Glathorn naturalistic model, 131 goal-free evaluation, 189–190

E eclecticism, 47 education aims of, 91–92 curriculum of, 94–95 goals of, 92–94 objectives of, 96–103 and content, 109 functions of, 93 guidelines for, 94 principles in formulation of, 94 taxonomy of, 96–103 education implications of, 16–17 for values and feelings, 57 educational meritocracy, 47 educational opportunity, 51–52 equality of, 51–52 educational philosophies, 45 Eisner’s connoisseurship evaluation 179–180 Eliot, Charles W., 28, 29 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 26 Enlightment, 22–24 Epicurus, 19 essentialism, 46 Eswarbhai Patel Committee (1977), 40

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H

model,

Hall, G. Stanley, 26, 28 Harris, T. William, 25 Harris, William Torrey, 26 Hartog Committee (1929), 38 Herbert, John Feredrick, 25 hermeneutic theory, 87 hidden curriculum, 13–17 discovery of, 15–16 educational use of, 16–17 hierarchical learning, 63–66 Hobbes, Thomas, 23 humanistic curriculum, 52–53 humanistic psychology, 72–75 Hunkins decision-making model, 130–131 Hunter Commission, 37

I ICSE. See Indian Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (ICSE) IGNOU, 235–240

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programme objectives of, 234 programme structure of, 235–240 illumination evaluation model, 180–181 Indian Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (ICSE), 135–165 evaluation pattern for classes I to VIII, 160 examination schedule of, 160 examinations conducted by, 135–156 origin of, 135 recognition of, 135 similarities and differences in examinations and evaluation patterns when compared with different boards, 161–165 in-service teachers, 204–206 addressing teachers as learners, 205–206 aims for continuing professional development programmes for, 204–205 integrated knowledge, 76–79 intrinsic evaluation, 171

J Jainism, 31 James, William, 28 Jefferson, Thomas, 26 Johnson’s theory, 88

K Kalpa, 32 Kerschensteiner, 28 khamkhanas, 36 khanjarhs, 36 Kilebard, 27 Kilpatrick, William Heard, 29 knowledge, 76–79 integrated, 79 nature of, 76–78 Kothari Education Commission (1964–1966), 39–40 aims of, 92

L Lancaster, Joseph, 25 law of effect, 62 law of exercise, 62 law of readiness, 62 leaner, 59

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learning, 60–61 relevance of ideas to curriculum, 60–61 processes according to Burner, 67 learning activities, 7 rhythm of, 7 Lewis Ruth’s value clarification, 74–75 liberal education, 20 Locke, John, 23 Luther, Martin, 23

M M.Ed. See Master of Education (M.Ed.) Macdonald’s theory, 89 madrasas, 36 maktabs, 36 management by objectives (MBO), 65 Mann, Horace, 26 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, 72–73 Master of Education (M.Ed.) (2011–2012), 222–223 MBO. See management by objectives (MBO) Meriam’s Laboratory School, 117–118 features of, 118–120 Metfessel–Michael evaluation model, 173 Mimamsa, 31 minimum levels of learning (MLLs), 41 monitorial system, 33 Montessori, Maria, 28 motor chains, 63 Mudaliar Commission (1952–1953), 39 multiple discrimination, 63 multiple intelligence, 69 views by Howard Gardner, 69–72

N National Curriculum Framework for School Education (2005), 209–215 circular areas, school stages, and assessment, 212–215 guiding principles of, 209–210 learning and knowledge and, 210–212 school and classroom environment, 215 National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education (2009), 193–208 circular areas of initial teacher preparation, 196–201 context, concerns, and visions of teacher education, 194–196

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Index continuation of professional development and support for in-service teachers, 204–206 implementation strategies and, 208 preparation of teacher educators, 206–208 transaction of curriculum and evaluation of developing teacher, 201–204 National Policy on Education (1986), 40–41 National Society for Study of Education (NSSE), 20 naturalistic theory, 86–88 aesthetic theory, 87 hermeneutic theory, 87 radical theory, 87 New Testament, 21 Newton, 23 Niruktha, 32 nominal definitions, 83 non-behavioural objectives, 93 norm-referenced measurement, 190 NSSE. See National Society for Study of Education (NSSE) Nyaya, 31

277

pre-service teacher education, 249–250 primary reinforces, 63 problem solving, 64 product evaluation model, 176–178 Provu’s discrepancy evaluation model, 173–174

R Radhakrishnan Commission (1948–1949), 39 Radical School Reform, 53–54 radical theory, 87 reconstructionism, 50–52 reflective thinking, 9, 49 Reformation, 22 Renaissance, 22–24 Rice, Joseph Mayor, 28 Rigveda, 31–32 Roger’s non-directive learning, 73–74 Roman civilization, 20–21 romantic naturalism, 52 Rousseau, Jean Jaques, 24

O

S

OBB. See Operation black board (OBB) observational learning and modeling, 63 operant conditioning, 62–63 operation black board (OBB), 41 operational definitions, 83

Samveda., 31 Sankya, 31 Saylor and Alexander model, 129–130 scientific theory, 86 secondary education, 92 aims of, 92 secondary reinforces, 63 secular government, 23–24 beginning of, 23–24 self-actualizing person, 72–73 Shelden, Edward Austin, 26 Shiksha, 32 signal learning, 63 social reconstruction, 52 education of, 52 Socratice, 19 SOI model. See structure of intellect (SOI model) Spencer, Herbert, 26 Spinoza, Dewey, 23 Stake’s congruence–contingency evaluation model, 175–176 Stake’s responsive evaluation model, 180 stimulus response, 63 structure of intellect (SOI model), 68 Stufflebeam’s macro (total) evaluation model, 178

P paraxiological theory, 88 Parker, Francis Wayland, 26 pay-off evaluation, 171–172 perennialism, 45–46 personal curriculum theory, 85 Pestalozzi, 25 phenomenology, 72–75 Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 66–67 planning, programming, budgeting system (PPBS), 65 Plato, 19–20 Poetry, William, 24 portraiture evaluation model, 181 post-positivist model, 133–135 PPBS. See planning, programming, budgeting system (PPBS) prescriptive curriculum theory, 84–85

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subject curriculum, 114–115 indictments of, 116 subjected-centred rationale, 10 summative evaluation, 172

T Taba model, 128–129 teacher education, 194–196 models of existing schools and curriculum related to, 215–218 present scenario, 194 reform perspectives, 194 systemic concerns, 195–196 urgency of reforms, 194 teacher educators, 206–208 education of, 206–207 encouraging innovation for preparation of, 207–208 future directions and possibilities, 208 needed thrusts for developing, 207 theory, 81–82 functions of, 82 theory building, 82–84 deductive approach, 83 inductive approach, 83 therapeutic learning, 73–74 Thorndike, E. L., 27 Tolstoy, Leo, 26 traditional education, 14 translators, 57 need for, 57 tripitkas, 35 Tse, Lao, 19 Tyler model, 30, 128 Tyler principles, 30

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U University Act of 1904, 38 University Commission, (1992), 38 unstudied curriculum. See hidden curriculum unwritten curriculum, 13–17 Upanishads, 32–33 Upavedas, 32 utopian vision, 52

V Vaisesika, 31 valuation theory, 88 Vedangas, 32 Chhanda, 32 Kalpa, 32 Niruktha, 32 Shiksha, 32 Vyankarna, 32 Vedantha, 31 Vives, Juan Luis, 23 Vyankarna, 32

W Weinstein and Fantini model, 132–133 Wood’s Despatch (1854), 37

Y Yajurveda, 31 Yashpal Committee, 41 Yoga, 31

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